New Practices to Enhance Perforating Results

Recent developments in tools and techniques dramatically increase productivity

and injectivity in perforated cased-hole well completions. These advances address
a wide range of challenges from near-wellbore formation damage and perforation
damage removal, to sand influx and safe, efficient wellsite operations.

Frederic Bruyere
Total E&P UK plc
Aberdeen, Scotland
Dave Clark
Gary Stirton
CNR International
Aberdeen, Scotland
Aming Kusumadjaja
Balikpapan, Indonesia
Dasa Manalu
Muhammad Sobirin
Total E&P Indonsie
Balikpapan, Indonesia
Andy Martin
Aberdeen, Scotland
Derek I. Robertson
BP
Aberdeen, Scotland
Alistair Stenhouse
Consultant
Aberdeen, Scotland

18

Perforating is a critical step in establishing

connectivity between subsurface zones and
wellbores that are completed with cemented
steel casing. By understanding complex interactions between explosive shaped charges,
charge carrier systems, a wellbore and the
reservoir, and by applying customized perforating
solutions, engineers can improve cased-hole well
performance, optimize reservoir production and
maximize hydrocarbon reserve recovery.
To achieve these objectives, engineers now
incorporate reservoir parameters and wellspecific conditions into fit-for-purpose perforating
designs. The results are proven processes and
procedures that generate additional production
revenue for operators. Recently introduced tools
and techniques help operators increase
productivity or injectivity, prevent sand
production and improve the safety and efficiency
of perforating operations.
Deep-penetrating charges can bypass formation damage, increase the effective wellbore
radius and reduce the need for additional
perforating operations, acid washes or other
perforation cleanup techniques. Recent advances
in explosive shaped charges, charge manufacturing and gun systems have yielded increases in

perforation penetration of 20 to 30% even

compared with the deep-penetrating charges that
were introduced in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
Perforating farther into a formation beyond nearwellbore damage caused by drilling or completion
operations is one of the key factors in improving
the productivity of cased-hole wells.
Surge flow through perforations after
shaped-charge detonation is critical in
minimizing flow impairment and reduced
conductivity caused by perforating-induced
damage. Schlumberger researchers found that
large-diameter, deep-penetrating, clean perforation tunnels could be created by controlling the
transient, or dynamic, pressure differentials that
occur in a wellbore immediately after the
detonation of perforating guns.
An innovative design process and specialized
systems exploit rapid changes in pressure that
occur between perforating gun systems, a wellbore
and a reservoir within a few hundred milliseconds
after charge detonation. This dynamic underbalanced technique uses customized perforating
designs, special shaped charges and fit-for-purpose
gun configurations to generate a large transient
underbalance from modest static underbalanced
or overbalanced pressures.

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Dave

Atwood, Brenden Grove, Juliane Heiland and Ian Walton,
Rosharon, Texas; Larry Behrmann, Kuala Lumpur, Maylasia;
Alfredo Fayard, Houston, Texas; and John Wreford, BP,
Aberdeen, Scotland.

eFire, FIV (Formation Isolation Valve), HSD (High Shot

Density), IRIS (Intelligent Remote Implementation System),
OCD (Orientation Confirmation Device), OrientXact,
PosiTrieve, PowerJet Omega, PURE, S.A.F.E. (SlapperActuated Firing Equipment) and SPAN (Schlumberger
perforating analysis) are marks of Schlumberger.

Oilfield Review

Dynamic Underbalance
Overbalance, psi

2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500

Underbalance, psi

0
500

1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
Time, s

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

2.6

This technique consistently generates clean

perforation tunnels and optimizes results
obtained with the latest extradeep-penetrating
charge designs and advanced perforating
systems. Downhole gauges with extremely fast
data-sampling rates are used to capture transientpressure data in the field and verify the dynamic
underbalanced pressure differential. More
detailed information is helping engineers further
enhance perforating operations and results.
In high-angle and horizontal wells where
overburden pressure dominates in-situ stress
conditions, vertical perforations typically are the
most stable. Under these conditions, perforations
oriented more than 25 away from vertical may
increase the risk of perforation collapse and sand
influx. A new orienting system for tractor-

Autumn 2006

conveyed, coiled tubing-conveyed or tubingconveyed perforating (TCP) can accurately and

reliably align shaped charges within 10 of a
specified direction, usually vertical. This system
also provides postjob confirmation of perforation
orientation. These capabilities help completion
engineers reduce the risk of sand production, even
in wellbores with extreme variations in trajectory.
Other innovations in perforating systems
increase wellsite safety and efficiency. The most
recent downhole firing heads combine proven
drillstem test (DST) technologies with detonators
that are unaffected by radio frequency (RF). This
electronic firing system increases wellsite safety
by eliminating primary explosives, by providing
direct operator control and by allowing gun
detonation to be aborted at any time.

These electronic firing heads increase

wellsite efficiency and reduce the rig-operating
time required for well-completion operations by
eliminating the need for parameter-gathering
surveys and for radio silence during perforating
operations. New detonation-initiation systems
also allow selective firing or activation of two gun
or tool systems during a single run.
New electronic firing heads also have a
sufficiently high data-sampling rate to capture
transient-pressure events that cannot be
recorded by standard gauges. That feature is
improving our understanding of wellbore physics
during dynamic underbalanced perforating.

19

This article presents perforating designs

based on specific reservoir properties and well
parameters, advances in orienting and
detonation initiating systems, and recent
improvements in deep-penetrating shaped
charges and gun systems. It describes dynamic
underbalanced perforating and oriented TCP
operations in the North Sea and in Southeast
Asia. We conclude by discussing research
capabilities and laboratory facilities that are
essential in the development and evaluation of
perforating techniques, systems and practices.

Shaped charge

Charge detonation

Detonating cord
Case
Conical liner

1 microsecond

Primer
Main explosive

7 microseconds

Maximizing Well Performance

To produce oil and gas, every well with steel
casing cemented across productive subsurface
intervals must be perforated. The perforating
process connects subsurface formations with a
wellbore, allowing hydrocarbon inflow or fluid
injection downhole (right).1
Clean perforation tunnels with minimal
perforating-induced damage are essential to
maximize well performance. Unfortunately, the
1. Cosad C: Choosing a Perforation Strategy, Oilfield
Review 4, no. 4 (October 1992): 5469.
Behrmann L, Brooks JE, Farrant S, Fayard A,
Venkitaraman A, Brown A, Michel C, Noordermeer A,
Smith P and Underdown D: Perforating Practices
That Optimize Productivity, Oilfield Review 12, no. 1
(Spring 2000): 5274.
2. Behrmann LA, Pucknell JK, Bishop SR and Hsia T-Y:
Measurement of Additional Skin Resulting from
Perforation Damage, paper SPE 22809, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
October 69, 1991.
Pucknell JK and Behrmann LA: An Investigation of the
Damaged Zone Created by Perforating, paper
SPE 22811, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, October 69, 1991.
Swift RP, Behrmann LA, Halleck PM and Krogh KE:
Micro-Mechanical Modeling of Perforating Shock
Damage, paper SPE 39458, presented at the SPE
International Symposium on Formation Damage Control,
Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February 1819, 1998.
3. Chang FF, Kageson-Loe NM, Walton IC, Mathisen AM
and Svanes GS: Perforating in OverbalanceIs It
Really Sinful?, paper SPE 82203, presented at the SPE
European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
May 1314, 2003.
4. Bell WT: Perforating UnderbalancedEvolving
Techniques, Journal of Petroleum Technology 36,
no. 10 (October 1984): 16531662.
King GE, Anderson A and Bingham M: A Field Study of
Underbalance Pressures Necessary to Obtain Clean
Perforations Using Tubing-Conveyed Perforating, paper
SPE 14321, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA,
September 2225, 1985.
Crawford HR: Underbalanced Perforating Design,
paper SPE 19749, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA,
October 811, 1989.
Tariq SM: New, Generalized Criteria for Determining the
Level of Underbalance for Obtaining Clean Perforations,
paper SPE 20636, presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
September 2326, 1990.
Hsia T-Y and Behrmann LA: Perforating Skin as a
Function of Rock Permeability and Underbalance,
paper SPE 22810, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, October 69, 1991.

20

Explosive cavity effects

Flat end
15 microseconds

Unlined
cavity effect

22 microseconds

Lined cavity
effect

Explosive

Metallic liner
Steel target

30 microseconds

> Shaped-charge performance. Perforating charges consist of four elementsa primer, the main
explosive, a metal or powdered metal liner and steel caseconnected to a detonating cord (top left).
A conical cavity shape maximizes depth of penetration through steel casing, cement and rock
formations (bottom left). As explosive shaped charges detonate, the liner collapses to form a highpressure, high-velocity jet of fluidized particles (right).

