Ecolocation in bats

Echolocating animals emit calls out to the environment, and listen

to the echoes of those calls that return from various objects in the
environment. They use these echoes to locate, range, and identify
the objects. Echolocation is used for navigation and for foraging
(or hunting) in various environments.
Echolocation works like active sonar, using sounds made by an
animal. Ranging is done by measuring the time delay between the
animal's own sound emission and any echoes that return from the
environment. Unlike some sonar that relies on an extremely
narrow beam to localize a target, animal echolocation relies on
multiple receivers. Echolocating animals have two ears positioned
slightly apart. The echoes returning to the two ears arrive at
different times and at different loudness levels, depending on the
position of the object generating the echoes. The time and
loudness differences are used by the animals to perceive direction.
With echolocation the bat or other animal can see not only where it
is going but can also see how big another animal is, what kind of
animal it is, and other features as well.
Bats generate ultrasound via the larynx and emit the sound
through the nose or, much more commonly, the open mouth.
Microbat calls (helpinfo) range in frequency from 14,000 to well
over 100,000 Hz, mostly beyond the range of the human ear
(typical human hearing range is considered to be from 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz).

A single echolocation note (a note being a single continuous trace

on a sound spectrogram, and a series of notes comprising a call)
can last anywhere from 0.2 to 100 milliseconds in duration,
depending the stage of prey-catching behavior that the bat is
engaged in. For example, the duration of a note usually decreases
when the bat is in the final stages of prey capture this enables
the bat to call more rapidly without overlap of call and echo.

Ultrasonics
Ultrasound is cyclic sound pressure with a frequency greater than
the upper limit of human hearing. Although this limit varies from
person to person, it is approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in
healthy, young adults and thus, 20 kHz serves as a useful lower
limit in describing ultrasound. The production of ultrasound is used
in many different fields, typically to penetrate a medium and
measure the reflection signature or supply focused energy. The
reflection signature can reveal details about the inner structure of
the medium. The most well known application of this technique is
its use in sonography to produce pictures of fetuses in the human
womb. There are a vast number of other applications as well.

CONCEPT OF PEISOELECTRICITY

Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably crystals

and certain ceramics, including bone) to generate an electric
potential[1] in response to applied mechanical stress. This may take
the form of a separation of electric charge across the crystal
lattice. If the material is not short-circuited, the applied charge
Individual bat species echolocate within specific frequency ranges induces a voltage across the material.
that suit their environment and prey types. This has sometimes
been used by researchers to identify bats flying in an area simply Many materials, both natural and man-made, exhibit the
by recording their calls with ultrasonic recorders known as 'bat piezoelectric effect:
detectors'. However echolocation calls are not species specific
and some bats overlap in the type of calls they use so recordings
of echolocation calls cannot be used to identify all bats. In recent Naturally-occurring crystals
years researchers in several countries have developed 'bat call
berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is
libraries' that contain recordings of local bat species that have
structurally identical to quartz
been identified known as 'reference calls' to assist with

cane sugar
identification.
When searching for prey they produce sounds at a low rate (1020/sec). During the search phase the sound emission is coupled to
respiration, which is again coupled to the wingbeat. It is speculated
that this coupling conserves energy. After detecting a potential
prey item, microbats increase the rate of pulses, ending with the
terminal buzz, at rates as high as 200/sec. During approach to a
detected target, the duration of the sounds is gradually decreasing,
as is the energy of the sound.
Echolocation calls can be composed of two different types of
frequency structures: frequency modulated (FM) sweeps, and
constant frequency (CF) tones. A particular call can consist of one,
the other, or both structures. An FM sweep is a broadband signal
that is, it contains a downward sweep through a range of
frequencies. A CF tone is a narrowband signal: the sound stays
constant at one frequency throughout its duration.
Echolocation calls have been measured at intensities anywhere
between 60 and 110 decibels. Certain microbat species can
modify their call intensity mid-call, lowering the intensity as they
approach objects that reflect sound strongly. This prevents the
returning echo from deafening the bat.

quartz

Rochelle salt

topaz

tourmaline-group minerals

Other natural materials

Bone: Dry bone exhibits some piezoelectric properties

due to the apatite crystals, and the piezoelectric effect is
generally thought to act as a biological force sensor.[4][5]
This effect was exploited by research conducted at the
University of Pennsylvania in the late 1970s and early
80s which established that sustained application of
electrical potential could stimulate both resorption and
growth (depending on the polarity) of bone in-vivo. [6]
Further studies in the 90s provided the mathematical
equation to confirm long bone wave propagation as to
that of hexagonal (Class 6) crystals [7]

Man-made crystals

gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz analogic

crystal
Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz analogic crystal

Man-made ceramics
The family of ceramics with perovskite or tungsten-bronze
structures exhibits piezoelectricity:

barium titanate (BaTiO3)Barium titanate was the first

piezoelectric ceramic discovered.
lead titanate (PbTiO3)

lead zirconate titanate (Pb[ZrxTi1x]O3 0<x<1)more

commonly known as PZT, lead zirconate titanate is the
most common piezoelectric ceramic in use today.

potassium niobate (KNbO3)

lithium niobate (LiNbO3)

lithium tantalate (LiTaO3)

sodium tungstate (Na2WO3)

Ba2NaNb5O5

Pb2KNb5O15

Polymers

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): PVDF exhibits

piezoelectricity several times greater than quartz. Unlike
ceramics, where the crystal structure of the material
creates the piezoelectric effect, in polymers the
intertwined long-chain molecules attract and repel each
other when an electric field is applied.

Lead-free piezoceramics
More recently, there is growing concern regarding the toxicity in
lead-containing devices driven by the result of restriction of
hazardous substances directive regulations. To address this
concern, there has been a resurgence in the compositional
development of lead-free piezoelectric materials.

Sodium potassium niobate (KNN). In 2004, Saito el al.[8]

have found for the composition close to MPB, the
materials properties are close to PZT ceramics, and its
Curie temperature is also high. For an grain-orientated
ceramics can be match to those optimum modified PZT
compositions.

Bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) is also a promising candidate for

replacement lead-based ceramics.

How is the ultrasound used in medicine

produced?
The frequencies of ultrasound required for medical imaging are in
the range 1 - 20 MHz. These frequencies can be obtained by using
piezoelectric materials. When an electric field is placed across a
slice of one of these materials, the material contracts or expands.
If the electric field is reversed, the effect on the material is also
reversed. If the electric field keeps reversing, the crystal alternately
contracts and expands. So a rapidly alternating electric field
causes the crystal to vibrate.
The vibration is largest when the electric field stimulates a natural
frequency of the crystal - this is an example of resonance. The
vibrations are then passed through any adjacent materials, or into
the air as a longitudinal wave i.e. a sound wave is produced.
The piezoelectric effect occurs in a number of natural crystals
including quartz, but the most commonly used substance is a
synthetic ceramic, lead zirconate titanate. The crystal is cut into a
slice with a thickness equal to half a wavelength of the desired
ultrasound frequency, as this thickness ensures most of the energy
is emitted at the fundamental frequency.