The Social Control of Cognition: Some Factors in Joke Perception

Author(s): Mary Douglas

Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Sep., 1968), pp. 361-376
Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2798875 .
Accessed: 04/09/2014 15:26
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve
and extend access to Man.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE SOCIAL
CONTROL
OF COGNITION:
SOME FACTORS
IN JOKE PERCEPTION
MARY DOUGLAS
University
CollegeLondon

Anthropologists
tendto approachritualjoking fromscratch,withmerelyan
introspective
glanceat the casesin whichtheythemselves
feelimpelledto joke.
Consequently
theyhave treated
joking ritualsas if theyarisespontaneously
from
socialsituations
and as if the anthropologist's
sole taskis to classifytherelations
involved.The jokes have not been consideredasjokes in themselves,
nor has ourown culturaltradition
beenappliedto interpreting
thejoke situation.
Certainnew
trendsinviteus now to make a moreopen approach.Anthropology
has moved
fromthesimpleanalysisof socialstructures
current
in theI940'S to thestructural
analysisof thoughtsystems.One of the centralproblemsnow is the relation
betweencategoriesof thoughtand categoriesof socialexperience.
Jokingas one
mode of expression
in itstotalrelationto othermodesof
hasyetto be interpreted
expression.
Suchan approachsuggests
thatthealternatives
ofjokingandofnotjokingwould
be susceptible
to thekindofstructural
analysiswhichLeach(I96I: 23) hasapplied
to controlledand uncontrolled
modesof mysticalpower.His originalmodelfor
thiswas the linguisticpatterning
of voiced and unvoicedconsonants;his sole
concernto showthatthecontrasts
It was notrelevant
wereusedin regularpatterns.
to hisargument
to askwhetherthepatterning
ofcontrasted
elements
in thesystem
of communication
was arbitrary
or not. But it is possiblethatthepatterning
of
articulateand less articulatesoundscorrespondsto a similarpatterning
in the
experienceswhich they are used to express.This questionraisesthe general
and experience.
It is truethatin
problemoftherelationbetweensymbolicsystems
languagetheprocessof symbolicdifferentiation
maystartwitharbitrarily
selected
elementsat thesimplephonemicleveland combinethemintoconsistent
patterns.
But at morecomplexlevelseachsigncarriesintothepatterning
an everricherload
of association.To returnto Leach's case of modes of mysticalpower, I have
elsewhereargued(Douglas I966: IOI-3) thatthediscrimination
of articulate
and
inarticulate
formsof mysticalpower is not arbitrary.
The use of spelland riteis
to people occupyingarticulate
the use of
attributed
areasof thesocialstructure,
unconsciouspsychicpowersto othersin inarticulate
areas.Thereis a play upon
articulateness
anditsabsence,bothin thekindsofmysticpowerbeingwieldedand
in theareasof thesocialstructure
to whichtheyare allocated.The sameapproof symbolicformsto thesituations
with
priateness
theyexpresscan be illustrated
ritualjoking.I am confident
thatwherethejoke riteis highlyelaborated,
jokingis
notusedmerelydiacritically
to contrast
withseriousness,
but thatthefullhuman
ofthejoke is exploited.Ifwe couldbe clearaboutthenatureofjoking,
experience

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

3 62

MARY

DOUGLAS

level
of thejoke riteat a moreprofound
theinterpretation
we couldapproach
thanhitherto.
to makea fresh
a new,moregeneral
trendenablesthisgeneration
Fortunately,
turned
thought
whenEuropean
Attheturnofthecentury
tojoke rites.
approach
orspecialists,
antiquarians
wereeither
anthropologists
ananalytic
eyeuponhumour,
for
to lookto recentthinkers
or both.It wouldnothavebeenin thetradition
in the I940's
wroteon jokingrelations
When Radcliffe-Brown
illumination.
thathe shouldnothavetaken
I940; I949) it was stillnatural
(Radcliffe-Brown
accountof Bergsonor Freud.Stilllesswouldhe haveturnedto thesurrealist
aboveallto
onewhowished
whosepassionate
frivolity
wouldestrange
movement,
wroteon thesubjectof
He therefore
status
ofhissubject.
establish
thescientific
intheform
Butthereis a greatdifference
perspective.
jokingina verydesiccated
public.Forus,thanks
in whichFreud'sideasarenow availableto theordinary
to go tothetheatre,
to readnewfiction,
itisnotpossible
to thesurrealists,
largely
note
taking
without
orsculpture
ofpainting
ofanyexhibition
toreadthecatalogue
ofthiscentury.
ofthebeginning
whichderives
fromthethinkers
ofan attitude
ofthe
andawareness
formandformlessness,
ofthecontrast
between
Awareness
have
is structured
in whichexperience
character
of thecategories
subjective
pre-occupaofourage.Theyareno longererudite
becomethecultural
premisses
experilevel.Continual
popular
atanentirely
tionsofthelearned,
butgetexpressed
forsymbolic
sympathy
mentation
withformhas givenus now an intuitive
in someother
whichis,afterall,a playuponform.Whatis implicit
behaviour
hasbecomean implicit
partofourown.At thesametimewe canalso
cultures
atthetwo
Thuswe canhaveinsights
analysis.
ofexplicit
bringtobeara tradition
forunderstanding
joking.
levelsnecessary
a crude
combinethe followingelements:
first,
African
jokinginstitutions
and third,certainritual
relationships;
scatology;second,a rangeof specific
Thesubject
scatologically.
funerals
andpurifications)
expressed
occasions
(namely
am drawnto it
I myself
in general.
to ritualpollution
is therefore
closelyrelated
to distinguish
by
jokesfrompollutions
becauseI hopethatit willprovepossible
in myessayon
Thisis a taskwhichI shirked
someaspects
ofhumour.
analysing
(I966).
ritualpollution
withRadcliffeI takeGriaule's
in thisexercise
controversy
As a keyquestion
to
According
Brownaboutthewholestatusof so-called'jokingrelationships'.
butrather
witticisms
do notexchange
Griaule(1948),theDogonjokingpartners
Griaule
found
Although
veryhilarious,
Dogonfindtheseexchanges
grossinsults.
on thelaughter-provoking
to fasten
aspectofa complexinstitution.
it arbitrary
an insultanda joke?Whendoesa joke get
between
Now whatis thedifference
so thattheanthroofajokeculturally
determined
beyondajoke?Is theperception
culturewhena joke hasbeenmade?Is no general
musttakeit on trust
pologist
at one another
Whenpeoplethrowexcrement
ofjokingpossible?
freeanalysis
as a caseof
canthisbeinterpreted
oractually,
whenever
verbally
theymeet,either
Thisis thecentral
excrement?
written
downas a caseofthrowing
wit,or merely
ofallinterpretation.
problem
It wouldbe wrongto
oflaughter.
asidethewholesubject
letmebracket
First,
ornot.Itisnot
itprovokes
laughter
thattheacidtestofa jokeiswhether
suppose
sinceitisgenerally
oflaughter,
andpsychology
togointothephysiology
necessary