Behrmann LA, Pucknell JK and Bishop SR: Effects of

Underbalance and Effective Stress on Perforation
Damage in Weak Sandstone: Initial Results, paper
SPE 24770, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Washington DC,
October 47, 1992.
Bartusiak R, Behrmann LA and Halleck PM: Experimental
Investigation of Surge Flow Velocity and Volume Needed
to Obtain Perforation Cleanup, paper SPE 26896,
presented at the SPE Eastern Regional Conference and
Exhibition, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, November 24,
1993; also in Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering 17, no. 2 (February 1997): 1928.
5. Behrmann LA: Underbalance Criteria for Minimum
Perforation Damage, paper SPE 30081, presented at
the SPE European Formation Damage Conference,
The Hague, May 1516, 1995; also in SPE Drilling &
Completions 11, no. 3 (September 1996): 173177.
Behrmann LA and McDonald B: Underbalance or
Extreme Overbalance, paper SPE 31083, presented
at the SPE International Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, February 1415,
1996; also in SPE Production & Facilities 14, no. 3
(August 1999): 187196.

6. Behrmann et al, reference 2.

Pucknell and Behrmann, reference 2.
Mason JN, Dees JM and Kessler N: Block Tests
Model the Near-Wellbore in a Perforated Sandstone,
paper SPE 28554, presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
September 2528, 1994.
7. Behrmann LA, Li JL, Venkitaraman A and Li H: Borehole
Dynamics During Underbalanced Perforating, paper
SPE 38139, presented at the SPE European Formation
Damage Control Conference, The Hague, June 23, 1997.
Walton IC, Johnson AB, Behrmann LA and Atwood DC:
Laboratory Experiments Provide New Insights into
Underbalanced Perforating, paper SPE 71642, presented
at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, September 30October 3, 2001.
Behrmann LA, Hughes K, Johnson AB and Walton IC:
New Underbalanced Perforating Technique Increases
Completion Efficiency and Eliminates Costly Acid
Stimulation, paper SPE 77364, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
San Antonio, Texas, September 29October 2, 2002.

Oilfield Review

high-energy jets from explosive charge

detonations generate shock-wave damage and
create fine particles and residual debris by
fragmenting and loosening formation grains.2
In the 1960s, engineers recognized the
benefits of perforating with an initial static
underbalancea wellbore pressure that is lower
than the formation pressure. With the
introduction and wider utilization of TCP
systems in the 1970s, underbalanced perforating
became the most accepted technique for
preventing post-perforating invasion of fluids
into a formation, for mitigating crushedzone damage around perforation tunnels
and for removing debris from perforation
cavities (below).3

Undamaged Rock

In the 1980s and 1990s, perforating research

concentrated on defining underbalanced criteria
and on predicting the pressure differential
required to generate clean, effective perforations.4
Based on experimental work at the Schlumberger
Reservoir Completions (SRC) Technology Center
in Rosharon, Texas, researchers developed a
minimum underbalance equation that is included
in the SPAN Schlumberger perforating analysis
design program.5
Application of this equation led to
development of extreme underbalanced (EUB)
perforating, a technique that applies static
pressure differentials two to four times greater

Crushed-Zone Damage

Balanced Perforating

Casing
Cement

Formation
damage

Casing

Perforation debris

Undamaged formation

3,000-psi Underbalanced Perforating

Cement

Formation
damage

Low-permeability zone and

perforation debris expelled
by surge of formation fluid

> Perforation damage and underbalanced pressure. Perforating shock waves and pressure shatter
rock grains and break down cementation between grains, creating a low-permeability crushed zone
around perforation tunnels that is about 0.25 to 0.5 in. [0.6 to 1.3 cm] thick. This induced damage,
debonded clays and mobilized fine particles reduce pore-throat openings and decrease in-situ
permeability. Micrographs show undamaged rock (top left thin-section) versus crushed-zone damage
(top right thin-section). Crushed-zone damage limits perforation productivity and injectivity; residual
debris further restricts injectivity. After overbalanced or balanced perforating and before production
flow, shattered rock and loose, high-permeability debris often plug perforation tunnels (middle left
and right). Underbalanced perforating and subsequent surge flow from the reservoir erodes the
crushed zone and removes residual debris from perforation tunnels. However, conventional operations
may require extremely high static differential pressures to effective clean out perforation tunnels
(bottom left and right).

Autumn 2006

than those previously used in conventional

operations. The EUB technique is designed to
generate surge flow from the formation and clean
out perforation tunnels.6
However, this technique has limitations and
safety concerns related to wireline operations.
Under high differential pressures, unanchored
wireline-conveyed guns can move, or be blown,
uphole during perforating, which can damage the
electric cable or cause toolstrings to become stuck.
In most cases, both conventional underbalanced and EUB perforating require coiled
tubing and pumping operations to establish initial
hydrostatic conditions by displacing fluids to
unload wellbore fluids. Also required is a wireline
run to set a mechanical tool that anchors the
perforating guns and several wireline or slickline
runs to deploy and retrieve gun strings, and to
recover the anchor. For long completion intervals,
these combined operations may take three or
more days.
In addition, underbalanced and EUB techniques sometimes yield inconsistent results and
disappointing levels of productivity or injectivity,
even in adjacent or similar wells. In contrast,
perforating with initially balanced or even
overbalanced pressures may yield surprisingly
good results. Until recently, only minimal
resources were focused on determining why the
effectiveness of underbalanced perforating
varies so much, or on the degree of
pressure differential that is actually achieved
during perforating.
The availability of pressure gauges with
extremely fast data-sampling rates facilitated
much needed research in this area. These new
high-resolution gauges can record wellbore
pressure variations during the first second after
perforating. In the late 1990s and early 2000s,
researchers at SRC conducted single-shot tests
using high-resolution gauges.7
These studies found that for a few hundredths
of a second after shaped-charge detonation,
wellbore pressure oscillates as high-velocity jets
and shock waves pass through wellbore liquids.
Test results indicated that perforation cleanup
did not depend solely on initial static wellbore
conditions before perforating, whether underbalanced, balanced or overbalanced.
The maximum pressure differential
generated in a wellbore during the first 100
milliseconds (ms) after perforating directly
influenced variations in perforated core
productivity during post-perforating flow tests.
Higher dynamic underbalanced pressures
generated better flow efficiencies in perforated
cores. Subsequent laboratory evaluations

21

Dynamic Underbalanced Perforating

2,000

2,000

Overbalance, psi

2,500

1,500
1,000
500

1,500
1,000
500

500

-500

Underbalance, psi

Underbalance, psi

Overbalance, psi

Static Underbalanced Perforating

2,500

1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
Time, s

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
Time, s

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Zone 1

Crushed-zone damage

Zone 2

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 3

> Static versus dynamic underbalance. About 95% of conventional perforating jobs do not achieve adequate underbalanced pressure or surge flow after
perforation tunnels are created. The actual static underbalanced perforating pressure often is not great enough and is not applied rapidly enough to clean
out perforation tunnels; the wellbore also may quickly return to a balanced or overbalanced condition (top left). Dynamic underbalanced perforating
generates a rapid drop in pressure around the guns (top right). Micrographs show a thin cross section of visible damage after a static underbalanced
perforating test (bottom left). In Zone 1, which is about 3 mm thick, formation grains and grain boundaries have been crushed or fractured (red line). In
Zone 2, which is about 7 mm thick, perforating-induced damage is less extensive, confined mostly to fractured individual grains. Porosity and permeability
are essentially intact (green line). In Zone 3, beyond the green line, perforating-induced damage is negligible; only a few fractured grains are visible. This
is essentially unaltered rock. During PURE perforating tests, rapid application of large underbalanced pressure differentials and instantaneous surge flow
removes all of the crushed-zone damage and most of the damage in Zone 2 (green line); a narrow 2.5-mm band of slightly fractured grains is visible
(bottom right). The PURE technique creates large-diameter tunnels with minimal permeability damage, which correlates with an essentially undamaged,
or unaltered, rock matrix and extremely good core-flow efficiency.

confirmed that removal of perforating damage

and perforation cleanup were directly related to
the maximum dynamic underbalance and the
timing of surge flow (above).
Collectively, these results formed the basis
for dynamic underbalanced perforating, a new
approach to perforation cleanup.8 This PURE
perforating system for clean perforations
specifies unique wellbore conditions and gun
configurations to generate an instantaneous drop

