Compressible Fluid Flow

Objectives of the Course

 To develop the fundamental concepts of compressible
flow
 To solve engineering problems such as diffusers and
nozzles of subsonic and supersonic airbreathing engines,
supersonic wind tunnels, rocket nozzles, lift and drag on
supersonic wings

p.1

Textbook
 It is not necessary to buy a textbook
 If you really want a textbook, buy "Compressible Fluid
Flow" 2nd Edition by Michel Saad
 You can save money by writing your own book based
on the lecture material

p.2

English or Korean?
 Lecture in English
 Assignments in English
 Midterm and Final exams questions will be written in
english
 The good news: Compressible Fluid Flow is an engineering course and ... the language of engineering is
mathematics

p.3

Grading
Grading
 Mid-term 40%
 Final 60%
 Bonus 15% Max.
or
 Midterm 20%
 Final 80%
 Bonus 15% Max.
(whichever gives the highest mark)
p.4

Grading System: No Relative Scoring!

 F if score<30% (no upgrade possible, no exception)
 F if 30%score<50% (upgrade to D0 possible, but not
automatic. See below)
 D0 if 50%score<55% and if you come to my office
alone after the final exam and give very good reasons
why you failed (in english)
 D+ if 55%score<60%
 C0 if 60%score<65%
 C+ if 65%score<70%
 B0 if 70%score<75%
 B+ if 75%score<80%
 A0 if 80%score<85%
 A+ if score85%

p.5

Canadian Style Grading System







A0-A+
B0-B+
C0-C+
D0-D+
F

Great
Good
Fair
Hmmmm
Not good enough to take more advanced courses

p.6

Assignments








3-4 problems per week

Questions may depend on student number
Solutions will be given after due date
Assignment questions and answers are in english
Should require 5-7 hours of your time per week
No late assignment will be accepted
You must understand and remember the solutions
you hand in

p.7

Bonus System








15 points Bonus given to all students

4 points penalty for missing a lecture
2 points penalty for coming late to the lecture
3 points penalty for not submitting an assignment
3 points penalty for submitting an assignment late
4 points penalty for disturbing the class
15 points penalty for not remembering your own solutions to the assignments

Bonus can be positive, but can also be negative.

p.8

Attendance
 Missing one class = 4 point penalty
 No certificate is accepted except those for job
interviews
 For job interviews, you must notify me at least 48 hours
before the interview
 I may call the company and verify if the certificate is
valid
 In case you forged the certificate, you will get F

p.9

Exams
 Exams are closed book
 Compressible Flow Tables will be handed out along
with the question sheet
 Only simple calculators are allowed (not more than
20,000 wons, no SD stick)
 Any attempt at cheating will result in F
 Bring your calculator to every class there will be surprise exams

p.10

Surprise Tests
 Surprise tests will be given once in a while
 The test will consist of solving one assignment problem
 If your solution is significantly different from the one
you handed in, you will get a 15 points penalty
 If your solution is more or less the same as the one you
handed in, you will get no penalty
 Bring your calculator to every class it will be needed
for the surprise test

p.11

How to get a good mark

 Never miss a lecture
 Dont disturb the others during the lecture
 Do the assignments by yourself as much as possible
There is no group work in the exams
 Understand and remember the solutions you hand in

p.12

Learn by Doing, not just by Watching

Nam Hyun-hee.
Just
watching Nam Hyun-hee
foil wont make someone
a good fencer. One also
needs to practice. The same
applies with learning Compressible Flow.

p.13

Dont let a problem remain unsolved

 First try to solve the problem by yourself work
seriously on it
 Discuss it with a friend
 Get the solution from another student by "bribing" him
or her
 Send the professor an email asking him a specific
question
 Come to see the professor in his office make sure you
are respectful of his time by preparing well your question

p.14

Slides Shown Today

 All the slides shown in the class today can be
downloaded in pdf format from
http://www.bernardparent.com/

p.15

http://www.bernardparent.com
You have to create an account on my website to download
the slides, the assignments, the tables, and check your scores.
Note the following:
 Your account login ID must be your student ID
 Your account will become active only after I approve it
 It may take a couple of days before your account is approved

p.16

What is "Compressibility"?
In fluid mechanics, compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid as a response to a pressure
change.
1 @V
compressibility 
V @P
where V is the volume and P is the pressure. Compressibility can also be thought to be a measure of the relative density
change of a fluid as a response to a pressure change. By definition, the density corresponds to:
mass
density 
volume

p.17

Bullet

Schlieren photograph of
a bullet flying at a
speed of 1500 kilometers/hour Schlieren photograph shows change in air
density.

p.18

Supersonic Engine Intake

Schlieren photograph of
the intake of the engines
of a supersonic aircraft.
The flow speed is Mach
1.95 (about 2000 kilometers per hour).

p.19

Space Shuttle Main Engine

Photograph of the exhaust of the Space Shuttle

Main Engine (SSME). The flow exiting the rocket
is steady and uniform but soon downstream diamondlike features appear.
p.20

Compressibility Effects in Aerodynamics

Compressibility is an important factor in aerodynamics. At
low speeds, the compressibility of air is not significant in relation to aircraft design, but as the airflow nears and exceeds
the speed of sound, a host of new aerodynamic effects become important in the design of aircraft. These effects, often
several of them at a time, made it very difficult for World War
II era aircraft to reach speeds much beyond 800 km/h (500
mph), since they resulted in changes to the airflow that lead
to problems in control. Such were observed on many World
War II aircraft such as the P38 Lighting, the Mitsubishi Zero,
the Supermarine Spitfire, and the Messerschmitt Bf 109.

p.21

P38 Lighting

The P-38 Lightning with its thick high-lift wing had a particular
problem in high-speed dives that led to a nose-down condition.
Pilots would enter dives, and then find that they could no longer
control the plane, which continued to nose over until it crashed.
Maximum Mach number: Mach 0.6.

p.22

Recommended Approach to the Solution of a

Compressible Flow Problem
1. Outline of the laws of physics
2. Derivation of working relations from laws of physics
3. Statement of assumptions involved in obtaining the
working relations
4. Use of working relations to obtain a solution to a fluid
flow problem
5. Discussion of the problem solution and limitations of
physical model / working relations
Compressible flow physics can be particularly unintuitive.
Do not trust your intuition; rather, follow the steps above.
p.23

Why Derivations of Working Relations from Laws of

Physics are Important
 To learn about the assumptions related with the working
relations
 To understand the limitations of the working relations
 To increase confidence about a design based on the
working relations

p.24

Ideal Gas "Law"

