http://www.paper.edu.

cn
165

Ground Improvement (2003) 7, No. 4, 165172

Soil improvement for a road using the vacuum

preloading method
S. W. YAN
and J. CHUy

Geotechnical Research Institute, Tianjin University, China;

y
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore 639798
A case of using the vacuum preloading method to improve
the foundation soil for a road in Tianjin, China, is
presented. A vacuum load of 80 kPa was applied for 90
days to consolidate a 20 m thick soft clay layer. The ground
settled for about 15 m. The average degree of consolidation estimated using settlement data was 90%. The undrained shear strength of the soil increased and the water
content decreased after vacuum preloading. The procedures used for soil improvement, the instrumentation and
the field monitoring data are described. Several issues
concerning the practical aspects of the vacuum preloading
method are discussed.

Keywords : case
improvement

history;

consolidation;

ground

Introduction
A section of a road leading to a container terminal at Tianjin
Port, China, had to be constructed on a 20 m thick soft clay
layer. The top 56 m of the clay layer was reclaimed recently
using clay slurry dredged from the seabed. The remaining
1415 m was original seabed clay. The soil in both layers
was soft, and was still undergoing consolidation. This soft
clay layer needed to be improved before any construction
work could be carried out.
Preloading using a fill surcharge was not feasible as it was
difficult to build a fill embankment several metres high on
soft clay. The vacuum preloading method was adopted as it
was considered the most cost-effective method for this
project.
The vacuum preloading method has been widely used in
Tianjin for land reclamation and soil improvement work
since 1980. The technique has been well developed over the
years as a result of intensive research and field trials (Chen
and Bao, 1983; Ye et al., 1983; Yan and Chen, 1986; Choa,
1990; TPEI, 1995; Chu et al., 2000). Prefabricated vertical
drains (PVDs) have often been used to distribute vacuum
load and discharge pore water. A vacuum load of 80 kPa or
above can be maintained as long as it is required. Compared
with the fill surcharge method for the equivalent load, the
vacuum preloading method is cheaper and faster. According
to a comparison made by TPEI (1995), the cost of soil
improvement using vacuum preloading is only two thirds of
(GI 2165) Paper received 11 October 2002; accepted 20 May 2003

Nous presentons un cas utilisant une methode de precharge sous vide pour ameliorer le sol de fondation dune
route a` Tianjin en Chine. Une charge sous vide de 80 kPa a
ete appliquee pendant 90 jours pour consolider une couche
dargile tendre epaisse de 20 m. Le sol sest tasse sur
environ 1,5 m. Le degre moyen de consolidation estime
dapre`s les donnees de tassement etait de 90%. La resistance au cisaillement non draine du sol a augmente et le
contenu en eau a diminue apre`s la precharge sous vide.
Nous decrivons les procedures utilisees pour ameliorer le
sol, linstrumentation et les donnees de controle sur le
terrain. Nous examinons plusieurs proble`mes concernant
les aspects pratiques de la methode de precharge sous
vide.

that by fill surcharge, based on the local prices of electricity

and materials.
The principles and mechanism of vacuum preloading
have been discussed in the literature (e.g. Kjellman, 1952;
Holtz, 1975; Chen and Bao, 1983; Qian et al., 1992. A case
study on the use of the vacuum preloading method for the
soil improvement for a road project is presented in this
paper. The site conditions, the soil improvement procedure,
and the field instrumentation are described. The field
monitoring data are presented. The achieved degree of
consolidation and the effect of soil improvement are evaluated. Several issues concerning the practical aspects of the
vacuum preloading method are also discussed.

Soil conditions
The section of road to be improved is shown schematically
in Fig. 1. It was 3645 m long and 51 m wide. For the
convenience of construction, the site was divided into two
sections. The idealised soil profile is shown in Fig. 2. The
liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), water content (Wo ), void
ratio (e), and undrained shear strength (cu ) profiles in both
sections are shown in Fig. 3. The shear strength, cu , was
measured by unconsolidated undrained (UU) tests. It can be
seen that the soil properties vary erratically with depth. The
water content of the soil was as high as or even higher than
the liquid limit at most locations. The undrained shear
strength (cu ) of the soil as shown in Fig. 3 was generally
smaller than 20 kPa.
1365-781X # 2003 Thomas Telford Ltd

http://www.paper.edu.cn

Section I

51 m

S. W. Yan and J. Chu

tions of those instruments are shown schematically in Fig. 1

(plan view) and Fig. 6 (elevation view). Undisturbed soil
samples were taken. Laboratory and field vane shear tests
were conducted both before and after the soil improvement.