22

in pressure around the perforating guns during

shaped-charge detonation.9
Dynamic underbalanced perforating can be
performed independent of initial wellbore
conditions to create the drop in pressure and
rapid surge flow required to generate high shear
stress around perforation tunnels immediately
after charge detonation. Shear failure of the
crushed zone caused by dramatic reduction in

wellbore pressure rather than tunnel erosion due

to fluid influx from the formation appears
to play an important, perhaps vital, role in
perforation cleanup.10
For PURE wireline perforating applications
with expendable capsule, or strip guns, the
wellbore must be close to balanced or slightly
underbalanced conditions, so that there is some
positive flow from the formation after charge
detonation. During wireline operations with

Oilfield Review

hollow-steel carrier guns and in TCP applications, the initial hydrostatic pressure can be
underbalanced or overbalanced. Establishing a
closed-chamber TCP system with a retrievable
downhole packer can quickly generate a dynamic
underbalance and also prevent the wellbore from
returning to an overbalanced condition when
well and pore pressures equalize.
Wells perforated using the PURE process
have performed significantly better than
comparable wells perforated under a static
underbalance. In the USA, dynamic underbalanced perforating eliminated the need for
secondary perforation cleanup with acid in some
low-permeability, or tight, reservoirs.11 Offshore
oil wells in Norway perforated using the PURE
technique had an average productivity index (PI)
three to six times greater than other wells in the
same fields that were perforated under an initial
static underbalance.
Engineers specifically design PURE gun
strings, the type and number of shaped charges,
and the initial wellbore hydrostatic conditions to

8. Dynamic underbalanced perforating is a Schlumberger

patented process marketed under the Schlumberger
mark PURE perforating system for clean perforations.
9. Johnson AB, Brooks JE, Behrmann LA, Venkitaraman A,
Walton I, Vovers AP, Vaynshteyn V, Patel DR and
Fruge MW: Reservoir Communication with a Wellbore,
U.S. Patent No. 6,598,682 (July 29, 2003); also International
Publication No. WO 01/65060 (September 7, 2001).
Brooks JE, Yang W, Grove BM, Walton IC and
Behrmann LA: Components and Methods for Use
With Explosives, U.S. Patent Application Publication
No. 2003/0150646 (August 14, 2003).
Johnson AB, Behrmann LA, Yang W and Cornelis FH:
Controlling Transient Underbalance in a Wellbore,
U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2003/0089498
(May 15, 2003).
Bakker E, Veeken K, Behrmann L, Milton P, Stirton G,
Salsman A, Walton I, Stutz L and Underdown D: The
New Dynamics of Underbalanced Perforating, Oilfield
Review 15, no. 4 (Winter 2003/2004): 5467.
10. Walton IC: Optimum Underbalance for the Removal of
Perforation Damage, paper SPE 63108, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
October 14, 2000.
Subiaur ST, Graham CA and Walton IC: Underbalanced
Pressure Criteria for Perforating Carbonates, paper
SPE 86542, presented at the SPE International
Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage
Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, February 1820, 2004.
11. Stutz HL and Behrmann LA: Dynamic Underbalanced
Perforating Eliminates Near Wellbore Acid Stimulation
in Low-Pressure Weber Formation, paper SPE 86543,
presented at the SPE International Symposium and
Exhibition on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette,
Louisiana, February 1820, 2004.
12. Martin AJ, Clark D and Stirton G: Dynamic
Underbalanced Perforating on a Mature North Sea
Field, paper SPE 93638, presented at the SPE European
Formation Damage Conference, Scheveningen,
The Netherlands, May 2527, 2005.

Autumn 2006

control the magnitude of dynamic underbalanced pressure and the rate of surge flow
from the formation. A nearly instantaneous
underbalance and influx are created around the
guns when high-pressure wellbore fluids rapidly
fill spent charge carriers immediately after
perforating (below).
Shaped charges that do not penetrate the
wellbore casing can be interspersed along a gun
string. These PURE charges open additional
holes in conventional charge carriers or in PURE
chambers to control the underbalanced pressure
differential and the rate of influx through the
newly created perforations.
Compared with conventional underbalanced
perforating, dynamic underbalanced designs
increase well productivity and injectivity, and
improve operational efficiency. Operators have
applied PURE perforating designs and
techniques to complete or recomplete more than
500 wells worldwide, including extensive use in
Indonesia and the North Sea.

0 s

Enhancing Production in a Mature Field

During 2003, CNR International applied PURE
perforating in five mature Ninian field wells.12
Located northeast of the Shetland Islands in the
UK sector of the North Sea, this mature field has
produced oil since 1978. The reservoir is about
22,000 ft [6,706 m] deep with multiple pay zones
across long gross intervals. CNR completed these
wells with cemented steel liners.
A typical completion operation established a
hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore that was
lower than the reservoir pressure, detonated the
TCP system under this static underbalance and
then flowed the wells to clean up before
retrieving the spent guns. However, establishing
an optimal static underbalance before
perforating was difficult and often involved
changing out, or displacing, wellbore fluids,
which was time-consuming, expensive and, in
some cases, impractical. Perforating would be
more efficient and less expensive if this step
could be avoided.

100 s

PURE charge
Conventional
charge
100 ms

200 ms

300 ms

400 ms

> Optimal dynamic underbalance and perforation damage removal. In addition to conventional shaped
charges (blue), PURE perforating systems can include special PURE chambers and PURE charges
(yellow) interspersed along a gun string (far left). The PURE charges do not penetrate the wellbore
casing, but instead open extra holes in conventional charge carriers or additional PURE chambers to
maximize the transient pressure differential and optimize perforation cleanout (center left and center
right). Immediately after charge detonation, high-velocity perforating jets generate perforation tunnels
in the formation (0 to 100 s). PURE designs manipulate wellbore conditions and gun parameters to
instantaneously create an optimal underbalance across a perforated interval (100 to 200 ms). Tensile
failure of the crushed zone around perforation tunnels and surge flow from the formation remove
induced damage and residual debris (300 to 400 ms). Rapid application of a high differential pressure is
the key to PURE perforating. Perforated laboratory cores examined under hydraulic stress with a color
video probe show a perforation filled with pulverized formation material and surrounded by
fragmented quartz grains (top right); a perforation without fragmentation, but with pulverized material
remaining along the bottom of the tunnel (middle right); and a clean tunnel (bottom right).

23

Dynamic Underbalance After Perforating: Well 1

8,000

Pressure to 3,700 psi to fire

Close IRDV to trap pressure

7,000
Kill well
Pressure, psi

6,000
Hydrostatic pressure

5,000

Formation pressure

4,000
3,000
Run guns in well
2,000
1,000
0

Intelligent Remote Dual

Valve (IRDV)

Time

Jar

5,300

Safety joint

5,260

7-in. PosiTrieve downhole

packer

Pressure, psi

Guns fire

Build up to formation pressure

5,220
5,180
5,140
Dynamic underbalance
5,100
5,060
Time

Ported ceramic debris barrier

Primary HDF/eFire and
contingency HDF/HDF
detonation systems

3 38-in. PURE
perforating guns

Ported gun body and

pressure gauges

> Shoot-and-pull operations in the North Sea.

A static overbalance of 3,500 psi was required
to generate an effective dynamic underbalance
during tubing-conveyed perforating in Ninian
field wells. An estimated reservoir pressure of
4,500 psi required that CNR increase the initial
hydrostatic pressure in these wellbores to
8,000 psi before perforating. To create a closed
chamber, CNR used a DST configuration. From
the bottom up, this assembly included a pressure
gauge and carrier, 338-in. tubing-conveyed guns,
a hydraulic delay firing head (HDF), a retrievable
PosiTrieve downhole packer with hold-down
section, and an electronic Intelligent Remote
Dual-Valve (IRDV) tool that could be closed
before the guns fired and reopened afterward
by low-pressure pulses from surface.

24

> Ninian field Well 1 perforating. A standard downhole gauge recorded

wellbore pressure during the perforating operation on Well 1. The 5-second
data-sampling rate was too slow to capture the actual magnitude of the
dynamic, or transient, underbalanced pressure. However, these data show
the operational sequence, including deploying guns; setting the DST packer;
triggering the time-delay firing head; closing the test valve; detonating the
charges; creating a dynamic underbalance; building back up to formation
pressure; and controlling, or killing, the well (top). A closer evaluation of the
data indicates that the wellbore hydrostatic pressure dropped dramatically
from 8,000 psi to less than 5,100 psi [35.2 MPa] after the guns fired. The
pressure then built up quickly and equalized with formation pressure
(bottom). The wellbore pressure did not return to an overbalanced condition.

In Well 1, CNR needed to complete several

zones across a 2,200-ft [671-m] interval.
Engineers decided to perforate using the PURE
process with TCP guns and a DST string to create
a closed-chamber system. The SPAN program
indicated that perforating with a dynamic
underbalance could improve well productivity by
15% or more compared with conventional static
overbalanced or underbalanced operations.
The key was to generate a rapid dynamic
underbalance across the entire completion
interval. The primary gun design called for a
338-in. TCP system to perforate 992 ft [302 m] of
net pay. As a contingency, engineers prepared a
design for 278-in. guns in case a smaller liner had
to be run.