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE

SOCIAL

CONTROL

OF

COGNITION

363

recognised
thatonecanappreciate
a joke without
andonecan
actually
laughing,
laughforotherreasons
thanfromhaving
perceived
a joke.Asthetwoexperiences
arenotcompletely
I shallonlytouchonlaughter
HereI am
congruent,
incidentally.
in I899 in the
following
Bergson,
whoseessayon laughter
was first
published
in I905,
RevuedeParis,andFreud(I9I6), whoseanalysis
of wit,first
published
saysverylittleaboutlaughter.
BothBergson
andFreudassume
thatitispossible
ofideas
toidentify
a structure
characteristic
ofhumour.
Ifthiswerea validassumption,
allthatwouldbenecessary
herewouldbe toidentify
this
jokeformin theAfrican
joke rite.Butin practice,
itisa veryelusive
form
tonaildown.We facethedilemma
either
thatall
offinding
utterances
arecapableofbeing
jokes,orthatmanyofthosewhichpassforjokes
in
Africa
do notconform
to thelaid-down
requirements.
My argument
willbe that
inthe
thejokeformrarely
liesin theutterance
alone,butthatitcanbe identified
totalsocialsituation.
BergsonandFreudarein factveryclose:thedifference
betweenthemliesin
the different
place ofjoke analysis
in theirrespective
philosophies.
Bergson's
reflections
on laughter
of
area distillation
ofhisgeneral
philosophy
on thenature
man.He takeshumouras a fieldin whichto demonstrate
of
thesuperiority
the
intuition
tologic,oflifetomechanism.
Itispartofhisgeneral
protest
against
threatened
mechanisation
ofhumanity.
ofman
According
to Bergson
theessence
is spontaneity
and freedom:
laughter
asserts
thisby erupting
whenever
a man
in
behaves a rigidway,likean automaton
no longerunderintelligent
control.
'Humourconsists
in perceiving
something
mechanical
encrusted
on something
living'(i95o: 29). It is funny
whenpersonsbehaveas if theywereinanimate
things.
So a personcaught
in a repetitive
routine,
suchas stammering
or dancing
after
themusichasstopped,
isfunny.
Frozenposture,
toorigiddignity,
irrelevant
mannerism,
thenobleposeinterrupted
byurgent,physical
needs,allarefunny
for
thesamereason.
Humourchastises
insincerity,
pomposity,
stupidity.
isadequate
Thisanalysis
fora vastnumber
offunny
situations
andjokes.Thereis
no denying
thatitcoversthestyleofmuchAfrican
joking,thegrotesque
tricks
of
Lodagabafuneral
partners
(GoodyI962) andtheobsceneinsults
ofDogon and
Bozo jokingpartners
(Griaule1948). But I findit inadequate
fortwo reasons.
a moral
First,
itimparts
judgement
intotheanalysis.
ForBergson
thejokeisalways
a chastisement:
something
'bad', mechanical,
rigid,
encrusted
isattacked
bysomething'good',spontaneous,
instinctive.
I amnotconvinced
either
thatthereisany
moral
judgement,
northatifthere
isone,italwaysworksinthisdirection.
Second,
Bergson
includes
toomuch.It is notalwayshumorous
to recognise
'something
on something
encrusted
living':it is moreusually
sinister,
as thewholetrendof
Bergson's
philosophy
asserts.
Bergson's
approach
to humourdoesnotallowfor
punning
norforthemorecomplexforms
ofwitin whichtwoforms
oflifeare
confronted
without
judgement
beingpassedon either.For example,Bemba
jokingpartners
(Richards
I937) exchange
elaborate
references
to therelationship
between
theirclantotems;
members
oftheCrocodile
clan,forinstance,
pointout
tomembers
oftheFishclanthatfishes
arefoodforcrocodiles,
butthelatter
riposte
thatcrocodiles
aretherefore
dependent
on fishes.
Thesearejokeswhichallegorise
thepolitical
oftheclans.
interdependence
Ifwe leaveBergson
andturnto Freud,theessence
ofwitisneatly
tospangulfs

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

3 64

MARY DOUGLAS

ideas.The pleasureof a joke lies in a kindof economy.At all

betweendifferent
our subconsciousso as to ensure
timeswe are expendingenergyin monitoring
control.Thejoke, because
comethrougha filtering
thatourconsciousperceptions
systema holiday.Or, as Freud
it breaksdown thecontrol,givesthemonitoring
Fora
costseffort,
thereis a savingin psychicexpenditure.
putsit,sincemonitoring
hencethesense
momenttheunconscious
is allowedto bubbleup withoutrestraint,
of enjoymentand freedom.
The late AntonEhrenzweig(I953) extendedthe Freudiananalysisof wit to
of form,and
a workof artthereis a perception
aesthetic
pleasure.In appreciating
formshalfor dominantformthereareothersubmerged
underlying
thearticulate
or reversalsof the main
areas,sub-patternings
perceived.These are inarticulate
formsis itselfa direct
ofinarticulate
theme.Ehrenzweigarguesthattheperception
as an imageof thesubsourceof pleasure.The inarticulate
formsare experienced
fortheyallow thesubconscious.As theyareperceivedthereis a releaseofenergy,
pleasurewouldthenhavethisin common
consciousitselfto be expressed.
Aesthetic
withthejoyofajoke; something
something
whichmight
is savedinpsychiceffort,
have been repressed
has been allowed to appear,a new improbableformof life
has been glimpsed.For Bergsonit is lifelessencrustation
whichis attackedin the
joke, for Freudthejoke lies in the releasefromcontrol.If I may sum up the
difference
of emphasisbetweenBergson and Freud I would suggestthat for
Bergsontheman who slipson a bananapeel would be funnybecausehe has lost
hisbodilycontrolandso becomesa helplessautomaton:forFreudthismanwould
of a
be funnybecausehisstiff
bodyhasfortwo secondsmovedwiththeswiftness
gazelle,as ifa newformoflifehadbeenhiddenthere.In short,theyhavea common
andflexibly.
Forboththeessenceofthe
approachwhichFreudusesmoreabstractly
joke is that somethingformalis attackedby somethinginformal,something
organisedand controlled,by somethingvital,energetic,an upsurgeof lifefor
both apBergson,of libido for Freud. The commondenominatorunderlying
proachesis thejoke seenas an attackon control.
Here we can see why scatologyis potentially
funny.Take any pun or funny
one apparent,one hidden:thelatter,by being
alternative
patterns,
story:it offers
Bergsonsaid: 'Est comique
impugnsthevalidityofthefirst.
broughtto thesurface
surle physiqued'unepersonnealorsque
toutincidentqui appellenotreattention
le moralesten cause' (I950: 39I). Referenceto thephysicalpatternofeventstakes
thedignityout of themoralpattern,
yes.But thisis not all. The symbolsare not
loaded the same way. Freud'sapproachis more complexbecauseit
necessarily
allowsthattherelationofphysicaland moralcouldequallywell be theotherway
else.
is confronted
by something
round.Whatis crucialis thatone acceptedpattern
of ideas.Those
on thedominantstructure
Alljokes have thissubversive
effect
which bringforwardthe physiologicalexigenciesto which mortalbeingsare
subject,are using one universal,never-failing
techniqueof subversion.But it
would be a greatmistaketo thinkthathumourcan be reducedto scatology.
when he reduces
Beidelman(I966) seemsto do this,I thinkunintentionally,
Kagurujoking relationsto cosmologicalideas about dirt and sex. Structural
analysisdoes not work by reducingall symbolsto one or two of theirnumber;
ofall thesymbols
relations
ofthepatterned
it requiresan abstract
statement
rather,
worked
to one another.The same appliesto moralbias. It may be incidentally