 The state of an amount of gas is determined by its
pressure, volume, and temperature according to the
equation:
P D RT
P in Pa,  in kg/m3 , R in J/kgK, and T in K.
 What is pressure? What is temperature? To
understand the latter, we need to derive the ideal gas
"law" from basic principles.
 The ideal gas law mathematically follows from a
statistical mechanical treatment of primitive identical
particles which do not interact, but exchange
momentum in elastic collisions
 Applicable to cases where the intermolecular forces are
negligible not applicable to gases with relatively high
pressure and low temperature

p.25

Benoit Paul Emile Clapeyron

 French engineer born in Paris in
1799
 Clapeyron studied at the Ecole
polytechnique and the Ecole des
Mines
 First stated the ideal gas law as
the equation of state of a
hypothetical ideal gas in 1834.
 In 1843, Clapeyron further developed the idea of a reversible process to what is now known as the
second law of thermodynamics
p.26

Pressure
The pressure is the average in time of the force per unit area
acting on a surface due to molecular collisions

P 

R t

F dt
F
D
At
A

with
P the pressure (in Pa)
F the force acting on a wall due to elastic molecular
collisions (in N)
A the cross sectional area on which the force is acting (in m2 )
p.27

Blaise Pascal (16231662)

 French mathematician, physicist,
and philosopher born in 1623
 Clarified the concepts of pressure
and vacuum
 At the time, most scientists did
not believe in the possibility of
vacuum
 Established the principle and
value of the barometer
 His work in the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork
for Leibnizs formulation of the
infinitesimal calculus
p.28

Temperature
Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules.
mq 2
q2
T 
D
3k
3R

(in degrees K, Kelvin)

with
k the Boltzmann constant (1:38  10

23

J/K)

m the mass of one molecule in kg

q the speed of a molecule in m/s
R the gas constant (equals k=m in J/kgK)
p.29

Mass Conservation in Quasi-1D

Mass Conservation Equation:
d Av D 0
or
2 A2 v2 D 1 A1 v1
where the density  is in kg/m3 , the cross-section area A in
m2 , and v in m/s

 Applies to steady one-dimensional flow in ducts with

area change
p.30

Momentum Conservation in Quasi-1D

Momentum Conservation Equation:
vd v C d P D 0
where the density  is in kg/m3 , the velocity v in m/s and P
in Pa

 Derived from Newtons second law F D ma

 Applies to steady one-dimensional flow in streamtubes
or ducts with area change

p.31

Energy Conservation Equation

(or First Law of Thermo)
de

change of system energy

P d .1=/ C

work done on system

heat added to system

 Based on what was discovered in the 19th century, the

First Law of Thermo is now not a Law since it can be
shown from other laws
 It can be shown by taking the dot product between the
velocity vector and Newtons law in vector form applied
to a molecule, summing over a large number of
molecules, and then taking the average in time.
 Not always necessary for incompressible flows unless
heat transfer or viscosity is present
 Always necessary for compressible flows to find the density+pressure distribution
p.32

The Joule Experiment, 1845

p.33

James Prescott Joule (18181889)

 English physicist born in Salford,
Lancashire, England in 1818
 Studied the nature of heat, and
discovered its relationship to
mechanical work.
 Fascinated by electricity. He and
his brother experimented by
giving electric shocks to each
other and to the familys servants.
 Found the relationship between
the current through a resistance
and the heat dissipated
p.34

Types of Energy Modes in a Gas

 Translational energy, etr D 23 RT

 Rotational energy, erot D RT

 Vibrational energy
 Electronic energy

The latter can be shown from statistical thermodynamics.

Atoms only have translational and electronic energy.

p.35

Types of Thermodynamic Processes







Isobaric. Constant pressure process.

Isovolumetric. Constant volume process.
Isothermal. Constant temperature process.
Isentropic. Constant entropy process.
Adiabatic. A process in which there is no energy added
or subtracted by heating or cooling.
 Reversible. A process which is both adiabatic and isentropic.

p.36

Energy Conservation in Quasi-1D

1st Law of Thermo:
d e C P d .1=/ D 0 or

dh

d P = D 0

Energy
conservation
equation:


v2
D0
d hC
2
 holds for adiabatic and isentropic process (reversible)
along a one-dimensional duct with varying
cross-section area
 v is the velocity in m/s
 h is the enthalpy in J
 h  e C P =
 the enthalpy is the potential of the flow to do work

p.37

Isentropic Relationship

P2
D
P1

2
1

or
P
is constant along isentropic adiabatic (reversible) path


where 

CP
CP

CP
D
R
CV

The latter assumes that CP is not a function of temperature.

p.38

Specific Heats
The specific heats at constant pressure and volume are defined as:
dh
de
CP 
and CV 
dT
dT
For many gases (such as N2 , O2 , H2 , air), the vibrational and
electronic energies can be neglected when the temperature is
less than about 800 K. Then, the specific heats and the specific heat ratio become:
CV

CP

molecule

5
2

7
2

7
5

atom

3
2

5
2

5
3
p.39

Calorically Perfect Gas

A calorically perfect gas is a gas where the specific heats CP
and CV are constant.
This yields the following relationships:
h D CP T

e D CV T

A calorically perfect gas should not be confused with a

thermally perfect gas.
A calorically perfect gas entails constant CP and CV . A thermally perfect gas is one which is governed by the ideal gas
law P D RT .
p.40

Terminal (or Exit) Velocity

The terminal velocity is the velocity that is obtained when
a gas is expanded isentropically to a vacuum (that is, when
the terminal pressure approaches zero).

For a calorically perfect gas, the terminal velocity corresponds to:

p
vterminal D 2CP T

where vterminal is in m/s, CP is in J/kgK, and T is in K.

p.41

Speed of Sound

Speed of an infinitesimal wave propagating isentropically in

a gas:
s

@P
cD
@ s
In the case of a calorically perfect and thermally perfect gas,
the sound speed becomes:
p
c D RT
p.42

Compressible Flow Tables and Charts

http://www.bernardparent.com/

 Contains most used equations as well as tables and

charts for solving problems
 The same document will be distributed during the midterm and final exams

p.43

Stagnation Pressure Definition

The stagnation pressure can either refer to the static pressure
at a stagnation point in a fluid flow or can refer to the pressure that would be obtained if the flow would be reversibly
decelerated to stagnation conditions.
The stagnation pressure can be obtained by integrating along
an adiabatic and isentropic path the momentum equation
from the point under consideration to a state of vanishing
velocity.

p.44

Stagnation Pressure Expressions

Stagnation pressure for incompressible flow (Bernoulli
Equation):
v 2
P D P C
2
Stagnation pressure for compressible flow:
 1

1 2
M
P D P 1 C
2
where M D v=c is the Mach number and v is the flow speed
(magnitude of velocity). The gas is assumed calorically perfect and thermally perfect throughout the path to stagnation.
p.45

Daniel Bernoulli (17001782)

 Swiss mathematician
 Best known for his application of
mathematics to mechanics and his
pioneering work in probability
and statistics
 Earliest writer who attempted to
formulate a kinetic theory of
gases, and he applied the idea to
explain Boyles law.

p.46

Difference Between Compressible and Incompressible

Stagnation Pressure
The incompressible stagnation pressure can also be written
as:
Pincomp D 1 C 12 M 2
Using Taylor series, it can be shown that the compressible
stagnation pressure is equal to:
Pcomp D 1 C 12 M 2 C 18 M 4 C :::
At Mach 0.5, 0.8, and 1.0, the difference is around 1%, 7%,
and 18%.

p.47

P38 Lighting

Maximum Mach number: Mach 0.6.