CNR and Schlumberger estimated the formation pressure to be 4,500 psi [31 MPa]. For this
design, a hydrostatic wellbore pressure of
8,000 psi [55.2 MPa] was required to generate a
dynamic underbalance of 3,500 psi [24.1 MPa].
This required the wellbore to be pressured up
before perforating. CNR used a DST tool and
downhole packer with the test valve closed to form
a sealed chamber before perforating and to
quickly create a dynamic underbalance (left).
This DST configuration ensured that the
wellbore would not return to an overbalanced
condition after gun detonation. CNR perforated
the first well in August 2003. A conventional TCP
firing head with a delay provided enough time to

Oilfield Review

(continued on page 28)

Autumn 2006

Dynamic Underbalance After Perforating: Well 2

6,160
Guns fire
6,040
5,920
Pressure, psi

Build up to formation pressure

5,800
5,680
5,560
5,440
Dynamic underbalance

5,320
5,200

Time

> Ninian field Well 2 perforating. An evaluation of standard pressure-gauge

data from Ninian field Well 2 perforating also indicated a dramatic pressure
drop from 8,000 psi to less than 5,320 psi [36.7 MPa] followed by a rapid
equalization with the reservoir pressure. The wellbore pressure did not return
to overbalanced conditions.

Dynamic Underbalance After Perforating: Well 3

6,400
6,300
Build up to formation pressure

Guns fire
Pressure, psi

6,200
6,100
6,000
5,900

Dynamic underbalance

5,800
Time
Dynamic Underbalance After Perforating: Well 4
4,900
Guns fire
4,880
Pressure, psi

close the test valve before the guns fired.

Schlumberger used a standard downhole gauge
with a 5-second data-sampling rate to record
wellbore pressure (previous page, right).
At this sampling rate, the gauge could not
capture detailed transient-pressure responses
during PURE perforating. However, the lowresolution data indicated that the wellbore
pressure dropped dramatically from 8,000 psi
when the guns detonated and then built back up
quickly to equalize with the reservoir pressure,
an indication that this operation achieved an
effective dynamic underbalance.
Surface gauges registered a steady pressure
of 850 psi [5.9 MPa] after the test valve was
reopened. The initial pressure drop, rapid
pressure buildup and high surface pressure
indicated that the perforations cleaned up
quickly and had little or no damage. After
observing the well for several hours, CNR
released the DST packer, circulated a
nondamaging fluid to control the well and
retrieved the TCP guns.
CNR installed permanent completion
equipment and produced the well at an initial oil
rate of 9,500 bbl/d [1,510 m3/d], significantly
higher than the rate projected for conventional
underbalanced perforating. The recovered guns
contained large volumes of shot debris and
formation sand, indicating a rapid and effective
dynamic underbalance that caused the spent
charge carriers to fill quickly, which helped
retain shrapnel and other residual perforating
debris inside the guns.
CNR perforated Well 2 using a similar PURE
process and system. This design called for 312-in.
guns loaded to perforate three zones comprising
about 910 ft [277 m] of pay across a 1,600-ft
[488-m] gross interval. This well was drilled as an
injector, but produced oil for a short time before
conversion to water injection. The initial surface
pressure after perforating indicated a reservoir
pressure of more than 6,100 psi [42.1 MPa],
significantly greater than in the first well
(above right).
CNR also perforated Well 3 and Well 4 using a
closed-chamber DST string to trap high pressure
around the guns before perforating. Standard
gauge data from these two wells indicated that a
dynamic underbalance was achieved (right).
Perforating operations on Well 5 followed the
same procedures as on the previous four wells.
This time, however, CNR used a PURE design and
a DST system that included an eFire electronic
firing head system (see Improving Operational
Efficiency and Safety, next page).

4,860
Build up to formation pressure
4,840
4,820
Dynamic underbalance
4,800
4,780
Time

> Ninian field Well 3 and Well 4 perforating. Standard pressure-gauge data
from Well 3 indicated that pressure dropped from 6,340 psi [43.7 MPa] to less
than 5,900 psi [40.7 MPa] and then built up to the formation pressure (top).
The pressure in Well 4 dropped from 7,700 psi [53.1 MPa] to 4,800 psi
[33.1 MPa] and then built back up to formation pressure (bottom). The
wellbore pressure did not return to overbalanced conditions in either well.

25

Improving Operational Efficiency and Safety

Explosive services and other downhole

operations now can be initiated safely and
efficiently using advanced electronic firing
heads. Schlumberger uses eFire electronic
firing head systems to detonate perforating
guns, to set packers or bridge plugs and to
activate chemical cutters, mechanical tubing
punchers or other downhole tools, such as
testing or sampling devices.
These programmable systems combine two
proven technologies: the IRIS Intelligent
Remote Implementation System and S.A.F.E.
Slapper-Actuated Firing Equipment for initiating wireline perforating.1 Dual-valve
drillstem testing (DST) tools use the IRIS
intelligent controller to open and close a test,
or flow, valve and a circulating valve. Both
technologies have been used extensively in
harsh well conditions since the early 1990s.2
The operation of eFire systems is similar to
that of a DST tool. A computer in the IRIS
controller detects a unique sequence of
signals from the surface. These coded pulses
are recognized and interpreted as commands
to initiate downhole operations through a
S.A.F.E. system for wireline perforating.
The S.A.F.E. system uses an exploding foil
initiator (EFI), which is reliable and fail-safe,
to initiate a detonation chain. Developed for
military use, EFI technology eliminated the
need for primary high explosives in detonators.
An EFI initiator is immune to radio
frequencies and stray electrical voltage from
welding operations, corrosion protection
systems, electrical transmission lines and
radio communications at a wellsite.
Previous firing heads required extra equipment and supporting wellsite services and
operations, such as nitrogen tanks and
pumping equipment. These systems operated
automatically under preset pressure or temperature parameters, which often required that
operators perform an initial parameter survey
to define the existing wellbore conditions.

26

Conventional firing heads rely on well

conditions remaining static during all
operations and must be removed from
predefined operating depths or pressure
conditions to abort detonation. Alternatively,
these systems might fail to detonate because
of changing downhole conditions, which would
require a new parameter survey. Of greater
concern, downhole sampling or testing tools
and perforating guns with conventional firing
heads also might activate at the wrong depth
in a wellbore or detonate prematurely.
An eFire system overcomes these disadvantages and limitations by providing total
control of an operation from the surface.
Wellsite personnel can arm, fire or abort
operations at any time, eliminating the need
for a parameter survey and allowing more
perforating runs to be made in a day.
The firing head detects changes in pressure
or flow through the tubing or tubing-casing
annulus, changes in slickline cable tension
or changes in wireline electrical current.
By using different sensors, Schlumberger
developed a family of electronic firing heads
for tubing-, coiled tubing-, slickline- and
wireline-conveyed operations (next page).3
Command signals require relatively low
pressure, flow, tension or current
differentials. This feature reduces the need
for supporting surface equipment or pumps,
and sources of nitrogen or other gases. Rapid
command-execution times and the real-time
capability to abort detonation provide more
reliable control of explosive operations, which
now can be performed safely even in lowpressure wells.
The IRIS controller recognizes a distinctive
sequence of changes as coded signals that
form a unique command structure for the
IRIS controller. These specialized commands
ensure that eFire systems are insensitive to
unrelated surface or subsurface wellsite
operations, such as jarring or moving
equipment, and random pressure variations
in the subject well or adjacent wellbores.

To enhance safety, two separate processors

independently verify each command. Tool
operators perform a setup and function test
using a laptop computer before the eFire head
is connected to the EFI or any explosive devices.
In addition to a fail-safe command structure,
the eFire heads have to be enabled by a preset
hydrostatic pressure followed by an arming
command from the surface before the system
will accept a detonation command. The eFire
head then converts battery power to a higher
voltage that activates the EFI initiator.
During 2002, BP identified a number of
wells in the southern North Sea that could be
reperforated or recompleted. This area
included 39 platforms, primarily unmanned
structures, with minimal surface
infrastructure and facilities. Many of these
wells were perforated more than 30 years ago
at only 1 shot per foot (spf). Engineers
determined that adding perforations could
significantly improve well productivity.
Slickline perforating, which requires fewer
personnel and simplifies both pressurecontrol and equipment requirements, was the
most cost-effective method for performing
these remedial well interventions. A single
unit and one crew can perform all of the
required work, reducing the number of crane
lifts and associated risk to personnel.
1. Huber KB and Pease JM: S.A.F.E. Perforating
Unaffected by Radio and Electric Power, paper
SPE 20635, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
September 2326, 1990.
2. Healy JC, Maratier JP and Fruge MW: Testing Green
Canyon Wells with a Pressure-Pulse-Controlled DST
System, paper SPE 22720, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
October 69, 1991.
3. Taylor N, Guevara J and Sabine C: A New Electronic
Firing Head for Slickline Explosive Services, paper
SPE 72325, presented at the IADC/SPE Middle East
Drilling Technology Conference, Bahrain, October
2224, 2001.
King J, Beagrie B and Billingham M: An Improved
Method of Slickline Perforating, paper SPE 81536,
presented at the SPE 13th Middle East Oil Show &
Conference, Bahrain, June 912, 2003.