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE

SOCIAL

CONTROL

OF

COGNITION

365

intothestructure
ofmanyjokes,butitis nottheessence
ofjoking.Comparethe
etduhazard.In thelatter,
Comedy
oferrors
withLe jeu del'amour
Beaumarchais
makesthegirlofnoblebirth
tobe herownhandmaid
so as tospyonher
pretend
suitor;he adoptsthesametrickto observe
herunrecognised.
Thejoke liesin the
ridiculous
as lordandlady.In Bergson's
display
ofvaletandhandmaid
disguised
terms
theessence
ofthejokeis that'something
living',natural
nobility,
triumphs
of breeding.Shakespeare,
over 'something
falseimitation
encrusted',
on the
other
hand,doesnotmoralise
whenhesuccessfully
theseparate
worlds
of
entangles
twinbrothers
andtheir
twinservants
themattheend.Hisisno less
anddisengages
a comedy
forallthatthesocialmessages
areweaker.
By thisstagewe seemto havea formula
foridentifying
jokes.A joke is a play
uponform.It bringsintorelationdisparate
in sucha way thatone
elements
accepted
is challenged
pattern
bytheappearance
ofanother
whichin someway
washiddenin thefirst.
I confess
thatI findFreud'sdefinition
ofthejoke highly
satisfactory.
Thejoke is animageoftherelaxation
ofconscious
control
infavour
ofthesubconscious.
I shallbe assuming
Fortherestofthisarticle
thatanyrecognisable
jokefallsintothis
joke pattern
whichneedstwoelements,
thejuxtaposition
ofa control
against
thatwhichis controlled,
thisjuxtaposition
beingsuchthatthe
lattertriumphs.
Needlessto say,a successful
subversion
ofoneformby another
completes
orendsthejoke,foritchanges
thebalanceofpower.Itisimplicit
inthe
modelthattheunconscious
Freudian
doesnottakeoverthecontrol
The
system.
wisesayings
oflunatics,
children
anddrunkards
arefunny
talking
animals,
because
theyarenotincontrol;
otherwise
theywouldnotbeanimageofthesubconscious.
Thejoke merely
affords
opportunity
forrealising
thatan accepted
pattern
hasno
necessity.
Its excitement
liesin thesuggestion
thatanyparticular
ordering
of
experience
andsubjective.
maybe arbitrary
It is frivolous
in thatit produces
no
realalternative,
senseoffreedom
onlyan exhilarating
fromformingeneral.
Socialcontrol
ofperception
Whilehailing
thisjokepattern
as authentic,
itisa verydifferent
matter
touseit
foridentifying
jokes.Firstwe shoulddistinguish
standardised
jokes,whichareset
ina conventional
from
context,
spontaneous
claimtohavefoundthe
jokes.Freud's
samejoke pattern
in all jokingsituations
hidesan important
shiftin levelsof
Thestandard
forinstance
analysis.
with'Have youheardthisone?'
joke,starting
or'Therewerethree
thewholejoke
men,anIrishman,
etc.',contains
pattern
within
itsverbal
So doesthepun.Thejokepattern
form.
caneasily
beidentified
within
the
verbalformofstandard
jokesandpuns.Butthespontaneous
joke organises
the
initsjokepattern.
totalsituation
Thuswe getintodifficulties
intrying
torecognise
ofa spontaneous
theessence
jokeifwe onlyhavetheutterance
orthegesture
and
notthefullpattern
IftheKaguruthink
ofrelationships.
itwittyto throwexcrementat certain
cousinsor theLodagabato dancegrotesquely
at funerals
or the
to theparents'
sexualorganswhentheymeeta friend,
Dogon to refer
thento
thejoke thatsendsallpresent
recognise
intohugeenjoyment
we neednotretreat
intocultural
relativism
andgiveup a claimtointerpret.
Theproblem
hasmerely
shifted
totherelation
between
jokingandthesocialstructure.
The socialdimension
enters
at all levelsintotheperception
ofa joke.Evenits
on a socialvaluation
oftheelements.
typical
patterning
depends
A 20thcentury

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

3 66

MARY DOUGLAS

audience
finds
theBeaumarchais
comedyweakbecauseitone-sidedly
presents
the
aristocrats'
as liveandtheirservants'
manners
manners
as lifeless
imitations.
But
to an i8thcentury
audienceofFrench
aristocrats
anydramatist
presenting
both
lordsandcommoners
as equallylivelyintheirownrightwouldhavehad,nota
comedy,
buta themeofsocialreform
to temptonlya Bernard
Shawinhismost
tendentious
vein.In everyperiodthereis a pileofsubmerged
jokes,unperceived
becausetheyareirrelevant
or wrongly
balancedfortheperspective
of theday.
Hereletmetryto savethedefinition
ofthejoke pattern
fromthechargethatit
doesnotincludemodern
forms
ofhumour,
suchas theshaggydog storyor the
sickjoke. The shaggydogis onlytoldin a society
whichhasbeensatiated
with
Thejoke ofthetalethatgoeson in a declining
joke stories.
spiralto a nadirof
liesinthedashed
pointlessness
ofthelisteners:
expectations
thehumour
isnotinthe
butinthetotalsituation
inwhichitis a practical
verbalutterances
joke.Thesick
a parallel
joke expresses
Itplayswitha reversal
sophistication
injokeforms.
ofthe
is leftuncertain
valuesofsociallife;thehearer
whichis themanandwhichthe
machine,
whois thegoodandwhothebad,orwhereis thelegitimate
pattern
of
Thereis no needto labourthepointthatsucha joke formrelates
control.
to a
kindofsocialexperience
andcouldnotbe perceived
particular
bythosewhohave
notbeenexposedto a thoroughgoing
relativising
ofmoralvalues.
ofperception.
So muchforthesocialcontrol
Astothepermitting
ofajoke,there
arejokeswhichcan be perceived
clearlyenoughby all present
butwhichare
atonce.Hereagainthesocialdimension
isatwork.Socialrequirements
rejected
may
toonearthebone,improper,
orirrelevant.
judgea joke to be in badtaste,
risky,
eitheron behalfofhierarchy
areexerted
as such,or on behalfof
Suchcontrols
tooprecious
andtooprecarious
valueswhicharejudged
tobeexposed
tochallenge.
thejoke,however
remote
itssubject,
thetelling
ofitispotentially
Whatever
subofa victorious
ofuncontrol
Sinceitsformconsists
versive.
tilting
against
control,
ofhierarchy,
thetriumph
ofintimacy
overformality,
itisanimageofthelevelling
valuesoverofficial
ones.Ourquestion
isnowmuchclearer.
We must
ofunofficial
fora joke to be bothperceived
askwhatarethesocialconditions
andpermitted.
toanswer
itbyexamining
theliterature
ofvarious
We couldstart
jokingsituations.
is thata jokeis seenandallowedwhenitoffers
a symbolic
Myhypothesis
pattern
at thesametime.As I seeit,alljokesareexpressive
ofa socialpattern
occurring
inwhichtheyoccur.Theonesocialcondition
ofthesocialsituations
for
necessary
is thatthesocialgroupinwhichitisreceived
a joke tobe enjoyed
shoulddevelop
characteristics
ofa 'told'joke: thatis,a dominant
ofrelations
theformal
pattern
Ifthere
isnojokeinthesocialstructure,
no other
is challenged
byanother.
joking
canappear.
Barth's(I966) analysis
of thesocialsituation
on
Take as an exampleFredrik
boat.Heretheskipper
isinfullcharge
ofthecrewuntil
boarda Norwegian
fishing
theboatsareloweredintothewater.Thenthenetbosstakesover.Beforethat
to theskipper
as areothercrewmembers.
He is
pointthenetbossis notsubject
undertheskipper,
butpotentially
a sourceofauththereon theboat,nominally
theskipper
fora briefperiod.
Thereisinthissocialpattern
whichwillsupplant
ority
andtheothermembers
ofthe
theperfect
joke form.Allthetimethattheskipper
andsubordination
theframe
of
within
crewarebusilyexpressing
superordination
thenetbossexpresses
totheenterprise,
and
hisdetachment
commitment
common