Section II

Before vacuum preloading

364.5 m
Borehole
Water standpipe
Multi-level settlement gauge

Field vane
Inclinometer
Pore water pressure transducer

Fig. 1. Project site and plan view of instrumentation

0
Silty clay consolidated from slurry, yellow and grey in colour,
high compressibility
6

Silt, grey in colour

8
Soft silt to silty clay, grey and brown in colour, high compressibility
11
Silty clay, grey and brown in colour, high compressibility
16
Stiff silty clay, grey and brown in colour, medium compressibility
20

Fig. 2. Simplified soil profile

As excess pore water pressures existed in the soil, some

consolidation took place as soon as the vertical drains were
installed. An average 058 m of settlement had occurred
before the application of vacuum preloading. Other factors
that contributed to the settlement included the disturbance
to the soil caused by vertical drain installation, and the
consolidation that took place under the sand blanket and the
self-weight of soil.

During vacuum preloading

Pore water pressures
The pore water pressures in the soil reduced with the
application of vacuum preloading. The reductions in the
pore water pressure at different depths are plotted against
duration in Fig. 7(a) and (b) for sections I and II respectively.
Fig. 7(a) indicates that, for section I, there was a vacuum
distribution period of about 10 days for the effect of vacuum
load to be felt. The vacuum distribution period for section II
was smaller owing to the adjacent effect of section I on
section II, as shown in Fig. 7(b). After this initial vacuum
distribution stage, the pore water pressures reduced quickly
with time. The pore water pressure reduction became
smaller after about 40 days at most locations.

Settlements

Soil improvement procedure

The specification for the soil improvement was set to
achieve an average degree of consolidation of 85% based on
settlement data under a minimum vacuum loading of
80 kPa, and a minimum bearing capacity of 80 kPa.
The soil improvement work was carried out as follows. A
03 m sand blanket was first placed on the ground surface.
PVDs were then installed on a square grid at a spacing of
10 m to a depth of 20 m. Corrugated flexible pipes (100 mm
in diameter) were laid horizontally in the sand blanket to
link the PVDs to the main vacuum pressure line. The pipes
were perforated and wrapped with a permeable fabric textile
to act as a filter layer. Three layers of thin PVC membrane
were laid to seal each section. Vacuum pressure was then
applied using jet pumps.
The schematic arrangement of the vacuum preloading
method used is shown in Fig. 4. The vacuum pressure was
applied continuously for 90 days until the required degree
of consolidation was achieved. Curves of applied vacuum
load against time and ground settlement against time are
shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that a vacuum pressure of
80 kPa or above was maintained for the whole duration of
the vacuum preloading.

Instrumentation and field

measurements
Instrumentsincluding pore water pressure transducers,
surface settlement plates, multi-level settlement gauges,
standpipes and inclinometerswere installed in both sections to monitor the consolidation performance. The loca166

The settlements monitored at different depths during

vacuum preloading are plotted against duration in Fig. 8.
The maximum surface settlements are 0959 m and 1147 m
for sections I and II respectively. Although the pore water
pressure took some time to reduce (see Fig. 7), the settlement
took place as soon as the vacuum preloading was applied.
After the vacuum preloading stopped at 90 days, the
settlement still increased for a few days before it became
constant, as shown in Fig. 8.