Oilfield Review

Coiled tubing-conveyed

Slickline-conveyed

Tubing-conveyed

Wireline-conveyed

Current
sensor

Pressure
transducer

Differentialpressure
sensor

Pressure
transducer

Battery

Controller
module

Initiator
module

EFI detonator

> Electronic firing systems. With their simple command structure, eFire systems
are compatible with various systems and conveyance methods, including
permanent completion perforating (PCP), conventional tubing or drillpipe,
coiled tubing, slickline and wireline. The tubing-conveyed perforating head
measures pressure (left). The coiled tubing head measures pressure changes
associated with variations in flow rate (middle left). The slickline system
includes a strain sensor, or tension converter, that translates vertical cable
movement into pressure pulses that are recognized by the IRIS controller
(middle right). The wireline head detects changes in electrical current (right).
The latest eFire systems also have the capability to capture pressure data at
a high sampling rate during PURE perforating operations.

BP engineers decided to use the eFireslickline head for perforating after successfully performing several other operations with
the system, including setting a packer and
punching holes above a plug stuck inside a
tubing string. This approach improved

Autumn 2006

BP correlated perforation depths by marking,

or flagging, the slickline cable during an
initial logging trip. A memory gamma ray and
casing-collar-locator tool was run in an empty
carrier that replicated the length and weight
of the actual gun system. The loaded guns
then were run to the flagged depth and
armed. The depth counter was reset based on
the correlation log, the firing command was
initiated, and the guns were positioned at the
target perforating depth before detonation.
A disarm command was sent before retrieving
the guns.
Initially, BP verified slickline depth correlations by running a 40-arm caliper across
newly perforated or reperforated intervals.
These surveys indicated that slicklineconveyed guns could be detonated on depth
with real-time control. BP realized significant
time and cost savings by using the eFire
slickline system, completing as many as
three perforating runs to depths greater than
10,000 ft [3,048 m] in less than 12 hours using
40-ft [12-m] gun strings.
Compared with wireline operations, eFire
technology for slickline perforating proved to
be extremely efficient and led to a cost saving
of more than 15% in the southern North Sea
business unit of BP. The resulting production
increase of about 10% represented a significant achievement in this mature area where
fields have produced for more than 35 years.
The eFire technology provides a step
change in well interventions. For example,
slickline perforating saves about one day per
well during abandonment operations. More
than 500 perforating operations have been
performed with eFire slickline systems in the
North Sea since this technology was introduced in 2001. In addition, about 50% of TCP
operations in the UK sector now use the eFire
system, primarily because of improved
wellsite efficiency and safety.

operational efficiency and significantly reduced

costs by eliminating the time-consuming and
costly prejob surveys, or parameter runs, that
are required with conventional time-delay
firing heads.

27

Standard gauges, such as those used on previous

wells, could not record pressure data fast enough
to fully evaluate PURE operations. Achieving
rapid, high-pressure underbalanced conditions
and nearly instantaneous surge flow ensured
the removal of perforating damage and debris.
Clean perforation tunnels are essential for
maximizing oil production and water injection,
and also for optimizing gas-well productivity.

Perforating Events: Well 5

10,000
Close tester valve

Pore pressure, psi

eFire data at 200 ms, psi

9,000

Pressure, psi

8,000

Open tester valve

7,000
Build up pressure

eFire command
6,000

Fire guns
Trap pressure below tester valve

5,000
4,000
1.0

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
Time, hr

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.0

Dynamic Underbalance After Perforating: Well 5

10,000
9,000

Pore pressure, psi

eFire data at 1 ms, psi

8,000

Pressure, psi

7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
5,000-psi dynamic underbalance

2,000
1,000
0
1

Time, s

> Ninian field Well 5 perforating. Pressure data show the sequence of events
during perforating operations on Ninian field Well 5, including low-pressure
pulses to activate the eFire firing head, closing the test valve to trap pressure,
the time delay before guns fire, gun detonation, achieving a dynamic
underbalance, a pressure buildup after the dynamic underbalance, opening
the test valve and a buildup back to the formation pressure (top). Highresolution data recorded by the eFire system at a 1-kHz sampling rate indicate
that pressure dropped from 7,000 psi [48.2 MPa] to less than 2,100 psi [14.5 MPa]
in 100 ms (bottom). The actual magnitude of dynamic underbalance was not
captured by standard gauges used on the previous four wells. The eFire data
provided CNR International with conclusive evidence of the extreme
underbalanced pressures that can be achieved during PURE dynamic
underbalanced perforating.

New versions of the eFire head record

wellbore pressure at a 1-kHz rate and can
capture transient-pressure events during the
first few milliseconds after shaped-charge
detonation. After perforating, fast-gauge data

indicated that a dynamic underbalance of more

than 5,000 psi occurred within 100 ms of gun
detonation (above).
Fast-gauge data confirmed the magnitude
and timing of the dynamic underbalance.

13. Behrmann et al, 2002, reference 7.

14. Minto D, Falxa P, Manalu D, Simatupang M, Behrmann LA,
Kusumadjaja A: Dynamic Underbalanced Perforating
System Increases Productivity and Reduces Cost in East
Kalimantan Gas Field: A Case Study, paper SPE 97363,
presented at the SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling
Technology Conference and Exhibition, Dubai, UAE,
September 1214, 2005.

15. Almaguer J, Manrique J, Wickramasuriya S, Habbtar A,

Lpez-de-Crdenas J, May D, McNally AC and
Sulbarn A: Orienting Perforations in the Right
Direction, Oilfield Review 14, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 1631.
16. Sulbarn AL, Carbonell RS and Lpez-de-Crdenas JE:
Oriented Perforating for Sand Prevention, paper
SPE 57954, presented at the SPE European Formation
Damage Conference, The Hague, May 31June 1, 1999.

28

Optimizing Gas-Condensate Output

As in the North Sea, dynamic underbalanced
perforating also has achieved significant success
in Southeast Asia where Total E&P Indonsie
operates the Tunu field. Located on the eastern
side of Mahakam delta in East Kalimantan,
Indonesia, the reservoirs of this field comprise
interbedded sandstones from 2,300 to 4,500 m
[7,546 to 14,764 ft] deep. Since 1990, more than
370 wells have been drilled in the Tunu field
(next page, top left).
In 1999, Total began completing these gascondensate wells using extreme underbalanced
(EUB) perforating.13 This approach required
pumping operations to unload wellbore fluids
and a wireline run to set an anchor, along with
multiple slickline runs to position and recover
stacked guns, and to retrieve the anchor.
In November 2004, Schlumberger recommended dynamic underbalanced perforating
using wireline-conveyed guns for two new wells
with 412-in. casing. Engineers used SPAN software
to account for wellbore geometry, fluid density,
gun configuration, shaped-charge performance
and reservoir properties.
Based on this analysis, Schlumberger
developed a 278-in. system with deep-penetrating
shaped charges specifically for this application.
Engineers designed the gun string so that the
total number of holes in these chambers would
generate the required underbalance to facilitate
perforation cleanup. Total began performing
these wireline jobs in November 2004.14
Pressure gauges with a high data-sampling
rate that could record pressure events during the
first second after detonation were not available
for these jobs. However, wellhead pressures in
both wells increased immediately after
perforating as wellbore fluids began to flow back
and unload. Within 30 minutes, gas began flowing
to the surface.
Well 1 and Well 2 produced gas at 15 MMcf/d
[424,753 m3/d] and 27 MMcf/d [764,555 m3/d],
respectively, with a flowing wellhead pressure of
435 psi [3 MPa]. Pressure buildup data acquired
with a downhole gauge indicated skin values of

Oilfield Review

K A L I M A N TA N

Tunu
field

Coiled tubing costs

Perforating costs
ASIA

-43%

INDONESIA

Static underbalance

Dynamic underbalance

> Tunu field, Indonesia. The Mahakam production-sharing contract, operated by Inpex and Total E&P
Indonsie, includes the Bekapai and Handil oil fields and the Peciko, SisiNubi, South Mahakam and
Tunu gas-condensate fields. Tunu field, located along the eastern limit of the Mahakam delta, is the
major supplier of gas to the East Kalimantan pipeline system. Operators have drilled more than
370 wells since the field began producing in 1990.