Famous for loss of control when the
flight Mach number approached 0.8 in
dives.

p.48

Ernst Mach (18381916)

 Austrian physicist and
philosopher born in Chirlitz in the
Austrian empire, now Brno,
Czech Republic
 Machs main contribution to
physics was his description of
shock waves
 Using a so-called
"schlierenmthod" he and his son
Ludwig were able to photograph
the shadows of the invisible shock
waves
 The Mach number is named after
him
p.49

Stagnation Density and Temperature

The stagnation temperature and density of a compressible
gas:
1 2
T
D1C
M
T
2
 11


1 2
D 1C
M

2
with  and T the stagnation density and temperature and
with M the Mach number and the ratio of the specific
heats.

p.50

Impact of Cross-Sectional Area on Flow Properties

dv
1 dA
D 2
v
M
1 A

M 2 d A
dP
D
P
1 M2 A

M2 dA
d
D

1 M2 A

. 1/M 2 d A
dT
D
T
1 M2 A

dM
2 C . 1/M 2 d A
D
M
2.M 2 1/ A
where is the ratio of the specific heats, M the Mach number, A the flow cross sectional area, and v, P , T ,  the
velocity, pressure, temperature, and density.
p.51

Nozzle and Diffuser

Nozzle: Expands and accelerates the gas
Diffuser: Compresses and decelerates the gas

The definitions of nozzle and diffuser do not entail specific shape characteristics. For instance, a diverging area
duct is a nozzle for supersonic flow but a diffuser for subsonic flow. Likewise, a converging area duct is a diffuser for
supersonic flow but a nozzle for subsonic flow.

p.52

de Laval Nozzle
 A de Laval nozzle (or
convergent-divergent
nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di
nozzle) is a tube that is
pinched in the middle,
making an hourglass-shape.
 It is used as a means of
accelerating the flow of a
gas passing through it to a
supersonic speed.
 It is widely used in some
types of steam turbine and is
an essential part of the modern rocket engine and supersonic jet engines.
p.53

Gustaf de Laval (18451913)

 Swedish engineer and inventor born in
Orsa, Sweden
 Enrolled at the Institute of Technology
in Stockholm in 1863, receiving a
degree in mechanical engineering in
1866
 Completed a doctorate in chemistry in
1872 at Uppsala University (Sweden)
 In 1890 developed a nozzle to increase
the steam jet to supersonic speed
 Now known as a de Laval nozzle, the
nozzle is used in modern rocket engines.
p.54

Critical Mach Number

The critical Mach number is defined as the ratio between the flow speed and the critical sound speed. The
critical sound speed is the sound speed that would occur should the flow be accelerated or decelerated to
Mach 1. This yields a critical Mach number of:
v
M p
RT ?
?

which can be shown to be equal to:

q
M 1C
2
?
M Dq
1 C 21M 2

p.55

Critical Area

The critical area A? is the cross-sectional area of the

flow should the latter be accelerated or slowed down
isentropically to Mach 1. The ratio between the area
and the critical area can be shown to be equal to:
A
1
D
?
A
M



2
C1



1C

1
2

M2

1C
 2.
1/

p.56

Critical Pressure, Temperature, Density

The critical pressure, temperature, and density correspond to the pressure, temperature, and density of the
flow should the latter be accelerated or slowed down
isentropically to Mach 1. They can be expressed as a
function of the stagnation properties as follows:
?



P
1
D 1C
P
2
?


1
D 1C

2



T
1
D 1C
T
2

1
1

p.57

Example of a Diffuser
 The cross sectional area of
the engine increases before
the first blades
 At subsonic speed, a
diverging area duct is a
diffuser since it compresses
the flow
 The flow is hence
compressed before
encountering the first
turbine blades
 The diffuser helps in obtaining a high compressor efficiency
p.58

Effect of Back Pressure

 Subsonic Nozzle. The exit pressure must be equal or

higher than the back pressure. If the nozzle is choked,
then the exit Mach number is 1 and the exit pressure is
greater than the back pressure. If the nozzle is not
choked, then the exit Mach number is less than 1 and
the exit pressure is equal to the back pressure.
 Supersonic Nozzle. If the exit pressure is greater than
the back pressure, the flow will remain supersonic in the
nozzle. If the exit pressure is less than the back pressure,
then the flow may become subsonic at the nozzle exit.

p.59

Choked Flow
Choked flow is a limiting condition which occurs when the
mass flux will not increase with a further decrease in the
downstream pressure environment.
Take for example a stagnant gas in a container with a higher
pressure than the environment. As the gas is released to the
environment, it goes through an expansion process through
a converging area duct. At the throat, the flow is said to be
choked if a further decrease in environment pressure will not
result in a higher mass flow rate. For an inviscid compressible fluid, choking occurs when the Mach number reaches 1.
For a viscous compressible fluid, choking occurs for a Mach
number slightly less than 1. For a liquid, choking may be
caused by sudden cavitation.
p.60

Mach Waves

 Mach waves are formed around supersonic object

1
 The flow Mach number can be found as M D
with
sin
the angle with respect to the flow streamline
p.61

Nozzle Efficiency

The efficiency of a real nozzle is defined as the ratio

between the actual kinetic energy at the nozzle exit and
the one that would be obtained should the flow expand
isentropically through the nozzle:
nozzle

ve2
 2
vi

where ve is the actual flow velocity at the nozzle exit,

and vi is the velocity that would be obtained through
isentropic expansion from the same stagnation pressure
and temperature to the same nozzle exit pressure.
p.62

Converging-Diverging Nozzle in SSME (Space Shuttle

Main Engine)

p.63

C-D Nozzle in SSME Discussion

The C-D nozzles intended for space propulsion have a diverging section with a length typically more than 10 times
the one of the converging section, hence resulting in a substantial weight gain. How much additional thrust is given by
a C-D nozzle compared to a standalone converging nozzle?
Is the extra weight always justified?

p.64

Force Exerted on Duct by Flow

The force exerted on a duct in the opposite direction of

the fluid flow path (i.e., the thrust) by a moving compressible fluid at steady-state corresponds to the change
of momentum of the flow:
Z 2




2
2
P d A D v A C PA 2
v A C PA 1
F D
1

with
P the pressure
A the cross sectional area
 the density
v the velocity of the flow

p.65

Ramjet

 Engine needs no moving parts Flow is compressed entirely

through a converging-diverging diffuser
 Can operate until Mach 5, but most efficient around Mach 3
 Generally used for missiles
 Invented and patented by Ren Lorin in 1913
p.66