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE

SOCIAL

CONTROL

OF

COGNITION

3 67

individuality
by wittysallies.As soon as he takesover responsibility,
however,
hisjokingstopsshort.The essential
pointis thatthejokingbythenetbossexpresses
a pattern
ofauthority
itdoesnothing
whicharisesoutofthetechnicalities
offishing:
to createthesituation,
itmerelyexpresses
it.
Take as a secondexampletheratherunexpectedstoryabout laughterin thebeginningof TheIliad.At firstsightthesocialsituation
seemsto be all wrong,ifmy
accountofa properjoke formis accepted.Thersites,
a commonsoldier,insultsthe
himbrutallywitha metalstuddedrod; Thersites
Greekleaders;Odysseusstrikes
is crushedandthetroopshavea heartylaughat hisexpense.On thisshowingthere
seemsto be no joke to provokethelaughter,
fortheGreekleadersrepresent
the
dominantelementsin the sodal structure.Odysseus'sact merelyassertstheir
But thiswould be to takethestoryout of context.The Greekleaders'
authority.
plan to mounta new attackon Troy is aboutto be thwartedby theirmen.The
argumentbetweenOdysseusand Thersitestakesplace whentheformerhas been
trying
single-handed
to checka wild dashfortheshipsbyhordesofmenwho have
been nine yearsaway fromhome. In the contextof threatened
mob rule,the
leadersare not the dominantelementin the pattern,
but theweak, endangered
element.One could say thateveryonelaughswithreliefthattheirscramblefor
home is not allowed to overwhelmthe delicatebalanceof power betweena
handfulof leadersand a massof followers.Thersites,
therudeand uglycripple,
usuallytakesOdysseusand Achillesforhisbutts;thistimethepatternis reversed.
The menlaughto findthemselves
on theside of theleaders,in reverseof their
behavioura shorttimebefore.
As a finalexample,I wouldliketo turnto theparablesin theNew Testament
to
suggestthatwhen the socialstructure
is not depicted,it is unlikelythatwe can
perceive'told' jokes even when thejoke formis clearlypresentin the verbal
utterance.
Many of the parableshave an obviousjoke pattern:the kingdomof
heavenlikenedto a mustardseed (Luke I3: I9; Mark 4: 3 I-2), the prayersof
the complacentPhariseeplaced secondafterthe humbleprayerof the publican
(Luke I8: Io-i4), theguestwho takesthelowestplace and is broughtup to the
top, to citea few.Many incidentsin the Gospelnarrative
itselfalso have a joke
form,theweddingat Cana to takeonly one. But whereasthe Gospelincidents
presentlittledifficulty
in' the lightof the messagethat'the thingsthatare impossiblewithmenare possiblewithGod' (Luke i8: 27), someof theparablesdo.
Why was thepoorfellowwithno weddinggarmentboundand castintotheplace
of darkness
withweepingand gnashingof teeth(Matthew22: II-14)? Why was
theunjuststewardcommendedformakingfriends
withMammon(LukeI6: i-9)?
How does thisaccord with the messageof love and truth?I suggestthatthe
difficulties
arisebecausewe are lackingsignalsfromthesocialsituation.Suppose
thattheGalileeaudience,as soonas it heard'Let me tellyou a parable'settledinto
thesameexpectant
joking mood thatwe do on hearing'Do you know theriddle
about.. .?' Thenwe couldinterpret
theparablesfrankly
asjokes,told at a rattling
pace, withdramaticpausesforeffect,
each reachinghigherand higherclimaxes
and ridicule.The punishment
of absurdity
of theman withno weddinggarment
thenappearsas a necessary
correction
to theobviouslyfunnystoryoftherichman
whosesocialequals,havingrefused
hisinvitation
to a feast,foundtheirplaceswere
filledby beggarsfromthe street(Matthew22: 2-IO). Could the kingdomof

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

36 8

MARY DOUGLAS

then?No-that wouldbe to missthe

heavenbe filledwithanykindofriff-raff
thebest
are not necessarily
pointof thestory.True,the sociallyuppermost
about
thewrongimpression
ofheaven.Butto correct
forthekingdom
qualified
Therewillbe
thegate-crasher.
against
a newjoke hasto be introduced
riff-raff,
thought.
moretosaylateraboutthejokeformas a vehicleofreligious
unlessit correthata joke cannotbe perceived
I hopethatI haveestablished
andeven
butI wouldgo a stepfurther
ofthesocialexperience:
totheform
sponds
callsimperatively
ofajoke forminthesocialstructure
thattheexperience
suggest
joy whicha feeble
it.Hencethedisproportionate
joke to express
foran explicit
a groupofpeople
Inthecaseofa bishopbeingstuckinthelift,
releases.
joke often
one:
thenormal
whichoverthrows
pattern
ina newlyrelevant
together
arerelated
hasbeensaidabout
pertinent
jest,something
whenoneofthemmakesthesmallest
withwhicha joke at therighttimeis
Hencetheenthusiasm
thesocialstructure.
the
nextwill be seento be funny:whether
happens
alwayshailed.Whatever
andbecomes
switch
theright
discovers
hierarchy
relevant
inthenolonger
lowliest
turnsoutto be thebest
thebishophimself
or whether
saviourof themighty,
thebishophasmade
willbecomeheadywithjoy unless
theatmosphere
mechanic,
theexternal
hierarchy.
ofimposing
themistake
ofa
thatmaybe,isaddedenjoyment
whatever
ofthejokeitself,
To thepleasure
With
ofthejoke structure
withthesocialstructure.
hiddenwit,thecongruence
mirrors
fordisturbed
bodilycontrol
is a third
levelofappositeness:
there
laughter
to
isthegermofananswer
Herethere
andthesocialstructure.
boththejokestructure
(I964).
discussed
byKoestler
shouldprovoke
laughter,
thepuzzleofwhytickling
ofwit,is funny
analysis
usingthesameBergson-Freud
saysKoestler,
Tickling,
Thebabylaughsmorewhenitistickled
as a mockattack.
becauseitisinterpreted
onecanneverbesure(Koestwithstrangers
thanbya stranger;
byitsownmother
is reallymakinga
aboutwhethera stranger
ler I964: 8o-2). But to theuncertainty
withstrangers.
relation
is
no
social
there
fact
that
add
the
seriousor a mockattack
to
Hence the wit is not in play in the social dimension anythinglike the same
withthe
extent.Fromthecontentofthejoke, to theanalogyofthejoke structure
the
with
the
of
these
two
experience,
on
to
the
physical
analogy
socialstructure,
Freud.
that
revealed
a
by
to
fourth
on
even
level,
of formalpatterns
goes
transfer
A joke unleashesthe energyof the subconsciousagainstthe controlof the cona fourfold
perceptionof the
joke experience,
scious.This,I argue,is theessential
-of
a
formal
pattern.
congruence