> Reducing operational costs. By using PURE

dynamic underbalanced perforating on more
than 40 wells, Total reduced costs by more than
40% compared with previous EUB operations.
Operational expenses include perforating services
and coiled tubing operations to displace, or unload,
wellbore liquids and to clean out wellbores.

1.1 for Well 1 and zero for Well 2. Well 3 produced

29 MMcf/d [821,189 m3/d] with a skin value of
zero. Well 4 produced gas at 35 MMcf/d
[991,090 m3/d] with a skin value of negative 2.25.
The average skin value for 35 wells perforated
from 2000 to 2004 using the conventional static
EUB technique was 4.73. Reliable pressure buildup
data from the first four Tunu field wells perforated
with the PURE technique had an average skin
value of negative 0.29. These low skin values
yielded a cumulative increase in gas production of
more than 200% in those four completions.
The jobs were performed efficiently with
significant cost savings compared to conventional EUB operations, yielding increased well
productivity. Perforating and cleanup operations
for each well required only one day to complete.
Total perforated six more wells during this initial
phase of PURE perforating, which resulted in a
cumulative cost-saving of about 43% compared
with previous EUB operations (above right).

However, completing extended intervals in

inclined wellbores often requires tubingconveyed systems with hundreds of gun sections
that must remain closely aligned to maintain a
near-vertical perforation orientation. Large
compressional loads generate slight clockwise
rotation and gradual misalignment at each gun
section that accumulates over long strings with
conventional connections.
Using caliper logs, North Sea operators found
that past attempts at oriented perforating
resulted in perforations that were misaligned by
as much as 45 from the desired vertical
orientation. In many of these completions,
perforations aligned more than 25 from vertical
in weakly consolidated formations have an
increased risk of collapsing and producing sand.16
Alignment errors were greatest in wellbores
with significant variations, or doglegs, in the
wellbore path. Operators needed a TCP orienting
system that would maintain a vertical charge
alignment independent of changes in well

Autumn 2006

Since 2004, more than 40 wells have been

perforated in the Tunu, Tambora and Peciko
fields using dynamic underbalanced designs that
achieved an average productivity gain exceeding
150%. To date, there is no evidence of sand influx
in these wells after perforating with the PURE
technique. In some applications, accurately
oriented perforation also may be required to
prevent the production of sand.
Oriented TCP Operations
Oil and gas operators recognize that oriented
perforating is an effective technique for
mitigating sand production.15 In high-angle and
horizontal completions and under normal in-situ
stress conditionsthe maximum stress
direction is verticalshooting along the high
side of a wellbore improves the stability of
perforation tunnels in a formation. This
technique also prevents debris from blocking
perforations on the low side of the hole.

29

4.5-in. oriented perforating gun,

low debris, 4 shots per foot, 10 and 350
Aligning-locking adapter

Drillpipe
(closed string)

Dual hydraulic-delay
firing head (HDF)

Spacer

Orienting weight

7-in. liner

Bottom nose

Sealed ballistic
transfer
Pressure gauges

Low-friction swivel
OCD Orientation Confirmation Device

> Tubing-conveyed oriented perforating. The OrientXact system aligns TCP guns with charges at 10 and 350 phasing angles to shoot in the vertical
direction (top right). Aligning and locking adapters with interference-fit notches and keys that are manufactured to extremely close tolerances connect
each gun section to eliminate the rotational and cumulative misalignments inherent in conventional threaded connections (top left). Low-friction swivels
with a high-load capacity in both tension and compression support individual sections of guns and passive orienting weights (bottom left). An OCD
Orientation Conformation Device at the end of each swivel-supported section verifies perforation orientation to within 0.5 (bottom right).

trajectory. In response to a request from Hydro,

Schlumberger designed, tested and deployed a
new TCP orienting system for Norwegian North Sea
wells within a five-month period (above).17
In addition to weighted spacers for passive
orientation, this OrientXact tubing-conveyed
oriented perforating system combined innovative
aligning-locking adapters with special highload, low-friction roller-bearing swivels that
reduced average misalignments between guns to
about 0.17.
The OrientXact aligning-locking adapters are
manufactured to extremely tight tolerances to
eliminate rotational misalignment caused by
clearances and spaces between tool parts and
components. The new swivel design provided low
torsional friction under compressive or tensile

30

loads up to 55,000 lbf [244,652 N] with

simultaneous bending of 10 per 100 ft [30.5 m].
Bending also generated torsional forces that
rotated the gun string away from a vertical
orientation. Charge carriers and weighted
spacers were manufactured to bend uniformly,
independent of changes in wellbore trajectory.
This design eliminated the tendency for gun
components to rotate the shaped charges away
from vertical when the string is bent.
After gun detonation, the weighted spacers
keep spent charges and carrier exit holes pointed
toward the high side of a wellbore, minimizing
the chance that debris inside a carrier will fall
out during retrieval of spent guns.

The OrientXact system includes an OCD

Orientation Confirmation Device that records
perforation orientation during charge detonation
to the nearest 0.5. Two OCD units per gun
section confirm perforation directions after the
guns are fired and retrieved. A pendulum
assembly inside the OCD unit contains a freerotating collar, a detonation-cord port, a bullet
tube, a bullet and an angular scale.
Explosive energy from the detonation cord
forces the bullet through the barrel tube toward
the inside wall of each OCD unit, where it
records gun alignment relative to a vertical, or
0, orientation on the scale. Operators read these
scales after spent guns are retrieved to
determine the perforating orientation for that
section of guns.

Oilfield Review

The OrientXact system uses guns with 4 to

6 shots per foot (spf) and a 20 phasing angle
between charges that shoot on either side of
vertical to maximize perforation density, spacing
and stability. OrientXact systems have been used
to perforate within 10 of vertical regardless of
well trajectory, even with more than 1,600 ft
[488 m] between OrientXact swivels.18
This advanced orientation system consistently
perforates along the high side or the low side of
inclined wells to prevent sand production. When
the angle between a wellbore and the maximum
stress direction, typically vertical, is greater than
75, this oriented perforating technique helps
prevent sand production.
To date, Hydro and Statoil have used this
system to perforate more than 50 wells in the
Norwegian sector of the North Sea. The
OrientXact system is available for 278-in., 338-in.
and 412-in. TCP guns. A 278-in. OrientXact system
was used by BP to perforate Andrew field wells in
the North Sea UK sector.
Preventing Sand Production
BP began developing the North Sea Andrew field
in 1996. Water production from some wells in this
UK sector reservoir began to increase during 1998,
and the field declined from peak output in 2000.
BP first detected sand in two wells during 2001,
three years after water breakthrough. Horizontal
wells in the Andrew field were completed with
cemented liners to facilitate future interventions,
recompletions and water control.
Sand production appeared to be related to
pressure depletion and perforation stability. BP
perforated these wells using TCP systems and
17. Benavides SP, Myers WD, Van Sickle EW and
Vargervik K: Advances in Horizontal Oriented
Perforating, paper SPE 81051, presented at the SPE
Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering
Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago,
West Indies, April 2730, 2003.
Stenhaug M, Erichsen L, Doornbosch FHC and
Parrott RA: A Step Change in Perforating Technology
Improves Productivity of Horizontal Wells in the North
Sea, paper SPE 84910, presented at the SPE
International Improved Oil Recovery Conference in Asia
Pacific, Kuala Lumpur, October 2021, 2003.
Berss K, Stenhaug M, Doornbosch F, Langseth B,
Fimreite H and Parrott B: Perforations on Target,
Oilfield Review 16, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 2837.
18. Berss et al, reference 17.
19. Kusaka K, Patel D, Gomersall S, Mason J and Doughty P:
Underbalance Perforation in Long Horizontal Wells in
the Andrew Field, paper OTC 8532, presented at the
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May 58, 1997.
Mason J and Gomersall S: Andrew/Cyrus Horizontal
Well Completions, paper SPE 38183, presented at the
European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
June 23, 1997.
20. Venkitaraman A, Li H, Leonard AJ and Bowden PR:
Experimental Investigation of Sanding Propensity for
the Andrew Completion, paper SPE 50387, presented at
the SPE International Conference on Horizontal Well
Technology, Calgary, November 14, 1998.

Autumn 2006

Workstring
Production tubing
Production casing
Permanent packer

FIV Formation Isolation Valve

Cemented liner

Shifting tool

Guns

Engage shifting tool

Close valve, remove guns

Reopen valve with pressure

pulses applied from surface

> Perforating procedures in the North Sea. BP typically perforates horizontal

completions in the Andrew field without controlling, or killing, the well. This
approach maximizes production and is more cost-effective than other
techniques. BP installs a FIV Formation Isolation Valve in the production
tubing below a permanent packer to serve as a downhole lubricator during
gun deployment and to provide well control after perforating. After installing
downhole completion equipment, permanent production tubing and the
surface wellhead, BP deploys TCP guns with a hydraulic snubbing unit and
perforates wells in underbalanced conditions. A shifting tool on the end of the
TCP string closes the FIV tool as the spent guns are retrieved. An inflow test
confirms that the valve has closed and that the spent guns can be removed
from the well safely. Pressure pulses applied from the surface reopen the FIV
tool to initiate production without performing a rig-assisted intervention.

underbalanced perforating operations, which

minimized perforation damage and routinely
resulted in production from more than 90% of the
horizontal section. The production tubing
included an FIV Formation Isolation Valve below a
permanent packer to provide well control during
gun deployment and after perforating (above).19
Initially, BP used 338-in. TCP guns with 4 spf
at 60 phasing angles to perforate consolidated
sands. A higher perforation density reduced the
rate of flow through each hole and decreased the
chance of flow-induced formation failure and
sand influx.

In an attempt to minimize sand production,

BP perforated some of the less consolidated
intervals with oriented TCP guns using
conventional passive weights and swivels with
charges at phasing angles of 25 and 335.
However, orientation accuracy was uncertain,
and actual perforation alignment on either side
of vertical could not be verified.
Schlumberger sand-prediction models
indicated that at about 32 from vertical,
perforations could collapse and initiate sand
influx.20 The onset of sand production from
Andrew field wells could have resulted from
misaligned perforations at 60 phasing angles or

31

25 and 335 phasing

Unknown
accuracy

25 and 335 phasing

3 38-in. HSD gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

60 phasing

3 38-in. HSD gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

3 38-in. HSD gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

> Perforating strategies. BP perforated Andrew field Wells A-2 through A-6 using 338-in. HSD High Shot Density guns with 4 spf. The weaker, or less
consolidated, sandstone intervals were perforated using conventional oriented guns with charges at 25 and 335 phasing (left) to align perforations on
either side of vertical and shoot along the high side of a wellbore. However, orientation accuracy was unknown (middle). BP perforated the more
consolidated intervals in Wells A-7 through A-14 using standard fully phased TCP guns with charges at 60 phasing (right).

from inability to consistently achieve nearvertical perforation orientations using 25 and

335 phasing angles with a conventional TCP
orienting system (above).
BP decided that a new gun design was needed
to minimize orientation errors.21 Engineers chose
TCP guns with charges at 10 and 350 phasing
angles to help align perforations closer to
vertical for increased stability. Optimally spaced,
near-vertical perforations would improve total
inflow, reduce the flow rate through each hole
and maximize the distance between perforation
tunnels in the formation for increased stability
(next page, left).
This system included passive orientation
weights and swivels to align the charges and an
OCD system in each gun section to record
perforation direction. Deep-penetrating premium
shaped charges were used to reduce nearwellbore pressure drop during production
and minimize formation stresses on perforation tunnels.
BP initially planned to complete the new
Well A-15 with a 512-in. liner, so Schlumberger
built 338-in. guns with 5 spf at 10 and 350
phasing angles. Difficult drilling conditions
caused significant variations in wellbore trajectory that forced BP to run a 412-in. liner and use a
smaller perforating system.
In April 2002, BP perforated Well A-15 by
deploying more than 1,000 m [3,281 ft] of 278-in.
oriented TCP guns with 6 spf at 10 and 350
phasing angles. However, this gun system
performed below expectations. The OCD devices
recorded an average alignment error of 26 from
the vertical (right).

32

Confirmation of perforation orientation

allowed engineers to assess the risk of sand
influx and helped BP make production decisions.
This information provided a benchmark for
evaluating future developments in tools and
techniques. The large alignment error in
Well A-15 raised concerns that perforations in
weaker intervals might fail and produce sand as
reservoir pressure decreased.
To achieve accurate near-vertical perforation
orientations, Hydro and Schlumberger had
jointly developed OrientXact technology. The

10 and 350 phasing

26 error

26

new OrientXact swivels reduced friction by 90%

and could withstand the high loads generated by
long gun strings in both tension and compression. In addition, improved connections with
tight manufacturing tolerances further reduced
alignment errors between gun sections.
BP applied OrientXact swivels for the first
time on two existing Andrew field wells to
perforate bypassed oil zones identified by 4D
seismic data and cased-hole logs. BP planned to
add perforations at the upper end, or heel, of the
horizontal sections in Well A-8 and Well A-7 using

10 and 350 phasing

12 error

2 78-in. HSD gun

4 12-in. liner

> Conventional oriented TCP guns. BP perforated

Andrew field Well A-15 using more than 1,000 m
of 278-in. conventional oriented guns. These guns
were deployed and retrieved through an FIV tool.
The orientation data from OCD systems included
in this gun string indicated an average perforation
misalignment of 26 away from vertical. Sandproduction models predicted that at this
orientation, perforations in weakly consolidated
sands could become a source of sand influx in
weakly consolidated sandstones.

12

3 38-in. HSD gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

> Accurate oriented perforating with coiled tubingconveyance. The OCD systems in the perforating
system used on Well A-8 verified that improved
OrientXact swivels between gun sections could
increase orientation accuracy even with an
alternative coiled tubing-conveyance method.
The average perforation alignment error in this
well was 12, a 14 improvement compared with
Well A-15. Sand-prediction models indicated
that perforations at this near-vertical orientation
would prevent sand influx for several years.

Oilfield Review

Perforation tunnels at the sandface

10 and 350 phasing

11 error

11

10 and 350 phasing

7.5 error

3 38-in. HSD gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

7.5

3 38-in. HSD gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

> Accurate oriented perforating with tractor-assisted coiled tubing. Because of the depth and a
long completion interval, BP perforated Andrew field Well A-7 using a combination of coiled tubingconveyance and two downhole tractors. This operation required two perforating runs. Both gun runs
were successful with an orientation error of 11 on the first run (left), and an error of 7.5 on the
second run as verified by OCD systems (right).

10 and 350 phasing

4.6 error

4.6

10 and 350
phasing

3 38-in. HSD gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

> Optimizing shot density and phasing angles.

BP elected to use a new perforating strategy for
Well A-15 in the Andrew field to maximize the
distance between perforations and to reduce
the flow rate through each perforation (top).
Engineers initially designed a 338-in. oriented TCP
system with charges at 10 and 350 phasing
angles and 5 spf (bottom). By reducing the angle
between perforations from 50 to 20, this design
was expected to align the tunnels closer to
vertical than previous guns with 25 and 335
phasing angles and avoid tunnel collapse.
Difficult drilling conditions required BP to run a
412-in. liner instead of 512-in. casing and change
to smaller 278-in. TCP guns with 6 spf.

338-in. TCP guns with the new swivel design and

HSD High Shot Density charges at 10 and 350
from vertical.
Schlumberger deployed, fired and retrieved
this TCP system in Well A-8 with coiled tubing
and a surface deployment system. After
recovering the guns, the OCD devices confirmed
an average alignment error of 12, 14 less than
in Well A-15 (previous page, bottom right).

Autumn 2006

> Optimizing oriented tubing-conveyed perforating.

Well A-16 provided the first opportunity to test
the OrientXact swivel design in a TCP application
on a new well in the Andrew field. The trajectory
of this wellbore had no severe doglegs, so BP
expected orientation accuracy to be high. The
OCD devices in this 338-in. TCP system, which
was deployed through an FIV tool, indicated an
alignment error of less than 5.

BP and Schlumberger projected that

perforations at this orientation would not
produce sand for several years, even in weaker
sand intervals. Based on the success of Well A-8,
BP planned to use the same technique on
Well A-7. However, design models predicted that
coiled tubing alone could not reach the
perforating depth because of helical buckling.
These complications and a longer perforating
interval required BP to make two perforating
runs. BP chose a combination of coiled tubing
and two downhole tractors to convey the guns.