Leduc 0.10 Ramjet Aircraft

 First successful ramjet powered flight vehicle, built by

Breguet Aircraft
 First flight: 21 October 1947
 Maximum flight Mach number: 0.85
 Could not take-off unassisted
p.67

Project Pluto

 Mach 3 nuclear-powered ramjet developed by the

Lawrence Radiation Laboratory in 1961
 Combustor consists of an unshielded nuclear reactor
heating the incoming air
 Was intended to be a long-range bomber to strike the
Soviet Union with nuclear weapons
 Was never massively produced replaced by ICBMs

p.68

Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations with

Diffusion Terms for 1D Constant-Area Flow
Mass Conservation:
d
v D 0
dx
Momentum
Conservation:


dv
d
2
v C P 
D0
dx
dx
Energy Conservation:




2
d
v
d
dT
dv
v
hC
K
C v
D0
dx
2
dx
dx
dx
where:
 is the viscosity
K is the thermal conductivity
p.69

First Law of Thermo for a 1D Constant-Area Duct

dh
dx

1dP
dQ
D
 dx
dx

with


 2
1 d
dT
 dv
dQ

K
C
dx
v d x
dx
v d x
The First Law of Thermo is not a law in gasdynamics, rather it is simply a working relation which can
be derived from more basic principles. We have shown
that the first law of thermo can be obtained from one
(and only one) law of physics, namely Newtons law
FE D d mE
v =d t .
p.70

Second Law of Thermo for a 1D Constant-Area Duct

s2 s1 D
or
s2

K
vT 2

dT
dx

2

dxC


vT

dv
dx

2

dx

s1  0 along the flow path

The entropy s is defined as

1
ds  dQ
T
Similarly to the first law, the second law of thermo
is a working relation and not a law in gasdynamics. The
second law of thermo has been here derived using
only Newtons law FE D d mE
v =d t .
p.71

Lazare Carnot (17531823)

 French politician, engineer, and
mathematician
 In 1784 he published his first work
Essai sur les machines en gnral
which contained the earliest proof of
irreversible processes (entropy)
 Participated to the creation of Ecole
Polytechnique in 1794.
 In 1800 he was appointed Minister of
War by Napoleon
 His son, Sadi Carnot, is the engineer
who invented the Carnot Heat Engine
and the Carnot Cycle
 Was exiled as a regicide in 1814 during
the reign of Louis XVIII

p.72

Shock Wave or Shock

 Like an ordinary sound wave, a
shock wave propagates through
a gas and carries energy
 Shocks are characterized by an
abrupt change in the gas
properties
 Across a shock, there is always
a relatively rapid change in
pressure, temperature, velocity
 A shock travels through a gas at
a higher speed than a sound
wave
 The thickness of the shock must
be small enough that viscous effects become important

p.73

Rankine-Hugoniot Shock Relations For a Calorically

and Thermally Perfect Gas
Py
D
Px



2
1
C
C 1 . C 1/Mx2

 

2
Mx2
C1

1
C1



1=. 1/

Py
1
2
2
Mx
D
Px
C1
C1



2
1
Ty
1
2
2
Mx
C
D
Tx
C1
C1
C 1 . C 1/Mx2
1=2
 

2
2
2
Mx2 1
=
My D Mx C
1
1
where the subscript y refers to the properties after the
shock and x refers to the properties before the shock.
My and Mx are measured in the shock reference frame.
p.74

William John Macquorn Rankine (18201872)

 Scottish engineer, born in Edinburgh in
1820
 A founding contributor, with Clausius
and Kelvin, to the science of
thermodynamics
 One of the first engineers to recognise
that fatigue failures of railway axles
was caused by the initiation and growth
of brittle cracks
 Professor of civil engineering and
mechanics at the University of
Glasgow from 1855 until his death (as
a bachelor) in 1872
 Best remembered for the Rankine cycle
and the Rankine-Hugoniot Eqs.

p.75

Pierre-Henri Hugoniot (1851-1887)

 French engineer, born in 1851 in
Allenjoie, France
 Graduated from Ecole Polytechnique in
1872
 Professor of mechanics and ballistics at
the Lorient Artillery school in 1879
 Appointed as auxiliary assistant in
mechanics at Ecole Polytechnique in
1884
 Published in the proceedings of the
Ecole Polytechnique in Volume 57
(1887) and Volume 58 (1889) the shock
relations that now bear his name
p.76

Pitot tube
The basic pitot tube consists of a tube
pointing directly into the fluid flow. The
moving fluid is brought to rest as there is
no outlet to allow flow to continue. The
pressure obtained within the pitot tube is
the so-called pitot pressure. The velocity of the flow can be estimated by comparing the difference between the pitot
pressure and the static pressure. Invented
by Henri Pitot in the early 1700s and
modified to its modern form in the mid
1800s by Henry Darcy, the Pitot tube is
now widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft and to measure air
and gas velocities in industrial applications.

p.77

Pitot Probe on the Cessna 172 N/P

p.78

Pitot Probe and Static Probe Locations

on the Airbus A330

p.79

Pitot Probes on the Airbus A330

p.80

Pitot Tube on the Nose of the F16 Falcon

p.81

Pitot Tube on the Mirage F1

p.82

Pitot Tube on the F/A-18 Hornet Closeup

p.83

Henri Pitot (16951771)

 French hydraulic engineer, born in
Aramon in 1695
 Supervising engineer of the
construction of Aqueduc de Saint
Clment near Montpellier
 Discovered that much contemporary
theory was erroneous for example,
the idea that the velocity of flowing
water increased with depth
 Inventor of the Pitot tube, originally
intended to measure the speed of the
water in La Seine river.
 In 1724 he became a member of the
French Academy of Sciences, and in
1740 a fellow of the Royal Society.

p.84

Wind Tunnels
A wind tunnel is a research tool developed to assist with studying
the effects of air moving over or around solid objects. The windspeed and flow properties can be measured using threads, dye or
smoke, pitot tube probes, or particle image velocimetry. Different
wind tunnel configurations are used for different flow regimes:
 Subsonic wind tunnels: used for operations at rather low
speeds, with a Mach number in the test section generally not
exceeding 0.5
 Transonic wind tunnels: used to simulate a test section Mach
number between 0.5 and 1.0
 Supersonic wind tunnels: produces a flow Mach number in
the test section in the range 1:2 < M < 4.
 Hypersonic wind tunnels: produces a test section flow Mach
number in excess of 4
p.85

Open Subsonic Wind Tunnel

The air is moved with a large axial fan that creates a pressure difference and essentially sucks the air in the tunnel from the environment. The working principle is based on the continuity and
Bernoullis equation (flow is incompressible throughout).
p.86

Closed Subsonic Wind Tunnel

In a closed wind tunnel, a large actuator fan creates a pressure

difference which entrains air in the test section from the return
duct. The return duct must be properly designed to reduce the
pressure losses and to ensure smooth flow in the test section.
p.87