Analysis of results
Reduction in pore water pressures
Based on the pore water pressure measurements shown in
Fig. 7, the pore water pressure distributions with depth at
durations of 30, 60 and 90 days are shown in Fig. 9. The
initial pore water pressure profile, uo (h), and the suction
line, us , are also plotted in Fig. 9. The initial pore water
pressures were obviously greater than the hydrostatic pore
water pressure in both sections, indicating that the subsoil
was still under consolidation. These were mainly the
remaining pore water pressures that were generated by the
placement and consolidation of the top 6 m of slurry fill.
During vacuum preloading, the pore water pressure
reductions were different at different points. As there was a
layer of silt or silty clay between 6 and 11 m that was
relatively more permeable, the pore water pressure in this
layer reduced faster. As shown in Fig. 9, the pore water
pressures had reduced to nearly the suction line within the
first 30 days. The pore water pressure reductions were
slower in the slurry fill (between 0 and 6 m) and at the
bottom of the stiff silty clay layer (from 14 to 20 m), as the

Soil improvement for a road using the vacuum preloading method

LL, PL, and Wo

0

20

40

60

0.5

80

Void ratio, e
1.5

1.0

c u: kPa
2.0

Depth: m

Depth: m

10

10

20

30

40

Depth: m

12

12

16

16

12

16

Wo
PL
LL

20
20

20

(a)
LL, PL, and Wo
0

20

40

60

0.5

80

Void ratio, e
1.5

1.0

c u: kPa
2.0

Depth: m

Depth: m
12

12

12

16

16

16

Wo
PL
LL
20

20

30

40

Depth: m

20

20
(b)

Fig. 3. Basic soil properties: (a) at section I; (b) at section II

soils there were relatively less permeable. This is consistent

with the initial pore water pressure profile, where larger
initial pore water pressures presented at the same locations.

Degree of consolidation
The results presented above show that the ground had
settled more than 1 m and substantial pore water pressure
had reduced at the end of vacuum preloading. Therefore the
consolidation of soil under vacuum preloading was effective

in both sections I and II. The degree of improvement can be

further quantified by the degree of consolidation.
The degree of consolidation can be estimated using either
settlement or pore water pressure. When calculating the
degree of consolidation using settlement, the ultimate settlement has to be predicted. Several methods are available in
estimating the ultimate settlement (Asaoka, 1978; Sridharan
and Rao, 1981; Zeng and Xie, 1989). Based on previous
experiences with similar projects, Zeng and Xies method
was specified as the method to be used for this project. In
167

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S. W. Yan and J. Chu

0
2
4
6
A

8
10
12
14

0
2.0
5.5
Silt

1
8

2
4

10

5 6 7

20

4.0

6.0
8.5

7.5
9.5

Soft
clay

11.0

13.0

Silty
clay

14.5

15.5

16
18

1.0

Slurry

18.0

Silty
clay

21.0

22

11

Pore water pressure transducer

Inclinometer

Multi-level settlement guage

Water standpipe

Fig. 6. Elevation view of instrumentation

9
1

AA

Fig. 4. Schematic arrangement of vacuum preloading method: 1, drains; 2,

filter piping; 3, revetment; 4, water outlet; 5, valve; 6, vacuum gauge; 7, jet
pump; 8, centrifugal gauge; 9, trench; 10, horizontal piping; 11, sealing
membrane

this method, the average degree of consolidation, Uavg , is

assumed to be of the following form:
Uavg 1  e


t

S3 (S2  S1 )  S2 (S3  S2 )
(S2  S1 )  (S3  S2 )

(2)

Settlement: m

Vacuum load: kPa

where S1 the ultimate settlement, and S1 , S2 and S3 are

the settlements measured at time t1 , t2 and t3 respectively.
The average degree of consolidation can then be estimated
as the ratio of S t and S1 .

[u t (h)  u s ]d h

1
[u0 (h)  u s ]d h

us w h  80

(3a)

where u0 (h) is the initial pore water pressure at depth h;

u t (h) is the pore water pressure at depth h at time t; us is the
suction applied; h is depth; and w is the unit weight of
water. The integrals in equation (3) can be calculated using
the area between the curve u t (h) and the line us in Fig. 9(a)
or 9(b). Applying equation (3) to Fig. 9(a) and 9(b), the
average degree of consolidation calculated was approximately 75% for both sections.
The average degree of consolidation calculated based on
the measured pore water pressures is smaller than that
based on settlements. Similar problems have been pointed