Jokesas rites
we are
In classingthejoke as a symbolofsocial,physicaland mentalexperience,
is
aside
set
for
which
we
treat
the
then
should
as
a
rite.
How
it
joke
treating
already
specifiedritualoccasions?
and spontaneousjokes, it is necessaryto
Once again, as with standardised
spontaneousritesfromroutinisedor standardrites.The joke, in its
distinguish
symbol.It expresses
socialcontextas we have discussedit so far,is a spontaneous
butthatis all. The socialnichein whichit belongsis
thatis happening,
something
fromthatofritualwhichis enactedto expresswhatoughtto happen.
quitedistinct
Similarly,thespontaneousriteis morallyneutral,while thestandardriteis not.
Indeed,thereis a paradoxin talkingaboutjoke ritesat all,forthepeculiarexpres-

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE

SOCIAL

CONTROL

OF

COGNITION

3 69

withritualas such.Here I need to return

sive character
of thejoke is in contrast
derivedfromFreud,and to contrast
theway a
to thegeneralidea ofjoke structure
ritualdoes thesame.
joke relatesdisparate
ideaswiththeway a standard
A standardriteis a symbolicact whichdrawsits meaningfroma clusterof
standard
symbols.WhenI usetheword'rite'inwhatfollows,I combinetheaction
and theclusterof symbolsassociatedwithit. A joke hasit in commonwitha rite
thatbothconnectwidelydiffering
concepts.But thekindof connexionofpattern
A withpatternB in a joke is such thatB disparagesor supplantsA, while the
connexionmade in a riteis suchthatA and B supporteach otherin a unified
From
system.The riteimposesorderand harmony,whilethejoke disorganises.
thephysicalto thepersonal,to thesocial,to thecosmic,greatritualscreateunityin
thevalue of
and order.In doingso, theyaffirm
experience.
Theyasserthierarchy
is validatedand
thesymbolicpatterning
of theuniverse.Each level of patterning
Theyconwiththerest.Butjokes havetheoppositeeffect.
enriched
by association
hierarchy
and order.They
nectwidelydiffering
fields,buttheconnexiondestroys
a joke is
do notaffirm
thedominantvalues,butdenigrate
and devalue.Essentially
an anti-rite.
I have analysedelsewhere(Douglas I966: II4-28) ritualswhich use bodily
symbolism
to expressideasaboutthebody politic.The castesystemin Indiais a
casein point.The symbolism
theideasaboutpollutionandpurification
underlying
in commonwithwit; it transfers
has something
of value on a declining
patterns
slopeof prestigefromone contextto anotherwitheleganteconomy.The lowest
social ranksin the castesystemare thoserequiredto performsocial functions
functions
ofthebody.Thereis thebasisforajoke in the
equivalentto theexcretory
ofbodilyandsocialsymbolism,
butthejokeis absentsincetwopatterns
congruence
is not undermined
by
are relatedwithouteitherbeingchallenged.The hierarchy
thecomparison,
but ratherreinforced.
Totemicsystems
makeplay withformalanalogs.The samepatterns
are transposedfromcontextto contextwithexquisiteeconomyand grace.But theyarenot
ofajoke isabsent,theelementofchallenge.
requirements
funny.One oftheessential
recentbook (I966) on Dogon
I givean examplefromMadame Calame-Griaule's
language.She has analysedsomethingthatmightbe called a kind of linguistic
The Dogon usea limitednumberofclassesofspeechas a basisforclassitotemism.
fyingwide rangesof otherexperience.With speechof themarketplace,forincommerceand weaving.Thereis an obviousanalogyfrom
stance,are classified
interaction.
Here we have economyin connectingup
two kindsof constructive
but no humour.Take the class of speechthatDogon call
disparateactivities,
'trivialspeech',thespeechofwomen.Thisincludescertainformsofinsect,animal
idea fortheclassassociatedwith'trivialspeech'
and humanlife.The controlling
The workin thisclassis thesower'sbroadcasting
of seed; thered
is dissipation.
hasplantedis theappropriate
monkeywho comesto eatthecropsafterthefarmer
hiscattleon thestubble
animalin theclass;thedespisedFulaniherderwho pastures
it is thehumanassociatedwithit. The insectis thegrasshopper,
afterharvesting
as fastas iteats,an obvioustypeoffruitless
effort.
The references
allegedto defecate
bowel movementshas a deto despisedformsof activityand to uncontrolled
rogatoryimplicationfortheidle chatterof women. The rangeof behaviouron
whichthepattern
of 'trivialspeech'is imposeddegenerates
fromhumanDogon to

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

3 70

MARY DOUGLAS

humanFulani,fromhumanto animalpest,thento insectpestand finallyto the

moves down fromone
excretoryfunctionsof the body. As the classification
contextto thenext,it slightsand devalues.Thereis thepossibility
of a joke here.
theknownpretensions
ofwomento utterimportant
Ifit werechallenging
speech,
it would havethemakingofa joke. But,giventhelow placeof womenin Dogon
of malesuperiority,
affirmation
in
esteem,it is morelikelyto be thedeadlyearnest
whichcasethisclassification
theestablished
socialorder.The messageof a
supports
ofsociallifeareinescapable.The message
standard
riteis thattheordainedpatterns
ofa joke is thattheyare escapable.A joke is by naturean anti-rite.
Whenjokingis usedin a ritual,it shouldbe approachednone thelessas a rite.
andforemost
Likeanyotherritethejoke riteis first
a setofsymbols.Itssymbolism
drawson thefullexperienceofjoking,just as communionritesdraw on thefull
experienceof eating,rightdown to the digestiveprocess,and sexual ritesand
sacrifice
draw on theexperienceof sex and death.So we shouldexpectthejoke
riteto exploitall theelementsof thejoke in itsessential
nature.Thiswill give the
fullexplanationof ritualjoking.Jokes,beingthemselves
a play upon forms,can
well serveto expresssomething
aboutsocialforms.Recall thatthejoke connects
and disorganises.
The joke ritethenmustexpressa
It attackssenseand hierarchy.
Ifit devaluessocialstructure,
comparablesituation.
perhapsit celebrates
something
elseinstead.It couldbe sayingsomething
aboutthevalue ofindividuals
as against
in whichtheyare organised.Or it couldbe saying
thevalue of thesocialrelations
of one obvious
something
aboutdifferent
levelsof socialstructure;
theirrelevance
leveland therelevanceof a submergedand unappreciated
one.
JohnBarnes(I954: 43) usedtheterm'network'to indicatean undifferentiated
fieldoffriendship
In hisunpublished
and acquaintance.
MorganLectures(personal
communication)
VictorTurnerhas suggestedthattheword 'community'could
be appliedto thispartof sociallife.In 'community'thepersonalrelations
of men
andwomenappearin a speciallight.Theyformpartoftheongoingprocesswhich
is only partlyorganisedin the wider social 'structure'.Whereas'structure'is
in thecontextof 'comdifferentiated
and channelsauthority
throughthesystem,
munity',rolesare ambiguous,lackinghierarchy,
disorganised.
'Community'in
withit; good fellowship,
thissensehaspositivevaluesassociated
warm
spontaneity,
contact.Turnerseessomedionysianritualas expressing
thevalueof ' community'
Thisanalysisgivesa betternameto,andclarifies,
as against'structure'.
whatI have
elsewherecrudelycalled the experienceof the non-structure
in contrastto the
structure
(Douglas I966: I02). Laughterandjokes, sincetheyattackclassification
andhierarchy,
in thissenseof
areobviouslyaptsymbolsforexpressing
community
socialrelations.
undifferentiated
unhierarchised,
PeterRigby (I968) has developedthisapproachin his surveyof all typesof
in whichjokingis requiredin Gogo culture.He startswithinterclan
relationship
joking,thengoes on to affinal
joking,grandparent/grandchild
joking,and finally
Each
jokingbetweenmother'sbrotherand sister'ssonsand betweencross-cousins.
kindofjokinghasitsown rulesand qualityofjoke required.He concludesfrom
in
as distinct
hissurveythathe needstheconceptof' community'
from'structure'
orderto interpret
thispatternof behaviour:'In Gogo societyit is relationships
with and throughwomen which establishthe "community"; thatis affinal,
and uterinekin' (Rigby I968: I52).
matrilateral