Transonic Wind Tunnel

High subsonic wind tunnels (0:4 < M < 0:75) or transonic wind
tunnels (0:75 < M < 1:2) are designed on the same principles
as the subsonic wind tunnels. Transonic wind tunnels are able to
achieve speeds close to the speeds of sound. The Mach number is
approximately one with combined subsonic and supersonic flow
regions. Testing at transonic speeds presents additional problems, mainly due to the reflection of the shock waves from the
walls of the test section. Therefore, perforated or slotted walls are
required to reduce shock reflection from the walls. Since important viscous or inviscid interactions occur (such as shock waves or
boundary layer interaction) both Mach and Reynolds number are
important and must be properly simulated.

p.88

NASA Ames 80  120 Transonic Tunnel

p.89

Fans of NASA Ames 80  120 Transonic Tunnel

p.90

Test Section of NASA Ames 80  120 Transonic

Tunnel

p.91

Supersonic Wind Tunnels

A supersonic wind tunnel is a wind tunnel that produces supersonic speeds (1:2 < M < 4) generally through the use of a
converging-diverging nozzle. The test section Mach number
is determined by the nozzle geometry while the Reynolds
number is varied by changing the stagnation pressure and
temperature of the flow in the settling chamber. To simulate
high Mach number flows typical of high speed flight, a high
pressure ratio is required between the settling chamber and the
test section (at M D 4 this ratio is about 200).
Supersonic wind tunnels can be regrouped in four categories:





Suck-down
Blow-down
Suck-down-Blow-down
Shock tunnel
p.92

Nozzle and Test Section of a Supersonic Wind Tunnel

In a supersonic wind tunnel, the flow can be accelerated from subsonic to supersonic speeds using a converging-diverging nozzle
(also known as a De Laval nozzle). One of the challenges in
designing a supersonic wind tunnel is to prevent a normal shock
from forming in the test section while the measurement is being
taken.

p.93

Suck-down Supersonic Wind Tunnel

Suck-down supersonic wind tunnels
are characterized by very large vacuum tanks sucking the air directly
from the atmosphere (typically at a
pressure of 101300 Pa and temperature
of about 300 K). While the flow can be
accelerated to Mach numbers greater
than 10 through a De Laval nozzle,
the stagnation pressure and stagnation
temperature are too low to simulate
properly flight conditions at M > 1:5.

p.94

Blow-down Supersonic Wind Tunnel

A blow-down supersonic wind tunnel consists of a high-pressure

tank in which compressed gas expands to ambient pressure
through a De Laval nozzle and reaches supersonic speeds in the
process. Similarly to the suck-down supersonic wind tunnel,
achieving realistic flow conditions at more than Mach 2 is difficult
due to the air in the tank having too low stagnation temperature.
p.95

Blow-down-Suck-down Supersonic Wind Tunnel

Due to the very large pressure difference between the highpressure tanks and the vaccuum tanks, a blow-down-suck-down
wind tunnel can achieve very high Mach numbers (M > 10) in
the test section. The air is heated through a pebble bed heater to
obtain in the test section the high Reynolds number characteristic
of hypersonic flight.
p.96

Pebble-Bed Heater

Before entering the De Laval nozzle, the expanded air can be

heated through a pebble bed to increase its stagnation temperature. It is then possible to reproduce the high Mach number and
Reynolds number experienced in flight conditions up to Mach 6.

p.97

Shock Tunnel

A shock tunnel is typically used to produce high Reynolds number

and high Mach number flows characteristic of hypersonic flight or
atmospheric reentry. The duration of the testing is limited, though,
to a few milliseconds.

p.98

HIEST Free Piston Shock Tunnel

(Kakuda Research Center, Japan)

p.99

HIEST Free Piston Shock Tunnel Schematics

The high enthalpy shock tunnel HIEST is the largest free-piston

shock tunnel in the world. The length and mass of the tunnel are
approximately 80 m and 300 ton, while the nozzle exit diameter is
of 120 cm, and the scale model length is of 50 cm.
Test section properties: u D 4 7 km/s, T D 10000 K, P D
150 MPa, Test time D 2:0 ms.

p.100

Gerald Bull (19281990)

 Canadian aerospace engineer, born in
North Bay, Canada
 Obtained Ph.D. from the University of
Toronto Institute of Aerospace Studies
in 1952
 His PhD topic was on continuous
supersonic wind tunnels
 Professor of Mechanical Engineering at
McGill University in the 1960s
 Inventor of the Supergun (project
Babylon)
 Assassinated in 1990 at the entrance of
his Brussels hotel possibly by the National Intelligence Agency of Israel
p.101

Supergun Project Babylon

 Project Babylon was intended to launch a projectile loaded

with explosives into orbit as a means to blind enemy spy
satellites. Financial support by Saddam Hussein.
p.102

1D Flow with Friction Governing Equations

Conservation of Mass:
d
v D 0
dx
Conservation of Momentum:

4f 1 2
d
2
v C P C
v D 0
dx
DH 2
Conservation of Energy:
d
.vH / D 0
dx

with:
1 2
f  w 2 v

DH  4A =

  wetted perimeter
A  cross sectional area
w  wall shear stress
p.103

Fanning Friction Factor vs Darcy Friction Factor

In this course, f will always refer to the fanning

friction factor, ffanning . In the litterature, sometimes the
Darcy friction factor is used. The Darcy friction factor
corresponds to four times the fanning factor:
fDarcy D 4ffanning
For instance, for fully-developed laminar flow,
fDarcy D 64=Re
and
ffanning D 16=Re
p.104

Friction factor versus the Reynolds Number

p.105

Henry Darcy (18031858)

 French Engineer born in Dijon in 1803

 Attended cole Polytechnique and

cole des Ponts et Chausses in 1821
 Married Englishwoman Hanriette
Carey in 1828
 During the 1840s, was engineer in
charge of building pressurized water
distribution system in Dijon
 Developed Darcy-Weisbach equation
and Darcy friction factor
 Improved the design of the Pitot tube c.
1850
 The unit of fluid permeability, darcy, is
named in his honour

p.106

1D Flow with Friction Working Relations

1
2

M 4f
M 1 C
dM
dx
D
2
M
2 .1 M /
DH


2
2
dM
1 . 1/M
dP
D
P
M2
2 C . 1/M 2
2

dM
dv
D
2
v
M2
dT
dM
D
T
M2




1C

1
2

M2
2

. 1/M
2 C . 1/M 2


2
2
d P
dM
M
1
D
P
M 2 2 C . 1/M 2

p.107

1D Flow with Friction Critical Properties (Fanno-line

Relations)
)
( 




1
4f L?
2
C1
1 2
1 M2
2
C
ln M
1C
M
D
2
DH
M
2
C1
2
1
P
D
?
P
M
2



T
a
D ?2 D
?
T
a
?