60.0
40.0
20.0
0
0.2
0.4

10

20

30

40

50
60
Duration: days

0.6
0.8
1.0

(3)

and

100.0
80.0

Fig. 5. Applied vacuum pressure and ground settlement measured with duration

168

Uavg

(1)

where t is time, and and
are two parameters. In applying

this method, three time intervalst1 , t2 , and t3 need to be
chosen from the curve of settlement (S) against time (t) in
the region where the full vacuum load has been applied. t1 ,
t2 , and t3 have to be chosen in such a way that t3 t2 t2
t1 . If the settlements corresponding to t1 , t2 and t3 are S1 , S2
and S3 , then from equation (1) the ultimate settlement, S1 ,
can be derived as
S1

The ultimate settlements calculated with equation (2) were

1078 m for section I and 1278 m for section II. The surface
settlements measured at t 90 days were 0959 m for section
I and 1147 m for section II. Thus the average degree of
consolidation calculated was 89% for section I and 90% for
section II, which values were higher than the 85% average
degree of consolidation requested in the specification.
As the pore water pressures during the consolidation were
measured, the average degree of consolidation can also be
calculated based on pore water pressure. Referring to Fig.
9(a) or 9(b), the average degree of consolidation can be
calculated as

70

80

90

100

Soil improvement for a road using the vacuum preloading method

Duration: days
20

40

60

80

1.0 m
4.0 m
6.0 m
8.5 m
11.0 m
14.5 m
18.0 m

10
20
30
40

60 days
90 days

4
6

50

uo(h)

60

70
80
90
(a)

Pore water pressure reduction: kPa

Initial
30 days

100

Elevation: m

Pore water pressure reduction: kPa

12

Duration: days
40
60

20

10

80

14

100
1 .0 m
4 .0 m
6 .0 m
8 .5 m
11.0 m
14.5 m
18.0 m

10
20
30
40

us
16
18

50

20
100

60

50

50

100

150

200

250

Pore water pressure: kPa

70

(a)

80
0

90

Initial

(b)

30 days

Fig. 7. Pore water pressures measured at different depths against duration:

(a) at section I; (b) at section II

60 days
90 days

6
uo(h)

Duration: days
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Depth: m

10

12

0.2
Settlement: m

14
0.4

us
16

0.6
0.0 m
2.0 m
5.5 m
7.5 m
9.5 m
13.0 m
15.5 m

0.8
1.0
1.2

18

20
100
(a)

20

40

Duration: days
60
80

50

50

100

150

200

250

Pore water pressure: kPa

(b)
100

120

Fig. 9. Pore water pressure distribution: (a) at section I; (b) at section II

Settlement: m

0.2

out by Hansbo (1997). The difference could be attributed to

the following factors:

0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

0.0 m
2.0 m
5.5 m
7.5 m
9.5 m
13.0 m
15.5 m

1.2
(b)

Fig. 8. Settlement measured at different depths against duration: (a) at

section I; (b) at section II

(a) Both the settlements and the pore water pressures were
measured at specific points only. Thus the data may not
be representative of the average values for the whole
layer.
(b) There are uncertainties involved in the prediction of the
ultimate settlement.
(c) As the load was applied over a strip, it was not a truly
one-dimensional problem.
(d ) It was a large strain consolidation problem.
169

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S. W. Yan and J. Chu

For performance assessment, there are two advantages in
using the pore water pressure to evaluate the degree of
consolidation: (a) the calculation is based purely on measuring data; and (b) the pore water pressure dissipation process
in soil can be visualised clearly from the pore water pressure
distribution curve.

Increase in undrained shear strength

Field vane shear tests were conducted before and after
vacuum preloading in both sections I and II, and the results
are presented in Fig. 10. It can be seen that, overall, the vane
shear strength has increased by about 2030%. After
vacuum preloading a minimum bearing capacity of 80 kPa,

which was estimated as 514cu according to the design code

JTJ 250-98 (1998), was achieved.

Change in water content

The changes in water content for soil before and after
vacuum preloading are plotted in Fig. 11(a) and 11(b) for
both sections I and II. Generally the higher the initial water
content, the greater the reduction in water content. However, the change in water content is not directly proportional
to the increase in the undrained shear strength. For example,
although the vane shear strength at 6 m at section I

Water content: %
0

20

40

60

80

60

80

0
0

Undrained shear strength: kPa

10
20
30
40
50

60

Before
After

Before
2

After

8
Depth: m

Depth: m

10

10

12

12

14

14

16

16

18

18

20
(a)

20
(a)

Water content: %

Undrained shear strength: kPa

10
20
30
40
50

20

40

60

0
Before
2

After

Before
After

4
4
6
6
8
Depth: m

Depth: m

8
10

12

12

14

14
16

16

18

18
20

20
(b)

Fig. 10. Vane shear strength profile: (a) at section I; (b) at section II

170

10

(b)

Fig. 11. Water content profile: (a) at section I; (b) at section II

Soil improvement for a road using the vacuum preloading method

increased from 20 kPa to 30 kPa (see Fig. 10(a)), there was

very little change in the water content, as shown in Fig.
11(a). Therefore the change in water content is not a good
indicator in qualifying the result of soil improvement.

Lateral displacement
One special feature of the vacuum loading method is that
it causes an inward lateral movement in soil. The lateral

Lateral displacement: mm
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

2
4
6

Depth: m

8
10

Conclusions

0 day
4 days

12

7 days
11 days

14

17 days
24 days

16

42 days
80 days

18

92 days

20
(a)

Lateral displacement: mm
0

displacements were monitored by inclinometer for both

sections, and the data are presented in Fig. 12. It can be seen
that the lateral displacement was the greatest at ground level
and reduced sharply with depth.
As shown in Fig. 12(b), the lateral ground movement
induced by vacuum preloading was as high as 350 mm. The
curves of ground lateral displacement against duration are
shown in Fig. 13. It can be seen that the ground lateral
displacements approached a plateau towards the end of the
vacuum preloading in both sections. This is different from
the case presented by Chu et al. (2000), where a convergence
in the ground lateral displacement was not observed. The
difference in the lateral displacement development was due
mainly to the geometry of the site. In the case reported in
Chu et al. (2000), the area improved was more than 400 m
wide. In this case, the area preloaded was a long strip with a
width of only 51 m, and thus the lateral displacement
developed faster. Cracks were seen to develop on the
ground surface at a few metres away from the edge of the
preloaded area. As there were no adjacent buildings or
facilities, the lateral displacement and cracks were tolerable.
However, for sites where adjacent structures are present,
lateral displacements can cause problems.

50

100

150

200

250

300

2
4

350

A case study on the application of the vacuum preloading

method to the improvement of a 20 m thick soft clay layer
for a road project was reported. Based on the study, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
(a) The vacuum preloading method can be used effectively
for the improvement of a 20 m thick soft clay layer,
which would be difficult to be treated using fill
surcharge.
(b) The vacuum distribution system comprising PVDs at a
square grid of 10 m together with horizontal 100 mm
diameter corrugated flexible collector pipes was effective in distributing the vacuum pressure and collecting
drained water. A vacuum pressure of 80 kPa was
maintained throughout the whole project.
(c) After the application of an 80 kPa vacuum pressure for
90 days, the average degree of consolidation achieved
was 90% based on the settlement data. The total ground
settlement was more than 15 m. The undrained shear
strength as measured by field vane shear tests increased
by 2030% as a result of vacuum preloading.

6
400

10
0 day

12

4 days
7 days

14

11 days
17 days

16

24 days
42 days
80 days

18

92 days
20

Ground lateral displacements: mm

Depth: m

350
300
250
200
150
Section I

100

Section II
50
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Duration: days
(b)

Fig. 12. Lateral displacement: (a) at section I; (b) at section II

Fig. 13. Ground lateral displacement plotted against duration of vacuum

loading

171

S. W. Yan and J. Chu

(d ) The application of the vacuum caused an inward lateral
movement. The maximum lateral displacement measured was 350 mm. Cracks on the ground surface were
observed.

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Discussion contributions on this paper should reach the

editor by 1 April 2004