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE SOCIAL

CONTROL

OF COGNITION

37I

Interclan
linksandlinkswithaliensandenemies
areincluded
in a general
class
alongwithlinksthrough
women.Starting
froman ego-centred
universe
ofkin,
theGogohavedeveloped
a cosmicmodel:jokingcategories
arecontrasted
with
controlcategories;
jokingcategories
are linksor mediators
betweendifferent
domains.
organised
Gogousetheideaofjokingcategories
to express
thefading
outofsocialcontrol
atallpointsandinall directions.
Itis a boundary
image,but
theboundaries
arefuzzyandfacetwoways;oneis structured,
theotheris unstructured.
Boundaries
connectas wellas separate.
Womenare theboundaries
of thepatrilineal
lineage.Affines
standoutof reachof clanandlineagecontrol
but theyare links.Clansare boundedas clans,but are linkedby exogamy.
'Grandfathers
arelinksor mediators
withtheunstructured
worldof thespirits
of thedeadwho are not distinguished
on thebasisof linealdescent'(Rigby
I968:

I52).

whichbringsoutcosmological
Herewe havean analysis
implications
hidden
in thenatureofjoking.A joke confronts
one relevant
structure
by another
less
onewell-differentiated
viewbya lesscoherent
clearly
relevant,
one,a system
of
onetowhichitdoesnotapply.By using
control
byanother
independent
jokesat
socialboundary
pointstheGogoarebeingwittyat several
levels:theycomment
on thenature
ofsociety,
oflifeanddeath.Theirjoke ritesplay
andon thenature
of articulation,
uponone central
thecontrast
abstraction,
and theydevelopthe
ofthissymbol
withtheenergy
ofinveterate
application
Atthedivision
punners.
of
theheirsaretoldbytheelders
meatata funeral,
tospeakclearly:
iftheymumble
sonwilltakeeverything
thesister's
(RigbyI968: I49). Hereisanexplicit
reference
inspeech
asthesymbol
ofstructured
toarticulateness
andinarticulaterelationships
ofthepersonal,
nessas thesymbol
undifferentiated
network.
Theinterpretation
oftheGogojoke ritesas an abstract
oftwokinds
statement
is highly
ofsocialinteraction
Theinterpretation
ofKaguru
satisfactory.
joke rites
of an association
I find
as an expression
madebetweensex,filthandliminality
to Beidelman,
theKaguruusejokingto express'liminal'
dubious.According
thatis ambiguous
ones.The rangeof relationships
in whichKaguru
relations,
ismuchthesameastherangeofGogojoking
relations.
Itwouldseem
requirejoking
plausible
thattheego-oriented
viewof sociallife(as eitherdifferentiated
by a
orundifferentiated),
isenoughtowarrant
ofcontrol
these
pattern
jokingbetween
ofundifferentiated,
andthatdirtisanaptenough
categories,
expression
unorganised,
relations.
uncontrolled
fromobscenity
to distinguish
as such.Theyare
It stillremains
jokesin general
oneaccepted
withanother.
So does
obviously
veryclose.Ajoke confronts
pattern
oftheintrusion
thesecondshocks.
Bothconsist
anobscene
image.Thefirst
amuses,
butwhereas
a meaning
onanother,
thejokediscloses
hidden
ofonemeaning
under
ofthefirst,
theobscenity
is a gratuitous
intrusion.
We areunable
theappearance
without
thetotalsocialsituation.
to identify
joke patterns
considering
Similarly
abominations
to be perceived
as such.
forobscenity,
dependuponsocialcontext
is
which
normal
in
male
is
as
obscene
in
mixed
Language
company regarded
of
is
the
offensive
where
social
distance
society; language intimacy
reignsand,
ofthedissecting
roomwhereintimacy
thelanguage
similarly,
belongs.
Inevitably,
thedifference
between
isbyreference
thebestwayofstating
jokingandobscenity
to thesocialcontext.
Thejoke worksonlywhenit mirrors
socialforms;
it exists

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

3 72

MARY DOUGLAS

isidentified
ofitscongruence
Buttheobscenity
byvirtue
withthesocialstructure.
to thesocialstructure,
henceitsoffence.
byitsopposition
In themodern
industrial
worldthecategories
ofsociallifedo notembrace
the
physical
universe
ina singlemoralorder.
Ifthere
there
aremoral
isa socialoffence,
suchas cruelty,
andso on.But
implications
oftheinnocent,
impiety,
corruption
or epidemics.
is not thought
thesocialoffence
Obto releasefloods,famines
interms
forentirely
forusisa mildoffence,
sinceitcannowbeaccounted
of
scenity
to comprehend
offence
againstsocialcategories.
Thisleavesus unqualified
the
ofobscenity
Forthere
thecategories
of
muchgreater
offence
ina primitive
culture.
onsocialforms
is as
sociallifeco-ordinate
thewholeofexperience:
a direct
pttack
inwhichthesocialforms
as anattack
onanyofthesymbolic
disturbing
categories
are expressed-and
thenhasa muchgreater
viceversa.The idea of obscenity
is stronger.
It isbetter
to usea quite
rangeandpower,andtheresponse
ittriggers
orritual
different
fortheprimitive
culture's
word,suchas abomination
pollution,
equivalent
to obscenity
and systeandto lookfora muchmorewhole-hearted
fordealing
withobscenity.
maticwipingoutoftheoffence
thanwe canmuster
ofexperiAbomination
isanactoreventwhichcontradicts
thebasiccategories
enceandin doingso threatens
boththeorderofreasonandtheorderofsociety.
ofthesort.It represents
a temporary
ofthesocial
A joke doesnothing
suspension
or
in
structure,rather
itmakesa littledisturbancewhichtheparticular
structuring
of societybecomeslessrelevant
thananother.
But thestrength
of itsattackis
restricted
onwhichitdepends
forrecognition.
entirely
bytheconsensus
Thejoker
Nowweshould
turntotheroleofthejoker.
tobea privileged
He appears
person
whocansaycertain
ina certain
He is byno
things
waywhichconfers
immunity.
meansanything
likea taboobreaker
whosepolluting
actisa realoffence
tosociety.
He is worthcontrasting
withpersons
rituals
oftransition,
mourners
undergoing
andinitiands.
Symbolically,
theyarein marginal
states,
passing
fromoneclearly
statusto another.
defined
to themselves
Theyareheldto be dangerous
andto
others
untiltheyhavegonethrough
thewholeritualofredefinition.
In thesymbolisation
of thesocialstructure,
andaretemtheyhaveletgo theirmoorings
Butthejokeris notexposedto danger.
porarily
displaced.
He hasa firmholdon
hisownposition
in thestructure
andthedisruptive
comments
whichhe makes
uponit arein a sensethecomments
ofthesocialgroupuponitself.
He merely
consensus.
Safewithinthepermitted
expresses
rangeof attack,
he lightens
for
of socialreality,
theoppressiveness
its arbitrariness
everyone
demonstrates
by
ingeneral,
making
lightofformality
andexpresses
thecreative
possibilities
ofthe
situation.
Fromthiswecanseetheappropriateness
asritual
ofthejoker
purifier.
Amongthe
certain
common
sexualoffences
suchas sexualintercourse
Kaguru,
between
affines
arethought
to bringillness,
or deathon thekinof thetwo offenders.
sterility
Thereare othergraversexualoffences,
buttheserelatively
minoronescan be
cleansedby thejokingpartners
of thetransgressors
ritually
(Beidelman
I966:
onjokingpartners
36I-2). A similar
responsibility
falling
amongtheDogonled
Griauleto describe
theirpartnership
as cathartic
(I948). Ritesofpurification
are
a verywidespread
ofjokingpartners
in central
andeastAfrica,
responsibility
as