2
C1



v
1
D
D
?

v
M



1C

2
C1





2
C1

1
2

1C



M2

1C

1
2



M2
1

1=2



M2

1=2
p.108

1D Flow with Friction Critical Stagnation Properties

(Fanno-line Relations)
1
P
D
?
P
M



2
C1



1C

1
2

M2

. C1/=2.

1/

T
D1
?
T

P
D ?
?

P

p.109

Gino Girolamo Fanno (18881960)

 Italian Engineer
 Obtained Bachelors degree in
Mechanical Engineering in Venice,
Italy
 Moved to Zurich, Switzerland in 1900
to attend graduate school for his
Masters degree
 Developed the Fanno-line flow model
as part of his Masters thesis (1904)
 Returned to Italy for a job in the
industry
 Later obtained a Ph.D. from Regio Istituto Superiore dIngegneria di Genova
p.110

1D Flow with Heat Transfer Governing Equations

Conservation of Mass:
d
v D 0
dx
Conservation of Momentum:


d
2
v C P D 0
dx
Conservation of Energy:
d
d
.vH / D
.vCP T / D qin 
dx
dx

with:
qin  average heat
flux in W/m2
 
duct perimeter at a
given x-station through which
heat flux takes place
p.111

1D Flow with Heat Transfer Critical Properties

(Rayleigh-line Relations)
C1
P
D
?
P
M 2 C 1
2

T
a2
M 2 . C 1/
D ?2 D
2
?
T
a
. M 2 C 1/


v?
M 2 C 1
D
D 2
?

v
M . C 1/


2 1
2 C . 1/M
C1
P
D
?
P
M 2 C 1
C1
. C 1/ M 2 .2 C . 1/M 2 /
T
D
2
?
2
T
. M C 1/
p.112

John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (18421919)

 English physicist, awarded the Nobel prize
of physics in 1904 for discovering argon
 Obtained BA and MA degrees in
Mathematics from Cambridge (18611868)
 Became the second Cavendish Professor of
Physics from 1879 to 1884 at the University
of Cambridge, following James Clerk
Maxwell
 Was first to describe dynamic soaring by
seabirds in 1883 in the British journal
Nature
 Rayleigh-line flow and the Rayleigh
number associated with buoyancy driven
flow are named in his honour
p.113

2D Subsonic Flow Around Airfoil

Smoke-jets visualization. Since the flow is subsonic, pressure

waves can travel upstream. Well upstream of the airfoil, the flow
is aware of it approaching and adapts in consequence.

p.114

2D Supersonic Flow Around Blunt Bullet

Schlieren photograph.
Flow becomes subsonic
through
quasi-normal
shockwave and then adjusts to the shape of the
object.

p.115

Detached Shock Ahead of Blunt Body

Schlieren photograph reveals a detached normal shockwave ahead

of the body. Attached to the normal shock are two oblique
shockwaves.
p.116

2D Supersonic Flow Around Wedge

Schlieren photograph. Experiments reveal two oblique shockwaves attached to the leading edge of the wedge, with no normal
shockwave upstream of the body.
p.117

2D Oblique Shockwaves Governing Equations

Conservation of Mass:
.vN /2 D .vN /1
Conservation of N-Momentum:




2
2
vN C P 2 D vN C P 1
Conservation of T-Momentum:
.vT /2 D .vT /1

Conservation of Energy:




1 2
1 2
h C vN D h C vN
2
2
2
1

with:
vT the velocity component
transverse to the shockwave
vN the velocity component
normal to the shockwave
Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to
the properties before and after
the shockwave, respectively
p.118

2D Oblique Shockwaves Working Relation

Starting from the governing equations, we can show that the
working relation linking the shock incoming Mach number
with the deflection angle corresponds to:
. C 1/M12 sin2 
tan./
D
tan. /
2 C . 1/M12 sin2 
where
is the flow turning angle
M1 is the incoming flow Mach number
 is angle of the shockwave with respect to the incoming
flow

p.119

Oblique Shock Tables

p.120

Concorde Inlet

p.121

F14

p.122

F14 Inlet

p.123

F14 Inlet Hydraulics

p.124

F14 Inlet Schematic

F14 inlet configuration in supersonic flight. The role

of the inlet is to slow the flow down to subsonic speeds
before it reaches the turbine. Effectively, the Mach number
at the turbine entrance is maintained to Mach 0.50.7 in
supersonic flight.

p.125

Shock Polar Relationship

v
!
u
2 u 1
u
u
1
2
2
u M?

2
u
1
?
?
?
c
c M1
u
M1?
v2
u
D

u
2
u2 1
1
c?
t
C

2
?
?
c M1
C1
M1?

where u2 and v2 are the velocity components after the oblique

shock and M1? is the reduced Mach number ahead of the oblique
shock. M1? can be expressed as:
M1? D

. C 1/M12
2 C . 1/M12

p.126

Shock Polar Diagram

p.127

Shock Reflection

p.128

Ludwig Prandtl (18751953)

 German aeronautical engineer born near
Munich in 1875
 His father a professor of engineering
encouraged him to observe nature and
analyze his observations
 Obtained his PhD in Solid Mechanics from
the Technische Hochschule Munich
 His first job was as an engineer designing
factory equipment
 In 1901, became a professor of fluid
mechanics at the Technical Univesity
Hannover.
 In 1904, he joined the University of Gottingen
p.129

Ludwig Prandtl (18751953)

 Wrote a groundbraking paper on the
boundary layer in 1904 entitled Fluid Flow
in Very Little Friction in which the
boundary layer is described along with its
impact on body drag and flow streamlines
 Developed with his student Theodor Meyer
the first theories of supersonic shock waves
and flow in 1908
 Worked closely with Hermann Gorings
Reichs Air Ministry during World War II
 Investigated the problem of compressibility at high subsonic speeds (Prandtl-Glauert
correction), which was used near the end
of World War II when German aircraft approached sonic speeds
p.130

Ludwig Prandtl in 1904

p.131

Lift and Drag Coefficients

FL
CL D 1
2

q
1
1 Aplanform
2
FD
CD D 1
2

q
1
1 Aplanform
2
where
FL is the lift force
FD is the drag force
q1 is the freestream air speed
1 is the freestream air density
Aplanform is the planform area
p.132

Overexpanded Nozzle Flow

p.133

Overexpanded Nozzle Flow Higher Back Pressure

p.134

Overexpanded Nozzle Flow While Testing the Space

Shuttle Main Engine
While the flow is uniform
at the nozzle exit, the exit
pressure of the nozzle is
less than the back pressure. This is referred to as
an "overexpanded" nozzle
flow, and is accompanied
by an interaction between
the exit flow and the environment in form of oblique
shocks and expansion fans.

p.135

SR71 Blackbird at Take-off

Despite the flow being uniform at the nozzle exit, some "diamonds" appear downstream due to overexpansion.
p.136

Schematic of Overexpanded Nozzle Flow

p.137

Rotational Vortex Flow

In a rotational vortex, the viscous effects are significant

enough to have created substantial vorticity which itself induces rotational flow. The vorticity ! is defined as:
@u @v
!D
@y @x

p.138

Irrotational Vortex Flow

In an irrotational vortex, the viscous effects are insignificant

and the vorticity is negligible:
@u @v
!0
@y @x
p.139

Potential Equation for Irrotational Compressible Flow

For an irrotational, isentropic, compressible fluid, it can be
shown that the potential equation becomes:



2
2
y
x
x y
1
xx C 1
yy 2 2 xy D 0
2
2
c
c
c
where  is a potential function defined such that:
@
Du
x D
@x
@
y D
Dv
@y

p.140

Linearized Potential Equation for Irrotational

Compressible Flow
Lets decompose the velocity into a freestream component
and a perturbation component:
u D u1 C u0

and

v D v0

Then, assuming that u0 and v 0 are much smaller than u1 , the

potential equation becomes linear:


2
1 M1 xx C yy D 0

where  is a potential function defined such that:

@
D u0
x D
@x
@
y D
D v0
@y

p.141

Linearized Potential Equation for Irrotational

Compressible Supersonic Flow
In the case of supersonic flow the linearized potential equation


2
1 M1 xx C yy D 0

is of hyperbolic type since the coefficients preceding the xx

and yy terms have alternating signs.

Since the equation is hyperbolic, the solution for  corresponds to a sum of f and g waves:
p
p




.x; y/ D f x C y M12 1 C g x y M12 1

p.142

Pressure Coefficient for Linearized Irrotational

Supersonic Flow
Not to be confused with the specific heat at constant
pressure, the pressure coefficient CP is defined as:
P

P1
CP  1
2

q
1
1
2
with q1 the freestream flow speed. In the case of supersonic
flow, the linearized potential equation yields the following
expression for CP :
CP D p

CP D

2defl
M

2
1

for the g waves

2defl
M12

for the f waves

p.143

Swept Wings
A swept-wing is a wing planform common on jet aircraft capable of near-sonic or supersonic speeds. The wings are swept back
instead of being set at right angles to the fuselage which was common on propeller driven aircraft and early jets. This is a useful
drag-reducing measure for aircraft flying just below the speed of
sound, though straight wings are still favored for slower cruise and
landing speeds and aircraft with long range or endurance. Sweptwings also provide a degree of inherent stability and it was for
this reason that the concept was first employed in the designs of
J.W.Dunne in the first decade of the 20th century, e.g. the Dunne
D.1. Swept wings as a means of reducing aerodynamic drag were
first used on bombers and jet fighter aircraft. Today, they have
since become almost universal on all but the slowest jets, and most
faster airliners and business jets.
p.144

Swept Wings on Boeing B47 Stratojet (1947)

The Boeing B-47 Stratojet jet bomber was a medium-range and

medium-size bomber capable of flying at high subsonic speeds
and primarily designed for penetrating the airspace of the Soviet
Union. A major innovation in post-World War II combat jet design, it helped lead to the development of modern jet airliners.

p.145

Boeing B47 Stratojet Taking Off (1947)

Many people consider the B-47 as the most influential jet aircraft
of all time. All of Boeings jetliners adopted the same swept-wing
configuration and most of them also fitted their engines on the
wings just like the B-47. Other transonic airplane manufacturers
also adopted this configuration. The better performance of swept
wings at high speeds is due to their abeyance of the area rule.

p.146

What is the Area Rule?

At high-subsonic flight speeds, local supersonic airflow
can develop in areas where the flow accelerates around
the aircraft body and wings. The resulting shock
waves formed at these points of supersonic flow can
form a sudden and strong form of drag, called wave
drag. The area rule states that in order to reduce the
number and strength of these shock waves, an aerodynamic shape should change in cross-sectional area
as smoothly as possible. It was developed at NACA
Langley by Richard Whitcomb and Adolf Busemann.

p.147

Richard T. WHITCOMB (1921)

 American aeronautical engineer born in
Evanston, Illinois, in 1921
 1943 graduate in Mechanical Engineering
from Worcester Polytechnic Institute
 Spent most of his career at the Langley
Laboratory of the NACA and NASA
 Proposed in the 1950s the area rule to
minimize shock drag in transonic flight
 In the 1960s, developed the supercritical
airfoil which effectively extends the
supersonic region over a transonic wing
 In the 1970s, developed the winglets
which reduce wingtip vortices and the induced drag such vortices create
p.148

Adolf BUSEMANN (19011986)

 German aeronautical engineer born in
Lubeck, Germany in 1901
 Received PhD in Aerospace Engineering at
the Technical University Braunschweig in
1924
 In 1924, became aeronautical research
scientist at the Max-Planck Institute under
Ludwig Prandtl
 Busemann originated the concept of swept
winged aircraft, presenting a paper on the
topic at the Volta Conference in Rome in
1935
 Moved to NACA Langley in 1947 and
helped develop the area rule with Whitcomb
p.149

McDonnell Douglas MD11 (Cruise Mach number of

0.85)

The profile of the MD11 nose shows clearly the application

of the area rule.
p.150

NASA Convair 990 (Cruise Mach Number of 0.91)

Antishock bodies can be added to the wings of transonic aircraft to make the aircraft cross-section obey the area rule.
p.151

Anti-Shock Bodies Impact on Transonic Flow Over a

Wing (Using Oilflow Visualization)

To reduce the adverse effects of the shockwave in transonic

flight, anti-shock bodies are added according to the area
rule

p.152

Breaking the Sound Barrier

Vapor cone surrounding

a F18 aircraft.
In certain atmospheric
conditions when the
aircraft approaches the
speed of sound, the
rapid condensation of
water-vapor due to the
sonic shock creates a
visible vapor cone.

p.153

Supersonic Flight
One difficulty associated with supersonic flight is the
rather low lift to drag ratio (L/D ratio) of the wings. At
supersonic speeds, airfoils generate lift in an entirely different manner than at subsonic speeds, and are invariably less
efficient. For this reason, considerable research has been put
into designing planforms for sustained supersonic cruise. At
about Mach 2, a typical wing design will cut its L/D ratio in half (e.g., the Concorde vehicle managed a ratio of
7.14, whereas the subsonic Boeing 747 has an L/D ratio of
17). Because an aircrafts design must provide enough lift to
overcome its own weight, a reduction of its L/D ratio at supersonic speeds requires additional thrust to maintain its airspeed and altitude. Another difficulty associated with supersonic flight is the too-high pressure on a leading edge
of the aircraft designed according to the area rule. This
lead to the adoption of the Haack body shape.
p.154

Haack Body
The shock wave drag can be further decreased in supersonic
flight by imposing a pointed leading edge while minimizing
the area change difference along x. This results in the
Haack body:
 