The average gun alignment error was 11 on the

first gun run; on the second gun run, the gun
alignment error was less than 8 (above).
BP subsequently perforated the new A-16
well using a 338-in. TCP system with new
OrientXact swivels and shaped charges at 10
and 350 phase angles. Orientation accuracy was
expected to be high because this wellbore had no
extreme variations in trajectory. The average gun
alignment error was less than 5 (left).
During cleanup, however, Well A-16 produced
a substantial amount of debris back to surface,
causing a processing shutdown. As a result, BP
and Schlumberger focused additional engineering efforts on reducing debris in future
perforating operations. A potential solution was
the 412-in. OrientXact system developed for
Hydro. This system used low-debris shaped
charges that do not fragment into small pieces,
and the large fragments remain inside the gun.
BP agreed to develop this technology for a
smaller gun system to use on the next new well.
Well A-17 would encounter the same difficult
drilling conditions as Well A-15, so BP decided to
develop a 278-in. OrientXact system similar to the
412-in. guns developed for Hydro. This design
included OCD systems, low-debris charges at 10
and 350 phasing angles, and connections that
reduced alignment error between gun sections.
21. Martin AJ, Robertson D, Wreford J and Lindsay A:
High-Accuracy Oriented Perforating Extends Sand-Free
Production Life of Andrew Field, paper SPE 93639,
presented at the SPE Offshore Europe Conference,
Aberdeen, September 69, 2005.

33

10 and 350 phasing

2.6 error

2 78-in. OrientXact gun

5 12-in. liner
6 14-in. open hole

> Accurate oriented tubing-conveyed perforating.

The OCD systems in the 278-in. OrientXact TCP
string that was used to perforate Andrew field
Well A-17 verified that all of the perforations
were aligned about 2.6 from vertical. BP
attributed this degree of orientation accuracy to
the OrientXact aligning and locking adapters,
which minimized misalignment between gun
sections, and also to the high-load, low-friction
OrientXact swivels, which maintained a nearvertical charge orientation before and after
perforating. This was the first use of a complete
OrientXact system by BP in the Andrew field.

In April 2004, BP perforated the new A-17

well using this new 278-in. OrientXact TCP system
conveyed below 278-in. and 312-in. tubing. After
operators fired and retrieved the guns, the OCD
systems confirmed that the perforations were
about 2.6 from vertical (above).
This degree of accuracy was impressive, but
the OrientXact system also retained most of the
residual charge debris inside the gun tubes. BP
recovered only a small volume of debris, mainly
rust from the casing walls, at the surface from
more than 1,200 m [3,937 ft] of guns.
Maximizing production and operational
efficiency was important, but sand prevention
was the primary reason for applying oriented
perforating in this field. BP and Schlumberger
achieved this objective on the A-7, A-8, A-16 and
A-17 wells. Continuous monitoring of solids since
May 2003 has indicated extremely low sand
influx from existing completions with new
oriented perforations, and from new wells, such
as Well A-18, that were perforated with the
OrientXact system (right).
In addition to sand prevention and oriented
fracturing, engineers use orienting systems to
achieve other objectives, including reperforating
and recompletion of wells with complex
downhole equipment configurations like those in
the North Sea Otter field.

34

Subsea Recompletion with Oriented TCP

Total E&P UK plc needed an accurate, costeffective method for orienting perforations in a
horizontal North Sea well. This particular
completion in the Otter field located northeast of
the Shetland Islands was one of three subsea
wells, each equipped with dual electrical
submersible pump (ESP) artificial lift systems.
Total had identified a bypassed zone that
could be commingled with production from
existing perforations.
However, the target interval was behind
758-in. casing, which presented several perforating challenges. The guns had to pass through
the ESP bypass and a 2.66-in. [6.8-cm] landing
profile and align the perforations vertically
downward toward the low side of the wellbore to
mitigate sand influx and maximize perforation
penetration inside 758-in. casing (next page).
The gun design also had to minimize residual
debris to avoid perforation plugging and damage
to the two ESP systems. During the first phase of
this project, engineers assessed the risk of sand
production. Total conducted sensitivity studies to
determine if oriented perforations would prevent
sand production from weak formation intervals.
Sand-prediction software confirmed that

perforations aligned within 10 of vertical in the

weakest pay zones would remain stable even at
full depletion.
The second phase involved designing a small
gun system with charges at a zero phasing
angle. Schlumberger built and tested a highly
accurate, low-debris 214-in. OrientXact system
that could pass through the ESP bypass and a
2.4-in. [6-cm] restriction.
Engineers chose 2-in. PowerJet Omega deep
penetrating perforating shaped charges to
maximize penetration in the weak Otter sands
and to eliminate debris that could damage the
dual ESP system. These extra-deep penetrating
charges, which achieve a 23.8-in. [60.5-cm]
penetration in an API Section-1 target, also
include a low-debris case that remains intact
inside the carrier after perforating.
Normally perforations are oriented along the
high side of a wellbore to optimize perforation
stability and cleanup, and to avoid perforation
plugging. However, firing a small gun system
inside 758-in. casing would decrease perforation
penetration depth in the formation if shaped
charges were oriented upward. Gravity would
cause guns to lie on the low side and require that
charges shoot across the wellbore through well
fluids. Schlumberger designed the gun system to

10,000

1,000

100
Cumulative sand, kg

2.6

10

0.1

0.01
3/20/03

Blue: Nonoriented 60 phasing

Gray: Nonperforated completion
A-3
A-6
A-14
A-13

6/28/03

10/6/03

Orange: Conventional oriented perforating

Green: OrientXact oriented perforating

A-4
A-10
A-12
A-15

1/14/04 4/23/04

A-7
A-8
A-16
A-17
A-18

8/1/04

11/9/04

2/17/05

5/28/05

9/5/05

12/14/05

Date

> Andrew field sand production. BP required accurate oriented perforating to extend the productive
life of maturing North Sea fields. Except for occasional spikes associated with unstable flow during
processing shutdowns, clamp-on monitors installed on production piping at the surface indicated
lower rates of sand production for the Andrew field A-7, A-8, A-16, A-17 and A-18 wells, which were
completed with more accurate oriented perforating systems (green).

Oilfield Review

Otter field

Blowout preventer

N O R W AY

Subsea wellhead
Shetland Islands

Orkney Islands

Subsurface safety valve

SCOTLAND
3.06-in. bypass
with flapper valves

ESP
ESP

2.66-in. landing
profile

Lower completion

Sand-screen completion

A sand
3

10 4-in. casing

Existing D sand production

4 12-in. screens

7 58-in. casing

> Orienting downward vertical perforations. Total E&P UK plc operates the Otter field northeast of the Shetland Islands in the North Sea.
Well T2/P1 was one of three horizontal subsea completions, each equipped with a dual electrical submersible pump (ESP) system for
artificial lift. To access bypassed oil in Sand A behind 758-in. casing at the top, or heel, of the horizontal section without pulling existing
completion equipment, Total needed an oriented gun system that could pass through the ESP bypass and a 2.66-in. landing profile.

rotate and shoot downward, which sacrificed

perforation cleanup for penetration depth, but
allowed Total to perforate this subsea well without
pulling the permanent completion equipment.
Total successfully deployed the 214-in. system
on a 218-in. wireline tractor during two
perforating runs with 12.2-m [40-ft] gun strings.
The low-friction OrientXact swivel and weights
rotated the charges to the low side of the
wellbore. The OCD orientation confirmation
devices verified that all perforations were
aligned downward within 2 of vertical. The
additional perforations contributed substantial
incremental production from the Otter field.
Oil production increased from about 8,000 to
15,000 bbl/d [1,271 to 2,384 m3/d] with no
indication of sand production. The entire
operation was completed in 36 hours with
minimal residual debris, no downtime and no
lost-time incidents. This successful operation
helped Total avoid a difficult and expensive
subsea workover.

Autumn 2006

New Dynamics and Directions

Efficient and effective perforating designs must
address a number of factors, including shapedcharge performance, formation characteristics
rock strength, permeability and porosityshot
density and transient wellbore pressures before,
during and after gun detonation. Perforating
techniques and tools, including advances such as
PowerJet Omega charges, the PURE process and
OrientXact systems, contribute significantly to
the success of stimulation treatments and sandmanagement methods.
Deep-penetrating charges can bypass
invasion; big-hole charges for fracture stimulations or gravel packing maximize perforation
flow area; optimal charge orientation and
spacing can prevent or mitigate sand production
and other factors that restrict production.
Innovative perforating methods and techniques,
such as PURE dynamic underbalanced perforating, ensure clean and effective perforation
tunnels. By effectively cleaning up all
perforations, dynamic underbalanced perforating maximizes well productivity and injectivity.

Research and laboratory analysis are

additional elements in the development of new
perforating techniques and systems. Only by
considering all of the relevant factors can
operators achieve optimal perforated completions.
Schlumberger research and development efforts
and state-of-the-art manufacturing capabilities at
SRC continue to address the performance of
shaped charges and gun systems. Researchers are
seeking perforating solutions for a wide range of oil
and gas applications, including carbonate
reservoirs and coalbed methane production.
Modern perforating solutions efficiently
deliver higher productivity and injectivity across
many types of completionsnew or existing
oil, gas or gas-condensate wellsduring
every stage in the life of well or field, from
initial development to plateau production.
Ultimately, this will mean decreased costs,
additional revenue and increased profit for
operating companies.
MET

35