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE

SOCIAL

CONTROL

OF

COGNITION

3 73

Stefaniszyn
(I95o) has pointedout. I myselfcommented(Tew I95i) that the
could not be understoodwithoutan analysis
joking aspectsof the relationships
Now I suggestthattherelevanceof
andpurification.
oftherelationbetweenjoking
emergesas anotherelaborateritualpun. Theseritesmakea
joking to purification
at thelevelof emodoubleplayon thejoke experience:laughteritselfis cathartic
it; the
and belittling
tions;thejoke consistsin challenginga dominantstructure
joker who provokesthe laughteris chosen to challengethe relevanceof the
dominantstructure
and to performwithimmunitytheact whichwipes out the
venialoffence.
fromhis apparent
The joker's own immunitycan be derivedphilosophically
Such accessis
accessto otherrealitythanthatmediatedby therelevantstructure.
offormsin whichhe deals.Hisjokes exposetheinadequacy
impliedin thecontrast
of experienceand so releasethe pent-uppower of the
of realiststructurings
imagination.
Perhapsthejoker shouldbe classedas a kindof minormystic.Though onlya
type,he is one of thosepeople who pass beyondthe
mundaneand border-line
boundsof reasonand societyand give glimpsesof a truthwhichescapesthrough
ofthe
themeshofstructured
concepts.Naturallyhe is onlya humble,poorbrother
forhisinsights
truemystic,
aregivenby accident.Theydo notcombineto forma
as a resultofthetechniquewhich
wholenewvisionoflife,butremaindisorganised
gimmicky.One would expect him to be the
producesthem.He is distinctly
as among theWinnebago,but hardlythe focus
objectof a hilariousmythology,
of a religiouscult. And yet therehe is, enshrined-Proteusin ancientGreece;
in Hinduism;and the unprethe elephantgod who gives luck and surprises
dictable,disruptive,creativeforcecalled Legba in Yoruba religion(Wescott
deityin a complexpantheon.The
I962). Needlessto say,he is alwaysa subordinate
He
kindsof interpretation.
joker as god promisesa wealthof new,unforeseeable
in ajoke, forajoke impliesthat
whichis contained
exploitsthesymbolofcreativity
is possible.
anything
It is mucheasiernow to see the role of thejoker at a funeral.By restraining
excessivegriefhe assertsthe demandsof the living.I would expectjoking at
funeralsto be more possibleand more requiredthe more the communityis
phase.Then
confident
thatit will turnthemourner'sdesolationintoa temporary
thequestionis: who mustjoke andwhatshouldbe hisprecisedegreeofrelationship
withthebereavedand the dead? The centralAfricanjoking partneris a friend
andis by definition
nota closekinsman:hisrole
cultivated
by giftsandhospitality,
at a funeralis to cheerthebereavedand to relievethemof thepollutingdutiesof
burial.Thereareheretheelementsof anotherritualpun; forit is thekinwho are
endangered
bycontactwiththedead,thekinwho areinvolvedin thesocial
ritually
of inheritance
and succession,and it is the personalfriend,thejoking
structure
who is uninvolvedin thesocialstructure
andis thepersonwho is immune
partner,
frompollutionofdeath.
Therearemanywaysin whichit can be appropriate
tojoke at a funeral.When
fallto reviewinghislife.They tryto see in it some artistic
a man dieshisfriends
which can comforthim and them.At thismoment
pattern,some fulfilment
and disharmonies
If he is a greatman,a
are distressing.
obviousinconsistencies
to be
are cited,butit seemsimportant
nationalfigure,of coursehisachievements

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

374

MARY DOUGLAS

ableto saythatin hisprivate

lifehe alsohadfulfilled
hisfamily
roles.Ifhe is an
thentheassessment
ofhissuccess
citizen
at thelevelof
ordinary
goeson entirely
andcommunity.
He isjudgedasa man,notasanitemofsocialstructure.
family
tohisindividual
couldcallattention
atthefuneral
Theroleofthejoker
personalwho
ity.Indeed,
intheJewish
shib'ah,
a weekofmourning
after
burial,
thefriends
thebereaved
thedeparted,
comeintocomfort
andpraise
invariably
findthemselves
Thustheyaffirm
notonlya father
jokingathisexpense.
thathewasanindividual,
ina series
ofdescending
orbrother
generations,
buta man.So muchforthesocial
symbolism.
to consider
somemetaphysical
On thesubjectoffuneral
jokingit is tempting
A joke symbolises
andrecreation.
As a symbol
implications.
levelling,
dissolution
itisdestructive
ofsocialrelations
likefire?)
andregenerative
(somewhat
(somewhat
Thejoke,working
on itsownmaterials,
likewater?).
mimics
a kindofdeath.Its
Itisnocoincidence
thetheme
ofrebirth.
forminitself
thatpractical
jokes
suggests
ininitiation
ofdyingand
arecommon
rites,
alongwithmoreconcrete
expressions
WhenJanVansinaunderwent
theBushongboys'initiation
beingreborn.
(I955)
involvedin practical
he was continually
joking,eitherat theexpenseof nonofthegroupofnovicestowhichhebelonged.
orattheexpense
initiates
Oneafter
ordeals
themuchdreaded
wererevealed
tobe onlytricks.
another
Metaphysical
jokes
so much,itcouldbe capableofsaying
Ifthejokeformcansymbolise
something
ofreligion.
inthecontext
aboutdeathitself
fromtheseto
We havetracedthepunfromitssocialtoitspsychological
form,
in laughter,
and fromthespontaneous
itsphysical
expression
symbolof social
to thestandardised
thevalueoflessarticulate
relationships
joke rite,expressing
with
formalised
structures.
ofsocialrelationships
Atfunerals
it
sectors
compared
of
man
value
the
or
of
the
the
value
disinterested
or
friendship
expresses
himself,
in whichmostofa man'slifeis effective.
It
thevalueofthelevelofcommunity
of
bold
to
that
the
ritual
after
all
not
too
jokingthese
seems,
this,
suggest by path
too havereached
a philosophy
of theabsurd.By revealing
cultures
African
the
natureof theverycategories
of thought,
their
by lifting
arbitrary,
provisional
andsuggesting
otherwaysofstructuring
fora moment
reality,
thejoke
pressure
ofthesacred
moments
ofreligion
hints
atunfathomable
riteinthemiddle
mysteries.
whichTurnerattributes
to thepractical
Thisis themessage
of
joke at thecentre
thecultofChihamba
performed
bytheNdembutribeinZambia.
theinitiates
whitespirit,
First
ofall
payhomagetothegreat
Kavula,asthesource
histabernacle,
hiseffigy
under
power;thenastheyapproach
theyaretoldtostrike
andthenthattheyhavekilledhim.Soonafter
a whiteclothwiththeir
they
rattles,
andthatheisnotdead,andtheparaphernalia
aretoldthattheyareinnocent,
under
tobe no morethansomeeveryday
thewhiteclothisrevealed
Everyimplements.
anelaborate
Turner
onethenlaughs
says:
joyfully.
Following
exegesis,
of a universal-human
... we have in Chihambathe local expression
problem,thatof
to essences.It is a
whatcannotbe thought
expressing
subjugation
of,in view of thought's
of ritualman in all placesand ages.
attention
problemwhichhas engagedthepassionate
whichhasconfronted
musicians
andpoetswhenever
Itisa problem,
these
furthermore,
artists,
ofaesthetic
formandsocialmanners
havegonebeyondtheconsideration
(I962: 87).