 23
2
x
x
Acs D .Acs /max 4
L L2
where:
x is the streamwise distance from the leading edge
L is the distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge
Acs is the cross-sectional area of the aircraft
.Acs /max is the maximum cross-sectional area of the aircraft,
located at x=L D 0:5
p.155

Haack Body Figure

Despite appearances, the cross sectional area of most supersonic airplanes follows the Haack body distribution.
p.156

Nose Cone Drag versus Mach Number for Various

Shapes

Comparison of drag characteristics of various nose cone

shapes in the transonic to low-supersonic regions. Rankings
are: superior (1), good (2), fair (3), inferior (4).
p.157

Wolfgang Haack (19021994)

 German engineer and mathematician born
in Gotha, Germany in 1902
 Obtained bachelors degree in Mechanical
Engineering in Hanover
 Obtained Ph.D. in mathematics at the
Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena in 1926
 During World War II worked in the arms
industry for the Projektildesign
 In 1941, published in a classified tech.
report an equation for projectile nose cone
shapes that minimize wave drag
 In 1949, became a professor in the Department of Mathematics and Mechanics at the
Technische Universitat Berlin (Berlin Technical Univ.)

p.158

Convair F106 Delta Dart

The cross section of
the aircraft follows
the Haack body
distribution
Deployed in the
1950s by the USAF
in Alaska, South
Korea, Germany, and
Iceland to intercept
bombers from the
Soviet Union

p.159

CF-105 Avro Arrow Inauguration,

Toronto, Canada, 1958

Mach 2.0 Canadian aircraft deployed in 1958 to intercept soviet

bombers.
p.160

CF-105 Avro Arrow in Flight,

Avro Aircraft Company (Canada), 1958

The aircraft body and delta wing are designed following the
Haack body to minimize wave drag.
p.161

Avro Arrow Choice of Delta Wing over Swept Wing

At the time we laid down the design of the CF-105, there

was a somewhat emotional controversy going on in the
United States on the relative merits of the delta planform versus the straight wing for supersonic aircraft... our choice of
a tailless delta was based mainly on the compromise of attempting to achieve structural and aeroelastic efficiency
with a very thin wing, and yet, at the same time, achieving
the large internal fuel capacity required for the specified
range.
James C. Floyd
Chief Design Engineer of Avro Arrow Aircraft
p.162

Avro Arrow in Royal Canadian Air Force Hangar,

Toronto, 1958

The Arrow had several worlds firsts, such as fly-by-wire technology (hydraulic system to move the various flight controls along
with artificial feel added to the control stick) and computercontrolled stability augmentation system (long, "thin" aircraft
have coupling modes that can lead to departure from stable flight
if not damped out quickly).

p.163

Avro Arrow Cockpit, Canada Aviation Museum,

Ottawa, Canada, 2004

The Arrow program was cancelled in 1959 with instructions given

to the Canadian military to immediately seize and destroy all aircraft and blueprints and to shut down Avro Aircraft Company.
p.164

Avro Arrow Wing, Canada Aviation Museum, Ottawa,

Canada, 2004

All that was left was a blow-torched cockpit and a wing. Well
preserved at the Canadian Aviation Museum.
p.165

Jim Chamberlin (19151981)

 Canadian aerospace engineer born in
Kamloops, British Columbia, 1915
 Took Mechanical Engineering degrees at
the University of Toronto and the Imperial
College in London
 In 1945, joined Avro Aircraft Ltd. and was
chief of technical design for the Arrow
 Joined NASA in 1959 after the collapse of
Avro Aircraft and contributed to the design
of the NASA Gemini space capsule and the
Apollo Lunar Module (LM)
 Recipient of several NASA awards including Exceptional Scientific Achievement, Exceptional Engineering Achievement, and
Gold Medal

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Scramjet: Supersonic Combustion Ramjet

 Ground test of hydrogen-fuelled X43 at Dryden Center

in Dec. 1999
 Successful flight at Mach 10 on November 16, 2004

p.167

X43 Wind Tunnel Test

 Wind tunnel testing of X43 at Mach 7 in NASA Langley

HTT (High Temperature Tunnel)
p.168

The Renewal of Scramjet Research (1988-now)

 U.S.A.: Hystep, Hyper X/X43A (one flight attempt),

Hytech (X43C), Hyset, X51A
 France: PREPHA, ONERA-DLR JAPHAR, DGA
PROMETHEE
 Germany: MTU, DLR/TsAGI
 Australia: Hyshot
 Russia: Kholod test flights (1991-1998), Igla project
 China: Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences
 Japan: NAL
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X51 Project

 X51 scramjet engine firing in NASA Langley HTT. The

X51 is planned to fly by 2009 at Mach 7.
 The X51 differs from the X43 through the use of hydrocarbons (kerosene or a variant) rather than hydrogen
p.170

Typical Scramjet Flowfield

 Need of an isolator and shocktrain when using kerosene

fuel
 Combustion takes place both subsonically and
supersonically
 Long combustor required due to high flow speed inducing slow mixing and combustion
p.171

Antonio Ferri (19121975)

 Italian aeronautical engineer born in 1912
in Norcia, Italy
 Obtained PhD in Electrical Eng. (1934) and
PhD in Aeronautical Eng. (1936) at the
Univ. of Rome
 Became the head of the Supersonic Wind
Tunnel of Guidonia (near Rome) in 1937
 In 1944, moved to NACA Langley and
became Head of Gasdynamics branch
 Authored the book Elements of Supersonic
Aerodynamics in 1949
 Most known for pioneering supersonic combustion, the scramjet, and self-restarting supersonic inlets in the 1950s-60s
p.172

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

The idea behind CFD is to transform the governing equations from the differential form into an approximate discrete form and then solve the discrete form using a computer
p.173

Method of Characteristics (MOC)

The MOC (method of characteristics) consists in reducing
a partial differential equation to a family of ordinary differential equations along which the solution can be integrated
from some initial data given on a suitable hypersurface.
In the case of linear equations, the MOC would collapse
to the linearized theory equations with the f waves and g
waves being the so-called characteristics. But contrarily
to linearized theory, the MOC can be also applied to nonlinear hyperbolic equations and can offer an exact solution
to the unsteady Euler equations or the steady supersonic Euler equations.
The MOC is particularly useful when designing supersonic
nozzles or to offer an exact solution to which a CFD method
can be validated against.
p.174

mile Cou (18571926)

 French psychologist of Breton stock
born in Troyes, France, in 1857
 Obtained degree in pharmacology in
1876
 His book, Self-Mastery Through
Conscious Autosuggestion was
published in England (1920) and in the
United States (1922)
 Cous Fundamental Theory is a U-turn
to what almost everyone thinks ("By
will power we can do anything")
 Rather, Cous Theory is that any idea
exclusively occupying the mind turns
into reality as long as the idea is within
the realms of possibility

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