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE

SOCIAL

CONTROL

OF

COGNITION

3 75

of a primitive
It is unfortunate
thatTurnerpresented
cult
hisnovelinterpretation
in neo-scholastic
terms.The onlyseriousconsideration
whichhisstudyhasreceived
attacksthispresentation.
Horton(I964) arguesthatthewhole complexof ontological problemswith which Turner has saddled Ndembu theologians,the
distinction
betweenthe act-of-being
itself(an act) and the conceptof being(an
essence)only makessensein the termsof Thomist-Aristotelian
philosophy.He
deftlyappliesthe logical positivistcriticismto thisapproach.Further,Horton
rejectstheidea that'a dominantconcemto " saytheunsayable"abouttheultimate
groundof all particular
formsof existence'can be foundin all Africanreligions
in all religionswhatever.
(I964: 96-7), stillless,as Turnersays,universally
Thesecriticisms
by-passthemainchallengeofTurner'sthesis.Merelyto dareto
interpret
a ritualmock-killing
of a god in one particularAfricanreligionas an
abouttheinadequacyof thecategories
attemptto expressunfathomable
mysteries
ofthought
forexpressing
is boldenough.LeaveoutTurner's
thenatureofexistence
it may be or it maynot be.
claimthatthisis a universalhumanpre-occupation;
Forgethis presentation
in scholasticterms;it could as well have been presented
through Kant or Kierkegaardeor modern phenomenologists
as through
Aquinas.It is stilla daringclaimthathe makesfortheprofoundmeaningof an
African
and complexity
withwhichhe spinsout the
joke rite.For all thesubtlety
symbolism,
my own firstresponsewas one of doubt.It was thefirstserioussugthatritualswhich have no formal
gestionby a contemporary
anthropologist
philosophicalexegesisin theirnativeculturecould be concernedwith problems
about the relationof thoughtto experiencewhichare, undeniably,a universal
on theuse ofthejoke ritein Africa,
ofphilosophy.
Afterreflecting
pre-occupation
I am now muchmoreconvincedthatTurnermaybe right.Africancultureshave
clearlyreachedan apotheosisof wit by playingupon thejoke at variouslevelsof
to thejoke ritea subtleimageof
meaning.It is not a greatleap fromattributing
also to it an imageof theconditionsofhumanknowledge.
societyto attributing
But thisisnotthepointatwhichI wouldwishto endthisarticle.Thereis another
thesocialcontrolofexperience.
whichshouldbe underlined:
It is here
implication
ofsocialformslimitsand conditions
theapprehension
of
arguedthatthepatterning
ofthejokeformto the
symbolicforms.Thismaybe extendedfromtheperception
perceptionof other patterns,hierarchy,part-wholerelations,unity,schism,
incorporation,
exclusion.The controlexertedby experiencein thesocialdimenis alreadytakeninto accountin
sion over theperceptionof conceptualpatterns
learningtheoryand in religioussociology.Thisstudyof thejoke ritesuggests
that
of consonancebetweendifferent
realmsof experienceis a source
theachievement
It suggeststhatthedriveto reducedissonancemaywork
ofprofoundsatisfaction.
at a moreabstract
hitherto.
levelthanhas beenrecognised
The exerciseof tracing
theanalogiesdrawninjoke ritesgivesadditionalmeaningto Kandinsky's
famous
no less
sayingthattheimpactof an acutetriangleon a circleproducesan effect
powerfulthanthefingerof God touchingthe fingerof Adam in Michelangelo's
famousfresco.
NO TE

Earlyversionsof thisarticlereceivedvaluablecriticismfromthe MakerereConference

in DecemberI966, and fromtheMuirheadSociety,Birmingham.
onJokingRelationships,

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

3 76

MARY DOUGLAS
REFERENCES

in a Norwegianislandparish.Hum.Relat.7, 39-58.
Barnes,
J.A. I954. Classandcommittees
(Occ. Pap. R. anthrop.Inst.23). London:
Barth,FredrikI966. Modelsof socialorganisation
Institute.
Royal Anthropological
S West.
and affinity.
Beidelman,T. 0. I966. Utani:someKagurunotionsof death,sexuality
22-4, 354-80.
J. Anthrop.
ducomique.Paris:PressesUniversitaires
Bergson,HenriI950. Le rire:essaisurla signification
de France.
etlangage:la parolechezlesDogon.Paris:Gallimard.
G. I966. Ethnologie
Calame-Griaule,
anddanger.
London:Routledge& KeganPaul.
Douglas,M. I966. Purity
ofunconscious
a theory
visionandhearing:
AntonI953. Thepsychoanalysis
ofartistic
Ehrenzweig,
London:Routledge& KeganPaul.
perception.
(trans.A. A. Brill).London:Fisher
totheunconscious
Freud,SigmundI9I6. Witanditsrelation
& Unwin.
London:TavistockPublications.
andtheancestors.
Goody,J.R. I962. Death,property
i8, 242-58.
Africa,
Griaule,MarcelI948. L'alliancecathartique.
Africa,
34, 85-I04.
Horton,R. I964. Ritualmanin Africa.
London:Hutchinson.
A. I964. Theactofcreation.
Koestler,
(Lond.Sch.Econ. Monogr.socialAnthrop.22).
anthropology
Leach,E. R. I96I. Re-thinking
London:AthionePress.
Africa
13, I95-2I0.
A. R. I940. On jokingrelationships.
Radcliffe-Brown,
Africa
I9, I33-40.
noteonjokingrelationships.
I949. A further
amongtheBemba.Man37, I88-93.
Richards,A. I. I937. Reciprocalclanrelationships
38,
kincategories
and clanshipamongtheGogo. Africa
Rigby,P. I968. Jokingrelationships,
I33-55.

in centralAfrica.Africa
20, 290-306.
B. I950. Funeralfriendship
Stefaniszyn,
Africa
2i, I22-4.
friendship.
noteon funeral
Tew, Maryig5i. A further
Univ.
Pap. 33). Manchester:
spirit(Rhodes-Livingst.
thewhite
Turner,
V. W. I962. Chihamba,
Press.
ritualsof theBushong.Africa
25, I38-52.
Vansina,
J. I955. Initiation
and
definition
ofEshu-ElegbatheYorubatrickster:
andmyths
Wescott,
J.I962. The sculpture
in Yorubaiconography.
Africa
32, 336-54.
interpretation

This content downloaded from 132.174.255.215 on Thu, 4 Sep 2014 15:26:48 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions