Aircraft Dynamics Structure & Systems

TRAINING NOTES ON
1. AEROPLANE DYNAMICS
&
STRUCTURE
2. AEROPLANE SYSTEM
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Contents
1 MODULE 11 (AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND
SYSTEMS) .......................................................................................... 1-2
1.1
1.2
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS ..................... 1-2

1.1.1
Fixed Aerofoils .............................................................. 1-2
1.1.2
Moveable Control Surfaces ........................................... 1-6
1.1.3
High Lift Devices ........................................................... 1-13
1.1.4
Drag Inducing Devices .................................................. 1-14
1.1.5
Airflow Control Devices Wing Fences......................... 1-17
1.1.6
Boundary Layer Control ................................................ 1-18
1.1.7
Trim Tabs ...................................................................... 1-21
1.1.8
Mass Balance ............................................................... 1-24
1.1.9
Control Surface Bias ..................................................... 1-26
1.1.10 Aerodynamic Balance Horn Balance .......................... 1-26
1.1.11 Aerodynamic Balance Inset Hinge.............................. 1-27
HIGH SPEED FLIGHT ..................................................................... 1-28
1.2.1
Speed of Sound ............................................................ 1-28
1.2.2
Subsonic Flight ............................................................. 1-29
1.2.3
Transonic Flight ............................................................ 1-30
1.2.4
Supersonic Flight .......................................................... 1-32
1.2.5
Aerodynamic Heating .................................................... 1-39
1.2.6
Area Rule ...................................................................... 1-40
1.2.7
Factors Affecting Airflow in Engine Intakes of High Speed Aircraft
1-41
1.2.8
Effects of Sweepback on Critical Mach Number ............ 1-43
Issue 1 04 Sept 2001
Page 1-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
MODULE 11 (AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES

AND SYSTEMS)
The principles of Aircraft Theory of Flight are covered in JAR 66 Module 8.
1.1 AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS
An aircraft is equipped with fixed and moveable surfaces, or aerofoils, which

provide stability and control. Each item is designed for a specific function during
the operation of the aircraft.
Typical Aircraft Flight Controls

Figure 1
1.1.1 FIXED AEROFOILS
The fixed aerofoils are the wings or mainplanes, the horizontal stabiliser or
tailplane and vertical stabiliser or fin. The function of the wings is to provide
enough lift to support the complete aircraft. The tail section of a conventional
aircraft, including the stabilisers, elevators and rudder, is occasionally known as
the empennage.
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1.1.1.1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Horizontal Stabiliser
The horizontal stabiliser is used to provide longitudinal pitch stability and is

usually attached to the aft portion of the fuselage. It may be mounted either on
top of the vertical stabiliser, at some mid-point, or below it.
Conventional horizontal stabilisers are placed aft of the wing and normally set at
a slightly smaller or negative angle of incidence with respect to the wing chord
line.
This configuration gives a small downward force on the tail with a value
dependent on the size of the stabiliser and its distance from the Centre of Gravity
(CG).
Horizontal Stabiliser
Figure 2
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1.1.1.2
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
T-Tail Arrangement
The T-Tail Arrangement places the complete stabiliser/tailplane and elevator

assembly on top of the vertical stabiliser. This ensures that pitch control is not
affected by turbulent air from the wing. It also makes the vertical stabiliser and
rudder control more effective, due to the so-called end plate effect.
However a T-Tail (and rear engine) configuration, would be dangerous if the
aircraft entered what is termed a deep stall. At a very high angle of attack (i.e.:
stalling angle), airflow could make pitch control non-effective (and may cause the
engines to flame out). To prevent this, T-Tailed aircraft will have a stick push
system, in order to automatically recover them safely from excessive angles of
attack.
The T-Tail has another disadvantage in that the empennage structure will be
heavier than normal, due to the strengthening required to combat greater bending
loads. However since the pitch moment arm is increased, the stabiliser and
elevators can be made smaller and therefore lighter than conventional designs.
Often, the complete stabiliser can be moved to provide longitudinal trim, negating
the use of trim tabs (later in Module 11.09).
TTail Arrangement
Figure 3
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1.1.1.3
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Vertical Stabiliser
The vertical stabiliser for an aircraft is the aerofoils forward of the rudder and is
used to provide directional stability.
A problem encountered on single-engined propeller driven aircraft is that the
propeller causes the airflow to rotate as it travels rearward. This strikes one side
of the vertical stabiliser more than the other, resulting in a yawing moment. These
aircraft may have the leading edge of the stabiliser offset slightly, thereby causing
the airflow to pass around it in such a manner to counter the yaw.
Off-Set Vertical Stabiliser

Figure 4
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
1.1.2 MOVEABLE CONTROL SURFACES
Moveable control surfaces are normally divided into Primary and Secondary
controls.
The primary control surfaces include the elevators, rudder, ailerons and roll
spoilers. The secondary control surfaces consist of trim controls (tabs), high lift
devices (flaps and slats), speed brakes and lift dumpers (additional spoilers).
Note: Traditionally, spoilers have not been included as primary controls, but those
which operate in conjunction with the ailerons during roll, are considered to be
primary in the JAR 66 syllabus, so this is how these notes will define them.
The primary control surfaces are used to make the aircraft follow the correct flight
path and to execute certain manoeuvres.
The secondary controls are used to change the lift and drag characteristics of the
aircraft or to provide assistance to the primary controls.
Moveable Control Surfaces

Figure 5
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1.1.2.1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Roll Control - Ailerons
These primary controls provide lateral (roll) control of the aircraft, that is,
movement about the longitudinal axis. They are normally attached to hinges at
the trailing edge of the wing, near the wing tip. They move in opposite directions,
so that the up-going aileron reduces lift on that side, causing the wing to go down,
whilst the down-going surface increases the lift on the opposite side, raising the
wing.
Large aircraft often use two sets of aileron surfaces on each wing, one in the
conventional position near the wing tip and the other set at mid-span or outboard
of the flaps. The inboard set is referred to as high speed ailerons. The outboard
surfaces, or sometimes both sets, work at low speeds to give maximum control
during take off and landing, for example when large movements may be required.
At high cruising speed the outer ailerons are isolated and only the inboard set
operate. If the outer ailerons were permitted to operate at high speed, the stress
produced at the wing tips may twist the wing and produce aileron reversal. This
is particularly likely with modern highly flexible thin wings, where the possibility of
structural damage may result if the outboard surfaces were too powerful.
The ailerons are operated by a control wheel, a control column or a side-stick.
Movement of any of these inputs away from neutral towards one side, will result
in the aircraft rolling to that side. Returning the control to neutral at this stage will
leave the aircraft in a banked condition and a similar but opposite movement will
be required to bring the aircraft level once more.
Aileron Controls
Figure 6
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
The ailerons are usually operated in conjunction with the rudder and/or elevator
during a turn and are rarely used on their own. A co-ordinated turn is one that
occurs without slip or skid. Too little bank will cause the aircraft to skid outwards,
too much bank will cause the aircraft to slip downwards.
1.1.2.2
Roll Control - Spoilers
The use of spoilers as a primary control, will be to operate asymmetrically in

conjunction with aileron movement and are normally referred to as Roll Spoilers.
Roll spoilers are mounted on the top of the wing just inboard of the outboard set
of ailerons.
Roll Spoiler Controls

Figure 7
Movement of the aileron control wheel on the flight deck will deploy each spoiler
progressively upwards with the up-going aileron, whilst on the side of the downgoing aileron, the spoiler will remain flush with the upper wing camber.
.This is achieved by the control system being routed via a spoiler/aileron mixer
unit. The up-going spoiler will effectively spoil the lift on the down-going wing and
augment the similar effect of the up-going aileron.
Alternatively, on some aircraft the spoilers will replace the ailerons completely to
provide the sole means of roll control.
Note: Other spoiler functions are covered later under Secondary Controls.
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1.1.2.3
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Pitch Control - Elevators
The elevators are the control surfaces which govern the movement of the aircraft
in pitch about its lateral axis. They are normally attached to the hinges on the rear
spar of the horizontal stabiliser.
When the control column of the aircraft is pushed forward, the elevators move
down..
The resultant force of the airflow generated lift', acting upwards, raises
the tail and lowers the nose of the aircraft. The reverse action takes place when
the control is pulled back.
1.1.2.4
Pitch Control Stabilators
A special type of pitch control surface that combines the functions of the elevator
and the horizontal stabiliser is the stabilator, often referred to as a slab or allflying tailplane . The stabilator is a complete all-moving horizontal stabiliser which
can change its angle of attack when the control column is moved and thereby
alter the total amount of lift generated by the tail.
Elevator Controls
Figure 8
Stabilator Controls
Figure 9
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1.1.2.5
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Pitch Control Variable Incidence Stabilisers
Incorporating a conventional elevator control system, the variable incidence

horizontal stabiliser is often used for pitch trim. Normally a powerful electric motor
is used to vary its angle of attack when trim switches on the flight deck are
operated.
Variable Incidence stabiliser

Figure 10
1.1.2.6
Canards
Some earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer, had horizontal surfaces
located ahead of the wings. This configuration, with the forward surface usually
referred to as a canard or foreplane, has been used on occasions, up to the
present day.
Conventional aircraft have the tailplane located at the rear of the fuselage which
provides a small, stabilising down force. This means that the wing has to produce
slightly more lift to balance this down force. As we have seen, in order for a wing
to produce lift it must also generate drag.
With the tailplane located at the front of the aircraft, the stabilising force is
directed upwards. This contributes to the total lift of the aircraft, thereby reducing
drag from the lift producing wing.
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
A fundamental feature of a canard design is that the angle of attack of the

foreplane, (in front of the CG of the aircraft) is set at a greater angle than the
main wing. This feature will ensure that the foreplane reaches the stalling angle
first, resulting in a predictable dropping of the nose and a certain recovery.
Additionally, stall sensing systems (later), can be triggered just before the
foreplane reaches its critical angle of attack, leaving the main wing safely below
the stalling angle and still producing adequate lift.
Canard Design Beech Starship

Figure 11
1.1.2.7
Yaw Control - Rudder
The rudder is a vertical control surface that is hinged at the rear of the fin and is
designed to apply yawing moments. The rudder rotates the aircraft about its
vertical axis and is controlled by rudder pedals that are operated by the pilots
feet. Pushing on one pedal, the right for example, causes the rudder to move to
the right also. This causes the rudder to generate a 'lifting' force sideways to the
left which turns the nose of the aircraft to the right.
Because of the power of some rudder systems, particularly assisted systems,
they may have their range reduced at high speed by means of a speed-sensitive
range limiting system.(later).
The rudder is normally a single structural unit but on large transport aircraft it may
comprise two or more operational segments, moved by different operating
systems to provide a level of redundancy.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Rudder controls
Figure 12
1.1.2.8
Combined-Function Controls Elevons and Ruddervators
An example of combined-function controls is found on delta-wing aircraft, where

control surfaces for pitch and roll must be fitted on the trailing edge of the wing.
Controls with a dual-function (elevators and ailerons) called elevons, provide
both pitch and roll, by moving symmetrically in pitch or asymmetrically in roll via a
mixer unit, when the control column or control wheel are operated on the flight
deck..
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Another example are ruddervators normally used on aircraft fitted with a 'V' or
Butterfly tail. These surfaces serve the purposes of both rudder and elevator.
Ruddervator Controls
Figure 13
1.1.3 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Aerodynamic lift is determined by the shape and size of the main lifting surfaces
of the aircraft. In order to produce the outstanding performance achieved by a
large modern, swept wing, passenger jet such as the Boeing 777, the wing is
designed to give optimum lift to support the aircraft whilst in cruise (typically
Mach 0.87).
This has meant, that to be able to control and land the aircraft weighing around
200-tonne on runways of reasonable length, the landing speed needs to be
slower than the clean stalling speed of the aircraft. In order to achieve this, more
lift is required and this is obtained from so-called high lift devices.
These are divided generally into leading edge devices, namely slots, slats and
Krueger flaps and trailing edge devices including plain, slotted and fowler flaps.
They will increase lift and as a result, reduce the stalling speed. Consequently the
landing speed, (about 1.3 times the stalling speed), will also be reduced, since
drag is also increased with large angles of trailing edge flap deployment.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Flaps and Slats

Figure 14
Additionally, some aircraft incorporate ailerons, both of which are designed to
move downwards together whenever the trailing edge flaps are extended to the
landing position. These will act as additional plain flaps and provide extra drag
(and lift), but will still provide roll control if required.
These surfaces are referred to as Droop Ailerons or Flaperons.
Droop Aileron
Figure 15
1.1.4 DRAG INDUCING DEVICES
There are several situations where the aircraft must slow down fairly quickly. With
slower, high drag, light aircraft, simply closing the throttle allows the high drag of
the airframe and the idling propeller to slow the aircraft down, to gliding speed
prior to landing approach, for example.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
As previously stated, a modern airliner is an extremely smooth, low drag design

which, if only the throttles are retarded, will continue in level flight for many miles
before slowing down. Furthermore, if the nose were lowered more than a degree
or so, the aircraft will begin to accelerate again.
In order to overcome the problems of low drag on large aircraft with high
momentum, the designers have introduced a variety of drag inducing devices.
These include spoilers, lift dumpers, speed brakes and in unusual circumstances,
lowering the landing gear and operating in-flight thrust reversers.
1.1.4.1
Spoilers and Lift Dumpers.
Spoilers and Lift Dumpers are usually hinged panels located about mid-chord
position on the upper surface of the wing. Hydraulically operated, they produce a
large amount of turbulence and drag when deployed, resulting in a reduction of
lift.
Lift Dump Spoilers

Figure 16
Spoilers, have a variety of uses, all of which involve spoiling the lift of the wing.
Some of the following facilities can be combined, so that one set of panels can
have more than one job.
Firstly, they can be the primary roll control of the aircraft as described previously.
Secondly, the spoilers can be used in a symmetrical, part-deployed position,
allowing the aircraft to slow down quickly in the cruise, or descend at a much
steeper rate without accelerating. On some aircraft, the deployment angle of the
spoiler panels can be varied by changing the position of the control lever in the
flight compartment.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Lift dumpers are, as their name describes, are spoiler panels incorporated solely
to dump lift. They are normally deployed after landing, destroying the lift of the
wing and producing high drag, to assist in stopping the aircraft efficiently and
thereby allowing the wheel brakes to be operated more effectively.
1.1.4.2
Speed Brakes
Whilst it is true that the in-flight use of spoilers may be referred to as selecting the
'speed brakes', the term more accurately describes devices which are solely for
the production of drag without any change of trim. The rear fuselage mounted
'clamshell-type doors which open up on the BAe 146 and Fokker 70/100 aircraft
are true speed brakes (or air brakes) and have the following major advantage
over the use of spoilers for producing drag.
When the wing mounted spoilers are deployed, vibration or rumble is often felt in
the passenger cabin, which some people may find disturbing. The aft mounted
speed brakes not only produce high drag at any airspeed, but their selection is
virtually vibration free. Also, lift will be completely unaffected, thus permitting their
deployment on approach and making a go-around much safer. (This will be
covered later in powerplants).
Speed Brake Installation

Figure 17
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
1.1.5 AIRFLOW CONTROL DEVICES WING FENCES
These devices are usually fitted to aircraft with swept wings. Total airflow over a
swept wing, splits into two components, one moving across the wing chord
parallel to the airflow and the other flowing spanwise towards the wing tip.
The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the leading edge of the wing and
extending rearwards. They are designed to control the spanwise flow of the
boundary layer air over the top of the wing. Also they will straighten the airflow
over the ailerons, improving their effectiveness and straighten the air nearer the
wing tip, resulting in less 'spillage' of air from beneath the wing to the top, thereby
producing less drag. (See Winglets later).
Wing Fences
Figure 18
1.1.5.1
Airflow Control Devices Saw Tooth Leading Edges
This form of airflow control is more common on military aircraft than modern
commercial airliners. The saw tooth or notch is simply a small increase in wing
chord on the outer portion of the wing. The step where the change occurs, tends
to form an invisible 'wall' of high velocity air, which flows over the wing and
straightens the spanwise flow. It functions in much the same way as the wing
fence but removes the extra drag and weight penalty.
Leading Edge Notch

Figure 19
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1.1.5.2
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Airflow Control - Winglets
These can be seen on a variety of the later generation airliners and business jets.
The outboard part of the wing are upswept to an extreme dihedral angle. These
winglets work best at higher speeds and, by clever aerodynamic design, will give
better airflow control and reduce the drag produced by the wing. It does this by
using the up-flow from below the wing to produce a forward thrust from the
winglet, rather like a yacht sail. The winglets add weight to the aircraft as well as
increasing parasitic drag, but the large reduction in induced drag at the wingtip,
results in a significant fuel saving.
Winglets
Figure 20
1.1.6 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the aerofoil surface (the
boundary between metal and air). If measured, the air velocity in the layer will
vary from zero directly on the surface, to the relevant velocity of the free stream
at the outer extremity of the boundary layer.
Normally, at the leading edge of the wing the boundary layer will be laminar, (in
smooth thin sheets close to the surface), but as the air moves over the wing
towards the trailing edge, the boundary layer becomes thicker and turbulent. The
region where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition
point. .As airspeed increases, the transition point tends to move forward, so the
designer tries to prevent this thus maintaining laminar flow, over the top of the
wing for as far back as possible. Methods of boundary layer control are as
follows:
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1.1.6.1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Boundary Layer Control - Vortex Generators
One way of stimulating the boundary layer and stopping the airflow becoming
increasingly sluggish towards the trailing edge is the use of vortex generators.
Vortex generators are small plates or wedges projecting up from the surface of an
aerofoil about 25mm.(about 3 times the typical boundary layer thickness), into the
free stream air. Their purpose is to shed small but lively vortices from their tip,
which act as scavengers to direct and mix the high energy free stream air into the
sluggish boundary layer air and invigorate it. This action pushes the transition
point backwards towards the trailing edge .
In this way,the small amount of drag created by the vortices is far more than
compensated by the considerable boundary layer drag which they save. They
also weaken the shock wave at high speed and reduce shock drag also. (later).
Vortex Generators
Figure 21
1.1.6.2
Boundary Layer Control - Stall Wedges
We have seen previously that washout on a wing permits the root of the wing to
stall first, allowing the pilot to retain roll control during the stall. Even with a
degree of washout, the aircraft will drop a wing on occasions due to adverse
boundary layer air causing the outer part of the wing to stall first. This can be
overcome with the use of stall wedges, or stall strips, as they are sometimes
known.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Stall Wedges are small, wedge-shaped strips mounted on the leading edge of the
wings at about one third span. The are designed to disrupt the boundary layer
airflow, at large angles of attack approaching the stall, thus ensuring the airflow
breaks away,(stalls), at the root end of the wing first.
Additionally they produce a similar effect to a wing fence at smaller angles of
attack resulting in a smoother airflow over the ailerons, thus retaining optimum
roll control.
Stall Wedges
Figure 22
1.1.6.3
Boundary Layer Control - Leading edge Devices
Other devices to prevent laminar separation at the low speed end of the range
and thus control boundary layer air are leading edge droop flaps and Kreuger
flaps. They can be a droop snoot or permanent droop type, or can be adjusted
during flight.
Krueger (left) and Drooped (right) Leading Edge Flaps

Figure 23
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
1.1.7 TRIM TABS
During a flight an aircraft will develop a tendency to deviate from a straight and
level hands-off attitude. This may be due to changes in fuel state, speed, load
position or flap/landing gear selection and could be countered by applying a
continuous correcting force to the primary controls. This would be fatiguing for the
crew and difficult to maintain for long periods, so trim tabs are used for this
purpose instead.
Trim tabs move the primary control surface aerodynamically in the opposite
direction to the movement of the tab. To correct an aircraft nose down out of trim
condition, the elevator tab is moved down, resulting in the elevator moving up, the
tail of the aircraft moving down, so that the nose comes up, correcting the fault.
1.1.7.1
Fixed Trim Tabs
A fixed trim tab may be a simple section of sheet metal attached to the trailing
edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the ground by simply bending it up or
down, to a position resulting in zero control forces during cruise. Alternatively, the
tab is connected to the primary control by a ground-adjustable connecting rod.
Finding the correct position for both types is by trial and error.
Fixed Trim Tab

Figure 24
1.1.7.2
Controllable Trim Tabs
A controllable trim tab is adjusted from the flight deck, with its position being
transmitted back to a flight deck indicator showing trim units, left and right of
neutral.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever, switch, etc., with the actuation of the
tab by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic means. Trim facilities are normally
provided on all three axes.
Controllable Trim Tab

Figure 25
Note: Aircraft with hydraulic fully powered controls do not have trim tabs. Since
fully powered controls are termed irreversible, trim tabs if fitted, would be
aerodynamically ineffective. With these systems, trimming is achieved by moving
the primary control surface to a new neutral datum.(later).
1.1.7.3
Servo Tabs
Sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, servo tabs are positioned on the trailing
edge of the primary control surface and connected directly to the flight deck
control inputs. They act as a form of power booster, since pilot effort is only
required to deflect the relatively small area of the servo tab into the air stream.
Movement of the flight deck control input moves the tab up or down and the
aerodynamic force created on the tab, moves the primary control, until the
aerodynamic load on the control surface balances that on the tab. Moving the tab
down will cause the primary control to move up and vice-versa.
Servo Tab
Figure 26
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1.1.7.4
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Balance Tabs
Balance tabs assist the pilot in moving the primary control surface. The flight deck
controls are connected to the primary control surface whereas the balance tab,
hinged to the trailing edge of the primary surface, is connected to the fixed
aerofoil. For example, the elevator balance tab, will be connected by an
adjustable rod to the horizontal stabiliser and is so arranged, that it tends to
maintain the tab at the same relative angle to the stabiliser when the pilot moves
the elevator.
Aerodynamically, therefore, the tab is moving in the opposite direction to the
control surface and assists its movement. Adjusting the length of the connecting
rod will alter the displacement of the effective range of the tab about the mid-point
datum.
Some types of balance tab have more than one point of attachment and it is
possible with these so called geared balance tabs, to alter the range of tab
deflection.
The function of a balance tab can also be combined with that of a trim tab, by
adjusting the length of the balance tab connecting rod from the flight deck. This is
usually achieved by installing a form of linear actuator in the rod and is termed a
trim/balance tab (Geared balance and trim/balance tabs will be covered later in
the notes).
Balance Tab
Figure 27
1.1.7.5
Anti-Balance Tabs
Anti-balance tabs operate in a similar way aerodynamically as balance tabs but

with a reverse effect. The difference is in the way it is connected to the fixed
aerofoil. It is routed so that the tab moves, relative to and in the same direction
as, the primary control surface. The effect is to add a loading to the pilot effort,
making it slightly heavier and thus providing feel, to prevent the possibility of
over-stressing the airframe structure.
Anti-Balance Tab
Figure 28
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1.1.7.6
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Spring Tabs
At high speed, control surfaces operated directly from the flight deck, become
increasingly difficult to deflect from neutral, due to the force of the aerodynamic
loads caused by the airstream around them.
The spring tab is progressive in its operation and provides increasing
aerodynamic assistance in moving the control surface, with an increase in aircraft
forward speed. The flight deck controls are connected to the spring tab in a
similar manner to the servo tab previously described, except the linkage is routed
via a torque rod assembly (or spring box) attached to the primary control surface.
When the aircraft is stationary or flying at low airspeed the airloads are nonexistent or very small. If the flight deck controls are deflected from neutral, the
rigidity of the torque tube (or spring force) causes the primary control to be
deflected together with the spring tab. The tab will remain in the same relative
position with the primary control and consequently provides no additional
aerodynamic assistance.
As the aircraft flies faster, the increased force produced by the airflow, opposes
the movement of the primary control surface from its neutral position. Deflection
of the
flight deck controls in this case causes the torque tube to twist (or the spring to
compress), resulting in a deflection of the spring tab.
The tab deflection provides an added aerodynamic load which assists the flight
deck effort. The faster the aircraft flies, the greater the airflow force and therefore
the greater the spring tab deflection, resulting in a progressively increasing
assistance in moving the primary control.
Spring Tab
Figure 29
1.1.8 MASS BALANCE
All aircraft structures are distorted when loads are applied. If the structure is
elastic, as all good structures are, it will tend to spring back when the load is
removed, or its point of application is changed.
Since a control surface is hinged near its leading edge, the centre of gravity (C of
G) will be behind the hinge and as a consequence, there will be more weight aft
of the hinge line than in front of it .
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In the case of an aileron for example, should the air load distort the wing
upwards, it is likely that the aileron will lag behind and distort downwards. This
effectively produces an extra upward aerodynamic force which pushes the wing
up even further.
Due to its elasticity, the wing will spring back and the aileron will lag again but this
time upwards, aerodynamically forcing the wing down further than it would
normally go due to elastic recoil alone. Now the cycle is repeated and a high
speed oscillation will result. This unwanted phenomenon is referred to as flutter.
Flutter can be prevented if the C of G of the control surface is moved in line with,
or slightly in front of, the hinge line. The normal way of achieving this is to add a
number of high density weights, either within the leading edge of the surface itself
or externally, ahead of the hinge line. The addition of these weights, normally
made from lead or depleted uranium, is closely controlled and calculated to
ensure that the exact balance is obtained.
This procedure of adding weights is referred to as mass balancing of the controls.
External Mass Weights

Figure 30
Integral Mass Weights

Figure 31
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1.1.9 CONTROL SURFACE BIAS
When a control surface is set so it is not in the true neutral position it is referred to
as having a bias. There are many reasons for not having the controls in a true
central position, including compensating for design features. As an example, a
single propeller aircraft may have a tendency to roll in the opposite direction to
the engines torque, to counteract this moment the ailerons could be offset with
one slightly up and the other down. Once the aircraft is flying level with the bias
set the trim gauge in the cabin would then be set to read zero.
1.1.10 AERODYNAMIC BALANCE HORN BALANCE
In order to overcome the high stick forces on larger aircraft at higher speeds, the
surfaces themselves are used to lighten the forces.
This is referred to as Aerodynamic Balancing and the three principal ways of
achieving it are: horn balance, inset hinge and pressure balancing.
This method, a small part of the primary control surface ahead of the hinge will
project into the airflow when the control is deflected from neutral. The airflow on
this side assists the movement of the control in the desired direction and will
attempt to move the control further away from the neutral position.
Air loads on the control side, aft of the hinge, try to push the surface back towards
neutral. (This is the force that would normally make the controls heavy).
If the proportion of balance area forward of the hinge and control area aft of the
hinge is correct, the pilot will feel that his control loads are more manageable,
making the aircraft easier to fly.
Horn Balance
Figure 32
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1.1.11 AERODYNAMIC BALANCE INSET HINGE
This method is similar to and has the same effect as the horn balance. Instead of
having a forward projection at one or both ends of the control surface, the hinges
are set back so that the area forward of the hinge line, which projects into the air
flow when the control surface is moved from neutral, is spread evenly along its
whole length.
Inset Hinge Balance

Figure 33
1.1.11.1
Aerodynamic Balance Balance Panels
A device fitted to a few aircraft is the aerodynamic balance panel. Often used in
the aileron system, the panel is fitted between the leading edge of the aileron,
ahead of the hinge and the rear face of the wing. When the aileron is deflected
upwards (downwards) from neutral, the high velocity, low pressure air passing
over the lower (upper) gap decreases the air pressure under (above) the balance
panel and pulls it down (up). The force on the balance panel is proportional to
airspeed and control surface deflection and assists the pilot in moving the
controls accordingly.
Aerodynamic Balance Panel

Figure 34
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1.2 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

Advancement in modern aircraft and engine design has produced very large
airliners capable of cruising at 87% of the speed of sound. Typically at an altitude
of 11,000 metres (approximately 36,000feet), this will amount to an airspeed of
about 575 miles per hour.
Earlier in the course the effects of subsonic air were considered. As airspeed
increases, the aerodynamic effects of airflow passing over an aircraft, go through
a series of changes, which will now be considered.
1.2.1 SPEED OF SOUND
One of the most important measurements in high speed aerodynamics is based

on the speed of sound and so called mach number.
Mach number is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916) and
is the ratio of true airspeed of an aircraft to the local speed of sound at that
altitude. (This will be covered in more detail later).
Sound waves, like those produced by a stationary object vibrating at certain
frequencies, will cause a continuous series of pulses or pressure waves, to
radiate outwards equally in all directions from the point of origin and travel in
exactly the same manner as the ripples on a pond.
Pressure Waves Stationary Object

Figure 35
The actual speed at which the waves radiate, depends on the type and density of
the material in which they are travelling. Air and Water are both fluids but water is
more dense than air, so sound waves will travel faster (about 4 times) in water
than in air.
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Additionally, in any one of the fluids, speed will vary with a change in
temperature. As temperature increases, the speed of sound will increase and
vice-versa, so that in Air on a standard day at sea level (15oC approx), the waves
will travel at 761mph (661.7 knots), whereas at 11,000 metres altitude, the speed
will fall to 661mph, since the temperature has dropped to -56oC at this altitude.
Note: At altitudes above 11,000 metres and up to about 27,000 metres, the
temperature and hence the speed of sound, will remain constant.
1.2.2 SUBSONIC FLIGHT
The propagation of the pressure waves from a stationary object has been
discussed above.
When an aircraft begins to move through the air at subsonic speeds, (a speed
less than pressure wave propagation speed) the waves still travel forward and it
is as if a message is sent ahead of the aircraft to warn of its approach.
On receipt of this message, the air streams begin to divide to make way for the
aircraft but there is very little, if any change in the density of the air as it flows
over the aircraft. This warning message can be detected perhaps 100metres in
front of the aircraft.
Consequently, anyone standing ahead of the aircraft, would hear it coming and
be able to detect the change in the nature of the pressure waves as the aircraft
passed by. It would be similar to the change in the pitch of the siren of a passing
emergency road vehicle.
This is often referred to as Doppler shift or Doppler effect.
Pressure waves Subsonic Flight

Figure 36
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1.2.3 TRANSONIC FLIGHT
At subsonic speeds, the study of aerodynamics is simplified by the fact that air
passing over a wing experiences only very small changes in pressure and
density. The airflow is termed incompressible as, when it passes through a
venturi, the pressure changes without the density changing
At higher speeds, the change in air pressure and density becomes significant and
is called the compressibility effect. When air enters a venturi at supersonic
speeds, the airflow slows down and must compress in order to pass through its
throat. Once a fluid compresses, its pressure and density will both increase.
Subsonic Airflow
Figure 37
Supersonic Airflow
Figure 38
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The transonic flight range encompasses sound wave velocity and consequently is
the most difficult realm of flight since some of the air flowing over the aircraft,
particularly the wings, is subsonic and some is supersonic. As the aircraft
approaches the speed of sound, the pressure waves ahead of it will be travelling
at the same speed as the aircraft and are therefore relatively stationary. They
accumulate to form a continuous pressure wave and consequently will result in
the removal of any advance warning of the approach of the aircraft.
Transonic Flight Pressure Waves

Figure 39
At these speeds other pressure waves, or shock waves form wherever the airflow
reaches the speed of sound. These waves will upset the aerodynamic balance of
the wing and this phenomenon will be covered later in the notes.
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1.2.4 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT
Once the aircraft is supersonic, all parts of it are considered to be above the
speed of sound and therefore travelling faster than the rate of propagation of the
pressure waves. An infinite number of pressure waves are produced and form a
cone, the inclination of which will change as the aircraft speed changes.
Mach Cone
Figure 40
1.2.4.1
Mach Number
As previously mentioned, Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of the
aircraft and the local speed of sound at that altitude. An aircraft travelling at
exactly the speed of sound is said to be travelling at Mach 1.
It follows therefore that an aircraft travelling at twice the speed of sound would be
travelling at Mach 2 and at half the speed of sound, Mach 0.5, etc,.
The following definitions regarding airflow and mach number apply:
Subsonic Flow Mach Numbers below Mach 0.75
Transonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 0.75 and Mach 1.2
Supersonic Flow
Mach Numbers between Mach 1.2 and 5.0
Hypersonic Flow
Mach Numbers above
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Critical Mach Number
At any constant aircraft forward speed, the speed of the airflow will vary over the
curves and cambers on the different areas of the airframe. The behaviour of the
airflow over the wing will be particularly significant, since this is the major lift
provider for the aircraft.
As air flows over the camber on the upper surface of the wing, its speed will
increase as it flows rearwards from the leading edge, reaching a maximum at the
thickest part of the wing chord. This means that although the aircraft itself may be
travelling at an airspeed well below Mach 1, the airflow over the thickest part of
the wing chord, may have already reached Mach 1
As will be discussed later, many unwanted effects occur when the wing
approaches and reaches Mach 1. Therefore, the designers may either
incorporate features that will lessen the unwanted effects, or limit the aircraft to a
predetermined maximum airspeed, that will ensure the wing speed remains below
Mach 1 and thus avoids the unwanted effects altogether.
For each aircraft type therefore, a unique maximum aircraft forward speed will be
calculated, corresponding to a wing speed of Mach 1. This aircraft speed (always
be less than Mach 1) is called the Critical Mach Number or M.crit and nonsupersonic aircraft flying in the transonic flight range, will normally be limited to a
maximum speed set below the Critical Mach number.
Critical Mach Number

Figure 41
A thick wing will cause the airflow to speed up over the camber and reach Mach 1
more quickly than a thin wing of similar chord length. Consequently, the Critical
Mach number for the thinner wing will be a higher value than the thicker wing.
This in turn will mean that the aircraft with a thin wing, will be able to fly faster in
the transonic flight range than the one with the thicker wing, before the unwanted
effects caused by the wing reaching Mach 1 ensue.
Conversely, less lift will be produced by a thin wing, than a thick wing of similar
chord length, but this can be overcome by the so called Supercritical wing chord.
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In this design, the total amount of lift lost by the shallower camber of the thin wing
is restored by making the chord longer. This is perfect for transonic cruise
conditions, but at low airspeeds, lift on a clean wing will be insufficient and so
extensive use of high lift devices (slots, slats and flaps) is necessary
Supercritical Wing
Figure 42
1.2.4.3
Adverse Transonic Effects
Even though the onset of compressibility is gradual, it begins to have a significant

effect as the Critical Mach number is approached. Unwanted adverse effects
including, buffeting, shock waves, increase in drag, decrease in lift and
movement of the centre of pressure occur.
If uncontrolled, these effects could result in the aircraft becoming difficult to fly
and to behave in a similar manner to a low speed high incidence stall, even
though the aircraft is at high speed and low angle of incidence.
1.2.4.4
Compressibility Buffet
Previously discussed has been the build up of the pressure wave in front of the
aircraft as it approaches Mach 1, including the fact that other parts of the
airframe, in particular the wing, are likely to reach Mach 1 well before the
complete aircraft does.
When this occurs the smoothness of the airflow over the wing is severely
affected. This region, as well as those on the flying control aerofoils, experience
violent vibration and so-called compressibility buffeting of the airframe. If allowed
to continue, control loss or possible structural damage can occur.
1.2.4.5
Shock Wave
Previously in the notes, the build up of pressure waves and the change from
incompressible to compressible flow as the aircraft or an aerofoil surface
approaches the speed of sound, has been discussed. Transonic flight presents
major design problems for the aerofoil in particular, because only a portion of the
airflow passing over the wing becomes supersonic.
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When an aerofoil moves through the air at a speed below its critical Mach
number, all of the airflow is subsonic and the pressure distribution is
predictable.The first indication of a change in the nature of the flow will be a
breakaway of the airflow from the aerofoil surface as described previously in
boundary layer control. Any turbulence resulting from the separation will cause an
increase in drag and a corresponding reduction in the amount of lift. As speed
begins to increase, the point of separation moves forward, extending the turbulent
wake.
Subsonic Flow Over all the Surface

Figure 43
However, as flight speed reaches and exceeds the critical Mach number, the
airflow over the top of the wing speeds up to supersonic velocity and a shock
wave starts to form.
The First Sonic Flow is encountered

Figure 44
A Normal Shock Wave Begins to Form

Figure 45
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Note: If the aerofoil is symmetrical and set at zero degrees angle of attack, the
incipient shock wave as it is called, would form equally on the upper and lower
surfaces. However, because the wing is usually set to an angle of incidence of
about 3 degrees, even a symmetrical aerofoil section would produce the incipient
wave on the top surface first.
The wave extends outwards more or less at right angles to the aerofoil surface
and is referred to as a normal (perpendicular) shock wave This normal shock
wave forms a boundary between supersonic and subsonic airflow.
As we have seen the high velocity airflow over the top of a wing creates an area
of low pressure. The shock wave causes it to decelerate to subsonic speed,
resulting in a rapid rise in pressure. The separation point and turbulent wake will
now start from this point, resulting in a sudden and considerable increase in drag
(about 10 times) and therefore a large loss of lift. Severe buffeting is likely, which
could even lead to a shock stall and the centre of pressure will be altered,
affecting the pitching moment.
This extra drag, so called Shock Drag, will be made up of two components,
namely Wave Drag, resistance caused by the wave itself and Boundary Layer
Drag, due to the increased turbulent region over the surface of the wing.
Furthermore, this shock-induced separation is likely to reduce flying control
effectiveness
The velocity of the air leaving the shock wave remains supersonic, so both the
static pressure and the density of the air increase adding to the high drag/ low lift
condition. Additionally, some of the energy in the airstream will be dissipated in
the form of heat.
As the aircraft speed continues to increase, the wave will extend outwards and
begin to move aft towards the trailing edge of the wing. A second wave begins to
form on the lower surface, as the airflow here also speeds up to supersonic
velocity
Shock Induced Separation Occurs

Figure 46
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As the airspeed reaches the upper end of the transonic range, both shock waves
move aft, become stronger and will eventually attach to the wing's trailing edge.
Almost all Flow is Supersonic, Some Shock Induced Separation

Figure 47
Further increases in forward speed will now result in the characteristic normal
shock wave forming ahead of the aerofoil. This continuous wave, known as a
Bow wave, will move towards and subsequently attach itself, to the leading edge
of the wing. Once attached, all airflow over the wing will be supersonic and many
of the unwanted transonic effects are eliminated.
The Bow Wave is starting to Form

Figure 48
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As can be seen in figure 49, the transonic region has a great affect on the lift and
drag. Both values rise until Mach 0.81, when shock induced separation drastically
reduces the coefficient of lift. As speed approaches Mach 0.99, a bow wave is
forming and airflow over the wing is slowed to subsonic speeds, resulting in an
increase in lift coefficient and a reduction of drag.
Lift / Drag Comparison at 2 Angle of Attack

Figure 49
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1.2.5 AERODYNAMIC HEATING
One of the biggest problems of sustained supersonic flight is aerodynamic

heating of the aircraft structure. An extreme example of aerodynamic heating
might be a shooting star, when its material overheats to the point of destruction,
from the heat generated by friction heating with the earth's atmosphere.
In the commercial world, Concorde was probably the only airliner where
aerodynamic heating presents a significant problem. When the aircraft was flown
at Mach 2, the friction of the air passing around the aircraft heats the skin
considerably even at altitudes in excess of 17,000 metres. The point of maximum
heating is on the nose where the rise in temperature could reach 175 0C.
As a precaution, a probe on the nose of the aircraft monitors the temperature
during flight. When a reading of 1270C is reached, the flight deck is directed to
reduce the speed to about Mach 1.8, to bring the temperature back within limits.
Concorde used conventional aluminium alloys in its construction. If future aircraft
were required to travel within the atmosphere at even higher Mach numbers,
other materials such as titanium alloy or stainless steel would need to be
considered.
Concord Skin Temperature

Figure 50
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1.2.6 AREA RULE
Area rule is an aerodynamic technique used in the design of high-speed aircraft.

If drag is to be kept to a minimum at transonic speeds, aircraft must be slim,
smooth and streamlined. In general terms it means that the wings, fuselage,
empennage and other appendages have to be considered together when working
out the total streamlining. This is necessary so that the cross-sectional area of
successive slices of the aircraft from nose to tail, conform to those of a simple
body of streamline shape.
Area rule is defined as: For the minimum drag at the connections,
(wing/fuselage), the variation of the aircrafts total cross-sectional area along its
length, should approximate that of an ideal shape having minimum wave drag.
Without area rule, the greatest frontal cross-sectional area of the fuselage would
occur where the wings are attached to the fuselage. Therefore, one method of
achieving area rule in this situation is to reduce the cross-sectional area of the
fuselage, thereby cancelling out the increase caused by the wings.
Alternatively, the fuselage cross-section could be increased with the use of
enlarged sections behind and in front of the wings to eliminate sudden changes in
the cross-sectional area and achieve the same result.
Area Rule
Figure 51
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1.2.7 FACTORS AFFECTING AIRFLOW IN ENGINE INTAKES OF HIGH SPEED

AIRCRAFT
Engine intakes on aircraft that operate in the subsonic flight range only can be of
almost any form.
The main criteria are that the airflow reaching the compressor stage of the engine
during cruise ideally does not exceed Mach 0.5. This is normally achieved by the
careful design of the intake ducts.
Obviously, if the aircraft never exceeds Mach 0.5, a parallel intake duct could be
employed, but if the aircraft is to cruise at airspeeds in excess of this, yet below
Mach 1, a divergent duct must be utilised to slow the airflow at the compressor
down to Mach 0.5.
If the aircraft is designed to cruise above Mach 1, the air entering the intakes will
be supersonic and will behave in accordance with the rules of supersonic flow. In
this case a convergent duct would be necessary to slow down the airflow to the
compressor.
However the aircraft must fly through the transonic range in order to reach
supersonic speed so both types of duct will be necessary.
One way to overcome the problem is to have moveable doors that change the
intake duct shape from divergent to convergent cross-section as the aircraft
passes through Mach 1. See figure 52. This technique can be found on the
intakes of Concorde.
Other methods to control airflow reaching the compressor is to make use of the
fact that air passing through a shock wave slows down to a lower speed. This
type of intake design is usually characterised by the bullet fairing, which on
some aircraft can translate in and out of the intake to reposition the shock wave
during low or high supersonic flight speeds. See Figure 53
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Intake Moveable doors

Figure 52
Bullet Fairing Intake

Figure 53
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1.2.8 EFFECTS OF SWEEPBACK ON CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
In order to fly at high speed in the transonic range without encountering the
problems caused by the production of shock waves, the Critical Mach number
needs to be as high as possible. As has already been shown, one way is to have
as thin a wing as possible. This of course is an acceptable solution in theory, but
in practice there will be structural integrity problems, such as wing loading,
strength and flexibility.
Another way of raising the Critical Mach number without the structural limitations
is by the use of swept wings. Sweepback not only delays the production of the
shock wave, but reduces the severity of the shock stall should it occur. The
theory behind this is that it is only the component of velocity over the wing chord
that is responsible for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock wave
to develop. The other velocity component that travels spanwise causes only
frictional drag and has no effect on shock wave production.
This theory is borne out by the fact that when it does appear, the shock wave lies
parallel to the span of the wing. Therefore only that part of the velocity
perpendicular to the shock wave, i.e. across the chord, is reduced by the shock
wave to subsonic speeds.
The greater the sweepback, the smaller will be the component of velocity
affected, resulting in a higher Critical Mach number and a reduction in drag at all
transonic speeds. Additionally sweepback results in a thinner mean aerodynamic
chord, which raises the Critical Mach number even more.
Effects of Sweepback
Figure 54
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MODULE 11.02
AIRFRAME
STRUCTURES
CONTENTS
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES GENERAL CONCEPTS................ 2-1

2.1
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH ..... 2-1
2.1.1 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION ...................................................... 2-1
2.1.2
Primary structure ........................................................... 2-2
2.1.3
Secondary Structure ..................................................... 2-4
2.1.4
Tertiary Structure .......................................................... 2-4
2.2
FAIL SAFE, SAFE LIFE AND DAMAGE TOLERANT CONCEPTS ............ 2-4
2.2.1
Fail Safe........................................................................ 2-4
2.2.2
Safe Life........................................................................ 2-4
2.2.3
Damage Tolerance........................................................ 2-5
2.3
ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM................................ 2-7
2.3.1
Zonal System ................................................................ 2-7
2.3.2
Station Identification System ......................................... 2-8
2.4
LOADS FOUND W ITHIN THE STRUCTURE STRESS AND STRAIN ...... 2-9
2.4.1
Compression ................................................................. 2-10
2.4.2
Tension ......................................................................... 2-10
2.4.3
Bending......................................................................... 2-11
2.4.4
Torsion .......................................................................... 2-12
2.4.5
Shear ............................................................................ 2-12
2.4.6
Hoop Stress .................................................................. 2-13
2.4.7
Metal Fatigue ................................................................ 2-13
2.5
DRAINAGE AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS ..................................... 2-16
2.5.1
External Drains ............................................................. 2-16
2.5.2
Internal Drains............................................................... 2-18
2.5.3
Ventilation ..................................................................... 2-18
2.6
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROVISION ...................................................... 2-19
2.7
CONSTRUCTION METHODS ............................................................ 2-20
2.7.1
Stressed Skin Fuselage ................................................ 2-20
2.6.1
Frames and Formers..................................................... 2-21
2.6.2
Bulkheads ..................................................................... 2-21
2.6.3
Longerons and Stringers ............................................... 2-22
2.6.4
Doublers and Reinforcement ......................................... 2-23
2.6.5
Struts and Ties .............................................................. 2-23
2.6.6
Beams and Floor Structures .......................................... 2-24
2.6.7
Methods of Skinning...................................................... 2-24
2.6.8
Anti-Corrosive Protection .............................................. 2-26
2.6.9
Construction Methods Wing ....................................... 2-27
2.6.10 Construction Methods Empennage ............................ 2-28
2.6.11 Construction Methods Engine Attachments ................ 2-29
2.6.12 Structural Assembly Techniques ................................... 2-31
2.6.13 Solid Shank Rivets ........................................................ 2-31
2.6.14 Special and Blind Fasteners. ......................................... 2-33
2.6.15 Bolts and Nuts............................................................... 2-38
2.6.16 Adhesive Bonded Structures ......................................... 2-43
2.6.17 Methods of Surface Protection ...................................... 2-45
2.6.18 Exterior Finish Maintenance .......................................... 2-47
Issue 1 Module 11.02 21 Dec 2001
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MODULE 11.02
AIRFRAME
STRUCTURES
Issue 1 Module 11.02 04 Sept 2001
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2
MODULE 11.02
AIRFRAME
STRUCTURES
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES GENERAL CONCEPTS
2.1
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL
STRENGTH
Airworthiness requirements are necessary with respect to aircraft structures,
because established standards of strength, control, maintainability, etc. will
ensure that all aircraft will be constructed to the safest possible standard.
Requirements for aircraft above 5700kg MTWA (maximum total weight
authorised) are listed in Joint Airworthiness Requirement 25 (EASA-25) and for
aircraft below 5700kg MTWA, in EASA-23. These publications cover not only the
basic requirements, like maximum and minimum 'g' loading, but a vast range of
other requirements with respect to the structure such as:
Control Loads
Door Operation
Effect of Tabs
Factor of Safety
Fatigue
High Lift Devices
Stability & Stalling
Ventilation
Weights
The list is all-embracing and provides a useful means of searching for specific
structural details.
2.1.1 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
For the purpose of assessing damage and the type of repairs to be carried out,
the structure of all aircraft is divided into three significant categories:
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Diagrams are prepared by each manufacturer to denote how the various

structural members fall into these three categories.
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STRUCTURES
In the manuals of older aircraft the use of colour may be found to identify the
three categories. Primary Structure is shown in Red, Secondary in Yellow and
Tertiary in Green.
Note: This system has been discontinued for many years, but with some aircraft
having a life of 30 or more years and still being operated, it may still be possible
to find the old system in use.
2.1.2 PRIMARY STRUCTURE
This structure includes all portions of aircraft, the failure of which in flight or on the
ground, would be likely to cause:
Catastrophic structural collapse
Inability to operate a service
Injury to occupants
Loss of control
Unintentional operation of a service
Power unit failure
Examples of some types of primary structure are as follows:
Engine Mountings
Fuselage Frames
Main Floor members
Main Spars
Primary Structure Engine mountings

Figure 1
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Primary Structure :Wing Spars

Figure 2
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2.1.3 SECONDARY STRUCTURE
This structure includes all portions of the aircraft which would normally be
regarded as primary structure, but which unavoidably have such a reserve of
strength over design requirements that appreciable weakening may be permitted,
without risk of failure. It also includes structure which, if damaged, would not
impair the safety of the aircraft as described earlier. Examples of secondary
structure include:
Ribs and parts of skin in the wings.
Skin and stringers in the fuselage
2.1.4 TERTIARY STRUCTURE
This type of structure includes all portions of the structure in which the stresses
are low, but which, for various reasons, cannot be omitted from the aircraft.
Typical examples include fairings, fillets and brackets which support items in the
fuselage and adjacent areas.
2.2 FAIL SAFE, SAFE LIFE AND DAMAGE TOLERANT CONCEPTS
2.2.1 FAIL SAFE
A fail safe structure is one which retains, after initiation of a fracture or crack,
sufficient strength for the operation of the aircraft with an acceptable standard of
safety, until such failure is detected on a normal scheduled inspection.
This is achieved by part and full scale airframe testing and fatigue analysis by
usually by the aircraft manufacturer and by subsequent in-service experience.
2.2.2 SAFE LIFE
Safe life structure and components are granted a period of time during which it is
considered, that failure is extremely unlikely. When deciding its duration, the
effects of wear, fatigue and corrosion must be considered. For example, if tests
show that fatigue will cause a failure in 12,000 flying hours, then one sixth of this
might be quoted as the safe life.(2000 hours then scrapped) If wear or corrosion
prove to be the likely cause of failure before 12,000 hours, then one of these will
be the deciding factor.
The safe life time period may be expressed in flying hours, elapsed time, number
of flights or number of applications of load, ie; pressurisation cycles.
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2.2.3 DAMAGE TOLERANCE
The fail safe method has proven to be somewhat unreliable following some
accidents that proved that the concept was not 100% guaranteed. It was also a
severe limitation that the addition of extra structural members to protect the
integrity of the structure considerably increased the weight of the aircraft..
The damage tolerant concept, has eliminated much of the extra weight, by
distributing the loads on a particular structure over a larger area. This requires an
evaluation of the structure, to provide multiple load paths to carry the loading. The
main advantage is that even with a crack present, the structure will retain its
integrity and that during scheduled maintenance programmes, the crack will be
found before it can become critical.
For example, a wing attachment to the fuselage, which in the past would have
been designed with one or two large pintle bolts, will now have a larger number of
smaller bolts in the fitting. The single or dual bolt attachment had to be heavily
reinforced to take the wing loading, adding more weight, whereas the multiple
load path can be constructed in a lighter manner, whilst still maintaining its
strength.
Single Pin Attachment

Figure 3
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Multiple Pin Attachment

Figure 4
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2.3 ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
2.3.1 ZONAL SYSTEM
During many different maintenance operations including component changes,

structural repairs and trouble shooting, it is necessary to indicate to the engineer
where, within the structure, the correct location is to be found for the work to be
carried out.
When attempting to establish a specific location or identifying components, some
manufacturers make use of two systems, a zonal system and a frame/station
method.
The zonal system divides the airframe into a number of zones, (usually less than
10), to give engineers and others a rough idea of where they need to look. The
zonal system may also be used in component labelling and work card area
identification.
In the illustration below, an engineer might have for example a work card
numbered 500376, indicating it was Job 376 located on the left wing (Zone 500).
Zonal Identification
Figure 5
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2.3.2 STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Most manufacturers use a system of station marking where, for example, the
aircraft nose is designated Station 0 and other station designations are located at
measured distances aft of this point. Component and other locations within the
wings, tailplane, fin and nacelles are established from separate dedicated
stations zero.
Fuselage Locations
A particular fuselage station (or frame) would be identified, for example, as
Station 5050. This means that if the metric system of measurement is employed,
the frame is located at 5.05 metres (5050mm) aft of station zero.
Frame Stations
Figure 6
Lateral Locations
To locate structures to the right or left of the aircraft, many manufacturers
consider the fuselage centre line as a station zero. With such a system, the wing
or tailplane ribs could be identified as being a particular number of millimetres (or
inches) to the right or the left of the centre line.
Vertical Locations
These are usually measured above or below a water line, which is a
predetermined reference line passing along the side of the fuselage, usually,
somewhere between the floor level and the window line.
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2.4 LOADS FOUND WITHIN THE STRUCTURE STRESS AND STRAIN

Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist stress and a
single member may be subjected to a combination of stresses during flight.
When an external force acts on a body, it is opposed by a force within the body.
This force is called Stress. If the body is distorted by the stress, it is said to be
subject to Strain.
Stress and strain can be defined as follows:
Stress is load or force per unit area acting on a body. Stress = Load or Force
Cross Sectional Area
Strain is the distortion per unit length of a body.
Strain = Distortion
Original Length
There are five major stresses and all will be found somewhere within an aircraft
structure. In the design stage, the stresses will have been assessed by the
designer and the structure made strong enough to carry them adequately.
Furthermore, a reserve of strength will also have been included for safety. The
five types of stress are:
1. Compression
2. Tension
3. Bending (a combination of compression and tension)
4. Twisting/Torsion
5. Shear
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2.4.1 COMPRESSION
Compression is regarded as a primary stress and is the resistance to any

external force which tends to push the body together. Compressive stresses
applied to rivets for example, expand the shank as they are driven in, completely
filling the hole and forming the head to hold sheet metal skins together.
Compression
Figure 7
2.4.2 TENSION
Tension is the primary stress that tends to pull an object apart. A flexible steel
cable used in flying control systems is an excellent example of a component
designed to withstand tension loads only. It is easily bent, has little opposition to
compression, torsion or shear loads, but has an exceptional strength/weight ratio
when subjected to a purely tension load.
Tension
Figure 8
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2.4.3 BENDING
Bending, when applied to a beam, tends to try to pull one side apart while at the
same time squeezing the other side together. When a person stands on a diving
board, the top of the board is under tension while the bottom is under
compression.
Wing spars of cantilever wings are subject to bending stresses. In flight, the top of
the spar is being compressed and the bottom is under tension while on the
ground, the reverse occurs, the top is in tension and the bottom is under
compression. If the wing is supported, the strut will be in tension in flight and in
compression on the ground.
Bending
Figure 9
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2.4.4 TORSION
A torsional stress is one that is put into a material when it is twisted. When we
twist a structural member, a tensile stress acts diagonally across the member and
a compressive stress acts at right angles to the tension. A good example is a
crankshaft of an aircraft piston engine which is under a torsional load when the
engine is driving the propeller.
Torsion
Figure 10
2.4.5 SHEAR
A shear stress is one that resists the tendency to slice a body apart. For example
a clevis bolt in a flying control system is designed to take shear loads only. It is
normally a high strength steel bolt with a thin head and a fat shank. These bolts
secure the flexible steel cables to the control surfaces and allow the cable to
move with the control surface without bending. The airload on the control surface
attempts to slice the bolt apart or shear it.
Rivet Joint in Shear

Figure 11
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2.4.6 HOOP STRESS
An aircraft which has its fuselage pressurised inside to allow the carriage of
passengers at altitude, will have other stresses acting on the fuselage skin. The
circumferential load about the fuselage is known as hoop stress and resisted by
the fuselage frames and tension in the so called stressed skin. The longitudinal
(axial) load along the fuselage is also resisted by tension in the skin and by the
longerons and stringers.
Hoop stress
Figure 12
2.4.7 METAL FATIGUE
The phenomenon of metal fatigue has long been known, but has become of
greater concern in recent years with aircraft which remain in service long after
their original expected fatigue life has expired.
It is relatively easy to design a structure to withstand a steady load, but aircraft
are subjected to widely varying loads in flight and many components experience
load reversals, an example being the wings, where the aerodynamic forces
during flight manoeuvres cause tension and compression loads to alternate
continually. Unfortunately, any metal part subjected to a wide variation or reversal
of even a relatively small load is gradually and progressively weakened.
The subject was vividly highlighted in 1954, with another type of load reversal,
that of pressurisation cycles of the passenger cabin. which resulted in a number
of disastrous accidents with the De-Havilland Comet airliner. Small fatigue cracks
in the fuselage skin accumulated around the corners of the square shaped
windows and hatches and led to a fatal explosive decompression of the cabin.
Following the incidents the most extensive research to this hitherto unwarranted
menace was undertaken, and led to fatigue loading being included into future
design considerations.
Metal fatigue refers to the loss of strength, or resistance to load, experienced by a
component or structure as the number of load cycles or load reversals increases.
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Load reversals refer to a material being continually loaded and unloaded and as
long as the elastic limit is not exceeded, the material should be unaffected and
return to its original state.
In reality, however, the load application may result in minute, seemingly
inconsequential cracks, which, as the cycles continue, get larger and join up with
other, newer cracks. Eventually, after many cycles, the cumulative effect will be
such that the strength of the metal will be compromised and could result in
catastrophic failure.
The fatigue strength of a metal can be found by experimentation on full scale
fatigue rigs, which can be subjected to a programme of load reversals, 24 hours a
day, 365 days a year, to accumulate information and a fatigue life, years ahead of
the oldest aircraft of the particular type in the fleet.
How the in-service aircraft subsequently consumes this fatigue index, depends on
its operating theatre. For example, the number of times the pressurisation cycles
are applied to aircraft on long or short haul flights, steep or conventional take off
and landing etc., are taken into account to calculate fatigue life consumed.
Stress amplitude can be plotted against endurance for one particular value of
mean stress, the so-called S/N Curve. Using a chart such as this, it can be
determined at what point, in cycles, the metal has reached its minimum
acceptable strength. This will be the ultimate fatigue life and is normally allotted a
fatigue index of 100.
Fatigue Graph
Figure 13
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Even when the fatigue index of 100 is eventually reached on each individual
aircraft, the designers can extend it beyond 100, by examining, as previously
mentioned, how the fatigue was consumed and recommending specific structural
inspection and possibly strengthening or replacement of fittings and components.
Fatigue is a natural phenomenon and cannot be prevented. The ability to
correctly predict its effects and take the necessary action is the problem faced by
the aircraft design and maintenance personnel. Different metals have different
fatigue characteristics and the way parts are designed, also affects their fatigue
life. Fastener holes, sharp changes in thickness and small seemingly insignificant
cracks for example, can directly affect the fatigue life of a part.
Fatigue cracking can also accelerate the onset of corrosion, by exposing
unprotected metal to the elements. The crack growth and the consequential
increase in corrosion, can cause serious structural problems over a relatively
short period. With the ageing of the airliner fleet, a number of extra inspections,
including non-destructive testing and structural sampling techniques have been
introduced. The maintenance technician must carefully monitor the aircraft
structure, paying particular attention to the integrity of surface finish and general
corrosion.
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2.5 DRAINAGE AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS
Drainage
The aircraft structure requires many different types of drain holes and paths to
prevent water and other fluids such as fuel, hydraulic oil etc., from collecting
within the structure. These could become both a corrosion and fire hazard.
The forms of drainage can be divided into two areas.
1. External drains
2. Internal drains
2.5.1 EXTERNAL DRAINS
These ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and
empennage to ensure fluids are dumped overboard. In small unpressurised
aircraft and unpressurised areas of larger airliners, these drains may be
permanently open. However, in pressurised aircraft, the cabin air would leak
uncontrollably through the drains and so it is necessary to use drain valves to
prevent loss of cabin pressure.
There are a number basic types of drain valve used for this purpose.
Two similar types rely upon pressurised air in the cabin to keep the valve closed.
One valve has a rubber flapper seal and the other a spring loaded valve seal.
Normally located on the keel of the fuselage, both are open when the aircraft is
unpressurised on the ground, allowing the fluids to drain overboard. During flight,
the increased air pressure in the cabin closes the valves, thus preventing any
pressurisation losses. These valves are shown below, where it can also be seen
that a levelling compound has been used in areas which might become fluid
traps. This compound is usually a rubberised sealant which fills the cavity,
bringing the level up to the lip of the drain hole.
Fuselage Drains
Figure 14
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Another similar type of drain valve also uses the cabin air pressure to close off
the drain path, this time by moving the plunger down to seal the drain. This valve
will also be open when cabin pressure is removed.
Fuselage Drains
Figure 15
Fluids from some places, such as galleys and wash basins, require more than
simple drain holes. The temperature at cruising altitude can fall to -60C and
water draining overboard could freeze and cause blockage problems.
The method used in these cases are drain masts, which are like small aerofoils
projecting from the bottom of the aircraft skin, on the centre line, through which
the water is discharged. The drain masts are heated to prevent icing and also
discharge the liquids well away from the aircraft's skin.
Boeing 747 Drain Masts

Figure 16
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2.5.2 INTERNAL DRAINS
To enable the external drains to function as designed, means must be provided

within the various locations of the airframe and powerplant installation, to ensure
that all fluids are directed towards the site of the external drain points. This is
achieved by using internal drain paths and drain holes.
The internal structure is provided with tubes, channels, dams and drain holes, to
direct the flow of fluid towards the external drain points. All structural members
are designed so that they do not trap fluids by ensuring, for example, that all
lightening holes and ribs face downwards, allowing fluids to run off them.
2.5.3 VENTILATION
It is essential that the internal cavities within the structure are properly vented to
prevent the build up of flammable vapour from the drain lines and to allow any
other moisture residue to properly evaporate.
Consequently sumps, tanks and cavities will all be provided with vent pipes and
in some cases, such as engine cowlings, ram air inlets and outlets are utilised to
ensure all zones where fluids are contained are adequately ventilated.
System Installation Provisions
The installation of various systems within the airframe, require adaptations from
the perfect drawing-board design. When systems like the air conditioning and
pressurisation, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, avionics and others are designed,
there must be facilities incorporated in the plans, to provide a location for all the
system components, their associated lines and cables.
It must also be borne in mind that many components have to be either serviced
in-situ, or will be a line replaceable unit (LRU), both of which requires easy
access for the maintenance engineers.
To this end, on modern aircraft, there are normally compartments allocated to
each of the major systems where the majority of components will be installed.
Thus, it can be possible to find dedicated Avionics bays, Hydraulic bays, Air
conditioning bays, etc., all of which allow access for the easier replacement of
'black boxes' (LRUs) and mechanical components like control units, valves, filters
etc,.
Older aircraft will still have components scattered throughout the airframe, with
difficult access in some places through small panels, all of which will obviously
make maintenance on these systems much more difficult.
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2.6 LIGHTNING STRIKE PROVISION

When aircraft are flying in cloud or in close proximity to storms, there is always
the risk of the aircraft being struck by lightning. Whilst this is a rare occurrence,
there are many protection devices installed in the aircraft to ensure that a strike
does as little damage as possible when it does happen. A lightning strike on an
aircraft can have a peak current of up to 100,000 amperes, so precautions must
be taken to ensure that the least damage is done to the aircraft, its systems and
components as the charge passes through.
Most important is the electrical bonding of all the major components of the
airframe. Bonding is achieved by electrically connecting all the components of an
aircraft structure together. These precautions will ensure all components are at
the same electrical potential by providing a return path through the airframe,
since modern aircraft utilise an earth return system. This means that current from
the lightning strike cannot build up on one part of the structure and create a
voltage high enough to allow it to jump to another part, that might be electrically
separated, such as flying control surfaces.
Note: Electrical bonding also protects equipment from the build up of static
electricity, which is produced as the aircraft collects ions from the atmosphere as
it passes through. Bonding cables are referred to as secondary conductors.
As well as electrical bonding, dedicated lightning protection systems are
employed to cater for the high current and these are usually known as primary
conductors. They can be found, connecting system earth returns, as mentioned
earlier, connecting power-plants to the airframe and ensuring that all major
structural items, (which are often manufactured in different factories in different
countries), are properly connected together after final assembly. Occupants of the
aircraft are also protected from electrical shock in this way by the surrounding
aircraft structure with what is referred to as a Faraday Cage.
Electrical Bonding
Figure 17
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CONSTRUCTION METHODS
2.7.1 STRESSED SKIN FUSELAGE
As previously described, a variety of loads act on the airframe during flight. If a

proportion of these loads can be carried by the skin covering, the underlying
framework can be made lighter without loss of overall strength.
In early aircraft, all loads were taken by the framework and the covering of fabric,
doped to pull it taught or of thin sheets of wood achieved streamlining, but
contributed little or nothing to the strength of the airframe. As aircraft design
evolved, the fabric and wood was replaced with aluminium alloy sheet. Because
of its extra strength, a large part of the load can be borne by this skin, reducing
the weight of underlying structure. This is called Stressed Skin construction and
this method also provides a very smooth surface, because the skin is stiff enough
not to be distorted by the airflow. With the advent of pressurised cabins the
usefulness of a strong skin is evident when considering pressurisation loads.
A method of construction where the skin carries all the loads without supporting
structure is called pure monocoque construction. A good example of a pure
monocoque construction is a chickens egg, since it has no internal support, only
the egg shell carries the load. In practice, this construction is difficult to achieve,
as the skin would have to be so thick, that the extra weight penalty incurred,
would severely impair the ability to fly. However, the principle is sometimes used
in the construction of composite material external fuel tanks, mainly for military
aircraft and even here some internal strengthening is necessary.
Monocoque Construction
Figure 18
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In a stressed skin fuselage construction, about half the loads are carried by the
skin and half by the supporting structure. This type of construction is called semi
monocoque and its advantage is that the space within the structure is
unobstructed and is used for passengers and freight.
Semi-Monocoque Construction
Figure 19
2.6.1 FRAMES AND FORMERS
Frames and formers provide the basic fuselage shape, with the frames, being of
more robust construction, providing strong points for attachment of other fittings
such as the wings and tailplane.
2.6.2 BULKHEADS
Where extra support is required within a fuselage for mounting of components

such as wings and landing gear, bulkheads are to transfer the loads to the
fuselage structure without producing stress raising points.
Bulkheads can be either a complete or a partial circular frame, which usually
reinforces a fuselage frame. Other examples are solid pressurisation bulkheads
which are normally found at the front of the fuselage ahead of the flight deck and
at the rear of the pressure cabin, or an engine firewall on the nacelles.
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2.6.3 LONGERONS AND STRINGERS
Longerons are used in fuselage construction, where either an aperture such as a

door or window requires greater support, or where a number of structural high
load points such as floors, landing gear attachments, etc. need to be
interconnected. They are usually of much heavier construction than stringers and
can be solid extrusions or fabricated multiple part construction.
Stringers provide longitudinal shape and support to the fuselage skin. They are
also the spanwise members of the mainplanes, vertical and horizontal stabilisers
and flying control surfaces. Often stringers are attached to frames with fillets or
gussets.
Longerons and Stringers

Figure 20
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2.6.4 DOUBLERS AND REINFORCEMENT
Where the skin requires extra strengthening, at the junction of plates or around
small apertures, a second layer of skin is attached over the original to reinforce it.
This extra plate is known as a doubler or a doubler plate.
Where loads are concentrated within the structure, it can be strengthened at
these places by either making the material thicker, or by the addition of a number
of layers of similar material. The actual amount of reinforcement being dictated by
the amount of stress carried in each area.
Doubler Plate
Figure 21
2.6.5 STRUTS AND TIES
Any structural item that is designed solely to take a compressive load is called a
strut. Whereas an item that only takes a tensile load is called a tie. They can be
found throughout a modern aircraft structure, although an ideal example would be
a high performance biplane. In this type of aircraft often used for aerobatics, the
struts which separate the pairs of wings, in compression and the interconnecting
flying wires, in tension, take all the loads produced by the wing.
Struts and Wires

Figure 22
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2.6.6 BEAMS AND FLOOR STRUCTURES
Beams are often used laterally and longitudinally along the fuselage to support
the flight deck and passenger cabin floors. Additionally they provide strong point
attachments for the crew and passenger seats and as such, constitute primary
structure. Modern cabin flooring is usually made up from a number of removable
composite honeycomb core panels, examples of which are shown below,
whereas the flight deck is often made from metal panels supported on beams.
Floor Structures
Figure 23
2.6.7 METHODS OF SKINNING
Skins for light aircraft are usually simple, thin sheets of aluminium alloy, wrapped
around and riveted to the internal structure.
Larger aircraft, developed since the 1950s have their skins manufactured from
heavier material with the additional use of even thicker sections in certain places
where more strength is required.
As the aircraft designs became more complex, the excess weight of thicker skins
in places where they are not necessarily required, became too big a penalty. To
overcome this problem, the skins were rolled individually to produce a variety of
differing thickness across each sheet, to cater for variations in stress.
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The latest methods are to machine or mill each skin panel individually from a
solid billet, to include all stringers and risers and to provide a varying thickness all
over the sheet. In this way, the skin panel is exactly the right thickness at each
location, with no excess material and hence no extra weight. This method results
in what is termed milled skin or machined skin. Milled wing skins give maximum
strength and rigidity with minimum weight.
Panels containing areas of different thickness can also be produced from a
chemical etching process where areas which have been treated, will be removed
to about half their thickness by the chemical etch. The nature of the etching
process ensures that no stress raisers are introduced into the material. So called
waffle plates can be produced in this way and are shown in Fig 24.
Skinning Methods
Figure 24
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2.6.8 ANTI-CORROSIVE PROTECTION
Materials used in aircraft construction are selected primarily for their strength and
tenacity. Unfortunately, many may readily suffer serious damage from corrosion
unless effectively protected and the rate of corrosion attack can be extremely
rapid in certain environments. One of the main considerations in the design of
aircraft structure therefore, are measures for the control and prevention of
corrosion.
During manufacture and assembly, a range of surface treatments are applied.
Materials are heat treated to refine grain structure, sacrificial coatings in the form
of plating and cladding are employed, to retard the onset of corrosion. Epoxy
primers, special paint finishes, wet-assembly techniques and the use of barrier
sealants to prevent the ingress of dirt and moisture between component parts, all
help to reduce the risk of corrosion. Additionally, drain holes, drainage paths and
attention to good corrosion resistant design techniques for each component part,
ensure that aircraft newly off the production line are protected as much as
possible, before entering airline service.
Aircraft are required to operate in widely varying, often highly corrosive
environments throughout the world and despite the high standard of protective
treatments applied during manufacture, corrosion will still occur.
Corrosive attack may extend over an entire metal surface, may penetrate locally
to form deep pits or may follow the grain boundaries within the metal. The
weakening effect of corrosive attack may be aggravated by stresses in the metal
and result in premature failure of the component. These stresses may be due to
externally applied loads or may be internal stresses locked into the metal
structure during manufacturing processes, despite the care taken to keep the risk
to a minimum.
Whatever the cause and type of corrosive attack, unless preventative
maintenance is carried out, damage may become so severe, it could present a
serious hazard to the airworthiness of the aircraft. Rectification of advanced
corrosion damage is time consuming and much of the corrosion during service
can be prevented or contained by simple corrosion prevention measures
Corrosion seldom occurs on a clean dry aircraft especially if the protective
coatings are completely in tact. Since aircraft have to operate outside throughout
their lives, they are difficult to keep dry, but keeping the protective coatings free
from scratches, dents and scores, ensuring drains which might allow water to
accumulate are kept clear and keeping the aircraft clean and free of dirt are all
within the scope of a good maintenance engineer.
In addition, the engineer should clear up spills from the galleys and toilets and
remove deposits from engine exhausts as these are also very corrosive if left on
the skin for too long.
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2.6.9 CONSTRUCTION METHODS WING
The basic requirement for wing construction, particularly with cantilever types is
for a spanwise member of great strength, usually in the form of a spar.
Conventionally, there are three general designs, monospar, two-spar or
multispar.
Most modern commercial airliners, have a wing comprising top and bottom skins
complete with spanwise stringers, front and rear spars and a set of wing ribs
running chordwise across the wing between the spars. This forms a box-like
shape which is very robust and the addition of nose ribs and trailing edge fittings
produce the characteristic aerofoil shape.
Wing structures carry some of the heaviest loads found in aircraft structure.
Fittings and joints must be carefully proportioned so they can pick up loads in a
gradual and progressive manner and redistribute them to other parts of the
structure in a similar manner. Special attention must be paid to minimising stress
concentrations, by avoiding too rapid a change in cross section and to provide
ample material to handle any concentration in stress or shock loading that cannot
be avoided, such as landing loads.
Typical Wing Construction

Figure 25
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2.6.10 CONSTRUCTION METHODS EMPENNAGE
The vertical and horizontal stabilisers, elevators and rudder are constructed in a
manner similar to the wings but on a smaller scale. The main structural members
are the spars, with the stringers, ribs and stressed skin completing the basic
design.
Typical Stabilizer Construction

Figure 26
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2.6.11 CONSTRUCTION METHODS ENGINE ATTACHMENTS
Engine mountings consist of the structure that transmits the thrust provided by
either the propeller or turbojet, to the airframe. The mounts can be constructed
from welded alloy steel tubing, formed sheet metal, forged alloy fittings or a
combination of all three. Some typical examples are shown in Figures 27 to 29.
All engine mounts are required to absorb not only the forward thrust during
normal flight, but the reduced force of reverse thrust and the vibrations produced
by the particular engine/propeller combination..
Fabricated Piston Engine Mounting

Figure 27
Tubular Turbopropeller Mounting

Figure 28
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Machined Turbojet Side Mounting

Figure 29
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2.6.12 STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES
The integrity of an aircraft joint depends on the way the parts are attached
together. The most common method of attachment is by the use of rivets or more
sophisticated types of rivets, known as fasteners. However, where high strength
is required, nuts and bolts are used whilst other structural assembly is achieved
by the use of adhesive bonding techniques.
Although aluminium alloy is the most common material for aircraft construction,
more and more structural components and in some cases, complete aircraft, are
being manufactured from composite materials like glass or carbon fibre.
Riveting is generally divided into two types: (1) solid shank rivets and (2) special
fasteners. The special fastener category being sub-divided further into special
and blind fasteners.
2.6.13 SOLID SHANK RIVETS
The vast majority of aircraft structure is held together with solid rivets. As will be
explained later, many of the more modern designs use special fasteners and
some bonded construction, but the majority are still solid rivets.
Head Shapes
In the past there have been a large number of rivet head shapes used in aircraft,
but in recent years these have been reduced and standardised to four main
types:
The Universal Head, sometimes known as AN70 or MS20470, is most popular
and may be used to replace any protruding-head rivet. It is streamlined on top but
thick enough to provide strength without protruding too much into the airflow.
A Round Head rivet, AN430, is used on internal structure where the thicker head
is more suitable for automatic riveting equipment.
In internal locations where a flat head rivet can be driven more easily than either
a round or universal head rivet, the AN442 Flat Head rivet may be used.
Where a smooth skin is important, flush rivets such as AN426 or MS20426, with a
100 countersink head are used. Additionally, rivets with a different countersink
angle, such as 90 and 120 degrees can be found.
Rivet Head Types

Figure 30
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Types of Alloy used for Solid Shank Rivets

The identification marks on rivet heads serve two important functions. Firstly, the
marks are used to identify the rivet alloy required for a special installation area
and, secondly, the head markings are necessary when trying to identify which
kind of rivets are being removed from an aircraft during disassembly or repair.
The alloy identifying marks are made on rivet heads at the time they are being
stamped out during manufacture.
Generally, solid rivets are manufactured in five different materials:
Solid Rivet Identification

Figure 31
For non-structural applications, rivets made from pure aluminium, sometimes
known as 'A' rivets, may be used.
A very popular rivet is the 'AD' rivet, which has copper and magnesium added to
the aluminium base metal. This rivet is heat treated during manufacture to make it
strong, whilst still being soft enough to be formed easily.
When much more strength than the 'AD' rivets is required, there are two stronger
rivets available. These are 'D' and 'DD' rivets but they must be heat treated to
make them softer before they can be formed. The 'D' types are of 2017 alloy and
the 'DD' types are manufactured from 2024 alloy. Both of these rivet types, after
heat treatment, must be formed within a specific period of time (one hour for 'D'
and ten minutes for 'DD' types) or they may be put into a refrigerator to maintain
the softening effect. Once refrigerated they will remain useable for about 10 days.
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When riveting magnesium alloy sheets, there must be no copper in the rivet alloy,
or dissimilar metal corrosion will set in. Therefore, a 'B' rivet, manufactured from
5056 alloy is used. This contains a large amount of magnesium with a little
manganese and chromium but no copper.
Dimensions
Aircraft rivet dimensions are categorised by the diameter of the shank, D, and
the length, L, measured from the end of the shank to the portion of the head that
will be flush with the surface of the metal. This means that a countersink rivet is
measured from the top of its head, whilst the remainder are measured from under
the head.
Rivet Dimensioning
Figure 32
Identification
The complete identification of a rivet includes its head style, its material, its
diameter and its length. The identification code shows the diameter as a number
of 1/32ths of an inch and the length as a number of 1/16ths of an inch.
For example, An MS20470AD4-4 has a universal head (MS20470), is made from
alloy 2117 (AD), is 1/8" diameter (4 x 1/32) and 1/4" long (4 x 1/16).
2.6.14 SPECIAL AND BLIND FASTENERS.
When solid shank rivets become impractical to use, then special fasteners are
used. These, you will remember, are of two types; special and blind fasteners.
The term Special Fasteners refers first to their job requirement and second to
the tooling needed for the installation. In certain locations, aircraft require strength
that cannot be produced by a solid shank rivet, so a special high strength
fastener is used. For example, if high shear strength is required, then special
High Shear rivets are used. These are usually installed with special tools and will
be discussed later in this chapter.
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Blind Fasteners
There are several different types of blind fasteners which can be hollow or selfsealing. They include the following types, all of which can be installed from one
side of the work.
Chobert
Avdel
Tucker/Pop
Cherry
Note: It is most important that the correct tools are always used with the types of
rivets mentioned above.
Chobert Rivets
These are available with a snap (round) head or a countersink head and are
closed by forcibly pulling a mandrel through the bore of the rivet. This closes the
'tail' and expands the rivet tightly into the hole. To seal Chobert rivets, a separate
sealing pin is driven into the hollow bore of the rivet.
Chobert Rivet
Figure 33
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Tucker or 'Pop' Rivets

Tucker/'Pop' rivets are manufactured with either domed or countersunk heads
and are supplied on individual mandrels. The rivets can be either break head or
break stem and when closed, can be sealed or open depending upon their
application. Break head rivets are rarely used due to the 'foreign object' risk from
the broken off heads lying within the internal aircraft structure.
Break stem rivets are be divided into two groups, short and long break mandrels.
Long break types leaves the stem in place, greatly increasing the shear strength
of the rivet.
Tucker Pop Rivet

Figure 34
Cherry Rivets
These rivets, of American manufacture, are similar to Avdel rivets, except that the
stem is positively locked in the rivet bore. During final forming, a locking collar is
forced into a groove in the stem, preventing further movement. After the closing
operation, the remainder of the stem is milled flush with the skin.
There are many different types of Cherry rivets, two of the most popular being the
Cherry Lock and the Cherry Max. The Cherry Lock, however, requires a range of
closing tools for different sized rivets, whilst the Cherry Max series can all be
closed with a single tool.
Cherry Lock rivets are manufactured from 2017 or 5056 alloys, Monel metal or
Stainless Steel, whereas Cherry Max are made from 5056 alloy, Monel or Inconel
750. They are all available with either universal or countersink heads and due to
their positive locking method, can be installed in place of solid shank rivets.
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Cherry Lock Rivet

Figure 35
Cherry Max Rivet

Figure 36
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Avdel Rivets
These are similar to Chobert rivets, but each is fitted with its own stem (mandrel).
The stem is pulled through the rivet body to close the rivet and at a
predetermined load, breaks off proud of the manufactured head. This leaves part
of the stem inside the body which seals the rivet. The excess stem is then
removed by nipping it off and carefully milling it until flush with the surface of the
aircraft skin.
The shear strength of an Avdel rivet is greater than a Chobert rivet of equivalent
material and size and similar to a solid rivet.
Avdel Rivet
Figure 37
Special Fasteners
These can include Hi-Shear, Avdelock, Jo-Bolts, and Rivnuts. The first three are
all formed by means of a collar which is swaged into the grooves in fastener
shank or expanded over the shank to form a blind head. Rivnuts are formed using
a similar method to cherry locks, but with a threaded mandrel screwed into the
Rivnut. The advantage of Rivnuts, (see Fig 38), is that after closing, a fixed nut is
left behind which may be used for the attachment of de-icing boots, floor
coverings and other non-structural parts.
Rivnuts After Installation

Figure 38
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2.6.15 BOLTS AND NUTS
Bolts
A bolt is designed to hold two or more parts together. It may be loaded in shear,
in tension, or both. Bolts are designed to be used with nuts and have a portion of
the shank that is not threaded, called the grip, whereas Machine screws and Cap
screws have the entire length of the shank threaded.
The dimensions required to identify a bolt are expressed in terms of the diameter
of the shank and the length from the bottom of the head to the end of the bolt.
The grip length should be the same as the thickness of the material being held
together. This measurement can be found by reference to the applicable charts.
Bolt heads are made in a variety of shapes, with hexagonal being the most
common.
Bolt Terminology
Figure 39
General Purpose Bolts
All-purpose structural bolts used for both tension and shear loading is made
under 'AN' standards from 3 to 20, the bolt diameter is specified by the AN
number in 1/16"; for example:
AN3 = 3/16" diameter
AN11 = 11/16" diameter
The range is from AN3 to AN20 which have hexagon heads, are made from alloy
steel and have UNF (fine) threads.
The length of the bolt is expressed as a dash number. Bolts increase in length by
1/8" and the dash number(s) will show the length.
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For example:
AN3-7 = 7/8" long
AN3-15 = 1 5/8" long
Other markings will identify whether the bolt has a drilled shank, a drilled head for
locking and indicate what material the bolt is made from.
Clevis Bolts
These bolts (AN21 to 36) are designed for pure shear load applications such as
control cables. The slotted, domed head results in this bolt often being mistaken
for a machine screw.
A clevis bolt has only a short portion of the shank threaded with a small notch
between the threads and the plain portion of the shank, which allows the bolt to
rotate more freely in its hole.
Because the length of this bolt is more critical than normal bolts, its length is
given in 1/16" increments.
Clevis Bolt Identification

Figure 40
Nuts
All nuts used on aircraft must have some sort of locking device to prevent them
from loosening and falling off. Many nuts are held in place on a bolt, by passing a
split pin through a hole in the bolt shank and through slots, or castellations, in the
nut. Others have some form of locking insert that grips the bolt's thread, whilst
others rely on the tension of a spring-type lock-washer to hold the nut tight
enough against the threads to prevent them from vibrating loose.
Sometimes, nuts that are plain with no locking devices are used and prevented
from coming undone, once they have been tightened, by the use of locking wire
attached to an adjacent nut or to the aircraft structure.
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There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and non self-locking. As the name
implies, a self-locking nut locks onto a bolt with no external help, whilst a non selflocking nut relies on either a split pin, lock-nut, locking washer or locking wire, to
stop it from undoing.
Standard Nuts
Figure 41
Another type of nut in general use is the Anchor nut. These are permanently
mounted on nut plates that enable inspection panels and access doors to be
easily removed and installed, without access being required on the reverse side
of the work. To make fitment of the panel easier when there is a large number of
screws, the nuts are often mounted 'floating' on their mounts, which allows for
small differences in the position of the attaching screws.
Although rarely used on large commercial airliners, Tinnerman nuts are
manufactured from sheet steel and are used mainly on light aircraft, for the fitting
of instruments into the flight deck panels, the attachment of inspection panels,
etc. Some light aircraft engine cowlings have U-type tinnerman nuts fitted over
the inner edge of the cowling frame. When the retaining screws are tightened,
spring action holds them tightly and safely in place.
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Examples of self-locking nuts, anchor nuts and U-type tinnerman nuts are shown
in figures 42 and 43 below.
Self Locking and Anchor Nuts

Figure 42
U-Type Tinnerman Nut

Figure 43
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2.6.16 ADHESIVE BONDED STRUCTURES
Adhesive Bonding is the technique of joining materials using special adhesives.

In the past a common type of adhesive widely used in metal to metal joints was
the Redux epoxy resin system. Redux is the trade name for a range of
adhesives produced by the Ciba-Geigy company and the epoxy bonding
procedure in general, refers to a hot-melt, hot-cure adhesive, which is available in
partly cured strips or sheets.
Note: This type of epoxy resin is also used to provide the reinforcement for fibre
composite construction and has already been covered as a separate topic in
Module 6.
In metal to metal bonding, the sheets of partly cured adhesive, which at this stage
resemble strips of chewing gum, are cut to exact size. With the backing paper
peeled away, they are carefully placed between each of the components being
joined together and the joint securely clamped. The complete assembly, which for
example might consist of a wing skin with all its stringers and ribs in place, is then
loaded into an autoclave (pressure cooker) to complete the curing process. The
adhesive melts and flows evenly into the narrow gaps between the component
parts and cures to produce a very strong bond.
In the autoclave the temperature limits are strictly controlled, (typically not above
100-150C, depending on type of adhesive used), and subjected to a constant
clamping force (usually by a vacuum process), resulting in perfect bonded joints
which are as strong as, or stronger than, equivalent riveted joints. For composite
repairs, figure 45, a portable Autoclave process is employed.
There are a number of aircraft, in which the majority of the primary metal
structure is joined together entirely with adhesive bonding, with very few rivets
being used. The Fokker 50/70/100 and BAe 146/RJ are good examples of aircraft
employing this technique extensively. In fact British Aerospace claims that by
using adhesive bonding techniques on the BAe 146/RJ airframe, over 10,000
rivets are not required. This means the weight of the rivets, the work that would
be expended in closing them and the risk of subsequent in-service cracks (see
Figure 44) emanating from rivet holes, are all saved on each airframe.
A further important advantage of using adhesively bonded structures, is improved
sealing of integral fuel tanks, eliminating the leakage problems that are typical of
riveted assemblies.
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Comparison between Machined and Bonded Structure Failure Rates

Figure 44
Autoclave Curing Process During Composite Repair

Figure 45
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2.6.17 METHODS OF SURFACE PROTECTION
As mentioned in an earlier chapter, there are many different types of surface

protection added to the basic structural materials and hardware.
Anodising
A method of protecting aluminium based alloys from corrosion, especially when
cladding is impractical, is by a process called Anodising. This is an electrolytic
treatment which coats the host metal with a film of oxide. This film is hard,
waterproof, air-tight and to aid in identification of some parts, will permanently
accept a coloured dye. The film also acts as an insulator, so when bonding leads
are to be attached to an anodised part, the surface treatment must be carefully
removed before the bonding lead is attached. Finally, anodising a part also
provides an excellent base for the addition of an organic finish and bonding
adhesives.
There are a number of different organic finishes applied to aircraft to protect the
surfaces:
Synthetic Enamel.- An older finish which cures by the process of oxidation It has
a good surface finish, but is poor when it comes to its resistance to chemicals or
wear.
Acrylic Lacquer.- A popular finish in the mass production market, easy to apply
and has a fairly good resistance to chemical attack and weather.
Polyurethane.- One of the most durable finishes which has high resistance to
wear, fading and chemicals. It also has a 'wet look'.
Chromating
Chromate coatings are used to protect Magnesium-based alloys, as well as zinc
and its alloys. Components are immersed in a bath containing potassium
bichromate and results in a yellowish coating on magnesium alloys. The coating
can be restored locally with Alocrom 1200 treatment.
Cladding
There are two metals most commonly alloyed with aluminium, to produce high
strength skin and component parts for aircraft manufacture. These are, Copper
and Zinc. These alloys suffer extensively from the effects of corrosion, so a
cladding technique is used as a form of corrosion protection. Alclad as it is
termed is a soft, highly corrosion-resistant, pure aluminium skin, rolled onto the
face of each base alloy sheet, effectively sandwiching the alloy.
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Surface Cleaning
Most aircraft will be cleaned before starting on large inspections, but it is common
sense to keep an aircraft clean all of the time. Dirt can cover up cracked or
damaged components as well as trap moisture and solvents which can lead to
corrosion.
Note: Materials mentioned in this chapter are only used as an example, each
aircraft type will have a list of suitable and prohibited materials in its maintenance
manuals (AMM).
Exterior Cleaning
Exterior cleaning is an important facet of corrosion control, but there are a
number of points which must first be protected from cleaning materials and high
pressure water sprays. The pitot tubes and static vents must be properly blanked
off to prevent water ingress and the wheels, tyres and brake assemblies need to
be covered to keep them free of aggressive cleaning agents.
Only cleaning agents and chemicals recommended by the manufacturer are to
used. for the job in hand or the risk of serious contamination may result. One of
the unseen effects of using non-approved cleaning agents is hydrogen
embrittlement. This is caused by hydrogen from the agent being absorbed into
the metal, causing minute cracks and will lead to stress corrosion failure.
Aircraft should ideally be washed on a proper platform with suitable drains. It is
better if the outside air temperature is not too high, so the cleaning agent does
not evaporate. Typically, a mix of water and an emulsion-type cleaner, to a ratio
of between 3:1 and 5:1 is applied, allowed to soak for a few minutes and then
rinsed off with a high pressure stream of water.
Engine cowlings and wheel well areas usually have grease, oil or brake dust
deposits that require special treatment. These require stronger mixtures ratios
and scrubbing with a soft bristle brush to loosen the dirt before rinsing off with a
high pressure water jet. It must be borne in mind however, that oil and grease
could be accidentally removed from places where they are meant to be, for
example in wheel bearings etc. These will often require re-lubrication after
washing has been completed.
Exhaust residue from both piston and jet engines is very corrosive and must be
removed on a regular basis. These deposits usually require a special proprietary
solvent to mix with the water. Sometimes a simple emulsified mix of kerosene
and water may be approved. Dry-cleaning solvent or naptha is sometimes used
for oil and grease removal. Some naptha compounds are harmless to rubber or
acrylic items, whilst others will attack these same materials, so only approved
specifications are to be used.
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2.6.18 EXTERIOR FINISH MAINTENANCE
All materials used on the exterior of an aircraft must be approved by the

manufacturer of that aircraft to ensure no abrasives or solvents are applied where
they can do damage.
Non-Metallic Cleaning
Non-metallic components sometimes require different cleaning techniques from
metal parts. For example, the slightest amount of dust on plastic or acrylic panels
will scratch and severely reduce the optical quality if rubbed with a dry cloth. This
can also build up a static charge and attract more dust so the correct procedure
in this situation is to wash down, rinse with water without rubbing with a cloth. Oil
and hydraulic fluid also attack rubber components such as tyres, so any spillages
must be cleaned up immediately. Neoprene rubber leading-edge de-icer boots
and composite structures are other examples of parts that need special cleaning
procedures, all of which will be detailed in the AMM.
Engine Cleaning
Apart from external cleaning carried out on the engine cowlings, with the
associated protection of electrical components; gas turbine engines are regularly
washed internally to remove the deposits of dust, sand and salt, that tend to
accumulate on internal parts of the engine.
This coating if not removed, can have a serious effect on the engine's
performance. Indeed, the output of the engine could fall below the manufacturers
minimum figures, resulting in an unscheduled and expensive engine change
Alignment and Symmetry
Aircraft can have abnormal occurrences during their life, when for example, a
very heavy landing could occur, some accidental external damage or the need to
replace a major component, etc. All of these instances will require special checks
to be carried out to guarantee that the aircraft is perfectly symmetrical and
aligned before its next flight.
The checks consist of measuring very accurately from a number of datum points
on the airframe, such as from wing tips, the nose, the horizontal stabiliser and the
top of the vertical stabiliser. The checks vary, depending on the aircraft
manufacturers requirements, but all ensure that measurements taken on the lefthand side of the aircraft are within a minimum tolerance of the measurements
from the right-hand side. These checks are usually taken with the aircraft on
jacks and in the rigging position, ie: a nominally level in flight attitude.
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On light aircraft, these measurements are usually taken using a surveyors tape
measure. (It is a check of comparison, not of outright measurement). As the
aircraft get larger, optical theodolite style methods are used. These can be a
microscopic level with the use of sighting rods or even a laser ranging alignment
device.
Deeper checks that are carried out after any of the above mentioned situations,
as well as on a routine basis, include checks on the wing, tail and control
surfaces to ensure that they are set at the correct angles. These checks are
usually known as 'rigging checks' and are carried out using purpose built levelling
boards and an accurate measuring device known as a Clinometer.
Rigging Checks - Older Aircraft

Figure 46
Symmetry Checks Modern Aircraft

Figure 47
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Contents
3
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - AEROPLANES .............................. 3-3

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
FUSELAGE ................................................................................... 3-3

3.1.1
Truss Fuselage Construction ........................................ 3-3
3.1.2
Truss Fuselage - Warren Truss ..................................... 3-3
3.1.3
Stressed Skin Structure................................................. 3-4
3.1.4
Pressurised Structure .................................................... 3-5
3.1.5
Attachments .................................................................. 3-6
3.1.6
Passengers and Cargo ................................................. 3-9
3.1.7
Doors ............................................................................ 3-10
3.1.8
Windows and Windscreens ........................................... 3-12
WINGS ......................................................................................... 3-14
3.2.1
Construction .................................................................. 3-14
3.2.2
Fuel Storage ................................................................. 3-16
3.2.3
Landing Gear ................................................................ 3-18
3.2.4
Pylons ........................................................................... 3-19
3.2.5
Control Surface and High Lift/Drag Attachments ........... 3-20
STABILISERS ................................................................................ 3-21
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES ........................................................ 3-22
NACELLES AND PYLONS ................................................................ 3-23
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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - AEROPLANES
3.1 FUSELAGE
The fuselage of a light aircraft is the body of the aircraft, to which the wings, tail,
landing gear and engines may be attached. Larger aircraft can have their main
landing gear attached to the wings and, on multiple engined aircraft, a number of
the power-plants can be wing mounted also.
The loads produced either on the ground or in flight, will at some time, have to
pass through the fuselage. In order to absorb these tremendous loads imposed
upon the structure, the fuselage must have maximum strength, but this must be
combined with the other constraint, that of minimum weight.
There are two types of construction found in the majority of modern aircraft
fuselage design, the truss and the stressed skin type.
3.1.1 TRUSS FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
By definition, a truss is a form of construction in which a number of members (or

struts), are joined to form a rigid structure normally covered with non-load
carrying material such as cloth, fabric or thin sheets of wood.
Very early aircraft used a method of construction referred to as a Pratt Truss,
where struts were held in compression, and wires, which ran diagonally between
the struts, were in tension.
Truss Fuselage The Pratt Truss

Figure 1
3.1.2 TRUSS FUSELAGE - WARREN TRUSS
When fuselages were subsequently made from welded tubes, the Warren Truss
became popular. In this arrangement, shown overleaf, the longerons are
separated by diagonal members which carry both compressive and tensile loads.
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Warren Truss
Figure 2
3.1.3 STRESSED SKIN STRUCTURE
The neccessity of having to build a non-load-carrying covering over a structural

truss led to designers to develop the stressed skin form of construction. In this
method, a proportion of the load is carried by the outside skin, which can be also
be formed into a much smoother and more efficient shape.
The commonest form of a stressed skin structure is a chicken egg (pure
monocoque). The seemingly fragile shell can resist high loads, as long as they
are applied in a proper direction.
Pure-Monocoque Structure
This form of stressed skin construction is rarely seen in its purest form, because it
is normal to add some form of light internal structure to help support the skin.
However, there are some aircraft (normally gliders and sailplanes) made from
glass reinforced plastic (GRP), which are constructed as a pure monocoque
structure. In this design, the GRP skin is quite thick, often with a core of some
other lightweight material such as balsa wood or composite honeycomb, so there
is no need for any internal, supporting structure.
Semi-Monocoque Structure
This form of construction has a skin carrying a large amount of the loads, but with
an internal structure of frames and stringers to keep the skin to its correct shape,
where it can best carry the loads. Some have longerons which are more
substantial than stringers and carry most of the longitudinal structural loads, with
the frames carrying the radial loads.
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3.1.4 PRESSURISED STRUCTURE
High altitude flight places the occupants in a hostile environment in which life
cannot be sustained without oxygen. To avoid the need to wear oxygen masks,
the pressure in the cabin is raised higher than it is outside, which provides
sufficient oxygen in the air for the passengers to breathe normally.
In the 1950s, piston-engined aircraft, had a pressure differential across the cabin
wall about two pounds per square inch (psi) maximum. Modern aircraft cabins
can sustain a pressure differential between 8 and 10 psi, so there must not be
any part of the structure containing 'stress raisers' which would concentrate
stress to an unacceptable level. Much of the structure of modern aircraft has
been built to the 'fail safe' philosophy, in which the structure is built with multiple
load paths for the major stresses to pass through, to cater for the unlikely failure
of a single structural item.
Pressurisation Sealing
All joints in the structure, as well as openings such as doors, panels, emergency
exits, etc. must be completely airtight during flight, to prevent the cabin pressure
leaking below its required level. Joints are constructed with an interface of sealing
compound, whereas windows and doors employ pre-formed rubber seals around
their edges. The points where control tubes and cables pass in and out of the
pressure hull, utilise some form of flexible bellows which are leak proof but move
with the controls.
Pressurisation Sealing
Figure 3
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3.1.5 ATTACHMENTS
The fuselage can, as mentioned earlier, carry most of the major loads, both on
the ground and in flight. To this end, most of the other airframe components such
as the wing, stabilisers, pylon and undercarriage, can be fitted to the fuselage.
The wings can be mounted above or below the passenger compartment. As
already mentioned, wings are usually attached to the fuselage with multiple
attachments, although light aircraft may still have wings attached with as few as
two bolts.
Early High Stress Attachment

Figure 4
Multiple Fastener Wing Attachment

Figure 5
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The horizontal and vertical stabilisers can be fitted to the fuselage in numerous
different ways. When the horizontal stabiliser is fitted part-way up or on the top of
the vertical stabiliser, there will be only one strong attachment point. Otherwise,
there will be separate attachments for the fin and for the left and right tailplane
sections.
Where a moving horizontal stabiliser is employed, the attachment will consist of
left and right rear pivot fittings and a single forward attachment to a trim actuator.
On rare occasions, the rear fuselage is manufactured, together with the
stabilisers, as one integral unit. Because the loads generated by the empennage,
it is usual to find that the rear fuselage structure has stronger frames around the
stabiliser attachment points. These frames transmit the loads along the fuselage
and away from the tail.
The same technique is used when the engines are attached to wing or to rear
fuselage mounted pylons The Fokker 70/100, for example, has oblique frames to
connect the vertical stabiliser to the top mounted tailplane and to the fuselage,
plus two heavy frames to transmit all the engine thrust loads into the fuselage.
Strengthened Frames
Figure 6
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As previously mentioned, the landing gear can be attached either to the fuselage,
the wings, or within wing mounted engine nacelles. Because of the need for cabin
space, fuselage mounted landing gear on passenger and freight-carrying aircraft,
often have the main landing gears mounted in fairings or nacelles beneath the
fuselage as in the ATR-72, detailed below.
Faired ATR 72 landing Gear

Figure 7
The landing gear, as for the other attachments, is mounted on to strong fuselage
frames which in this case, are also used to mount the wings, attached above the
fuselage. The loads that these frames carry, both in flight and on the ground, are
transmitted into the fuselage by means of longitudinal stringers and longerons.
Fuselage Strong Points

Figure 8
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3.1.6 PASSENGERS AND CARGO
Aircraft that carry passengers as well as crew, all have to have seats that comply
with crashworthiness regulations. These regulations dictate that the seats with a
person correctly strapped in place, must be able to survive a sudden stop of over
20 times the force of gravity, (20g), without the floor mountings (to which the seat
is attached) failing, or the seat itself collapsing.
Although aircraft seats appear to resemble normal domestic seats, the tubular
framework and floor attachment 'feet' are very strong, yet are light in weight and
can be disconnected from the floor if necessary, by releasing a few quick-release
fasteners.
Passenger compartment floors of modern aircraft are often panels of the
composite material Fibrelam, which are strong enough to carry most of the
general loads created by passengers and galley equipment. The panels are
themselves supported by lateral and longitudinal beams, which are primary
structure, into which the panels fit. Lateral beams are attached to the lower
portion of the (usually) circular fuselage frames and longitudinal beams supported
by the lateral beams, are those upon which the seats are fitted.
Seat Track Fittings

Figure 9
The top of each longitudinal beam is fitted with location holes which are a
standard size and into which all seats are slotted. Additionally, the galleys and
bulkhead partitions can also be attached to them. The frequent and equal spacing
of the seat track attachment holes, allows the seats to be fitted at a variable
increment, or pitch, to cater for different classes of cabin (economy or first class).
On some aircraft, such as the Fokker 100, there are five longitudinal seat tracks
in the cabin floor which allow a five abreast seating to be installed (3+2 or 2+3),
with the off-set aisle on whichever side the customer wishes.
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Cargo Loading Systems

Aircraft which are used for carrying all or part freight loads have to have the floor
modified to allow the movement of pallets or containers.
Usually this will consist of substantial reinforcement of the flooring with tracks,
guides and rollers fitted, to allow safe and easy motorised movement up and
down the freight bay. In the entrance door area, a ball-mat is installed to allow
the freight to be easily loaded, rotated and man-handled on to the rollers.
3.1.7 DOORS
This topic covers most methods of entry and exit from the fuselage, including
those for passengers, crew, refreshments and meals, baggage and major
maintenance access. In addition, some doors are dedicated to emergencies only
and will therefore remain unused during normal operations.
If the aircraft has a cabin pressurisation system, the doors have to be more
substantial than for a non-pressurised type and be fitted with safety devices to
prevent accidental opening. One method to prevent this happening is allow the
door to open inwards so that the door 'plugs' the aperture when closed and is
held in place by the cabin pressure in addition to the door frame locating bolts.
Any door on pressurised aircraft that does open outwards, must have additional
devices and protection mechanisms fitted to prevent accidental opening and a
flight deck warning system to inform the crew if it is not properly closed and
secured.
Non-pressurised aircraft doors still have to be safe, with a system of handles and
latches that operate in a specific order or after the application of a certain force.
Doors on most aircraft are constructed in a similar way to the fuselage with an
inner and an outer skin and vertical and horizontal members. The sometimes
complex locking and latching mechanisms, plus the indicating and warning
electrical wiring systems are all contained within this structure.
Most fuselage doors are operated manually, but much larger freight/cargo doors
are either electrically or hydraulically operated. Another requirement on all cabin
doors, (normal exit/entry and emergency type) is the need for efficient emergency
egress in the event of a mishap on the ground. They must be operable by a
single handle whose operation shall be rapid and obvious. Most doors have
decals and large red arrows, to clearly indicate the way in which the handles are
to be rotated or moved to open the door.
Dedicated emergency exits are almost always 'plug' type and, therefore, cannot
be opened in flight due to the cabin pressure acting on door opening mechanism
(usually an over-centre type a cam arrangement) thus preventing handle rotation.
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Door Mechanism
Figure 10
Door Structure and Sealing

Figure 11
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To prevent leakage of the cabin pressure, all doors have to have a substantial
seal around their edges to keep the aperture between door and surrounding
fuselage frame airtight. Some seals just compress and fill the space when the
door is closed, others use cabin air to inflate and therefore expand the seal to
achieve the same result. Fig 11 shows a typical door seal arrangement.
3.1.8 WINDOWS AND WINDSCREENS
All the transparencies on non-pressurised aircraft are normally made from acrylic
or some other clear plastic material. On pressurised aircraft, flight deck
windscreens have to comply with very strict bird-strike regulations and are made
from a toughened sandwich of glass/plastic/glass The passenger cabin windows
are manufactured from acrylic, mylar or other plastics.
It must be considered that an aircraft travelling at 400 knots which collides with a
bird weighing 3kg, could suffer severe structural damage, engine failure and more
importantly, if the bird struck a windscreen and broke through, it could cause
serious injury. Furthermore, rapid decompression of the pressure cabin would
result. The regulations state that during testing, when a dead bird is fired at it
from a large air gun, the screen must be able to survive the impact.
Consequently, the glass/plastic/glass sandwich is fitted with a heating element
between the interface of the front glass panel and the plastic core. Not only does
the heater provide anti-icing protection, but helps absorb impact since it makes
the plastic core more pliable and shock absorbent. The section through a typical
windscreen below shows how the lamination of glass and plastic layers is
arranged.
Windscreen Construction
Figure 12
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Passenger cabin windows are almost always made from acrylic plastic. This
saves quite a lot of weight as well as cost. For added safety, the acrylic cabin
windows are actually two layers with a space in between, so that if one fails the
other will carry the pressurisation loads, a typical case of fail safe. In addition,
some cabin window assemblies have a third, pane of acrylic fitted to help reduce
the engine noise in the cabin from the power-plants outside.
Passenger Cabin Window

Figure 13
Most aircraft require one or more flight deck windows that can be opened for
signalling to the ground-crew, for fresh air ventilation if the air conditioning is 'off'
on the ground and to be able to see out in emergency situations, for example, the
windscreen becoming obliterated. To achieve this, aircraft are usually fitted with a
pair of opening front corner or side windows, sometimes called Direct Vision
windows. If the cabin is pressurised, they will be unable to be opened due to the
provision of a similar pressure on safety lock system as the cabin doors.
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3.2 WINGS
3.2.1 CONSTRUCTION
The methods by which the wings produce lift were covered in Module 8, so this
module will concentrate on wing construction and their attachments.
To classify the many types of wing it is best to break them down into different
groups. The first sub-division is either those that are externally braced or those
that are of cantilever construction. (no external bracing). In the early days the
majority of aircraft were constructed with the whole aircraft, including the wings,
being braced by wires and struts. These produced very high drag, although the
overall structural weight could be kept down.
As materials and the wing construction became stronger, the number of wires
were progressively reduced, until in the mid-1930's the first genuine fully
cantilever wings with no external bracing, were put into production. This does not
mean the bracing has been eliminated, it just means that all bracing is included
within the wing structure and made much stronger. Fig 14 below, shows how the
external bracing of a biplane has been replaced with more efficient internal
bracing on a cantilever wing.
Biplane and Cantilever Wing Bracing

Figure 14
To illustrate how complex the inside of even a small aircraft wing can be, the
following two pictures show the internal structure of both a wood and a metal
wing.
Internal Wing Structures Wood and Metal

Figure 15
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The heart of a wing is the spar (or spars), to which are attached the ribs stringers
and other structural items. The number of spars is decided by the designer or
design team, but modern airliners normally have two. It is usual to attach landing
gears, primary flying controls, leading and trailing edge devices, to one or other of
the spars within the wing on larger aircraft.
Simpler wings on, for example, a light aircraft, will have only one main spar but
some aircraft can have up to five, which has a measure of 'fail safe' philosophy. If
military aircraft are considered, some modern fighters can have more than 15
spars as part of the damage tolerant design application.
Wing planforms can show an infinite number of different shapes, that are purpose
built and satisfactory for providing lift. These could be generally grouped into
straight, swept, delta and combination wings. Straight wings include those with a
slightly swept leading edge, trailing edge or both.
Swept wings are usually categorised as those with both leading and trailing
edges swept back, at a variety of different angles, whilst the delta-winged shape
(from the Greek for triangle) is self-explanatory.
Under the cover-all title of 'Combination', the selection of silhouettes below should
give an idea of the wide range of wings that can be found on modern day aircraft,
in addition to the more conventional planforms mentioned above.
Wing Planforms
Figure16
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3.2.2 FUEL STORAGE
Rigid Tanks
Because of their shape, wings are often designed to be used for fuel storage.
They can either contain separate fuel tanks within the wing structure, or use the
wing structure itself, suitably sealed, to make integral tanks.
Separate internal tanks are usually manufactured from either light alloy or from
flexible, rubberised fabric. Rigid light alloy tanks are first riveted, then welded to
make them fuel tight and are securely clamped into the wing structure by straps
or tie bars. They will often have baffles inside, to prevent fuel surge from one end
of the tank to the other.
Rigid Fuel tank

Figure 17
Flexible Fuel tank

Figure 18
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Flexible Tanks
Flexible tanks, (Fig 18), also referred to as 'bladder' tanks, have to be located
snugly into the tank bay within the wing, because the sides of the bay provide
support to the relatively weak tank skin. Older types of flexible tanks were made
from rubber- covered fabric. These days the fabric is replaced by man-made
fibres, impregnated with neoprene or some similar fuel tight material.
Integral Tanks
Integral fuel tanks are found on most, if not all, modern commercial aircraft.
During manufacture, practically the entire wing structure becomes a box,
comprising front and rear spars, top and bottom wing skins, inboard and outboard
sealed ribs, into which are installed pumps, drains, filler caps and vents.
The main advantage of the integral tank, is that it provides maximum fuel capacity
for the minimum amount of weight and the only sealing required, is that applied to
the seams after construction is completed.
Boeing 737 Integral Fuel Tank capacities

Figure19
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3.2.3 LANDING GEAR
As mentioned earlier, the attachments for major components can often be strong
points on the wing spars, or even a separate spar built specifically for that
purpose.. One such component that falls into this category is the main landing
gear, otherwise known as the undercarriage. On some very large aircraft, like the
Boeing 747 or Airbus A340, additional body gears, as well as conventional wing
gears are to be found. These have to have reinforcements built into the lower
fuselage structure to absorb the extreme loads at touch down.
Landing Gear Attachments

Figure 20
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3.2.4 PYLONS
Many aircraft have engines mounted on pylons attached to the wing. With this so
called podded engine configuration, the pylons have to take very large thrust
forces from the engines and transfer it to the airframe. This is normally achieved
by attaching the engine to strong points on the pylon and attaching the pylon to
the wing spars. Thrust links are then fixed to the engine frame and the wing spars
to transfer the engine thrust efficiently. Pylons must be positioned low enough so
that the engine exhaust doesnt strike the wing structure, but not too close to the
ground to risk a runway scrape. The Boeing 737-600 is a fine example of this
compromise.
Pylon Engine mounting

Figure 21
Turbo-Propeller Mounting
Figure 22
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Boeing 737-600 Engine Pylon Mountings

Figure 23
3.2.5 CONTROL SURFACE AND HIGH LIFT/DRAG ATTACHMENTS
SR
99
All of the flying controls on the wing will be attached to strong points on either the
front or rear spars. This includes high and low speed ailerons, leading and trailing
edge flaps, slats, roll spoilers, speed brakes and lift dumpers. The wing structure
must therefore be made strong enough not only to carry the lift forces in flight but
the additional loads of pilot control inputs, additional drag devices, etc.
Consequently, the spars, are always the strongest part of the wing structure.
Control Surface mountings - Wings

Figure24
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3.3 STABILISERS
The vertical stabiliser (fin) produces directional or lateral stability, whilst the
horizontal stabiliser (tailplane) produces longitudinal stability. As was mentioned
in the aerodynamics section, these surfaces are of similar construction to the
wings with spars, ribs, stringers etc,. They have to resist the twisting forces from
the control surfaces mounted on the trailing edges. In many cases, the fin is
similar to one half of the tailplane and on a number of light aircraft, it is actually
constructed in this way, thereby simplifying production and component parts.
Light aircraft have stabilisers manufactured from welded tube or fabricated from
thin aluminium sheet of simple construction. As the aircraft size and weight
increases, the surfaces will be made from stronger milled or machined skins and
forged spars. Below can be seen examples of the empennage of light aircraft,
Piper Cub and Cherokee and Cessna 150, showing their simple construction.
Empennage Construction
Figure 25
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3.4 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

The construction of most flight control surfaces is critical, since the designer
wants to make them as light as possible. The control surfaces in the early years
of aviation were a light, tubular frame covered with fabric and in later years when
light alloy was adopted the quest for lightness continued. Today, metallic
structures with honeycomb cores or epoxy reinforced composite construction are
utilised for most control surfaces. The control surfaces are attached to the wing,
fin or stabiliser by hinges, the spars being reinforced where these attachments
are located.
The cutaway below shows an elevator from a Fokker 100 and it can be seen that
the construction is very similar to other main surfaces. The only difference is that
the rear half of the surface has no internal framework but instead, a core of
shaped aluminium honeycomb with the skin adhesively-bonded to it.
Elevator Structure
Figure 26
To prevent the risk of flutter, as previously described, the ailerons, elevator and
rudder, are all constructed so that the part of the surface behind the hinge line, is
as light as possible and a number of calibrated weights are added to the leading
edge of the surface. These weights are known as mass balance weights, (see
cutaway above) and the procedure is known as mass balancing.
In addition to mass balancing, surfaces that do not have the benefit of hydraulic
power assistance, (see later) and are difficult to move when the aircraft is at high
speed, have the benefit of aerodynamic balancing. To achieve this simply and as
previously discussed, the hinge of the control is inset, so that part of the surface
in front of the hinge line projects into the airstream, when the control is deflected
from neutral.
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3.5 NACELLES AND PYLONS

It has been mentioned previously, how the nacelles and pylons are attached to
the wings, generally and to other parts of the airframe on selected aircraft. The
main purpose of all these engine fairings is to keep the engines outside of the
airframe itself. There are several reasons for this, but the major reasons are that
it is safer, in the event of a fire or explosion, if it isolated from the fuselage or the
wings by firewalls. Also, it is much easier for routine maintenance and engine
changes, if the engine is externally mounted.
Most nacelles are simply fairings which cover the power-plant in a streamlined
manner, although, they usually also serve as the intake for jet and turbo-propeller
engines. Most are covered by large, easy-to-open doors and panels, which allow
quick and easy access. On some designs there can be smaller, quick release
panels fitted into the larger ones, which allow access for maintenance, such as oil
level quantity indicators, which need to be checked every time the engines are
shut down.
On light aircraft, engine nacelles are usually fairly simple GRP fairings which are
split into two parts and removed by releasing a few screws or quick release
fasteners. These also contain a small intake for the air to reach the carburettor of
the piston engine.
On many larger aircraft, particularly those with fan bypass engines, are fitted with
thrust reversers as part of the cowlings. These are usually doors which translate
rearwards and open up panels containing cascade vanes, which re-direct the
exhaust thrust in a forward direction, when reverse thrust is selected after
landing. These will be covered later in the power-plants chapter.
Although they are much more efficient that the older designs, modern jet engines
produce harmful high frequency noise. One way that the noise may be kept below
the safe and legal minimum, is by making the cowlings out of honeycomb
sandwich, which as well as being very light in weight is excellent at absorbing
sound. The honeycomb can be manufactured from glass or carbon fibre and
covered with composite or light alloy skin facing panels.
The pylons which support the engines fitted on to the wings or the rear fuselage
all have one main purpose, which is to transmit the full thrust of the engines into
the airframe. They must be extremely strong and yet flexible, as the wing mounts
especially have to move with the flexing of the wings.
On many large aircraft, the space within the pylons is utilised to fit such
components as heat exchangers, (radiators); air valves; fuel valves; pipes
containing air, oil and fuel and electric cabling.
All engines must be isolated from the rest of the aircraft, so that a fire can be
completely contained within the nacelle and extinguished if the aircraft is
equipped a fire extinguishing system. To this end, there will be a sealed bulkhead
or divider between the engine and the airframe made of a fire resistant material
such as titanium or stainless steel.
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All engines are subject to vibration that can be sensed inside the aircraft. To
reduce this, the engine mounts are designed not only to hold the engine securely
and to transmit the thrust, but the mounts themselves are fabricated with a shock
absorbing material. This is usually an elastomeric or metallic woven block and will
absorb a large proportion of the vibration providing the passengers and crew with
a smooth flight.
Typical Fan Engine Cowlings

Figure 27
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Cowling and Pylon Fairing Installation

Figure 28
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AIR CONDITIONING AND
CABIN PRESSURISATION
CONTENTS
4
AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION ............... 4-1

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 4-1

AIR SUPPLY ................................................................................. 4-1
4.2.1
Engine Bleed Air (compression) .................................... 4-1
4.2.2
Air Compressors or Blowers .......................................... 4-2
4.2.3
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) ........................................... 4-2
4.2.4
Ram Air ......................................................................... 4-3
4.2.5
Ground Cart .................................................................. 4-3
COOLING ..................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.1
Air Cycle Cooling........................................................... 4-4
4.3.2
Vapour Cycle Cooling ................................................... 4-9
HEATING ...................................................................................... 4-11
4.4.1
Exhaust Heating Systems ............................................. 4-11
4.4.2
Combustion Heating Systems ....................................... 4-12
TEMPERATURE CONTROL ............................................................. 4-12
HUMIDITY CONTROL ..................................................................... 4-14
4.6.1
Water Separation Water Extractor .............................. 4-14
4.6.2
Water Infiltration ............................................................ 4-17
MASS FLOW CONTROL ................................................................. 4-18
4.7.1
Mass Flow Controller .................................................... 4-18
4.7.2
Spill Valve Flow Controller ............................................ 4-19
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ............................................................... 4-20
4.8.1
Re-circulation Air System .............................................. 4-23
PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS .......................................................... 4-23
4.9.1
Control And Indication ................................................... 4-26
4.9.2
The Un-Pressurised Mode ............................................ 4-26
4.9.3
The Isobaric Mode ........................................................ 4-27
4.9.4
The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode ..................... 4-27
4.9.5
Cabin Air Pressure Regulator ........................................ 4-27
4.9.6
Isobaric Control System ................................................ 4-28
4.9.7
Differential Control System ............................................ 4-29
4.9.8
Safety Valves ................................................................ 4-31
ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION CONTROL ...................................... 4-31
4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel.............................................. 4-32
4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller....................................... 4-33
4.10.3 Outflow Valve ................................................................ 4-33
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves ..................... 4-34
CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION ....................................................... 4-35
SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES .................................................. 4-36
4.12.1 Overheating .................................................................. 4-36
4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage .................................................... 4-37
4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude ................................................... 4-37
4.12.4 Smoke Detection ........................................................... 4-37
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MODULE 11.04
4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere above10,000ft is too thin and cold for normal breathing.
Passenger carrying aircraft, operating above this height need an air conditioning
and pressurisation system. The temperature of the air passing through the
passenger cabin, flight deck and other compartments must be strictly controlled,
as well as flow rate and level of humidity.
Cabin temperature will normally be maintained between 15 and 30 degrees
Celsius. Additionally, a controlled amount of pressurisation is necessary, so that
the air pressure in the passenger cabin and adjacent areas does not exceed the
equivalent of the ambient air pressure at 8000ft.
Air conditioning is also essential for un-pressurised aircraft types.
A typical air conditioning and pressurisation system comprises eight principle
sub-systems:
Air Supplies (Pneumatics ATA 36)

Cooling
Heating
Temperature Control
Humidity Control
Mass Flow Control
Distribution
Pressurisation
4.2 AIR SUPPLY

The source of fresh air supply and arrangement of essential components will vary
between aircraft type and each air conditioning system, but in general one of the
following methods described in the following paragraphs will be adopted:
4.2.1 Engine Bleed Air (compression)
This method is the most common and is installed on the majority of modern
aircraft types. Very hot air is tapped from the main engine compressor stages and
supplied to the cabin, flight deck and other areas. Before the air enters the cabin,
it is passed through a temperature control system, which reduces its temperature
and pressure. Additionally, a means of flow control is utilised and in some aircraft,
humidity control forms part of the system. (See Fig 1)
In pressurised aircraft, the discharge of the conditioned air is regulated to
maintain the cabin pressure at the selected pressure altitude.
Issue 1 - 20 March 2001
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MODULE 11.04
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT
NON RETURN VALVE
SHUT OFF VALVES

FLOW CONTROLLER
ECU
TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE
NRV
SECONDARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
PRIMARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
NRV
WATER SEPARATOR
COUPLED COMPRESSOR TURBINE
Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System

Figure 1
4.2.2 Air Compressors or Blowers

This method is used on turbo-prop, piston engine or even turbo-jet aircraft where
main engine compressor bleed is unavailable or unsuitable.
Normally the compressor or blower will be mechanically driven from the
accessory gearbox of the main engine and its air supply routed via a temperature
control system, in a similar manner to the engine bleed method.
4.2.3 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
The APU is a small gas turbine engine, which can be connected into the main air
supply system and provide an independent means of air conditioning and
pressurisation, either on the ground or in flight, when the main engines cannot
supply. It will utilise the engine bleed air principle outlined above.
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4.2.4 Ram Air
This method is normally found as the primary ventilation system on unpressurised aircraft. A ram air scoop placed directly into the airflow, will provide
the means of air supply as the aircraft moves forward.
Since the air at altitude will be cold, the temperature control system through
which it passes before entering the cabin, will normally be a form of heater.
A self-contained combustion type heater will be employed, or the some form of
exhaust gas heater. The air conditioning ducting will be routed around the
combustion heater casing or around engine exhaust duct to obtain convection
heating.
On pressurised aircraft, a ram air system can be used as a means of emergency
ventilation, following a complete loss of the main system.
RAM AIR
COLD AIR OUTLETS
DEMISTER
WARM AIR OUTLETS
EXHAUST
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
FUEL SOLENOID VALVE
ENGINE DRIVEN AIR BLOWER

AIR SUPPLY
FUEL SUPPLY
OFF
ON
Typical Combustion Heater System

Figure 2
COMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

4.2.5 Ground Cart
This will be an independent means of heating or cooling the passenger cabin on
the ground. It can be used on aircraft that do not have an APU. The trolley will be
connected externally to the aircraft, via a purpose built inlet into the air
conditioning system and normally employs a combustion type heater and the
means to control the output of the air temperature from a control panel the cart.
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4.3 COOLING
When bleed air is used as the air supply, the air tapped off the engine
compressor can reach a temperature in excess of 300 degrees Celsius.
This is obviously far too hot to be fed directly into the air-conditioned areas, so it
must first be cooled down to around 20 degrees Celsius.
There are two main methods of cooling;
Air Cycle and Vapour Cycle cooling systems.
4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling
Air cycle cooling relies on three basic principles; surface heat exchange,
expansion and energy conversion.
Surface heat exchange, provides cooling by passing the air tapped from the
engine compressor (charge air) across some form of heat exchanger. The charge
air is subjected to the effect of a colder cross flow, normally ambient air, scooped
by an intake and passed across the heat exchanger as the aircraft moves forward
(ram air). Although 90% of heat is given up in this way, the charge air
temperature can never be reduced below the ram air temperature by this method
alone.
Expansion, provides cooling when the pressure of the charge air is reduced by
increasing its velocity and expanding it across the turbine of a so-called Air Cycle
Machine (ACM) or Cold Air Unit (CAU). In this way, the temperature of the charge
air can be rapidly lowered to zero degrees Celsius, irrespective of the ram air
temperature
Energy Conversion, cools by making the hot air do work. This is achieved by
using the charge air to drive a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor or fan within the cold air unit, thus converting heat energy into kinetic
energy. This method will also help to reduce the charge air to zero degrees
Celsius.
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HOT AIR INLET
PRIMARY
HEAT
EXCHANGER
SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVE
WATER SEPARATOR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 3
4.3.1.1
HEAT EXCHANGERS
These are components within the air conditioning system that transfer heat from
one gas stream to another. Ram air is used as the cooling medium to cool the
very hot charge air ducted from the engine compressor or the gearbox mounted
air compressor or blower.
Depending on where they are placed within the air conditioning system, heat
exchangers are often described as;
A Pre-cooler or Primary Heat Exchanger
An Inter-cooler or Secondary Heat Exchanger

The basic construction is a sealed unit containing a series of cooling passages;
through which the charge air flows and over which the ram air is directed.
Between these passages are thin corrugated strips, that also serve to dissipate
heat as the ram air passes over them.
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4.3.1.2
AIR CYCLE MACHINE (ACM) OR COLD AIR UNIT (CAU)
The ACM/CAU is the primary component in an air cycle cooling system. A

number of different types can be found including;
The turbo-compressor, the brake turbine and the turbo-fan.
All three use the charge air to drive the turbine and the major differences between
each type, relates to the overall weight for a given mass flow, the size and
method of dissipating the power output of the turbine.
TO
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
DIFFUSER
FROM
INTERCOOLER
NOZZLE BLADES
BLEED AIR
COMPRESSOR
TO INTERCOOLER
TURBO COMPRESSOR
Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit
Figure 4
The turbo-compressor type consists of a turbine driving a centrifugal compressor

and operating in conjunction with an inter-cooler connected between the
compressor and turbine stages.
Its basic construction consists of two main casings, the turbine volute and
compressor volute casings. The two casings are connected together and enclose
a bearing housing with two bearing assemblies, supporting a shaft upon which
the turbine and compressor wheels are mounted.
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The turbine wheel revolves within a nozzle ring and the compressor wheel rotates
within a diffuser ring. The very hot charge air from the engine compressor bleed
and routed via the pre-cooler, enters the eye of the ACM/CAU compressor. It
becomes compressed on passing through the diffuser ring, increasing its
temperature and energy.
From the compressor, the hot air is directed across the inter-cooler matrix over
which ram air passes and is then directed into the turbine volute nozzle ring,
where it drives the turbine. The resultant expansion and energy conversion,
rapidly lowers the air pressure and temperature.
It is then directed towards the passenger cabin. (See Fig 3)
The ACM/CAU compressor and turbine wheels rotate at extremely high speeds,
often in excess of 80,000 rpm, so efficient bearing lubrication is essential to
ensure smooth and trouble-free running.
Two lubrication methods are used; Integral wet sump arrangements, or
pressurised air bearings that need no oil lubrication.
The wet sump type normally has a sump containing oil and a means of metering
it to the bearings usually by the use of integral wicks or with an oil slinger that
pumps an optimum oil/air mix to the bearings. This ensures the correct amount of
oil at the bearings at all times. Oil replenishment is critical however, as too much
oil will lead to the charge air being oil contaminated and too little oil, may result in
a premature seizure of the rotating shaft.
The air bearing type uses a pressurised air supply to support the shaft in a similar
manner to the hovercraft principal. As the rotor floats on a thin layer of air, it is
essential that this type is kept clean and dry and completely free from oil and
grease.
AMBIENT AIR OUTLET
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
TO
CABIN
AMBIENT AIR INLET
HEAT EXCHANGER
MIXER
UNIT
BLEED
AIR
CONTROL VALVE
RAM AIR
Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit

Figure 5
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The brake-turbine type of ACM/CAU, has its charge air routed directly from the
pre-cooler to drive the turbine. The air expands across the turbine as before,
resulting in a large temperature and pressure drop. Since this layout dispenses
with the need for an inter-cooler, it results in a greater efficiency due to weight
saving. To safeguard against the turbine rotating too fast, it is coupled with a
compressor, which rotates in ambient air and consequently acts as a braking
medium. Additionally, the slower rotation of the shaft further improves turbine
output efficiency. (See Fig 5)
BLEED AIR
RAM AIR OUTLET
TURBINE
RAM
AIR
TO CABIN
MIXER UNIT
LARGE FAN
HEAT
EXCHANGER
CONTROL VALVE
Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit

Figure
6
TURBO FAN
COLD
AIR
UNIT
The turbo-fan type is mechanically similar to the brake-turbine arrangement. In

this case however, the turbine drives a large centrifugal fan instead of a normal
compressor. The fan is draws a large quantity of ambient air over the pre-cooler,
which cools the incoming charge air.
The major advantage of this type over the other two, is that with the fan-induced
airflow over the pre-cooler, it can be used with the aircraft stationary on the
ground with the aircraft engines running. It does not need to rely solely on ram air
as the cooling medium for the pre-cooler.
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MODULE 11.04
4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling

The vapour cycle cooling system can be used as an alternative to the air cycle
cooling system. Although not commonly used these days for air conditioning
systems, the system may be used as the means to remove heat from electrical
and electronic equipment.
The system relies on the principle of the ability of a refrigerant to absorb heat
when changing from a liquid to a gas, through the process of vaporisation or
expansion.
For example, if you were to put a drop of a highly volatile liquid such as
methylated spirits or petrol on the back of you hand, it will feel cold. This is
because the liquid starts to evaporate and draws the heat necessary for
evaporation from your hand. Liquids with a low boiling point have a stronger
tendency to evaporate at normal temperatures than those with a high boiling
point.
Furthermore, the amount of pressure acting on a liquid substance will affect its
state. A sufficient reduction in pressure will cause any liquid to change state into
a vapour or a gas. Conversely, a corresponding increase in pressure will reverse
the process.
CONDENSER
RAM AIR
RECIEVER DRYER
THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION VALVE
AIR SUPPLY
CAPILLARY TUBE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
EVAPORATOR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVES
AIR DISTRIBUTION
Schematic Vapour Cycle System

Figure 7
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MODULE 11.04
The major components of a typical system are a liquid receiver, a thermostatic

expansion valve, an evaporator, a turbo-compressor, a condenser and a
condenser fan. Often these components are mounted close together to form a
line-replaceable refrigeration pack or vapour cycle cooling pack.
The liquid receiver acts as a reservoir and provides storage for the refrigerant,
normally a highly volatile chemical such as Freon. The refrigerant will pass from
the liquid receiver to a thermostatic expansion valve where it is metered and
released into the evaporator. The very hot charge air from the main engine bleed
flows across the evaporator, releases heat that vaporises the liquid refrigerant
and passes into the passenger cabin at a much lower temperature.
Meanwhile, the now vaporised refrigerant gas is directed towards the turbocompressor. It is drawn into the compressor wheel, the coupled turbine of which
is driven by the main engine bleed air. (Note: In some cases, an independent
means instead of a turbo-compressor may be used to compress the refrigerant
gas, such as an electric motor, as in a domestic refrigerator).
The refrigerant gas leaves the compressor at a high pressure and temperature
and passes across the matrix of the condenser. The gas is cooled by the ram air,
flowing across the matrix and so condenses back into a liquid once again. It then
returns to the liquid receiver to repeat the refrigeration cycle once again.
The condenser fan is used to induce air across the condenser matrix when the
aircraft is stationary on the ground and no ram air is available.
Typical Vapour Cycle System

Figure 8
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MODULE 11.04
4.4 HEATING
Un-pressurised aircraft use a ram-air system for ventilation. At altitude, the ramair passing through the cabin would be very cold, so a heating system is required.
Heating systems can be generally divided into two types:
Exhaust heating systems
Combustion heating systems
4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems
In its simplest form, this type of heating system employs a heater muff that
surrounds the exhaust pipes coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of a
turbo-jet. A ram air scoop at the forward end of the heater muff allows some of
the cold air to go to directly to a mixing valve.
The remainder, enters the muff and surrounds the exhaust/jet pipes. Heat from
the pipes is transferred into the ram air and carried to the mixing valve. The
heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the combined flow is directed
into the passenger cabin.
Some form of control lever, operated from within the aircraft and connected to the
mixing valve, allows the proportion of hot and cold air to be modulated in order to
suit the cabin heating requirements.
To cater for the possibility of the ventilation air becoming contaminated from the
exhaust pipes, some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide detectors within
the cabin area. These are indicators filled with brightly coloured crystals, which
turn black if exposed to dangerous levels of carbon monoxide.
Exhaust System Heater

Figure 9
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MODULE 11.04
4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems

This system uses a purpose built combustion chamber heater assembly to
provide the heat source, rather than the previously described exhaust heating
method. Fuel is directed from the aircraft fuel system, through a pressure
regulating and shut off valve that ensures the fuel is at the correct pressure for
atomisation. Other components include a fuel filter, a fuel pump and spray nozzle,
where it is atomised and ignited with an igniter plug. The combustion chamber
assembly heats up the ram air that passes around it.
Typical Combustion Heater System

Figure 10
4.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL
In order to operate the aircraft in an infinite number of climatic and operating
conditions, the temperature in the passenger cabin, flight compartment and other
areas needs to be regulated for comfort.
Temperature regulation for the majority of aircraft that employ the engine bleed
air method is usually accomplished by controlling the proportion of hot and cold
air coming from the air supply system. An electric motor driving a double butterfly
type air mixing valve, regulates the cabin temperature, by allowing a controlled
amount of hot air to by-pass the air cycle system. This air is then recombined in
proper proportions with the cold air that has been directed through the air cycle
system at a down stream mix chamber. The position of the air-mixing valve is
determined by signals from the temperature control system.
The temperature control system is normally operated automatically or as a
manual system, if the automatic temperature controller should fail.
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During automatic operation, the temperature controller continually monitors cabin

temperatures and repositions the air mixing valve if necessary to keep the
temperature at the selected level.
In order to achieve this, the controller receives signals from temperature selector
on the flight deck (the temperature requested) and from temperature sensors in
the passenger cabin, flight compartment and supply ducts (the actual
temperature). If a difference between the requested and actual temperatures
occurs, the controller will send an output signal, to re-position the air mixing valve
until parity exists once more.
During manual operation, the temperature control circuit bypasses the controller
and connects the temperature selector on the flight deck, directly to the air-mixing
valve. Other sensors in the system transmit compartment temperatures to
indicators on the flight deck overhead panel, so that the actual temperatures and
the position of the air-mixing valve can be monitored.
Temperature Control
Figure 11
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4.6 HUMIDITY CONTROL

Humidity control is the means to ensure that the correct amount of water moisture
content is in the air conditioning air within the aircraft cabin. This is necessary to
ensure occupants do not suffer from low humidity levels that are experienced with
high altitude flight.
Humidity control can be achieved two ways;
Water Separation
Water Infiltration
Water separation is the removal of excessive moisture from the charge air,
normally by a water extractor or separator.
Water infiltration is the addition of moisture into the conditioned air as it enters the
cabin using a water pump and spray nozzle.
4.6.1 Water Separation Water Extractor
Water can be introduced into the air conditioning system due to the compression
and expansion of the air in the ACM/CAU and other areas of the air cycle
process.
There are three types of water separator in general use; the coalescer/diffuser
type, the coalescer/bag type and the swirl vane type.
4.6.1.1
COALESCER/DIFFUSER TYPE
This type consists of a coalescer constructed from layers of monel metal gauze
and glass fibre cloth sandwiched between layers of stainless steel gauze. It is
supported by the diffuser cone and held in place by a relief valve housing. As the
air leaves the diffuser and passes over the coalescer, moisture in the air is
converted into water droplets. The droplets enter the collector shell and are
deposited into collector tubes where they drain down to a collector box from
where the water is ejected overboard.
COALESCER
COLLECTOR SHELL
DIFFUSER
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
CONDENSER
TUBES
DRAIN
COALESCER WATER EXTRACTOR

FIGURE 12
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4.6.1.2
COALESCER/BAG TYPE
A porous bag, supported by a shell is fitted within the extractor to convert

moisture into water droplets. A swirl is imparted into the conditioned air and the
centrifugal effect forces the droplets to the outlet shell where it collects and drains
from the component. A bag visual indicator operated by back pressure, will show
when the coalescer bag becomes dirty or blocked. In this case, a relief valve will
open to ensure flow is still available.
BLOCKAGE INDICATOR
OUTLET SHELL
BAG
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

WATER DRAIN
Bag Type Water Extractor

Figure 13
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4.6.1.3
SWIRL VANE TYPE
This type uses centrifugal force to spin the moisture-laden air outwards against
the exit shell. The swirl vane, either fixed or rotating imparts the swirl by rotating
the airflow at high speed. The action, separates the heavier water droplets in the
moisture and collects them in a sump, to be drained away.
SEPARATOR SHELL
SWIRL VANE
WATER SUMP
DRAIN
Swirl Vane Type Water Separator
Figure 14
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4.6.2 Water Infiltration
Humidity control can also include the addition of water into the air conditioning
system. As an aircraft climbs to high altitude, the moisture level in the air reduces
to a much lower amount than at lower levels of altitude. The reduction in moisture
may cause discomfort to the aircraft occupants. To counteract this, moisture is
added into the conditioned air, by pumping water from a tank to a spray nozzle
positioned at the cabin air inlet. Humidity sensors will detect low humidity
conditions and automatically turn on the controller water pump to restore the
humidity to acceptable levels.
WATER SEPARATOR
DRAIN
COLLECTOR TANK
CABIN HUMIDITY SENSOR
SPRAY NOZZLE
OVERFILL DRAIN
WATER PUMP AND

CONTROLLER
TO CABIN
Typical Humidity Control System

Figure 15
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MODULE 11.04
4.7 MASS FLOW CONTROL

Legislation requires that a minimum amount of fresh air be supplied to
passengers and crew. In addition stale air must be removed and odours
eliminated. Most pressurisation systems rely on the fact that air is delivered at a
constant rate under all conditions of flight in order to function correctly.
Mass flow control systems constantly monitor the velocity and density of the air
supply by either increasing or decreasing the demand upon the source of supply,
or by spilling excess supply air overboard.
The mass of air must be controlled at a constant value regardless of aircraft
altitude or cabin pressure. It must also adjust for changes in main engine
compressor speed in bleed air systems, or changes in rotor speed when a
separate air supply from an accessory gearbox driven blower is incorporated.
4.7.1 Mass Flow Controller
This type automatically caters for changes in air density, cabin back pressure and
engine compressor supply pressure. At ground level and during take off and the
early stages of flight, the pressure available from the main engine compressor
outlet is high. As altitude increases or when the engines are set to cruising
speeds, the supply pressure drops.
The amount of pressure from the engine compressor bleed acting on an altitudecompensated piston valve, determines the position the valve will adopt when
opposed by a spring and back pressure from the cabin. The pressure drop across
the valve, will vary the size of outlet ports and will thus determine the valves
degree of opening and closing. This will result in a constant mass flow
downstream of the valve at all times.
Mass Flow Control

Figure 16
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MODULE 11.04
4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller

This type receives the charge air supply through a metering duct, which senses
variations in the velocity and density of the air. The metering duct on sensing
these variations, transmits the information to a mass flow controller, which
converts the air pressure signals into electrical signals. The electrical signals in
turn control the position of spill valves. They will move towards a more open or
closed position, to vary the amount of air spilled overboard, thereby ensuring a
constant flow rate into the cabin.
At sea level, with the engines at low power, the absolute capsule D will be
compressed by atmospheric pressure. The contacts A, B and C will be in the
position shown and the spill valve will be towards closed.
With the main engines at take off power, the air velocity through the venture
increases, causing a pressure differential across the controller diaphragm. This
will cause contact B to move towards contact C and when they touch, the spill
valves will be driven towards the open As the aircraft climbs, the static pressure
in the metering duct and controller will decrease. The absolute capsule will now
expand and the position of contacts A and C, will be adjusted in relation to
contact B. When contact B is touched, the spill valves will move towards closed
once more and once again the mass flow to the cabin will remain constant.
Mass Flow Controller Operations

Figure 17
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4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The air distribution system on most aircraft takes cold air from the air conditioning
packs and hot air bleed from the engines and mixes the 2 in a mixer unit to the
required temperature. The air is then distributed to side wall and overhead cabin
vents. On some aircraft the cabin air is then drawn back into the mixing unit by recirculating fans where it is mixed with new air and then re-distributed.
All major components are usually located together in a designated bay for ease of
maintenance. ( Figure 14).
A gasper fan provides cold air to the individual overhead air outlets for the aircrew
and passengers. This air can be drawn direct from outside or from the cooling
packs. Each passenger or crew can control the amount of air received by
controlling the position of the air outlet. This outlet could be a rotary nozzle or a
louvre.
TO SIDEWALL DUCTS
TO GASPER
OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
MIXER VALVES
MANIFOLD RELIEF VALVE
TO COCKPIT
TO SIDEWALL
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVES
WATER SEPARATOR
TO OVERHEAD
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVE
SELECTOR LINKAGE
Air Conditioning Distribution Manifold

Figure 18
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MODULE 11.04
Conditioned air systems dispense temperature controlled air evenly throughout

the cabin and crew areas. One duct system supplies the cockpit (Figure 17) while
another supplies the cabin. The cabin ducting is then divided into 2 systems, the
overhead (Figure 15) and the sidewall systems (Figure 16). The overhead system
releases air into the cabin from outlets in ducting running fore and aft in the cabin
ceiling. The sidewall duct system takes air through ducting between the sidewall
and cabin interior linings and releases it through cove light grills and louvres.
A cockpit controlled selector valve located on the main distribution manifold
allows all overhead, side wall or any combination of the two systems to be used
and varies the flow between the two.
DUCTING
FLOOR EXHAUST DUCT
ADJUSTABLE AIR OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
Overhead Panel
Figure 19
Duct sections throughout both the cabin and cockpit are joined together with
clamps or clips. Means of equalising the duct pressures and balancing the air
flows are designed into each system. The systems are protected from excess
pressures by use of a spring loaded pressure relief valve usually located in the
main distribution manifold. The main manifold is located immediately downstream
from the mixing units in the air conditioning bay.
On large aircraft a cockpit controlled dual selector valves divides the air between
cockpit and cabin areas. These butterfly valves are interlinked. When one is fully
open the other is fully closed and vice versa.
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Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves in the
sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the cargo
compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature control. Some air
then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the compartment floor and is
then discharged overboard through the outflow valves.
DISTRIBUTION BOXES
WALL FEEDER DUCTS
WINDOW DEMISTER
FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS
DISTRIBUTION DUCT
Sidewall Ducting
Figure 20
Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a
plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the balls
float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from entering the
cabin.
CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR
AIR VENT
FLIGHT DECK
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
SILENCER
FAN ASSY
COOLING FANS
FAN ASSY PRESSURE SWITCH
Cockpit Air Distribution

Figure 21
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MODULE 11.04
Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning system
and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas may have a
remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle system, to allow
cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from one of the zone packs.
4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System
To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is recirculated
back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with conditioned air form
the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air improves airflow and offloads the
air supply system. This off loading of the air conditioning packs is converted into a
fuel saving.
The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check valve and
filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before passing it to the
mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any reverse flow through
the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use.
4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS
As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight crews
could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete environmental systems
to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air conditioning could provide the
proper temperature and supplemental oxygen could provide sufficient breathable
air.
The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high altitude to
aid breathing in and even at lower altitudes the body must work harder to absorb
sufficient oxygen, through the lungs, to operate at the same level of efficiency as
at sea level. This problem is overcome by pressurising the cockpit/ cabin area.
Cabin pressurisation is a means of adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to
create an artificial atmosphere that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives
an environment equivalent to that below 10000 feet. The minimum quantity of
fresh air supplied to each person on board must be at least 0.5lb/ minute.
Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the fuselage. This
is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally include cabin, cockpit and
possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this pressure vessel and is controlled by
an outflow valve located at the rear of the vessel.
Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around tubing,
ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or pierce the pressure
tight area. All panels and large structural components are assembled with sealing
compounds. Access and removable doors and hatches have integral seals. Some
have inflatable seals.
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Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their function is
to raise the pressure inside the vessel. Small reciprocating engine powered
aircraft receive their pressurisation air from the compressor of a coupled
turbocharger. Larger reciprocating engine powered aircraft receive air from
engine driven compressors and turbine powered aircraft use compressor bleed
air
Small Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft
Turbochargers are driven by the engine exhaust gases flowing through a turbine.
A centrifugal compressor is coupled to the turbine. The compressors output is fed
to the engine inlet manifold to increase manifold pressure which allows the
engine to develop its power at altitude. Part of this compressed air is tapped off
after the compressor and is used to pressurise the cabin. The air passes through
a flow limiter (or sonic venturi) and then through an inter-cooler before being fed
into the cabin. A typical system is shown at Figure 22.
Sonic Venturi
A sonic venturi is fitted in line between the engine and the pressurisation system.
When the air flowing across the venturi reaches the speed of sound a shock
wave is formed which limits the flow of air to the pressurisation system
RAM AIR
HEATING AIR
PRESSURISED AIR
RAM AIR SHUT

OFF VALVE
EXHAUST GASES
COUPLED TURBO
COMPRESSOR
COMBUSTION HEATER
SONIC VENTURI
INTERCOOLER
OUTFLOW VALVE
SAFETY VALVE
Small Reciprocating Engine Aircraft Pressurisation System

Figure 22
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Large Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft

These aircraft use engine driven compressors driven through an accessory drive
or by an electric or hydraulic motor. Multi engine aircraft have more than one air
compressor. These are interconnected through ducting but each have a check
valve or isolation valve to prevent pressure loss when one system is out of action.
Turbine Powered Aircraft
The air supplied from a gas turbine engine compressor is contamination free and
can be suitably used for cabin pressurisation (Figure 23). Some aircraft use an
independent compressor driven by the engine bleed air. The bleed air drives the
coupled compressor which pressurises the air and feeds it into the cabin
FLUSH AIR INTAKE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 23
Some aircraft use a jet pump to increase the amount of air taken into the cabin
(Figure 24). The jet pump is a venturi nozzle located in the flush air intake
ducting. High velocity air from the engine flows through this nozzle. This produces
a low pressure area around the venturi which sucks in outside air. This outside air
is mixed with the high velocity air and is then passed into the cabin
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FLUSH AIR INTAKE
PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
JET PUMP
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Jet Pump
Figure 24
4.9.1 Control And Indication
There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode and the
constantdifferential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode the cabin
altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric mode the cabin
altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and in the constantdifferential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained at a constant amount
above the outside ambient air pressure.
The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of the
aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential pressure and
the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling.
4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode
In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the same
as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea level up to
5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft.
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4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode
In this mode the cabin pressure is maintained at a specific cabin altitude as flight
altitude changes. The cabin pressure controller begins to close the outflow valve
as the aircraft climbs to a chosen cabin altitude. The outflow valve then opens or
closes (modulates) to maintain the selected cabin altitude as the flight altitude
changes up or down. The controller will then maintain the selected cabin altitude
up to the flight altitude that produces the maximum differential pressure for which
the aircraft structure is rated. At this point the constant differential mode takes
control.
4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode
Cabin pressurisation puts the aircraft structure under a tensile stress as the cabin
pressure expands the pressure vessel. The cabin differential pressure is the ratio
between the internal and external air pressures. At maximum constant-differential
pressure as the aircraft increases in altitude the cabin altitude will increase but
the internal/external pressure ratio will be maintained. There will be a maximum
cabin altitude allowed and this will determine the ceiling at which the aircraft can
operate.
4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator
The pressure regulator maintains cabin altitude at a selected level in the isobaric
range and limits cabin pressure to a pre-set pressure differential in the differential
range by regulating the position of the outflow valve. Normal operation of the
regulator requires only the selection of the desired cabin altitude and cabin rate of
climb the adjustment of the barometric control.
STATIC ATMOSHERE CONNECTION
ADJUSTER
CONTROL
ISOBARIC METERING VALVE

ADJUSTER CONTROL
DIAPHRAGM
BAROMETRIC CAPSULE
RESTRICTOR
DIFFERENTIAL
METERING VALVE
HEAD
SOLENOID
DUMP VALVE
REFERENCE
CHAMBER
PILOT
BASE
ACTUATOR
DIAPHRAGM
OUTFLOW VALVE
BAFFLE PLATE
Cabin Pressure Regulator

Figure 25
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The regulator shown in Figure 25 is a typical differential pressure type regulator

that is built into the normally closed air operated outflow valve. It uses cabin
altitude for its isobaric control and barometric pressure for the differential control.
A cabin rate of climb controller controls the pressure change inside the cabin.
There are 2 main sections to the regulator, the head and reference chamber and
the base with the outflow valve and diaphragm. The balance diaphragm extends
outward from the baffle plate to the outflow valve creating an air chamber
between the baffle plate and the outer face of the outflow valve. Cabin air flowing
into this chamber through holes in the side of the outflow valve exerts a force
against the outer face of the valve which tries to open it. This force is opposed by
the force of the spring around the valve pilot which tries to hold the valve closed.
The actuator diaphragm extends outward from the outflow valve to the head
assembly creating an air chamber between the head and the inner face of the
outflow valve. Air from the head and reference chamber exert a force against the
inner face of the outflow valve helping the spring to hold the valve closed.
The position of the outflow valve controls the amount of cabin air that is allowed
to flow from the pressure vessel and this controls the cabin pressure. The
position of the outflow valve is determined by the amount of reference chamber
air pressure that presses on the inner face of the outflow valve.
4.9.6 Isobaric Control System
The isobaric control system of the pressure regulator shown in Figure 26
incorporates an evacuated capsule, a rocker arm, valve spring and a ball type
metering valve. One end of the rocker arm is connected to the valve head by the
evacuated capsule and the other end of the arm holds the metering valve in a
closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve body tries to move
the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm allows.
When the cabin air pressure increases enough for the reference chamber air
pressure to compress the evacuated capsule the rocker arm pivots around its
fulcrum and allows the metering valve to move away from its seat an amount
proportional to the compression of the capsule. When the metering valve opens
reference pressure air flows form the regulator to atmosphere through the
atmospheric chamber.
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ISOBARIC METERING VALVE

EVACUATED BELLOWS
OUTFLOW VALVE
Isobaric Control Operation

Figure 26
When the regulator is operating in the isobaric range, cabin pressure is held
constant by reducing the flow of reference chamber air through the metering
valve. This prevents a further decrease in reference pressure.
The isobaric control responds to slight changes in reference pressure by
modulating to maintain a constant pressure in the chamber throughout the
isobaric range of operation. Whenever there is an increase in cabin pressure the
isobaric metering valve opens which decreases the reference pressure and
causes the outflow valve to open which then decreases the cabin pressure.
4.9.7 Differential Control System
The differential control system of the pressure regulator (Figure 27) incorporates
a diaphragm a rocker arm, a valve spring and a ball type metering valve. One end
of the rocker arm is attached to the head by the diaphragm which forma a
pressure sensitive face between the reference chamber and the atmospheric
chamber.
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ATMOSPHERIC CHAMBER
METERING VALVE
DIAPHRAGM
OUTFLOW VALVE
Differential Pressure Mode

Figure 27
Atmospheric pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm and reference chamber
pressure acts on the other. The opposite end of the rocker arm holds the
metering valve in a closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve
body tries to move the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm
allows.
When reference chamber pressure increases to the system differential pressure
limit set above the decreasing atmospheric pressure it collapses the diaphragm
which is set at differential pressure and opens the metering valve. Air flows from
the reference chamber to atmosphere through the atmospheric chamber, which
causes a reduction in the reference pressure. This reduction in reference
pressure causes the outflow valve to open to reduce the cabin pressure to
maintain the system pressure differential.
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4.9.8 Safety Valves

Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve
The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding the
predetermined cabin to ambient pressure differential. A negative pressure relief
valve and pressure dump valve may also be incorporated into this valve
assembly.
Negative Pressure Relief Valve
A pressurised aircraft is designed to operate with the cabin pressure higher than
the outside air pressure. If the cabin pressure were to become lower than the
outside air pressure the cabin structure could fail. Outside air is allowed to enter
the cabin to ensure that this does not happen. It is basically an inward pressure
relief valve.
Dump Valve
This valve is normally solenoid actuated by a cockpit switch. When the solenoid is
energised the valve opens dumping cabin air to atmosphere. Cabin pressure will
decrease rapidly until it is the same as the outside air pressure and cabin altitude
will increase until it is the same as the flight altitude.
Ditching valve
If any of the cabin control valves were situated below the water level and the
aircraft ditch in the water, the cabin would quickly flood. To prevent this
happening, either a mechanical or electrical ditching selection, can be made by
the crew to seal off all pressurisation valves and inlets.
4.10
ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION CONTROL
Most modern airliners have the means to electronically control the cabin pressure
automatically for the entire flight, from settings made by the flight crew before
take off.
The pressure control system consists:
a flight deck control panel

an automatic pressure controller with pressure sensing inputs and outputs to
monitoring indicators
an electrically-driven gate-type outflow valve
inward and outward safety relief valves
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4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel

This provides a means for the flight crew to control the cabin pressure by
positioning the outflow valve. There are three mode selections available; Auto,
Standby or Manual.
Figure 28
The desired mode will normally be Auto, where all settings such as intended
cruise (flight) altitude and destination airfield (landing) altitude are made before
flight. This will allow automatic control of cabin pressure for the whole of that
flight.
This is called the fully automatic mode.
Alternatively, Standby or back up mode can be selected, where a cabin altitude
setting must be made for each desired cabin pressure change. The input setting
is then controlled automatically as before.
This is called the semi-automatic mode.
If neither the fully or semi-automatic modes are available, (i.e.: the pressure
controller fails), the outflow valve can be positioned directly from the flight deck by
operating the electric torque motors to drive the valve.
This is called the manual mode and a choice of an ac or dc electrical supply is
available.
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4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller

The pressure controller provides output control signals to the outflow valves ac or
dc torque motors. The motors position and modulate the valve to establish and
control actual cabin pressure in accordance with the controllers pre-programmed
climb, cruise or descent schedules. This will ensure that for every aircraft altitude
there will be a particular cabin altitude.
Input signals to the controller are from the flight deck control panel, cabin and
ambient pressure sensors, barometric correction and air/ground sensing.
Auto Mode Flight Profile

Figure 29
4.10.3 Outflow Valve
The valve has a moving gate designed to cover or uncover an aperture in the
fuselage skin. An increase in the aperture size will cause cabin pressure to fall
(cabin altitude to ascend), whereas a decrease in the aperture size results in an
increase in cabin pressure (cabin altitude to descend). The gate is driven by one
of two electrically driven motors, the choice of ac or dc motor being determined
by flight crew input.
Motor input signals come from the controller when in the auto or standby modes,
or directly from a control panel switch when in the manual mode.
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Outflow Valve
Figure 30
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves
Fuselage frames are designed to accept tensile loads associated with and
outward force from within the pressure cell. Their ability to withstand compression
loads that would occur if the pressure outside the aircraft were higher than within
the pressure cell is poor. Therefore an inward relief valve will open and equalise
the pressure if the inward or negative differential exceeds about 0.5 psid.
Two outward relief valves are fitted to prevent the maximum outward differential
pressure from exceeding the structural limit. This will typically be around 8.5psid.
Even though the main pressure control is electronic, the safety relief valves are
mechanical operated and are completely independent of any automatic control
system.
Pressurisation System Valves

Figure 31
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CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION
Most pressurisation systems have three basic cockpit indicators cabin altitude,
cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator. The cabin altitude
gauge measures the actual cabin altitude.
Cabin Altitude Gauge

Figure 32
The cabin rate of climb indicator tells the pilot the rate that the cabin is either
climbing or descending. (I.e. the rate at which the cabin loses or gains pressure)
A typical maximum climb rate is 500ft per minute and the maximum descent rate
is 300ft per minute. The control can be automatic or manual depending on aircraft
type.
Cabin Rate of Climb

Figure 33
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The differential pressure gauge (Figure 34) reads the difference between the
cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is normally
controlled and maintained to a structural limitation around 7psid. This depends on
the aircraft type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft. The differential pressure
gauge may be combined with the cabin altitude (Figure 35).
0
10
1
2
DIFF PX PSI
4
7
Differential Pressure Gauge

Figure 34
4.12
Dual Gauge
Figure 35
SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES
To ground test the pressurisation system with the engines running, at least three
men are required inside the aircraft for safety reasons.
Both air conditioning and pressurisation systems use safety and warning devices
to protect the aircraft from possible catastrophic failures. Some of the protection
devices may be inhibited in certain stages of flight; landing or take off where the
extra distractions caused by such warnings may be too much for the crews to
deal with safely.
With the air conditioning system the main concerns are with overheating of the air
conditioning packs and extraction and ventilation fans, as well as hot air leaks
from ducting which could damage surrounding structure or components.
4.12.1 Overheating
Most packs systems are protected from overheating by a thermal switch
downstream of the pack outlet. If the outlet temperature reaches a pre
determined figure the switch will operate causing the pack valves to shut,
preventing air from getting to the packs, as well as sending a warning signal to
the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural
chimes and to illuminate a fault light on the pack selector switch.
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Once the system has cooled down sufficiently the crew may have an option to
reselect the overheated system. The overheat may have been caused by a fault
in the automatic temperature control system in which case the pilot may be able
to control the system manually via a manual selector switch on the cockpit
controller.
Extraction or ventilation fans will be protected in much the same way. An
overheat will signal the central warning panel with associated caution/warning
lights and aural chimes. The fan may be isolated automatically or manually. Once
the fan has cooled down it may be possible to re-select if required. Fans may also
be protected from over or under speeding, which will also have an effect on the
system temperatures. Speed sensors on the fan will indicate a fault when over or
under speed limits are reached and a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central
warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes.
4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage
Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions. A duct
protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot zones such as
engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxiliary power units if fitted.
The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature around the
wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical circuit is made. When
the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central warning panel
with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The leaking duct may be
isolated automatically or may require the pilot to take action to close off the air
valves. The faulty system will then remain out of use.
4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude
If the cabin altitude was allowed to increase unchecked the crew and passengers
could unknowingly suffer the effects of hypoxia. This dangerous condition is
obviously undesirable especially for the aircrew. Most aircraft give a warning on
the CWP with associated audio and visual warnings when the cabin altitude
reaches 10000`.
4.12.4 Smoke Detection
Smoke detectors may be fitted within the cabin; avionics bay and cargo areas to
monitor systems, which if become faulty may generate smoke on overheating, or
are may be liable to catch fire. These detectors will send a signal to the CWP with
associated lights and audio warnings. They may also automatically switch on
extractor fans, which will remove the smoke overboard and away form the cabin
and cockpit areas. In this event, the pilot may have a switch or control lever to
operate a valve to isolate the cockpit air conditioning ducting from the rest of the
aircraft to prevent any smoke from getting to the cockpit.
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CONTENTS
7
EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS .............................................. 7-3

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS ..................................... 7-3

SEAT, HARNESSES AND BELTS ..................................................... 7-4
CABIN LAYOUTS ........................................................................... 7-6
CABIN FURNISHINGS..................................................................... 7-7
CABIN ENTERTAINMENT ................................................................ 7-8
GALLEY INSTALLATIONS ............................................................... 7-8
CARGO HANDLING AND RETENTION EQUIPMENT ............................ 7-9
CARGO RETENTION EQUIPMENT .................................................... 7-14
AIRSTAIRS ................................................................................... 7-15
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EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS
7.1 EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

On every aircraft, there can be found some form of emergency equipment. This
can vary from a simple seat belt and a fire extinguisher on a micro-light aircraft, to
a large list of equipment fitted to a commercial airliner. For example, a medium
sized aircraft like the Fokker 50 carries over thirty different types of safety
equipment. The list of equipment fitted in a 450+ seater Boeing 747-400, will
include items such as seat belts, lifejackets, first-aid kits, fire extinguishers,
oxygen sets, torches etc.
The types of safety equipment that must be carried on any specific flight, are laid
down in the Air Navigation Order, (ANO), schedule No.4. This list covers a wide
range of safety equipment, from mooring equipment for seaplanes to cookers and
snow shovels for arctic operation.
JAR 25 - Large Aeroplanes, details amongst others, the requirements for the
design and performance of safety and other equipment, ranging from size of
access doors and emergency exits and the numbers required for each size of
aircraft, width of cabin aisles, number of seats abreast. The list is endless, but the
JAR 25 regulations are an excellent source of information.
Some of the items of equipment carried may seem to be of little use, but each
has a specific purpose in some emergency or other. For example the large axe
carried on passenger aircraft is to enable any trapped passengers and crew to
cut their own way out of the cabin. Smoke hoods are to permit the cabin staff to
help passengers leave the aircraft, even if the cabin is full of smoke. Portable
oxygen is used in the cases of passengers feeling ill, in addition to the 'drop-out'
masks, which activated if the cabin pressurisation has failed.
Life jackets use a co2 cylinder to give rapid inflation once the passenger is outside
the aircraft. The buoyancy of the jacket is then controlled by use of a mouthpiece
to further inflate the jacket. The jackets are inspected at 6 monthly intervals for
condition and inadvertent operation. The water-activated light is checked for
insulation resistance by measuring across the terminals, which should be of at
least 1 Megohm. Inadvertent operation of the light is checked by signs of
chemical reaction and the co2 bottle is checked by weighing it on a laboratory
scales.
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7.2 SEAT, HARNESSES AND BELTS

All seat belts have to restrain the passenger (or crew) in their seat, even during a
crash landing. The seat to which the belt is attached, has to hold securely in the
seat rails, even during the high 'g' loadings experienced in an emergency landing.
The seat rails are a continuous extrusion with circular cut-outs, which allow the
seats to be attached and locked at different seat spacing, (pitch). The pitch is
usually in, one inch or 25mm increments.
Seat Tracks
Figure 1
Aircraft seats can be divided into three main groups; passenger seats, flight
attendant seats and flight deck crew seats. Passenger seats are usually part of
multiple units, although in first class and executive seating, some individual seat
units can be found. Most passenger seats are manufactured from aluminium
alloy tube, which is riveted and welded to form the frame with supporting legs and
braces, individual reclining seat backs and integral tables. The seats and rails are
all classed as primary structure.
Flight Attendant seats are usually more utilitarian than passenger seats and can
be mounted on seat tracks, the aircraft wall structure or, as in the ATR-72, to a
sliding assembly that stows away without taking up passenger space, as shown
below. They will all normally be fitted with a full harness seat belt, compared with
the 'lap strap' assemblies for the passengers. The harnesses should only be
cleaned with acid free soap and water.
Inertia reel system will lock the harness if a rapid de-acceleration of the aircraft
occurs. In the locked position, backward motion is still possible but forward
motion is prevented.
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Attendant Seat
Figure 2
The seats in the flight deck have to be the most comfortable on the aircraft,
because it is laid down in many airline regulations that there must be a full crew in
the cockpit, at all times. The crew must be as 'sharp' and attentive during the
landing as they were at take-off many hours ago.
Flight deck seats will have many different axes of movement such as height,
reach, backrest tilt, lumbar support, arm rest height, etc. Most of the larger seats
will have some of these movements powered by electrical actuators. These seats
will also have at least a four point harness assembly and, in many cases these
days, five point harnesses, with a lower crotch strap
Crew Seat
Figure 3
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7.3 CABIN LAYOUTS

The layout of the cabin is a compromise between the builder/designer, who would
like it to contain as many paying passengers as possible, and the airworthiness
authorities, who wish to limit the maximum number of passengers. This maximum
has to be the number that can be evacuated from inside the cabin, through 50%
of available exits, in 90 seconds.
This ruling dictates the number and size of the exits, the width of the aisles and,
most importantly, the number of seats. As can be seen from the diagrams below,
the position of the exits varies with the design of the aircraft.
Seating And Emergency Exits

Figure 4
The majority of passenger aircraft have seats in pairs or triple units with one or
two aisles. The wide body Boeing 747 usually has two aisles with triple units
outboard and a pair of double units between the two aisles, giving 10 abreast
seating, the normal maximum.
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The remainder of passenger cabins are fairly standard with overhead stowages.
Passenger service units (PSU) are located on the bottom of the overhead
stowage lockers and normally contain reading lights, call buttons, seat belt and
NO SMOKING warnings and, on aircraft that are equipped with them, drop-out
oxygen masks.
Galleys can be found in a variety of places in the cabin, at the front the rear, and
occasionally, centrally, where they can be used to divide the different classes of
passenger. They have their own power supply for heating, lighting and ventilation.
For maintenance the galley units are removable, as are all other dividing
partitions as well as the overhead units and PSUs.
Galleys are also supplied with their own water supplies to permit the making of
hot drinks, washing-up etc. This means they require connections to both fresh
(potable) water and grey (waste) water from the aircrafts own systems. Some
galleys are fitted in the under floor areas of larger aircraft, which necessitates the
installation of lifts between floors.
7.4 CABIN FURNISHINGS
As with galleys, all furnishings have to be easily removable, not only to allow the
engineers access during deep maintenance, but also to permit various items to
be changed at irregular intervals due to "fair wear and tear". This can include
worn carpets, torn seat covers, cracked plastic cabin wall skins, ceiling panels
and damaged overhead bin doors. All of the previous items are attached by
'quick release' fittings of varying types. Shown below are examples of an
overhead bin, a wall panel and a ceiling panel.
Cabin Furnishings
Figure 5
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7.5 CABIN ENTERTAINMENT

Cabin entertainment varies greatly depending upon the aircraft type, (and age),
as well as the airline operating the aircraft. It can vary from little more than 'music'
played over the cabin P.A. system on smaller aircraft, through to the most
common installations of films, navigation information and cabin safety briefings
displayed on multiple television monitors located throughout the cabin. To reduce
weight entertainment systems can utilise multiplexing to allow the different media
to be transmitted down a single cable.
Some modern aircraft have, fitted to their higher class seats, a complete
'entertainment experience', which can consist of individual viewing screens either
attached to the seat back of the unit in front, or individually seat arm located.
These screens can offer a multiple and individual video selection; computer
games; musical videos with stereo sound on headphones and, in business class,
access to a satellite telephone and other business tools.
7.6 GALLEY INSTALLATIONS
Galleys, as has been mentioned earlier, have to be modular units so that they
can be removed for maintenance. In the case of technical problems, it mayl also
be necessary, some times to remove the units. Most galley units will have a
supply of electricity and potable water and facilities for the disposal of 'grey' water
overboard.
As most modern catering operations use pre-prepared food, the standard sized
food trolleys and containers are given stowage space in the galley units, which
can then keep warm, heat up and chill both food and drinks as required. The
illustrations show two typical galleys, with a selection of full and half sized trolley
stowages, coffee makers and most of the facilities to provide a cabin meal and
refreshment service.
Galley Installations
Figure 6
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7.7 CARGO HANDLING AND RETENTION EQUIPMENT

In the majority of commercial aircraft, cargo is carried below the cabin floor, in
dedicated fire resistant compartments that can be air conditioned if animals are
being carried. There are a number of different variations to the above, dependent
on the size of the aircraft, the type of passenger, the routes flown, etc. In the
Fokker 100, for example, most of the underfloor space is for baggage, excluding
the extreme front, which is for avionic equipment.
Under Floor Baggage Holds

Figure 7
Smaller aircraft such as the Dornier 227 and the Fokker 50 have their cargo
carried within the cabin space, the underfloor space being limited. Aircraft at the
other end of the size spectrum, known as 'wide body' aircraft, can be produced as
dedicated freighters such as certain Boeing 747 models.
A more popular layout these days is the 'Combi freighter' which can carry both
extra freight and passengers in the cabin, whilst still carrying cargo in the
underfloor space. This type of aircraft is much more flexible on routes where the
cargo/passenger ratios can vary through the week, the month or year. At times,
there might be only 50 - 100 passengers on board whilst the remainder of the
aircraft is carrying cargo.
Containers are typically boxes shaped to the contour of the aircraft fuselage to
maximise the capacity of the freight bay. They can be made from, alloy
honeycomb of fibreglass.
LD2
LD3
LD8
Baggage Containers Figure 8

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Most containers are sized by a code established by an international agreement

enabling aircraft manufacturers to build the freight bays to a common size. The
width of the cargo bay determines the size of the containers that can be loaded,
but by setting the position of the various guides on the cargo bay floor, more than
one size of container can be carried.
Typical container sizes commonly used are shown above in various
configurations. The identifying code letters indicate where the container has been
designed to be loaded. Thus LD2 is a container of a standard size, designed for
the lower deck (LD). Other sizes range from LD3 to LD8.
Automatic Cargo Loading Systems
Automatic cargo loading systems represent a major advance in the speed and
efficiency that airfreight can turned round. Aircraft are designed to carry farepaying passengers above the cabin floor and a vast amount of cargo underneath.
With the use of an automatic loading system, one man can load many tons of
equipment, usually stored in purpose built containers, in the time it takes to refuel
the aircraft and board the passengers.
The Electro-mechanical loading system mechanism is normally built into the
aircraft during manufacture. It consists of driver and sorter devices to load, store
and manoeuvre the containers into the freight bay. The method of moving the
containers is with the use of rubber-tyred rollers. These are in contact with the
base of the containers and are motor-powered from the aircraft electrical system.
Various guide rollers are used to steer the containers to the required location in
the bay.
Loading and unloading
The containers are normally raised to the cargo bay floor level by a hydraulically
operated deck, whose load area is covered with free running rollers or balls. The
containers are then manually pushed into the door area, where they enter the
freight bay of the aircraft and are supported by a ball mat or ball transfer panel.
The ball mats/panels are low friction devices, which permit easy container
movement. Each individual ball unit consists of a self-lubricated spring-loaded
steel ball which itself rides on a series of smaller ball bearings in a cup-shaped
housing. A wiper ring surrounding the ball prevents the ingress of dirt into the
mechanism.
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Roller Ball Guide

Figure 9
Once the load begins to enter the bay, the lateral rubber-covered drive rollers can
be rotated to drive the containers fully into the bay. Lateral guides keep the
container square and prevent the container from running off the edge of the
transfer panel, as it is driven into the bay. Guide rollers around the doorframe
ensure centralisation of the container and prevent doorframe damage.
Sill rollers are mounted to the lower doorframe (sill) to provide a rolling surface
into and out of the door area. With the container fully into the bay, longitudinal
rollers can be rotated to propel the container down the length of the bay, once the
relevant lateral retaining guides have been lowered. Roller trays are mounted
down the entire length of the cargo bay, to continue on the similar low friction
surface as the ball mats, for moving the containers. Centre or auxiliary guides
ensure the container travels longitudinally and squarely, down to the extremities
of the bay.
Freight Floors Figure 10

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During unloading, the roll-out-stops are locked down to permit free passage of the
container out of the bay. This is done electrically or by pressing a foot pedal on
each roll out stop if electrical power is not available. The Power Drive Units (PDU)
consist of an electric motor driving a rubber-tyred roller. When commanded to
rotate from the control panel, the roller is raised approximately 12mm from the
floor level by a cam. Only when the roller is raised, will it begin to rotate and apply
a moving friction force to the base of the container to propel it over the balls and
rollers.
Control Panel
Each cargo bay will have a control panel with switches for; system power on/off,
cargo bay lights, raising and lowering of the various lateral and longitudinal
guides. A joystick control with eight positions and centre-off is provided for power
drive unit operation.
A Typical Control Panel

Figure 11
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Cargo Loading Operations

The sequence for loading LD2 containers into the cargo compartment is as
follows:
1.
Door fully open.
2.
Power switch ON.
3.
Select LD2 on panel.
4.
Set roll out stops to load position.
5.
Set lateral guides to NORMAL.
6.
PDU switch to A-B ON.
7.
PDU switch on the on the other panel to FWD ON.
8.
Switch the lights on if required.
9.
Place the container level with the doorframe of the compartment.
The joystick is then used to control the PDUs and move the container into the
desired bay. As the container clears each roller they spring up to prevent it rolling
back out of the bay. At the end of the containers travel it contacts the fixed
loading stops and with all the containers loaded the roll out stops are positioned
into the locked up position, holding the load firmly.
Unloading.
Essentially unloading is the reverse of the loading procedure, with the exception
of locking the roll out stops to their retracted position and positioning all of the
centre/auxiliary guides to the down position.
If any guide has been manually locked down, ensure they are unlocked before
electric power is applied to prevent damage to the motors. At the first sign of any
container stopping or failing to move release the joy stick to the centre/off position
and investigate the cause of the jam.
Only approved personnel, who have received proper training in the particular
installation or layout, should carry out the operation of automatic loading systems.
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Dangerous Goods
Dangerous goods are those which possess potentially hazardous characteristics.
However, as long as suitable precautions are taken these goods are not
necessarily prohibited from air travel. They include obvious items such as; acids,
explosives and radio-active materials and also some unlikely items such as
magnets, breathing apparatus and other gas cylinders and instruments that
contain mercury.
7.8 CARGO RETENTION EQUIPMENT
Once cargo is loaded into the aircraft, it must be restrained to prevent movement,
during take- off, in turbulent flight and landing, (especially hard braking). The LD
containers have positive latches, which attach the containers directly to the
aircraft structure. 'Loose' baggage in cargo holds are usually restrained by nets,
which can be locked into the floor or the walls of the bay.
This system can also be used on pallets, where cases and bags are, again, preloaded and then covered by waterproof sheet and restraint netting. Once loaded,
the pallets are clamped down on to the cargo bay floor.
Baggage Hold-Down
Figure 12
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7.9 AIRSTAIRS
The term airstairs is usually used to describe passenger steps that are integral to
the aircraft structure, meaning that it is independent of normal passenger steps
and of jetways at large airports. They are often fitted to aircraft that will be
operated into poorly equipped airports on a normal, day-to-day operation.
Airstairs can be manually or power operated and can be as simple as a set of
stairs set into the back of the entrance door or on larger aircraft, a fully powered,
folding set of steps that are extended and retracted by the operation of push
buttons.
Airstairs
Figure 13
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The first example shown is from the ATR-72 turbo-propeller aircraft. This unit is
mechanically operated and counterbalanced by a pair of large springs. As can be
seen from the drawing, there are handrails, one of which can be folded, if
required.
The second example, (lower left), is an electrically powered airstair fitted to the
new Boeing 717-200. This aircraft can also be fitted with a second airstair at the
rear of the cabin, (lower right), which will allow the passengers to embark and
disembark through two doors simultaneously. This will speed up the turn around
maintenance.
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CONTENTS
8
FIRE PROTECTION...................................................................... 8-1

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
FIRE/OVERHEAT DETECTION AND WARNING .................................. 8-1

8.1.1
Unit (Spot) Type ............................................................ 8-2
8.1.2
Continuous Loop (Fire Wire) Detectors ......................... 8-3
8.1.3
Dual Loop System ......................................................... 8-4
8.1.4
Pressure-Type Sensor .................................................. 8-5
FIRE ZONES ................................................................................. 8-5
8.2.1
Hot And Cool Zones ...................................................... 8-5
8.2.2
Fireproof Bulkheads ...................................................... 8-6
8.2.3
Engine Fire Prevention .................................................. 8-6
8.2.4
Cockpit and Cabin Interiors. .......................................... 8-7
SMOKE DETECTION ...................................................................... 8-7
8.3.1
Carbon Monoxide Detectors .......................................... 8-7
8.3.2
Photoelectric Smoke Detectors. .................................... 8-7
8.3.3
Ionisation Type Smoke Detector. .................................. 8-8
FIRE EXTINGUISHING .................................................................... 8-9
8.4.1
Extinguishing System .................................................... 8-10
8.4.2
Directional Flow Control Valves (2 Way Valves) ............ 8-12
8.4.3
Fire Extinguishant Container ......................................... 8-12
8.4.4
Toilet Compartment Systems ........................................ 8-13
8.4.5
Warnings And Indications.............................................. 8-13
8.4.6
Hand Held (Portable) Fire Extinguishers ....................... 8-14
SYSTEM TESTS ............................................................................ 8-14
8.5.1
Fire System Test Switch................................................ 8-15
8.5.2
Fire Wire Loop Test....................................................... 8-15
8.5.3
Squib-Test..................................................................... 8-15
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FIRE PROTECTION
Fire is the most dangerous threat to the safety of an aircraft and is associated
with external areas near the main engines and the APU.
Other external hot spots are landing gear bays, where heat from brake units
could affect the surrounding equipment and wiring, when the gears are retracted.
Overheating of the structure, equipment and wiring from very hot air, leaking
engine compressor bleed air pipes, must also be catered for.
Fire from internal areas such as the passenger, flight deck and toilet
compartments as well as cargo, air-conditioning and electrical/electronic
equipment bays require protection too.
Indeed any source on an aircraft that the manufacturer or operator considers a
likely hazard will be protected.
Ideally, a fire protection system will include as many as possible of the following
features:
Rapid warning of fire/overheat and its accurate location
Must not cause false warnings
Continuous warning for duration of fire/overheat
Confirmation that the fire has been extinguishing
Indication that the fire has re-ignited
A means of testing the system from the flight deck
Detectors that are proof against oil, water, vibration and high temperatures
Detectors that are easily accessible throughout the aircraft
Detectors and extinguishers hot wired electrically or powered from emergency
electrical buses
Adequate visual and aural indication on the flight deck and vital areas on the
aircraft
Separate warnings for each engine and specific areas as determined by the
aircraft manufacturers
Therefore, the Fire (and Overheat) Protection system will normally be split into
two main subsystems:
Fire/Overheat Detection and Warning
Fire Extinguishing
8.1 FIRE/OVERHEAT DETECTION AND WARNING
Fire/Overheat detectors can be divided into two main groups:
Unit or Spot Type

Continuous Loop (Firewire) Type
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8.1.1
Unit (Spot) Type
This type is fitted at various strategic points within the fire/overheat zone and
takes the form of a thermally activated switch.
They are electrically connected in parallel with each other and in series with the
audio/visual warning system. This arrangement allows any switch to operate the
warning, even if other switches have failed in the remainder of the system.
Some Unit detectors may have a pair of BI-metallic contacts, that close when
heated and open when they are cooled down, to make or break the electrical
warning circuit.
However, the majority has a thin casing that surrounds two conventional electrical
contacts that are normally set apart from each other. When subjected to heat, the
casing expands and pulls the two contacts together, completing the warning
circuit in a similar manner to the BI-metallic type.
The main advantage of this so-called High Speed Resetting Switch (HSRS), is
its sensitivity and fast reaction time, to initiate the warning and cancel it once the
heat is removed.
Spot Detectors are used mainly to detect high temperature leaks from bleed air
ducts and are normally positioned at pipe to pipe connections.
Thermoswitch Type Fire Detection System

Figure 1
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Thermoswitch Spot Detector

Figure 2
8.1.2 Continuous Loop (Fire Wire) Detectors

This method permits more complete coverage of a fire hazard area than any type
of spot-type of temperature detectors. The continuous loop uses the principle of
capacitance and resistance to indicate a rise in temperature at any point along
the length of the detector loop. The commonest type has a stainless steel or
Inconel outer tube, an inner pure nickel wire surrounded by ceramic beads wetted
by eutectic salt. The effect of this design is that a rise in temperature causes a
sharp fall in electrical resistance, as well as a rise in capacitance.
Once the detection unit senses this effect, anywhere along the wire, it will cause
an overheat warning to be generated. This continuous loop system is often
referred to as a 'firewire' system. The advantage of a firewire system is that a
loop can cover the complete powerplant, (Figure 3) within its cowling so that an
overheat or fire will be detected quickly no matter where it starts. The firewire will
also re-set the control box to remove the warning when the temperature falls
below the limit temperature.
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Fire Wire Layout

Figure 3
Firewire elements are attached to the airframe structure with quick release clips
approximately 6 apart and 4 from the end fittings. The element is supported in
clips with a rubber grommet to prevent rubbing and to help damp out vibrations.
(Figure 4). Care is taken to eliminate strain on the element as excessive bending
could result in work hardening of the capillary.
Fire Wire Clips and Connections

Figure 4
8.1.3 Dual Loop System
Most aircraft use the dual loop system of indication. Each sensing circuit has dual
sensing loops. Each Loop A and Loop B is independent of each other. When the
loop selector switch is set to BOTH, both loops must detect a fire condition before
the warning system is activated. If only one loop detects a fire, the associated
loop fault light will illuminate.
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If the selector is switched to a single loop (A or B) full fire warnings will activate if
the selected loop senses a fire condition.
Pressing the loop test button simulates a fire condition on the respective loop.
This is done by earthing the inner electrode of the loop that functionally checks
the system and checks the continuity of the loop.
8.1.4 Pressure-Type Sensor
The pressure type detection system uses a continuous loop for the detection
element. This loop is made from sealed stainless steel tube that contains an
element that absorbs gas when it is cold but releases the gas when it is heated.
This tube is connected to a pressure switch that will close when the pressure
reaches a pre-determined level.
The commonest make of this type of system is the Systron-Donner system which
uses a centre titanium centre wire and the expansion of both helium and
hydrogen gas to give the two-stage warnings.
Whilst the firewire system actuates when any part of the loop reaches the limit
temperature, the pressure type system will actuate in two different ways. If a
localised fire occurs, the hydrogen gas is released and its pressure closes the
pressure switch which will set off the warning system, however, if the temperature
over a larger area rises to a lower level than a fire warning the helium expands
and closes the pressure switch to activate the system warning.
8.2 FIRE ZONES
On light aircraft, the only protection against fire is a stainless steel or titanium
bulkhead (firewall), dividing the engine bay from the cabin and the rest of the
aircraft. Larger aircraft have the complete engine cowlings isolated from the
airframe/wing assemblies and, in addition, aircraft cowlings can be divided into a
number of 'fire zones', each one usually having its own warning and extinguishing
system.
The types of zone dictate what type of protection that they receive, for example,
light aircraft have piston engines and hence, due to the high flow of air through
the bay, have no fire protection and depend on isolating the engine of fuel to put
out any fire. The example has four zones around the engine that only two have
firewires and extinguishing.
8.2.1 Hot And Cool Zones
Engines are usually split into hot and cool zones (Figure 5). The hot zone
comprises the combustion chamber turbines and exhaust areas, the cool zone
comprises the intake, compressors and accessory drives.
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Engine Fire Zones

Figure 5
8.2.2 Fireproof Bulkheads
These prevent fire from spreading to other areas. Auxiliary power units and tail
mounted engines are normally contained within such bulkhead compartments
separating them from the rest of the airframe. The engine pylons also contain a
firewall to separate the engine from the wing. These are made from titanium or
stainless steel and all joints are sealed with fireproof sealants
8.2.3 Engine Fire Prevention
There are a number of techniques used to help prevent a fire occurring around
engines. These are, the use of flameproof or flame resistant materials, use of
bonding strips to prevent arcing, drainage of spilt fuel/oil and efficient cooling.
All pipes which carry fuel, oil or hydraulic fluids are made fire resistant and all
electrical components and connections are made flame proof.
It is essential that a fire staring in any zone is contained within that zone and is
not allowed to spread to any other part of the aircraft. The engine cowlings form a
natural container but they are usually made from light alloy and would not contain
a ground fire for long. In flight however cooling airflows through the cowlings,
provide sufficient cooling to render the cowlings fireproof. The fireproof bulkheads
and any cowling that has no cooling airflow are usually made from titanium or
stainless steel.
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8.2.4
Cockpit and Cabin Interiors.
All wool, cotton and synthetic fabrics used in interior trim are treated to render
them flame resistant. Tests conducted have shown that whilst the foam used in
seat cushions is flammable, if covered with a flame-resistant fabric, there is little
danger of fire from accidental contact with a cigarette, for example.
Fire protection for the aircraft interior is usually provided by hand-held
extinguishers. Various types are available including, Water, CO 2 and Dry
Powder. Each type is best used on one kind of fire but may be used on other
kinds. It is best to be sure which is safe to use on which type of fire.
8.3 SMOKE DETECTION
A smoke detection system monitors certain areas of the aircraft for the presence
of smoke, which is could be indicative of a fire condition. These may include
cargo and baggage compartments and the toilets of transport category aircraft.
A smoke detection system is used where the type of fire anticipated is expected
to generate a substantial amount of smoke before temperature changes are
sufficient to actuate a heat/fire detection system.
8.3.1 Carbon Monoxide Detectors
The presence of Carbon Monoxide (CO), or Nitrous Oxides (N2O), is dangerous
to flight crew and passengers alike and may indicate a fire condition as it is a byproduct of combustion. Detection of the presence of either or both of these gases
could be the earliest warning of a possible dangerous situation.
Carbon Monoxide is very dangerous, firstly due to the minute amount required to
cause loss of attention and headaches; (this is approximately 2 parts in 10,000).
It is colourless, odourless, tasteless and a non-irritant. Carbon Monoxide
detectors are usually used in cabin and cockpit areas.
The detector is usually a small card with a transparent pocket containing silica gel
crystals that have been treated with a chemical, which changes colour to green or
black when they are exposed to carbon monoxide.
8.3.2 Photoelectric Smoke Detectors.

Air from the monitored compartment is drawn through the detector chamber and
a light beam is shone on it. A photoelectric cell installed in the chamber senses
the light that is refracted by the smoke particles. The photocell is installed in a
bridge circuit that measures any changes, in the amount of current that it
conducts. Figure 6 shows a typical photoelectric smoke detector.
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Air inlet
Light beam
Light source
Photoelectric cell
Light reflected from
smoke into photocell
Air outlet
Photo Electric Smoke Detector

Figure 6
When there is no smoke in the chamber air, no light is refracted and the photocell
produces a reference current. When smoke is in the chamber air, some of the
light is refracted and sensed by the photocell. Its conductivity changes, changing
the amount of current. These changes in current are amplified and used to initiate
a smoke warning signal.
8.3.3 Ionisation Type Smoke Detector.
A small amount of radioactive material is mounted on the side of the detector
chamber. This material bombards the oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the air
flowing through the chamber and ionises it to the extent that a reference current
can flow across the chamber through the ionised gas to an external circuit.
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Ionzing beam
Radioactive material
Air inlet
Air outlet
+
Target
Ionisation Type Smoke Detector
Figure 7
Smoke flowing through the chamber changes the level of ionisation and
decreases the current. When the current reduces to a specific level the external
circuit initiates a smoke warning signal. Figure 7 shows a typical ionisation smoke
detector.
Flame Detectors
This system uses a photoelectric cell to detect a sharp rise in light, such as that
from a flame in a closed bay.
8.4 FIRE EXTINGUISHING
There are a variety of aircraft and ramp extinguishing agents. Their use depends
upon several variables such as location, proximity to personnel, environment,
possible sources of fire, etc. There are integral extinguishing systems on board
the aircraft as well as hand held extinguishers
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8.4.1 Extinguishing System

Aircraft that have an integral fire extinguisher system have a system similar to the
arrangement shown in Figure 8. There are a number of pressurised bottles with
extinguishant inside and each bottle has two explosive cartridges, (squibs), which
can be fired from the flight deck. Each bottle can feed either the port or starboard
engines through a crossfeed. The extinguishant is fed through a series of
pipelines and valves to the outlet nozzles and tubes.
In some aircraft, fixed systems may also be provided for the protection of landing
gear wheel bays and baggage compartments. These systems may be
independent of each other. They may be fully automatic or require the aircrew to
initiate them when a fire is indicated.
Basic Aircraft Extinguishing System

Figure 8
On multi-engine aircraft there may be one extinguisher bottle provided for each
engine or one bottle may feed 2 engines (Figure 9). There is always usually a
facility for cross feeding to another engine should the need arise.
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Dual Container System

Figure 9
Two bottles giving either two 'shots', to a single engine or, one 'shot' each to
either engine (Figure 10). The bottle condition is indicated either through a
pressure gauge on each bottle, or a red/green sectioned gauge showing red
when the bottle is empty or its pressure is low as well as a discharge indication
on the associated fire control panel I the cockpit.
Typical 2 Shot System

Figure 10
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There may also be pop up indicators to indicate that the squib has been fired. A
pressure switch may also be fitted which gives an electrical indication to the
cockpit control panel when the pressure drops to a pre-determined level.
Each bottle will have protection against overpressure using a 'rupture disc', which
fails if the bottle pressure becomes excessive due to overheating.
8.4.2 Directional Flow Control Valves (2 Way Valves)
These valves are non-return valves designed for use in a crossfeed system to
allow the contents of one or several extinguishers to be directed into any one
engine (or compartment). The valves prevent the reverse flow of the
extinguishant into the other bottle or engine.
8.4.3 Fire Extinguishant Container
Figure 11 shows a typical extinguishant container. The cartridge is electrically
ignited which drives the cartridge cutter into the disc that on rupture releases the
extinguishant. The strainer prevents any of the broken disc from entering the
distribution system.
Fire Extinguisher Bottle

Figure 11
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The safety plug is connected by a pipeline to a red indicator disc on the outside of
the compartment. If the gas pressure increases due to an increase in the
compartment temperature that the bottle is located in, the fusible safety plug
melts at a pre-determined temperature and the bottle contents are discharged
overboard. As the bottle discharges overboard, it blows out the red indicator. The
gauge shows the pressure of the extinguishant in the container.
8.4.4 Toilet Compartment Systems
Small, automatic units will often be found in the toilet waste bins, where they will
discharge themselves when a heat source is sensed in the region of 75 degrees
centigrade. A fusible type plug will melt allowing the contents to discharge.
Most aircraft with this system fitted do not generate any indications to the cockpit
or attendants panel if the system was activated. Some systems have a visible
temperature strip that can be checked before each flight, or by the cabin crew in
flight.
8.4.5 Warnings And Indications
Once a fire has been detected in the engine bay (or compartment being sensed),
a signal is generated by the firewire element and this signal is sent to a control
unit. The control unit processes the signal and sends a signal to the cockpit CWP,
associated power lever handle, and the fire control panel. The CWP red Fire
warning caption light illuminates for the affected engine (or compartment) as well
as the master warning lights and audio warnings. The Affected power lever
handle and fire extinguisher handle on the overhead console also illuminate red.
To activate the extinguishant, the red fire handle is pulled to arm the system and
then the squib button is pressed to fire the bottle. If after the bottle contents have
exhausted and the fire indication remains, the second squib button is pressed to
fire the contents of the other bottle into the same affected engine (or
compartment).
Some aircraft activate the extinguishers differently. The bottle may be fired by
pressing the affected fire button on the fire panel. If the fire remains a cross feed
switch is activated which opens a crossfeed valve and the same fire button is
repressed to fire the other bottles contents into the same affected system.
Once discharged an amber DISCH caption on the fire control panel will indicate
when the corresponding bottle is empty. These captions are usually electrically
activated
Whatever the method of operation of the extinguisher system, the same basic
principle applies. The contents of each bottle can be cross fed into the affected
area that is on fire.
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8.4.6 Hand Held (Portable) Fire Extinguishers

Each aircraft must carry portable fire extinguishers for use by the cabin crew in
case of a fire. These are positioned in various places within the cabin with easy
access to the crew. The amount and location depends on the type of aircraft and
its size.
Halon extinguishers contain a gas that interrupts the chemical reaction that takes
place when fuels burn. These types of extinguishers are often used to protect
valuable electrical equipment since they leave no residue to clean up. Halon
extinguishers have a limited range, usually 4 to 6 feet. The initial application of
Halon should be made at the base of the fire, even after the flames have been
extinguished
Carbon Dioxide fire extinguishers disperses the gas quickly, these extinguishers
are only effective from 3 to 8 feet. The carbon dioxide is stored as a compressed
liquid in the extinguisher; as it expands, it cools the surrounding air. The cooling
will often cause ice to form around the horn where the gas is expelled from the
extinguisher. They are primarily used to extinguish electrical fires in the cabin and
cockpit. The CO2 can be aimed at the fire and discharged using a trigger.
A dry powder fire extinguisher use compressed nitrogen to expel a dry powder
such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate. They can be used on
most fires but should never be used on the flight deck, due to lack of visibility and
interference with some electrical equipment caused by the powder.
Water extinguishers are also fitted to some aircraft and should be used to put out
fires in ordinary combustibles, such as wood and paper.
The hand held extinguishers are subject to periodic maintenance. The
extinguisher is checked for its weight. This is stamped on the neck of the bottle
and indicates its charged weight. If the weight is below the set limits, it is to be
replaced.
8.5 SYSTEM TESTS
All extinguishing systems have a method of testing their serviceability. This can
vary from weighing the complete cylinder off-aircraft, (which will have the correct
'full' weight marked on it), through to the bottle having a gauge with safe and lowpressure sectors marked on it.
Figure 12 shows an engine extinguisher with a fitted gauge. Other more
sophisticated systems have internal pressure switches fitted to the bottle, which
will notify the flight deck of the loss of bottle pressure, (or discharge), via a
warning light, magnetic indicator etc.
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FIRE PROTECTION
Regardless of the system, all bottles and squibs have a life, after which they have
to be removed and returned to the manufacturer for maintenance.
Fire Bottle With Pressure Gauge

Figure 12
8.5.1
Fire System Test Switch
A test switch is available for each system. When pressed all warning lights and
audio warnings are checked. If a light fails to illuminate it will normally indicate a
bulb filament failure.
8.5.2
Fire Wire Loop Test
A test switch on the cockpit fire panel is available to test each sensing element
loop. When selected the continuity of each circuit is checked. If the system is
serviceable, the Loop caption(s) will illuminate. If the caption(s) do not illuminate
there is a fault in the system.
8.5.3
Squib-Test.
A squib test button is available to check the continuity of the discharge heads for
each of the fire extinguisher bottles. When pressed a squib warning light or
magnetic indicator will illuminate if the system is serviceable. No illumination
means that there is a fault in the system. The current used during the squib test is
at a much lower value than that required to fire the squib.
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FIRE PROTECTION
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Contents
9
FLYING CONTROLS .................................................................... 9-1

9.1
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS ................................................... 9-1

9.1.1
Ailerons ......................................................................... 9-3
9.1.2
Elevators ....................................................................... 9-3
9.1.3
Rudders ........................................................................ 9-4
9.1.4
Spoilers ......................................................................... 9-5
TRIM CONTROLS ........................................................................... 9-7
9.2.1
Fixed and Adjustable Trim Tabs .................................... 9-7
9.2.1.2 Controllable Trim Tabs .................................................. 9-7
9.2.1.3 Servo Tabs.................................................................... 9-8
9.2.2
Balance Tabs ................................................................ 9-8
9.2.3
Anti-Balance Tabs ......................................................... 9-9
9.2.4
Spring Tabs................................................................... 9-9
FULLY POWERED FLYING CONTROL TRIM SYSTEM ........................... 9-10
9.3.1
Typical Trim System ...................................................... 9-10
9.3.2
Rudder Trim System ..................................................... 9-10
9.3.3
Aileron Trim System ...................................................... 9-10
9.3.4
Tailplane Trim System .................................................. 9-11
ACTIVE LOAD CONTROLS ............................................................... 9-15
9.4.1
Active Load Control ....................................................... 9-15
9.4.2
Active Control Technology ............................................ 9-15
9.4.3
Advantages of Active Control Technology ..................... 9-17
9.4.4
Direct Lift Force ............................................................. 9-17
9.4.5
Direct Side Force .......................................................... 9-17
HIGH LIFT DEVICES ....................................................................... 9-18
9.5.1
Flaps ............................................................................. 9-18
9.5.2
Slats .............................................................................. 9-20
9.5.3
Drooped Leading Edges................................................ 9-21
9.5.4
Krueger Flaps ............................................................... 9-21
LIFT DUMP AND SPEED BRAKES .................................................... 9-22
9.6.1
Lift Dumpers.................................................................. 9-22
9.6.2
Speed Brakes ............................................................... 9-22
SYSTEM OPERATION ..................................................................... 9-24
9.7.1
Manual Operation.......................................................... 9-24
9.7.2
Powered Flight Controls (P.F.C.Us).............................. 9-24
9.7.3
Proportionality ............................................................... 9-25
9.7.4
Redundancy of hydraulic Supplies ................................ 9-25
9.7.5
Tandem PFCU .............................................................. 9-25
9.7.6
Dual Assembly PFCUs ................................................. 9-27
9.7.7
Duplicate/Triplicate PFCU's........................................... 9-28
9.7.8
Duplicated Control Surfaces ......................................... 9-29
9.7.8
Self Contained PFCU .................................................... 9-30
9.7.9
Input Systems ............................................................... 9-30
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
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9.7.10 High Speed Primary Controls ........................................ 9-31

TRAILING EDGE FLAP CONTROLS .................................................. 9-33
9.8.1
Flap Control Utilising Linear Hydraulic Actuators ........... 9-33
9.8.2
General ......................................................................... 9-34
9.8.3
Hydraulic Power ............................................................ 9-35
9.8.4
Control Input Circuit ...................................................... 9-35
9.8.5
System Operation ......................................................... 9-36
9.8.6
Safety Aspects .............................................................. 9-37
9.8.7
Position Indication ......................................................... 9-38
9.8.8
Flap System - Hydraulic Motors and Torque Tube Drive
9-38
9.8.9
Maintenance of Flap Systems ....................................... 9-41
LEADING EDGE FLAP CONTROLS ................................................... 9-41
9.9.1
Leading Edge Flap Pneumatic drive Unit ...................... 9-45
9.9.2
Krueger Flap Drive Components ................................... 9-48
SPEED BRAKE/GROUND SPOILER CONTROL ................................... 9-49
9.10.1 Operation ...................................................................... 9-50
MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM .................. 9-53
9.11.1 Mechanical Controls...................................................... 9-53
9.11.2 Electrical Flight Controls................................................ 9-54
Q FEEL, YAW DAMPER, MACH TRIM, RUDDER LIMITER, GUST LOCKS
9-58
9.12.1 Artificial Feel ................................................................. 9-58
9.12.2 Operation ...................................................................... 9-58
9.12.3 Hydraulic Q Feel System ............................................. 9-60
9.12.4 Mach Number Correction .............................................. 9-60
9.12.5 Operation ...................................................................... 9-60
YAW DAMPING ............................................................................. 9-62
9.13.1 Yaw Control .................................................................. 9-62
MACH TRIM .................................................................................. 9-63
9.14.1 Typical System .............................................................. 9-65
9.14.2 Controller ...................................................................... 9-65
9.14.3 Mach Trim Actuator ....................................................... 9-65
9.14.4 Operation ...................................................................... 9-65
RUDDER LIMITING ......................................................................... 9-67
9.15.1 Q Limiter ...................................................................... 9-67
GUST LOCKS ................................................................................ 9-67
9.16.1 Description .................................................................... 9-67
9.16.2 Controls locking mechanism (aileron and elevator) ....... 9-68
9.16.3 Controls locking mechanism (rudder) ............................ 9-69
9.16.4 Power Supplies ............................................................. 9-71
9.16.5 Operation ...................................................................... 9-71
RIGGING AND BALANCING CONTROLS .......................................... 9-72
9.17.1 Rigging - Introduction .................................................... 9-72
9.17.2 Checks Before Rigging ................................................. 9-72
9.17.3 Rigging Procedure ........................................................ 9-73
9.17.4 Control Surface Setting Gauges .................................... 9-75
9.17.5 Checking for Sense of Movement ................................. 9-75
9.17.6 Checking for Static and Running Friction ...................... 9-77
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
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9.17.7 Checks After Rigging .................................................... 9-77

9.17.8 Duplicate Checks .......................................................... 9-78
9.17.9 Primary Control Systems - Example of Rigging ............. 9-78
9.17.10 Rigging a Tube-operated Control System ..................... 9-79
9.17.11 Rigging a Powered Flying Control System .................... 9-80
9.17.12 Rigging of Trimming Tab System .................................. 9-82
STALL W ARNING AND PROTECTION ................................................ 9-83
9.18.1 Stall Warning Systems .................................................. 9-83
9.18.1.1 Pneumatic Stall Warning System .................................. 9-83
9.18.2 Stall Protection System ................................................. 9-85
9.18.3 Typical System Components ......................................... 9-85
9.18.4 Actual Stall Protection System ...................................... 9-86
9.18.5 Incidence Probes .......................................................... 9-86
9.18.6 Nitrogen System ........................................................... 9-87
9.18.7 Automatic Ignition.......................................................... 9-88
9.18.8 Stall Warning................................................................. 9-88
9.18.9 Stall Identification .......................................................... 9-89
FLY BY W IRE................................................................................ 9-92
9.19.1 Introduction ................................................................... 9-92
9.19.2 Principles of FBW.......................................................... 9-92
9.19.3 Principles of FBOW ....................................................... 9-92
9.19.4 Advantages of FBOW over FBW ................................... 9-92
9.19.5 Other Inputs to Powered Flying Control Unit ................. 9-93
9.19.6 777 Flight Controls - Introduction .................................. 9-93
9.19.7 General ......................................................................... 9-93
9.19.8 777 Primary Flight Control System ................................ 9-93
9.19.9 High Lift Control System................................................ 9-94
9.19.10 Benefits of the Fly-By-Wire System ............................... 9-94
9.19.11 Abbreviations and Acronyms ......................................... 9-94
9.19.12 Primary Flight Control System - Introduction ................. 9-96
9.19.13 PFCS General Description ......................................... 9-97
9.19.14 Manual Operation.......................................................... 9-97
9.19.15 Autopilot Operation ....................................................... 9-98
9.19.16 PFCS Modes of Operation ............................................ 9-98
9.19.17 Flight Deck Controls ...................................................... 9-98
9.19.18 Main Equipment Centre................................................. 9-99
9.19.19 PFCS Flight Controls ARINC 629 BUS Interfaces ...... 9-99
9.18
9.19
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FLYING CONTROLS
9.1 PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

Aircraft theory of flight has already been discussed in Module 11.1. We shall now
look at how the Aircraft are equipped with moveable aerofoil surfaces that provide
control in flight. Controls are normally divided into Primary and Secondary
controls. The primary flight controls are:
Ailerons
Elevators
Rudders
Spoilers
Because of the need of aircraft to operate over extremely wide speed ranges and
weights, it is necessary to have other secondary or auxiliary controls. These
consist of:
Trim controls
High Lift Devices
Speed Brakes and Lift Dump
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Note: There is some variation of opinion as to whether spoilers are considered to

be primary controls. The EASA 66 syllabus includes them as primary controls, so
that is how these notes will define them. Both types of controls are illustrated in
the following diagram.
Typical Aircraft Flight Controls

Figure 1
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9.1.1 AILERONS
Ailerons are primary flight controls that provide lateral roll control of the aircraft.
They control aircraft movement about the longitudinal axis. Ailerons are normally
mounted on the trailing edge of the wing near to the wing tip.
Inboard and Outboard Ailerons

Figure 2
Some large turbine aircraft employ two sets of ailerons. One set are in the
conventional position near the wingtip, the other set is in the mid-wing position or
outboard of the flaps. At low speeds both sets of ailerons operate to give
maximum control. At higher speeds hydraulic isolate valves will cut power to the
outer ailerons so that only the inboard ailerons operate. If the outer ailerons are
operated at high speeds, the stress on the wing tips may twist the leading edge of
the wing downwards and produce aileron reversal.
9.1.2 ELEVATORS
Elevators are primary flight controls that control the movement of the aircraft
about the lateral axis (pitch). Elevators are normally attached to hinges on the
rear spar of the horizontal stabiliser. Fig 11.1 shows the typical location for
elevators.
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9.1.3 RUDDERS
The rudder is the flight control surface that controls aircraft movement about the
vertical or normal axis. Rudders for small aircraft are normally single structural
units operated by a single control system. Rudders for larger transport aircraft
vary in basic structural and operational design. They may comprise two or more
operational segments; each controlled by different operating systems to provide a
level of redundancy.
Rudder
Figure 3
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9.1.4 SPOILERS
Spoilers are secondary control surfaces used to reduce or spoil the lift on a wing.
They normally consist of multiple flat panels located on the upper surface of the
wings. The diagram below shows the more common configuration.
Operation of Spoilers on a Typical Aircraft

Figure 4
The spoilers lay flush with the upper surface of the wing and are hinged at the
forward edge. When the spoilers are operated, the surface raises and reduces
the lift. The spoilers may be used for different purposes.
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9.1.4.1 Flight Spoilers
Flight Spoilers are used in flight to reduce the amount of lift. If the pilot operates
the controls left or right to roll the aircraft, the spoilers on the down-going wing
move upward to aid rolling the aircraft. The movement of the spoilers is in
proportion to the rate of roll required. On some aircraft, the spoilers are the
primary flight control for rolling. If operating only as flight spoilers, only the
surfaces on one wing will be raised at any one time. The flight spoilers are
normally positioned outboard of the ground spoilers.
9.1.4.2 Ground Spoilers
Ground Spoilers are only used when the aircraft is on the ground. They operate
with the flight spoilers to greatly reduce the lift on landing. The also reduce the
drag after landing to slow down the aircraft. Ground spoilers will normally be
deflected to their maximum position to give maximum drag on landing.
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AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES AND
SYSTEMS
TRIM CONTROLS
The majority of aircraft at some time during a flight develop a tendency to deviate
from a straight and level attitude. This may be caused by a fuel state change, a
speed change, a change in position of the aircraft's load, or in flap and
undercarriage positions. The pilot can counter this tendency by continuously
applying a correcting force to the controls - an operation, which, if maintained for
any length of time, would be both fatiguing and difficult to maintain. The tendency
to deviate is therefore corrected by making minor trim adjustments to the control
surfaces. Once an aircraft has been trimmed back to a 'balanced' flight condition,
no further effort is required by the pilot until further deviation develops.
9.2.1 FIXED AND ADJUSTABLE TRIM TABS
9.2.1.1
Fixed Trim Tabs
A fixed trim tab is normally a piece of sheet metal attached to the trailing
edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the ground by bending to an
appropriate position that give zero control forces when in the cruise.
Finding the correct position is by trial and error.
9.2.1.2
CONTROLLABLE TRIM TABS
Controllable Trim Tab

Figure 5
A controllable trim tab is adjusted by mechanical means from the flight
deck, usually with an indication of its position being displayed to the pilot.
Most aircraft have trim on the pitch control and more advanced aircraft
have trim on all three axes. Whilst the controls in the cockpit are by lever,
switch etc., the actuation can be by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic
means.
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SERVO TABS
Servo Tab
Figure 6
Sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, the servo tabs are used primarily on
large control surfaces, often found on larger, older aircraft. This tab is operated
directly by the primary controls of the aircraft. In response to the pilot's input, only
the tab moves. The force of the airflow on the servo tab then moves the primary
control surface. This tab is used to reduce the effort required to move the
controls on a large aircraft.
9.2.2 BALANCE TABS
Balance Tab
Figure 7
A balance tab is linked to the aircraft in such a manner that a movement of the
main control surface will give an opposite movement to the tab. Thus the balance
tab will help in moving the main surface, therefore reducing the effort required.
This type of tab will normally be found fitted to aircraft where the controls are
found to be rather heavy during initial flight-testing.
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9.2.3 ANTI-BALANCE TABS
These anti-balance tabs operate in the same way, mechanically, as balance

tabs. The tab itself is connected to the operating mechanism so that it operates in
the reverse way to the balance tab. The effect this has is to add a loading to the
pilots pitch control, making it appear heavier. These tabs can often be found
fitted to stabilators, which are very powerful and need extra feel to prevent the
pilot over-stressing the airframe.
9.2.4 SPRING TABS
The spring tabs, like some servo tabs, are usually found on large aircraft that
require considerable force to move a control surface. The purpose of the spring
tab is to provide a boost, thereby aiding the movement of a control surface.
Although similar to servo tabs, spring tabs are progressive in their operation so
that there is little assistance at slow speeds but much assistance at high speeds.
Spring Tab
Figure 8
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9.3 FULLY POWERED FLYING CONTROL TRIM SYSTEM

As fully powered flying controls are irreversible, i.e. all loads (reactions) are fed
via mountings to structure; trim tabs would be ineffective.
To overcome this, electric trim struts or actuators are used within the input
system. These actuators commonly reposition the "null" position of a selfcentring spring device to hold the control-input system in a new neutral position.
Thus the main control surface will be held deflected and the aircraft trimmed.
9.3.1 TYPICAL TRIM SYSTEM
The following is a typical trim system as used on a fully powered flight control
system.
9.3.2 RUDDER TRIM SYSTEM
In a typical rudder trim system for a powered system, trim commands from the
trim switch causes an actuator to extend or retract, which rotates the feel and
centring mechanism. This provides a new zero force pedal position
corresponding to the trimmed rudder position. The trim switch is spring loaded to
return to neutral. Both positive and negative elements of the circuit are switched
to prevent a trim runaway should one set of switch contacts become shortcircuited. The trim indicator is driven electrically by a transmitter in the rudder
trim actuator. The indicator shows up to 17 units of left or right trim. Each unit
represents approximately one degree of rudder trim.
9.3.3 AILERON TRIM SYSTEM
In a typical aileron trim system for a powered system, trim commands from the
trim switches causes the actuator to extend or retract, which repositions the feel
and centring mechanism null detent. The trim switches must be operated
simultaneously to provide an electrical input to the actuator, as both positive and
negative elements of the circuit are switched to prevent a trim runaway should
one set of switch contacts become short circuited. The available aileron trim
provides 15 degrees aileron travel in both directions from neutral.
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9.3.4 TAILPLANE TRIM SYSTEM
For trimming the aircraft longitudinally (about the lateral axis) the elevators are
not trimmed. Instead the angle of incidence of the whole tailplane is altered.
Raising the leading edge of the tailplane will increase lift over the tailplane, which
imparts a nose-down attitude to the aircraft or vice versa.
This is done by mounting the forward end of the tailplane on a screw jack.
Depending on the system the screw jack is rotated by two hydraulic or electric
motors via a gearbox. Movement is induced by a lever in the flight deck, which
operates solenoid selector valves or an electric control circuit to operate the
motors. Over-travel is prevented by micro-switch.
Reasons for fitting to transport aircraft:
1. All aircraft benefit from having as large a range of useable centre of gravity as
possible. This gives flexibility in cargo loading and allows for fuel usage in a
swept wing.
2. Aircraft benefit from a wide speed range. Very simply, when an aircraft is
trimmed at a particular speed, a reduction in speed calls for "up" elevator and
an increase in speed calls for "down" elevator. This would cause extra drag.
3. The need to compensate for centre of pressure changes due to slat/flap
extension, gear extension.
4. To reduce trim drag to a minimum to give the optimum performance in cruise.
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Variable Incidence Tailplane Trim System

The tail-plane is pivoted at the rear of the centre section torsion box and attached
to an actuator forward of the centre section. Operation of the actuator raises or
lowers the leading edge of the tail-plane, altering the incidence angle.
Variable Incidence Tailplane

Figure 9
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The actuator comprises a re-circulating ball screw jack and nut assembly driven
by two hydraulic motors with separate spur gear reduction trains.
Figure 10
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Friction brakes ensure that air loads cannot back-drive the actuator when the
system is de-pressurised.
The actuator is signalled from one of three sources:
i)
Auto-pilot servo
ii)
Mach trim servo
iii)
Trim hand-wheel operation.
A cable loop runs from the pedestal in the cockpit, under the cabin floor, and
ends at a cable reduction-gearing unit at the tailplane incidence actuator.
Hydraulic Power Supply
Each hydraulic motor is powered from a separate system. In the event of a single
hydraulic system failure, a bypass valve permits that motor to "freewheel" when
the system is de-pressurised.
Position Indication Systems
Geared indicator scales inboard of the cockpit hand-wheels present the
demanded position of the tail-plane. This will be the actual tail-plane incidence
with the hydraulic system(s) pressurised.
Actual tail-plane position is continuously displayed on the pilot's instrument panel,
signalled by a position transmitter operated by the tail-plane.
External markings on the structure adjacent to the tail-plane give the approximate
position of the tail-plane.
Tail-plane in Motion Warning
Some aircraft types have a tail-plane in motion warning system to alert the pilots
of continuous motion of the tail-plane beyond a certain time period.
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ACTIVE LOAD CONTROLS
9.4.1 ACTIVE LOAD CONTROL
This system is a relatively new approach to civil aviation, although it has been in
use for some time in military aircraft. It is a complex system that senses
disturbances in the air that may cause both discomfort to passengers and crew,
whilst causing extra unnecessary loading on the airframe.
The gusts that are about to hit the aircraft are sensed either by a tiny pair of
vanes on either side of the nose or by accelerometers mounted inside the nose of
the aircraft. These instantly send a signal, 'bump coming', to the flight control
computers, which instantly send a correcting signal to the elevators that counter
the bump and give a smoother ride.
The whole system requires the quick reactions of both the computers and the
hydraulic jacks to be successful. If the aircraft senses a downdraft, the
computers instantly signal just the correct amount of 'up elevator' to counteract
the disturbance and leave the aircraft to fly smoothly on.
9.4.2 ACTIVE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Active Control Technology (ACT) can be defined as the use of a multivariable

automatic flight control system to improve the manoeuvrability, dynamic flight
characteristics and the structural dynamic properties of an aircraft by
simultaneously driving an appropriate number of control surfaces and auxiliary
force or moment generators in such a fashion that either the loads which the
aircraft would have experienced as a result of motion without an ACT system are
much reduced or the aircraft produces a degree of manoeuvrability beyond the
capability of a conventional aircraft.
In essence ACT is the use of technology to make an aircraft and its control
surfaces operate in an unconventional manner to effect high manoeuvrability or to
reduce airframe stress.
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ACT is nothing new, it has been used on aircraft for many decades but it has
increased in usage with the advent of flight control computers and fly-by-wire
systems. The Tristar aircraft has a system installed that reduces the flight loads
on the wings by partially deploying the spoilers. This changes the lift profile over
the wing, bringing the lift closer to the wing root, which is much stronger (see next
fig). This means that the wing can be lighter and the wing stresses will be
reduced.
Figure 11
Numerous control surfaces, auxiliary force and moment generators can be added
to make the aircraft operate unconventionally. Fighter aircraft and some executive
jets may have a number of such devices fitted to make them more agile. These
include:
Foreplanes which can only move together to give pitch control.
Canards, these differ from foreplanes as they can also move independently
giving more response in roll.
Flaperons which are control surfaces that act as flaps and/or ailerons
depending on the pilots selection. They have the ability to move both up and
down independently for roll control, but can also move simultaneously for take
off and landing.
Thrust vectoring, mainly used on combat aircraft, but the advantages gained
with short take off and landing will mean that some form of vectoring system
will be developed for commercial aircraft in the future.
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9.4.3 ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
The employment of Active Control Technology presents numerous advantages

both for civil and military aircraft, namely:
The aircraft is more stable in flight
The aircraft are highly agile (military only)
A more comfortable flight for passengers
Reduced fatigue on the aircraft, therefore lighter construction can be utilised
Lighter construction gives better fuel consumption
Varying lift profiles means wings can be more streamlined (less drag)
It is impossible for the aircraft to be flown beyond its design limitations under
normal conditions!
Conventional aircraft have four forces providing control and movement
Rolling moment
Pitching moment
Yawing moment
Thrust (Drag modulation)
The use of ACT can provide two more additional forces of control and movement:
Direct lift force
Direct side force
9.4.4 DIRECT LIFT FORCE
In order to change altitude a pilot must pitch the nose of the aircraft up, which
may cause him to lose sight of his destination (the runway). Using ACT, the pilot
can change altitude by causing the foreplanes and flaperons to operate together
increasing the lift on the front and rear of the aircraft simultaneously. This is
known as the direct lift force
9.4.5 DIRECT SIDE FORCE
The pilot, conventionally, must roll the aircraft to change its flight path in a
sideways plane. ACT allows the aircraft to side step during normal flight by
deploying the rudder and the canards together to pull the nose and tail of the
aircraft across in the same direction. This is known as the direct side force.
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9.5 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

9.5.1 FLAPS
These devices have two primary aims, to provide extra lift during take-off and to
provide greater lift as well as high drag during landing. The types of flap used
on different aircraft depends on the type of aircraft, the method of aircraft
operation and other variables. For example, a single engined light aircraft might
only have some form of simple trailing edge flap, whilst a large airliner like the
Boeing 777 has complex, triple slotted flaps.
Types of Flap System

Figure 12
Flaps are fitted to most aircraft and are usually one of the types shown, together
with the maximum increases of lift over the 'clean' configuration. As the
complexity increases to improve performance, there is a proportional increase in
weight, maintenance and cost.
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Whilst the term 'flaps' is used, it is taken as meaning trailing edge flaps, and the
term 'leading edge flaps 'refers to those fitted to the leading edges of the wings of
most large aircraft.
The methods of operation of flaps, are numerous. They can vary from simple,
mechanical push rods or cables actuated, via a lever in the cockpit, by the pilot,
to complicated, multiple flaps that are electrically selected on the flight deck and
hydraulically or electrically powered.
Most flap systems have a number of positions, which can be selected at various
times. As an example, five positions could be as follows;
00 - flaps up
80 - take-off, first position
250 - landing, first position

400 - landing, second position
150 - take-off, second position

These would all be selected by movement of a lever in the cockpit, which will
have 'detents' at the various positions. This movement will, as can be seen in the
illustration, be transferred to the control valve and on to the motor, which moves
the actuators.
Flap Mechanism
Figure 13
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Other high lift devices can be found on the leading edges of the wings and
include slats, drooped leading edges and Krueger flaps. All of these devices
are aimed at smoothing the airflow over the leading edges of the wings when they
are at a high angle of attack, thereby maintaining, or increasing lift when the wing
would normally be stalled.
9.5.2 SLATS
Slats are separate small aerofoils, which can be fixed or retractable. Their
purpose is to control the air passing over the top of the wing at slow speeds. On
larger aircraft, the retractable slats have their extension interconnected with the
trailing edge flaps.
This can be seen in the illustration,

which not only shows the operation
of the slats through three different
positions, 'stowed', 'active' and
'open', but their association with the
four positions of the trailing edge
flaps.
Fixed slats are usually found on
light aircraft, where the
complications of weight, cost etc,
can be balanced by the limitation of
slightly higher drag than a 'clean'
wing.
Leading and Trailing Edge Flap Settings

Figure 14
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9.5.3 DROOPED LEADING EDGES
Drooped leading edges are a different design, but are aiming at the same effect,
that of smoothing the air over the top of the wing. They operate in much the same
way as most high lift devices, by screw jack operation with the motive power for
the jacks coming from the hydraulic system.
9.5.4 KRUEGER FLAPS
Krueger flaps are, again, a different design for the same effect. These are
usually found fitted to the leading edges of the wing at the inboard sections
where the effect of 'slats' or 'drooped leading edges' are not as efficient.
Figure 15
Krueger (left) and Drooped (right) Leading Edge Flaps
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9.6 LIFT DUMP AND SPEED BRAKES

9.6.1 LIFT DUMPERS
These devices are used to spoil lift from the wing after touchdown. This ensures
that the aircraft's weight is fully on its landing gear, which enables the brakes to
work at 100% for the full landing run. If this did not happen, the aircraft would
tend to 'float' or bounce at touchdown, making the brakes inefficient and the risk
of skidding much greater.
Lift dumpers are nearly always flat, rectangular panels, hinged at their leading
edge and powered by hydraulics. They can usually be found on the top of the
wing, and located about the maximum thickness, where their deployment would
destroy the maximum lift from the wing.
To ensure that they deploy at the correct time and also without the need for the
pilot to select them, at a very busy time, there is a simple system to deploy them
automatically. A set of switches are fitted to the landing gear which 'make' and
indicate weight-on-wheels to several systems, once the aircraft is completely on
the ground. By giving the pilot a "lift dumper arming" button, he can arm the
system, in flight, and know that it will deploy the lift dumpers at the correct time.
9.6.2 SPEED BRAKES
The use of speed brakes is similar regardless of the aircraft type. If the aircraft is
a sailplane it is so streamlined that it requires high drag when descending and
landing in unprepared fields. A large 400 seat airliner needs to be able to follow
Air Traffic Control instructions to descend and maintain certain speeds and a
military jet fighter needs to have very high drag on approach, permitting the
engines to accelerate quickly if the landing is aborted.
All types of speed brake use a variation of the same principle, to put panels of
varying shapes into the airflow, to increase the drag. Some are able to modulate,
(vary the amount of drag to suit the situation), whilst others are just 'IN' or 'OUT'.
Some airliners use the same surfaces on the top of the wing to carry out more
than one operation, such as speed brakes when in flight and needing drag; roll
control to augment (or replace) ailerons; or as lift dumpers to be used after
landing.
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Light aircraft rarely need speed brakes because of their generally high drag
designs. A reduction in power will produce a satisfactory slowing down of the
aircraft. Streamlined sailplanes, however, usually have vertical panels that
project from the wing, top and bottom, which produce large amounts of drag,
enabling steep, slow and safe approaches when landing.
Military jets have a different need for drag, not only as mentioned during the
approach to landing, but during combat and other operations where fast
application of drag with a quick reduction in speed can have a life saving effect.
Speed Brake Installation

Figure 16
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SYSTEM OPERATION
9.7.1 MANUAL OPERATION

9.7.2 POWERED FLIGHT CONTROLS (P.F.C.US)
In large modern aircraft that fly at high speeds, the air loads on the flying control
surfaces far exceed the ability of the pilot to move them manually. To overcome
this problem hydraulic pressure is used to move the control surfaces, a
POWERED FLYING CONTROL UNIT or BOOSTER being used to convert
hydraulic pressure into a force exerted on the control surface.
In its simplest form, a P.F.C.U. consists of a hydraulic jack, the body of which is
fixed to the aircraft structure and the ram, via a linkage to the control surface.
To control the P.F.C.U. a servo valve (control valve) is mounted on the jack. The
servo valve, which is connected to the pilot's controls by a system of cables
and/or pushrods, called the input system, directs fluid to either side of the jack
piston and directs the fluid from the other side to return. This flow of fluid will
displace the jack ram and as this is connected to the control surface via an output
system of pushrods or cables, the control surface is moved.
Figure. 17
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9.7.3 PROPORTIONALITY
To make the controls "proportional" (i.e. the degree of movement of the jack-ram
and hence the control surface, should be proportional to the degree of movement
of the pilot's controls), a "follow-up linkage" is used. This linkage connects the
input system, through a series of levers to the output system in such a way that
the movement of the output system (jack ram) tends to cancel the input once the
desired position is reached and so output movement ceases. In effect the
movement of the jack ram is always trying to re-centre the servo valve and stop
fluid flow in the jack.
9.7.4 REDUNDANCY OF HYDRAULIC SUPPLIES
Hydraulically powered flight control units usually derive their hydraulic power from
the aircraft hydraulic system. If a PFCU obtained hydraulic power from only one
hydraulic supply, a failure of that hydraulic supply due to an engine shut down,
loss of fluid due to a leak, or failure of a hydraulic pump. The result would be loss
of powered control of the aircraft. The probability of hydraulic failure is too great
to allow a system to rely on one hydraulic supply, so redundancy must be
introduced into the flight control system.
As in the previous notes on hydraulic systems, modern large multi-engine aircraft
are arranged such that the engine driven pumps (and the other types of pumps)
supply two or more independent hydraulic power supply systems.
The following are methods that use that arrangement of hydraulic redundancy to
allow failure of one hydraulic supply and still maintain control of the aircraft.
9.7.5 TANDEM PFCU
These are similar to the arrangement shown. They consist of a single jack ram
but with two pistons. These pistons are housed in two co-axial cylinders each of
which receives pressure fluid from separate power supply circuits via their own
duplicated servo valves. The servo valves, which are controlled by the same input
system, are carefully set up in the overhaul workshop to ensure they work in
unison. This prevents the two hydraulic pistons working against each other. With
this arrangement a loss of one hydraulic supply will allow the relevant piston to
"free stroke whilst the other piston operates the control surface.
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TANDEM ACTUATOR
Figure 18
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9.7.6 DUAL ASSEMBLY PFCUS
These are similar to the tandem arrangement but two piston rams are located in
cylinders mounted side by side with the piston rams connected to a common
output lever that transmits the movement to the control surface. The
arrangement for the input system, the duplicated servo valves and hydraulic fluid
supplies are the same.
Dual Assembly PFCU

FIGURE 19
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9.7.7 DUPLICATE/TRIPLICATE PFCU'S
In this arrangement each control surface is operated by two or three separate

PFCU'S. For hydraulic redundancy, each PFCU is powered from separate
hydraulic supply circuits. If one supply system should fail, or if one PFCU should
malfunction the effected PFCU can be switched off. In this event a bypass valve
within the PFCU will open interconnecting both sides of the jack ram. Therefore,
as the pilot moves the input and operates the serviceable PFCU'S, the control
surface will move and, "drag" the unserviceable PFCU ram with it. The open
bypass valve will allow fluid to transfer from one side of the ram to the other as
the PFCU "free strokes". Thus control will be maintained by the serviceable
PFCU's driving the control surface, and a hydraulic lock in the unserviceable
PFCU is prevented.
In this arrangement each control surface (rudder is shown in the diagram) is split
into two or three independent sections. Each section is operated by its own
PFCU. For hydraulic redundancy, each PFCU is powered from separate
hydraulic supply circuits. If one supply system should fail, or if one PFCU should
malfunction the effected PFCU can be switched of. In this event the PFCU and
its control surface segment will be "blown back" to the neutral position by
aerodynamic loads and held by a lock. Thus control will be maintained by the
serviceable PFCU's driving their respective segments of control surface.
All PFCU's are controlled via a single input system to a common input lever
connected to all PFCU servo valves. Therefore if one PFCU malfunctioned it
could prevent the operation of the remaining serviceable PFCU'S. To prevent
this the input to the servo valves from the common input lever is via compressible
spring struts or spring boxes. In normal operation these spring struts/boxes resist
compression and allow full control of all PFCU'S. If a PFCU is unserviceable,
pilots input will compress the spring strut to that PFCU but the remaining spring
struts/boxes will resist compression and operate the PFCU servo valves normally.
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DUPLICATED CONTROL SURFACES
9.1.4
Duplicated Control Surfaces

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Figure 20
9.7.8 SELF CONTAINED PFCU
A self contained PFCU consists of a jack-ram powered by its own dedicated

integrally mounted hydraulic generator" and hydraulic reservoir. The generator
is a radial piston pump arrangement within a slip ring assembly. The slip ring
position is control ' led by a servo valve piston arrangement. With the slip ring
held concentric with the piston bank no movement of the pistons within the
rotating piston bank is allowed and no fluid flow will result. If an input moves the
slip ring the rotating bank of pistons will be allowed to "stroke" and a flow to the
PFCU piston will occur and the PFCU ram will move. Movement of the slip ring in
the opposite direction will cause fluid flow to the other side of the piston and the
ram will move in the other direction. The piston bank is rotated by a drive from a
3-phase electric motor, which derives its supply from the aircraft electrical
system.
To maintain redundancy this type of PFCU will be duplicated and each may drive
a duplicate and independent (split) control surface as above. As its source of
power is electrical, it is independent of the aircrafts hydraulic system, therefore
even with total hydraulic failure, control can still be maintained. On malfunction of
a PFCU, or loss of electric power to that PFCU, it will lose hydraulic pressure and
"blow back" to a neutral position where an integral lock will hold it. In this event
further inputs to the servo valves are absorbed by spring-strut that allows
unhindered operation of the remaining PFCU'S.
To give redundancy of electrical power supply, each PFCU in a "set" (i.e. rudder)
gets its power supply from a different bus bar.
9.7.9 INPUT SYSTEMS
Generally the input system of the powered flying control system is mainly a cable
system with the related quadrants, pulleys and fairleads with the connections to
the control column and the PFCU input lever by push rods. To guard against loss
of control due to cable breaks the cable system is duplicated. All duplicated runs
are routed separately through the aircraft to avoid one incident damaging both
control runs. The cable systems meet at a common input lever to the PFCU'S.
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Input Systems
Figure 21
9.7.10 HIGH SPEED PRIMARY CONTROLS
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Primary controls are designed to give adequate control in all flight phases. The
flight phase at which the control surfaces are least effective is during low speeds
(landing). This is because of the reduced aerodynamic effect with low speed.
This means that the size and range of movement of each control surface must be
sufficient to maintain sufficient control authority. With the control system designed
to give efficient control at low speed, there may be a problem at high speed. This
is that at high speeds the increased air-loads on the control surfaces will cause
them to be too sensitive producing over control and possible loss of control or
over-stressing of the airframe. To prevent this two systems may possibly be
used.
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Geared Controls
In this system a single acting hydraulic jack may be fitted to an idler lever. The
control rod is attached to this jack so that the radius of operation can be altered.
Thus for a given angular movement of the idler lever, if the length of the jack is
shortened, the linear movement of the control rod is reduced. This will maintain a
constant range of movement at the pilots controls but reduce the range of
movement of the control surface. Pressure at the jack is usually controlled by a
pressure-modulating valve sensitive to a pressure transducer in the pitot system.
High Speed Control Surfaces (ailerons)
Normal, "low speed" ailerons are situated at the usual wing tips position to gain
maximum authority due to the moment arm produced. But again at high speed
their authority may be too great. In this system an additional set of "high speed"
ailerons is also fitted at the wing root. Hydraulic isolate valves are incorporated in
the control system such that at low speed the outer ailerons are functional, but at
high speed, their hydraulic power is cut off and the high speed ailerons are
powered to maintain roll control. The isolate valves are again controlled by
pressure switches in the pitot system.
9.8 TRAILING EDGE FLAP CONTROLS
On small aircraft the flaps are operated using hydraulic jacks to operate a single
flap on each mainplane. This arrangement is not suitable for use on larger
aircraft due to the size of the airframe that requires that the flaps are
manufactured and mounted in "segments" along the trailing edge.
9.8.1 FLAP CONTROL UTILISING LINEAR HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
The following system that may be regarded as a simple system, similarly uses
linear hydraulic actuators for an aircraft that has three flap segments on each
mainplane each positioned by a separate hydraulic actuator.
Movement of each actuator is controlled by a servo valve (simiIar to that in a
primary flight control unit). Control is by flap lever/quadrant on the centre
console. This is connected to the actuator servo valves by a duplicated system of
control cables and pushrods.
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9.8.2 GENERAL
The flap surfaces are operated through linkages by hydraulic actuators. The
actuators respond simultaneously to the control-cable-relayed demands of a
selector lever mounted on the flight compartment centre console.
The piston rod end of each actuator is structurally anchored; movement being
confined to the unit body. A position control element (servo-valve) incorporated
in the body is controlled by an attached operating lever that has limited travel on
each side of the neutral position. The lever is moved towards or away from the
anchored piston rod end to retract or extend the actuator. Each actuator
incorporates internal restrictors that control the rate of response and an internal
mechanical lock that engages when the flaps are fully up. The lock is
hydraulically released when a down selection is made.
The control system consists of a duplicated input circuit, which through the
medium of a spring strut, signals all six actuators. Beyond the spring strut the
signal to the inner flap actuators is conveyed by a rod and lever system and to
the mid and outer flap actuators by interconnected signalling cables.
The purpose of the spring strut is to "store" control lever movement due to the
actuators' restricted rate of travel.
The adjacent ends of the mid and outer flap surfaces are connected by a link that
allows sufficient free movement to accommodate normal variations of relative
positions without the links being loaded. The links are incorporated as a safety
feature and take effect to prevent an asymmetric flap condition.
The flap selector lever is afforded the following gated positions - 0, 5, 15 and
30.
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9.8.3 HYDRAULIC POWER
Hydraulic power for operation of the actuators is provided by main system

pressure backed up by flap accumulator pressure, when the flight compartment
selector lever is at any position other than fully up (0). The accumulator-stored
pressure is released to the flap system when a solenoid valve is energised open
via a micro-switch operated by the selector lever. The 'back-up' pressure is
introduced downstream of a non-return valve in the main system pressure line;
thus maintenance of a selected down position is assumed, for a limited period in
the event of a main system failure.
Flap System Hydraulics

Figure 22
9.8.4 CONTROL INPUT CIRCUIT
From the flap selector lever on the centre console, the duplicated input cables are
routed aft through the roof structure to a position immediately aft of the rear spar.
At this point, the cables are directed through the roof skin terminating with a
double quadrant assembly. A double acting spring strut is connected between an
output lever on the quadrant and a series of levers and control rods. These:
Operate the position control elements (servo valves) on the inner flap
actuators and transmit actuator movement to the inner flap surfaces.
Provide an input to the left and right mid and out flap signalling circuits.
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The spring strut is incorporated to allow a selection to be made in one quick

movement - the total input motion being absorbed by the spring strut and
progressively released as all six actuators respond at their controlled rate
of travel.
Each of the left and right mid and outer flap signalling circuits consists of a pulley
drum from which cables are routed outboard to quadrant assemblies at the mid
and outer flap positions. Output levers on these quadrants are linked by control
rods to the position control element (servo-valve) operating levers in the
appropriate actuator package assemblies.
The left and right pulley drums are interconnected by two tie-rods to ensure
symmetrical operation of the left and right wing flaps.
Flap Control Input Circuit

Figure 23
9.8.5 SYSTEM OPERATION
Immediately a selection is made the total input motion is absorbed by the spring
strut and progressively released as all six actuators respond at their limited rate
of travel. When the spring strut returns to its pre-selection settled length - the rod
that connects to the position control element-operating lever on each actuator
arrests. The actuators will then marginally run on until their now restrained
element operating levers reach neutral positions. This simultaneously creates a
hydraulic lock at all six actuators and hence arrests the surfaces in alignment at
the selected position.
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9.8.6 SAFETY ASPECTS
Two main safety requirements must be met.

1. One is that a control cable break will not mean loss of control of the flaps.
System integrity is such that duplication of the input cables which allows for
functioning in the event of loss of either circuit) will maintain control.
2. The other is that an asymmetric deployment of the flaps is prevented. An
asymmetric condition could happen in several ways and the following

mechanisms are designed to prevent these.
A. Controls jamming between an actuator and surface (input systems
intact):Should this occur during a programmed selection, the input system of the
relevant actuator will arrest and in consequence will stop signalling of the
remaining actuators which will then run on marginally until their now restrained
servo valve operating levers reach neutral positions - thus arresting all six
surfaces in approximate alignment.
B.
Mechanical failure between an actuator and surface (which will not

impede surface movement):-
Should this occur at either of the inner flaps - the system will remain functional
(full asymmetry between inner flaps can be adequately countered by aileron
action).
Should this occur at a mid or outer flap - the link which interconnects the adjacent
ends of these surfaces will take effect to allow full functioning of both surfaces
from one actuator. Thus preventing an asymmetric condition that would be
beyond the ailerons ability to counter.
C. Loss of signalling (cable break) to a mid or outer flap actuator.
Should loss of signalling to a mid or outer flap actuator occur and the 'free'
actuator become hydraulically locked at any stage during a programmed
operation - the interconnecting link will arrest the adjacent functional actuator and
thus its intact signalling system. This will have the effect of simultaneously
arresting the interconnected input circuits of the remaining actuators that then run
on marginally, until their now restrained servo valve operating levers reach
neutral positions - thus arresting all six surfaces in approximate alignment. The
actuator arrested by the link will remain programmed to achieve intended travel in
opposition to the locked adjacent surface. For this reason and to prevent
excessive structural overloading - the actuators incorporate internal relief valves.
D. Loss of main system pressure
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Main system pressure is augmented by flap accumulator stored pressure via a

solenoid valve when the FLAPS selector lever on the flight compartment centre
console is at any position other than fully up (0'). The 'back up' pressure is
introduced down-stream of a non return valve in the main system pressure line;
thus maintenance of a selected down position is assured for a limited period in
the event of a main system failure.
9.8.7 POSITION INDICATION
Flap position is indicated on a twin pointer scale calibrated to 0', 5', 15' and 30'
settings. The flap position is signalled by two transmitters that are driven from the
flap hinge arms via control rods.
9.8.8 FLAP SYSTEM - HYDRAULIC MOTORS AND TORQUE TUBE DRIVE
On large aircraft it is more common for the flaps to be driven by twin hydraulic
motors, each motor deriving its hydraulic supply from a different hydraulic system.
Each motor is mounted on the same gearbox, such that drive from either or both
motors will drive the gearbox.
The gearbox is commonly located in the main gear bay. The drive is transmitted
to the flap surfaces by a system of torque tubes, gearboxes and screw jacks. The
screw jacks drive trolley assemblies along flap tracks mounted to the wing
structure via support units. The flap segments are mounted onto the trolleys.
System Description
The flap system of each side of the aircraft comprises of flap sections supported
and moved by six support/operating units. (Flap Tracks) The flaps are manually
controlled by a lever on the central console to UP (0), take off (20), approach
(35) and landing (45) positions. This manual control operates independent
Electro/hydraulic systems A and B, employed simultaneously to power the drive
unit (gearbox) and their supplies are drawn from the aircraft electric and hydraulic
systems bearing the same suffix letter.
Both systems normally operate together, but should a hydraulic system fail, or a fault
develop which necessitates selection of ISOLATE on one system, the flaps travel only at
half rate due to the design of the drive unit.
a. Drive Unit
The drive unit, comprises a gearbox and selector drum assembly, powered by two
hydraulic motors. It rotates a torque shaft system that operates screw jack and trolley
mechanisms at each support/operating unit.
The drive unit is mounted to the rear of the wing rear spar member in the left
main landing gear bay. It is powered by two hydraulic motor/lock valve
assemblies; one supplied from hydraulic system A and the other from system B.
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The motors drive a main shaft through a differential gear and a spur wheel
reduction gearing. A gear driven selector drum operates micro-switches to arrest
the flaps when they reach the selected position.
b. Flap Transmission System
Torque shafts extend outboard in each wing from either end of the drive unit main
shaft. The sections of torque shaft couple via universal joints and serrated sleeve
joints to bevel gearboxes and to intermediate bevel gearboxes. The bevel
gearboxes and intermediate gearboxes are connected by serrated sleeve joints
and universal joints to screw shaft assemblies located at each support unit. Flap
trolleys fitted to each screw shaft engage via their rollers with trolley tracks fitted
to the support units. These trolleys support the flap sections.
The flaps are hinged by pins to lugs on the flap trolleys. A torque link pivoted to
each flap section carries a forward flap trolley, the rollers of which engage with
the cam track on the support unit.
c. Hydraulic System
For redundancy the flaps are supplied by two independent hydraulic systems,
which are identical. The following therefore describes one system only.
Hydraulic pressure is supplied to the flap selector valve via a flow control valve
and isolating valve.
Movement of the flap selector lever energises the appropriate solenoid selector
valve to allow pressurised fluid to pass to the hydraulic motor through the lock
valve. Return fluid from the hydraulic motor passes through the lock valve and
flap selector valve back to the main system. The flow control valve controls the
rate at which the flaps move. A throttle valve slows down the flaps at all selected
positions.
When the flaps reach the selected position the selector valve solenoid is deenergised, through the operation of the selector drum micro switches. The
pressurised fluid is held at the selector valve and the two service lines from the
lock valve are connected together and into return. The lock valve prevents the
hydraulic motor from rotating.
d. Flap Control
Each separate flap operating hydraulic circuit is controlled by a separate 28 volt
D.C. electrical system. Each supply is derived from a separate D.C. Bus Bar.
Each system is controlled by three micro-switches operated by control lever
movement, these provide a circuit to the selector valve solenoids via six microswitches operated by the drive unit selector drum.
Cams on the outer periphery of the selector drum operate one switch at both the
normal, up and down limit positions of the flaps and two switches at the take-off
(20') and approach (35') positions.
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Flap control unit

Figure 24
e. Over-Run Protection
If the micro-switches in the drive unit selector drum should malfunction
there is a probability that structural damage may occur as the flap trolleys
reach the end of travel on their screw jacks. If a malfunction should
happen, a set of over-run micro-switches mounted on the flap support
units, will be operated to interrupt the supply to the selector valve solenoid
and prevent the trolleys bottoming on their screw jacks. These microswitches are part of the complete control circuit and are operated by
strikers on the flap support trolleys.
f. Asymmetry Protection
If a malfunction should occur in the flap transmission system causing one part to
seize, great damage could occur as the drive system attempted to drive the flaps
to their selected position. To prevent this, weak "fail safe" joints are incorporated
in various torque tubes that are designed to fail under a certain load.
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However, this will allow the damaged portion of the system to stop and the
remainder to continue travelling, so producing an asymmetric flap condition. To
prevent this an asymmetry protection circuit is incorporated in the control system.
This system uses an A.C. electrical supply and is controlled by four synchro's
which are small devices mounted on and driven by screw shafts in board and out
board of the flap systems. These are paired, and as they rotate send an
alternating signal to an asymmetry control box. If the signals become out of
phase with each other the over-travel/ asymmetry isolate relay will be energised
to lockout the system.
g. Position Indication
Flap position indication is provided by a D.C. ratio meter indicating system
comprising two transmitters, driven from the outboard end of the left and right
torque shaft systems and dual indicators positioned on the centre in the flight
deck.
9.8.9 MAINTENANCE OF FLAP SYSTEMS
Because of the exposed position of most flap system components regular

lubrication of hinge bolts, screw jacks, trolleys etc is required. When carrying out
this task all excess grease must be removed to prevent the accumulation of dirt
or grit that may enter bearings etc.
Rigging
The flap operating system is a large complex system which will only work if all
parts are in their correct relative positions at all times. To ensure this, whenever
the system is disturbed by a maintenance task it must be checked or re-rigged.
Provision is built into the system for this.
9.9 LEADING EDGE FLAP CONTROLS
The following notes describe a typical leading edge flap control system (Boeing
747). There are two modes of operation, primary and alternate. The normal
method of operation is by use of the primary mode and is initiated by use of the
flap lever to a selected detent.
On the Boeing 747 there are 28 leading edge flaps, they in turn are divided in two
categories, variable camber (22) off, Kruger (6) off.
Four pneumatic power units in each wing move the flaps up or down, (extend) or
(retract). Air is supplied to the power units from ducts in the leading edge of the
wing. The ducts also supply air to jets that spray the outboard drive units with hot
air for anti icing. Each drive unit assembly has two motors, one pneumatic and
one electrically powered. Torque developed by the drive units is supplied to rotary
actuators. The actuators move the flaps.
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Normal operation is achieved by operation of the flap control lever. Three rotary
variable differential transducers (RVDTs) sense movement and signal the Flap
Control Unit (FCU), which control the direction control motors. If pneumatic power
is not available the FCU will switch to electric drive motor operation.
Figure 25
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L/E Flap System Components

Figure 26
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Figure 27
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9.9.1 LEADING EDGE FLAP PNEUMATIC DRIVE UNIT
Purpose
Eight pneumatic drive units (PDU) power the LE flap system. Each power drive
unit has both a pneumatic and an electric drive motor. The pneumatic motor is
the primary drive source and is powered by the leading edge pneumatic manifold.
The electric motor is an additional drive source for use when the pneumatic
system is not available.
Leading Edge Flap Drive Unit- operation
a. Pneumatic Drive
The flap lever is used to command FCU operation. The flap control unit signal is
passed to the directional control motor and the shutoff valve. Pneumatic
pressure flows from the inlet duct through the alternate valve (normally open) to
the shutoff valve. The shutoff valve (normally closed) opens to pressurise the
regulator and the air Motor brake. Pneumatic pressure at the regulator opens the
butterfly valve and regulates the pressure to the control valve. Pneumatic
pressure at the air motor brake releases the brake. The direction and speed
difference between the direction control motor and the output shaft follow-up gear
is sensed by the differential. The differential uses the speed differences to
position the control valve and maintain PDU speed. Travel limits are governed by
the primary position controller. This translates the amount of distance that the nut
travels. When the translating nut reaches its travel limit it stops the direction
control motor rotation that, in turn, stops PDU operation.
b. Electric Drive
The signal to activate the electric drive motor closes the alternate solenoid valve.
The electric motor brake then releases the electric motor drive. The pneumatic
brake holds the sun gear of the planetary gearbox at the air motor output shaft.
The electric motor drives the output shaft through the ring gear of the planetary
gear reduction. When the translating nut in the alternate position controller
reaches the end of its travel it opens the electric motor limit switches. The
alternate controller position switches control the electric motor shutdown in both
primary and alternate control modes.
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Operating Times
The approximate leading edge flap extension or retraction times are:
Pneumatic operation: 9 seconds
Electric operation: 90 seconds
Electric Drive. Motor Control

Primary Mode: in the primary mode the FCU controls the LE flap operation. If the
pneumatic drive motor is not available the FCU will select the electric drive motor.
The alternate controller provides signals to the FCUs for control, monitoring, and
indication functions.
Alternate Mode: in alternate mode the electric drive motor is the only method of
moving the flaps. The alternate arming switch arms the system. Flap operation
is commanded by using the rotary alternate control switch located on P-2 in the
flight deck.
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Figure 28
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9.9.2 KRUEGER FLAP DRIVE COMPONENTS
Purpose/Location
The Krueger flaps modify the configuration of the inboard portion of the wing
leading edge to increase low speed lift. There are three Krueger type LE flaps
installed on each wing inboard of the inboard engines (flaps 11 through 16).
Figure. 29
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9.10 SPEED BRAKE/GROUND SPOILER CONTROL

Spoilers will normally be controlled by the pilot through the normal roll controls or
by the automatic flight control system (auto-pilot). They may also be operated
automatically as part of an automatic landing system. On a typical aircraft (Boeing
757) the spoilers are electrically controlled and hydraulically powered.
Figure 30
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9.10.1 OPERATION
Rotary variable differential transducers (RVDTs) convert control wheel inputs into
electrical signals. Spoiler control modules receive the signals and command the
Power Control Actuators (PCAs) to raise the spoilers. Placing the speed-brake
lever in the UP position will raise all flight spoilers.
Figure 31
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Three RVDTs are grouped together in a can-like unit, mounted on the bottom of
each control unit assembly. The RVDTs convert aileron control wheel rotation
into a signal voltage proportional to the control wheel movement.
The Spoiler Control Modules mix RVDT inputs with other inputs according to a
programmed logic. Six SCMs control the 12 spoiler surfaces.
Power Control Actuators operate the spoilers. Each spoiler has one PCA,
powered by one of three hydraulic systems. Each PCA consists of a hydraulic
actuator, an electro-hydraulic servo valve (EHSV) and a Rotary variable
differential transformer (RVDT). The PCA extends or retracts as commanded to
raise or lower the spoiler. The RVDT sends a feedback signal to the SCM
proportional to the amount of surface deflection.
Electro-hydraulic Servo valves controls the flow of hydraulic fluid in the PVA in
response to the SCM commands. The command operates a jet pipe that supplies
hydraulic fluid to the EHSV control bobbin. The EHSV is spring loaded to the
retract position, so the spoiler panel will retract if there is no command signal.
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Spoiler Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve

Figure 32
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9.11 MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

9.11.1 MECHANICAL CONTROLS
Most aircraft use conventional mechanical controls to move the flight controls.
These will normally consist of cables, chains and control tubes. Many examples
of this type of system have been described and illustrated previously. The
ailerons and elevators on this type of system would normally be operated by a
conventional control column and control wheel. Operation of this is instinctive to
the pilot, the control wheel being rotated to the left to bank left and right to bank
right. Pushing the control column forwards causes the aircraft to dive and pulling
back causes the aircraft to climb. A typical control wheel and other cockpit
controls is illustrated.
Figure 33
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9.11.2 ELECTRICAL FLIGHT CONTROLS
Many modern aircraft use electrical inputs to the powered control units. This
eliminates the need for mechanical controls and all of the chains, pulleys,
fairleads and linkages associated with this type of system. This topic is covered
in more detail in the Fly By Wire section, but the following paragraphs illustrate a
typical Airbus system.
The electrical flight control computers are designed to ensure a high degree of
safety. This is accomplished by using a high level of redundancy which consists
of five EFCS computers installed in the aircraft, the use of dissimilar redundancy
which consists of two types of computers with each being capable of achieving
pitch and roll control along with other redundant features assuring aircraft control.
Each computer is also composed of one control unit and one monitoring unit.
Control and monitoring software are different and the control and monitoring units
are physically separated.
Monitoring
In each computer, one monitoring channel is associated to a control channel by
use of self- monitored channels. Each computer is able to detect its own failures
(microprocessor test, electrical power monitoring, input and output test). Input
monitoring by comparison of signals of the same type, but sent by different
sources, and checking of the signal coherence along with permanent cross talk
between associated control and monitoring channels, consolidate and validate
information received. This allows permanent monitoring of each channel by its
associated one. Automatic test sequences can be performed on the ground
when electric and hydraulic power is applied (no surface deflection during test).
Side-stick Controller
The side-stick controllers are used for pitch and roll manual control and are
shown below. The side-stick controllers are installed on the captains and first
officer's forward lateral consoles. An adjustable arm-rest is fitted on each seat to
facilitate the side-stick control. The side-stick controllers are electrically coupled.
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Figure 34
In the case of one pilot wanting to take control of the aircraft (priority), the
autopilot instinctive disconnect button is used to signal the priority system. A
visual indication is given to the pilots to indicate left or right side-stick priority. In
autopilot operation the side-stick controllers remain In neutral position.
The autopilot function can be overridden by the pilots and the autopilot then
disengages.
Control Laws
Normal control laws selected for A320 pitch and lateral control are manoeuvre
command laws with normal acceleration and roll rates used as basic parameters.
Inside the normal flight envelope, the main features are a neutral static stability,
short term attitude stability, along with automatic longitudinal trimming.
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The flight characteristics that can be controlled are:
the automatic elevator in a turn
lateral attitude hold in a turn
dutch roll damping
turn co-ordination
engine failure compensation.
In addition, protections are provided against extreme attitudes (pitch and roll)
excessive load factors, over-speed, and stall.
The load alleviation function (LAF) is accomplished by the electrical flight control
system (EFCS). The LAF is implemented in the elevator and aileron computer
(ELAC) and the spoiler elevator computer (SEC). The control surfaces used are
both ailerons as well as spoilers 4 and 5 (i.e. the outboard pair on both sides) for
up gusts.
There are four specific accelerometers that are installed in the forward fuselage
station to provide the electrical flight control computers with vertical acceleration
values. These sense the up gust and deploy the spoilers to smooth out the
normal result of an up gust of wind as described in the before mentioned
example.
Four hydraulic accumulators are installed to provide the extra hydraulic flow
needed to achieve the surface rates and duration of movement required for load
alleviation as illustrated below.
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9.12
MODULE 11.09
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Q FEEL, YAW DAMPER, MACH TRIM, RUDDER LIMITER, GUST

LOCKS
9.12.1 ARTIFICIAL FEEL
9.12.1.1
Q Feel System Principles
'Q' feel is an artificial force felt at the control column, which increases as the
aerodynamic pressure (Q) at the control surface increases.
Aerodynamic pressure conforms to the relationship Q = pv2,. Where p is air
density, and v is the velocity of air flow.
Thus, a 'Q' feel system has to simulate the actual control surface loading lost with
the use of powered controls; preventing the pilot damaging the aircraft by pulling
excessive 'g' loads.
Artificial 'Q' feel" units have to increase the control column centralizing force, in
proportion to the square of the airspeed.
In general, 'Q' feel systems can be either mechanically or hydraulically operated.
Typical systems are explained below.
9.12.1.2
Mechanical Q Feel System
Spring feel has the disadvantage of being constant throughout the airspeed
range. However, with this system the effective force provided by the spring
cartridge is adjusted for given airspeeds. This is achieved by moving the fulcrum
point of its bell crank lever. Rather like the study of lever mechanisms, where the
given forces by distances are equal on either side. Thus, we can attain a
mechanical advantage over the spring, increasing or reducing the effective feel
force.
9.12.2 OPERATION
Refer to diagram overleaf:

The slotted bell crank lever has the control rods attached at one end, and the
spring cartridge at the other. As a control surface demand is made, this lever
pivots about the roller, which is attached to the fulcrum arm.
Relative positions of the fulcrum arm determine the amount of feel felt back at the
stick. The fulcrum arm can be repositioned by means of an electrical linear
actuator.
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Should the actuator be extended, the fulcrum arm would be lowered. This gives a
short distance from the roller to the spring, relative to the control rods. Hence,
there is a good mechanical advantage in the mechanism, making it easy to move
the spring cartridge. This would be the configuration for low airspeeds.
As the airspeed of the aircraft increases, the fulcrum arm would move up,
progressively giving more feel to the system.
The linear actuator operates from a closed loop positional servo system. Input is
by means of an airspeed sensor, which converts the pitot/static pressure
differential into an electric signal. Feedback is achieved by means of a follow-up
potentiometer attached to the fulcrum arm.
PITOT/ STATIC
SLOTTED BELLCRANK
LEVER
AIRSPEED
FOLLOW-UP POT
SENSOR
SERVO
AMP
ROLLER
+
_
FULCRUM ARM
LINEAR ELECT
ACTUATOR
SPRING
CARTRIDGE
Mechanical Q Feel System

Figure 36
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9.12.3 HYDRAULIC Q FEEL SYSTEM
NORMAL OPERATION
A hydraulic jack is attached to the control rods adjacent to the control column.
The principle of operation is that the pressure of hydraulic fluid within "this 'Q' feel simulator jack, will be proportional to the amount of force necessary at the
stick, to overcome it. Low pressure produces light feel. High pressure produces
heavy feel.
To provide this pressure differential relative to airspeed a special 'Q' feel unit is
used.
Pitot and static pressure are transmitted to the unit, but are isolated from one
another by a flexible diaphragm. As the airspeed increases the pitot pressure acts
to push the diaphragm down. This action is the resistive force acting against the
upward tendency of the servo valve piston.
Signal pressure is supplied to the 'Q feel jack at differing magnitudes, by the
servo valve. This signal pressure is proportional to the airspeed.
Different pressures are achieved by the action of the servo valve piston acting
against the force created at the diaphragm. At zero airspeed (static) the piston
will be fully up, as there is no pitot pressure resisting it. This will close the valve
pressure inlet and open the signal pressure lines to exhaust (return line). Hence,
no feel simulated.
With an increase in airspeed, there will be a greater force felt on the diaphragm
side of the piston. Therefore, a greater pressure will be required in the signal
pressure lines to close off the servo valve pressure inlet port. Hence, feel is
simulated at the control column, and this builds up in proportion to the square of
the airspeed.
9.12.4 MACH NUMBER CORRECTION
As increased Mach numbers are reached there is a reduction in the effectiveness

of the control surfaces, for a given amount of deflection.
This effect is due to the compressibility of air at supersonic speeds. Therefore, at
such Mach numbers, the feel force has to be reduced accordingly; regardless of
the aircraft speed.
9.12.5 OPERATION
On the Mach number correction side of the unit the diaphragm has differential
areas, upon which pitot and static pressure may act. This is due to the underside
of the capsule reducing the area on the pitot pressure side, but the static
pressure can affect the whole of the diaphragm under-surface.
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Hence, an increased force is felt on the underside of the diaphragm, for relative
pressures on either side. At low and moderate airspeeds this retains the capsule
in the position as shown in the diagram.
As higher Mach numbers are approached, an increase in pitot relative to static
pressure is experienced. This has the effect of pushing the diaphragm down, in
proportion to the Mach number reached. In turn, a linkage has the effect of
pushing up on the servo valve piston against the normal diaphragm. Signal
pressure is subsequently reduced, and there is less centering force at the stick.
The pilot has less feel.
Mach numbers are not always constant for a given airspeed. They change with
the aircraft altitude. To compensate for this effect the capsule is evacuated, and
operates on an aneroid principle.
MACH
CORRECTION
CAPSULE
PITOT
DIAPHRAGM
STATIC
EXHAUST
CONTROL
COLUMN
PRESSURE
INLET
INPUT TO
PFCU
Q FEEL JACK
Hydraulic Q Feel System

Figure 37
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9.13 YAW DAMPING

Yaw damping is provided on some aircraft to improve the directional stability and
turn co-ordination.
When the aircraft yaws due to side air-loads, a hydraulic yaw damper actuator
automatically compensates by generating rudder control inputs. The following
notes describe a typical yaw damper system.
9.13.1 YAW CONTROL
Yaw control is provided by a single piece rudder actuated by three independently

supplied hydraulic servo-jacks. They are signalled via interconnected pedals by
a single cable run up to a spring loaded artificial feel unit connected to the trim
screw-jacks. The commands are transmitted by a single load path linkage fitted
with a centring spring device. This holds the servo-jack inputs in the neutral
position should a disconnect occur. Rudder travel is limited as a function of air
speed (CAS).
Orders are delivered by the flight augmentation computer (FAC) controlling
electric motors coupled to a variable mechanical stop, as illustrated in the picture
below.
Yaw dampening is operative throughout the whole flight envelope. Yaw damper
commands are transmitted via a differential unit. Yaw stability augmentation
orders are delivered by the FACS.
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Artificial feel is provided by a spring rod, the zero force position of which is
controlled by an. electrical trim actuator. An automatic reset function initiated by
pressing the RESET pushbutton allows the rudder trim position to be nulled
through the FACS. Rudder trim position is displayed on an indicator adjacent to
the trim switch.
Figure 38
9.14 MACH TRIM

Modern transport aircraft are designed to cruise at high mach numbers, close to,
or at the speed where shock waves may form on the wing. This is their "critical
mach number". At this aircraft speed the formation of the shock waves causes
shock induced separation and a movement of the centre of pressure forward.
This produces a pitch up which must be countered.
The Mach Trim System is provided to automatically maintain the correct aircraft
pitch trim angle in relation to speed by varying the tail-plane trim. In achieving
this function, the system maintains the same degree of longitudinal stability
throughout the operational speed range of the aircraft.
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Tailplane Operating Mechanism

Figure 39
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9.14.1 TYPICAL SYSTEM
The mach trim system operates within the range from 0.68 IMN (Indicated Mach
Number) to 0.84 IMN when the aircraft is above 9000 ft.
The system operates in passive mode when the aircraft is flown with the autopilot engaged, but becomes active if the autopilot is disengaged.
A mach trim activity light on the pilot's instrument panel flashes intermittently to
indicate that a trimming demand exists. Illumination of the light for a sustained
period indicates a runaway or seized actuator.
A mach trim ON/OFF switch located in the cockpit permits a faulty system to be
isolated.
9.14.2 CONTROLLER
The controller is supplied with height and speed inputs from the aircraft pitot static
system. The inputs are used to generate control signals that determine the
direction and rate of rotation of the mach trim actuator. The controller also
provides the 28 volts DC output to energize the clutch and connect the mach trim
actuator to the tail-plane trim system.
9.14.3 MACH TRIM ACTUATOR
The actuator is located in the centre pedestal in the cockpit, and is connected by
a chain drive to the manual tail-plane trim hand-wheels cross-shaft. A solenoid
operated clutch connects the mach trim actuator to the drive system. The tailplane auto-trim actuator operated by the auto-pilot system is also attached to the
mach trim actuator. The control system ensures that only one actuator can be
engaged at a time.
9.14.4 OPERATION
With the system selected ON and the auto-pilot disengaged, the mach trim
actuator is clutched to the tail trim mechanism as soon as the aircraft power
supplies are switched on.
The system becomes active as soon as the aircraft flies above 9000 ft and its
speed is within the Mach number range 0.68 IMN to 0.84 IMN.
If the manual tail-plane trim hand-wheels are operated, the mach trim actuator is
declutched to permit the tail-plane incidence to be changed and the clutch reengaged when the trim hand-wheels are released.
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Typical Mach Trim System

Figure 40
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9.15 RUDDER LIMITING

At slow speeds the pilot is able to utilise the full movement of the rudder to enable
maximum control of the aircraft during landing and take-off. As airspeed
increases, the same full movement of the control surfaces would have a much
more dramatic aerodynamic effect. Structural damage could occur if the controls
were moved the same amount as at low speed.
The artificial feel systems previously discussed how feel is incorporated into the
controls. Rudder limiting restricts the maximum movement of the rudder as
airspeed increases. Two typical systems are described.
9.15.1 Q LIMITER
The rudder 'Q pot restricts movement as airspeed increases by extending the
stepped stop, which restricts movement of the clawed stop. The clawed stop is
connected by rod to one end of the inner level in the trim unit that restricts the
movement of the input lever.
The stepped stop is extended by operation of the rudder 'Q' pot. The 'Q' pot
assembly comprises a cylinder assembly, a sealed piston bolted to a springloaded piston rod. The sealed piston divides the 'Q' pot into two sealed
chambers No.1 pitot static and No.2 pitot pressure. These chambers are supplied
from the 'Q' pot pitot head located on the lower left-hand nose fuselage.
As pressure from the pitot head rises in chamber No.2, the piston moves,
compressing the spring and extending the piston rod and consequently the
stepped stop into the clawed stop.
A microswitch is mounted on the 'Q' pot and is operated by a cam on the stop in
the extended position.
9.16 GUST LOCKS
The following notes describe a typical aircraft system and refer in some cases to
specific references associated with that system.
9.16.1 DESCRIPTION
The gust lock system is employed to lock the primary control surfaces in the
neutral position for taxiing, parking or mooring the aircraft. The system consists
of forward and aft installations that are electrically connected for operation by a
single lever on the flight compartment centre console.
The forward installation caters for the locking of the aileron and elevator surfaces;
the aft installation, which includes an electrical actuator, locks the rudder.
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Each installation incorporates a weight switch controlled solenoid lock (snib); that
in the forward installation renders it impossible to select controls LOCKED in
flight. The aft snib prevents locking of the rudder should its associated gust lock
actuator be subjected to spurious electrical signals.
When ground selected LOCKED, the control lever, in addition to locking the
primary control surfaces via the mechanisms described in the following
paragraphs, also operates an interlock mechanism; this baulks engine power
lever movement to restrict engine power during taxiing.
Warning of the locked condition is provided by a warning light on panel 1P.
9.16.2 CONTROLS LOCKING MECHANISM (AILERON AND ELEVATOR)
The mechanism, shown in the following diagram, basically consists of two pivoted
locking arms, each of which is provided with an open-ended slot. The aileron and
elevator arms are connected by input springpots to levers fixed to the controls
locking lever shaft.
The controls locking lever handle has two positions:
a. UNLOCKED - forward and
b. LOCKED - aft.
The handle incorporates a spring-loaded push rod that protrudes from the upper
end of the handle as a push-button. The rod is provided with a collar at the lower
end that can engage in either of two locking holes in a structurally anchored
gated bracket on the levers shaft. The locking holes are joined by a slot that
allows the collar to be push-button displaced. The handle is then ground selected
from UNLOCKED to LOCKED and vice-versa.
When selected LOCKED the input springpots load the locking arms against pins
fitted to the aileron and elevator primary bellcranks at the positions shown; this
'arms' the mechanism such that when the associated primary circuit is brought to
its lock position the slot in the related locking arm will 'snap' engage with the lock
pin on the bellcrank. When UNLOCKED is selected, the input springpots will pull
the locking arms clear of the bellcrank - thus freeing the controls.
NOTE:
THE MECHANISM ADDITIONALLY INCORPORATES A 'FAILSAFE' SPRING ASSEMBLY AT
EACH LOCKING ARM; THESE WILL PREVENT THE ARMS FROM ENGAGING WITH THE
BELLCRANKS SHOULD A LINKAGE FAILURE OCCUR WHEN THE CONTROLS ARE SELECTED
UNLOCKED.
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9.16.3 CONTROLS LOCKING MECHANISM (RUDDER)
The rudder gust lock mechanism shown in the following diagram is located in the
upper left side of the rear fuselage.
Basically the mechanism comprises a lock strut that pivots in a limited lateral arc
about its bracket-attached forward end. The aft end of the strut is equipped with
a bayonet fitting, encompassed by a nylon guide block assembly. The bayonet
incorporates an open-ended slot to operationally engage a lock pin in the rudder
control lever assembly. The strut is positioned for lock
engagement/disengagement by a springpot interposed between the bayonet
fitting and an electrical actuator structurally anchored to the fuselage.
The linear actuator, circuit identification WM5, is a split field series wound unit
driven by a bi-directional motor and equipped with internal extend and retract limit
switches. The unit operationally retracts to 'arm' the strut for lock pin
engagement; engagement occurs when the rudder pedals are centralized.
Conversely, the actuator extends to disengage the lock. Disengagement is
assisted by a tension spring.
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Gust Lock Installation

Figure 41
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9.16.4 POWER SUPPLIES
The system power supply is derived from the 28v dc right essential services
busbar. C/B No. 192 (3A) on panel 2D caters for: rudder gust lock actuator
operation, on ground retraction of the solenoid lock snibs and controls locked
warning indication. A paralleled supply for locked warning indication is also taken
from C/B No. 178 (3A) on panel 2D; this is operationally taken via the normally
open contacts of microswitch WM4 when the rudder lock strut is engaged. The
dual supply assures warning integrity should one or other of the two circuit
breakers trip out during a locked condition.
9.16.5 OPERATION
The operation of the gust lock system is essentially as detailed in the preceding
paragraphs, however, some discussion of the electrical aspects of control is
necessary; this follows:
Solenoid locks
The two snib-type solenoid locks are flight de-energized (i.e. snibs extended) by a
weight switch in the right equipment bay of the nose fuselage. In this condition,
the forward unit will baulk a toe' on the control lever; thus preventing lever
movement from the UNLOCKED to the LOCKED position. The rear unit snib will
prevent engagement of the rudder gust lock strut.
When on the ground, 28v dc is made available through the weight switch relay to
energize both solenoids; this withdraws the snibs, thus allowing unimpeded
ground operation of the control lever from UNLOCKED to LOCKED and
engagement of the rudder lock strut.
With the aircraft on-ground and electrical power available (solenoid snibs
retracted) selection of the control lever to LOCKED will cause an adjustable cam
on the levers shaft to connect to pole A of a two-pole microswitch WM2 to the
retract field winding of the actuator. The actuator then retracts to arm the system
for rudder lock engagement; this occurs when the rudder pedals are centralized.
When fully retracted the actuator limit switches changeover in readiness for a
subsequent extend command. An UNLOCK selection similarly causes actuator
extension to disengage in the rudder lock strut.
Controls locked warning
A CONTROL LOCKS warning light (red) on Panel IP will illuminate:
a. if the controls locking lever is out of its UNLOCKED detent or
if the rudder gust lock strut is not in a fully disengaged position.
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9.17 RIGGING AND BALANCING CONTROLS

9.17.1 RIGGING - INTRODUCTION
When applied to control systems the term 'rigging' is used to describe the practice
of truing and checking the system to ensure that the flying controls operate
correctly. The objective of rigging is to have the cockpit control in neutral at the
same time as the control surface is in neutral. Rigging a control system ensures
that:
The pilot's control is in the correct relationship to the relevant control surface.
The control surface moves in the correct sense and to its designed maximum
travel position in either direction.
Friction in the system is within acceptable limits.
The rigging and adjustment of the system is carried out:

a. At specified intervals as laid down in the relevant aircraft servicing publication.
b. After disturbing any part of the control system, including the control system.
9.17.2 CHECKS BEFORE RIGGING
a. Before operating any flying control system in an aircraft, first check that there
are no obstructions that could damage the control surface when it is moved.
It is also important to display warning notices informing personnel of the
possibility of movement of the control surface. Inform personnel working in
the vicinity of a control system when you are about to operate it.
b. In rigging an aircraft control system it is sometimes necessary to level the
aircraft both laterally and longitudinally to put it into the rigging position, as
described. The appropriate aircraft maintenance manual will state on what
occasions, if any, this is necessary.
c. Before starting to rig a flying control system it is advisable to ensure that all
parts of the system and the control surfaces are serviceable. There is little
merit in rigging a control system only to discover, subsequently, that some
parts have to be replaced. Thus cables and tubes should automatically be
examined for wear and corrosion, and other components for freedom of
movement, security of attachment and so on. Replace components as
necessary before continuing.
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9.17.3 RIGGING PROCEDURE

9.17.3.1
Establishing the Neutral Setting
The first action is to set the cockpit control to neutral and to lock it in this position,
using the equipment provided for the particular system. The rest of the control
run is then adjusted to the neutral setting and locked in that position, often by
using rigging pins. Generally speaking, control surfaces are in neutral when they
are in line with the main surface to which they are attached. An exception to this
is where the trailing edge of the aileron is set a specified amount below the
mainplane trailing edge. This setting is known as aileron droop.
9.17.3.2
Rigging Pins
Rigging pins are issued in sets, the type and number depending upon the aircraft
and also upon the specific control run being rigged. The type, number and
positions of rigging pins in the aircraft's system are shown in diagrams of
appropriate aircraft maintenance manual. The first pins, called the No. I or
master pin, is fitted at the cockpit end of the control run and, in conjunction with
the cockpit control neutral setting bar, secures that end of the system in neutral.
Between these two items, there may be an adjustable link that has to be set at
the correct length. By adjusting the control cable and tubes, holes in idler gears
or levers can be made to align with corresponding holes in the airframe structure;
rigging pins are then used to join these two holes, thereby positively locating and
locking the control system in neutral. When all the rigging pins have been fitted in
this way, that particular control run has been adjusted to, and locked in, neutral.
This setting may be checked by using setting gauges.
Figure 42
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The next stage is to remove and then refit each rigging pin in turn to ensure that
this can be done without strain. This indicates that the system has been set up
satisfactorily, and that there is no backlash in the system; this is particularly
important where the system is cable operated. Finally, it is vital to check that the
complete set of rigging pins are removed from the aircraft on completion of the
work.
Note: There have been many accidents or near accidents attributed to failure to
remove rigging pins, or the use of incorrect items to lock controls in neutral.
In one particular incident, a new aircraft was taxiing out from the manufacturer for
delivery to the customer. Whilst carrying out the full and free control test prior to
take off the pilot felt a restriction in the aileron controls. When the aircraft taxied
back to the hangar, a bolt was found inserted in the captains control rigging pin
hole. Obviously someone had used this in preference to the correct rigging pin.
The correct checks had obviously not been carried out and the rigging pin/bolt
not removed. (see diagrams following).
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9.17.4 CONTROL SURFACE SETTING GAUGES
Where control surface setting gauges are provided, they are used to check the
neutral and maximum travel position of controllable aerofoil surfaces. Each
gauge is manufactured for use with one specific surface. The gauge is firmly
attached to a fixed part of the aircraft, next to the movable surface with which it is
associated. With the controls set at neutral, the trailing edge of the control
surface should coincide with the neutral mark on the gauge. Now move the
control surface to the maximum travel position, in either direction, and see if the
trailing edge of the control surface coincides with the appropriate mark on the
gauge. The control surface movement can be quickly and easily adjusted with
the gauge in position by restricting the mechanical stops.
9.17.5 CHECKING FOR SENSE OF MOVEMENT
Having established the neutral position of the control system, the next stage is to
ensure that the control run being rigged operates the control surface in the
correct sense. This is clearly vital; inadvertent cross-over of connections would
reverse the control surface movement with possible disastrous results. The
sense of operation can be readily checked by two tradesmen - one at the control
in the cockpit and the other at the control surface, if you are not sure of the
relationship between control movement and the corresponding control surface
movement.
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Mechanical StopsThe next check

is to ensure that the control surface
moves to its designed maximum
travel position, in both directions,
when moved by the cockpit control.
The maximum travel of a primary
control surface is limited in either
direction by mechanical (limit)
stops. These stops are fitted to
limit the control surface movement
due to excessive travel. In a
manual system, the limit stops are
usually located near the control
surface, and a second pair of
stops, known as 'override stops'
are fitted to limit the pilot's control
movement should the main stop
fail. Override stops are adjusted to
a specified clearance under normal
operating conditions. In powered
control systems, the mechanical
stops are-located on the input
(PFCU); usually they are located
next to the pilot's control in 'the
cockpit, thus limiting the control
system movement from that
position. During the rigging
procedure, the main mechanical
(limit) stops may need to be re-set
to ensure that the control surface
reaches, but does not exceed, its
maximum travel position. The
maximum travel position of a
control surface can be checked in a
variety of ways using the
instruments detailed later.
Figure 44
However, most modern aircraft
use control surface setting gauges for this purpose. We have now rigged the
control system and also checked that it operates in the correct sense; and we
have set the limit stops to give the maximum required travel in both directions.
The next stage is to check the system for resistance to movement from rest and
also the force required to maintain the speed of movement when the control
system is operated.
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9.17.6 CHECKING FOR STATIC AND RUNNING FRICTION
The resistance to movement of a control system may be due to lack of

lubrication, misalignment, or slight faults in bearing surfaces. This resistance can
be measured using a spring balance attached to the cockpit control; an example
of this is shown. The pull on the spring balance is in the direction that the control
would normally move. Note the reading on the spring balance when the control
starts to move from rest. This force is known as the breakout force, and
represents the amount of static friction in the system. Once the control system is
moving, the force required to keep it moving is less than the breakout force. The
spring balance indicates this reduced force, which represents the running
friction. The amount of static and running friction permissible in any given aircraft
control run must not exceed the limits laid down in the appropriate aircraft
maintenance manual. Insufficient lubrication will, of course, increase the friction
of any parts that rub together.
Figure 45
9.17.7
CHECKS AFTER RIGGING
After any adjustment to a flying control system, it is necessary to carry out a

functional test of the system and to carry out a visual check of the complete
system; start from the cockpit and finish at the control surface. The following are
typical of the checks to be carried out.
a. Carry out a functional test, ensuring that no part of the system fouls the
airframe structure when operated over the full range of movement.
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b. Check that turnbuckles, adjustable end fittings and limit stops are in safety
and locked.
c. Examine all parts of the system and supporting structure for security of
attachment and check that shackle pins and nuts are correctly split-pinned.
d. Check cable alignment around pulleys.
e. Lubricate the system as necessary in accordance with servicing instructions
for the system.
f.
Examine the control surface itself to ensure that it has not been damaged in
any way.
g. Check to ensure that no tools or other 'foreign objects' have been left within
the system to become a FOD hazard.
h. The final check is always a duplicate check - by a suitable qualified, engineer.
9.17.8 DUPLICATE CHECKS
In the interest of safety, all work on, and the functioning of, aircraft control
systems must be checked twice, each time by a suitably authorised qualified
person. Duplicate checks are divided into parts:
a.
b.
c.
d.
check for correct assembly and locking, and

function
range of movement
sense check.
The term 'control systems' applies to all engine, undercarriage, flying and
associated control systems and equipment directly affecting the safety of the
aircraft. Full regulations concerning duplicates are described in module 10.
9.17.9 PRIMARY CONTROL SYSTEMS - EXAMPLE OF RIGGING
The method of rigging and the procedures to be adopted when adjusting a

specified control run on a given aircraft will be detailed in the appropriate
maintenance manual. This must always be consulted. However, to help you,
and to give guidance on the sort of things you can expect to find, an example of a
typical rigging procedure is given in the following paragraphs.
To rig an aileron system, the procedure may be along the following lines:
a. Carry out the checks before rigging described in paragraph 8.2
b. Slacken the control cables throughout the system.
c. Lock the pilot's column in neutral and ensure that the control chains shown
are equally disposed around the top and bottom sprockets.
d. Set the aileron operating sprockets to neutral using rigging pins as necessary.
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e. Ensure that the chains are correctly positioned and then adjust the
turnbuckles evenly to tension the control cables; a tension-meter may or may
not be required to check cable tension, depending on whether or not the
system is a regulated one.
f.
Adjust the operating rods until the ailerons are in line with the trailing edge of
the main plane or as specified (or the neutral setting on the setting gauge, if
one is provided).
g. Remove the control column locking device and also the rigging pins, if fitted.
h. Operate the ailerons, checking for freedom of movement and that they move
in the correct sense relative to the control column movement.
i.
Measure the range of movement of the ailerons and adjust the limit stops until
the range is as specified in the maintenance manual. If the limit stops are not
adjustable, and the range of movement is incorrect, replace the stops.
j.
Then, using a spring balance, check the control system for static and running
friction.
k. Carry out the necessary checks after rigging.
l.
Arrange for a duplicate check to be carried out.
To rig other primary control systems (i.e. elevators and rudders) a procedure
similar to that outlined above is carried out. Remember, however, that each
system is peculiar to the aircraft in which it is installed and the need to consult the
aircraft maintenance manual should be obvious.
9.17.10
RIGGING A TUBE-OPERATED CONTROL SYSTEM
To rig a primary control system, in which light alloy tubes are used, the procedure
may be similar to that described below:
a. Carry out the checks before rigging as in paragraph 8.2.
b. Set and lock the pilot's control in the neutral position and disconnect the
control tubes.
c. Commence by attaching the forward control tube to the pilot's control.
d. Fit the appropriate (master) rigging pin.
e. Connect the tubes in sequence from the cockpit to the control surface, fitting
the rigging pins in the appropriate housings.
f.
Connect the control surface and adjust to the neutral setting.
g. Remove the cockpit control locking device and the rigging pins.
h. Operate the control, checking for freedom of movement and that it moves in
the correct sense in relation to the control surface.
i.
Measure the range of movement and, as necessary, adjust the limit stops.
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Check the system for friction.
k. Carry out the necessary checks after rigging.

l. Arrange for a duplicate check to be carried out.
9.17.11
RIGGING A POWERED FLYING CONTROL SYSTEM
As you would expect in this type of system, a power unit of some sort acts to
move, or to assist the movement of, the control surface in response to movement
of the cockpit control. A powered flying control system has other units, such as a
trim actuator, artificial feel unit and yaw damper, fitted to it. But we are not
concerned with any of these units at this time. Our concern is with rigging the
manual part of the system, and here the same principles apply as in the other
examples.
In a typical rudder powered control system. Control tubes are used from the
cockpit to the bell crank lever, to which the artificial feel unit is attached. The
remainder of the input system to the PFCU is cable-operated, apart from the yaw
damper lever group. It is convenient in rigging a powered flying control system to
split the operation up into three stages as described below.
Stage 1. This stage describes the operations required to rig the rudder controls in
the cockpit.
This part of the system uses tubes that, as we have seen, form a rigid link.
a. Disconnect all control tubes and set the pilot's control - i.e. the rudder pedals to the specified initial setting (neutral). Lock the pedals in neutral with the
tools provided.
b. Connect the forward control tube to the rudder lever, make any necessary
adjustments and insert the master rigging pin in the appropriate housings.
Continue to build up the system in the cockpit; connect the various control tubes
to their corresponding lever, adjusting as necessary; fit the subsidiary rigging pins
in their correct positions, thereby locking the levers in neutral.
Stage 2. This stage describes the operations required in that part of the control
run situated in the centre of the fuselage.
a. Set the control lever on the cable tension regulator vertical by inserting a
subsidiary rigging pin.
b. Set the artificial feel units as described in the aircraft maintenance manual.
c. Set the trim actuator to neutral and connect to the artificial feel unit.
d. Fit the control cables to the cable tension regulator, and run the cables
around their pulleys.
e. Connect the cables to the tie-rods and feed the cables around their pulleys to
the rear part of the fuselage.
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Stage 3. This final stage describes the operations required to rig the control
system up to the control surface (rudder) itself.
a. Connect the cables to the cable quadrant and to their respective tie-rods.
b. Set the cable quadrant to neutral by inserting a subsidiary rigging pin.
c. The yaw damper can now be connected into the system, control tubes
connecting this unit to the cable quadrant and to the PFCU.
d. Adjust the system, as necessary, as detailed in the aircraft maintenance
manual.
e. Connect the link rod to the rudder operating lever and adjust as necessary.
f.
After tensioning the cables as described earlier, remove and then re-insert
each rigging pin in turn to ensure that the system is correctly adjusted to the
neutral position.
g. Unlock the control circuit by removing all rigging pins and the rudder pedal
locking device.
h. Check the system for friction.
i.
Carry out the necessary checks after rigging.
j.
Arrange for a duplicate check to be carried out.
Rigging of the PFCU will be considered later.
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RIGGING OF TRIMMING TAB SYSTEM
As we saw, manually operated primary control surfaces can be trimmed so that

the aircraft flies without any load on the control column or rudder bar. Power
assisted and power operated control systems, which can be manually controlled
may also, have controllable trimming tabs fitted to the primary control surfaces.
The trimming tab may be moved by a screw jack mechanism attached to the
trimming tab-operating arm and operated from the cockpit by turning the handwheel. An indicator plate adjacent to the hand-wheel indicates the degree of trim.
Trimming tab systems may be cable, control tube or electrically operated.
These systems are trued-up in a manner similar to that of a primary control
system. To rig a cable-operated system, slacken the cables, check the handwheel over its full travel, and then set it to the mid-travel position. Check that the
graduated plate shows the correct degree of trim and then proceed as follows:
a. Set the screw jack in mid-way (neutral) position and ensure that the operating
chain is equally disposed around the sprocket.
b. Tighten the turnbuckles evenly, and obtain the correct tension.
c. With the elevator in line with the tailplane, adjust the operating rod until the
tab is in line with the elevator.
d. Operate the trimming tab, checking for freedom of operation and that it moves
in the correct sense in relation to the hand-wheel.
e. Measure the travel of the trimming tab, which must be as specified.
f.
Carry out the necessary checks after rigging.
g. Arrange for a duplicate inspection to be carried out.
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9.18 STALL WARNING AND PROTECTION

If an aircraft is flown at a high angle of attack, lift will be increased. However, if
the angle of attack is increased to too great an angle, the airflow over the wings
will separate and become turbulent. This will cause the lift to instantly fall to a
very low value and the wing (or aircraft) is said to have stalled.
The design of some aircraft will give an inherent indication of an approaching stall
condition. The airflow or wake leaving the wings will become progressively more
turbulent as the stall is approached. This turbulent wake will strike the airframe
structure or tail-plane causing a condition known as "buffet". The pilot will
normally recognise this as an indication of an impending stall and take
appropriate action to prevent it, i.e. push the control column forward to reduce the
angle of attack. Many aircraft do not have this inherent warning characteristic of
buffet; therefore these aircraft require a system to warn the pilot of an impending
stall. There are several stall-warning systems in use.
9.18.1 STALL WARNING SYSTEMS

9.18.1.1
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This system is common on light aircraft. In this system a plenum chamber is

mounted in the wing leading edge. This is covered and sealed by an adjustable
plate that acts as part of the leading edge. The plate is adjusted so that in normal
flight attitude a slot in the plate coincides with the stagnation point of the wing.
The plenum chamber is connected by tube to a horn/reed assembly in the cabin.
As the angle of attack is increased the slot in the adjustable plate effectively
moves up from the stagnation point into an area of progressively lower air
pressure. The slot is so positioned that it reaches a low-pressure area sufficient
to draw air through the horn/reed assembly, which will emit a noise and alert the
pilot to an impending stall.
9.18.1.2
Electric Stall Warning System
This is typical of a system fitted to larger aircraft. This is a simple system that
employs a micro-switch (transducer), operated by a vane. The transducer is
mounted in the wing leading edge such that the operating vane is at the
stagnation point during normal flight. Therefore no air-loads are imposed on the
vane and it is not deflected from its null position.
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As the aircraft angle of attack increases the transducer-operating vane effectively

moves up and away from the stagnation point. The air-loads on the vane will
increase until at a set angle of attack they overcome a spring pressure to deflect
the vane and close the micro-switch contacts. This completes a circuit to
illuminate a warning light and sound a warning horn. This should occur just prior
to reaching the stall.
These systems are found on relatively simple or small aircraft. Larger and more
complex aircraft generally require a more sophisticated system that will do more
than just warn of impending stall. This is termed a stall protection system.
9.18.2 STALL PROTECTION SYSTEM
9.18.2.1
System Functions
Stall Warning - As with the previous system this tells the pilot that he is
approaching a stall condition.
Stall Identification - This detects an imminent stall and automatically takes

action to prevent the stall occurring, i.e. the stick is automatically pushed
forward by the system. This may be achieved by a hydraulic or pneumatic jack
acting on the elevator control system.
Auto Ignition - In some aircraft, particularly rear engine aircraft, disturbed

airflow entering the intakes may cause the engines to flame out near or at the
stall. To prevent this an auto ignition circuit may be initiated on a stall
warning/identification condition to prevent this. Flap/Slat/Krueger Flap
Modulation - As flap, slat and Krueger flap position affect the stall angle the
stall protection system may include the monitoring of their position and delay
the initiation of stall warning.
9.18.3 TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Stall Warning Sensors - There are several designs in use. They may be
mounted on the main-planes or side of the fuselage. They are normally
duplicated, each providing a signal to a duplicated system.
Stall Warning Computer - Receives signals from the sensors and initiates
warnings or control movements.
Stick Shaker - The Main stall warning device. An electrically driven, out of
balance rotor, which shakes the control column when a stall warning
condition, is detected.
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Stick Pusher - A hydraulic or pneumatic ram which pushes the control column
forward when a stall identification condition is sensed. It may usually be overridden by higher than normal pilot force.
Ground/Flight Sensing - To prevent unwanted operation of the system on the

ground a circuit through the landing gear weight switches disarms the stall
protection system on the ground.
Test - A pre-flight test facility is built into the system.
Mach Sensing - Speeds over the aircraft critical Mach number may cause
high-speed stall or flame out. To prevent this an input to the computer from
mach switches or the air data computer may be included to give a stall
warning at high mach numbers.
9.18.4 ACTUAL STALL PROTECTION SYSTEM
The following is the description of an actual system used on a large passenger

aircraft.
The stall protection system provides the following during the various phases of
approach to the stall:
1. Automatic ignition on all four engines.
2. Stall warning by the operation of a stick shaker on each control column.
3. Stall identification by the sounding of a klaxon for each system, allowed by
operation of a ram to move the control columns forward.
9.18.5 INCIDENCE PROBES
Four slotted conical probes, are mounted, two on either side of the forward
fuselage, and project into the air stream. Each probe can rotate about its own
axis through 50 in pitch, 4 of which are above fuselage datum. The probe
detects the direction of airflow and transmits to the computer unit a voltage,
picked off from potentiometers, proportional to the angle between the airflow and
the fuselage datum.
When the aircraft angle of incidence is steady, pressure acts equally on the two
probe slots, but as the angle of incidence changes, differential pressures are set
up which, applied to the opposite sides of a paddle wheel, cause the wheel to
rotate the probe until the pressures are again equal, i.e. the direction of flow
bisects the angle between the slots.
Ice protection for the probes is provided by heaters supplied from the No 1 and
No 2 essential 28-volt dc supply. The left probe heaters are controlled by the first
pilot's pressure head heater switch and the right probe heaters by the No 2
autopilot pressure head heater switch.
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Separate ammeters on the engineers engine panel monitor the heater supplies.
When the aircraft is on the ground the current is limited by a resistor in series with
the power supply.
Ferranti Probe Stall Warning System

Figure 48
9.18.6 NITROGEN SYSTEM
Nitrogen is stored at 1,500 psi in a reservoir. Nitrogen is piped via a stop valve to
a pressure reducing valve and non-return valve to a low-pressure reservoir.
Gauges monitoring the high and low pressure are on the right sill panel and
forward roof panel respectively. A relief valve in the low-pressure line vents at 52
p.s.i. to prevent too great a pressure build-up in the system.
Low-pressure nitrogen is fed to solenoid valve A and from there through solenoid
B to a control ram, which operates on the control column linkage. A dump valve
operated from a STALL DUMP VALVE lever on the centre console is coupled to
this part of the circuit, and when the lever is set to DUMP, pressure in the line is
released and prevents further operation of the stick pusher until the lever is reset.
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9.18.7 AUTOMATIC IGNITION
Automatic ignition is signalled from the lower two of four Ferranti-type probes
located on each side of the forward fuselage. It is switched on at a predetermined
incidence, which is modified by slat position and Mach number and remains on as
long as the incidence is at or above this value. Indication of igniter operator is
shown on the engine start panel. The system is brought into operation earlier
whenever the slats are in or whenever 0.74M is exceeded. The system, which is
physically shared with, but electrically isolated from the stall identification system,
consists of two computer units, two mach switches and two angle of incidence
probes. One of the two igniters on each engine is coupled to its associated
computer, thus providing a completely duplicated and independent system.
9.18.8 STALL WARNING
The stall warning function, is provided by two duplicated systems, No 1 and No 2,

each containing a computer unit, a lift rate modifier, an angle of incidence probe,
and a stick shaker motor. Stall warning is signalled by the upper two of the four
fuselage mounted probes. One probe is dedicated to shaker system. The
warning is signalled at a predetermined incidence, which is modified by a
combination of flap position, slat position and rate of change of incidence. It
remains in operation as long as the incidence is at or above this value.
One stick shaker is mounted on each control column and is connected to
respective computer unit and lift rate modifier, thus providing duplicated and
independent indication of stall warning.
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Stick Shaker
Figure 49
9.18.9 STALL IDENTIFICATION
Stall identification is provided by two duplicated systems, No 1 and No 2, each

containing a lift rate modifier a solenoid operated valve, interlock relay and delay
unit, a warning horn and an angle of incidence probe which is shared with, but
electrically isolated from, the auto-ignition system.
Identification of a stall is signalled by the two fuselage mounted probes, which
signal auto-ignition. The signal occurs at a predetermined incidence set at a level
that is always above the stall warning value. This predetermined incidence is
modified by, a combination of flap positions, slat position and rate of change of
incidence. The stall, identification system operates only if armed by a prior stall
warning signal, and remains in operation as long as the incidence is at or above
the modified level.
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The system reverts to normal operation once the stall-warning signal is cancelled
by resuming normal flight.
When the stick shakers operate, a priority circuit receives signals from each of
the computer units of the stall warning system. The first signal received is
passed to the stall identification interlock relays to arm the solenoid valves circuit.
The signal from the stall identification probes is fed to the appropriate computer
unit, and when the signal reaches a particular value, the unit supplies a 28 volt dc
output. The value of the signal can be changed by combinations of the flap and
slat position compensation. The signal is passed through the lift rate modifier so
that a quick rate of change of the probe angle causes an advanced signal,
provided that has been preceded for 0.7 seconds by a stick shaker signal.
The computer unit output is passed through a priority circuit to the stall
identification relay in the interlock circuit. Providing the sequence is correct, this
completes the circuit to the solenoid valves that open to allow nitrogen to the
rams that extend to move the control column forward. The warning horn in each
system sounds when the respective stall warning and stall identification computer
units both signal, which is simultaneous with control column movement.
Both solenoid operated selector valves are opened by a stall identification signal.
The opening of each valve is indicated by the associated red light on the
overhead panel, and the subsequent movement of the ram is indicated by the
STALL IDENT amber light adjacent to the airspeed indicators on each pilot's
panel also coming on.
The system is pneumatically powered from a HP nitrogen bottle that feeds the
stick pusher ram through a reducing valve, an LP reservoir and the two solenoidoperated selector valves. A gauge on the forward roof panel indicates the
pressure in the low-pressure reservoir and another on the right sill panel indicates
the pressure in the HP bottle. Minimum HP pressure for flight is 500 p.s.i. When
pressure falls to 32 PSI, the LP red light on the forward roof panel comes on.
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Stall Protection System

Figure 50
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9.19 FLY BY WIRE
9.19.1 INTRODUCTION
Fly by wire is used on some aircraft to operate the controls. Instead of a

conventional mechanical link between the pilots controls to the control surfaces
or powered control servo valves, the link is by an electrical or fibre-optic cable.
The abbreviations Fly by wire (FBW) or Fly by Optical Wire (FBOW) are used.
9.19.2 PRINCIPLES OF FBW
FBW is a control system that receives inputs directly by electrical signals. The
flying control actuators are electro-hydraulic design converting electrical signals
into movement of a hydraulic ram.
Many systems on the aircraft use electrical signals to automatically control the
flight path. It is a natural development to integrate the pilots input with these
automatic controls. Correcting signals can be sent directly to the control actuator
as well as those sent by the pilot.
9.19.3 PRINCIPLES OF FBOW
An optical fibre cable consists of multiple glass fibres, each about as thick as a
human hair. The cable can carry pulses of light without amplification and without
electromagnetic interference. One fibre can carry over 9,000 simultaneous
signals.
Fibre optics transmits information using:
A light source modulated with information
A fibre optic transmission medium (cable)
An optical receiver to de-modulate the information
9.19.4 ADVANTAGES OF FBOW OVER FBW
Increased amount of information can be passed
Increased speed of transmission
Lighter in weight
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9.19.5 OTHER INPUTS TO POWERED FLYING CONTROL UNIT
The pilot is the main controller of the aircraft controls. There are, however, other
inputs as follows:
Auto-stabilisation (variable incidence tailplane)
Datum shift caused by operation of landing gear. The system can

automatically make an input to the PFCU when the gear is lowered or raised.
Mach trim will deflect the tailplane or elevators to compensate for changes in
aircraft attitude at high Mach Numbers due to rearward movement of the
centre of pressure
Autopilot will be interfaced directly with the PFCUs.
Terrain Following Radar (TFR) The system can process information on

radar or radio height to the PFCU.
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
Instrument Landing System (ILS) programmed automatic landing sequences

can be fed directly into the control system.
Airspeed The aircraft engines can also be controlled to give fully automatic
programmable airspeed.
Position of other controls, including secondary controls such as flaps and LE

flaps and slats.
9.19.6 777 FLIGHT CONTROLS - INTRODUCTION

9.19.7 GENERAL
The flight controls keep the aeroplane at the desired attitude during flight. They
consist of movable surfaces on the wing and the empennage. The flight controls
change the lift of the wing and the empennage.
There are two types of flight controls: the primary flight control system and the
high lift control system.
9.19.8 777 PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
The primary flight control system (PFCS) uses a fly-by-wire control system with
digital and analogue electronic equipment. It receives commands from the flight
crew and the autopilot and causes the control surfaces to move.
The PFCS controls the attitude of the airplane during flight. The control surfaces
operated by the PFCS are:
One aileron on each wing
One flaperon on each wing
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Seven spoilers on each wing
One horizontal stabiliser
One elevator on each side of the horizontal stabiliser
One tabbed rudder.
9.19.9 HIGH LIFT CONTROL SYSTEM
The high lift control system (HLCS) uses a fly-by-wire control system with digital
electronic equipment. It receives commands from the flight crew and causes the
flaps and slats to move.
Operation of the HLCS increases the wing lift so the aeroplane can takeoff and
land at lower speed and higher weight. The high lift devices operated by the
HLCS are:
Seven leading edge slats on each wing
One Krueger flap on each wing
One single slotted outboard flap on each wing
One double slotted inboard flap on each wing.
Operation of the HLCS also causes the ailerons and the flaperons to move. They
droop on both wings when the high lift devices extend.
9.19.10
BENEFITS OF THE FLY-BY-WIRE SYSTEM
The fly-by-wire design of the flight controls permits:
A more efficient structure design
Increased fuel economy
A smaller vertical fin
A smaller horizontal stabiliser
Reduced weight
Improved controls and protections.
9.19.11
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ACE actuator control electronics

ACMS aeroplane condition monitoring system
ADIRS air data inertial reference system
ADIRU air data inertial reference unit
ADM air data module
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AFDC autopilot flight director computer

AFDS autopilot flight director system
AIMS aeroplane information management system
ARINC Aeronautical Radio, Inc.
BAP bank angle protection
B/D backdrive
CMCS central maintenance computing system
CPU central processing unit
EDIU engine data interface unit
EHS electro-hydraulic servo valve
EICAS engine indication and crew alerting system
FCDC flight controls direct current
FMCS flight management computer system
FSEU flap/slat electronics unit
HLCS high lift control system
LIB left inboard
LOB left outboard
LVDT linear variable differential transformer
MCP mode control panel
MFD multi functional display
PCU power control unit
PDU power drive unit
PFC primary flight computer
PFCS primary flight control system
PMG permanent magnet generator
PSA power supply assembly
PSEU proximity sensor electronic unit
RIB right inboard
ROB right outboard
RVDT rotary variable differential transformer
SAARU secondary attitude air data reference unit
SOL solenoid
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SOV shutoff valve

STCM stabiliser trim control module
TAC thrust asymmetry compensation
WEU warning electronic unit
WOW weight on wheels
9.19.12
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM - INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The primary flight control system (PFCS) controls the aeroplane flight attitude in
relation to the three basic axes:
Longitudinal
Lateral
Vertical.
777 Primary Flight Controls

Figure 51
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Roll Control
The roll control uses the ailerons, flaperons, and spoilers to control the aeroplane
attitude about the longitudinal axis. During a bank of the aeroplane, the aileron
and flaperon on one wing move in an opposite direction from the aileron and
flaperon on the other wing. The spoilers move up only on the down wing and do
not move on the up wing.
Pitch Control
The pitch control uses the horizontal stabiliser and the elevator to control the
aeroplane attitude about the lateral axis. The stabiliser controls long term pitch
changes. The elevator supplies short term pitch control.
Yaw Control
The yaw control uses the rudder to control the aeroplane attitude about the
vertical axis. The rudder has a tab, which moves to increase the effectiveness of
the rudder.
Speedbrakes
The PFCS also includes the speedbrakes. In addition to roll control, the spoilers
also act as speedbrakes in the air and on the ground. They deploy on both wings
to increase drag and to decrease the amount of lift the wings supply.
9.19.13
PFCS GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The pilots or the autopilot commands control the PFCS. The pilots can override
the autopilot.
9.19.14
MANUAL OPERATION
Position transducers change the pilots' manual commands of the control wheel,
the control columns, the rudder pedals, and the speedbrake lever to analogue
electrical signals. These signals go to the four actuator control electronics
(ACEs). The ACEs change the signals to digital format and send them to the
three primary flight computers (PFCs).
The PFCs have interfaces with the aeroplane systems through the three flight
controls ARINC 629 buses. In addition to command signals from the ACEs, the
PFCs also receive data from:
The airplane information management system (AIMS)
The air data inertial reference unit (ADIRU)
The secondary attitude air data reference unit (SAARU).
The PFCs calculate the flight control commands based on control laws and flight
envelope protection functions. The control laws supply stability augmentation in
the pitch and yaw axes and flight envelope protections in all three axes. The
digital command signals from the PFCs go to the ACEs.
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The ACEs change these command signals to analogue format and send them to
the power control units (PCUs) and the stabiliser trim control modules (STCMs).
The ACEs and the PCUs form control loops, which control the surfaces based on
the PFCs commands.
One, two or three PCUs operate each control surface. One PCU controls each
spoiler, two PCUs control each aileron, flaperon, and elevator, and three PCUs
control the rudder. The PCUs contain a hydraulic actuator, an electrohydraulic
servo valve, and a position feedback transducer.
When commanded, the servo valve causes the hydraulic actuator to move the
control surface. The position transducer sends a position feedback signal to the
ACEs. The ACEs then stop the PCU command when the position feedback signal
equals the commanded position.
Two STCMs control hydraulic power to the motors and brakes of the horizontal
stabilizer.
9.19.15
AUTOPILOT OPERATION
The PFCs receive autopilot commands from all three autopilot flight director
computers (AFDCs). The PFCs use the autopilot commands in the same manner
as the pilots' manual commands. In addition, the PFCs supply the backdrive
signals to the backdrive actuators through the AFDCs. The backdrive actuators
move the control wheels, control columns, and rudder pedals in synchronisation
with the autopilot commands. The movement of the flight deck controls supplies
visual indications to the flight crew.
9.19.16
PFCS MODES OF OPERATION
The PFCS has three modes of operation: normal, secondary, and direct.
Normal mode operates when the necessary data are available for the PFCs
and the ACEs. All the control laws, protection functions, and the AFDCs
operate.
When the PFCS detects the loss of important air and attitude data, the PFCS
operation changes to secondary mode. The PFCs and the ACEs operate but
the PFC control laws and protection functions downgrade. The autopilot
cannot operate in secondary mode.
In direct mode, the PFCs are not used. The ACEs set the position of the
control surfaces in direct response to analog pilot control inputs.
9.19.17
FLIGHT DECK CONTROLS
The control wheel, control column, and rudder pedal position transducers are
below the flight deck floor in the forward equipment centre. The speedbrake lever
position transducers are in the control stand. The location of these transducers is
shown in other sections.
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MAIN EQUIPMENT CENTRE
The E1, E2, and E3 racks contain most of the electronic equipment of the PFCS.
The E1 rack contains:
The left PFC
The L1 ACE
The L2 ACE.
The E2 rack contains:
The centre PFC
The centre ACE
The SAARU.
The E3 rack contains the ADIRU.

Forward Cargo Compartment
The E16 rack, forward of the forward cargo door, contains the right PFC.
The E5 rack, aft of the forward cargo door, contains the right ACE.
Control Surfaces
Each PCU connects directly to its related control surface on the wing and the
empennage. The ballscrew actuator of the horizontal stabiliser is in the stabiliser
compartment. The location of the PCUs and the ballscrew actuator is shown in
their specified sections.
9.19.19
PFCS FLIGHT CONTROLS ARINC 629 BUS INTERFACES
a. General
ARINC 629 digital data buses supply the principal means of communication
among aeroplane systems. Three dedicated flight controls ARINC 629 buses
connect the PFCS to:
The three autopilot flight director computers (AFDC)
The two aeroplane information management system (AIMS) cabinets
The air data inertial reference unit (ADIRU)
The secondary attitude air data reference unit (SAARU).
Physical separation of the buses, and redundant LRUs, protects against multiple
failures due to one event.
b. PFCS Interface
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The three primary flight computers (PFCs) and the four actuator control
electronics (ACEs) have interfaces with the flight controls data buses.
The L PFC, C PFC and R PFC receive data from all three flight controls data
buses but transmit data only on their on-side data bus. (On-side means that the
relationship is with equipment of the same side. For example, the left bus is the
on-side bus for the left PFC.)
Each ACE receives data from all three PFCs through the three flight controls data
buses. Each ACE processes control data from its on-side PFC. If this data is not
valid, the ACE processes data from an alternate PFC. The ACEs process some
data from the other PFCs at all times. For example, this occurs during data
validation and voted commands. The ACEs transmit only on their on-side bus.
c. AFDS Interface
The autopilot flight director system (AFDS) interfaces with the PFCS through the
autopilot flight director computers (AFDCs). Each AFDC transmits to its on-side
flight controls data bus, but receives data from all three buses. The AFDCs
receive backdrive commands, engagement status, and other data from the PFCs.
The AFDCs transmit pitch, roll and yaw commands and engage requests to the
PFCs.
d. AIMS Interface
The two AIMS cabinets receive data from all three-flight controls data buses, but
normally transmit only to their on-side bus. During tests on the ground, the AIMS
cabinets transmit also to the centre bus.
The PFCS supplies information to the AIMS for:
The primary display system (PDS), (flight, synoptic, and EICAS displays)
The central maintenance computing system (CMCS)
The aeroplane condition monitoring system (ACMS)
The flight management computing system (FMCS)
e. ADIRS Interface
The air data inertial reference system (ADIRS) consists of the air data inertial
reference unit (ADIRU) and the secondary attitude air data reference unit
(SAARU).
The ADIRU and SAARU supply air data variables and inertial data to the PFCs.
The ADIRU receives data from all three buses and transmits data to the left and
right flight controls data buses. The SAARU also receives data on all three buses,
but transmits data only to the centre flight controls data bus.
f. Air Data Modules
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Six air data modules (ADMs) supply pitot and static air data to the ADIRU and the
SAARU. The ADMs transmit these data through the flight controls ARINC 629
buses.
Figure: PFCS - FLIGHT CONTROLS ARINC 629 BUS INTERFACES
PFCS - SYSTEMS ARINC 629 BUS INTERFACES
General
Many components of the PFCS transmit to and receive information from other
aeroplane systems. Data on the systems ARINC 629 buses goes through the
AIMS data conversion gateway function and then to the flight control ARINC 629
buses. The PFCS uses information from:
The flap/slat electronics units (FSEUs)
The proximity sensor electronics units (PSEUs)
The left and right systems card files.
The PFCS transmits information to the left and right warning electronic units
(WEUs).
The PFCS also uses radio altimeter data supplied through AIMS.
FSEU Interface
The FSEUs supply flaps and slats signal to the PFCs for the gain functions of the
control laws. These signals show the retracted or not retracted condition of the
flaps and the slats. The FSEUs also supply a signal to the ACEs.
PSEU Interface
The PSEUs supply truck tilt signals and associated fault messages to the PFCS.
The truck tilt signals are used together with the weight on wheels and radio
altimeter functions to operate the auto speedbrake.
Systems Card Files Interface
The two systems card files supply signals from the hydraulic interface module
(HYDIM) cards and the weight on wheels (WOW) cards to the PFCS.
The HYDIM cards supply hydraulic systems condition signals to the PFCS. They
also supply data about the truck tilt pressure sensors.
The WOW cards supply air/ground signals to the PFCS. These signals supply
air/ground information to the PFCS.
WEU Interface
The PFCS sends stabiliser and rudder trim position signals to the WEUs. The
WEUs supply a takeoff warning if the stabiliser is out of green band or the rudder
trim is out of normal limits.
The PFCs receive stall data from the WEUs for stall protection.
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Engine Data Interface Units

The left and right engine data interface units (EDIUs) receive the N1 speed and
calculate the thrust for each engine. The EDIUs supply these data to the AIMS
and to the PFCS for the thrust asymmetry compensation (TAC) function.
Radio Altimeter Interface
The three radio altimeters supply information to AIMS for use by the PFCS for the
flare function during manual landing. The PFCS inhibits the radio altimeter test
when ground speed is more than 40 knots and during flight.
Indications
The status message PFCS INTERFACE shows because of one of these faults:
There is a disagreement with the flap discrete signals in two or more ACEs
Only two of the four FSEU channels are available
Only two of the four digital WES channels are available
Only one of the two truck tilt pressure data sources is available
Thrust data from one of the left or right EDIU channels does not agree with the
others
Data from the two WOW cards does not agree.
These conditions cause the message to show in normal, secondary, and direct
modes.
Figure: PFCS - SYSTEMS ARINC 629 BUS INTERFACES
PFCS - ANALOG INTERFACES
General
All analogue interfaces with the PFCS go to the ACE. The primary inputs/outputs
are:
Rudder trim selector
Manual trim cancel switch
Pitch trim switches
Flight control position transducers
Flight control force transducers
FSEUs
Primary flight computers DISC/AUTO switch
Thrust asymmetry compensation switch
AIMS cabinets
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STRUCTURES AND
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PCUs.
Rudder Trim Selector and Manual Trim Cancel Switch
The rudder trim selector and the manual trim cancel switch supply signals to the
ACEs. These signals show the pilot commands for rudder trim.
Pitch Trim Switches
The pitch trim switches supply signals to the ACEs to show the pilot pitch trim
commands.
Flight Control Position Transducers
The flight control position transducers supply electrical inputs to the ACEs. They
show the position of the:
Control wheel
Control column
Rudder pedals
Speedbrake lever.
Flight Control Force Transducers
The pitch and roll force transducers supply signals to the ACEs. The signals show
when the pilot applies a force to the control wheel or control column.
FSEUs
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engineering
MODULE 11.09
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES AND
SYSTEMS
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
Page 9-104
Issue 1
Mod 11.9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.10
FUEL SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
10 SYSTEM LAY-OUT....................................................................... 10-1
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
RIGID TANKS ................................................................................ 10-1

Rigid Metal Tanks ....................................................................... 10-2
FLEXIBLE FUEL TANKS ................................................................. 10-3
10.2.1 Tank Coverings ............................................................. 10-3
10.2.2 Self-Sealing Coverings .................................................. 10-4
10.2.3 Attachments and Fittings ............................................... 10-4
INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS ................................................................ 10-5
10.3.1 Tank Numbering ........................................................... 10-5
10.3.2 Water Draining .............................................................. 10-9
10.3.3 Water Scavenge System ............................................... 10-10
SUPPLY SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 10-11
ENGINE FUEL FEED ...................................................................... 10-11
10.5.1 Design Requirements of an Aircraft Fuel Feed System . 10-11
10.5.2 Engine Fuel Feed (Multi Tank and Booster Pumps) ...... 10-12
10.5.3 Engine Fuel Feed (Collector Tanks) .............................. 10-12
10.5.4 Engine Fuel Feed (Fuel Cells) ....................................... 10-13
FUEL FEED COMPONENTS .............................................................. 10-14
10.6.1 Fuel Pumps (Booster Pumps) ....................................... 10-14
10.6.2 Jet Pumps ..................................................................... 10-16
10.6.3 Sequence Valves .......................................................... 10-18
10.6.4 Transfer Valves ............................................................. 10-18
L.P. Valve ................................................................................... 10-19
Cross Feed Valve ....................................................................... 10-19
APU FUEL FEED .......................................................................... 10-20
DUMPING, VENTING AND DRAINING................................................ 10-22
DUMPING (JETTISON).................................................................... 10-22
THE VENT SUB-SYSTEM ............................................................... 10-25
10.10.1 General ......................................................................... 10-25
10.10.2 Venting Due to Heat ...................................................... 10-25
10.10.3 Unpressurised System Venting ..................................... 10-25
10.10.4 Pressurised Fuel Tanks................................................. 10-25
10.10.5 Float Valves .................................................................. 10-28
10.10.6 Vent Pipe Drains ........................................................... 10-29
CROSS-FEED AND TRANSFER ....................................................... 10-31
10.11.1 Auto transfer .............................................................. 10-31
10.11.2 Manual transfer .......................................................... 10-32
INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS ............................................... 10-33
FUEL LEVEL SENSING................................................................... 10-36
10.13.1 High Level Sensing ....................................................... 10-36
10.13.2 Overflow Sensing .......................................................... 10-37
10.13.3 Low Level Sensing ........................................................ 10-37
10.13.4 Calibration Sensing (Fuel Trim only) ............................. 10-37
10.13.5 Under Full Level Sensing .............................................. 10-37
FUEL QUANTITY SYSTEM MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION ............. 10-37
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FUEL SYSTEMS
10.15 PRINCIPLE OF CAPACITANCE GAUGING ......................................... 10-38

10.16 FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEM ............................................ 10-38
10.16.1 Capacitance Index Compensator .................................. 10-39
10.16.2 Measurement................................................................ 10-42
10.17 REFUELLING AND DE-FUELLING .................................................... 10-42
10.18 REFUELLING ................................................................................ 10-42
10.18.1 Pressure Refuel Functional Description ..................... 10-45
10.19 DEFUELLING ................................................................................ 10-48
10.20 LONGITUDINAL BALANCE FUEL SYSTEMS ..................................... 10-48
10.21 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT FUEL TRANSFER .......................................... 10-49
B1 Mod 11.10 issue 2
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FUEL SYSTEMS
10 SYSTEM LAY-OUT
The purpose of the fuel system is to store and deliver fuel to the engines and the
apu. An aircraft must be able to carry sufficient fuel to enable the engines to
operate over long periods. to meet this requirement there must be some way of
storing this fuel safely and supplying it to the engines in a suitable condition and
at a controlled rate.
A typical fuel system therefore will consist of a number of tanks, fuel lines,
connections and fittings, which are compatible with all types of fuel meeting
engine and apu specifications.
Often, the fuel system is subdivided into storage, refuelling, distribution, transfer,
venting and indicating subsystems.
The following example of a system layout is for a typical large commercial twin
aircraft. The number of tanks and system complexity will vary from aircraft to
aircraft. Clearly a four-engine aircraft will have more components than a twin.
The figure shows a typical fuel cell layout
Typical Fuel Cell Layout

Figure 1
NOTE: For additional range, some operators will install centre tanks, these are
offered as optional on most single isle and wide bodied aircraft.Fuel Tanks
Fuel tanks normally fall into three categories of construction:
Rigid
Flexible
Integral
10.1 RIGID TANKS
These are normally made from metal or plastic material, they are fitted internally
where space permits. Flexible fuel tanks have an advantage over rigid tanks,
because they can be shaped and fitted into odd shaped spaces where rigid tanks
cannot be fitted. In general, flexible tanks are lighter and easier to handle and
store than rigid tanks. Integral fuel tanks are of rigid construction because they
are part of the airframe structure. They are not independent items like the other
tanks.
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Whatever the construction method, fuel tanks should be shaped so that almost all
the fuel is available to the engine. Awkward pockets which prevent fuel from
leaving the tank are undesirable and are avoided if possible.
10.1.1 Rigid Metal Tanks
Typical Rigid Internal Fuel Tank

Figure 2
Fuel tanks are made in shapes and sizes to fit the spaces available in each
particular airframe and therefore the size and shape of the fuel tanks will not be
the same for all aircraft. Metal fuel tanks are constructed from aluminium alloy,
stainless steel or tinned steel and they are riveted, welded, or soldered together.
The tank is a light structure which is strengthened by the use of internal stiffeners,
angle pieces and by incorporating baffles to give strength and which are
necessary, in large tanks, to reduce the effects of fuel surge caused when the
aircraft manoeuvres. Secure attachment of a rigid tank within the airframe may
be achieved by built-in padded cradles and padded metal straps. The cradle is
shaped to match the contours of the tank and the straps secure the tank to its
cradle. Each tank will have the brackets, strap guides and fittings to match the
aircraft structure into which the tank is to be fitted.
It must be stressed that very few aircraft over 5,700 kg would utilise metal rigid
tanks, except when long range tanks are fitted in the cargo hold, i.e. commercial
IATA LD6 containers, etc.
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10.2 FLEXIBLE FUEL TANKS

Flexible fuel tanks may be constructed with thin and very flexible walls (called bag
tanks) or they may be made of thicker less flexible material. These tanks are
made in shapes to fit particular spaces in the aircraft structure and their flexibility
enables the tanks to be folded and inserted through a small aperture, which
would not allow a rigid tank of similar capacity to be fitted. Because flexible tanks
can be made in shapes to suit most of the space available, a greater fuel capacity
is made available to a particular aircraft when flexible tanks are used. Some
aircraft fuel systems are designed to include rigid, flexible and external fuel tanks
so that the greatest possible fuel load is carried.
The compartment for a flexible fuel tank is made as smooth as possible on the
inside and projecting joints are covered to prevent chafing the tank material.
Before a tank can be fitted, the compartment must be properly cleaned out and all
swarf and loose items removed.
After a flexible tank has been inserted into the tank compartment, the tank is
carefully unfolded and the various external fittings are aligned. Usually the walls
of the more flexible tanks are attached to the compartment walls by a type of
press-stud fitting. When filled with fuel, the tank expands to contact the walls of
the tank compartment so that the weight of the fuel is carried by the aircraft
structure and not by the tank. Because the load is not carried by the tank, flexing
of the aircraft structure does not impose harmful loads upon the tank material.
Flexible fuel tanks are resilient, like an inner tube and because they are resilient,
the tanks can withstand a considerable amount of distortion or shock loading. If a
flexible tank is not completely full it is unlikely to burst on a crash impact.
10.2.1 Tank Coverings
10.2.1.1 PROTECTIVE COVERING
A protective covering may be fixed to the outside of a flexible fuel tank. The
covering is not special to type and similar covering materials are used to protect
different types of tank. The protective covering usually consists of several layers
of fabric, or fabric and rubber, which are cemented to the material of the tank with
adhesives. When a tank is fitted with a protective cover it, in general, becomes
stiff enough to support its own weight and retain its shape. However, when the
various metal fittings are added, the tank will sag and it needs support when
fitted.
Some tanks, which do not have protective covers, are reinforced by nylon fabric
or net. This type of reinforcement does not stiffen the tank, which remains very
flexible and limp. This type of tank cannot support its own weight and is the type
which is sometimes called a bag tank.
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10.2.2 Self-Sealing Coverings
These coverings have been developed to reduce the magnitude of a fuel leak if,
for any reason, the fuel tank is pierced or ruptured. The self-sealing covering is
usually made from layers of cellular rubber with an overall protective cover of
glass fabric or nylon fabric on the outside. This type of rubber is a material that is
immediately affected by contact with fuel. If a tank leaks, the cellular rubber
swells on contact with the fuel and forces its way into the puncture to block the
hole and reduce or stop the leak. Unfortunately, minor leaks may remain
undiscovered for some time until the self-sealing cover begins to swell and bulge
on the outside.
10.2.3 Attachments and Fittings
To complete a flexible fuel tank, provision must be made for attaching fuel system
components and for joining each tank into the fuel system. The fuel tank is
constructed with moulded connectors and apertures of an appropriate size and
position but because of the flexible nature of the material, each aperture needs to
be reinforced before a system component can be fitted. Each aperture is
strengthened and stiffened by fitting a metal attachment ring. The attachment
rings are sometimes called stud rings or bolt rings.
Attachment Rings and Moulded Connections

Figure 3
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FUEL SYSTEMS
10.3 INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS

Primary wing structure is used for aircraft integral tanks. They are normally
located between the front and rear wing spars and between the upper and lower
wing skin. Solid tank end ribs close the ends of each tank, while all the other ribs
act as fuel baffles to minimise fuel slosh. Often a centre tank traverses the
fuselage between the two inner wing root ribs.
All fuel tanks are fuel tight. Close metal-to-metal fit of all parts forms the basic
seal, with sealing compounds and sealing fasteners on all joints to complete the
fluid tight seal. The centre tank will have a secondary external barrier coating to
prevent fuel vapour entering the pressurised section of the fuselage.
Some of the wing ribs contain a series of free-swinging, fuel-actuated baffle
check valves, to prevent fuel flow away from the electric boost pumps. Access
panels, usually on the underside of the wing, provide access to each tank. The
outer portion of the wing provides fuel overflow by means of a surge tank, which
also affords venting into the system.
The fuel tanks hold all the necessary equipment for refuelling/ de-fuelling and
engine fuel feed. Equipment used for fuel quantity indicating is also contained
within the fuel tank structure.
Integral Fuel Tanks

Figure 4
10.3.1 Tank Numbering
The majority of aircraft carry fuel only in wing and centre tanks. However, a few
extended range aircraft will have an additional integral tank in the vertical
stabiliser. Aircraft manufacturers number fuel tanks, in which case the philosophy
will be from left to right, nose to tail. Generally, fuel tanks are numbered as shown
in Fig 4.
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Tank Access Panels

Figure 5
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Baffle Check Valves

Figure 6
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Before assembly, all the structural parts that become integral fuel tanks are
cleaned to a particular specification; the clean parts are immediately coated with
a special sealant and assembled wet. It is important that the joints are finished
(rivets closed or bolts tightened) before the sealant sets. This first coating of
sealant is called the interfay and it should bond with all parts of the joint. After
the joint is tightened it is necessary to remove the surplus sealant that has been
squeezed out as the joint closed. After cleaning the work, a neat coating of
sealant is applied at the edges of the joint; this coating is called the fillet (see the
figure) and it should be strong enough to cope with any flexing between the parts.
A final brush-on coat of sealant is applied to overlap the joint and fillet. Interfay,
fillet and the brush-on coat are part of the standard treatment for sealing integral
fuel tank structures and all use a similar sealant. As an aid to quick production,
the joint can be covered by a barrier coating of a quicker drying substance. The
barrier-coating material is not the same as the sealant used for jointing and it will
not prevent or cure leaks. The barrier-coat becomes tack-free in a relatively short
time and it is applied over partially cured sealants to reduce the possibility of
contamination from swarf, when work must continue in the area of an uncured
joint. To extend the leak-free life of the integral fuel tank, take great care when
handling or working on the skin area which covers the integral fuel tank.
Integral Tank Sealing

Figure 7
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FUEL SYSTEMS
Generally speaking, large commercial aircraft have three tanks in each wing,
inner fuel tank, outer fuel tank and a surge tank. On some aircraft the fuel tanks
are referred to as fuel cells. A centre tank is sometimes available as a standard
option.
Each fuel tank has additional space for 2% expansion of the fuel without spillage
into the surge tank. Removable access panels are provided in the lower wing
surface. The centre tank, if fitted, is accessible through manholes in the rear
spar.
10.3.2 Water Draining
Water drain valves are provided at low points of each tank. All valves may be
opened with standard tools and the outer seal of the valve is replaceable without
emptying the tanks.
Water Drain Valve

Figure 8
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Fuel Tank Drain Points

Figure 9
10.3.3 Water Scavenge System
A typical system has a water scavenge system fitted in the optional centre tank.
Two jet pumps using tappings on the tank pumps for motive power, collect water
from low points and discharge it towards the fuel pump inlet. Removable access
panels are provided in the lower wing surface. The optional centre tank is
accessible through two manholes in the rear spar.
Water Scavenge System

Figure 10
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10.4
SUPPLY SYSTEMS
10.5 ENGINE FUEL FEED

10.5.1 Design Requirements of an Aircraft Fuel Feed System
On an aircraft, a fuel system should be designed to comply with many

requirements as laid down in Joint Airworthiness Requirements. An example of
these requirements is as follows:
1. Each fuel system should be constructed and arranged to ensure a flow of fuel
at a rate and pressure to ensure proper functioning of the engine for each
likely operating condition.
2. The fuel system must allow the supply of fuel to each engine through a
system independent of the system supplying fuel to any other engine.
3. The system design should be such that it is not possible for any pump to draw
fuel from two or more tank simultaneously unless means are provided to
prevent the introduction of air into the system.
4. If fuel can be pumped from one tank to another in flight, the fuel tank vents
and transfer system must be designed so that no structural failure can occur
because of over-filling.
5. Integral tanks must have facilities for interior inspection and repair.
6. Fuel tanks must be designed, located and installed so that no fuel is released
in or near the engines in sufficient quantities to start a fire in otherwise
survivable crash conditions.
7. Pressure cross-feed lines passing through crew, passenger or cargo
compartments shall either be enclosed in a fuel and vapour proof enclosure,
ventilated and drained to the outside, OR consist of a pipe without fittings and
routed or protected against accidental damage.
8. The system shall incorporate means to prevent the collection of water and dirt
or the deposition of ice or other substances from satisfactory functioning of
the system.
9. Lines, which can be isolated from the system by means of valves or fuel
cocks, shall incorporate provision for the relief of excess pressure due to
expansion of the fuel.
10. Each fuel tank filler connection must be marked with type of fuel and be
provided with a bonding point and drain discharging excess fuel.
11. There must be a fuel strainer at each fuel tank outlet or for the booster
pump(s).
12. Each fuel line must be designed, installed and supported to prevent excessive
vibration and allow a reasonable degree of deformation and stretching without
leakage.
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10.5.2 Engine Fuel Feed (Multi Tank and Booster Pumps)
Multi tank fuel systems can use a low-pressure fuel booster pump in each tank as
shown.
Location of Pump Canister Assemblies
Figure 11
The pumps are located in collector tanks which are equipped with check valves
which provide a one way fuel flow.
10.5.3 Engine Fuel Feed (Collector Tanks)
Rather than use booster pumps in each tank, some aircraft fuel systems use
groups of tanks that feed collector tanks as shown in the diagram.
Engine Fuel Feed Collector Tanks

Figure 12
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10.5.4 Engine Fuel Feed (Fuel Cells)
Another multi tank system is the use of fire cells. In normal conditions, each
engine is supplied from one pump in the optional centre tank or both pumps in the
tank of its own wing. Any one pump can supply the maximum demand of one
engine. A cross-feed pipe, controlled by a double motor actuated spherical plug
valve, allows both engines to be fed from one side or all the fuel to be used by
one engine. The valve is mounted on the rear spar in the centre section.
Two plug-in a.c. driven booster pumps supplied from different busbars are fitted
in each tank. Each pump has a suction inlet. On each side, the two pumps in the
wing tank and one pump in the centre tank (when fitted) deliver fuel via a built in
non-return valve into a single pipe. The pumps in the wing tanks are fitted with
pressure relief sequence valves that ensure that when all pumps are running, the
centre tank pumps will deliver fuel preferentially. No sequence valves are
provided on a two tank version aircraft.
In each wing tank the pumps are located in a collector box. The box is fed by
gravity through flap non-return valves. This ensures that the system can continue
to supply fuel under negative g or transient manoeuvres. A bypass is provided
at the pumps to permit gravity feed.
Air release valves are fitted to the feed lines.
The supply of fuel to each engine can be shut off by an engine LP valve mounted
on the front spar. This is a spherical plug valve driven by a double motor
actuator. To provide the maximum integrity, the two actuators are supplied from
different busbars and the cables are routed separately.
Controls and indications for pumps and crossfeed valves of the feed system are
located on the overhead panel. In normal operation, all wing pumps will remain
on throughout the flight. If a centre tank is fitted, switching of pumps is automatic.
If there are no malfunctions, no action is required during flight.
The engine LP valves are controlled by operating the engine fire handles.
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Engine Fuel Feed

Figure 13
10.6
FUEL FEED COMPONENTS
10.6.1 Fuel Pumps (Booster Pumps)
Pumps employed in aircraft fuel systems differ in size, shape, output, etc.
However regardless of type and any special features they may have, they all
operate on the same principle and consist of very similar components.
Each tank is normally provided with two fuel pumps. They are all identical and
interchangeable. These pumps are installed in the canister assemblies to enable
replacement without de-fuelling the tank.
The fuel pumps are centrifugal pumps driven by 115 volts, three phase motors.
The output of each pump is about 250-300 litres per minute. Maximum fuel
pressure at zero flow is about 38 p.s.i.
Each pump includes a non-return and a by-pass valve.
The by-pass valve is to reduce the pressure drop allowing an engine to be
operated on suction feed up to about 6000 feet.
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They are protected by a thermal fuse, which is activated at approximately 175

degrees centigrade.
Fig 14
Some pumps have special features that are dictated by the aircraft role and any
design requirements namely:
a. Pressure relief valve.
b. Non-return valve.
c. AC DC motor.
d. Thermal trip devices.
e. Cannister shut off valve to facilitate pump replacement with fuel in the tanks.
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Cannister Assembly
Figure 15
10.6.2 Jet Pumps
These are another method of transferring fuel around an aircraft fuel system.
They use fuel bled from the booster pump which is continually fed through the
central nozzle into a venturi. The depression created in the venturi draws fuel
from the surrounding tank, in through the filter then up through the venturi tube
and either into the next fuel tank or straight to the collector box.
JET PUMP
FIGURE 16
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Figure 17
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10.6.3 Sequence Valves
Sequence valves are fitted to give an automatic transfer from one tank to another,
the following example is for an aircraft with pumps in the centre tank, inner tank
and outer tank.
The valve limits the fuel pressure of the outer tank pumps from 38 psi to 17.5 psi.
This is to give priority to the inner tank fuel pumps for structural reasons.
When the inner tanks are empty, the engines will be automatically supplied from
the outer tanks So the outer fuel pumps run continuously.
Sequence Valves
Figure 18
10.6.4 Transfer Valves
The example at figure 13 shows the fuel tank split into two cells at rib 15. To
enable transfer to take place, two transfer valves are fitted in this instance at rib
15. Operation of these valves is actuated by a signal from low level sensors
shown just inboard of rib 2.
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10.6.5 L.P. Valve
LP Valve
Figure 19
The L.P. shut off valve enables isolation of the fuel system in the event of fire and
engine maintenance, i.e. engine removal. Located at the top of the pylon on the
outside of the front wing spar it will be controlled normally be operation of the fire
handles and activated by either a pair of electric motors or mechanically as
shown above.
10.6.6 Cross Feed Valve
Cross-feed Valve
Figure 20
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The cross feed valve enables fuel to be fed to any engine from any tank.
Normally of a spherical type construction with two 28 VDC electric motors
mounted on a differential gearbox. One motor only will drive the valve at any
time, the other motor is a back up. The cross feed valve would normally be fitted
on the rear spar as shown in the figure.
10.7 APU FUEL FEED
The feed to the APU is taken from the left engine feed but may be taken from the
right engine feed when the cross feed valve is open.
The tank booster pumps can supply fuel to the APU at the required pressure. For
starting the APU without electrical power available for the tank pumps, a separate
pump is provided that can be operated from the aircraft batteries and is mounted
in the feed line on the rear spar of the centre section.
The supply of fuel to the APU can be shut off by a valve mounted on the rear spar
of the centre section. It is a spherical plug valve driven by a double motor
actuator. To provide the maximum integrity, the two actuators are supplied from
different busbars and the cables are located in separated routes.
The feed pipe emerges from the top of the tank and passes through the
pressurised fuselage in a drained and vented shroud that extends to the APU fire
wall.
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APU Fuel feed

Figure 21
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10.8 DUMPING, VENTING AND DRAINING

10.9 DUMPING (JETTISON)
Fuel jettison systems are fitted to a number of large commercial aircraft to allow
the jettisoning of fuel in an emergency thus reducing weight so as to prevent
structural damage when landing.
Fuel jettison systems are often fitted after the installation of a centre tank,
because of the extra fuel weight.
The system illustrated is from a wide-bodied twin fitted with multi tanks and
booster pumps. The jettison pipe is branched off the feed pipe between the inner
tank fuel pump and the inner tank shut off valve.
A check valve is installed to separate the outer tanks during jettisoning. The
function of this check valve is to prevent the dumping of the outer tanks fuel. The
jettison pipe runs inside the wing tanks through the ribs into the outer tanks,
where the jettison valves are installed. These valves are fitted to the bottom of
the tank.
Jettison System
Figure 22
Because of electrical emergency situations, the valve will be driven by two 28
VDC electric motors. The motors are mounted from the outside and are attached
to the bottom of the tank through a gearbox and in many instances are
interchangeable with the cross feed valves.
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Shut Off Valve

Figure 23
The outlet of the jettison pipe is normally at the end of the flap track fairing and
fitted with an anti corona device to avoid vaporisation of the fuel. A normal
transfer rate will be in the region of 30-350 litres per minute.
Fuel Jettison
Figure 24
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The jettison operation is controlled from a jettison panel located either on a flight
engineers station or from an overhead panel on a two crew configuration.
Normally the panel is protected by a quick release cover.
In the following example, two switches are provided to operate the jettison valve.
i.
A primary switch for motor number one.
ii.
A guarded secondary switch for motor number two.
Fuel Jettison Control

Figure 25
The position of the right and left-hand jettison valve is monitored by two magnetic
indicators, showing green cross-line when the valve is closed and in-line when
the valve is open. As is common with this type of indicator, it will show amber
cross-line to indicate transit or malfunction.
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10.10
THE VENT SUB-SYSTEM
10.10.1 General
An air vent is fitted to the top of each tank to allow free flow of air in and out of the
tank as the fuel level rises and falls. This is known as inwards and outwards
venting and is required to prevent over pressurisation of the tanks as the fuel
level rises and depressurisation as it falls.
10.10.2 Venting Due to Heat
Another important aspect of an aircraft vent sub-system is that it must be able to

cope automatically with any expansion and/or contraction of the fuel. As the fuel
expands, due to heat, the vent must allow air and sometimes fuel, to escape to
atmosphere via vent pipes. Conversely the sub-system must allow air into the
tanks during contraction of the fuel when the outside air temperature (OAT) is
decreasing.
10.10.3 Unpressurised System Venting
This is a very simple method of venting tanks which requires only that fuel tank
vent orifices be connected to a vent pipe gallery, which leads to atmosphere
directly. Venting of this type is found mainly in small aircraft; some helicopters
and aircraft with low flight ceilings.
The disadvantages of open orifice or open vented tanks are that they are
subject to fuel venting during manoeuvres, they limit the maximum ceiling of the
aircraft due to the fact that fuel boils at the low ambient atmospheric pressure
found at altitude; danger of cavitation in fuel supply lines if fuel should boil;
increased rate of evaporation (REID VAPOUR PRESSURE) leading to a greater
fire risk.
REID VAPOUR PRESSURE (RVP) the rate at which fuel gives off vapour.
Obviously there are many inherent problems with the open vented system. It is
for many reasons that most aircraft fuel systems are pressurised.
10.10.4 Pressurised Fuel Tanks
On most large aircraft, the fuel tanks are vented through a pipe connected to the
surge vent tank. The vent pipes are sized to prevent tank overpressure in the
event of a refuel cut off failure.
In the example shown, the centre tank vent pipe is connected to the left-hand
surge vent tank.
The inner and outer tank pipes are connected to the relevant side surge vent
tank.
The centre tank vent pipe ends inside the surge vent tank at the top. The inner
and outer vent pipes end about 3 centimetres above the bottom of the surge vent
tank.
These ends are arranged so that any fuel overflowing into the surge vent tank is
drawn back into the wing tanks by suction, as long as one or more fuel pumps are
running. On some aircraft fuel pumps are fitted to pump the fuel back to the
tanks from the surge tank and will be activated by a float switch.
Each vent tank is vented to atmosphere via the NACA valve.
This valve ensures tank pressurisation during flight and allows the fuel to flow out
in the event of a high level cut-off failure during refuelling.
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On some aircraft a frangeable disc is fitted in the surge tank to prevent structural
damage caused by over pressure. A flame arrester is also fitted in the NACA
intake in case of ground fires.
Venting System
Figure 26
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Figure 27
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10.10.5 Float Valves
Each wing tank is provided with an additional vent opening.

This opening is connected to the corresponding venting line and controlled by a
vent float valve situated at the highest point of the tank.
Vent Float Valve

Figure 28
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FUEL SYSTEMS
10.10.6 Vent Pipe Drains
At the lowest points of each vent pipe, a self-draining non-return valve is

connected. The type shown is made of synthetic rubber.
Vent Drain Valve

Figure 29
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FUEL SYSTEMS
The use of the centre wing box as a tank on some aircraft has made it necessary
to protect this area against leaking fuel. A vapour seal is installed around the
forward and lower part of the tank. The space between the tank sink and the
vapour seal is ventilated with air coming from the air conditioning system. The air
is directed to the outside through several small outlets. If the tank has a fuel leak,
the vent air line will collect this fuel and drain it through these outlets.
External Ventilation of Centre Tank

Figure 30
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10.11
CROSS-FEED AND TRANSFER
Cross-feed Valves permit the transfer of fuel from any tank to any engine,
whereas Transfer Valves enable fuel to be transferred from tank to tank.
10.11.1 Auto transfer
When an aircraft has a wing with lateral dihedral the fuel pumps will normally be
inboard and the fuel flow towards the wing root. When the wing contains more
than one tank, the outboard tank will automatically transfer into the inboard tank
and so be the first to empty. Since the inboard tanks will be feeding the engines,
a transfer valve between the inboard and outboard tanks will be opened
automatically, whenever a high level float switch in the inboard tank detects it
being not full.
Cross Feed Control Panel

Figure 31
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FUEL SYSTEMS
Figure 32
10.11.2 Manual transfer
No in-flight transfer of fuel between left and right mainplanes is possible for
reasons of trim. However fuel can be fed from any tank to any engine by means
of boost pump selection and the opening of a crossfeed valve from the flight
deck.
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10.12
INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS
Provision is made to display fuel tank quantity, boost pump low pressure,
crossfeed valve and fuel/fire shut off valve position, on the flight deck overhead
panel. Though the layout will vary from aircraft type to type, generally it will be
similar to the examples shown below.
Overhead panel - Push switch type

Figure 33
B1 Mod 11.10
Overhead panel - Toggle switch type

Figure 34
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FUEL SYSTEMS
Additionally, aural and visual warnings on the glare shield will result if the fuel
system develops a fault.
Glare Shield and Fire Warning Panel

Figure35
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ECAM System Display

Figure 36
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10.13
FUEL LEVEL SENSING
A modern aircraft will use thermistors to send signals through amplifiers to
actuate warnings, sequencing, etc. Older aircraft may use float switches as
shown in the following diagram.
Low Level Sensing

Figure 37
Float operated switches are of a magnetic type, similar to the one shown above
and are designed to isolate the electrical mechanism from the fuel tank for safety
reasons. Upward movement of the float brings the armature closer to the magnet
and at a predetermined fuel level, it has sufficient influence to attract the magnet,
which results in operation of the micro switch. As the fuel level and the float fall,
the attraction of the armature is eventually overcome by the combined forces of
the counterweight and the micro switch spring and the counterweight falls,
changing the micro switch circuit.
Whether they are float switches or thermistors, their functions are as follows.
1
2
3
4
5
High level sensing.

Overflow sensing.
Low level sensing.
Under full level sensing.
Level sensing for calibration (Fuel Trim only).
10.13.1 High Level Sensing
High level sensing is installed to prevent an overfilling of the fuel tanks. When the
fuel washes around the respective sensor, the:
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associate refuel/defuel valve closes.

blue FULL light on the fuelling panel comes on.
The high level signal from the inner and outer tanks could be used for
computation purposes in the fuel quantity computer, when refuelling in AUTO
MODE.
10.13.2 Overflow Sensing
If during refuelling the high level shut off system fails, fuel enters the adjacent
vent tank and washes around the overflow sensor. This is indicated by the amber
FULL light on the refuel panel.
10.13.3 Low Level Sensing
Low level sensing is divided into:

outer tank low level and
inner/centre tank low level sensing.
If the outer tank LO LVL sensor is exposed to air, the associated amber LO LVL
light comes on.
The inner/centre tank low level sensing have only in the AUTO MODE a function
(ref. fuel pump control).
10.13.4 Calibration Sensing (Fuel Trim only)
Calibration sensors are installed in centre tanks, inner tanks and trim tank. They
give a signal at a predetermined filling level in the trim tank for accuracy test of
the fuel quantity indication during refuelling. For the trim tank the calibration
sensor switching level is corrected by the stabiliser position.
10.13.5 Under Full Level Sensing
When the fuel quantity drops in either outer tank below a certain level, the
maximum flight speed (VMO) becomes reduced in order to protect the wing
structure. The sensor signals are sent to the ADC (Air Data Computer).
10.14
FUEL QUANTITY SYSTEM MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION
The system has the following tasks:
1
Measuring of the fuel quantity in the tanks.
2
Indicating of the fuel quantity on:
The fuel quantity indicator.
The pre-selector.
The ECAM system fuel page.
ECAM/EFIS.
3
Controlling of automatic refuelling.
4
Fuel quantity messaging to the flight management computer.
The system comprises:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
B1 Mod 11.10
fuel quantity computer.

capacitance probes.
capacitance index compensator.
cadensicon sensor.
attitude sensor.
THS position detector.
associated indicator in the flight compartment.
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10.15
PRINCIPLE OF CAPACITANCE GAUGING
A capacitor is an electrical device which stores electrical charge. The amount of
charge it can hold depends upon three physical properties of the capacitor itself,
namely:
a. The surface area of the plates.
b. The size of the gap between the plates.
c. The insulating material (dielectric) between the plates.
In a fuel tank capacitor stack two of the above are fixed, ie. the area of the
plates and the gap between them. The only variable is the dielectric which, in a
fuel tank, is either fuel or air or both. The amount of charge held in the capacitor,
when the tank is full, will be of a preset value. As the fuel level falls, the dielectric
will gradually change to air and the amount of charge stored will reduce. This
change in capacitance is sensed by a signal conditioner and the change in fuel
level is thus sensed.
10.16
FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEM
Each tank has installed a group of probes arranged so that a minimum of one
probe is immersed at all times, the number of probes will vary from aircraft to
aircraft. The following example is from a wide-bodied twin fitted with a fuel trim
system.
The number of probes is:
6 in each outer tank.
6 in each inner tank.
4 in the centre tank.
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The probes of each group are wired in parallel and connected to a summing
adapter, located on the wing rear spar. The probe level signals are sent to the
fuel quantity computer.
Wing Capacitance Probe Installation

Figure 38
10.16.1 Capacitance Index Compensator
One compensator is installed in each tank to the lowest located capacitance

probe.
Separated wiring for these units is routed to the fuel quantity computer.
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The purpose of the index compensator is to sense the different types of fuels,
additives, etc. and make correction signals for accurate fuel readings.
Capacitance Index Compensator - Installation

Figure 39
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FUEL SYSTEMS
Probe Installation Trim Tank

Figure 40
B1 Mod 11.10
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10.16.2 Measurement
The signals from the capacitance probes in each tank are sent via adapters to the
fuel quantity computer. The computer calculates the fuel quantity. To increase
the measuring accuracy, further signals enter the computation:
capacitance index compensator, balances different fuel types.

Condensicon sensor:
Senses while refuelling the:
Density
Dielectric constant of running fuel.
Attitude Sensor:
Senses on ground and in flight the attitude of the aircraft to the:
Roll axis (longitudinal)
Pitch axis (lateral)
The attitude signal computation depends on the AIR/GRND signal (wing
bending direction).
THS Position Detector
Senses the THS position steady and gives its signal to the fuel quantity
computer for correction of trim tank fuel measurement.
Fuel Quantity Indicator
The fuel quantity of the tanks is normally displayed in 10 kg steps. Power supply
and the indication signals are delivered by the fuel quantity computer. To avoid
transmission errors, the indicator sends feedback signals to the computer. The
indicator is also used for test purposes. In the test mode, the indicator displays
different number codes.
The examples shown are from an aircraft with a two-man crew. The refuelling
system will be looked at later. The aircraft is a twin with a centre tank, an inner
and an outer tank.
Note: The LO LVL lights in the indicator receive their signals from the outer tank
LO LVL sensing circuit.
10.17
REFUELLING AND DE-FUELLING
10.18
REFUELLING
As you will be aware, as any liquid flows through a pipeline, it will produce Static
Electricity. If this static electricity were allowed to discharge in the presence of
aviation fuel vapour, an explosion would result, with possible catastrophic results.
To therefore minimise the explosion risks, the following guidelines must be
followed.
Safety Precautions:
Use correct grade of fuel (Av-gas, Av-tur, Av-tag).
No smoking within 15m.
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No metal studded or tipped footwear.

Correct bonding of Aircraft and Bowser.
Correct positioning of Bowser.
No vehicles or Ground Equipment under the aircraft.
Maintenance activity kept to a minimum.
No replenishment of LOX.
No transmitting of Radar
Aircraft & Bowser not to be left unattended.
Check and remedy fuel spillage or leakage.
Appropriate Fire Appliance readily available.
The electrical state of the Aircraft must not change while connected to the
Bowser.
Refuelling a small aircraft is no more complex than filling the family car. One
limitation is that on some aircraft it is not possible to fly the aircraft with all the
seats occupied with full baggage allowance, when the tanks are full. This means
that if the aircraft is to be flown fully loaded, it may be necessary to re-fuel to less
than full, to keep the aircraft within its weight limits.
As the aircraft become more complex, the refuelling exercise has to be carried
out with more care. If the aircraft is small but has say, two tanks in each wing,
and the fuel load is to be three quarters full; then it may be the rule for that aircraft
that the inner tanks have to be filled to the top first and the remainder put into the
outer tanks. This puts less bending load on to the wing spars.
When we get to larger aircraft, there are several further problems to consider. Not
only must the aircraft be filled laterally in the correct order but, if the aircraft has
the fin, tailplane and rear fuselage tanks mentioned earlier, it must be refuelled in
the correct order longitudinally as well to ensure the aircraft stability is
maintained.
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Modern large aircraft utilise pressure refuelling, which has replaced open line
refuelling on most aircraft with high fuel capacities. The time taken to fill a Boeing
747 through a normal hose and nozzle system would take hours. With pressure
refuelling, a large diameter hose is rigidly connected to a coupling in the aircraft
and fuel under pressure of about 40 psi is pumped into the aircraft tanks. To
assist this operation, most aircraft can have the total fuel load pre-set at the point
of connection so that the aircraft stops the refuelling at the correct time. The
illustrations show the location and layout of a typical, Boeing 777, refuelling
panel.
Boeing Refuelling Panel

Figure 41
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10.18.1 Pressure Refuel Functional Description
Fuel flows from the refuel adapters into the refuel/jettison manifold. When the
refuel valves open, fuel flows from the manifold into the fuel tanks. A flow tube at
the end of each refuel valve decreases the exit force of the fuel. The flow tube
also puts the fuel in different parts of the tank.
Refuel System Layout

Figure 42
B1 Mod 11.10
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As each tank reaches full, the high level sensor signals the refuel valve to close
to stop fuel flow. When all refuel flow ceases, fuel that is left in the refuel/jettison
manifold goes through the manifold drain valves and into the main tanks. The
manifold has two vacuum relief valves. These valves permit air into the manifold
when the fuel leaves via the manifold drain valves.
Refuel Manifold Drain Valve
Fig 43
Refuel Manifold Drain Valve

Figure 43
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If a refuel system failure prevents the refuel valves from closing, fuel goes into the
surge tanks. If the fuel gets to the level of the surge tank float switches, the switch
closes, and all refuel valves are closed.
Surge Tank Float Switch

Fig 44
B1 Mod 11.10
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10.19
DEFUELLING
Defuelling a pressure type fuel system is almost the reverse of the refuelling
procedure. A de-fuel bowser would be connected to the single fuel point coupling,
and using a combination of both the bowsers suction pump and the aircrafts own
fuel supply booster pumps, selected tanks can have their contents returned to the
bowser.
Defuel System Layout

Fig 45
10.20
LONGITUDINAL BALANCE FUEL SYSTEMS
The weight of the fuel is a large percentage of an aircrafts total weight, and the
balance of the aircraft in flight changes as the fuel is used. These conditions add
to the complexity of the design of an aircraft fuel system. In small aircraft the fuel
tank or tanks are located near the centre of gravity so the balance changes very
little as the fuel is used. In large aircraft, fuel tanks are installed in every available
location and fuel valves allow the flight engineer to keep the aircraft balanced by
scheduling the use of the fuel from the various tanks. High performance military
jets and more modern civil aircraft will use a fully automatic fuel scheduling
system to reduce the workload on the flight crew.
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10.21
SUPERSONIC FLIGHT FUEL TRANSFER
Longitudinal Fuel Transfer

Figure 46
In supersonic flight the aerodynamic centre of pressure moves aft, thus changing
the longitudinal stability. This was compensated in aircraft like Concorde, by
moving the centre of gravity, shifting fuel as necessary between the fuel tanks in
the rear fuselage and the wings as shown in the previous diagram.
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MODULE 11.11
HYDRAULIC POWER
engineering
CONTENTS
11 HYDRAULIC POWER INTRODUCTION ...................................... 11-3
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
11.18
11.19
11.20
11.21
11.22
11.23
COMPARISON W ITH OTHER POWER TRANSFER SYSTEMS ............... 11-3

11.1.1 Mechanical Systems ..................................................... 11-3
11.1.2 Electrical Systems ......................................................... 11-4
11.1.3 Pneumatic Systems ...................................................... 11-4
BASIC HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES ...................................................... 11-5
COMPRESSIBILITY ......................................................................... 11-5
PASCALS LAW OF FLUID COMPRESSIBILITY .................................... 11-5
FORCE DUE TO FLUID PRESSURE .................................................. 11-6
DIFFERENTIAL AREA ..................................................................... 11-7
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ....................................................................... 11-8
EFFICIENCY .................................................................................. 11-8
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL HYDRAULIC FLUID .................................. 11-8
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUID ......................................................... 11-8
SEALS ......................................................................................... 11-9
11.11.1 Types of Seals .............................................................. 11-10
HYDRAULIC POWER SYSTEMS ............................................... 11-13
SIMPLE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ......................................................... 11-15
11.13.1 Operation (Fig. 15) ........................................................ 11-16
SYSTEM COMPONENTS ................................................................. 11-20
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 11-20
RESERVOIRS ............................................................................... 11-20
11.16.1 Vented Reservoir .......................................................... 11-21
Pressurised Reservoir................................................................. 11-22
11.16.3 Remote Servicing Point ................................................. 11-25
11.16.4 Filters ............................................................................ 11-26
ACCUMULATORS ........................................................................... 11-28
11.17.1 Purpose ........................................................................ 11-28
11.17.2 Construction .................................................................. 11-28
11.17.3 Charging Operation ....................................................... 11-29
11.17.4 Bladder & Diaphragm Type Accumulators ..................... 11-29
PRESSURE GENERATION (HYDRAULIC PUMPS) ............................... 11-32
HAND PUMPS ............................................................................... 11-33
SUCTION BOOST PUMPS............................................................... 11-34
POWERED PUMPS ........................................................................ 11-35
11.21.1 Constant Volume Fixed Displacement Pumps............... 11-35
11.21.2 Piston Pumps ................................................................ 11-37
11.21.3 Unloading (cut-out) Valve .............................................. 11-41
11.21.4 Constant Pressure/Variable Displacement Pump .......... 11-42
11.21.5 Stratopower Pumps....................................................... 11-44
11.21.6 Operation ...................................................................... 11-45
EMERGENCY PRESSURE GENERATION ........................................... 11-47
HAND PUMPS ............................................................................... 11-47
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11.24
11.25
11.26
11.27
11.28
11.29
11.30
11.31
11.32
11.33
11.34
11.35
11.36
11.37
11.38
DUPLICATION OF SUPPLY .............................................................. 11-47

ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVEN PUMPS (EMDPS) 115V AC .................. 11-51
AIR TURBINE MOTOR DRIVEN PUMPS (ATMS OR ATDPS) ............. 11-52
POWER TRANSFER UNITS (PTUS) ................................................ 11-53
HYDRAULIC RAM AIR TURBINES (HYRATS) ................................... 11-54
HYDRAULIC VALVES ................................................................ 11-55
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES........................................................ 11-55
11.30.1 Pressure Relief Valve .................................................... 11-55
11.30.2 Pressure Regulators ..................................................... 11-56
11.30.3 Thermal Relief Valve ..................................................... 11-57
11.30.4 Pressure Reducing Valve .............................................. 11-58
FLOW CONTROL VALVES ............................................................... 11-59
11.31.1 Non-Return (Check) Valve ............................................ 11-59
11.31.2 Selector Valves ............................................................. 11-61
11.31.3 Priority Valves ............................................................... 11-65
11.31.4 Sequence Valves .......................................................... 11-66
11.31.5 Hydraulic Fuses ............................................................ 11-68
POWER DISTRIBUTION .................................................................. 11-70
POWER CIRCUITS ......................................................................... 11-71
COMPONENT CIRCUITS ................................................................. 11-73
11.34.1 Flaps ............................................................................. 11-73
11.34.2 Landing Gear ................................................................ 11-76
HYDRAULIC POWER - INDICATION AND W ARNING SYSTEMS ............. 11-76
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE ................................................................. 11-77
HYDRAULIC QUANTITY .................................................................. 11-80
INTERFACES WITH OTHER SYSTEMS ............................................... 11-83
Issue 1 Mod 11.11
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11 HYDRAULIC POWER INTRODUCTION

This section explains the basic principles, advantages, operation and
layouts of aircraft hydraulic power systems. It also describes the various
materials used and the function of the associated components that
make up, operate and control different types of hydraulic systems and Fluid power: The
the interface of hydraulic power with other systems.
transmission of force by
Fluid power systems are mechanical systems in which a moving fluid
performs work. This fluid may either be a compressible gas or an
incompressible liquid. Systems that use compressible fluids
(gasses) are called pneumatic systems, and those that use
incompressible fluids are called hydraulic systems.
Hydraulic power is often used to operate aircraft landing gear, flight
controls, flaps and slats, air brakes, wheel brakes, nose-wheel
steering, freight doors etc. in conjunction with other systems. This
method of operation is termed; Hydraulic Actuation.
11.1 COMPARISON WITH OTHER POWER TRANSFER
SYSTEMS
the movement of a fluid.

i.e. Hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.
Fluid: A substance,
either a gas or a liquid,
which flows and
conforms to the shape of
its container.
Hydraulic actuation has the following advantages over mechanical,

electrical and pneumatic forms of remote control:
11.1.1 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
a Hydraulics provides smoother and steadier movement.
Hydraulics: A fluid
power system, which
transmits force through
an incompressible
fluid.
b Hydraulic power is confined to pipelines and components, which

avoids the extra strengthening of airframe structure required for
mechanical operations.
c Hydraulics systems have a higher Power/weight ratio than
mechanical systems, particularly on large transport aircraft.
d Installation of hydraulic equipment is simpler. Pipelines between
components for example, can be routed around obstructions and
structure, whereas to solve this problem mechanically requires
the use of levers, guides, bell-cranks and pulleys to change
direction of mechanical pushrods and cables.
e Variation in speed of operation can be achieved without the use of
complex gearing.
f
Finally, hydraulic actuation normally obtains its power from the

aircraft engines, which relieves the pilot of unnecessary fatigue
when operating a service.
Issue 1 Mod 11.11
Page 11-3
Pneumatics: A fluid
power system, which
transmits force through
a compressible fluid.
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11.1.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The obvious advantage of electrical systems is that cables can be routed around
obstructions even easier than pipelines. They are also generally lighter in weight,
however, the power required to actuate landing gear and flight controls of large
aircraft, would require large electric motors powered by equally large (and heavy)
electrical generators, requiring high current cables connecting the system
components. Therefore, electrically operated systems are normally limited to light
aircraft.
11.1.3 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Some older type aircraft used pneumatics to operate brakes systems and
emergency landing gear extension systems. Modern, large transport aircraft use
high-pressure pneumatics to actuate systems in high temperature, fire hazard areas
such as; jet-engine thrust reversing systems and engine starting operations, also
cabin pressurisation and air-conditioning systems. However, the main disadvantages
over hydraulic actuation is its compressibility when actuating highly loaded systems
such as landing gears and flight control operations. Also, difficulty in detecting leaks
in the system, and problems with moisture and corrosion contamination have limited
the use of pneumatic power as a remote control system.
Pneumatic power has some advantages such as; lightness and return lines are
unnecessary.
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11.2 BASIC HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES

11.3 COMPRESSIBILITY
All liquids have a high resistance to compression. The example in figure 1 shows two
cylinders of equal volume, each fitted with pistons, one containing liquid, the other
air. If a force of 20,000 N (Newtons) is applied to the pistons, the decrease in
volume of the air is large compared to that of the liquid, which is negligible.
Compressibility of Fluids
Figure. 1
11.4 PASCALS LAW OF FLUID COMPRESSIBILITY
Power transmission in a closed hydraulic (or pneumatic) system, is best
explained by PASCALS LAW, which states: Pressure in an enclosed
container is transmitted equally and undiminished to all parts of the
container and acts at right angles to the enclosing walls. See figure 2
Container (a), shows that pressure produced by
a fluid in an open container is caused by the
height of fluid above the point at which the
pressure is measured.
The higher the fluid above the gauge, the
greater the pressure.
Container (a)
Container (b)
Pascals Law
Figure. 2
Issue 1 Mod 11.11
Container (b), shows that, when pressure

is applies to a liquid in a closed
container, the pressure rises to the same
amount in all parts of the container
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11.5 FORCE DUE TO FLUID PRESSURE

It has been stated that fluid pressure is transmitted equally in all directions, but in
hydraulic actuation it is more important to know the total effect of the pressure upon
a particular surface. In figure 3, a pressure of 10 N/mm is applied to one side of a
piston in a cylinder actuator.
The piston diameter is 40mm.
Its area is multiplied by the piston radius squared (r2)
i.e. 3.142 x 20mm = 1,256.8mm.
Therefore the force (load) that the piston can push is:
10N x 1,256.8mm = 12,568Nf
RETURN
PRESSURE =
10Nf/mm2
FORCE A =
12,568Nf
40mm
Force by an Actuator, due to Hydraulic Pressure

Figure. 3.
When the same value of hydraulic pressure is applied at the opposite side of the
piston (figure 4), the force will be smaller. This is due the ram, reducing the effective
piston area upon which the hydraulic pressure is acting. In this case the effective
area will be
The area of the piston, minus the area of the ram
i.e. (3.142 x 20mm x20mm) - (3.142 x 5mm x 5mm) = 1256.8mm2 - 78.55mm2
= 1178.25mm2
The force is now reduced to 10Nf/mm2 x 1178.25mm2 = 11782.5Nf.
RETURN
PRESSURE =
10Nf/mm2
10mm
FORCE B =
11782.5Nf
40mm
Reduced Force due to smaller piston area

Figure 4
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11.6 DIFFERENTIAL AREA

Another aspect of force produced by a fluid is the effect of differential area. When
the two fluid ports are connected together, as in actuator in figure 5, the pressure is
the same on both sides of the piston. The piston will move to the right. This is
caused by the area of the piston being reduced on one side by an amount equal to
the cross sectional area of the piston rod.
Since the force is 12568Nf on the larger area of the piston and 11782.5Nf on the
smaller area of piston, the resultant force will be 785.5Nf and the piston will extend.
= 10Nf/mm2
C = 785.5Nf
12568Nf
11782.5Nf
Resultant Force when equal pressure applied to both sides of piston

Figure 5
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11.7 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

11.8 EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a hydraulic system is governed by the resistance to motion, which
is encountered by the fluid. In practice, a certain amount of force is necessary to
overcome friction between pistons and cylinders, piston rods against bearings and
seals, etc.
Friction between the fluid and the walls of pipelines and hoses depends upon the:
a
Velocity of the fluid in the pipelines.
Bore, length and internal finish of the pipelines.
Number of bends in the pipelines and the radius of the bends.
Viscosity of the fluid.
11.9 PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL HYDRAULIC FLUID

Fluids used in an aircraft hydraulics system must have the following properties:
a
Be as incompressible as possible.
Have a very low viscosity rate.
Be free flowing over a wide temperature range.
Be chemically stable.
Not affect, or be affected by the materials in the system components.
Must not foam during operation when subject to sudden pressure increases or
decreases.
Have good lubrication properties.
Have a high flash point.
must not deteriorate or form sludge.
Not all fluids have these properties, therefore, the only type of fluid allowed in a
specific hydraulic system is that recommended by the manufacturer of the
hydraulic components (specified in the Maintenance Manual).
Technical bulletins issued by the fluid manufacturer provide information about the
compatibility of the hydraulic fluids with various aircraft materials.
11.10
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUID
There are three basic types of hydraulic fluids used in aircraft hydraulic systems:
vegetable base, mineral base, and synthetic base.
1. Vegetable (Castor oil) base,
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DTD 900/4081
(MIL- H- 7644) - Golden yellow (or Blue) in
colour, used with natural rubber seals. It is inflammable, strips paint and attacks
synthetic rubber. It is toxic in a fine spray mist.
These systems can be flushed with alcohol. (Only found on very old aircraft types)
2. Mineral base,
DTD 585 (MIL- H- 5606) - Red in colour, used with synthetic rubber seals. It is a
kerosene-type petroleum product with good lubricating properties, but it is
inflammable and attacks natural rubber. It can be flushed with naphtha, varsol, or
Stoddard solvent. Neoprene seals and hoses may be used with this fluid.
Its density and lubricating properties vary with temperature.
3. Synthetic ester base,
SKYDROL 500B - Purple in colour, used with Butyl, Ethylene Propylene, or

Teflon seals. It is fire resistant, strips paint and attacks natural and synthetic
rubbers. It can operate in a very wide temperature range: -20C ( -68F) to 107C
(225F).
Skydrol systems can be flushed with trichlorethylene. Components can be cleaned
with methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), or isopropyl alcohol.
Skydrol will cause irritation of the skin and burning of the eyes, therefore protective
equipment and clothing should be worn when handling this fluid.
CAUTION: These fluids are not compatible with each other and must never be
mixed, or used to replace each other.
Note: If a system has been inadvertently serviced with the wrong fluid, the complete
system must be drained and flushed with an approved solvent, and all the seals in
the system must be replaced. Seals can only be identified by Part number,
obtained from the appropriate Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
11.11
SEALS
Seals are used throughout hydraulic and pneumatic systems to minimise internal
leakage and the loss of system pressure. The two main types of seals used in
aviation are:
a) Gaskets. These are used where there is no relative movement between
the surfaces. (Covers, inspection panels and end-plate sealing etc.)
b) Packings.
Used where relative movement does exist.
(Piston and actuator sealing, rotating shaft sealing etc.)
All rubber seals have a Shelf life starting from the Cure date (Date of manufacture)
This shelf life is dependant on the type of material, its use and the conditions of
storage.
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Note:
All rubber items should be stored in a constant, dry and relatively cool
environment, away from any form of Ultra-Violet (UV) light, (Sunlight or strong
artificial light) and ionised atmospheres. (Storage batteries and strong magnetic
fields). Such varying conditions and harsh atmospheres can cause rapid
deterioration and reduced self-life of all rubber components.
Rubber seals are supplied individually in hermetically-sealed packaging, the Cure
date being clearly marked on each package, together with the manufacturers part
number, Batch number and Mil Spec. The seals should be stored in their original,
unopened packaging until required for use. The issue of seals from the Bonded
Store should be as they are received. First in First Out
11.11.1
TYPES OF SEALS
There are many different types of seals available for a variety of applications. Most
can be broken down into six general designs:
Chevron/V-ring, U-section, Square section, O-ring, Bonded Seal, Wiper ring, Duplex,
One-way seals:
Both Chevron (V-ring) and U-section seals
derive their name from their shape. (See fig.
6a) These seals will prevent fluid flow in one
direction only. To prevent flow in both
directions, two sets of seals must be installed
placed back-to-back. (See fig. 6b)
Both seal types are used in very high-pressure
situations, normally with two or more seals
placed together as in fig. 6b.
Figure 6a
Chevron/V-ring & U-section Seals
The apex or point of the seal rests in the

groove of a back-up ring. A spreader ring is
installed in front of the seal and compressed by
an adjusting nut, expanding the seals and
holding them tight against the actuator cylinder
wall.
U-section seals are used in the same manner
but with different shaped back-up and seal
retaining methods.
Figure 6b
Correct placement of Chevron seals
on a double-acting hydraulic piston
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Double-acting (Two-way) seals: (Fig.7) are suitable for

applications where a positive seal and long life are essential.
The T section profile provides a stable base thus
preventing rolling and spiral failure. The PTFE backing rings
positioned either side of the seal prevent extrusion
(distortion) of the seal under high pressure and piston
speeds.
Figure. 7
Double Acting seal
Note: Extrusion is when the seal is forced to distort and

wedge between the piston and cylinder wall due to high
pressures and speeds. (See O ring illustration fig. ?)
Figure 8
Duplex Seal
Duplex seals: (Fig.8) are often installed in accumulators,

floating pistons and emergency air circuit components. They
consist of an inner layer of soft rubber bonded to a harder
outer layer, allowing it to seal against varying oil and air
pressures.
Square section seals: (Fig. 9) Often used on piston heads
and Landing gear Oleos. It can withstand high pressures
and sudden, high speed piston deflections. Soft metal or
Tufnol back-up rings are sometimes installed to provide
additional seal compression for good sealing and prevent
extrusion.
Figure 9
Square Section Seal
Wiper Ring Seal: (Fig. 10) This type does not act as a
pressure seal, but as a scraper, by removing dirt, oil and
water from the piston shaft, preventing damage to the
pressure seal, thereby prolonging the pressure seal life.
Fig. 10
Wiper Ring Seal
Note: It is extremely important to ensure the Wiper ring is

installed the correct way! otherwise it will allow FOD to pack
up against the pressure seal, causing rapid seal failure and
piston shaft wear.
Bonded Seal: (Fig. 11) These seals are fitted to banjo
unions, adaptor plugs, flush-mounted components etc. The
rubber seal is hermetically bonded to the metal washer and
is fitted between the two components thereby compressing
the seal to the extent of the metal washer thickness when the
components are tightened together.
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O-ring Seal: This is the most commonly

used double-acting (Two-way) seal used
in fluid and pneumatic systems. It can be
used either as a gasket or a packing seal
in
both
static
and
reciprocating
applications. The seal fits into a groove in
one of the surfaces to be sealed, the
depth of which should be 10% less than
the seal diameter. (See fig.12). This
provides the compression of the seal
against the mating component to provide
a seal under zero pressure conditions.
Fig. 13 (A) shows the correct sealing
condition. Fluid pressure forces the seal
against the side of the grove and wedging
it tightly against the piston and cylinder
wall. With less than 10% pinch, fluid will
leak past the seal under low pressure
conditions. (See fig. 13 (B).
Figure. 12
The groove in which an O-ring seal
fits should be wider than the O-ring,
but the depth should be 10% less
than the O-ring diameter.
In some high pressure applications a

back-up ring is installed on the nonpressurised side of the O-ring on oneway operations, but both sides of the Oring should have back-up rings installed
on two-way operations to prevent
extrusion of the seal between the piston
and cylinder wall. (Fig. 13 (C)).
The mouth of a cylinder in which an Oring equipped piston fits must be
chamfered to avoid cutting or pinching of
the O-ring during installation. (Fig. 13 (D)).
Chamfer:-
Correct
Incorrect
Sealing action of an O-ring

Figure. 13.
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11.12
HYDRAULIC POWER SYSTEMS
As aircraft have become more complex, the demand for hydraulically operated
equipment has increased. Retractable landing gear, wing flaps, brakes, engine
cowl flaps, passenger doors and stairs, hydraulically powered flight controls, i.e.
elevators, rudders, ailerons, air brakes and lift dump systems, leading edge flaps
and slats. On modern aircraft, this demand has warranted the design of a
complete and independent, Hydraulic Power Supply System
Figure 14 shows a block diagram of a large, jet transport aircraft.
To aid in understanding the development of the systems, we will start with a very
basic hydraulic system and build on it as we discuss the various components.
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Figure 14
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Large Aircraft Hydraulic System
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11.13
SIMPLE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Aircraft hydraulic systems consist of a varying number of components, depending

on the complexity of the system; i.e. fluid to transmit the force, pipelines and
hoses to carry the fluid to the components, a reservoir to store the fluid, a pump
to move the fluid, actuators to change the flow of fluid into mechanical work, and
valves to control the flow, direction and pressure of the fluid.
We will start with a simple system and add components to it, thereby developing
to a more complex system resembling that which you are likely to encounter in
the Aircraft Maintenance work-place.
Simple hydraulic system using a Reservoir, hand-pump, non-return valves,
double-acting, linear actuator and a three position, selector valve.
Simple Hydraulic System

Figure 15
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11.13.1
OPERATION (FIG. 15)
Hydraulic fluid, stored in the reservoir, is drawn into the hand pump via a pipeline
attached to the bottom of the reservoir, through a non-return valve (NRV) and
into the hand pump. The pump pushes the fluid through another NRV, via the
pressure pipeline, to a 3-position selector valve. Depending on the position
selected, it will either direct the fluid through a port, to one side of the doubleacting, linear actuator piston, or the other. Or it can be selected to the Off
position, which locks the fluid in the actuator and prevents any movement of the
piston in either direction. Fluid from the non-pressure side of the actuator piston,
is diverted back to the reservoir by another port in the selector valve via a return
pipeline.
By installing an Engine driven pump (EDP) (See figure 16) the pilot is relieved
from the physical task of hand pumping, which allows him to concentrate fully on
flying the aircraft. The hand pump is still retained however, and is used as an
Emergency back up, in case of an EDP failure. The hand pump is also used for
testing the hydraulic system when the aircraft is on the ground during servicing
operations and to build up the pressure in the system to operate the brakes
before the engines are started.
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The use of an EDP creates a problem in that the pump is still maintaining
pressure in the system when it is not needed during cruise flight, thereby wasting
valuable engine power. The pump absorbs very little power when it is not moving
fluid against an opposition. This problem is overcome by the installation of a
pump, unloading valve. (Also called an; Automatic Cut-out valve). This valve
relieves the pressure off the pump by diverting the fluid back to the reservoir. The
fluid circulates freely from the pump, to the reservoir and back to the pump again
with no opposition, thereby using very little engine power. The selector valve
holds fluid trapped in the actuator, preventing any movement, or creep of the
piston rod. (The actual operation of the unloading valve (cut-out valve) will be
discussed in detail in a later section.)
Non Self-idling Hydraulic System

Figure 16
When the piston has reached the end of its stroke, pressure will build up in the
system. This is relieved by the system pressure relief valve, which dumps the
excess pressure fluid back to the reservoir.
To maintain a positive pressure in the system when it is not operating, a nonreturn valve is installed in the pressure line from the pump, just after the
unloading valve. This prevents the back-pressure being sensed by the pump and
allows the unloading valve to divert the fluid back to the reservoir..
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An accumulator is installed to maintain a pressurised supply of fluid to absorb

the initial pressure drop in the system when a selector valve is opened,. It also
acts as a shock absorber to cushion the pressure surges of the fluid when the
actuator pistons reach the end of their travel, thus preventing damage to the
components. The accumulator has two compartments separated by a movable
piston or diaphragm. One compartment is connected to the pressure manifold
(pressure supply line) The other compartment is charged with air or nitrogen
through a charging valve. (Nitrogen is used because all water vapour is
removed during the processing of the gas at manufacture and the fact that
Nitrogen is an inert gas). This nitrogen pressure is felt across the piston or
diaphragm by the system fluid.
To actuate any hydraulic system with the engines running, the pilot places the
selector lever in the desired position. (Let us use a Flap selection as an
example) The system senses the pressure-drop and pressurised fluid flows
from the accumulator, through the selector valve to the desired side of the
actuator. The pressure-drop is also sensed by the unloading valve, which stops
dumping pressure back to the reservoir via the return manifold and allows full
pump pressure to feed the pressure manifold again during the operation of the
actuator. This action also charges up the accumulator again until the system
pressure relief valve senses the maximum system pressure, above which the
relief valve dumps the excessive pressure back to the reservoir via the return
manifold. Also at this time, the unloading valve once again senses the highpressure build-up and diverts the pump pressure back to the reservoir. The
system continues to recycle in this manner whenever there is a demand for
hydraulic power. As we continue to evolve the hydraulic system, you will notice
that the reservoir has been altered to include a supply line to the EDP which is
set higher in the reservoir than the emergency hand pump supply line. This
extension is called a standpipe or stackpipe. Its function is to ensure that
sufficient fluid is retained to operate the essential services such as brakes and
landing gear extension, in the event of loss of fluid due to an excessive leak,
down-stream of the brake and landing gear fluid pressure supply line. If the
broken line, or leaking component can be isolated, there will still be enough fluid
remaining in the reservoir to allow the emergency hand pump to lower the landing
gear and operate the brakes.
We can now add a few other items to the system to make it more usable. (Figure
17)
To keep the fluid in the system clean, we need a filter through which all the fluid
will pass. A typical location for the filter is in the return line just before the fluid
enters the reservoir. This is called the Scavenge or Return filter. Here, it will
catch all of the fluid, both that which is used to operate the actuators and that
which circulates through the pump via the unloading valve. A second filter is
installed immediately after the EDP to protect the rest of the hydraulic system
from contamination in case of EDP failure.
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Typical Constant Delivery (non-self idling) Hydraulic Power Circuit

Figure. 17
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11.14
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
11.15
INTRODUCTION
The following paragraphs describe various hydraulic components, including those

used in the circuits. Some components are similar in construction and operation,
but vary in the function they perform. Therefore, it is usual for the name of the
component to indicate its purpose. Unfortunately, due to a difference in the terms
used by the various manufacturers, some components with different names serve
similar functions, such as a selector valve and a control box act fundamentally
as a control valve. However, where different terms are used for similar
components, it will be mentioned in the appropriate paragraph.
11.16
RESERVOIRS
The reservoir stores the hydraulic fluid. It supplies fluid to the system through a
pump and receives the return fluid from the system. It accommodates the extra
fluid caused by thermal expansion and compensates for slight leaks, which may
occur throughout the system. Through its design, it provides a reserve supply of
fluid for emergency operation of systems which are essential for flight control and
landing. This is done by the installation of a standpipe (stackpipe). It should also
be observed that when the actuator piston rod is moved inwards, less fluid is
required as the piston rod occupies space within the cylinder. With the actuator in
this position, the surplus fluid is stored temporarily in the reservoir until the piston
travels in the opposite direction.
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11.16.1
VENTED RESERVOIR
Non-Pressurised (Vented) Reservoir

Figure. 18
CONSTRUCTION
1.
Welded, Aluminium Alloy.
2.
Vented Filler Cap.
3.
Metal, gauze strainer, To prevent FOD (Foreign Object Damage) and
contamination, during the filling operation.
4.
Sight glass, Indicating Maximum, Minimum and Normal Operating fluid
level.
5.
Remote level indicator, (To gauge on pilots instrument panel)
6.
Inlet connection. (From system Return manifold)
7.
Outlet connections, to Engine driven pump, (EDP) and Emergency handpump, (EHP)
A Vented reservoir is the type normally fitted to a Piston-engine, un-pressurised,
aircraft, which would normally operate below 20,000 feet altitude.
The reservoir is located at a higher level than the EDPs to ensure a positive
head of pressure supply of fluid throughout all normal flight manoeuvres.
However. when flying through turbulent air, negative g forces or high roll angles,
could cause a temporary loss of supply to the EDPs allowing them to run dry,
resulting in pump inlet cavitation. This could seriously damage the pump and
cause it to fail. To compensate for this, a low-pressure pump is sometimes
installed between the reservoir and the EDPs to ensure a positive head of
pressure during such conditions.
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11.16.2
PRESSURISED RESERVOIR
Typical Pressurised Reservoir

Figure.19
Jet and Turbo-prop aircraft that fly at altitudes higher than 20,000 feet require the
hydraulic reservoir to be pressurises to prevent foaming of the fluid due to the low
ambient air pressure at high altitudes, and to prevent pump cavitation in its inlet.
There are several ways in which pressurisation can be achieved:
a
A nitrogen charged cylinder.
Cabin pressurisation air.
Engine Compressor/ Bleed air. (P3)
Hydraulic system pressure
Construction
1.
Welded Aluminium Alloy.
2.
Pressurised via a Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV) from Engine
Compressor/ Bleed air, Cabin pressure, or from a Nitrogen storage
cylinder.
3.
Fluid quantity sight glass. (Indicating Max, Min, and Normal Operating fluid
levels)
4.
Max, pressure relief/ depressurising valve.
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5.
6.
Remote fluid level and temperature indicators (To gauges on pilots

instrument panel)
Return fluid de-aerator (Separates any air bubbles (foaming) absorbed into
the fluid during pressure changes, allowing de-aerated fluid to fall back
into the reservoir
Pressurised Reservoir using an Aspirator Regulator.

Figure 20
Figure 20 shows a typical method of pressurising a reservoir using Engine bleedair (P3) or Pressurised Cabin air. Pressurisation can vary between 30 to 45psi
depending on system design.
Figure 21 shows a typical reservoir pressurised by hydraulic system pressure.
Operation
System pressure acts on one side of a small piston attached to the bottom of the
main piston shaft, which exerts pressure on the fluid through the main piston.
Pressure ratios of about 50:1 are common for this type of reservoir. This means
that a 3,000 p.s.i. system pressure can pressurise the reservoir fluid to 60psi. The
fluid level in this type of reservoir is indicated by the amount the piston sticks out
of the body at the bottom of the reservoir. Low fluid level is sensed by the Level
sensing switch, which illuminates a light on the pilots instrument panel. In this
pressurised condition, both the return line from the system, and the EDP supply
line will be pressurised.
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Pressurised Reservoir
Figure 21
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11.16.3
REMOTE SERVICING POINT
On modern Jet and Turbo-prop aircraft it is common practice to install a Remote

Servicing Point (Fig. 22.) in a convenient place, with easy access from ground
level for maintenance personnel to carry out replenishment of the hydraulic fluid
level.
The Service point usually consists of;
a
Self-sealing, quick release, filler point
Hand pump.
Reservoir de-pressurisation valve.
Level indicator.
Selector Valve
SELECTOR VALVE
SHOWN CLOSED
FWD
PRESSURE FILL
CONNECTION
TO SYSTEM A
RESERVOIR
HAND
PUMP
FILTER
FILL
SUPPLY
TO STANDBY
AND B
SYSTEM
RESERVOIR
SUCTION HOSE.
(STAYS WITH
AIRCRAFT)
Hydraulic Reservoir, Remote Servicing Point.

Figure. 22
The servicing point allows fast and efficient servicing of the complete system
contents at all reservoirs.
Before connecting to the system, the Maintenance Manual procedures must be
followed and all hydraulic systems must be in the prescribed position to ensure
the correct fluid level is being indicated. The reservoir de-pressurisation valve
must be operated to relieve the reservoir pressure.
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11.16.4
FILTERS
The extremely small operating clearances in modern hydraulic pumps, valves and
components, require very effective filtration of the fluid. Therefore, filters are rated
by the size of particles, which they can arrest. The size of these particles is
measured in Microns.
One micron is equal to one millionth of a meter or 0.000039 inch. An indication
of just how small these particles are can be seen by the information in Fig. 23.
(e.g. Particles as small as 40 microns are just visible with the naked eye)
Filters, which will remove particles less than 10 microns will maintain a very clean
fluid
Relative Size of Particles Arrested by a Hydraulic Filter

Figure 23.
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There are several types of filtration designs, two of the most common types used
are shown in Fig 24. The paper element type, is made of specially treated paper
folded into pleats to increase its surface area. The micronic element is wrapped
around a spring wire coil to prevent it from collapsing under hydraulic pressure.
Such filters normally have a bypass valve across the filtering element in case the
filter becomes blocked with contamination, in which case the fluid bypasses the
filter allowing unfiltered fluid into the system rather than starving the system
completely of fluid.
Aircraft hydraulic filters are fitted at strategic locations throughout the system.
The main locations being:
L.P. (Low pressure) filter.
H.P. (High Pressure) filter.
By- pass filter.
Filters
Figure 24
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11.17
ACCUMULATORS
11.17.1
PURPOSE
a.
To absorb fluctuations in pressure.
b.
To ensure immediate response and delivery of pressurised fluid on demand.
c.
To allow limited operation of systems when the EDP is not running.
Hydraulic fluid is non-compressible, and pressure can only be stored with

compressible fluids. The compressibility effect can be gained by the using an
accumulator.
11.17.2
CONSTRUCTION
Accumulators are constructed from high-strength materials such as cast, or

machined, Aluminium alloys, or stainless steels. They consist of a container
divided into two compartments by some form of movable, sealing partition, There
are three types commonly used in aircraft hydraulic systems: Piston type,
Bladder type, and Diaphragm type. The Piston type, (Figure 25.) is in the form
of a cylinder with a floating piston. One compartment is connected to the system
pressure manifold, the other is charged with compressed dry-air, or nitrogen,
through a high pressure charging valve. The charging pressure is normally
around, 1,500psi. (Approximately half system operating pressure).
Sliding Piston Accumulator

Figure 25
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11.17.3
CHARGING OPERATION
As the accumulator is charged, (With zero system hydraulic pressure) the

piston moves to the top of the cylinder until it reaches its full stroke. The nitrogen
pressure is then allowed to build up to approximately 1,500psi. The accumulator
is now charged. A special, High-pressure (HP) valve, (See Figure 26) is then
checked for leaks, and the dust cap installed. NOTE: HP valve cores are
identified by a letter H, embossed on the end of the stem, and are NOT
interchangeable with inner-tube and tubeless tyre cores.
AN812, High Pressure (HP) Air Valve for Accumulators and Air-Oil Shock Struts.
Figure 26.
11.17.4
BLADDER & DIAPHRAGM TYPE ACCUMULATORS
CONSTRUCTION: Figure. 27 (A) & (B).

These accumulators are spherical in shape, usually made of cast, or moulded
aluminium, sometimes steel wire-wrapped. Others are of stainless steel. Both
form two compartments as in the piston type. One to accept the dry-air, or
nitrogen charge, the other connected to the fluid system pressure manifold.
OPERATION: The operation is similar the piston type in that, the lower compartment is
charged with dry-air, or nitrogen to a specified pressure, (usually between: 1,200 /
1,500psi).
As pressure builds up in the hydraulic pressure manifold above the nitrogen
pressure, hydraulic fluid is forced into the fluid compartment of the accumulator
and deflects the bladder, or diaphragm, compressing the nitrogen until maximum
system pressure is reached. (Usually around, 2,500 / 3,000 psi), Thereby
providing a flexible cushion of
In-compressible fluid via the medium of a compressible gas, transferred
through a flexible bladder, or diaphragm.
Some systems have a pressure gauge connected to the nitrogen side for quick
monitoring during servicing, without disturbing the charge valve.
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Bladder and Diaphragm Type Accumulators

Figure 27
Charging Valves
On the previous page, Figure 26. illustrates a simple high-pressure valve, which
seals through the valve core. Figure 28 shows two types of metal-to-metal
sealing vales which are more commonly used.
The AN6287-1 valve does not depend on the valve core to provide the seal, but
seals through metal-to-metal contact between the stem and the valve body. To
release air, loosen the swivel nut one turn and de-press the valve core. To
charge air, connect the special, high pressure hose fitting and apply pressure
through a regulator valve with the swivel nut open at leased one full turn.
CAUTION: Use great care and protect eyes and skin while charging, or releasing
high pressure air, or nitrogen.
The MS28889-1 valve is also used in many high pressure systems and is similar
to the AN6287-1, but with different features.
a) The swivel nut is the same size as the hexagon valve body, whereas the
swivel nut on the AN valve is smaller.
b) The stem is retained in the valve body by a roll pin to prevent the stem from
being unscrewed fully.
c) There is no valve core in this type, just the metal-to-metal sealing surface.
CAUTION: ALWAYS install the special, high pressure valve cap after you
have checked for leaks, and on completion of the work.
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Charging Valves
Figure 28
Deflation Cap
Figure 29
Figure. 29. Shows a special cap for safely deflating an accumulator, or air-oleo
strut under controlled conditions.
Screwing on the cap progressively, pushes the valve core off its seat slowly,
allowing gradual de-pressurisation to take place.
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11.18
PRESSURE GENERATION (HYDRAULIC PUMPS)
Hydraulic power is transmitted by the movement of fluid by a pump. The pump

does not create the pressure, but the pressure is produced when the flow of fluid
is restricted. We often use a hydraulic analogy for studying electricity, Therefore,
we will use our knowledge of electricity to help us understand hydraulic power.
The flow of fluid in a line is equivalent to the flow of electrons in a wire, the
current (I). The pressure that causes the flow is the same as the voltage (E), and
the opposition to the flow of fluid is the same as the resistance (R). If there is very
little friction in the line, very little pressure is needed to cause the fluid to flow.
In Fig. 30. we have a very simple electrical system, consisting of a battery, an
ammeter, a voltmeter, and a resistor. The ammeter measures the flow of
electrons in the circuit, and the voltmeter measures the voltage (pressure) drop
across the resistor. The hydraulic system in Fig. 31, is very similar in its
operation. The pump moves the fluid through the system and may be compared
to the battery, which forces electrons through the circuit. The flowmeter measures
the amount of flow, the valve acts as a variable opposition to the flow, and the
pressure gauge measures the pressure drop across the valve.
When the variable resistor is set to its minimum resistance, the current will be
maximum and there will be a minimum voltage drop across the resistor. In the
same way, when the valve is fully open, there will be a maximum flow of fluid and
a minimum pressure drop across the valve. When the resistance in the electrical
circuit is increased, the voltage across the resistor will increase and the current
will decrease. In the hydraulic system, as the valve is closed, the flow will
decrease and the pressure will increase. When the valve is fully closed, there will
be no flow and the pressure will increase to a value as high as the pump can
produce. If the pump is of the constant displacement type, there must be some
provision in the system to relieve the high pressure; otherwise the pump will be
damaged, or components in the system damaged.
Figure 30
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11.19
HAND PUMPS
Single-action, piston type pumps, move fluid on one stroke only, while doubleaction pumps move fluid on both strokes. Most modern aircraft hydraulic systems
use the double-action type because of their greater efficiency.
Figure 32 illustrates the operating principle of a typical double-action hand pump.
This type is called a Piston rod displacement pump because the pumping action
is caused by the difference in area between the two sides of the piston, due to
the piston rod area displacement.
In view (A), the handle is pulling the piston to the left. Fluid is drawn in through
the inlet check valve, When the piston reaches the end of its stroke, chamber 1
is full of fluid and the inlet check valve closes by the action of its spring.
As the handle is moved to the right, as in view (B), the piston is pushed to the
right, forcing fluid through the outlet check valve and into chamber 2. The
volume of chamber 2 is smaller than chamber 1 because of the piston rod
area, therefore, the excess fluid is displaced through the outlet port.
On the return stroke, (To the left again) the remainder of the fluid in chamber 2
is also displaced through the outlet port. At the same time, a new charge of fluid
is being drawn into chamber 1, from the inlet port, through the inlet check valve.
Hand Pump Operation

Figure 32 (A)
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Hand Pump Operation

Figure 32 (B)
11.20
SUCTION BOOST PUMPS
This is a low-pressure pump, (Approx. 100 psi) whose prime function is to provide
a positive pressure to the inlet side of the main system pressure pump, to prevent
cavitation. It is located between the reservoir fluid supply and the Engine-driven
pump (EDP) inlet. The pump can be mounted independently, or attached to the
reservoir.
It is normally powered by a 3-phase electric motor, and in some cases, by a
hydraulic motor driven by system pressure.
Many modern hydraulic pumps have a Spur-gear type pump built into the body
of the main pressure pumps. (This will be discussed in more detail under Variable
displacement, piston type pumps).
In the event of a boost pump failure, The EDP (Main pressure pump) and system
will still operate, but at a possible reduced efficiency with a risk of cavitation of the
EDP. in severe cases.
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11.21
POWERED PUMPS
The only function of a pump is to move fluid through the system. There are a
number of ways powered pumps can do this.
The two basic types are:
1.
Constant Volume/Fixed displacement (Non-self idling). Figures. 33 & 34.
2.
Constant Pressure/Variable displacement (Self-idling). Figures. 43 & 44.
A Constant Volume/Fixed displacement, (Non-self idling) pump moves a
specific volume of fluid for each revolution of the drive-shaft. It requires some
form of Regulator, or Relief valve (Sometimes called a; Cut-out, or Unloading
valve) in the system to relieve the pressure which builds up when the pump
delivers more fluid than the system requires. (See Figs. 16, 17, and 33.).
Constant Volume/Fixed displacement (Non-self idling) Pump System

Figure 33
11.21.1
CONSTANT VOLUME FIXED DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
(Non Self- Idling)

The most common type of Constant volume (CV) pump for medium-pressure
systems, is the Gear pump type. (See Fig. 34.)
These pumps are very rugged and dependable, with few moving parts, relatively
easy and in-expensive to manufacture, compared with other types.
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The left-hand gear is driven by the engine through a splined shaft. This gear
rotates in a close fitting housing and drives the right-hand gear housed in the
same manner. As the gears rotate in the direction shown, fluid is transported
between the teeth around the outside of the gears, from the inlet side of the
pump. When the teeth mesh with each other, in the outlet chamber, fluid is
displaced into the outlet side of the pump.
A very small amount of fluid is allowed to leak past the gears and around the
shaft for lubrication, cooling, and sealing. This fluid drains into the hollow shafts
of the gears where it is picked up by the low pressure on the inlet side of the
pump.
A relief valve holds the oil in the shafts until it builds up to about 15 psi. This is
called; case pressure. This is maintained so that, in the event of the shaft, or
seal, becoming scored, fluid will be forced out of the pump rather than air being
drawn in.
Gear Type Hydraulic Pump

Figure.34
Spur gear pumps provide a good, non-pulsating, high flow rate, but are
limited to pressures up to about 800psi. Because of this, they are more
commonly used on smaller aircraft, but also as pressure back-up pumps for the
more powerful, piston-type pumps on larger aircraft, whos hydraulic systems
operating pressures are between: 1,200 to 3,000psi.
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11.21.2
PISTON PUMPS
Aircraft hydraulic systems that require a relatively small volume of fluid under a
pressure of 2,500 psi or more, often use fixed-angle, Multi-piston pumps as
shown in fig. 28.
a
Axial Piston Pump, (Figure 35)
This type of pump consists of a bronze cylinder block, rotated by a splined drive
shaft, driven by the engine, through a universal link. The cylinder housing is
mounted at a fixed angle to the drive shaft and bearing housing. The cylinder
block usually has seven, or nine axially-drilled holes, which accommodate,
High precision, close fitting pistons. These in turn are attached by a ball-jointed
rod to a pump drive plate which is rotated by the engine. As the piston and
cylinder block assembly are rotated by the drive-shaft, the pistons on one side
(upper pistons) are at the bottom of their stroke, and open to the Inlet port. due
to the angle of the housing. The pistons on the opposite side (Bottom pistons)
are then at the top on their stroke, open to the Outlet port. (See fig. 35)
Fixed Angle, Axial, Piston Type Hydraulic Pump

Figure 35
The stroke (Displacement) of the piston is dependent on the angle of the cylinder
housing to that of the bearing housing. As the whole assembly is rotated, fluid is
drawn in by the piston moving down in the one side of the cylinder block, while
fluid is being pushed out by the piston moving up in the opposite side of the
cylinder block.
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A valve plate with two crescent-shaped openings cover the end of the
cylinders. One above the pistons moving up, thereby pushing fluid through the
Outlet port. The other, above the pistons moving down, drawing fluid into the
cylinder, through the Inlet port.
b
Radial Piston Pumps
In this type of fixed volume pump, the cylinders are arranged radially around an
eccentric crankshaft. (See Fig.29A & B). When the crankshaft is rotated, the
pistons move outwards in each cylinder, forcing pressurised fluid into the annular
outlet port through each cylinder delivery valve. When each piston is at the
bottom of its stroke, the pistons uncover the inlet port, allowing a fresh charge of
fluid to enter each cylinder.
The fresh charge of fluid is then
compressed as the piston moves
outwards again forcing fluid once more
through the delivery valve. This process
is repeated with each revolution of the
eccentric crankshaft
Typical Radial, Piston-type,
Hydraulic Pump - Side View
Figure 36
Radial Piston Hydraulic Pump End View

Figure 37
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Typical Radial, Piston-type, hydraulic pump

Constant Volume/Fixed Displacement
Figure 38
Operation of radial, piston-type pump. (constant volume/ fixed displacement)

Figure 39
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Vane Pumps
These pumps are used in systems, which required moving a large volume of fluid,
but at relatively low pressures.
The vanes are allowed to float freely in slots machined in the rotor, and are held
in place by a spacer. This rotating assembly is attached to a drive shaft and is
driven by the engine, or, an electric motor. The rotating assembly is mounted
concentrically in a ported, steel sleeve which is pressed into a cast, aluminium
housing.
OPERATION: As the rotor turns in

the direction of the arrow, (Fig. 29.)
the volume between the vanes on
the inlet side increases, while the
volume between the vanes on the
outlet side decreases. This change
in volume draws fluid into the pump
through the inlet port, and discharges
it through the outlet port and into the
system
Vane-type Hydraulic Pump (Constant Volume Fixed Displacement

Fig. 40
This type of pump is normally used on light aircraft, particularly in POWERPACK type hydraulic systems, but is more generally used in fuel and pneumatic
systems than hydraulic systems.
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11.21.3
UNLOADING (CUT-OUT) VALVE
An Unloading (Cut-out) Valve of some sort is needed when a Constant

volume/Fixed displacement pump is used to relieve the engine of the pump
loading when there is no demand on the hydraulic system.
Fig. 41 Unloading (Cut-out) Valve during system demand
FIG. 42 UNLOADING (CUT-OUT) VALVE PUMP IDLING POSITION

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11.21.4
CONSTANT PRESSURE/VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT PUMP
A Constant pressure/Variable displacement, (Self-idling) pump, only moves an

amount of fluid, which the system requires, hence the term: Variable
displacement. As the pressure in the system builds up due to no actuation (no
fluid movement), the pump delivery displacement is automatically reduced to noflow. By varying the pump output, the system pressure can be maintained at a
constant, within the desired range without the use of Regulators (Cutout/Unloading valves). It allows the pumps to turn without delivering fluid to the
system. However, this can cause overheating of the pump. To prevent this, fluid
is by-passed back to the reservoir, by the LP spur-gear back-up pump, ensuring a
continuous flow of fluid through the HP piston pump at all times, even when there
is no fluid delivery to the system. Thus providing cooling of the pump.
Fig. 43 Constant Pressure/Variable displacement, (Self-idling) hydraulic

Pump
This type of pump is similar in construction to the fixed volume, axial-piston
type, (Figure 35) It is normally a 2 stage pump. The first stage usually consists of
a low pressure (LP), high volume, spur gear pump, (similar to the Radial pump
shown in Figure. 37). This ensures a positive supply of fluid to the second stage,
high pressure (HP), axial, Multi -piston pump, the cylinder block of which is driven
by a common drive shaft.
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The piston stroke is varied by a Yoke mechanism, sometimes called a Swashplate, or Cam. (See Figures. 43. & 44.) The pistons are attached to shoes that
rotate against the stationary Yoke. The angle between the Yoke and cylinder
block is varied, to increase, or decrease the piston stroke. This action is carried
out by a Servo Control Piston, which senses system pressure. This
pressure pushes the Servo Control Piston against the return spring pressure, and
reduces the Yoke angle, thereby, reducing the HP piston strokes. When the Yoke
is at 90 to the drive shaft, (Perpendicular to the pistons) the piston stroke is zero
and there is no flow of fluid, therefore, no load on the drive-shaft.
Fig. 44 Schematic of Constant Press./Variable displacement pump
Fig. 45 Constant Press/Variable displacement (Self-idling) hydraulic pump

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11.21.5
STRATOPOWER PUMPS
As previously discussed, some kind of unloading valve is required when using a

constant displacement pump. But the same force, (system operating pressure)
which controls this valve can be used to control the output of the variable
displacement pump. Figures 43, 44 and 45 shows variable displacement
pumps, which are controlled by a spring-loaded piston, which moves a pivoted
yoke, or swash-plate to adjust the stroke of the delivery pistons, thereby
regulating the fluid flow.
Another commonly used variable displacement pump for high pressure aircraft
hydraulic systems is the Stratopower demand-type pump illustrated in Figure.
38.
Fig. 46 Constant Pressure/Variable displacement, (Selfidling) hydraulic Pump.

(Stratopower Pump, demand-type)
This pump uses nine axially-orientated pistons and cylinders. The pistons are
driven up and down in the cylinders by a fixed-stroke cam. The stroke of the
pistons is the same regardless of system demand. In this type, the effective
length of the piston stroke controls the amount of fluid delivered to the system.
This type of pump usually has a delivery capacity of between 22-37gpm. (gallons
per minute) and maintains a nominal supply pressure of 3,000psi.
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11.21.6
OPERATION
The forces which control the pump output and system pressure is between the
compensator spring and the compensator stem piston. Pump out-put pressure is
ported around the compensator stem which acts as a piston and opposes the
compensator spring. As the pressure increases, the stem piston compresses the
compensator spring.
Fig. 47 Stratopower pump, flow and pressure controlling mechanism.

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The spider, which is connected to the compensator stem, moves the sleeves up
and down the delivery pistons. When the pressure is high, the stem piston moves
the spider, compressing the compensator spring and uncovers the relief holes
near the bottom of the delivery pistons during the full stroke. This allows the fluid
to be dumped during the compression stroke to the inlet side of the pump,
preventing fluid flow through the check-valves and into the system.
The pump is allowed to deliver a small amount of fluid even at its minimum
stroke to ensure adequate lubrication and cooling of the pump at all times during
operation.
When system pressure drops, the compensator spring forces the stem and spider
assembly down the piston, covering the relief holes at the bottom of the delivery
piston stroke. This prevents bleed-off of fluid during the compression stroke. The
compressed fluid is then forced out through the check valves and into the system
to meet the fluid demand. During any intermediate pressure condition the spider
sleeves cover the relief holes at some point along the discharge pistons stroke,
thereby maintaining system pressure and fluid flow to the required value. The
value of the compensator valve is set by the pressure adjusting screw, which
varies the tension of the compensator spring.
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11.22
EMERGENCY PRESSURE GENERATION
A failure of the hydraulic supply circuit may have a disastrous effect on the
operation of the aircraft. If such an emergency arises, provision must be made to
supply the services which are hydraulically operated by some alternative source
of power. There are several ways in which this can be achieved;
a
Hand-pump operated by the pilot,
Duplication of supplies,
Electrically operated AC or DC pumps,
Compressed air, Air turbine motor driven pumps, (A.T.M.)
Ram-air turbine pumps, (R.A.T.)
11.23
HAND PUMPS
The Hand-pump operation has been explained in Chapter 6.1

Almost all aircraft with a hydraulic power system installed have an Emergency
hand-pump mounted in the cockpit or flight deck. It is usually mounted and
stowed under the floor, between the pilots seats, thereby allowing either pilot or
co-pilot to operate it with relative ease while still flying the aircraft. A quick-release
access cover is usually marked in Red or Yellow and Black stripes, indicating;
Emergency operation.
The hand-pump is connected in parallel with the Engine driven pump (EDP) but
has an independent fluid supply line from the Reservoir which draws hydraulic
fluid from a lower level in the reservoir than the EDP supply, This ensures a
positive supply of fluid if the level is low. (See Figure 18)
In some systems the hand-pump is also used to initially pressurise the system to
ensure adequate system pressure to operate the emergency or park brake
system prior to towing, parking and engine start-up of the aircraft.
11.24
DUPLICATION OF SUPPLY
On Multi-engined aircraft, where hydraulic power is used extensively, and also as

a safety factor, it is often necessary to have a power circuit using two or more
pumps to meet the demand when most systems are being operated at the same
time. i.e. (Landing and Take-off) The circuit illustrated in Figure 48 is fitted with
two self-idling pumps which, should one pump fail during flight, the remaining
pump will still provide fluid flow but at half the normal rate. The primary purpose
of the Accumulators in this circuit is to dampen out the pulsations of the pumps,
also to give speedier operation of components when initially selected, and to
provide a source of hydraulic power when the engine-driven pumps (EDPs) are
not working.
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Figure 48
Fig. 49 Typical Engine-Driven Hydraulic Pump (EDP)

as fitted on Boeing 737
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Multi-engined aircraft normally have one EDP mounted on each engine similar to
the one in Figure. 49. However, some aircraft like the Lockheed L1011 Tri-Star,
have one EDP driven by each wing mounted engine, (Nos. 1 & 3 engines.) and
two EDPs driven from the rear fuselage mounted engine. (No. 2 engine.) This is
to ensure adequate flow and pressure supply to a large and complex hydraulic
system and to cater for redundancy and continued safety in the case of an engine
or pump failure.
Modern Jet transport aircraft now have at least two hydraulic systems
completely independent of each other with duplicated actuation of all primary
hydraulically powered flight control systems. Figure 50 shows a schematic
diagram of the Boeing 737 hydraulic system. This consists of two Main systems
(Systems A & B) with EDPs drawing fluid from separate reservoirs and a
Standby system as an additional back-up in case of failure of one or both main
systems.
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Fig. 50 Dual Hydraulic System Schematic Diagram (Boeing 737
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11.25
ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVEN PUMPS (EMDPS) 115V AC
It is common practice to install Electric Motor Driven Pumps (EMDP) primarily

as a back up to the EDP when system demand is high, but also to provide
hydraulic power in case of EDP or engine failure.
Fig.51 Typical 115v. AC Motor-driven Pump as fitted to Boeing 737 aircraft

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A three phase 115v AC EMDP is connected to the main hydraulic circuit in

parallel with each EDP. It draws its fluid from the same reservoir, but its fluid
supply line is mounted lower in the reservoir to ensure a continued supply to the
EMDP when the fluid level is low.
These pumps are very similar in operation to the EDPs but with a lower capacity,
usually about 6-10gpm (gallons per minute) and maintain a pressure of about
2,700 p.s.i.
Hydraulic fluid enters the pump by way of the electric motor housing to provide
cooling of the pump and motor assembly during operation.
On some aircraft a Low capacity (3 g.p.m. at 2,700 p.s.i.) 28v DC motor driven
pump is installed as an Emergency hydraulic power source which is also used to
provide initial hydraulic pressure to charge up the system for brake operation,
prior to towing the aircraft or engine starting.
11.26
AIR TURBINE MOTOR DRIVEN PUMPS (ATMS OR ATDPS)
Some aircraft such as the Airbus 300 series and B767 use hydraulic pumps
operated by air turbines, which are driven by bleed air from the engines. These
Air-turbine driven pumps (ATDP) receives pressurised air from the aircrafts
main bleed air system. The flow of air is controlled and modulated by a solenoid
operated pressure regulator and shut-off valve to maintain the turbine speed
within set parameters. The turbine is connected by a shaft to the pump. (See
figure 52)
Fig. 52 Typical Air Turbine Motor driven hydraulic pump. (ATDP)

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11.27
POWER TRANSFER UNITS (PTUS)
PTUs consist of a hydraulic motor, which is supplied fluid under pressure by

one hydraulic system. This motor turns a drive shaft, which powers a hydraulic
pump, which is connected to a second hydraulic system in the aircraft. The PTU
is an integrated unit housed in one casing. (See Fig. 53) The purpose of the PTU
is to use pressure from one system to power the motor which drives the pump to
provide pressure in the other system. The PTU motor may be isolated from
pressure when system operation is normal but may be selected manually or
automatically (by a pressure switch) in the event of a pressure drop or failure of
the other system pumps. The B737 incorporates a PTU to supply pressure to the
slat system automatically in the case of reduced pressure.
Fig. 53 Typical Power Transfer Unit (PTU) Schematic.
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11.28
HYDRAULIC RAM AIR TURBINES (HYRATS)
HYRATS may be used as an emergency source of hydraulic power in the case of

major failure within the normal system.
The HYRAT consists of a turbine (similar in appearance to a small propeller)
which is normally stowed in a compartment in the fuselage as in the Lockheed
L1011 trustier and Boeing 767 aircraft. (See Fig. 54.)
Fig. 54
Hydraulic Ram Air Turbine (HYRAT) Pump Unit.
It is only deployed in the case of a major hydraulic failure to provide minimum
hydraulic supply for the safe recovery of the aircraft. The HYRAT may be
deployed automatically or by manual selection. Pressure output is governed by
varying the blade angle in response to aircraft speed and pressure demand.
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11.29
HYDRAULIC VALVES
The valves used in hydraulic systems may be divided into pressure control and
flow control valves.
a
A pressure control valve adjusts, regulates and/or limits the amount of

pressure in the power supply system or any component circuit.
A flow control valve selects and directs the flow of fluid through the system
or circuit in a particular direction and is not normally concerned with the
pressure.
11.30
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
11.30.1
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
The flaps are comparatively fragile and if they are lowered when the aircraft is
flying at high speeds, are liable to be damaged by the airflow. The flaps are
designed to be used only when the aircraft is landing or taking-off. To prevent
such damage occurring, a pressure relief valve is provided in the circuit. This
valve, which acts as a blow-back valve, bypasses pressure fluid in the Down
line to the return line. In effect, the valve enables the flaps to blow-back if they
are left down and the aircraft speed is increased. It also prevents the pilot from
lowering the flaps at high air speeds.
Fig. 55 Operation of Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)
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11.30.2
PRESSURE REGULATORS
In Chapter. 6.3 We discussed the two basic types of pumps used,

The Constant Volume/Fixed Displacement (Non-self idling) type.
The Constant Pressure/Variable Displacement (Self-idling) type.
It was stated that; the Non-self idling type required an Unloading, or Cut-out
valve to relieve the pressure which builds up in the system when the out-put from
the pump is greater than the system demand. It also regulates the system
pressure within a normal operating range. A complex Unloading valve was
discussed previously.
A simpler pressure regulator (the Balanced-type), is illustrated in Figure 56.
Fig. 56 Balanced-type pressure regulator valve.

OPERATION
The pump delivers a fluid flow through the NRV into the system and charges the
Accumulator with fluid and pressure builds up in the system. This pressure is
sensed on the under-side of the regulator piston. The same pressure is sensed
on the upper surface of the ball, forcing it onto its seat as the pressure increases.
The spring is acting downwards against the piston and a balance of forces is
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reached between the fluid pressure on the ball, the spring pressure on top of the
piston, and the system pressure acting upwards under the piston. At the condition
of balance, when the pressure is 1,500psi, there will be a force of 1,500 pounds
(lbs) pushing up on the piston. The total downward force of 1,000 lbs applied by
the spring and a 1/3 of 1,500 lbs (500 lbs) of fluid force pushing down on the ball.
If the system pressure rises above this balanced pressure, the spring pressure is
constant and not effected by hydraulic pressure, therefore the piston will move up
and lift the ball off its seat. This allows the pump delivery (flow) to return to the
reservoir with very little resistance and therefore virtually zero pressure. The NRV
holds the pressure trapped in the system and the accumulator. This condition will
continue until the pressure in the system drops to 1,000 psi, at which point the
spring will force the piston down, allowing the ball to re-seat and the pressure will
rise again to the unloaded pressure of 1,500 psi. This gives a system cycling
pressure of: 1,000 1,500 psi.
11.30.3
THERMAL RELIEF VALVE
This valve is designed to relieve excessive pressure caused by expansion of the

hydraulic fluid due to increase in temperature. It is situated in a pipeline
between components where the fluid is in a closed circuit, such as between an
NRV and an actuator, where there is a hydraulic lock. The excessive pressure is
relieved back to the reservoir via the return line.
The restrictor pack ensures that only the slow pressure changes from thermal
expansion effects the operation of the valve.
Fig 57 Thermal Relief Valve

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11.30.4
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
Some hydraulically operated components require a much lower pressure than

system pressure to operate them. In such cases a Pressure Reducer Valve
similar to the one in figure 58 is used. This valve reduces system pressure by the
action of a balance between hydraulic and spring forces.
Fig. 58 Pressure Reducer Valve
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OPERATION
Assume that the piston in figure 58 has an area of one square inch (1in) and is
held on its seat by the large spring with 100 pounds force (lbsf). The piston has
a shoulder area of square inch, which is acted on by the full 1,500psi. system
pressure. The reducer valve seat area is square inch (Same as piston
shoulder) and is acted on by the 200 psi reduced pressure. A small hole in the
piston bleeds fluid into the chamber behind the piston and the relief valve
maintains this pressure at 750 psi. This relief action is determined by the
pressure inside the piston cavity, acting on one side of the relief ball and the
spring, and reduced pressure (200 psi) acting on the opposite side. When the
reduced pressure drops, the hydraulic force on the ball drops, allowing it to
unseat. This decreases the hydraulic force on the piston and allows it to move up.
Fluid now flows into the reduced pressure line and restores the 200-psi. This
increased pressure closes the relief valve so that the pressure behind the piston
can again increase up to 750 psi and seat the valve. The small bleed hole also
prevents the piston from chattering by giving the piston a relatively smooth action.
The piston remains off its seat just enough to maintain the reduced pressure as it
is used.
11.31
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Flow control valves in hydraulic systems control fluid flow and the direction of
flow. They may control manually (direct operation by flight or ground crew) or
automatically (by flow, pressure or remote sensing devices)
Flow Control valves can be mechanically, electrically or hydraulically operated.
The valves may be of the ball, sleeve, poppet, rotary, piston or sliding- spool type.
11.31.1
NON-RETURN (CHECK) VALVE
This valve is the simplest of all flow control valves and is used in most systems.
Its basic function is to allow fluid flow in one direction only. The different types
are shown in fig. 59. An NRV or Check valve, is always fitted just down-stream of
the pump to ensure there is no reverse-flow through the pump which could
cause damage to it when stationary or not in use.
Some applications require full flow in one direction and a restricted flow in the
other. This valve is known as a Restricted or Orifice Check valve (fig. 60)
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NON-RETURN (CHECK) VALVES
Fig 59
Fig 60
Ball Check Valve
Orifice Check Valve
Cone Check Valve
Orifice type, installed in
Swing Check Valve
a landing gear system
(Flapper Valve)
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11.31.2
SELECTOR VALVES
Selector valves may be considered to be the first valve in the Services System
and not part of the Power System.
The purpose of the Selector Valve is to direct fluid to the appropriate side of an
actuator, and to provide a return path for the fluid displaced from the opposite
side of the actuator, back to the reservoir. Many flow control valves are simple
four-way valves, connecting the pressure and return lines to alternate sides of the
actuator, without a neutral position, however, control valves in open-centre
systems often lock fluid in the actuator while providing an idling circuit for the
pump.
Fig. 61 Manual Selector Valves

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Figures. 61. Illustrates the Ball, Rotary and Sliding-spool type valves, which are
normally used in relatively low-pressure actuation. Higher-pressure systems
require a more positive shut-off of fluid flow and Poppet-type selector valves are
often used.
OPEN CENTRE, POPPET TYPE, SELECTOR VALVE
OPERATION
When the Control Selector handle is in the
Neutral position, Poppet valve 3 is off its seat.
Fluid flows straight through the valve from the
pump to the next selector valve and on to the
reservoir. All the other poppet valves are closed.
When Gear Down is selected, movement of the
cams causes valve 3 to close, and valves 1 and
4 open, redirecting pump pressure to the Gear
Down side of the gear actuator, through valve 4
Fluid on the other side of the actuator piston is
then redirected back to the reservoir through
valve 1 via the return line. When the actuator
reaches the end of its travel, the pressure
increases to a specific value and operates a
mechanism, which returns the selector handle to
the neutral position, thereby closing valves 1
and 4 and reopening poppet valve 3
When Gear Up is selected, valve 3 once again
closes and valves 2 and 5 open. This directs
pump pressure to the Gear Up side of the
actuator through valve 2 Fluid on the other side
of the actuator is redirected back to the reservoir
through valve 5 via the return line. When the
actuator again reaches the end of its stroke, the
pressure increase is again sensed by the return
mechanism and the selector handle is returned
to the Neutral position, thereby closing valves 2
and 5 and reopening poppet valve 3 again.
Note: This type of selector requires a pressuresensing device which moves the selector handle
back to the Neutral position when the actuator is
fully extended or retracted.
Fig 62 Open Centre, Poppet Type, Selector
Valve
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ELECTRICALLY OPERATED SELECTOR VALVES.

These valves use electrically operated solenoids to control the position of a spool
valve which, in turn, controls the direction of fluid flow to the system actuator.
Switches located on the flight deck, or remote sensors, operate these valves.
The advantage of this type over mechanical valves is the elimination of bulky
lever mechanisms, torque tubes, bell-cranks, levers and pulleys, which add extra
weight to the aircraft. On large Transport aircraft, this is especially important
when considering the large distances from the controlling point to the actuation
point. Fly-by-Wire systems are modern examples of this method of Power
Control.
SINGLE SOLENOID TYPE, SELECTOR VALVE
The selector illustrated in Figure. 63. is a Single solenoid, two-way valve.
Typically used for emergency operation of the Flaps or Landing Gear
Fig. 63 Electrically operated, Slide-valve, Selector (Single Solenoid)

OPERATION
With the solenoid de-energised, the pilot valve is spring-loaded against the
return seat, and fluid from the emergency power system passes to both sides of
the slide valve. Since the right-hand end of the valve is a larger diameter than the
left, the valve is moved to the left by the greater force, and system pressure fluid
passes to the actuator to extend its ram.
Fluid from the opposite side of the actuator passes through the slide valve, to the
reservoir, via the return line.
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With the solenoid energised, the pilot valve is held against the pressure seat,
and supply pressure acts on the left-hand side of the slide valve only. The right
hand side being open to return, thereby forcing the slide valve to the right. This
directs system pressure fluid to the actuator to retract its ram. Fluid from the
opposite side of the actuator, being open to return to the reservoir, via the return
line.
DOUBLE SOLENOID TYPE
This valve is similar to the single solenoid valve but is used
where the service has intermediate positions. With both
solenoids de-energised, the valve will hold the service in any
rigid position (Hydraulically locked) but with the supply
pressure isolated from the utility system.
Fig. 64 Double Solenoid type Selector valve

OPERATION
With both solenoids de-energised the ball valves are held against their respective
return seats, (same as the Single Solenoid valve). In this position, system
pressure is directed to identical area pistons on both sides of the Spring-loaded
shuttle valve. With no hydraulic power in the system, the springs, which are also
of equal tension, hold the shuttle valve in the centred position, thereby shutting
off, both lines to the actuator and creating a hydraulic lock in the actuator. When
the left-hand Solenoid is energised, the ball valve is held against the pressure
seat. This allows the pressure on the left-hand side of the shuttle valve piston to
be vented to the return line through the left-hand shuttle valve chamber, thereby,
causing a pressure imbalance which forces the shuttle valve to the left. This
allows pressure to one side of the actuator, and directs the other side of the
actuator to the return line through the right-hand chamber of the shuttle valve.
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11.31.3
PRIORITY VALVES
These valves are similar to Sequence valves except they are opened by
hydraulic pressure rather than by mechanical means.
They are called priority valves because such devices as Wheel-well doors,
which must operate first, require a lower pressure than the Main Landing Gear.
The valve will shut off all the flow to the Main Gear until the doors have actuated
to the fully Open position and the pressure builds up at the end of the actuator
stroke. The priority valve senses the pressure build-up and opens, allowing fluid
to flow to the Main Gear actuators.
Fig. 65
Typical Priority Valve Operation
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11.31.4
SEQUENCE VALVES
Most modern aircraft with retractable landing gear have landing gear doors, which
close in flight to cover the wheel well to ensure a streamlined airflow. When the
gear is selected UP or Down, by the pilot, the gear doors must open first
before the gear starts to retract. For this reason, a Sequence Valve is sometimes
installed. These are usually similar in construction to Check valves (NRVs) which
allow a flow of fluid in one direction, but may be opened manually to allow fluid to
flow in both directions.
These valves are similar to Priority Valves regarding their function, by allowing
one hydraulic component to function before another is allowed to function. The
difference between them is that Priority valves are controlled by fluid pressure,
whereas Sequence valves are controlled by mechanical displacement of a
plunger, which moves a Ball valve off its seat to redirect fluid to another
component.
Fig 66 Section through a typical Sequence Valve
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The illustration in Fig. 67 (below) Shows the location and typical use of
Sequence Valves in a simple Landing Gear system. It explains the basic
sequence of operation as the gear is selected UP.
(a)
i
Ii
iii
Gear selected UP
Wheel-well door Fully OPEN
Gear retracting
(b)
i
ii
iii
Gear fully UP
Door Sequence valve OPEN
Wheel-well door Fully CLOSED
Fig. 67 Sequence Valve location and operation, in landing gear system
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11.31.5
HYDRAULIC FUSES
PURPOSE
These special valves are used to block off fluid flow if a serious leak should
develop. There are two types of hydraulic fuse. The first type shuts off the fluid
flow if the pressure drop across the fuse falls below a specified limit. The second
type shuts off the fluid flow after a specific amount of fluid has flowed through it
Pressure Sensing Fuse Valve

This fuse senses the pressure drop
across the valve.
Fig 68 Pressure Sensing Fuse Valve

During normal flow through the valve, the spring keeps the piston against its seat.
If a serious leak or pipe failure occurs downstream of the outlet (B) the pressure
drop is sensed across the piston, which generates a force greater than that of the
spring. This allows fluid pressure upstream at the inlet (A) to move the piston to
the right, thereby shutting off the fluid flow. This condition will be maintained until
the system pressure as inlet (A) is relieved, i.e. The system is shut down,
allowing the spring to return the piston to its normal operating position.
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Flow Sensing Fuse Valve

Operation:
This fuse does not operate on the
pressure sensing principle.
It will shut off the flow after a given
amount of fluid has passed through
it.
In the static condition, all the ports
are closed off. When fluid begins to
flow in the normal direction of
operation, system pressure on the
sleeve valve moves it to the right
against the spring pressure, thereby
opening the ports and allowing fluid
to flow through the valve. During this
time some fluid passes through the
metering orifice and progressively
moves the piston to the right until it
shuts off the primary delivery ports
which stops fluid flow.
When fluid flows in the reverse
direction, the sleeve valve and the
piston are both moved to the left
which keeps all the ports open and
allows fluid to flow through the fuse
unrestricted, in the opposite
direction.
Normal operation of the unit
protected by this type of fuse doesnt
require enough flow to allow the
piston to drift completely to the right
and seal the primary delivery ports.
Only when there is a serious leak will
there be sufficient fluid flow to move
the piston to the right and close off
the primary delivery ports.
Fig. 69 Flow Sensing Hydraulic Fuse
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11.32
POWER DISTRIBUTION
As previously stated, the hydraulic system in an aircraft may be used for

operating various services, such as landing gear, flaps, airbrakes, wheel brakes,
control surfaces, nose-wheel steering, etc. As it will be necessary to operate
these services independently, provision must be made to ensure adequate fluid
flow and pressure at all times, not only during operation of all the primary circuits
at the same time, but also in the case of a complete failure of one power supply
system.
Fig. 70 Block diagram of hydraulic power distribution to component circuits

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Figure 70 shows a block diagram of a typical hydraulic power distribution system

and the supply to the various component circuits. The example shown, has two
main independent systems, System A and B with a Standby System to
cater for redundancy.
The complete hydraulic system consists of:
a.A power circuit,
b.Various component circuits.
c. An emergency circuit in the event of hydraulic power failure.
11.33
POWER CIRCUITS
The power circuit supplies fluid to the component circuits and accommodates the
fluid returned from these circuits. The system varies with the type of aircraft and
may contain more than one Engine-driven pump (EDP). The circuit may be selfidling or non-self-idling. The self-idling circuit is designed to idle when the
working pressure has been achieved, while in the non-self-idling circuit the
pump supplies fluid continuously to the circuit and necessitates the installation of
an automatic unloading (cut-out) valve.
Fig. 71 Power Circuit Constant Pressure/Variable displacement, (Self

idling) Pump System
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Power Circuit Constant Volume/Fixed displacement, (Non self-idling) Pump

System
Figure 72
Figures 71 & 72 show the differences in the hydraulic power system design when
a Constant Pressure/Variable displacement Pump is installed, (Fig. 43 and 44.)
Compared to a system that has a Constant Volume/Fixed displacement Pump
installed. (Figs. 34, 35, 36 & 37)
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11.34
COMPONENT CIRCUITS
Each component (system), has its own hydraulic circuit within the hydraulic
system. These circuits are usually connected to a common pressure line and a
common return line of a power circuit. Fluid expelled from each component circuit
is conveyed back to the reservoir by the return line.
11.34.1
FLAPS
The flap circuit illustrated in Fig 73 consists of port and starboard flap jacks,
synchronising jacks, and various components interconnected by pipelines. As
with the landing gear circuit, fluid is supplied by the main system power circuit, to
a control (selector) valve, via a Shut-off valve, which directs the fluid to the
desired end of the jacks, at the same time connecting the other end of the jacks
to the reservoir. A non-return valve before the control valve prevents operation of
other services, such as alighting gear, from interfering with the flaps.
Typical Wing Flaps Hydraulic Circuit

Figure 73
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THROTTLING VALVE
During flight, it is essential that the Wing flaps are lowered and raised slowly to
prevent sudden change in the trim of the aircraft, therefore, a throttling valve is
provided in the circuit. This valve reduces the rate of flow of fluid to and from the
flap actuators and is normally situated in the DOWN line.
Typical Balanced spring Throttling Valve

Figure 74
This valve, which is a form of two-way restrictor valve, maintains the flow of fluid
to and from a service, but at a constant rate.
It automatically sets the flow rate in proportion to the supply pressure and is used
to slow down the operation of the flaps.
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OPERATION
With fluid pressure normal, fluid flows through the piston ports, but an increase in
the Inlet pressure or an increase in flow to the valve would increase the pressure
on one side of the piston which in turn will move the piston in the direction of the
flow. The leading needle valve approaches and restricts the outlet port, thereby
restricting the flow of fluid out of the valve. The design of the valve and strength
of the springs ensures that the needles will not seat and completely shut off the
flow.
SYNCHRONISATION
Owing to slight variations in jack volume or piston friction, or to unequal air
loading such as will occur when landing the aircraft in a crosswind, the rate at
which the port and starboard flaps move may differ. To minimise this possibility
the movement of the flaps is synchronised. The methods of synchronisation vary
and may consist of a single jack, mechanical linkage (cable), hydraulic
synchronisation valves or jacks.
The method of synchronisation varies with the type of aircraft, but the method
illustrated in Fig. 69 employs two additional jacks interconnected by transfer
pipes, which are not connected to the power circuit. The operation is as follows.
When the flaps travel in alignment, the fluid in the synchronising jacks is merely
transferred from one side of the piston in one jack, to the opposite side of the
piston in the other jack. There is normally a tendency for the travel of one flap to
be slower than the travel of the other flap. When this occurs, the synchronising
jack on the slow flap will provide an assisting force to the slow flap.
Example: Assume that Flaps Down has been selected and that the Port flap
tends to move down faster than the starboard flap. The piston in the port
synchronising jack would expel more fluid from D into A, therefore, pressure is
generated in A which, acting on the piston of the starboard synchronising jack,
produces an assisting force helping to keep the starboard flap in alignment with
the port flap. The fluid expelled from B is accommodated in C. (Fig. 74)
NOTE : Only the basic flap synchronising circuit is described and illustrated. In
the aircraft, provision must be made for priming, thermal expansion and
contraction; in some aircraft, the flap synchronising circuit is connected to the
power circuit.
A hydraulic lock will be formed between a non-return valve (or the
Control/Selector valve when selected in the OFF position) and the jacks. A
hydraulic lock or a closed circuit can be designed into a system as a Landing
gear protection device.
NOTE : In some aircraft the synchronising circuit is independent of the main
hydraulic circuit, the fluid in the circuit having no pressure except that built-up by
transfer.
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THERMAL RELIEF VALVE

When flying the aircraft to high altitude, the low temperature of the atmosphere
will cause the fluid in the pipelines to contract. From high to low altitude, due to
the increase in temperature of the atmosphere, the fluid will expand (thermal
expansion). Whereas contraction of the fluid will be compensated by the pump
supplying more fluid to the pipeline, thermal expansion of the fluid, especially in a
closed circuit such as previously described may burst the pipelines. To prevent
this, two thermal relief valves are fitted in the circuit, one in the up line and the
other in the down line. The valves relieve fluid pressure from the pressure line to
the return line. In the flap circuit illustrated in Fig. 74, the pressure relief valve will
act as a thermal relief valve.
11.34.2
LANDING GEAR
The Landing gear circuit illustrated consists of two main undercarriage jacks, a
nose wheel jack, fairing door jacks and various components interconnected by
pipelines. Normally, fluid is supplied by the power circuit to the control valve,
which may be manually or electrically operated and directs the fluid to the desired
end of the jacks, at the same time connecting the other end of the jacks to the
reservoir. A non-return valve positioned before the control valve provides a
hydraulic lock in both UP and DOWN position, which ensures that the alighting
gear remains in its selected position, when any other service is operated.
11.35
HYDRAULIC POWER - INDICATION AND WARNING SYSTEMS
Information regarding the condition of the hydraulic system must be relayed to

the flight deck, for normal and abnormal situations.
Generally the information comprises, actual hydraulic pressure, temperature and
quantity (normal indications) and warnings of low pressure and low quantity or
high oil temperature (abnormal indications).
Since most hydraulic reservoirs are pressurised by engine bleed air, to prevent
the oil from foaming due to low ambient pressure at altitude, a warning of low air
pressure is also included.
From a servicing viewpoint, direct reading quantity gauges are often to be found
on the side of the hydraulic reservoirs and to show the gas pressure in hydraulic
accumulators.
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System Control and Monitoring

Figure 75
11.36
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
Since the hydraulic bay is often some distance from the flight deck and to avoid
the inherent risk of hydraulic oil leaking onto electronic equipment, no oil pipes
run directly to the flight deck instruments.
On all modern aircraft, electro-hydraulic transducers fitted in the hydraulic bay,
relay pressure information for each system to the flight deck. In this way all
hydraulic lines stay out of the pressure cell. Instead, electrical cables are routed
from each transducer to some form of ratiometer or solid state liquid crystal
display (LCD), calibrated to read hydraulic pressure.
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Pressure Indication Circuit

Figure 76
Additionally, a pressure switch set to minimum pump output pressure, is routed to
the aircraft alerting and warning system, to some form of visual warning (warning
lamp/ flashing glareshield lights) and an aural warning (chimes).
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Low Pressure Warning

Figure 77
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11.37
HYDRAULIC QUANTITY
The quantity of oil in the reservoir of each system will be relayed to a quantity
gauge on the flight deck by means of a float switch in the tank. Alternatively, a
capacitance type detector can be employed. Both types cause a voltage change
at the gauge corresponding to a change in oil level in the tank. The gauges can
be calibrated to show the actual quantity (litres) or displayed as a percentage of
full.
Hydraulic Fluid Quantity

Figure 78
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Additionally, a low level switch can be fitted in the reservoir or within the
gauge/indicator which will trigger visual and aural warnings, when the level
reaches a pre-calibrated minimum value.
Standby Hydraulic System Low quality Light

Figure 79
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Hydraulic Temperature
The system may be fitted with a temperature transducer relaying system
temperature to a gauge, but normally this is unnecessary. Usually, all that is
required is a temperature switch, usually in the return line as it enters the
reservoir, to trigger the visual/aural warning if the temperature should exceed a
pre-determined maximum value. Such temperature sensors are often associated
with electric motor driven hydraulic pumps and may monitor the temperature of
the motor windings as well as actual oil temperature.
System Overheat Indication

Figure 80
Reservoir Low Air Pressure

A low pressure switch fitted in the Bleed Air line downstream of the pressure
regulator just before it enters the reservoir, will trigger the visual/aural warning
system if the pressure drops below a pre-determined minimum value.
Accumulator Gas Pressure
Gauges are fitted to accumulators, to indicate the pre-charge gas (nitrogen)
pressure when all hydraulic pressure has been dissipated. These gauges are
usually direct reading and will show system pressure when the hydraulic pumps
are running.
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11.38
INTERFACES WITH OTHER SYSTEMS
Hydraulic Power is used for the operation of a large number of aircraft systems.
These include:
Powered Flying Controls Primary Controls
Leading edge and Trailing Edge Flaps
Spoilers
Speed Brakes and Air Brakes
Wheel Brakes and Anti-skid
Nosewheel Steering
Landing Gear Retraction & Lowering
Windscreen Wipers
Hydraulic pumps can be driven:

Mechanically from the main engine accessory gearbox or from the APU
Electrically from the main electrical buses
By means of a Ram Air Turbine deployed into the airflow (emergency)
Air-driven from the aircraft bleed air system (emergency)
Hydraulic Accumulators can be used for parking brake pressure storage.
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Contents
12 ICE FORMATION, ........................................................................ 12-3
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
CLASSIFICATION AND DETECTION INTRODUCTION ...................... 12-3

FACTORS AFFECTING ICE FORMATION ................................. 12-3
TYPES OF ICE FORMATION ..................................................... 12-3
12.3.1 Hoar Frost ..................................................................... 12-3
12.3.2 Rime Ice........................................................................ 12-4
12.3.3 Glaze Ice ....................................................................... 12-4
12.3.4 Pack Snow .................................................................... 12-5
12.3.5 Hail ............................................................................... 12-5
AREAS TO BE PROTECTED...................................................... 12-5
12.4.1 Effects On Aircraft ......................................................... 12-6
12.4.2 Effects of Icing on The Ground ...................................... 12-7
ICE DETECTION ........................................................................ 12-7
METHODS OF ICE DETECTION ................................................ 12-7
12.6.1 Visual (Hot Rod) Ice Detector)....................................... 12-8
Pressure Operated Ice Detector Heads ...................................... 12-9
Serrated Rotor Ice Detector Head ............................................... 12-10
12.6.4 Vibrating Rod Ice Detector ............................................ 12-11
ICE FORMATION SPOT LIGHT ......................................................... 12-12
ANTI-ICING AND DE-ICING SYSTEMS .............................................. 12-12
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 12-12
12.9.1 De-icing ......................................................................... 12-12
12.9.2 Anti-icing System .......................................................... 12-13
DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS - GENERAL ................................. 12-13
FLUID SYSTEMS ........................................................................... 12-13
12.11.1 Windscreen Protection .................................................. 12-13
12.11.2 Aerofoil Systems ........................................................... 12-16
12.11.3 Propeller Systems ......................................................... 12-18
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS ............................................................. 12-19
12.12.1 Air Supplies ................................................................... 12-20
12.12.2 Distribution .................................................................... 12-20
12.12.3 Controls and Indication ................................................. 12-20
12.12.4 Operation ...................................................................... 12-21
THERMAL (HOT AIR) SYSTEM .................................................. 12-22
12.13.1 Exhaust Gas Heating System ....................................... 12-23
12.13.2 Hot Air Bleed System .................................................... 12-25
ELECTRICAL ICE PROTECTION SYSTEN ................................ 12-27
12.14.1 Heater Mat .................................................................... 12-27
12.14.2 Spray Mat ..................................................................... 12-28
Windscreen Anti-icing ................................................................. 12-31
WINDSCREEN CABIN W INDOW DE-MISTING SYSTEMS ..................... 12-33
RAIN REPELLANT AND RAIN REMOVAL ........................................... 12-35
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12.17 WINDSCREEN CLEARING SYSTEMS ....................................... 12-35

12.18 WINDSCREEN WIPER SYSTEMS ..................................................... 12-36
12.18.1 Electrical System........................................................... 12-36
12.18.2 Electro-Hydraulic System .............................................. 12-38
12.18.3 Windscreen Wiper Servicing ......................................... 12-39
12.19 PNEUMATIC RAIN REMOVAL SYSTEMS.................................. 12-41
12.20 WINDSCREEN WASHING SYSTEM .......................................... 12-41
12.21 RAIN REPELLANT ..................................................................... 12-43
12.22 DRAIN MAST HEATING .................................................................. 12-46
12.23 WATER SUPPLY AND DRAIN LINES ................................................. 12-46
12.24 DRAIN MASTS .............................................................................. 12-46
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12 ICE FORMATION,
12.1 CLASSIFICATION AND DETECTION INTRODUCTION
The operation of aircraft in the present day necessitates flying in all weather
conditions and it is essential that the aircraft is protected against the build up of
ice which may affect the safety and performance of the aircraft.
Aircraft designed for public transport and some military aircraft must be provided
with certain detection and protection equipment for flights in which there is a
probability of encountering icing (or rain) conditions.
In addition to the requirements outlined above, certain basic standards have to be
met by all aircraft whether or not they are required to be protected by the
requirements. These basic requirements are intended to provide a reasonable
protection if the aircraft is flown intentionally for short periods in icing conditions.
The requirements cover such considerations as the stability and control balance
characteristics, jamming of controls and the ability of the engine to continue to
function.
12.2 FACTORS AFFECTING ICE FORMATION
Ice formation on aircraft in flight is the same as that on the ground; it can be
classified under four main headings, i.e. Hoar Frost, Rime, Glaze Ice and Pack
Snow. Dependent on the circumstances, variations of these forms of icing can
occur and two different types of icing may appear simultaneously on parts of the
aircraft.
Ice in the atmosphere is caused by coldness acting on moisture in the air. Water
occurs in the atmosphere in three forms, i.e. invisible vapour, liquid water and ice.
The smallest drops of liquid water constitute clouds and fog, the largest drops
occur only in rain and in between these are the drops making drizzle. Icing
consists of crystals, their size and density being dependent on the temperature
and the type of water in the atmosphere from which they form. Snowflakes are
produced when a number of these crystals stick together or, in very cold regions,
by small individual crystals.
12.3 TYPES OF ICE FORMATION
12.3.1 HOAR FROST
Hoar frost occurs on a surface which is at a temperature below the frost point of
the adjacent air and of course, below freezing point. It is formed in clear air when
water vapour condenses on the cold airframe surface and is converted directly to
ice and builds up into a white semi-crystalline coating; normally hoar frost is
feathery.
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When hoar frost occurs on aircraft on the ground, the weight of the deposit is
unlikely to be serious, but the deposit, if not removed from the airframe, may
interfere with the airflow and attainment of flying speed during take-off, the
windscreen may be obscured and the free working control surfaces may be
affected. Hoar frost on aircraft in flight usually commences with a thin layer of
glaze ice on the leading edge, followed by the formation of frost which gradually
spreads over the whole surface.
Again the effects are not usually serious, though some change in the landing
characteristics of the aircraft can be expected.
12.3.2 RIME ICE
This ice formation, which is less dense than glaze ice, is an opaque, rough
deposit. At ground level it forms in freezing fog and consists of a deposit of ice
on the windward side of exposed objects. Rime is light and porous and results
from the small water drops freezing as individual particles, with little or no
spreading, a large amount of air is trapped between the particles.
Aircraft in flight may experience rime icing when flying through a cloud of small
water drops with the air temperature and the temperature of the airframe below
freezing point. The icing builds up on the leading edge, but does not extend far
back along the chord. Ice of this type usually has no great weight, but the danger
of rime is that it will interfere with the airflow over the wings.
If the super-cooled droplets are small enough and the temperature is low, each
droplet freezes instantly on impact as an individual particle and being a nonadhesive dry powder in the slipstream the accumulation on the aircraft is not
serious. This is called "opaque rime".
12.3.3 GLAZE ICE
Glaze ice is the glassy deposit that forms over the village pond in the depth of
winter. On aircraft in flight, glaze ice forms when the aircraft encounters large
water drops in clouds or in freezing rain (or super-cooled rain) with the air
temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point. It consists
of a transparent or opaque coating of ice with a glassy surface and results from
the liquid water flowing over the airframe before freezing. Glaze ice may be
mixed with sleet or snow. IT WILL FORM IN GREATEST THICKNESS ON THE
LEADING EDGES OF AEROFOILS AND IN REDUCED THICKNESS AS FAR
AFT AS ONE HALF OF THE CHORD. Ice formed in this way is dense, tough
and sticks closely to the surface of the aircraft, it cannot easily be shaken off and
if it breaks off at all, it comes away in lumps of an appreciable and sometimes
dangerous size.
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The main danger of glaze ice is still aerodynamic but also the weight of the ice
produces unequal loading and propeller blade vibrations. Glaze ice is the MOST
SEVERE and most dangerous form of ice formation on aircraft because of its
high RATE OF CATCH. Super-cooled rain is rare in the British Isles but is more
common on the Continent and East coast of North America.
12.3.4 PACK SNOW
Normally, snow falling on an aircraft in flight does not settle, but if the temperature
of the airframe is below freezing point, glaze ice may form from the moisture in
the snow. The icing of the aircraft in such conditions, however, is primarily due to
water drops, though snow may subsequently be embedded in the ice so formed.
12.3.5 HAIL
Hail is formed when water droplets, falling as rain, pass through icing levels and
freeze.
Air currents in some storm clouds (Cumulo-nimbus) may carry the hail vertically
through the cloud a number of times, increasing the size of the hailstone at each
pass until it is heavy enough to break out of the base of the cloud and fall towards
earth.
Aircraft encountering this type of ice formation may suffer severe damage in the
form of dented skin, cracked windscreens, blocked intakes and serious damage
to gas turbine engines.
12.4 AREAS TO BE PROTECTED
The following areas are critical areas on the aircraft where ice forms and
where protection is essential.
a. all aerofoil leading edges
b. engine air intakes (including carburettor intakes)
c. windscreens
d. propellers
e. pitot static pressure heads
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Icing Areas to be Protected

Figure 1
12.4.1 EFFECTS ON AIRCRAFT
The build up of ice on the aircraft is known as 'ice accretion' and, from the
foregoing, it is evident that if ice continues to be deposited on the aircraft one, or
more, of the following effects may occur.
a. Decrease in Lift
This may occur due to changes in wing section resulting in loss of streamlined
flow around the leading edge and top surfaces.
b. Increase in Drag
Drag will increase due to the rough surface, especially if the formation is rime.
This condition results in greatly increased surface friction.
c. Increased Weight and Wing Loading
The weight of the ice may prevent the aircraft from maintaining height.
d. Decrease in Thrust
With turbo-prop and piston engines, the efficiency of the propeller will decrease
due to alteration of the blade profile and increased blade thickness. Vibration
may also occur due to uneven distribution of ice along the blades.
Gas Turbine engines may also be affected by ice on the engine intake, causing
disturbance of the airflow to the compressor. Furthermore, ice breaking away
from the intake, may be ingested by the engine causing severe damage to the
compressor blades and other regions within the engine.
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e. Inaccuracy of Pitot Static Instruments

Ice on the pitot static pressure head causes blockage in the sensing lines and
produces false readings on the instruments.
f.
Loss of Inherent Stability
This may occur due to displacement of the centre of gravity caused by the weight
of the ice.
g. Radio antennae
Reduced efficiency
h. Loss of Control
Loss of control may occur due to ice preventing movement of control surfaces.
(This is not usually a problem in flight but may occur on the ground).
12.4.2 EFFECTS OF ICING ON THE GROUND
The effects of ice accretion on the ground are similar to those occurring in flight
but the following additional effects may be caused.
a. Restriction of the controls may occur if ice is not removed from hinges and
gaps in the controls.
b. The take off run may be increased because of the increase in weight and
drag.
c. The rate of climb may be reduced because the weight and drag are
increased.
12.5 ICE DETECTION
The ANO Schedule 4 states that:
In the case of an aircraft of MTWA exceeding 5700 kg (12500 lb), means of
observing the existence and build up of ice on the aircraft must be provided.
The equipment will be carried on flights when the weather reports or forecasts
available at the aerodrome at the time of departure indicate that conditions
favouring ice formation are likely to be met.
12.6 METHODS OF ICE DETECTION
Ice detection systems use one of the following methods of detecting and
assessing the formation of ice.
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12.6.1 VISUAL (HOT ROD) ICE DETECTOR)
This consists of an aluminium alloy oblong base (called the plinth) on which ismounted a steel tube detector mast of aerofoil section, angled back to
approximately 300 from the vertical, mounted on the side of the fuselage, so that
it can be seen from the flight compartment windows. The mast houses a heating
element, and in the plinth there is a built-in floodlight.
Hot Rod Ice Detector

Figure 2
The heating element is normally off and when icing conditions are met ice
accretes on the leading edge of the detector mat. This can then be observed by
the flight crew. During night operations the built-in floodlight may be switched on
to illuminate the mast. By manual selection of a switch to the heating element the
formed ice is dispersed for further observance.
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12.6.2 PRESSURE OPERATED ICE DETECTOR HEADS
MAST
OUTLET HOLES
INLET HOLES
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTORS
Pressure Operated Ice Detector

Figure 3
These consist of a short stainless steel or chromium plated brass tube, which is
closed at its outer end and mounted so that it projects vertically from a portion of
the aircraft known to be susceptible to icing. Four small holes are drilled in the
leading edge of this tube and in the trailing edge are two holes of less total area
than those of the leading edge. A heater element is fitted to allow the detector
head to be cleared of ice. In some units of this type a further restriction to the air
flow is provided by means of a baffle mounted through the centre of the tube.
Each system comprises an ice detector head, a detector relay and a warning
lamp. When in normal flight, pressure is built up inside the tube by the airstream, this pressure is then communicated by tubing, to the capsule of an
electro-pneumatic relay tending to expand it and separate a pair of electrical
contacts. When icing conditions are met, ice will form on the leading edge and
close off the holes. As the holes in the trailing edge will not be covered by ice the
air-stream will now tend to exhaust the system, collapsing the relay capsule and
so closing the relay contacts. Generally these contacts operate in conjunction
with a thermal device, to illuminate a warning indicator in the flight compartment
and to switch on the heater in the detector head; the latter clears the head of ice
and is then switched off allowing continued detection of icing conditions. A heater
energised by the detector relays, automatically clears the ice from the head, but a
cam holds the lamp on for a further 4 minutes and the heater for a further 30
seconds.
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Should icing conditions persist and the detector heads again ice up, the cam is
automatically re-set and the time cycle repeated.The pilot will switch on the deicing system when the warning lights indicate icing conditions. In some systems
the warning phase is connected to automatically switch on the de-icing system.
This cycling will continue until such time that the icing conditions no longer exist.
12.6.3 SERRATED ROTOR ICE DETECTOR HEAD
Serrated Rotor Ice Detector

Figure 4
This consists of a serrated rotor, incorporating an integral drive shaft coupled to a
small ac motor via a reduction gearbox, being rotated adjacent to a fixed knifeedge cutter. The motor casing is connected via a spring-tensioned toggle bar to a
micro-switch assembly. The motor and gearbox assembly is mounted on a static
spigot attached to the motor housing and, together with the micro-switch
assembly, is enclosed by a cylindrical housing. The detector is mounted through
the fuselage side so that the inner housing is subjected to the ambient conditions
with the outer being sealed from the aircraft cabin pressure.The serrated rotor on
the detector head is continuously driven by the electrical motor so that its
periphery rotates within 0.050 mm (0.002 in) of the leading edge of the knife-edge
cutter. The torque therefore required to drive the rotor under non-icing conditions
will be slight, since bearing friction only has to be overcome. Under icing
conditions, however, ice will accrete on the rotor until the gap between the rotor
and knife-edge is filled, whereupon a cutting action by the knife edge will produce
a substantial increase in the required torque causing the toggle bar to move
against its spring mounting and so operate the microswitch, to initiate a warning
signal. Once icing conditions cease, the knife edge cutter will no longer shave
ice, torque loading will reduce and allow the motor to return to its normal position
and the micro-switch will open-circuit the ice warning indicator.
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12.6.4 VIBRATING ROD ICE DETECTOR
This ice detector senses the presence of icing conditions and provides an
indication in the flight compartment that such conditions exist. The system
consists of' a solid state ice detector and advisory warning light. The ice detector
is attached to the fuselage with its probe protruding through the skin. The ice
detector probe (exposed to the airstream) is an ice-sensing element that
ultrasonically vibrates in an axial mode of its own resonant frequency of
approximately 40 kHz.
SENSOR
UNIT
DETECTOR
PROBE
VIBRATING
ROD
Vibrating Rod Ice detector

Figure 5
When ice forms on the sensing element, the probe frequency decreases. The ice
detector circuit detects the change in probe frequency by comparing it with a
reference oscillator. At a predetermined frequency change (proportional to ice
build-up), the ice detector circuit is activated. Once activated, the ice warning
light in the flight compartment is illuminated and a timer circuit is triggered. The
operation of the time circuit switches a probe heater on for a set period of time to
remove the ice warning indicator and returns the system to a detector mode,
providing that icing conditions no longer exist. If, however, a further ice warning
signal is received during the timer period, the timer will be re-triggered, the
warning light will remain on and the heater will again be selected on. This cycle
will be repeated for as long as the icing conditions prevail.
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12.7 ICE FORMATION SPOT LIGHT

Many aircraft have two ice formation spot lights mounted one each side of the
fuselage, in such a position as to light up the leading edges of the mainplanes,
when required, to allow visual examination for ice formation.
Note:
In some aircraft this may be the only method of ice detection.
Spotlight Ice detectors

Figure 6
12.8 ANTI-ICING AND DE-ICING SYSTEMS
12.9 INTRODUCTION
There are various methods of ice protection which can be fitted to an aircraft but
they can be considered under one of two main categories, de-icing and anti-icing.
12.9.1 DE-ICING
In this method of ice protection, ice is allowed to form on the surfaces and is then
removed by operating the particular system in the specified sequence.
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12.9.2 ANTI-ICING SYSTEM
Ice is prevented from forming by ensuring that the ice protection system is
operating whenever icing conditions are encountered or forecast.
12.10
DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS - GENERAL
There are four primary systems used for ice protection. These are:
1. Fluid
2. Pneumatic
3. Thermal
4. Electrical
12.11
FLUID SYSTEMS
These may be used either as an anti-icing or de-icing system. When used as an

anti-icing system it works on the principle that the freezing point of water can be
lowered if a fluid of low freezing point is applied to the areas to be protected
before icing occurs. When used as a de-icing system the fluid is applied to the
interface of the aircraft surface and the ice. The adhesion of the ice is broken
and the ice is carried away by the airflow. The system is normally used on
windscreens and aerofoils and has also been used successfully on propellers. It
is not used on engine air intakes - which are usually anti-iced.
12.11.1
WINDSCREEN PROTECTION
The method employed in this system is to spray the windscreen panel with an
ALCOHOL based fluid. The principal components of the system are:
Fluid storage tank
Hand operated or electrically driven pump
Supply pipelines
Spray tubes
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The diagram illustrates a typical aircraft system in which the fluid is supplied to
the spray tubes by two electrically driven pumps.
Typical Fluid De-icing System

Figure 7
This design enables the system to be operated using either of the two pumps, or
both pumps, according to the severity of the icing.
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The next diagram shows a hand pump installation on the HS 125 aircraft where it
is used as an auxiliary system.
Windscreen Auxiliary De-icing System

Figure 8
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12.11.2
ICE AND RAIN

PROTECTION
AEROFOIL SYSTEMS
The fluids used for aerofoil ice protection are all GLYCOL based and have
properties of low freezing point, non-corrosive, low toxicity and low volatility.
They have a detrimental effect on some windscreen sealing compounds and
cause crazing of perspex panels.
The components in the system are the tank, pump, filter, pipelines, distributors,
controls and indicators normally consisting of a switch, pump power failure
warning light and tank contents indicator.
When icing conditions are encountered, the system may be switched on
automatically by the ice detector or manually by the pilot.
Fluid is supplied to the pump by gravity feed from the tank and is then directed
under pressure to the distributors on the aerofoil leading edges. After an initial
'flood' period, during which the pump runs continuously to prime the pipelines and
wet the leading edge, the system is then controlled by a cyclic timer which turns
the pump ON and OFF for predetermined periods.
The leading edge distributors appears in one of two forms, i.e. strip and panel.
Strip Distributor
The distributor consists of a 'U' channel divided into two channels, called the
primary and secondary channels, by a central web. The outer part of the channel
is closed by a porous metal spreader through which the de-icing fluid seeps to
wet the outer surface. The primary and secondary feed channels are
interconnected by flow control tubes to ensure an even spread of fluid over the
outer surface.
The strips are let into the leading edge so that the porous element is flush with
the surface of the leading edge curvature. This type of distributor is rarely used
and would only be found on very old aircraft.
Panel Distributors
This type of distributor consists of a micro porous stainless steel outer panel, a
micro-porous plastic sheet and metering tube. The fluid passes through the
metering tube that calibrates the flow rate into a cavity between the plastic sheet
and a back-plate. This cavity remains filled when the system is operating and the
fluid seeps through the porous stainless steel outer panel. The airflow then
directs the fluid over the aerofoil.
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The outer panel is usually made of stainless steel mesh although a new
technique of laser drilling of stainless steel sheet is appearing on some new
aircraft.
DISTRIBUTOR
PANELS
FILTER
VENT
MAIN
FEED
PIPES
GALLEY
PIPES
PUMP
TANK
DISTRIBUTOR
PANELS
Fluid De-icing System with Distribution Panels

Figure 9
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When a system is to be out of service, or unused for an extended period of time,

it should be functioned periodically to prevent the fluid from crystallising and
causing blockage of the metering tubes, porous surfaces and pipelines.
Distributors should be cleaned periodically by washing with a jet of water sprayed
on to the distributor at an angle.
Section of a TKS Distribution Panel

Figure 10
12.11.3
PROPELLER SYSTEMS
It is necessary to de-ice the propeller blade root and a section of the propeller
blade to prevent the build up which could change the blade profile and upset the
aerodynamic characteristics of the propeller. Uneven ice build up will also
introduce imbalance of the propeller and cause vibration. The leading edge of
the propeller blade is therefore de-iced and the ice is shed by centrifugal force.
The blade root has a rubber cuff into which the de-icing fluid is fed by a pipeline
from a slinger ring on the spinner back plate. From the cuff the fluid is spread
along the leading edge of the blade by centrifugal force.
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Fluid is fed into the slinger ring from a fixed pipe on the front of the engine.
Propeller Slinger Ring De-Icing

Figure 11
12.12
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Pneumatic (or mechanical) systems are used for de-icing only, It is not possible
to prevent ice formation and works on the principle of cyclic inflation and deflation
of rubber tubes on aerofoil leading edges. The system is employed in certain
types of piston engine and twin turbo-propeller aircraft. The number of
components comprising a system and the method of applying the operating
principle will vary but a typical arrangement is shown.
The de-icer boots (or overshoes) consist of layers of natural rubber and
rubberised fabric between which are disposed flat inflatable tubes closed at the
ends. They are fitted in sections along the leading edges of wing, vertical
stabilisers and horizontal stabilisers. The tubes may be laid spanwise, chordwise
or a combination of each method. The tubes are made of rubberised fabric
vulcanised inside the rubber layers and are connected to the air supply by short
lengths of flexible hose secured by hose clips.
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Depending on the type specified, a boot may be attached to the leading edge
either by screw fasteners or by cementing them directly to the leading edge skin.
The external surfaces of the boots are coated with a film of conductive material to
bleed off accumulations of static electricity.
Pneumatic De-Icing Boots

Figure 12
12.12.1
AIR SUPPLIES
The tubes in the overshoes are inflated by air from the pressure side of an engine
driver vacuum pump or, in some types of turbo-propeller aircraft, from a tapping
on the engine compressor. At the end of the inflated stage of the operating
sequence, and whenever the system is switched off, the boots are deflated by
vacuum derived from the vacuum pump or from the venturi section of an ejector
nozzle in systems using the engine compressor tapping.
12.12.2
DISTRIBUTION
The method of distributing air supplies to the boots depends on the system
required for a particular type of aircraft. In general three methods are in use:
shuttle valves controlled by a separate solenoid valve
individual solenoid valves direct air to each boot
motor driven valves
12.12.3
CONTROLS AND INDICATION
The controls and indication required for the operation of a system will depend on
the type of aircraft and on the particular arrangement of the system. In a typical
system a main ON-OFF switch, pressure and vacuum gauges or indicating lights
form part of the controlling section.
Pressure and vacuum is applied to the boots in an alternating, timed sequence
and the methods adopted usually vary with the methods of air distribution. In
most installations, however, timing control is affected by an electronic device.
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Pneumatic De-icing System Layout

Figure 13
12.12.4
OPERATION
When the system is switched on, pressure is admitted to the boot sections to
inflate groups of tubes in sequence. The inflator weakens the bond between ice
and the boot surfaces and cracks the ice that is carried away by the airflow. At
the end of the inflation stage of the operating sequence, the air in the tubes is
vented to atmosphere through the distributor and the tubes are fully deflated by
the vacuum source. The inflation and deflation cycle is repeated whilst the
system is switched on. When the system is switched off, vacuum is supplied
continually to all tubes of the overshoes to hold the tubes flat against the leading
edges thus minimising aerodynamic drag.
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ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
Pneumatic De-Icing Boots - Operation

Figure 14
12.13
THERMAL (HOT AIR) SYSTEM
The thermal (hot air) system fitted to aerofoils for the purpose of preventing the
formation of ice employs heated air ducted span-wise along the inside of the
leading edge of the aerofoil and distributed between double thickness skins.
Entry to the leading edge is made at the stagnation point where maximum
temperature is required. The hot air then flows back chord-wise through a series
of corrugations into the main aerofoil section to suitable exhaust points.
Thermal (Hot Air) de-Icing System

Figure 15
In anti-icing systems a continuous supply of heated air is fed to the leading
edges, but in de-icing systems it is usual to supply more intensely heated air for
shorter periods on a cyclic basis.
Hot gas may be derived from heat exchangers around exhausts, independent
combustion heaters or direct tappings from turbine engine compressors.
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MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
EXHAUST GAS HEATING SYSTEM
The following diagram illustrates the principle of a thermal system using exhaust
gases to heat ambient air.
Ambient air enters an intake formed on one side of the engine nacelle and is
ducted to pass through tubes of a heat exchanger. The exhaust gases from the
jet pipe are partially diverted by electrically actuated flaps to flow between the
tubes of the heat exchanger before discharging to atmosphere.
The heated air from the heat exchanger passes to a duct containing an
electrically operated hot air valve before passing to the leading edges.
In the event of failure of the gas flap in the open position, an emergency manual
override facility is provided to close the hot air valve and open an actuator
operated spill valve to direct the hot air overboard.
The gas flap actuator and the hot air valve actuator are electrically interlocked in
such a way that the hot air valve must be fully open before the gas flap opens.
Conversely, the gas flap must be fully closed before the hot air valve closes. This
arrangement, controlled by the limit switches in the actuators, prevents
overheating of the heat exchanger.
Temperature control is automatic with a standby 'manual' facility. A control unit,
in conjunction with 'normal' control and 'overheat' thermistors, provides automatic
control and overheat protection. An overheat control unit, in conjunction with an
'override' thermistor and flame-stat provides a final overheat protection system.
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Exhaust Gas Heating system

Figure 16
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MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
HOT AIR BLEED SYSTEM
In this system, air is bled from a late stage of the gas turbine engine compressor
before being distributed to aerofoil leading edges in the same manner as the
exhaust system. The system may be used for anti-icing or de-icing purposes on
wing and tail leading edges. It may also be used for ice protection of engine
intakes
In principle, the system works by either maintaining the temperature of the skin
above that at which ice occurs or by raising the skin temperature to melt the ice
after it has formed. On aircraft with engines mounted on the rear fuselage,
distribution of air along the wing leading edges may be graded to give a higher
intensity of heating for the inboard section. This is to prevent the shedding of ice
accretions into the engine intakes of a size that could result in hazards to the
engine.
The following diagram illustrates, in schematic form, a thermal system for a four
engine aircraft.
In operation, anti-icing shut off valves on each engine open to supply air to the
leading edge ducting at temperatures of about 200C. Wing and fuselage cross
over ducts ensure a supply to all surfaces in the event of an engine shut down in
flight.
Hot Bleed Air Anti-icing System

Figure17
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On some installations, air temperature in the ducting may be controlled by mixing

compressor bleed air with ram air admitted to the system by a cold air control
valve.
Hot and Ram Air Mixing

Figure 18
When initially switched on, hot air is fed undiluted into the cold leading edge
ducting. Temperature sensors in the leading edge monitor the temperature rise
and progressively open and close the cold air valve via an inching unit to control
the skin temperature. In the event of failure of the:
temperature sensor to control the temperature of the leading edge
cold air valve
or blockage of the ram air inlet, the overhead sensor will control the temperature
by regulation of the hot air valve.
Note: Temperature regulation may also be achieved by controlling the position of
the hot air valve.
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12.14
MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
ELECTRICAL ICE PROTECTION SYSTEN
Electrical heater elements are attached to the outer surface of the area to be
protected. There are two methods; these being the heater mat and spray mat.
12.14.1
HEATER MAT
This type of element consists of two thin layers of rubber or PTFE sandwiching a
heater element. Each mat is moulded to fit snugly over the section to be
protected. Heater elements differ in design, construction and materials according
to their purpose and environment. The latest mats have elements made from a
range of alloys woven in continuous filament glass yarn.
The diagram below shows the application of a heater element to the air intake of
a turbo-prop engine.
Electrical Anti-Icing Heater Mat

Figure 19
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SPRAY MAT
This type of element is so called because it is sprayed directly on to the surface

to be protected. The technique was developed by the Napier Company to
provide a lightweight system for use on aerofoils and is ideally suited for
application to compound curves.
A base insulator is brushed directly on to the airframe and is composed basically
of synthetic resin. The insulator is normally about 0.03 inches thick although in
some cases this may vary. The heater element, made of either aluminium or
Kumanol (copper manganese alloy) is sprayed on to the base insulation using a
flame spraying technique.
The insulation is of the same material as the base insulation and about 0.01
inches thick. Finally, a protective coating is used where the heater requires extra
protection from mechanical damage, eg on leading edges. This protective
coating known as 'stoneguard' consists of stainless alloy particles bonded with
synthetic resin.
Napier Type Anti-Icing Spraymat

Figure 20
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The system layout shows the distribution and heating elements on the leading
edges of an aircraft tailplane and fin.
Distribution of Heating Elements

Figure 21
Some of the elements are supplied continuously with electrical power (anti-icing)
whilst others are supplied intermittently on a cyclic basis (de-icing). Areas
provided with continuous anti-icing heating are situated immediately in front of
areas on which limited ice formation is tolerable but which require de-icing by the
cyclic application of heat. Heating of these areas is rapid in order to break
adhesion as quickly as possible, allowing the detached ice to be blown away by
the airflow. To ensure a clean breakaway of the ice, the cyclically heated areas
are separated by continuously heated 'breaker' strips.
A system requiring different intensifies of anti-icing and cyclic de-icing would
require one or more cyclic switches, temperature sensing elements and
temperature control units. In general, control methods may be classified as antiicing and de-icing.
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Anti-icing
Anti-iced areas have their heat supplied continuously, the heating intensity being
graded such that under operating conditions no ice formation occurs. The heat is
regulated by means of either a sensing element embedded in the mat and an
associated thermal controller or a surface mounted thermostatic switch which is
pre-set to give cut-in and cut-out temperature levels.
Cyclic De-icing
Cyclic de-icing areas are usually arranged in groups being connected to a cyclic
switch. The detailed design of the cycling switch depends upon the loading and
type of power supply, e.g. dc or 3-phase ac. Its operation is controlled either by
timed impulses from a pulse generator or by an electronic device built into the
switch.
The timed impulses are set to the appropriate rate for the range of ambient
temperatures likely to be encountered.
At a relatively high ambient temperature the atmospheric water content, and
consequently the rate of icing, is likely to be high but only a comparatively short
heating period will be required to shed the ice. At very low temperatures the
atmospheric water content and rate of icing are lower and longer heating periods
are required. The ratio of time ON to time OFF, however, remains unchanged.
The typical ratio is 1:10. Setting of the pulse generator may be manual, as
estimated from indications of ambient air temperature, or by an automatic control
system in which the ON:OFF periods are varied by signals derived from an
ambient air temperature probe, working in conjunction with either an ice detector
or a rate of icing indicator.
The source of power may be dc, single phase ac or 3-phase ac. In a 3-phase
system the heated areas are arranged so as to obtain balanced loading of
phases for both anti-icing or de-icing circuits, if possible. De-icing heaters are
connected in such a manner that, as far as practicable, current requirements are
constant. To achieve this the OFF period for certain areas is made to coincide
with the ON period for others.
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12.14.3
MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
WINDSCREEN ANTI-ICING
The windscreens and other critical

windows in the cockpit (e.g. direct
vision windows, sliding side windows)
of high performance pressurised
aircraft are complicated and expensive
items of the airframe structure as they
are designed to withstand varying air
pressure loads, possible shock loads
due to impact of birds and hailstorms,
and thermal stresses due to ambient
temperature changes. In all cases, a
laminated form of construction is used,
similar to that shown
Typical Laminated Glass Windscreen

Figure 22
Laminated glass panels were conceived in order to impart shatter proof
characteristics to the glass. Such panels are produced by interposing sheets of
clear vinyl plastic (polyvinyl Butyral) between layers of preformed and pretempered glass plies. The vinyl and glass plies are then bonded by the
application of pressure and heat.
Since the desired bird-proof characteristics of a windscreen depend to a large
degree, on the plasticity of the vinyl, it therefore follows that it also depends upon
its temperature. The optimum temperature range for maximum energy
absorption by the vinyl is between 27C and 49C and the electrically heated
windscreen panel assemblies are normally maintained within these limits. Below
this range the bird-proof characteristics decline rapidly and depending upon the
actual configuration, a panel's impact resistance can be reduced by 30% to 50%
when still at quite a moderate temperature of 16C.
Electric heating of a windscreen therefore is an important factor in maintaining the
optimum bird-proof characteristics.
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The heating element is an extremely thin transparent conductive coating which is

'floated' on to the inside surface of the outer glass ply; this being normally thinner
in section allows a more rapid heat conduction. The coating may be a tin oxide or
a gold film depending on a particular manufacturer's design.
The conductive coating is heated by alternating current supplied to busbars at the
edges of the windscreen panel. The power required for heating varies according
to the size of the panel and the heat required to suit the operating conditions.
Windscreen Temperature Control

Figure 23
The circuit of a typical windscreen de-icing system embodies a controlling device,
the function of which is to maintain a constant temperature at the windscreen and
also to prevent over-heating of the vinyl inter-layer(s). The controlling device is
connected to temperature-sensing elements embedded in the windscreen. There
are two methods of temperature sensing commonly in use. One of these utilises
a grid in which the resistance of the grid varies directly and linearly with
temperature. The other uses a thermistor, in which the resistance of the
thermistor varies inversely and exponentially with temperature.
The number of sensing elements employed depends on the system and circuit
design requirements. A system of warning lights and/or indicators also forms part
of the control circuit and provides visual indications of circuit operating conditions,
e.g. 'normal', 'off' or 'overheat'.
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When the electrical power is applied, the conductive coating heats the glass.
When it attains a temperature predetermined for normal operation the change in
resistance of the appropriate sensing element causes the controlling device to
isolate the heating power supply. When the glass has cooled through a certain
range of temperature, power is again applied and the cycle is repeated. In the
event of a failure of the controller, the glass temperature will rise until the setting
of the overheat system sensing element is attained. At this setting an overheat
control circuit cuts off the heating power supply and illuminates a warning light.
The power is restored again and the warning light extinguished when the glass
has cooled through a specific temperature range.
12.15 WINDSCREEN CABIN WINDOW DE-MISTING SYSTEMS
Glass is a very poor conductor of heat and at altitude the low atmospheric
temperature will maintain the inside of the windscreens and cabin windows at low
temperature resulting in condensation on the inner surface and obscured vision.
Windscreens are normally kept mist free by blowing hot air, from the air
conditioning system, across the inner surface of the glass. In addition, demisting
of some windscreens and, usually, all cabin windows is achieved by using
windows of "dry air sandwich" construction.
This is rather like double-glazing with outer and inner layers of glass sandwiching
a layer of dry air between them.
The outer layer of glass is of thick laminate construction (glass and vinyl) to give
the necessary impact and shatterproof qualities. The inner layer of glass is much
thinner allowing it to be warmed by the cabin air temperature, thus preventing
condensation.
The air sandwich is kept dry to prevent internal condensation of the outer glass,
by one of two methods:
During manufacture the two layers of glass are hermetically sealed with dry air
between them.
The space between glass layers is vented to the cabin to allow the pressure in
the air space to equalise with cabin pressure. Venting takes place through a
desiccant unit that absorbs moisture from the air during the venting process to
maintain the dry air sandwich.
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On some larger aircraft the fixed cabin windows are interconnected to a common
desiccant unit whilst escape windows have their own integral unit. The diagram
shows typical fixed window and escape hatch desiccant systems.
The desiccant used is Silica Gel crystals which are blue in colour but gradually
change to pink or white as they absorb moisture. Frequent checks must be made
on the state of the desiccant which must be replaced when it begins to turn pink.
Failure to take this action may result in condensation within the dry air sandwich
which may involve lengthy rectification to dry out the sandwich or may require the
windscreen/window to be replaced.
Cabin Window Desiccant System

Figure 24
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ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
12.16
RAIN REPELLANT AND RAIN REMOVAL
12.17
WINDSCREEN CLEARING SYSTEMS
Vision through windscreens may become obscured by factors other than ice and
misting. For example, rain, dust, dirt and flies can impair vision to an extent
where methods of clearing the screens must be provided to enable safe ground
manoeuvring, take off and landing. Windscreen clearing systems may be
considered under the following headings:
a. Rain clearing systems which can be further broken down into
a.
windscreen wipers
b.
pneumatic rain removal
c.
rain repellent
d.
windscreen washing
Windscreen washing systems.
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12.18 WINDSCREEN WIPER SYSTEMS

12.18.1
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
In this type of system the wiper blades are driven by an electric motor(s) taking
their power from the aircraft electrical system. Sometimes the pilot's and copilot's wipers are operated by separate motors to ensure that clear vision is
maintained through one of the screens in case one system should fail.
The following diagram shows a typical electrical wiper and installation. An
electrically operated wiper is installed on each windscreen panel. Each wiper is
driven by a motor-converter assembly that converts the rotary motion of the motor
to reciprocating motion to operate the wiper arm. A shaft protruding from the
assembly provides an attachment for the wiper arms.
Electric Windshield Wiper System

Figure 25
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The wiper is controlled by setting the wiper control switch to the desired wiper
speed. When the "high" position is selected, relays 1 and 2 are energised. With
both relays energised, fields 1 and 2 are energised in parallel. The circuit is
completed and the motors operate at an approximate speed of 250
strokes/minute. When the "low" position is selected, relay 1 is energised. This
causes fields 1 and 2 to be energised in series. The motor then operates at
approximately 160 strokes/minute. Setting the switch to the OFF position allows
the relay contacts to return to their normal positions. However, the wiper motor
will continue to run until the wiper arm reaches the "park" position. When both
relays are open and the park switch is closed, the excitation of the motor is
reversed. This causes the motor to move off the lower edge of the windscreen,
opening the cam operated park switch. This de-energises the motor and
releases the brake solenoid applying the brake. This ensures that the motor will
not coast and re-close the park switch.
Windshield Wiper Circuit Diagram

Figure 26
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The path swept by the wiper blade may clear an arc as shown in the diagram on
the left, or in a parallel motion as shown on the right. The parallel motion is
preferred as it provides a greater swept surface, but the operating mechanism is
more complex.
Windshield Wiper Swept Areas

Figure 27
12.18.2
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Older aircraft employed hydraulic motors instead of electric motors to drive the
wiper blades. A typical example is shown in the figure below. It consists of two
independently operated motors powered from each hydraulic system with control
valves operated from a selector on the flight deck
Figure 28
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12.18.3
MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
WINDSCREEN WIPER SERVICING
Servicing of the windscreen wiper systems consists of inspection, operational

checks, adjustments and fault finding.
Inspection
a. Examine the system for cleanliness, security, damage, connections and
locking
b. Examine blades for security, damage and contamination. Blades should be
replaced at regular intervals.
c. Check level of fluid in pump reservoir (electro-pneumatic system)
d. Examine hydraulic pipes for leakage and electrical cables for deterioration
and chafing
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PROTECTION
Operational Check
Before carrying out an operational check, the following precautions must be
taken:
a. Ensure that the windscreen is free of foreign matter
b. Ensure that the blade is secure and undamaged
During the check ensure that the windscreen is kept wet with water.
NEVER operate the windscreen wipers on a dry screen. It may cause scratches.
Adjustments
The following adjustments may be made:
a. Blade tension should be adjusted to the value stated in the Maintenance
Manual. This is carried out by attaching a spring balance to the wiper arm at
its point of attachment to the wiper blade and lifting at an angle of 90. If the
tension is not within the required limits, the spring may be adjusted by the
appropriate pressure adjusting screw.
b. Blade angle should be adjusted to ensure that the blade does not strike the
windscreen frame. This would cause rapid blade damage. This may involve
re-positioning the operating arm on the drive spindle. Where a parallel motion
bar is used, the length of the tie rod may be altered to vary the angle of
sweep.
c. Proper parking of the wipers are essential to ensure that they do not obscure
vision. If the wipers do not park as they should, they should be adjusted by
the method laid down in the Maintenance Manual.
Trouble shooting may be carried out using charts in the Maintenance Manual
(Chapter 30-42-0 in the ATA100 Scheme).
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MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
PNEUMATIC RAIN REMOVAL SYSTEMS
Windscreen wipers suffer from two basic problems. One is that at speed the
aerodynamic forces tend to reduce the blade pressure on the screen and cause
ineffective wiping. The other problem is to achieve blade oscillation rates that are
high enough to clear the screen during heavy rain.
Pneumatic Rain Removal System

Figure 29
Pneumatic rain clearance systems overcome these problems by using high
pressure bleed air from the gas turbine engine and blowing it over the face of the
windscreen from ducts mounted at the base of the screen. The air blast forms a
barrier that prevents the rain spots from striking the screen.
12.20
WINDSCREEN WASHING SYSTEM
A windscreen washing system allows a spray of fluid (usually de-icing fluid, e.g.
Kilfrost), to be directed on to the windscreens to enable the windscreen wider to
clear dust and dirt from dry windscreens in flight or on the ground.
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PROTECTION
The fluid is contained in a reservoir and sprayed on to the screen through

nozzles. The fluid may be directed to the nozzles by an electrically driven pump
or by pressurising the top of the reservoir with compressor bleed air via a
pressure reducing valve.
An example of an electrically driven system is shown.
Electrically Driven Windscreen Wash System

Figure 30
Servicing of the system involves functionally testing the system, replenishment of
the reservoir and checks for security, leaks and damage.
The system may be used in flight and on the ground.
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MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
RAIN REPELLANT
When water is poured onto clear glass it spreads evenly to form a thin film. Even
when the glass is tilted at an angle and subjected to an air stream, the glass will
remain wetted and reduce vision. However, when the glass is treated with certain
chemicals (typically silicone based), the water film will break up and form beads
of water, leaving the glass dry between the beads. The water can now be readily
removed.
This principle is used on some aircraft for removing rain from windscreens.
The chemical is stored in pressurised, disposable cans and is discharged on to
the windscreen through propelling nozzles.
Examples of rain repellent systems are shown.
The following system shows a combined rain repellent and windscreen washing
system.
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Combined Windscreen Wash And Rain Repellent System

Figure 31
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ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
The system shown below is a rain repellent only system and uses a disposable
pressurised canister.
Rain repellent System

Figure 32
The system is operated by a push button which causes the relevant solenoid
valve to open. Fluid from the container is discharged onto the windscreen for a
period of about 5 seconds under the control of a time delay unit. About 5cc of
fluid is used with each discharge from the container which holds approximately 50
cc. The solenoid will be de-energised and the button must be re-selected for a
further application. The fluid is spread over the screen by the rain which acts as
a carrier.
The system may be used with, or without wipers, depending on the aircraft
speed, but it is normally used to supplement the wipers in heavy rain at low
altitude where airspeeds are low.
It is essential that the system is not operated on dry windscreens because:
heavy undiluted repellent will cause smearing
the repellent may form globules and distort vision
If the system is inadvertently operated, the windscreen wipers must not be used
as this will increase the smearing. The screen should be washed with clean
water immediately. The windscreen wash system, if fitted, may be used.
Rain repellent residues can cause staining or minor corrosion of the aircraft skin.
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MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
DRAIN MAST HEATING
On many large aircraft, the water supply and water drain lines are electrically
heated to prevent ice formation. Power is normally supplied via the AC bus line
and is available both on the ground and in flight.
12.23
WATER SUPPLY AND DRAIN LINES
Heater tapes and blankets are wrapped around some water supply and drain
lines, the temperature being controlled by thermostats. In a typical aircraft
(Boeing 757), the thermostats control the heating, to open when the temperature
exceeds 15.5C and closes when the temperature drops to 7.2C. Heating
gaskets may be installed on the ends of toilet drain pipes.
12.24
DRAIN MASTS
Drain masts are heated to allow in-flight drainage without freezing. Drain mast
heating is controlled by an air/ground relay. Low heat is supplied on the ground
and high heat in flight.
Figure 37 overleaf illustrates some of the heating methods used.
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Waste Water Heater Components

Figure 33
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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MODULE 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
CONTENTS
13 LANDING GEAR .......................................................................... 13-1
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14
13.15
13.16
13.17
13.18
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 13-1

GENERAL ..................................................................................... 13-2
CONSTRUCTION............................................................................ 13-3
MULTIPLE AXLES AND WHEELS .................................................... 13-5
SHOCK ABSORBING ..................................................................... 13-6
13.5.1 Oleo-pneumatic without separator ................................. 13-6
13.5.2 Oleo-pneumatic with separator...................................... 13-8
13.5.3 Liquid Spring ................................................................. 13-8
SERVICING FILLING AND CHARGING ............................................ 13-8
EXTENSION AND RETRACTION SYSTEMS ....................................... 13-10
13.7.1 Extension System ......................................................... 13-11
13.7.2 Retraction System ......................................................... 13-12
SELECTOR VALVE ........................................................................ 13-12
UPLOCK MECHANISM .................................................................... 13-13
DOWNLOCK MECHANISM ............................................................... 13-14
EMERGENCY LANDING GEAR OPERATION ...................................... 13-16
LANDING GEAR DOORS SEQUENCING............................................ 13-17
13.12.1 Door Operated Sequencing System .............................. 13-18
13.12.2 Gear Operated Sequencing System .............................. 13-19
SAFETY BARS .............................................................................. 13-19
INDICATIONS AND WARNING INDICATIONS AND WARNING ............... 13-19
SAFETY SWITCHES ....................................................................... 13-25
WHEELS, BRAKES, ANTISKID AND AUTOBRAKING ........................... 13-26
13.16.1 wheels........................................................................... 13-26
13.16.2 Types of Wheels ........................................................... 13-27
TYRES ......................................................................................... 13-29
13.17.1 Tyre inflation and deflation ............................................ 13-29
13.17.2 Tyre Construction .......................................................... 13-29
13.17.3 Tyre Wear Assessment ................................................. 13-30
13.17.4 Tyre Damage ................................................................ 13-33
13.17.5 Leak Holes (Awl Holes) ................................................. 13-33
13.17.6 Vent Holes .................................................................... 13-33
13.17.7 Balance Marks .............................................................. 13-33
13.17.8 Electrically Conducting Tyres ........................................ 13-33
13.17.9 Aquaplaning .................................................................. 13-34
BRAKES....................................................................................... 13-34
13.18.1 Energising Brakes ......................................................... 13-34
13.18.2 None Energising Brakes................................................ 13-34
13.18.3 Expander Tube Brakes ................................................. 13-35
13.18.4 Single Disc Brakes ........................................................ 13-35
13.18.5 Multi Disc Brakes .......................................................... 13-35
13.18.6 Brake systems .............................................................. 13-36
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LANDING GEAR
13.18.7 Brake control valve ....................................................... 13-38

13.19 ANTI SKID SYSTEMS .................................................................... 13-39
13.19.1 Introduction ................................................................... 13-39
13.19.2 Electronic Anti Skid System .......................................... 13-40
13.19.3 Mechanical Anti Skid System ........................................ 13-46
13.20 AUTOBRAKING ............................................................................. 13-48
13.20.1 Selector Panel .............................................................. 13-48
13.20.2 Auto-Brake Control Unit ................................................ 13-48
13.20.3 Auto Brake Solenoid Valve ........................................... 13-49
13.20.4 System Operation ......................................................... 13-49
13.20.5 Auto Brake Termination ................................................ 13-49
13.21 STEERING .................................................................................... 13-50
13.21.1 Steering Mechanisms ................................................... 13-52
13.21.2 Nose Wheel Self Centring............................................. 13-53
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13 LANDING GEAR
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Landing gears have two main functions:

Supporting the weight of the stationary aircraft on the ground
Absorbing the loads during touchdown, the landing run and taxiing.
They are divided into two main categories, fixed (non-retractable) or fully
retractable.
Early aircraft had fixed landing gear, which unfortunately produced a large
amount of parasitic drag in flight. Since drag increases at the square of forward
speed, as aircraft began to fly faster, the resulting amount of drag became too
prohibitive.
In the short term, this problem was resolved by simply installing streamlined
fairings over the wheels. However it soon became clear that this drag could be
almost completely eliminated, if the landing gear were retracted after take off and
stowed out of the air-stream.
Tail Wheel Type Undercarriage

FIGURE 1
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13.2 GENERAL
Early landing gear designs consisted of two main legs set just in front of the
centre of gravity (C of G) of the aircraft and a small tailwheel at the rear end of
the fuselage. Putting the C of G just aft of the main gear, ensured the aircraft very
quickly attained flying attitude during take off.
All aircraft at that time, were propeller-driven types and the inclined fuselage gave
ample clearance between the propeller and the ground during taxiing, take-off
and landing.
However the main disadvantage of this configuration was the risk that the aircraft
was likely to nose over when heavy braking was applied and poor vision for the
crew during taxiing and the initial part of the take off run.
This problem was overcome by the development of the Tricycle configuration,
which is now used almost exclusively. This places the main landing gear aft of the
C of G and a supporting nose gear at the forward end of the fuselage. As aircraft
became larger and heavier, landing gear design included multi-leg and multiwheel configurations.
Nose Wheel Type Undercarriage

Figure 2
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13.3 CONSTRUCTION
All landing gears have to be attached to strong points on either the fuselage or
the wing structure, so that the landing loads can be absorbed and transferred
safely to the aircraft structure.
Smaller light aircraft use a steel leaf or tubular steel spring to act as an
undercarriage (figure 3). One end is attached to a strong point on the airframe
while located on the other end is the wheel and axle. The deflection of the spring
tube on landing absorbs the landing loads and transmit them to the airframe. A
properly conducted landing will not cause any undercarriage rebound.
Spring Tube Type

Figure 3
Another simple method was to use elastic bungee cord encased in a loose weave
cotton braid (Figure 4). The bungee cord is located on a series of support struts
which support the wheel and axle. The bungee cord stretches on landing and
transfers the landing forces into the airframe.
BUNGEE SHOCK
CORD
Bungee Cord Type Landing Gear
Figure 4
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Larger more modern aircraft, require more complex and heavier retractable
systems (Figure 5). The larger the aircraft the larger the system. The components
remain similar just the size and quantities change (Figure 6). Each landing gear
unit is basically a wheeled shock absorber (oleo). A forged cylinder body is
attached to the airframe on trunnions to allow it to pivot when lowered and raised.
Articulated side stays are located between the cylinder body and airframe strong
points to give the landing gear strength and rigidity and allow the landing gearleg
to fold. Drag or bracing struts may also be fitted. These absorb the high
acceleration loads during take off and deceleration loads during braking.
MAIN SUPPORT FRAMES
TRUNNION
MAIN ACTUATOR
DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR
BRACING STRUT
DOWNLOCK LINKAGE
(TOGGLE LEVERS)
SIDE STAY
MAIN OLEO
PISTON
Landing Gear Leg With Bracing Struts

Figure 5
The wheel and axle assembly (bogey) is attached to the piston end. A hinged
torque (scissor) link is located between the axle yoke and the cylinder body. This
allows the piston to move freely in and out of the cylinder but prevents the piston
and wheel assembly from swivelling.
Two actuators are usually fitted. A main actuator attached to the cylinder body to
raise and lower the gear and a downlock actuator located on the bracing strut
which operates to cause a mechanical lock when lowered. It also unlocks the
gear mechanism before raising.
A Hop Damper is often used with multi wheel units to align the bogie at the
correct angle for landing and absorbs minor shock loads during taxiing. It is
connected between the main landing gear body and the bogie.
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MAIN ACTUATOR
DOWNLOCK
ACTUATOR
CYLINDER
BRACING STRUT
PISTON
SCISSOR
(TORQUE) LINK
WHEEL
Oleo Type Landing Gear

Figure 6
13.4 MULTIPLE AXLES AND WHEELS
To allow for maximum utilisation of aircraft when operating from different runways
multi wheel landing gear is used. Typical configurations are shown in Figure 7.
SINGLE
DOUBLE
TANDEM
BOGIE
Wheel Axle Configurations

Figure 7
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LANDING GEAR
The advantages of using multi-wheel configurations are:
They spread the landing loads over a larger area (footprint).
They are easier to stow as the wheel volume is reduced.
They provide greater safety. As the loads are spread over several wheels a
burst tyre is not so critical as the remaining wheels accept the extra loads.
The main disadvantages are:
There are more moving parts so they need more maintenance.
They are expensive to produce
Due to the large footprint the turning circle is increased to prevent the tyres
from crabbing and increasing wear.
13.5 SHOCK ABSORBING

In order to absorb and dissipate the tremendous shock loads of landing, the
kinetic energy of the impact must be converted into other forms of energy. This is
achieved on most landing gear legs by using self-contained hydraulic shock
absorbing struts.
There are three main types of strut commonly used in commercial aircraft:
Oleo-pneumatic without separator

Oleo-pneumatic with separator
Liquid Spring
13.5.1 Oleo-pneumatic without separator
The strut uses a compressed gas (normally nitrogen) combined with a specific
quantity of hydraulic oil to absorb and dissipate the shock loads. It is essentially
an outer cylinder into which an inner hollow piston is inserted.
When the aircraft is airborne, the landing gear is no longer supporting the aircraft
weight, consequently the piston fully extends under the influence of the nitrogen
pressure. The nitrogen gas being lighter than oil, will settle in the upper portion of
the cylinder with the heavier oil at the bottom. Since in this particular type of strut
there is no separator between the oil and gas, there will be some aeration (froth)
as the oil and gas mix together at the demarcation line.
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On landing, the inner piston is forced up into the outer cylinder, reducing the
internal volume. A tapered metering pin and snubber knob which are an integral
part of the piston, are forced into a snubber tube carried by the outer cylinder.
(See Figure 8).
OIL BLEED VALVE
NITROGEN/OIL
CHARGING VALVE
FLAPPER VALVE (OPEN)
CYLINDER
FLAPPER
VALVE
(CLOSED
)
INNER
CYLINDER
SNUBBER KNOB
CYLINDER
SNUBBER
TUBE
METERING PIN
SNUBBER
KNOB
PISTON
(Strut Compressed)
Figure 8
PISTON
Oleo - Pneumatic without separator
(Strut Extended)
Figure 9
Oil is forced into the upper chamber through a series of holes in the snubber tube
and through the open flapper valve. The tapered shape of the metering pin
steadily reduces the available orifice area as it compresses.
The landing energy is therefore absorbed by the oil, as it is forced through the
ever-decreasing sized orifice and by the compression of the nitrogen gas, as the
oil is forced into the reduced volume of the upper chamber.
The problem now is to absorb the recoil, to prevent the aircraft from bouncing
back up from the runway.
As the piston starts to extend, the oil is now forced downwards into the hollow
piston. The rate at which this transfer takes place is greatly restricted by the
flapper valve slamming shut, leaving only a reduced number of holes in the
snubber tube to permit transfer the oil. This restriction in flow and the associated
increase in internal volume, prevents rapid strut extension and thus dampens the
recoil energy. (See Figure 9).
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LANDING GEAR
13.5.2 Oleo-pneumatic with separator
In this design, the principle is exactly the same as the oleo-pneumatic without
separator type previously described. The main difference is the inclusion of a
floating piston, to separate the oil chamber from the nitrogen chamber and
therefore prevent oil and gas mixing together. It also means that the nitrogen
chamber does not have to be positioned at the top of the leg, or indeed be limited
to one chamber. This makes shock absorbing more efficient, less severe jolting
during taxiing and will simplify servicing (see later).
13.5.3 Liquid Spring
This type does not have a gas compartment. Instead, it relies on the fact that if a
piston is forced into a cylinder completely filled with oil under a static pressure,
energy absorption will take place due to oil compression.
Oil is generally considered to be incompressible, however it is a fluid and will
obey the same rules as for a gas. At normal hydraulic system pressures (typically
3000 psi), the amount of compression is negligible. However, in liquid spring
shock absorbers, pressures in excess of 60,000 psi will often be generated and in
this case the oil will be compressed.
During touchdown, the inner piston is forced up into the upper cylinder as before,
compressing the oil as the volume progressively reduces by what is known as,
jack ram displacement. A restrictor valve inserted as before, will absorb the
recoil in a similar manner to the previous two types.
13.6 SERVICING FILLING AND CHARGING
To guarantee the correct operation of the shock absorber, the strut must be
serviced in order to fill the leg with the proper quantity of oil. Additionally, the oil
must be completely free of air. The nitrogen chamber must also be charged to the
correct value in order to maintain the correct oil/gas ratio.
When correctly filled and charged, the strut will adopt the correct extension when
supporting the aircraft on the ground and the risk of the inner piston coming into
contact with the outer cylinder (bottoming) during touchdown will be eliminated.
Filling and charging procedures will vary between aircraft type, will be detailed in
the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) and must be strictly adhered to. A
general sequence of events to fill and charge a typical oleo-pneumatic without
separator type of strut (conforming to relevant health and safety regulations), is
detailed as follows:
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Normally the aircraft will be positioned on jacks with the wheels clear of the
ground.
Using an approved adapter, completely release the nitrogen pressure via the
charging valve and ensure the valve remains open after all pressure has been
dissipated.
Place a bottle jack under the strut and carefully compress the leg, pushing the
inner piston into the outer cylinder until it bottoms and the leg is fully
compressed.
Open the hydraulic bleed valve and pump oil into the oil filling connection until
fresh clean oil, completely free of air bubbles, emerges from the bleed valve.
The leg is now completely filled with oil to the correct quantity.
Close and tighten the oil charging valve and oil bleed valve.
Remove the bottle jack, connect a nitrogen rig to the nitrogen charging valve.
Slowly and carefully inflate the leg with nitrogen until the leg is fully extended
and the inflation adapter gauge shows the correct gas pressure obtained from
the AMM.
Close and tighten the nitrogen charging valve and remove the charging rig.
Repeat if required on the other main leg.
Lower the aircraft off jacks.
The legs are now properly filled and charged.
OIL BLEED POINT
OIL CHARGING
VALVE
OIL
OIL BLEED
SEPARATOR
SEPARATOR
CHARGING
VALVE
GAS
OLEO - PNEUMATIC WITH
SEPARATOR
Figure 10
LEG EXTENDED
Figure 11
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Note 1: If the leg is an oleo-pneumatic with separator type, there will be an

additional procedure before deflating the nitrogen pressure to ensure the
separator is in its correct position.
Note 2: The procedure is similar with a liquid spring type regarding the oil filling
and bleeding, there will be no nitrogen charging procedure.
Note 3: In-service, the serviceability of the shock struts can be monitored with
the use of a pressure/extension graph and adjustments may be made to the
nitrogen pressure as required.
GAS PRESSURE
(PSI)
(GAUGE PSI)
OLEO PRESSURE/EXTENSION GRAPH

Figure 12
13.7 EXTENSION AND RETRACTION SYSTEMS
As the speed of the aircraft becomes high enough that the parasite drag of the
landing gear is greater than the induced drag caused by the added weight of the
retracting system it becomes economically practical to retract the landing gear
into the aircraft structure.
Raising or lowering of the undercarriage is carried out either hydraulically or
pneumatically via a selector lever in the cockpit which is mechanically or
electrically linked to a selector valve. When the selector valve is operated it
directs the fluid to one side or the other of the piston.
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The landing gear is uplocked and downlocked mechanically or hydraulically

through the uplock boxes and the downlock toggle levers. Landing gear positions
are sensed by proximity switches or microswitches and transmit these positions
to the cockpit instrumentation via a control unit.
In the case of fluid or electrical failure, a mechanical emergency lowering system
is available. An emergency handle located in the cockpit is operated and by a
system of push-pull cables and gearboxes, the uplocks are released.
The landing gear selector valve or a freefall valve is also operated, which opens
all extension and retraction lines to return. The landing gear is allowed to fall
under gravity and aerodynamic forces but may be assisted by a spring or gas
operated free fall assister.
Smaller light aircraft may use differing methods for operating the landing gear.
Electric motors may drive actuators, a winding cable system, a simple operating
lever with safety locks or a manual hydraulic jacking system may be used to raise
or lower the landing gear.
Most modern light aircraft use a hydraulic power pack. This is a self-contained
system and was designed to be lightweight and easy to maintain. The pack
contains the fluid reservoir, sight glass, pressure pump, filter, thermal relief valve,
pressure relief valve, ground service and replenishment connections.
13.7.1 Extension System
When the selector lever is selected to GEAR DOWN a micro-switch on the lever
is made which powers up the hydraulic pump, the hydraulic pressure is then fed
to the uplock actuator valves to unlock the uplocks. Once operated, the uplock
hooks remain mechanically open under spring pressure. Movement of the
undercarriage legs break the uplock limit switches which indicates on the
instrumentation panel that the landing gears are in transit.(red triangles) and that
the undercarriage is unlocked.
The landing gear selector valve operates, and the down lines to the actuators and
the return lines to the reservoir are opened. The fluid pressure flows through the
selector valve to the actuators and extends the actuators. Once the main
actuators are fully extended and the undercarriage legs have mechanically
locked, excess pressure is bled back through the low pressure control valve to
the reservoir.
When all 3 wheels are down and locked, proximity switches send signals to a
control unit which turns the hydraulic pump off, closes the selector valve lines and
sends signals to the instrument panel indicating that the undercarriage is locked
down, (green triangles).
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13.7.2 Retraction System

The retraction procedure is basically the opposite of the extension procedure.
When the selector lever is selected GEAR UP a micro-switch on the lever is
made which powers up the hydraulic pump, the hydraulic pressure is then fed to
the downlock actuators to unlock the mechanical locks on the bracing struts. Its is
also fed to the selector valve and opens the uplines to the main actuators and the
return lines to the reservoir.
Movement of the undercarriage legs breaks the downlock proximity switches
which send signals to the control unit which indicates on the instrumentation
panel that the landing gears are in transit, (red triangles) and that the
undercarriage is unlocked.
The fluid pressure flows through the selector valve to the main actuators and
retracts the landing gear. The undercarriage legs on full retraction mechanically
lock the uplocks. Once the main actuators are fully retracted and the
undercarriage legs are locked up, excess pressure is bled back through the low
pressure control valve to the reservoir. When all 3 wheels are up and locked,
uplock limit switches send signals to a control unit which turns the hydraulic pump
off, closes the selector valve lines and change the red triangles to black on the
indicating panel.
If a red triangle remains on when the undercarriage is fully extended or retracted
there is a fault in the system. A squat switch system and an electro-mechanical
stop on the selector lever, will prevent the landing gear from being retracted when
the aircraft is on the ground. The landing gear will not be able to be retracted until
certain parameters are met. This is normally when all landing gear legs have fully
extended after take off. This is sensed by proximity switches on each leg.
13.8 SELECTOR VALVE
The selector valve on modern large aircraft will be normally operated by electrical
solenoids signalled from micro-switches in the landing gear selector lever, but on
some aircraft they may be mechanically operated. A spool valve in the selector
valve is moved from a neutral position one way or the other allowing hydraulic
pressure to one side of the main actuator piston, depending whether the landing
gear is to be raised or lowered .
Normal operation of the selector valve can be overridden in case the landing gear
has to be lowered in an emergency, if the landing gear fails to extend due to a
system fault. The spool valve is moved mechanically by a system of rods, cables
and levers to allow all lines to be opened to allow the free flow of hydraulic fluid
around the system. This operation is normally inter-linked with the emergency
mechanical opening of the uplocks.
A typical selector valve is shown in Figure 13
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SPOOL VALVE
SOLENOID
SOLENOID
MECHANICAL OVER-RIDE
LINKAGE
Selector Valve
Figure 13
13.9 UPLOCK MECHANISM
On large modern aircraft when the landing gear is being retracted the uplocks will
operate mechanically. A roller on the landing gear leg will locate and engage into
the uplock hook. Limit switches will sense when the landing gear leg has
engaged in the lock hook and will turn off the hydraulic pressure. The gear will
then be held retracted in place purely mechanically. (Figure 14)
LOCK LEVER ASSEMBLY
LIMIT SWITCH
UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE

LANDING GEAR LEG ROLLER
UPLOCK HOOK
Locked Uplock
Figure 14
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Normal release of the uplock is by a hydraulically actuated valve. The supplied

hydraulic pressure pushes a plunger against the lock lever which rotates about its
pivot. This action allows the uplock hook to disengage under its own spring
tension. The landing gear will then be extended hydraulically by the main
actuator. (Figure 15)
LOCK LEVER ASSEMBLY
LIMIT SWITCH
PLUNGER
UPLOCK HOOK
LANDING GEAR LEG ROLLER
Unlocked Uplock
Figure 15
13.10
DOWNLOCK MECHANISM
The downlock actuator can have either a single or double direction operation
depending on the aircraft. A single direction operation would unlock the downlock
mechanism (upper and lower toggles) prior to retraction, the leg relying on its own
extension to provide the over centre lock. The double direction actuator will lock
the downlock mechanism on extension and unlock it prior to retraction.
Once the landing gear has been fully extended and is sensed by a limit switch
hydraulic pressure is directed to the downlock actuator which extends the
actuator piston. The piston acts against a toggle lever which move both toggle
levers to an over centre position. This over centreing of the toggle levers forms a
mechanical lock which prevents the landing gear leg from collapsing. (Figure 16)
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MAIN LEG
DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR
PROXIMITY SWITCH
SIDE BRACE
UPPER TOGGLE
LEVER
LOWER TOGGLE
LEVER
PROXIMITY SWITCH
CENTRE LINE
OVER CENTRE POSITION
Linkage Downlocked
Figure 16
Once the aircraft has landed and parked up, a red flagged safety pin is inserted
through alignment holes in the toggle levers to prevent inadvertent collapse or
retraction of the landing gear on the ground. This safety pin is removed before
flight.
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On selecting the landing gear up, the hydraulic pressure is directed initially to the
downlock actuator and retracts the piston. As the piston retracts it moves the
lower toggle overcoming the mechanical lock, moving both toggle levers from the
over centre position to an under centre position, so that the landing gear can now
fold. (Figure 17)
MAIN LEG
DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR
PROXIMITY SWITCH
SIDE STAY
UPPER TOGGLE
LEVER
UNDER CENTRE POSIITION
LOWER TOGGLE
LEVER
PROXIMITY SWITCH
CENTRE LINE
Linkage Unlocked
Figure 17
13.11
EMERGENCY LANDING GEAR OPERATION
The uplocks can be released manually if the actuator or hydraulic system fails. An
emergency landing gear lever, operated from the cockpit will act on and rotate the
hook locks, releasing the landing gear legs from the uplock hooks. The
emergency mechanism lever will also operate a lever on the landing gear selector
valve which will open all hydraulic lines to return. This allows the hydraulic fluid to
free flow through the system, to allow the landing gear to extend.
Once the uplocks are released the landing gear legs will extend under gravity and
aerodynamic forces. Spring or gas operated free fall assistors may be used to
help the gear extend. The proximity and limit switches will operate as normal
giving a cockpit indication of the gear in transit and down locked.
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HOOK LINK ASSEMBLY

LEVER
LIMIT SWITCH
UPLOCK HOOK
CABLE
EMERGENCY
OPERATING HANDLE
Emergency Release Mechanism

Figure 18
On aircraft fitted with hydraulically sequenced doors if the hydraulic system fails,
the door jack is mechanically unlocked. This will also be carried out by a
mechanical linkage connected to the cockpits emergency release mechanism
(Figure 18)
13.12
LANDING GEAR DOORS SEQUENCING
To keep the aircraft as streamlined as possible and to reduce drag, the landing
gear is normally retracted into bays within the aircraft structure. However some
aircrafts landing gear do not fully retract into the structure and some access doors
do not fully enclose the landing gear.
The bays have access doors which open and close in relation to the movement of
the landing gear. Some doors are mechanically linked to the landing gear, by a
system of connecting rods, bellcranks and links, whilst other doors open and
close under operation from a hydraulic sequencing valve, signalled by microswitches or proximity switches via a control unit.
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To further reduce the drag some doors will close when the landing gear has been
extended. The landing gear doors may have a manual unlocking mechanism to
allow the door to be opened on the ground for access in carrying out
maintenance tasks and inspections.
Anything that jeopardises the sequence can cause considerable damage to the
aircraft structure and could lead to an unsafe landing condition. Door sequencing
relies on the movement of valves operated by the doors and the movement of the
legs. The sequencing valve can be therefore be either door operated or gear
operated.
13.12.1 Door Operated Sequencing System
Only when the door is fully open is pressure allowed to flow to the main actuator.
If the door is not fully open the main actuator remains isolated. Hydraulic
pressure is initially fed to the landing gear door actuator which operates to open
the door. When the door reaches its maximum travel it abuts against. and
depresses a plunger. (Figure 19) The movement of the plunger unseats a valve in
the sequence valve, which opens a gallery to allow fluid pressure to the main
actuator and extends the landing gear down.
TO DOOR ACTUATOR
PRESSURE IN
VALVE SEAT
PLUNGER
TO MAIN ACTUATOR
Sequence Valve Door Shut

Figure 19
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Retraction of the landing gear is reversed. Pressure is fed to the main actuator
which retracts the landing gear leg. When the landing gear leg is fully retracted it
abuts against and depresses a sequence valve plunger. The movement of the
plunger unseats a valve in the sequence valve, which opens a gallery to allow
fluid pressure to the door actuator which closes the door. (Figure 20)
TO DOOR ACTUATOR
PRESSURE IN
VALVE SEAT
PLUNGER
TO MAIN ACTUATOR
Sequence Valve Door Open

Figure 20
13.12.2 Gear Operated Sequencing System
The principle of operation is very similar to the door operated mechanism. The
difference being that the plunger (or slide) is operated via a cam and linkage
mechanism directly attached to the landing gear leg. This ensures that when the
gear starts to move the door starts to, or is in the process of opening.
13.13
SAFETY BARS
On some aircraft with hydraulically sequenced doors if the hydraulics system was
to fail, to allow the landing gear to lower, the wheels will forcibly open the doors.
This is done by the landing gear legs pushing against safety bars which are fitted
to the doors. The doors will open without being damaged and once operated the
doors will remain open.
13.14
INDICATIONS AND WARNING INDICATIONS AND WARNING
All modern aircraft fitted with retractable landing gear will have a means of
indicating on the flight deck whether the legs are locked down, in transit or
correctly locked up. Additionally, a separate warning system may be included to
show faults, or to indicate that the legs are not in the position selected (nips).
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Normally leg position is shown, by a dedicated set of coloured indicators on the

front panel, near to the landing gear selector lever. Each leg will have its own set
of indicator lights.
On some aircraft a nips light is included in the selector lever itself.
The actual sequence of indication often varies from aircraft to aircraft, but the
modern dark cockpit philosophy during flight, usually means that all indicator
lights are extinguished (no lights), when the legs are properly locked up.
Red lights are often used when the legs are in transit (i.e.: not locked up and not
locked down) and green lights illuminate when each leg is down and locked.
RED TRANSIT
GREEN
LOCKED
DOWN
A RED LIGHT COMES ON WHENEVER:

1.
THE LEVER IS NOT DOWN AND
GEAR NOT UP.
2.
THE LEVER IS DOWN AND GEAR
NOT DOWN AND LOCKED.
3.
ENGINE No. 1 OR 2 THROTTLE IS IN
IDLE RANGE AND ANY GEAR NOT
DOWN AND LOCKED.
A GREEN LIGHT COMES ON WHENEVER:
1.
THE GEAR IS DOWN AND LOCKED.
Gear Position Indicator

Figure 21
On other aircraft, the red transit lights are replaced by the nips light in the
selector lever, and separate amber warning lights on the front panel will show a
fault. (I.e.: if any leg fails to reach its selected position, either locked up or locked
down, within a certain time limit.)
Also, where for example, visual confirmation from the cabin windows is not
possible, usually for nose gear, the locked down indicator may be duplicated, as
an additional confidence light, in case a bulb failure occurs.
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
ADDITIONAL NOSE
LOCKED DOWN GREEN
GREEN
LOCKED
DOWN
LIGHTS
AMBER FAULT
LIGHTS
RED NIPS LIGHT

INSIDE HANDLE
Landing Gear Selector and Indications

Figure 22
Micro switches or proximity sensors are fitted to each leg to relay information the
flight deck indicators. A change the output voltage whenever the uplock or
downlock mechanisms are made or broken during the retraction or lowering
sequences, determine indicator output.
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MAIN LANDING GEAR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
MAIN LANDING GEAR DOWNLOCK SENSOR

Gear Downlock Sensors
Figure 23
Other methods can be mechanical indicators outside the aircraft, visible from the
cockpit. There may be painted indicator lines on the landing gear legs toggle
levers which align when the gear is down and locked. (Figure 24)
UNLOCKED
LOCKED
Landing Gear Down Locked Visual Indicator

FIGURE 24
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
Some aircraft have pop up indicators which stand proud on the upper wing
surface when the gear is down and locked (Figure 25). These are plunger
operated through a cable linkage attached to the toggle levers. When the landing
gear extends and is locked down a plate attached to the toggle lever operates a
spring loaded plunger which by cable connection moves the indicator from its
housing, proud of the airframe skin. The indicator returns under spring pressure
into its housing when the landing gear is retracted
POP UP INDICATOR
AIRFRAME SKIN
UNLOCK ACTUATOR
PLUNGER
TOGGLE
LEVERS
SIDE STRUT
POP UP INDICATOR
AIRFRAME SKIN
UNLOCK ACTUATOR
PLUNGER
TOGGLE
LEVERS
SIDE STRUT
Landing Gear pop Up Indicator

Figure 25
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
To prevent the pilot from landing with his under carriage retracted there may be a
warning system connected to the centralised warning panel with associated
warning lights and audio warnings. The warning system may be activated when
the aircraft descends to a certain height above the ground detected by the radio
altimeter, or when the landing configuration is incorrect ie, when the engine
power levers or flaps are set incorrectly.
SAFETY LATCH PIN
UP
LANDING GEAR
SELECTOR LEVER
DOWN
SAFETY
LANDING
SOLENOID
GEAR LEG
DE-ENERGISED
EXTENSION
CONTROL UNIT
LIMIT
SWITCHES
Landing Gear Selector Lever Safety Interlock

Figure 26
SAFETY LATCH PIN
UP
LANDING GEAR
SELECTOR LEVER
DOWN
SAFETY
SOLENOID
LANDING
ENERGISED
GEAR LEG
EXTENSION
CONTROL UNIT
LIMIT
SWITCHES
Landing Gear Selector Lever Safety Interlock

Figure 27
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
The landing gear may have an electro-mechanical safety device, which prevents
operation of the selector lever on the ground. When all the landing gear legs are
compressed a safety solenoid is de-energised which moves a latch pin under the
landing gear selector lever. So long as the solenoid remains de-energised the
latch pin prevents the selector lever from operating.
As soon as each landing gear leg is fully extended the limit switch is made which
sends a signal to the control unit. When the control unit receives signals from all
the landing gear legs an earth is made and the safety solenoid is energised. The
latch pin is withdrawn from beneath the selector lever allowing gear up when
selected. (Figures 26 and 27)
13.15
SAFETY SWITCHES
Proximity switches on each landing gear leg will indicate that the landing gear leg
is either downlocked or is in transit. The switch will be made when the target on
the landing gear leg comes into alignment with the switch probe indicating that
the landing gear is downlocked. The gap between the probe and target is set in
accordance with the maintenance manual for the aircraft. When the proximity
switche probes are out of alignment with their targets, the switches are broken
and it is sensed that the landing gear leg is in transit.
The signals will be sent to an electronic control unit or computer where they are
processed and will illuminate an associated green triangle on the landing gear
panel when locked down and a red triangle when the landing gear is in transit.
Limit micro-switches on the uplocks will sense when the landing gear is locked up
and limit switches on the oleos will sense when the oleo leg is fully extended. The
signals will be sent to an electronic control unit or a computer where they are
processed. When the landing gear is locked up the limit switch will change the
red triangles to black. When the oleos are fully extended the limit switches will
allow the landing gear to be retracted.
The proximity switches and limit switches form part of the weight on wheels,
weight off wheels squat switch system and will prevent inadvertent retraction of
landing gear on the ground and will only allow retraction when certain
circumstances are met. This mainly being that all 3 landing gear legs are weight
off wheels and are fully extended, and the downlocks have been unlocked.
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13.16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
WHEELS, BRAKES, ANTISKID AND AUTOBRAKING
13.16.1 wheels
The wheels on the landing gear leg provides some form of suspension and
adhesion between the aircraft and the ground. Early wheels and tyres were of the
bicycle type with spoke rims and with the tyres fitted using tyre levers. Most light
aircraft have fixed flange one piece forged or cast wheels (Figure 28).
Fixed Flange Wheel

Figure 28
Modern tyres are much more rigid, due to the load-bearing requirements, which
results in the wheels having to be of two piece construction (Figure 29). The two
piece wheel construction, are of 2 types, removable rim or split wheel. The
removable rim wheel has an inner tube where as the split wheel is tubeless and
requires a perfect seal between the halves. An O ring is located between the
mating surfaces. To be as light and strong as possible they are usually
constructed from alluminium or magnesium alloys and may be cast or forged.
The inboard wheel section is fitted with key ways that allows the brake discs to
slot into. These key ways drive the brake discs with the wheels. Larger aircraft
wheels have one or more fusible plugs fitted. These plugs have a centre hole
which is filled with a low melting point alloy. In the event of the tyre overheating,
when a temperature limit is reached the low melting point alloy melts and allows
the tyre to safely deflate.
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13.16.2 Types of Wheels
There are three basic types of wheel used for aircraft:

Well-based
Divided (or Split)
Loose and Detachable Flange
13.16.2.1 WELL-BASED
This type is limited to smaller light aircraft and is similar to those found on a
typical family car.
13.16.2.2 DIVIDED (OR SPLIT)
This type is used on most modern commercial airliners. It consists two half
assemblies matched up and bolted together to form the complete wheel. Each
half is more or less identical and has its own tapered bearing assembly.
A sealing ring is incorporated between the two halves, to provide an airtight joint
when the wheel is used with a tubeless tyre. Additionally, the inner half will carry
the brake rotor drive blocks and the outer half may be fitted with fusible plugs.
Half Hub Assembly
Outer Bearing
Inner Bearing
Sealing Ring
Drive Block Mounting
Divided (Split) Wheel
Figure 29
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13.16.2.3 LOOSE AND DETACHABLE FLANGE
This type of wheel has a main hub, which carries both bearings, brake rotor drive
blocks and fusible plugs. To facilitate tyre replacement, one of the two wheel
flanges can be removed. The flange when refitted to the wheel hub is retained by
a locking ring (loose flange) or by means of a series of nuts and bolts (detachable
flange). As with the divided wheel a sealing ring is incorporated in the flange
recess to provide the airtight joint when used with tubeless tyres.
Locking Ring
Loose Flanged sealing

Figure 30
Loose Flange
Spigot Joint
Three Piece Loose Flanged Wheel

Figure 31
Inner Bearing
Outer Bearing
Drive Blocks
Detachable Flanged Wheel

Figure 32
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engineering
13.17
TYRES
Tyres with patterned tread became important when aircraft got effective brakes
that could be used for slowing the aircraft during landing. At first the treads were
a diamond pattern that provided good braking on wet grass but the ribbed tread
proved to be more suitable for operation on hard surface runways. Today almost
all aircraft tyres have a ribbed tread that consists of straight grooves, which run
around the tyres circumference.
13.17.1 Tyre inflation and deflation
The tyres are inflated with nitrogen from a ground cart. The required pressure will
be laid down in the AMM and a tyre inflation box is used to regulate the charge
rate and pressure. A deflation tool is used to release the pressure and any ice
that forms must be allowed to thaw before the valve core is removed.
13.17.2 Tyre Construction
The Bead
The bead gives the tyre its strength and stiffness to assure a firm mounting on the
wheel. The bead is made up of bundles of high strength carbon steel wire with
two or three bead bundles on each side of the tyre. Rubber strips streamline the
round bead bundles to allow the fabric to fit smoothly around them without any
gaps. The bead bundles are enclosed in layers of rubberised fabric, to insulate
the carcass plies from the heat absorbed in the bead wires.
The Carcass
The carcass (or chord body) is the body of the tyre that is made up of layers of
rubberised fabric cut in strips with the threads running at an angle of about 45
degrees to the length of the strip. These strips extend completely across the tyre
around the bead and partially up the side. Each ply is put on in such a way that
the threads cross each other at about 90 degrees to that of the adjacent ply. This
type of construction is known as bias ply.
The cords of the ply fabric were originally cotton, then nylon and now aramid
fibres (kevlar) are used. This is stronger than nylon, polyester or fibreglass and
even strong pound for pound than steel.
Chafing strips are rubberised strips of fabric that wrap around the edges of the
carcass plies and enclose the bead area. The chafing strips provide a smooth
chafe resistant surface between the tyre and the bead seat of the wheel.
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The undertread is a layer of compound rubber between the plies and the tread
rubber that provides good adhesion between the tread and the carcass. On top of
the undertread are more plies of strong fabric that strengthen the tread and
oppose centrifugal forces that try to pull the tread from the carcass during high
speed rotation.
The inner liner is a thin coating of rubber over the inside plies. For tubeless tyres
it is made from a compound which is less permeable than other rubbers used. It
seals the tyre and reduces the amount of leakage. On tyres with inner tubes the
liner is very smooth to help prevent chafing.
TREAD
PLIES
SIDEWALL
CHAFING STRIPS
CARCASS
BEAD BUNDLE
BEAD WIRES
Aircraft Tyre Construction

Figure 33
The Tread
The tread is the thick layered rubber around the outer circumference of the tyre
that serves as a wearing surface. The tread has a series of moulded grooves
moulded into its surface to give optimum traction with the runway surface.
13.17.3 Tyre Wear Assessment
The manner in which tread wear of a tyre is established, is dependent upon which
of a number of methods of indicating wear has been incorporated into the tyre by
the manufacturer.
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Tyres used on modern aircraft have a series of circumferential grooves in the

tread, primarily to displace water on the runway and so help to prevent the tyre
from aquaplaning. These grooves can be also used as a means of establishing
tyre wear.
If this method is adopted, then wear which results in any groove being less than
2mm in depth, for more than 25% of the tread circumference, requires the tyre to
be replaced.
Other ways of establishing wear assessment are by the use of:
Tie Bars
Wear indicator Grooves
Sipes
13.17.3.1 TIE BARS
These are small transverse bars of rubber, moulded at intervals in the

circumferential grooves around the tyre as described above. They are set at a
depth of 2mm, or as required by the particular manufacture and thus provide an
easy visual means of establishing wear limits.
Limits tyre worn to the top of the tie bar.
Tie Bars
Tie Bars
Figure 34
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LANDING GEAR
13.17.3.2 WEAR INDICATOR GROOVES
These are dedicated grooves set in the tread pattern and have a depth graduated
by the manufacturer, but typically 2mm shallower than the water-displacing
grooves.
Limits tyre worn to the bottom of the indicator groove anywhere on the
circumference of the tyre.
Wear Indicator Grooves

Figure 35
13.17.3.3 SIPES
Certain tyres, normally those having a zigzag tread pattern have an axial slit in
the tread rubber at some of the zigzag corners. The slit does not extend into the
depth of the tread and is called a sipe.
Limits Tyre worn to the bottom of the sipe.
Sipes
Sipes
Figure 36
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13.17.4 Tyre Damage
The amount of tyre damage a tyre can suffer without becoming unserviceable is
very small. Damage in the vicinity of the bead is rarely tolerated, while cuts in the
casing plies must be assessed very carefully in accordance with the
manufacturers requirements before deciding on the degree of serviceability.
Normally if the chords are exposed due any form of damage, including splits or
crazing, then the tyre will be classed as unserviceable.
NOTE: Always consult the Aircraft/Component Maintenance Manual.
13.17.5 Leak Holes (Awl Holes)
During inflation of a tyre/tube assembly, air may become trapped between the
tube and the inside surface of the tyre, giving an incorrectly inflated assembly.
The risk is reduced by allowing the air to escape through Leak Holes, pierced
completely through the sidewall of the tyre, during manufacture. The holes are
often made with a pointed tool called an Awl. Because of this, the holes are
sometimes referred to as Awl Holes. The position of these holes is indicated by a
series of 6mm diameter spots of grey or green litho ink, usually grey.
13.17.6 Vent Holes
During the manufacture of tubeless tyres, air that gets trapped between layers in
the casing is permitted to escape to atmosphere through vent holes pierced in the
sidewall. The vent holes do not penetrate right through the sidewall in this case
and are identified, as with leak holes, by 6mm diameter spots of grey or green
litho ink, usually green.
13.17.7 Balance Marks
A red spot (sometimes triangular) on either side of the tyre indicates its lightest
point around the circumference as ascertained during the manufacturers
balancing procedure.
During assembly with the wheel the red spot should be aligned with the inflation
valve on a tubeless assembly. On a tubed assembly, the spot should be aligned
with a red line (heavy point) on the tube. If it has no red line, align with the
inflation valve of the tube.
13.17.8 Electrically Conducting Tyres
Some wheel assemblies are fitted with tyres that are designed to conduct
electrical charges to earth as the aircraft touches down. Such tyres are identified
with the word CONDUCTIVE or the letters ECTA (electrically conducting tyre
assembly) on the sidewall.
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LANDING GEAR
13.17.9 Aquaplaning
Aquaplaning is a condition that occurs on wet runways when a wave of water

builds up in front of a spinning wheel. This could result in the tyre being lifted from
the runway surface and to float on the thin layer of water. This is dangerous, as a
complete loss of braking efficiency will occur.
Although it appears only to be an aircrew problem, there is a significant factor that
affects the maintenance engineer.
Mathematically there is a formula for Aquaplaning speed Aquaplaning Speed (Kt.) = 9 (approx.) x Square Root of the Tyre Pressure.
This speed will be placarded for the crew, so that in wet conditions they will
quickly traverse through it on landing.
However, if the tyre pressures are incorrect, the placarded speed will be useless
and aquaplaning will occur at a different speed.
Take care, therefore, to maintain tyre pressures at their correct value at all times.
13.18
BRAKES
Aircraft brake systems convert kinetic energy from the motion of the aircraft into
heat energy, which is generated by the fiction between the brake linings and the
brake drum or disc.
There are two types of brakes in use energising (servo) and none energising.
Energising brakes use the friction developed between the rotating and stationary
parts to produce a wedging action that uses the momentum of the aircraft to
increase the braking force which reduces the pilots effort needed in producing the
required braking action. None energising brakes do not use this wedging action.
13.18.1 Energising Brakes
Energising brakes used on some smaller light aircraft have a single servo action
and only operate with forward motion. Energising brakes have their shoes and
linings mounted on a torque plate in such a way that they are free to move out
against the rotating drum. When the brakes are applied two pistons move out and
push the linings against the drum that rotates with the wheel. Rotation of the
brake drum wedges the linings against it. When the hydraulic pressure is
released, a retracting spring pulls the linings form the drum and releases the
brakes.
13.18.2 None Energising Brakes
This is the most common type of brake used on aircraft. These brakes are
actuated by hydraulic pressure and the amount of braking action depends on the
pressure applied. Expander tube, single disc and multiple disc brakes are the
main types of none energising brakes used.
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13.18.3 Expander Tube Brakes
Expander brakes utilise a heavy neoprene tube, but are rarely use on modern
aircraft. Hydraulic fluid from the master cylinder is directed into the expander tube
which is located on the circumference of a torque flange. When this tube is
expanded it pushes the brake block linings out against the brake drum and the
friction between the linings and the drum slows the aircraft.
The heat generated in the linings is kept from damaging the expander tube by
stainless steel heat shields placed between each of the lining blocks. As soon as
the brake pedal is released, the return springs between the brake lining blocks
collapse the expander tube and force the fluid back into the cylinder reservoir.
13.18.4 Single Disc Brakes
This is most common on light aircraft. The brakes are actuated by hydraulic
pressure from a master cylinder and friction is produced when the rotating disc is
squeezed between the brake linings in the brake caliper.
There are two types of single disc brakes, one has the disc keyed into the wheel
and it is free to move in and out as the brake is applied. This type is called
floating disc fixed caliper. The second type of brake disc is rigidly attached to the
wheel and the caliper moves in and out on anchor bolts. This type is called fixed
disc floating caliper.
Some single disc brakes have automatic adjusters and wear indicators. The
automatic adjusting pin is pulled through the grip when brakes are applied. When
the brakes are released the piston and the linings move back only under pressure
of the return spring. The protrusion on the adjuster pin indicates lining wear. In
general, when the pin is flush with the housing the linings are replaced.
13.18.5 Multi Disc Brakes
The gross weight of the aircraft and the speed at the time of brake application
determines what size brakes are required. As the aircrafts size, weight and
landing speed increases there is a need for greater braking surfaces and heat
dissipation.
Segmented rotor, multiple disc brakes are standard on most modern high
performance aircraft. The segmented disc brake has three rotating discs keyed
on to the wheel. The rotors are segmented to allow for cooling and for expansion
caused by the high temperatures generated during braking.
Between each disc is a stator plate or brake-lining disc, keyed on to the axle
shaft. Riveted on to each side of the stator plates are the brake linings. A
pressure plate is located on the inboard side of the axle shaft and a backing plate
is located on the outboard side.
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Automatic adjusting pins are pulled through the grip when brakes are applied.
When the brakes are released the pressure plate moves back under pressure of
their return springs. The protrusion on the adjuster pins indicates lining wear. In
general, when the pin is flush with the housing the linings are replaced.
PRESSURE PLATE
PISTON
BRAKE
LINER
SEGMENTED
ROTOR
CYLINDERS
PADS
STATOR
PLATE
BACKING
PLATE
WEAR PINS
Multi Disc Brake Unit

Figure 37
The brakes used on most large jet aircraft use a number of brake cylinders
instead of a single annular cylinder. (Figure 37) Each cylinder has a piston which
presses against the pressure plate when hydraulic pressure is applied. Each
cylinder will be supplied from separate hydraulic systems so if one fails full
braking can be applied from the other system.
Some aircraft may have their brake discs made from carbon fibre. These are
lighter in weight and they can function at higher temperatures. They are
expensive to use and generally only used on transport aircraft where the weight
saving makes them more cost effective.
13.18.6 Brake systems
Light aircraft will generally use hydraulic pressure generated by the pilots feet.
When the pilot depresses the rudder pedals, pressurised fluid is moved from the
master cylinder, to a slave cylinder operating the brakes. Larger aircraft will use
the aircrafts main hydraulic systems to provide the pressure to operate the
brakes.
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The pressure applied to the brakes must be proportional to the force exerted on
the brake pedals; the pilot must be able to hold the brakes partially applied
without a build up in pressure. The hydraulic pressure to the brakes is much
higher but remains proportional to the input. This is achieved with a brake control
valve also known as a metering valve.
The rudder pedals are connected to the brake control valve by various methods
including hydraulically by use of a master cylinder (also known as foot motors),
rods or cables.
The hydraulic systems will operate simultaneously and usually a different system
will feed the inboard wheels to the outboard. In the event of a system hydraulic
failure, braking is still maintained to at least one set of wheels.
PILOTS FOOT
MOTORS
1ST
PILOTS FOOT
MOTORS
1ST
2ND
SYSTEM
PRESSURE
2ND
RETURN
BRAKE CONTROL
VALVE
1 2
Brake control system

Figure 38
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13.18.7 Brake control valve
The schematic drawings of the brake control valve (figures 39, 40 and 41) shows
a simplified version of how the proportional application is achieved. The centre
slide moves to the left as the pilot applies the brakes, opening the pressure line
and closing the return line. This allows pressure to the brakes and they are
applied. At the same time pressure is directed to the metering chamber were
pressure builds up until it equals the pedal input pressure. When the pressures
are equal the slide moves to the right, until it is in the central position, with both
the pressure and return lines blocked. This holds the brake pressure constant
until the pressure is either increased or decreased by a change in the pilots
input. If the pedals are released the slider will move to the right opening a line
from the brakes to return, dissipating the pressure.
RETURN
PRESSURE
BRAKE
Figure 39
Brakes released -The return line is open for the pressure to dissipate.
RETURN
PRESSURE
BRAKE
Applied
brake
pressure
Monitoring
chamber
pressure
Figure 40
As brake pressure is applied the slider moves to the left blocking the return line
and opening the brake line to the pressure. Pressure is fed to the monitoring
chamber were it starts to move the slide to the right as it equals the input force.
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PRESSURE
RETURN
BRAKE
Applied
brake
pressure
Monitoring
chamber
pressure
Figure 41
With the pressure equal to the input force the slide moves to the central position
with both the pressure and return lines blocked off. In this position a constant
brake pressure is held to the brakes.
13.19
ANTI SKID SYSTEMS
13.19.1 Introduction
The anti skid system is designed to provide maximum effective braking for any
runway condition without skidding and is often used in conjunction with an
autobrake system.
It operates by automatically overriding or modifying the metered input brake
pressure from the flight deck, or braking commands from the autobrake system.
Hydraulic pressure is automatically controlled at each brake unit, maintaining the
optimum wheel braking requirement, regardless of prevailing weather conditions
(ie: ice/heavy rain/crosswind etc). Aircraft stopping distances are minimised and
directional control is maintained. Maximum braking efficiency occurs when all
main wheels are at the maximum rate of deceleration just before an impending
wheel skid.
The system continuously modulates the hydraulic pressure at each individual
brake unit in response to actual wheel speed, thus preventing blown tyres, flat
spots or the risk of aquaplaning caused by a locked wheel.
On a normal landing sequence, there is no need for a corrective signal as long as
the rate of wheel deceleration is within limits. However, if the rate is above these
limits, this is sensed as an approaching skid. A corrective signal is applied to
momentarily reduce the applied brake pressure at the relevant wheel. The
corrective signal is removed when the wheel speed increases again and the
process repeated as required, until the deceleration rate remains within limits
once more.
The anti skid system can be either electronically or mechanically controlled. Most
modern systems are electronic, since mechanically controlled systems are only
fitted to older aircraft types.
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13.19.2 Electronic Anti Skid System
The system consists of the following components:

A wheel speed transducer, located in each main landing gear axle and driven
by the wheel rotation.
An electronic antiskid control unit, normally located in the electronic/electrical
equipment bay, with BITE facility to provide continuous self test and fault
warning.
An antiskid control valve for each mainwheel, normally located in the hydraulic
equipment bay.
A control switch and failure warning indicator, on the flight deck panel.
Electronic Anti-Skid System With

Auto-Brake Facility
Figure 42
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13.19.2.1 WHEELSPEED TRANSDUCER
The transducer is a speed sensing generator-type device, which sends an output

voltage directly proportional to wheel rotation to the electronic antiskid control
unit.
The control unit compares the transducer output voltage, with a reference voltage
scheduled to the maximum deceleration rate for the aircraft.
If the transducer output voltage exceeds the reference voltage, the error signal
will be sent to the relevant antiskid control valve. This results in the hydraulic
pressure at the corresponding brake unit momentarily reducing, until the voltages
agree once more.
WHEELSPEED
SENSOR
RING NUT
GENERATOR
CARRIER
DRIVE CAP
V-CLAMP
Wheel speed Transducers
Figure 43
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
13.19.2.2 ANTI SKID CONTROL VALVE
This valve is a two-stage electro-hydraulic servo valve, which meters pressure

applied to the brake unit in accordance with signals from the anti skid control unit.
The first stage is a torque motor-operated flapper valve set between two hydraulic
ports (return and pressure). The second stage is a spool valve, spring biased to
brakes on position and hydraulically controlled, by directing oil pressure into a
drilled passage way at either end of the spool.
When there is no control signal to the torque motor, the flapper valve is biased
towards the return nozzle and maximum braking is possible. However, a signal
(increase in current), will be sent to the torque motor windings from the Control
Unit, if it in turn receives a signal from a wheel speed transducer that a wheel is
slowing down too quickly and may skid. This causes the flapper valve to move
towards the pressure nozzle, restricting fluid into the chamber and allowing more
to escape to return.
As a result pressure reduces in the first stage chamber and the reduction is felt
on the bias spring side of the second stage spool valve. Pressure on the opposite
end of the spool forces the valve to move, closing off the pressure line and
connecting the brake line to return. The amount of second stage valve movement
is directly proportional to torque motor current in the first stage, which in turn
depends on the amount of brake pressure reduction required to achieve wheel
spin up.
As the mainwheel spins up again to its correct speed, the current at torque motor
windings reduces. This allows the flapper to move back to the return nozzle and
moves the spool valve back, closing off the return line and causing brake
pressure to be re-applied to the wheel brake.
If necessary, the complete cycle can be repeated, often with a rapid Brakes off/
Brakes on modulation rate of up to 50 cycles/second.
Anti-skid Control Valve

Figure 44
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MODULE NO 11.13
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Anti-skid Control Valves

Figure 45
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LANDING GEAR
13.19.2.3 ANTI SKID CONTROL UNIT
This contains all the electrical circuits necessary for full anti skid control and
circuits for BITE and monitoring of control valves and transducers. Circuits for a
typical aircraft having four mainwheels ( Boeing 737) are normally arranged into
two separate channels, for inboard and outboard pairs of wheels.
As we have seen, skid control for each individual wheel requires a self-generated
signal from its wheelspeed transducer.
Two types of anti-skid control unit

Figure 46
The system has three modes of operation:
Touch-down protection, which prevents landing with brakes on.
Skid-control, which makes sure there is maximum braking efficiency.
Locked-wheel protection, which prevents any wheel from locking up due to the
runway condition.
When the aircraft is airborne, an in-flight signal is sent to the Control Unit via the
ground/flight switch relay. The signal is sent to the Touchdown protection mode
circuit, causing a full brake release signal (full dump) to be sent to the skid control
valves. This prevents any pressure from going to the brakes and ensures that all
brake units are always connected to return, even if the brake pedals are fully
depressed. The full dump signal will be removed on touchdown when the inflight signal is replaced by a on-ground signal.
The Skid control mode will not commence until the wheels have spun up to predetermined speed for the particular aircraft concerned. (Examples are; 30kts and
70kts for Fokker 50 and Boeing 737 respectively). Brake pressure is now
controlled by modulation of the antiskid control valves as previously described.
In addition to the Skid Control mode which ensures maximum braking efficiency
for the level metered from the flight deck, the Locked-wheel protection mode
circuitry looks at the inboard and outboard pairs of wheels and compares their
speed. Should one of the pair slow down to a pre-determined difference, a full
dump signal will be momentarily sent to the slower wheel in order to restore
equilibrium. (Examples are; 30% and 40% difference for Fokker 50 and Boeing
737 respectively). Below about 15kts this mode is switched off (drops out) but
Skid control mode remains.
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MODULE NO 11.13
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13.19.2.4 CONTROL SWITCH AND WARNING SYSTEM
This is normally located on the front panel of the flight deck and is often combined
with the auto brake selector, if applicable to the particular aircraft type. It usually
consists of a simple on/off switch to power up the anti skid circuitry. It also
contains a warning light to give a warning of system malfunction.
Following illumination of this warning light, it is possible to interrogate the Anti
Skid Control Unit and pinpoint the cause for example a particular transducer,
valve or the control unit itself.
Flight deck control panel for anti-skid and autobrake

Figure 47
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
13.19.3 Mechanical Anti Skid System
This older type system modulates brake pressure as with the electronic type, but
the modulation is achieved mechanically by a single self-contained device, one
for each wheel.
The device, often referred to as a maxaret (maximum arresting) unit, detects a
rapid deceleration of the wheel and momentarily releases the brake pressure as
before. It will normally be mounted externally on the brake unit torque plate and
driven by a small rubber tyred wheel in contact with the aircraft mainwheel.
Alternatively, it can be mounted inside the axle and driven by the aircraft
mainwheel via a splined drive shaft in the hub cap.
Both types, wheel or axle mounted, incorporate an internally mounted heavy
flywheel, sensitive to the angular deceleration that occurs when braking. When
the braking is severe or just before the wheel is about to lock up, the flywheel is
permitted to continue rotating at the higher speed due to its inertia. It will advance
through an arc until it contacts a set of limit stops.
The flywheel, is connected mechanically to two hydraulic system metering valves
within the maxaret unit. Using a pair of thrust balls and push rods the valves
change their position from the normal pressure to brakes position, to the no
pressure in and brakes to return position.
With brake pressure removed, the wheel regains speed and the flywheel returns
to its original position assisted by a return spring. The brakes are re-applied and
the brakes on/ brakes off sequence will continue until the deceleration returns to
normal limits.
BRAKE UNIT
MAXARET
DRIVE WHEEL
MAIN WHEEL
SPRING TO PUSH
DRIVE WHEEL
ON TO MAIN WHEEL
Mechanical anti-skid unit

Figure 48
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
To
brake
Base of
Cam
Pressure
supply
Thrust
plate
Thrust
rod
A. - Normal Braking
Condition
From
return
brake
profile
Wheel
rim
Base of
Cam
profile
60
Pressure
supply
B. - Anti-Skid
Condition
Operation of Rim-Driven Unit
Figure 49
Main shaft
Valve spring
Flywheel
Drive ring
Clutch friction pad
Thrust bearing
Input shaft
Clutch cover
Clutch plate
spring
Sun gear RingClutch
gear
Drive spring
Planet gear
Valve
Main spring
Valve thrust rod
Axle mounted anti-skid unit

Figure 50
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13.20
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
AUTOBRAKING
Some modern aircraft have auto-braking systems. A selector switch on the

instrument panel allows the pilot to select a deceleration rate that will be
controlled automatically after landing. On landing the auto-braking system will
smoothly apply the brakes to achieve the selected deceleration rate down to a
complete stop without any further action from the aircrew. This allows the aircrew
to concentrate on other activities during landing.
The auto brake system utilises the normal anti-skid and brake units but instead of
using pressure from the brake metering valve, hydraulic pressure is sent via
solenoid valves which allow a pre-determined amount of pressure through the
anti-skid valves to the brake units.
13.20.1 Selector Panel
The selector panel consists of a solenoid latched switch which will hold a selected
position only if all the arming conditions for that setting are met. If the system
cannot be armed the switch will automatically return to the DISARM position and
a warning will illuminate on the local panel and centralised warning panel. The
panel will have a number of settings that the pilot can select depending on the
rate of deceleration that is required.
13.20.2 Auto-Brake Control Unit
Selection on the auto brake selector panel will send an electrical signal to the
auto-brake control unit. The signal is processed by the control unit, which
commands the solenoid valve to direct pressure to the brake units.
The brake pressure must be gradually built up and released to prevent brake
snatch and jerking. To prevent this a time delay and an electrical ramp are used.
The time delay ensures that the aircraft is firmly on the ground before the system
activates. The terminology used to indicate the auto-brake operation is:
On Ramp A gradual build up of brake pressure to the amount required for

the selected rate of deceleration.
Off Ramp A gradual decrease in pressure down to zero at the end of the
landing run or cancellation of auto-brake.
Drop Out Instantaneous pressure release to zero (go around mode).
Autobrake On-Ramp
Figure 51
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13.20.3 Auto Brake Solenoid Valve
These valves are electrically controlled, hydraulic valves that allow pressure to
the brake units at a specific setting. The greater the deceleration rate the higher
the setting. These valves are fitted just upstream of the anti-skid valves.
The solenoid will open when all the arming conditions are met and the aircraft is
weight on wheels. It is also the solenoid valves that immediately shuts on Drop
Out.
A solenoid servo valve modulates the brake pressure to regulate the deceleration
rate. A pressure switch is connected to the DISARM warning light to monitor zero
pressure when auto-brakes are armed.
13.20.4 System Operation
Once the aircraft lands and is weight on wheels the anti skid transducers send
signals to the control unit. When the wheels have achieved a certain speed or
after a pre-determined time delay the brakes will be applied Up The Ramp.
Once the selected rate of deceleration is reached the auto-brake pressure is
modulated to hold that rate.
As the wheel speed slows down to more than the deceleration rate, the servo
valve will close slightly reducing the brake pressure causing the wheel to speed
up. Once the aircraft has come to a stop or the aircraft is below a certain speed
the auto-brakes will switch off to enable the aircraft to taxi.
13.20.5 Auto Brake Termination
Auto-Brake can be cancelled at any time. Depending on the aircraft, the system
can be over-ridden by:
The pilot moving the selector lever to disarm or off.
The pilot using manual braking.
Auto-brake needs to be immediately cancelled if the pilot has to initiate a go

round procedure. The following actions will cause immediate DROP OUT:
The thrust levers are advanced from the idle gate.
The speed brake lever is moved to stow the speed brakes.
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MODULE NO 11.13
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engineering
13.21
STEERING
To improve the ground operation of aircraft nose wheel systems are used. These
improve tyre life through less scrub, reduce brake wear, save fuel and engine life
as brakes and engine thrust are no longer required to turn the aircraft.
Most nose wheel steering systems use servo jack operated scissor links attached
to a collar on the landing gear leg, the collar being driven by the servo jacks
which rotates the nose wheel leg via the scissor links. Steering inputs to the servo
jacks come from a tiller on the pilots side of the cockpit. Inputs can also come
from the rudder pedals.
Apart from mechanical steering systems there are three basic methods of
operation:
Single Servo Jack.
This system is used on smaller light aircraft (Figure 52). Both ends of the jack
ram are attached to the landing gear leg. Fluid is directed to move the jack body
along its ram. A cam and link assembly is attached to the jack body. Movement of
the jack body operates the link which rotates the cam and turns the wheel. Action
of the shock absorber is unaffected as the shock absorber is splined on to the
steering shaft to allow the compression and extension of the absorber.
JACK BODY
PISTON
LINK
CAM
SPLINED SHAFT
STRUT
AXLE
Single Servo Steering

Figure 52
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engineering
Double Servo Jack.
Larger aircraft use a two servo jack system (Figure 53). The two jacks are fixed to
a steering collar, which is free to rotate around the landing gear leg. The steering
collar is attached to the upper scissor link. When the servo jacks are actuated
they rotate the wheels and axle through the scissor link. assembly
Double Servo Jack

Figure 53
Rack and Pinion
Some aircraft use a rack and pinion steering system. Hydraulically operated racks
rotate a pinion which rotates the wheel and axle. A mechanical linkage from the
cockpit tiller operates a servo valve in a hydraulic metering valve. The servo valve
when operated directs fluid to one side or the other of the rack piston. The rack
then moves and rotates the pinion and turns the aircraft nose wheel in the
required direction.
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
13.21.1 Steering Mechanisms
On some small aircraft the nose wheel is steered by direct linkages from the
rudder pedals, or on small retractable landing gear aircraft, from the rudder
pedals to a steering bar which locates against a steering arm on the landing gear
leg. (Figure 54) Once the wheel is stowed the mechanism is ineffective.
STEERING BAR
STEERING ARMS
STEERING LUGS
Nose Wheel Steering Mechanism

Figure 54
The nose wheels or tail wheels on light aircraft mat be steerable or castoring. A
castoring nose wheel aircraft is steered by the independent use of the brakes and
rudder inputs. Some light aircraft have limited tail wheel steering via a mechanism
interlinked with the rudder pedals. The tail wheel will brake out if the turning circle
is too small to allow the tail wheel to castor. Once centralised the tail wheel
becomes steerable again. Some aircraft have a tail skid mechanism (Figure 55)
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engineering
Tail Skid Mechanism

Figure 55
Inputs to the hydraulic control valves which direct pressure to the steering jacks
are carried out by a mechanical system of cables, bellcranks, levers and
gearboxes from the hand operated tiller and the rudder pedals. The input has a
follow up action through interconnected links or cables which neutralise the nose
wheel movement when the desired rate of turn has been achieved.
Rudder pedals movement can also be inputted to the control valve, but this is
usually restricted to a small degree of movement either side of the aircraft centre
line. Rudder pedal steering is normally used on take off or landing and is isolated
when the aircraft is airborne.
13.21.2 Nose Wheel Self Centring
It is important that when a steerable nose wheel is being retracted that the wheel
is centred so that it fits into the wheel well to prevent any damage to the aircraft
structure as well as the landing gear. This can be done by a centring cam inside
the oleo strut. When the strut is compressed the piston cam disengages from the
cylinder cam receptacle to allow the wheel to be steered. On take off when the
strut extends the piston cam is forced into the cylinder receptacle to hold the
wheel in the desired position for stowing. Double servo jacks can centralise the
wheel by supplying pressure to a centralising jack. This is normally initiated by
the weight-on-wheels micro-switches as the aircraft takes off.
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LANDING GEAR
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OXYGEN
CONTENTS
15 OXYGEN ....................................................................................... 15-1
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
OXYGEN SYSTEMS GENERAL ................................................ 15-1

OXYGEN SAFETY PRECAUTIONS.................................................... 15-1
SYSTEM LAYOUT .......................................................................... 15-2
15.3.1 Cockpit System Layout ................................................. 15-2
15.3.2 Cabin System Layout .................................................... 15-4
15.3.3 Continuous Flow Oxygen System ................................. 15-5
15.3.4 Demand Type Oxygen System...................................... 15-6
15.3.5 Portable Oxygen Systems ............................................. 15-7
DROP OUT SYSTEM ...................................................................... 15-8
15.4.1 Pneumatically Operated PSU Flap ................................ 15-8
15.4.2 Electrically Operated PSU Flap ..................................... 15-9
SOURCES OF OXYGEN .................................................................. 15-9
15.5.1 Chemical Oxygen Generator ......................................... 15-9
15.5.2 Gaseous Oxygen Systems ............................................ 15-11
15.5.3 Charging Of Systems .................................................... 15-11
15.5.4 Oxygen Distribution ....................................................... 15-11
SUPPLY REGULATION ................................................................... 15-12
15.6.1 Diluter Demand Type Regulator .................................... 15-12
15.6.2 Continuous Flow Regulators. ........................................ 15-12
INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS ......................................................... 15-13
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OXYGEN
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OXYGEN
15 OXYGEN
15.1 OXYGEN SYSTEMS GENERAL
If an aircraft is designed to fly at heights above, say, 8,000 feet, there must be
some way in which we can maintain a comfortable environment for the crew and
passengers to breathe normally. This is normally done by cabin pressurisation. If
for whatever reason the pressurisation failed above this altitude an alternate but
emergency source of breathable air must be supplied. This is normally by
individual oxygen supplies from gaseous, liquid and chemical sources. Civil
aircraft use the gaseous and chemical type, with the military using liquid.
Some small, unpressurised aircraft only require oxygen occasionally and use a
system that meters a continuous flow of oxygen; the amount based on the
altitude flown.
Aircraft that fly at altitudes above 18000 feet have a diluter demand system that
also meters oxygen based on the altitude flown but directs it to the mask only
when the user inhales. Aircraft flying at very high altitude where the outside air
pressure is too low to force the oxygen into the lungs use pressure demand
systems. These systems send oxygen to the mask under a slight positive
pressure that forces the oxygen into the lungs.
15.2 OXYGEN SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The safety precautions associated with the use of oxygen are laid down in the
aircraft maintenance manuals. Although oxygen is none flammable it will support
combustion. If oil grease dust or metal particles are present a spontaneous
explosion may occur. The following safety precautions must be adhered to:
1.
Keep oil and grease away. Oxygen equipment, hoses and fittings must not
be handled with greasy hands or wearing greasy overalls.
2.
Keep oxygen away from fire. A small fire or spark will rapidly grow in an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere.
3.
No smoking.
4.
Handle oxygen components carefully.
5.
Dont mix oxygen
6.
Always follow any instructions given in manuals and/or on charging panels.
Page 15-1
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OXYGEN
When charging a gaseous system ensure:

1.
No refuelling operations are being carried out.
2.
No switching on or off electrical supplies.
3.
Adequate warning notices are in place i.e. oxygen charging in

progress
4.
That there is no smoking or naked flames.
5.
That the aircraft is earthed
6.
That adequate fire fighting equipment is available.
15.3 SYSTEM LAYOUT

The crew and passenger gaseous oxygen systems and their oxygen cylinders are
usually independent of each other except for a common charging point and an
over pressure relief facility. Both these systems provide for storage of the oxygen
at high pressures and its delivery to the crew and passenger manifolds and
outlets under low pressure.
In general gaseous oxygen systems are used for the cockpit and chemically
generated oxygen is used for the cabin. Some aircraft use gaseous systems for
both the cockpit and cabin.
15.3.1 Cockpit System Layout
The aircrew will have a mask for each occupant. These will be quick fitting and
will be located inside boxes that are within easy reach. Figure 1 shows a typical
cockpit layout
Typical Cockpit layout

Figure 1
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OXYGEN
Crew Mask
Crew oxygen masks contain a microphone implanted in the mask that is

permanently connected; to allow communications to be maintained at all times.
The end of the mask hose is connected to the supply regulator that regulates the
oxygen flow to the mask. On some aircraft an inflatable harness is used to allow
one handed fitting of the mask. The mask and harness is contained in a storage
box shown in figure 2.
When the mask is required the storage box release levers are squeezed together.
The box doors are unlocked and the mask is withdrawn. A green oxygen on flag
will appear. On withdrawal of the mask, the harness is automatically inflated.
Once the mask and harness has been fitted the release levers are released and
the oxygen that has inflated the harness is exhausted to atmosphere. The
harness deflates and tightens on the crew members head.
The storage box contains a test lever that can be operated to test the oxygen flow
to the mask. When the system is operating correctly a blinker indication on the
flow indicator turns green. There will also be a 100% selector button which when
depressed will allow pure undiluted oxygen to be delivered to the mask.
Typical Storage Box and Mask Harness

Figure 2
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OXYGEN
15.3.2 Cabin System Layout

On gaseous oxygen systems a ring main is provided from the storage bottles to
the PSU`s. In chemically generated oxygen systems an oxygen module is located
in each PSU. A typical layout is shown in figure 3.
Candle Type Oxygen Module

Figure 3
Passenger Mask
The passenger masks will be found within the Passenger Service Unit (PSU) and
will be deployed by gravity on actuation of the drop out mechanism. Each seating
position both in the cabin must have an easily fitted mask, which will be used by
each occupant. Some aircraft do not have a mask for each person but have
strategically placed masks in the PSU for the passengers to share. Some aircraft
do not have drop out systems and the masks may have to be deployed
manually by the cabin crew.
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OXYGEN
These are normally simple cup shaped mouldings with an elasticated strap. The
cup is designed to fit all sizes from babies to adults. A reservoir bag is fitted to the
mask to store an immediate supply of oxygen.
Passenger Oxygen Mask

Figure 4
15.3.3 Continuous Flow Oxygen System
Continuous flow systems are usually used in passenger oxygen systems where
oxygen is needed only occasionally. These systems are wasteful of oxygen but
due to their simplicity are installed on most aircraft. The oxygen is carried in a
high-pressure bottle. The pressure is regulated down to around 400 psi (depends
on aircraft type) by a pressure reducing valve and the oxygen is metered by a
pressure regulator to around 70 psi before it is delivered to the masks.
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OXYGEN
A pressure relief valve is incorporated into the system to prevent damage in the
event of a failure of the pressure-reducing valve. If the pressure is relieved
through this valve a green blow out disc on the outside skin of the aircraft will
blow giving a visual indication. As well as a visible blow out disc some aircraft
also deploy a red streamer in an over pressure condition.
Continuous Flow Masks
Continuous flow oxygen systems use re-breather type masks. These masks may
be a simple transparent plastic re-breather bag. The mask is held loosely over the
mouth and nose with an elastic band and oxygen continually flows into the bag
through a plastic tube that is plugged into the mask outlet.
When the user exhales the air that was in the lungs for the shortest period is the
first out and fills the re-breather bag. The remaining air in the lungs is exhausted
from the mast. Inhaling again the exhaled air in the bag is enriched with the
oxygen supply and is re-breathed.
More sophisticated continuous flow masks are used in pressurised aircraft. In the
event of the loss of cabin pressure an automatic valve is turned on to send
oxygen to into the passenger oxygen system. The oxygen pressure actuates the
door actuator valve, which opens the overhead mask compartments. A mask
drops down. When the passenger pulls the mask tube a lanyard operated rotary
valve opens and starts the oxygen flow. The passenger places the mask over his
mouth and nose and breathes normally.
Valves mounted in the base plate of the mask allow some cabin air to enter the
mask and allow exhaled air to leave. During inhalation the pure oxygen in the bag
is taken into the lungs. When the bag is empty cabin air is taken in through the
mask and mixes with the oxygen flowing through the tube. During exhale the air
from the lungs leaves the mask through one of the valves while pure oxygen is
flowing from the regulator into the bag ready for the next inhale.
15.3.4 Demand Type Oxygen System
The cockpit crews of most commercial aircraft are supplied with oxygen through a
diluter demand system. The system meters oxygen only when the user inhales
and the amount of oxygen metered depends on the altitude of the aircraft.
Almost all pressurised aircraft have a diluter demand type system for the aircrew
and a continuous flow type system for the passengers.
Pressure Demand Oxygen Regulator.
At altitudes above 40000 feet the oxygen in the air has such a low pressure that
even the pure oxygen supply must be forced into the lungs. The low pressure
from the users lungs are insufficient to draw in the oxygen. This is done under a
slight positive pressure from the regulator.
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OXYGEN
15.3.5 Portable Oxygen Systems

At various positions in the cabin, there are located, portable oxygen sets for use
by the cabin crew to allow them to check that the passengers have all got their
masks on. These masks can also be used to help breathing in the case of fumes
or smoke in the cabin.
A slightly different type of oxygen set can also be found in the cabins of most
passenger aircraft. These are called 'therapeutic' sets and are used for medical
purposes when, for example, a passenger is having difficulty breathing. The set,
which is illustrated overleaf, allows the passenger to receive an enriched or 100%
oxygen supply, until they are feeling better or medical assistance is obtained after
landing.
A typical portable system is shown in Figure 5. It has two outlets, which might be
therapeutic. A therapeutic outlet delivers more volume of oxygen than normal and
is used to aid those passengers that may have breathing difficulties or heart
conditions. The types of mask used with portable equipment, depends upon the
designer's or the company's requirements.
Portable Walk Round Set

Figure 5
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OXYGEN
15.4 DROP OUT SYSTEM

Drops out oxygen masks in each PSU are installed to ensure that there is an
adequate supply of oxygen should the aircraft conditions require it. When the
mask drops from the PSU the action of the passenger pulling the mask towards
him automatically starts the oxygen flow. If there were not many passengers on
board this would mean that only those masks that are pulled will have an oxygen
flow preventing both excess oxygen waste and an oxygen enriched environment.
The PSU is a hinged flap containing on its under face, reading lights, cold air
vents, warning signs and cabin crew alert button. The masks are stored inside the
flap panel (under the overhead bins). The masks will drop under the following
conditions:
Automatically when the cabin altitude reaches a pre-determined level (usually

around 10000 feet).
When the aircrew selects oxygen. Drop out could be actuated electrically,
pneumatically or mechanically.
In the case of a chemically generated supply the PSU flap is opened either
electrically or mechanically.
15.4.1 Pneumatically Operated PSU Flap
On the pneumatic door opening method a small plunger is fitted above each PSU
flap. The doors are held closed by a spring loaded latch assembly. When oxygen
is required and selected, oxygen pressure is directed to the over centre leaf
spring and to the plunger. The pressure extends the plunger that pushes against
and overcomes the latch assembly. The PSU flap opens under gravity deploying
the oxygen masks in the process.
Giving a sharp pull on the mask the flow control pin is withdrawn from its locating
hole. The oxygen pressure overcomes the over centre leaf spring and directs
oxygen to the mask.
Should the cabin crew require to turn off the oxygen at each PSU a manual
closing toggle is rotated which acts against the over centre leaf spring and cuts
off the flow to the mask.
If the PSU flap fails to open a manual actuation pin can be pushed to allow the
flap to open.
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OXYGEN
15.4.2 Electrically Operated PSU Flap

When chemical oxygen generators are installed for the passengers to use,
oxygen is not supplied until the masks are pulled. Therefore they cannot use the
oxygen generated to open the PSU Flap. The flap is opened by an electrical
solenoid. When oxygen is selected power is supplied to the solenoids which
when energised operate a plunger. This plunger extends and operates a latch
assembly. Operation of the latch assembly opens the PSU door and the masks
fall under gravity.
15.5 SOURCES OF OXYGEN
Most aircraft use gaseous oxygen as the primary source for the aircrew and a
chemically generated source for the passengers. Some aircraft with oxygen
generators fitted are having them replaced with a gaseous oxygen system due to
the associated fire hazards. The main reason for using gaseous oxygen is the
ease of handling and its availability at most airports, even though oxygen
generated systems are more lightweight.
The main disadvantage of a gaseous oxygen system is that the oxygen is stored
at a high pressure, it reacts explosively with greases and oils and the storage
bottles are very heavy. Bottles are made from high tensile steel, but on the more
modern aircraft, Kevlar wrapped aluminium alloy, carbon fibre or plastics are
used. They are painted either black with a white dome top or green (USA), and
stencilled with Aviation Oxygen in white letters.
15.5.1 Chemical Oxygen Generator
Oxygen generators or oxygen candles as they are sometimes known, is a
convenient way to carry oxygen in an aircraft, when it may only be required in
emergencies. They have a long shelf life and they are lightweight. The storage
capacity is about three times that of a gaseous oxygen system. Once used they
are easily replaced. A typical candle is shown in Figure 6.
Sodium Chlorate and iron is mixed with a binding material and is then moulded
into a solid block. The block is installed in an insulated stainless steel case. When
oxygen is needed, pulling the oxygen mask withdraws a safety pin from the firing
mechanism, and a spring-loaded percussion cap or an electrical squib igniter
starts the sodium chlorate decomposing by chemical reaction. Enough heat is
generated to start the reaction and then the heat of the reaction sustains itself. (It
does not burn).
As it decomposes it releases the oxygen at a pre-determined rate. The block will
continue to react until the sodium chlorate is consumed. There is no way to cut off
the process once it has started. The by product of the reaction, apart from the
oxygen, is sodium chloride (salt) and ferrous oxide (rust)
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MODULE 11.15
OXYGEN
HEAT
SHIELD
PERCUSSION
CARTRIDGE
PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
FILTER
FIRING
PIN
DISTRIBUTION
BLOCK
IRON AND SODIUM
CHLORATE CORE
ACTIVATION PIN
OUTLETS TO
MASKS
LANYARD
Chemical Oxygen Generator

Figure 6
The oxygen that is produced is proportional to the cross sectional area of the core
and the rate of reaction. The rate of decomposition is determined by the
concentration of iron in the core. The oxygen production is greater at initial
reaction (larger cross sectional area) to provide high oxygen output during the
initial few minutes of the emergency decent. Once generation has started core
temperature is approximately 450 degrees F.
The distributing and regulating system is self-contained. It consists of a manifold
attached to one end of the stainless steel cylinder. The oxygen is filtered to
remove any salt particles before it is supplied to the manifold. The manifold
contains calibrated connections for a number of oxygen masks and they ensure
an equal flow to each mask. Normal output from the generator is 10 psi and it is
therefore not regulated prior to breathing. A pressure relief valve is also located
on the casing to relive pressures in the generator above 50 psi.
The disadvantage of the system is mainly the large amount of heat generated,
which means that the generator must be well insulated from the airframe
structure. Some aircraft that use oxygen generators are replacing them with
gaseous oxygen systems due to associated the fire hazards.
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OXYGEN
15.5.2 Gaseous Oxygen Systems

Oxygen in a gaseous state is contained in storage cylinders the number and
capacity of the cylinders depending upon the number of passengers and crew.
The normal charge of the cylinders is usually 1800 psi and a capacity of 30 to 120
cubic feet. Cylinders normally have a manually operated shut off valve in the neck
of the bottle to facilitate bottle removal. A direct reading pressure gauge is also
fitted, as is an electrical transducer that sends pressure indication signals to the
cockpit instrumentation.
15.5.3 Charging Of Systems
Gaseous systems can be re-charged either at the aircraft, from portable, large
capacity, bottle sets (oxygen trolley), or by removing the bottle itself, via quick
release clamps and connections, and re-charging in a dedicated oxygen charging
room or bay.
Which system is used is dictated by the Airworthiness Authority of the country of
registration, some of which allow 'on aircraft' charging, whilst most insist that all
bottles are removed for re-charging remotely from the aircraft.
With on aircraft charging, a regulated oxygen trolley supply is attached to the
aircraft charging point. The hose is usually purged before connection to clear the
hose of impurities and moisture. During the charging process temperatures are
generated in the pipelines to the storage bottles. To dissipate this temperature
thermal compensators are installed.
These compensators are sintered bronze elements soldered inside the pipelines.
They act as a heat sink to dissipate the heat whilst allowing the oxygen to flow to
the storage bottles.
With chemical oxygen systems, when the units themselves become life expired
and due for return to their manufacturers, they are simply removed as a unit from
the PSU. When they have been made safe, (usually by the fitting of a safety pin
in the firing sear), they are returned to the factory.
15.5.4 Oxygen Distribution
The supply pipes, in the high-pressure side of the system, from the storage bottle
to the pressure-regulating valve, are made from stainless steel or copper based
alloys. They are colour coded at each end with the words breathing oxygen and
a black rectangular symbol on a white background.
From the storage bottle the pressure is reduced to an acceptable level before
being distributed to the passenger and crew compartments. As the maximum
pressure to the masks will be 70psi, the distribution pipelines, from the pressure
regulator valve are made from aluminium alloy or plastic.
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OXYGEN
The distribution lines for the aircrew go from the storage bottle to the cockpit
pressure regulator and the passenger lines go from the storage bottle, up the side
walls and then along the roof. Each passenger service unit (PSU) where the
masks are stowed are connected to the roof piping. Test connections are
installed in the system to allow pressure gauges to be fitted during system
testing.
15.6 SUPPLY REGULATION
15.6.1 Diluter Demand Type Regulator
Oxygen flows into the regulator through the supply valve and when the user
inhales the pressure inside the regulator decreases and the demand valve opens
under action from the demand valve diaphragm allowing oxygen to flow to the
mask.
The aneroid capsule operated metering valve mixes cabin air with the oxygen.
When the aircraft is flying at low altitudes the user gets mostly cabin air and a
small amount of oxygen. As the altitude increases the aneroid capsule metering
valve progressively reduces the amount of cabin air and increases the amount of
oxygen supplied. At about 34000 feet the cabin air is shut off completely and pure
oxygen is supplied.
If there is smoke in the cockpit or if the pilot feels the need for pure oxygen the
oxygen lever can be moved to the 100% position. The cabin air is shut off and the
aneroid metering valve fully opens and only pure oxygen is supplied to the mask
when the user inhales.
If the regulator malfunctions the emergency lever can be operated. This opens
the demand valve allowing a continuous flow of pure oxygen to the mask.
15.6.2 Continuous Flow Regulators.
There are automatic and manual continuous flow regulators. The automatic
regulator contains and aneroid capsule that senses the aircraft altitude and
meters the correct amount of oxygen for that altitude. The manual regulator has a
control valve that allows the pilot to adjust the flow rate based on the altitude. A
calibrated orifice in the mask outlet determines the amount of oxygen delivered to
the mask.
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OXYGEN
15.7
The systems are provided with an overpressure relief facility. This is normally a
green coloured rupture disc. The disc will be located at the overboard discharge
fitting which is flush with the aircrafts skin. When the maximum cylinder pressure
is exceeded the cylinder safety valve operates discharging the excess pressure
into the overboard discharge line. The green disc ruptures, as the excess
pressure escapes to atmosphere and a red (or yellow) indicator becomes visible.
Some aircraft also deploy a red streamer from the fitting to make it instantly
visible.
On aircraft with oxygen generators fitted, once the generator has been activated,
dolls eye indicators on the end casing turn from orange (or purple) to black. Some
have heat sensitive tape wrapped around the outer casing. The tape changing
colour when the generator has been activated.
There will be various indications given on the oxygen panel and centralised
warning panel (CWP) indicating faults within the system.
A pressure gauge will be fitted which shows the pressures in the storage bottles.
The gauge will have a green segment and a red segment. The green segment
indicates the actual pressure in the system. The red segment will indicate that the
bottle is empty or maybe that the shut off valve is closed.
A low pressure switch is fitted in the system downstream of the storage bottle and
will give an indication (LO PR) on the local panel if the pressure reduces below a
pre-set figure. An associated (OXY) caution light will illuminate on the CWP and a
single chime warning will also sound.
Indications and Warning Panels

Figure 7
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OXYGEN
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MODULE 11.16
PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM
CONTENTS
16 PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM ....................................................... 16-3
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
GENERAL ..................................................................................... 16-3
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ........................................................... 16-3

FULL PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS ................................................... 16-3
VACUUM SYSTEMS ........................................................................ 16-5
LOW PRESSURE PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS LAYOUT............................. 16-5
16.5.1 Engine Driven Air Pump ................................................ 16-5
16.6 AIR SUPPLY SOURCES .................................................................. 16-6
16.6.1 Engine Bleed Air ........................................................... 16-7
16.6.2 Compressors or Blowers. .............................................. 16-8
16.6.3 Auxillary Power Unit (APU) ........................................... 16-8
16.6.4 Ground Supply .............................................................. 16-9
16.7 PRESSURE CONTROL .................................................................... 16-10
16.7.1 Pressure Regulator ....................................................... 16-10
16.8 DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................... 16-11
16.8.1 Expansion Joints ........................................................... 16-12
16.9 INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS......................................................... 16-14
16.9.1 Overpressure ................................................................ 16-14
16.9.2 Overheat ....................................................................... 16-14
16.9.3 Duct Hot Air Leakage .................................................... 16-15
16.10 SYSTEM INTERFACES .................................................................... 16-15
16.10.1 Pneumatic Gyro Power systems ................................... 16-15
16.10.2 Backup High Pressure Pneumatic Systems .................. 16-16
16.10.3 Pneumatic De-Icing systems ......................................... 16-16
16.10.4 Air Conditioning And Pressurisation. ............................. 16-16
16.10.5 Air Driven Hydraulic Pumps. ......................................... 16-17
16.10.6 Pressurising Of Hydraulic Reservoirs. ........................... 16-17
16.10.7 Waste And Water Systems ........................................... 16-17
16.10.8 Pneumatic Stall Warning ............................................... 16-18
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16 PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM

16.1
GENERAL
Pneumatic systems are fluid power systems that use a compressible fluid, air.
These systems are dependable and lightweight and because the fluid is air there
is no need for a return system
Some aircraft have only a low pressure pneumatic system to operate the gyro
instruments, others use compressed air as an emergency backup for lowering
the landing gear and operating the brakes in the case of hydraulic failure. Other
aircraft have a complete pneumatic system thats actuates the landing gear
retraction, nose wheel steering, passenger doors and propeller brakes.
16.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
When working on bleed air systems, it is important to follow the precautions
below:
Bleed air is hot! Do not touch pipes and ducts.
Always replace seals, (normally crush seals), when replacing joints.
Tighten clamps to the torque figure quoted in the Maintenance Manual.
Never lever against ducts, as dents cause hot spots.
All duct supports and struts must not put any strain on to the duct.
16.3 FULL PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

The majority of aircraft use hydraulic or electrical power to operate landing gear
systems, but some aircraft use air systems. Some advantages of using
compressed air are:
Air is universally available and in unlimited supplies.
Pneumatic system components are reasonably simple and lightweight.
No return lines are fitted resulting in a weight saving.
There is no fire hazard and the danger of explosion is slight.
Contamination is minimised by the use of filters.
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Figure 1 shows a typical high pressure pneumatic system, that uses air
compressors driven from the engines accessory drive. The compressed air is
discharged through a bleed valve to a pressure relief (unloading) valve. The
bleed valve is held closed by oil pressure. In the event of oil pressure failure the
bleed valve opens to offload the compressor. The pressure relief valve maintains
system pressure at around 3000 psi.
A shuttle valve in the line between the compressor and the main system makes it
possible to charge the system from a ground source. When the engine is not
running the shuttle valve slides over to isolate the compressor.
SHUTTLE VALVE
GROUND CHARGING POINT
PRV
BLEED VALVE
WATER
SEPARATOR
BLOW
OUT
DISC
AIR PUMP
DESICCANT
NRV
FILTER
EMEREGENCY BRAKE SYSTEM
PRIMARY AIR BOTTLE
ISOLATING VALVE
EMERGENCY LANDING GEAR
TO NORMAL
SERVICES
OFF
GAUGE
PRV
AIR BOTTLE
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
A Typical Pneumatic System

Figure 1
Moisture in a compressed air system will freeze as the air pressure drops when a
component is actuated. To prevent this from happening, the water must be
completely extracted from the air. A water separator is fitted which collects the
moisture from the air onto a baffle and it is allowed to drain overboard. An
electric heater prevents the water in the separator from freezing.
After the air leaves the water separator any remaining moisture is removed as the
air flows through a desiccant or chemical dryer. The air is then filtered before it
enters main system.
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The air is then fed to each of the storage bottles, which provide the emergency air
for several systems. A manually operated isolation valve allows the air supply to
be shut off to so that maintenance can be carried out on the systems without
having to discharge the storage bottles.
The air is stored at maximum system pressure around 3000 psi to supply the
landing gear and brakes in an emergency. A pressure reducing valve is fitted to
reduce the air pressure down to the operating pressure that the majority of the
components work at 9around 1000psi) ie landing gear normal operation, the
passenger door, the propeller brake and the nose wheel steering.
16.4
VACUUM SYSTEMS
A supply of air at a negative pressure can be required for a number of purposes.

The supply of vacuum to instruments for example, usually comes from either a
small vacuum pump attached to the (piston) engine of the aircraft or from a
venturi jet pump, which obtains its power via a tapping from the (jet) engine. The
low pressure caused by the venturi draws in air to supply the system.
Other requirements for a source of vacuum might be in a pneumatic de-icing
system. This type of de-icing uses the inflation of flexible leading edge mats to
break-off the ice, which has formed. To keep the de-icer boots, as they are called,
in place, they are fed a negative pressure from a venturi, which ensures that the
boots are sucked flat onto the wing leading edge, ensuring a smooth,
aerodynamic surface.
16.5 LOW PRESSURE PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS LAYOUT
These systems provide air for gyroscopic altitude and direction indicators and air
to inflate the pneumatic de-icing boots. This compressed air is usually provided
by a vane type engine driven air pump (Figure 2).
16.5.1 Engine Driven Air Pump
On early aircraft engine driven air pumps were used primarily to evacuate the
casings of air-driven gyroscopic instruments so they were more commonly known
as vacuum pumps. On later aircraft the discharge air was used to inflate de-icing
boots on control surfaces and are now more correctly called air pumps.
There are two types of air pumps that are used, these are wet air pumps and dry
air pumps.
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Vane Type Air Pump

Figure 2
Wet Air Pumps
Wet pumps have steel vanes that are lubricated and sealed with engine oil which
is drawn in through the pump mounting pad and exhausted with the discharge air.
This oil is removed from the discharge air with an oil separator before it is used
for de-icing or driving the instruments.
Dry Air Pumps
Dry air pumps were developed so that there was no oil in the discharge air and
therefore there were no requirements for an oil separator. The pump vanes are
made from carbon and are self lubricating. The main problem with this kind of
pump is that the vanes are easily breakable by any contaminants that enters the
pump. To prevent this form occurring the inlet air is filtered.
16.6 AIR SUPPLY SOURCES
The source of air supply and arrangement of the system components depend on
the aircraft type and system employed but in general one of the following
methods may be used:
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16.6.1 Engine Bleed Air

This is used in turbo jet aircraft in which hot air is bled of from the engine
compressors to the cabin. Before the air enters the cabin it is passed through a
pressure and temperature control system which reduces its pressure and
temperature and is then mixed with ram air.
Because of the great variation of air output available from ground to maximum
flight rpm there is a need to maintain a reasonable supply of air during low rpm
operation as well as restricting excessive pressures when operating at full speed.
Two tappings are taken from the engine, one form the LP stages and one form
the HP stages to maintain a reasonable pressure band at all engine speeds.
Figure 3 shows a typical 2 stage bleed air system.
At low engine rpm the LP air is of insufficient pressure for use in the pneumatic
systems, so air will be tapped from the HP stages. When engine speed increases
the LP air pressure will also increase and at a pre-determined pressure the HP
air will be shut off and when operating at maximum engine speeds the air will be
taken purely from the LP stages. In all normal stages of flight therefore the bleed
air will come form the LP stages.
Typical Two Stage Bleed Air System

Figure 3
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MODULE 11.16
16.6.2 Compressors or Blowers.

This is used by some turbo jet, turbo prop or piston engine aircraft, the
compressors or blowers being either engine driven via an accessory drive, by
bleed air or electric or hydraulic motors. The compressor inlet duct is connected
to an air scoop and its outlet is connected to the pneumatic manifold. The unit is
controlled by a shut off valve which is operated from the cockpit.
When insufficient LP air pressure is available for the pneumatic systems at low
engine speeds the aircrew will select the shut off valve to open. This will direct
the LP air to drive the turbo compressor. A pressure regulator is incorporated to
ensure a constant output at the required pressure.
On large multi-engine aircraft only some of the engines will have a turbo
compressor (Figure 4) which is normally mounted with its associated controls in
an engine bay.
Turbo Compressor
Figure 4
16.6.3 Auxillary Power Unit (APU)
This provides an independent source of pressurised air. It is basically a small gas
turbine engine that provides air and other service whilst the aircraft is on the
ground with its main engines stopped. It is usually a self contained unit located in
the tail section of the aircraft where it can be run safely (Figure 5). On some
aircraft the APU can be started in flight and act as a back up source of air,
hydraulics services in the event of a loss of an engine.
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MODULE 11.16
Typical APU Setup

Figure 5
16.6.4 Ground Supply
For use on the ground when the engines are not running. This unit will run until
the aircraft is independent of the trolley. The ground cart is basically a
compressor driven by an engine, usually a diesel. The compressor output
pressure is regulated to match the aircrafts system pressure. A quick release
hose is connected from the cart to the aircraft service panel. The maximum
aircraft systems pressure and operating instructions including safety precautions
are detailed on the inside of the service access panel.
Ground Cart Control Panel

Figure 6
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MODULE 11.16
Instructions for operating the ground cart will be found on a panel on the carts
control panel. Figure 6 shows a typical ground cart control panel.
16.7
PRESSURE CONTROL
In many bleed air systems the pressure is regulated only by the operation of the
high pressure shut off valve. The range of pressure may be from 10psi at ground
idle to 65 psi at take off power. Many modern aircraft use bleed air for many
systems that are sensitive to pressure variations and therefore some form of
regulation is required.
The pressure regulator is a pneumatically operated valve which will give a predetermined output pressure form the engine bleed air system. The regulator may
also perform as the shut off valve. This is then called a pressure regulating and
shut off valve.
16.7.1 Pressure Regulator
This valve operates on the principle of a balance between air pressure and spring
pressures. Referring to Figure 7. Assuming the piston has an area of 1 square
inch and is held in its seat by a spring that pushes with a 100 pounds force. The
piston has a shoulder of 0.5 square inches and this area is acted on by a system
air pressure of 1500psi. The cone shaped seat of the valve has an area of 0.5
square inches and is acted on by a reduced pressure of 200psi.
A bleed orifice in the piston allows air pressure into the piston chamber. A relief
valve being acted on by the reduced 200psi pressure and relief valve spring
pressure, maintains the air pressure in the piston chamber at 750psi.
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
BLEED ORIFICE
PISTON
PRESSURE IN
PISTON
CONE
TO SERVICES
Pressure Regulator
Figure 7
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When the air supply is used by a pneumatic service, the reduced downline
pressure of 200psi reduces further. This reduced pressure is now insufficient to
keep the relief valve closed. The 750psi piston chamber pressure unseats the
relief valve and reduces the piston chamber pressure.
The reduced piston chamber pressure unseats the piston cone piston which
allows the system pressure to bleed into the down lines. Once the downline
pressure rises to 200psi, the piston cone and the relief valve re-seat and the
system is once again in balance.
16.8
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution is achieved by ducting and pipelines that carry the charge air from the
engine compressors to the various services that require air for their operation.
Due to the heat of the bleed air any leakage of the ducts will cause an extreme
temperature rise in the area of the leak with the possibility of fire or damage to the
surrounding structure and equipment. Leak detection systems are therefore
incorporated. Figure 9 shows a typical distribution layout.
Ducts Supports
Figure 8
The ducting is made up of many sections for ease of maintenance and
cheapness of replacement. They are constructed of thin wall material and
clamped together with joints that allow for thermal expansion.
Engine bleed air system ducts are manufactured from stainless steel and the
ducts and pipelines are usually manufactured from titanium as they are able to
withstand higher temperatures and are lighter in weight. The duct sections are
supported throughout their length by clamps and tie rod attachments to the
aircraft structure as shown in Figure 8.
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Bleed Air Distribution Manifold

Figure 9
16.8.1 Expansion Joints
Joints are assembled cold and when in use the temperatures int eh ducting can
reach up tom 350 degrees F. Expansion devices must be incorporated into the
systems to prevent any distortion or buckling of the ducts. This expansion can be
allowed for in several ways.
Pre-Stressed Joint
One method is to have the duct sections installed slightly shorter in length and
allow them to expand with the heat to fit correctly. The ducts will be pre-stressed
by the clamps when cold (Figure 10).
Pre-Stressed Joint
Figure 10
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Flexible Ball Joint
Another method is with a flexible ball joint fitting at the duct ends. The joint is
designed to allow for slight flexing and misalignment as well as expansion. A
flange on one end of the duct is connected to a bearing nut on the other and
screwed together to form the joint (Figure 11). Shims are used to ensure
adequate clearance is maintained for the expansion and flexing and a crush type
metal seal is used to prevent air leakage at the joints.
Ball Joint
Figure 11
Cable Attachment Joint
The cable attachment type joint is used where large temperature changes exist,
ie from cold soak at high altitudes to maximum working temperatures when the
pneumatic system is selected on. This joint has bosses attached at each end of
the duct.
There are usually 3 short cables equally spaced around the duct (Figure 12). The
cables have a swaged ball end fittings at one end and a swaged threaded fitting
at the other. Each end is located in a bracket on the ducting. A seal is fitted
around the duct before the ducts are connected. A nut is fitted on the threaded
end and tightened. This pulls tightens the cables and seals the duct. A small gap
is left at the seal ends to allow for expansion.
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Cable Joint
Figure 12
16.9
Safety devices are fitted into pneumatic systems to prevent a possible overheat
or overpressure which could cause severe damage to the air ducting or systems.
16.9.1 Overpressure
Overpressure is usually caused by a malfunction of the high pressure shut off
valve that remains open when the engine is operating at its maximum rpm. In
most systems a pressure relief valve is fitted in the engine bleed air ducting which
relieves excess pressures. The pressure relief valve may also work in conjunction
with a pressure switch will close the high pressure shut off valve at a pre
determined pressure.
16.9.2 Overheat
Over temperature of the bleed air is prevented, by an electrical temperature
sensor, downstream of the engine bleed air valve. When a pre determined
temperature is reached the electrical sensor will signal the high pressure shut off
valve to close. An overheat will be indicated to the aircrew on the CWP and
associated control panel.
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16.9.3 Duct Hot Air Leakage

Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions. A duct
protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot zones such as
engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxillary power units if fitted.
The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature around the
wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical circuit is made. When
the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central warning panel
with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The leaking duct may be
isolated automatically or may require the pilot to take action to close off the air
valves. The faulty system will then remain out of use.
16.10
SYSTEM INTERFACES
The pneumatic system interfaces with various other aircraft systems. Once the
bleed air has been reduced in pressure to around 40 to 50 psi, most services
have their own pressure and temperature controls, as well as generating their
own warnings and indications to the CWP or system control panels in the cockpit.
16.10.1 Pneumatic Gyro Power systems
The gyroscopes in pneumatic gyro instruments are driven by air impinging on
cups cut in the periphery of the wheel. There are two methods of obtaining air to
drive the instruments:
Air Pump Suction
The air pump suction evacuates the instrument case and draws air in through a
filter. The filtered air id directed through a nozzle and it strikes the driving cups to
drive the gyro instrument. A suction relief valve regulates the suction to the
correct value to drive the instrument and a suction gauge reads the pressure drop
across the instrument.
Dry Air Pump Pressure.
Since many aircraft fly at high altitudes where there is insufficient air pressure to
drive the instruments another method must be used. The gyro instruments are
driven by the air from the pressure side of a dry air pump. The air is filtered
before it is taken into the air pump and is regulated before it flows through an in
line filter to the instruments. After driving the instruments it is evacuated
overboard.
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16.10.2 Backup High Pressure Pneumatic Systems

On some aircraft, in case the hydraulic systems fail there must be provision for an
emergency extension of the landing gear and application of the brakes. The
system comprises of a pressurised cylinder which contains approximately
3000psi of compressed air or nitrogen. A shuttle valve (Figure 13) in the actuator
line directs hydraulic fluid to the actuator for normal operation or compressed
air/nitrogen for emergency operation.
PISTON
PISTON
EMERGENCY AIR
HYDRAULIC FAILURE
AIR
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
Shuttle Valve Operation

Figure 13
16.10.3 Pneumatic De-Icing systems
The compressed air system used for inflating de-icing boots uses wet air pumps.
The oily air leaves the pump and passes through baffle plates in an oil separator.
The oil collects on the baffles and drains down to a collector at the separator
base and returned to the engine oil sump.
Clean air leaves the separator and flows through the de-icing selector valve to a
pressure regulating valve, where its pressure is reduced to the value needed for
the boots. It then flows to the distribution sequencing valve. When the system is
switched off the air is directed overboard. De-icing systems are dealt with in
more detail in Module 11.12 Ice And Rain Protection.
16.10.4 Air Conditioning And Pressurisation.
Bleed air supplies provide hot air to the air conditioning packs. The hot air passes
through primary and secondary heat exchangers before it is mixed with cold air to
provide conditioned air into the aircraft. As the hot air passes through the system
it flows across a turbine which drives the system compressor.
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Bleed air is also used for cabin pressurisation. The air drives a compressor which
pressurises the air before it is fed to the cabin. Some aircraft use a jet pump to
pressurise the air. Th air passes through an inter cooler to reduce its temperature
before entering the cabin.
Air-conditioning systems are often protected by flow control valves, which double
as shut-off valves in the case of a fault.
16.10.5 Air Driven Hydraulic Pumps.
Some aircraft use hydraulic pumps operated by air turbines. These are driven by
bleed air from the engines and the flow is controlled and modulated by a solenoid
operated pressure regulator and shut off valve to maintain the turbine speed
within set limits. The turbine is connected to the pump via a shaft and the air is
exhausted to atmosphere from the turbine outlet.
16.10.6 Pressurising Of Hydraulic Reservoirs.
Aircraft flying at altitudes in excess of 20000 feet require the hydraulic reservoir to
be pressurised to prevent foaming of the fluid, due to the low ambient air
pressure and to prevent pump cavitation. The bleed air is fed to a
regulator/reducing valve which regulates the pressure supplied to the reservoir. A
pressure relief valve is fitted to the system which vents any excess air pressure to
atmosphere.
16.10.7 Waste And Water Systems
The toilet systems fitted to larger aircraft use a vacuum to empty a number of
toilets into a single collector tank. This saves having a self-contained tank, full of
de-odorising fluid and the associated pumping mechanisms attached to each
toilet assembly.
Vacuum Waste System

Figure 14
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The flush operation consists of fresh water from the potable supply and, most
importantly, the vacuum, which draws the waste into the collector tank. This is
obtained by having the tank connected to the outside of the aircraft. Only at low
levels, when the outside air pressure is insufficient, is a small vacuum pump
called into operation. Figure 14 shows a typical vacuum toilet system.
16.10.8 Pneumatic Stall Warning
These systems are common on light aircraft. A slotted plate is mounted on the
wing leading edge and its slot coincide with the stagnation point of the wing
during normal flight. The slot is connected to a horn via a tube. When the angle of
attack is sufficient to induce a stall the low air pressure is drawn into the tube and
sounds the horn giving the pilot warning of an impending stall.
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CONTENTS
17 WATER AND WASTE SYSTEMS ................................................ 17-3
17.1
17.2
WATER SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 17-3

17.1.1 Pressure Control ........................................................... 17-3
17.1.2 Water Distribution System ............................................. 17-4
17.1.3 Water Heating ............................................................... 17-5
17.1.4 Waste Water Collection And Drainage .......................... 17-6
17.1.5 Quantity Indication ........................................................ 17-6
17.1.6 Water Service Panel ..................................................... 17-7
WASTE SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 17-8
17.2.1 Removable Toilet Assemblies ....................................... 17-9
17.2.2 Liquid Flush Toilets ....................................................... 17-9
17.2.3 Vacuum Toilets ............................................................. 17-11
17.2.4 Corrosion Control .......................................................... 17-13
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17 WATER AND WASTE SYSTEMS

17.1 WATER SYSTEMS
The term Potable water refers to drinking water. On aircraft it is used not only to
supply water for drinking, but also the galleys and to provide hot and cold water to
wash basins throughout the aircraft. A centralised water tank can feed any
number of galleys and toilets through a gallery of pipes. This will speed servicing
turnaround times when there need only be one main replenishment point. Potable
water is Hyper-chlorinated to control bacteria and is carried out at set intervals.
The major components in a potable water system are:
A storage tank.
Air pressure system to force water from the storage tank to the services.
Distribution lines
Filling system
Quantity indication system
Valves to drain the system
The tank is usually stored under the cabin floor in a cradle structure and is
constructed from either fibreglass with metal bonded bands or stainless steel.
The quantity and volume will be dictated by the number of passengers carried
and the length of the time the aircraft is airborne. Aircraft that are expected to
operate in cold climates may have heater blankets built in to the design to keep
the tank and the replenishing panel free of ice.
The tank assembly will incorporate a drain, filler connection, overflow connection
an air pressure connection and outlet pipelines to the galley and toilets.
17.1.1 Pressure Control
The supply of air for the movement of water is, tapped from the bleed air supply
of the engine compressor or the APU. Some aircraft, which require the ability to
draw water when there is no air pressure (on the ramp), have an electrically
powered air compressor that will provide a head of pressure to enable water to be
drawn off at any time. The compressor may automatically start when the bleed air
pressure drops below a pre-determined value.
On aircraft using a compressor, a riser loop is incorporated to prevent water
entering the compressor, the top of the loop being higher than the distribution
ducting ensuring that the water goes to the distribution lines first. A pressure
switch will control the compressor starting and stopping as the bleed air pressure
varies.
The distribution lines are connected to the tank drain, fill connection, overflow
connection, air pressure connection and the supply lines to all of the galleys and
lavatories.
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THE RISER LOOP PREVENTS THE

WATER FROM SIPHONING BACK
THROUGH THE COMPRESSOR
COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE SWITCH
WATER TANK
PRV
NRV`S
FILTER
PRESSURE
MANIFOLD
Water Tank Pressurisation System

Figure 1
17.1.2 Water Distribution System
A main water distribution line is taken from the water tank and is routed up into
the cabin ceiling. Individual pipelines are routed from this pipeline to the toilets
and galleys. The distribution lines are usually flexible hoses enclosed in an
aluminium sheath.
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The flexible hose is normally insulated to prevent it from freezing. The outer
sheath prevents any leakage from entering the cabin. Any leaking water will be
directed to the lower fuselage through drain tubes where it can then be drained
overboard. A quick release connection is located above each toilet and galley to
enable the supply line to be disconnected for removal of the toilet or galley.
On smaller aircraft the water tank may be located above the wash basin and
galley areas and provides water to the systems under gravity.
17.1.3 Water Heating
A water heater with a small capacity is installed in the supply piping under each
lavatory sink and provides hot water to the hot water tap. The heater contains
electrical elements in the base of the heater unit. On the side of the tank is a
warning light, a control switch, an overheat re-set switch and a pressure relief
valve.
Normally the heater switch will be on and the light will be illuminated. A switch
controller will regulate the water temperature to around 125 degrees F. If a
malfunction occurs and the temperature increases to 190 degrees F the overheat
switch will operate and switch off power to the heater unit. The power light will go
out. After a cooling down period the heater will have to be manually reset by
pressing the re-set button on the heater unit.
A pressure relief valve will relieve pressures in excess of around 140 psi. the
primary function of the relief valve is to relieve pressures caused by the water
overheating. A typical water heating system is shown in Figures 2 and Figure 3.
ON/OFF SWITCH
OVERHEAT RESET
SWITCH
OVERHEAT SWITCH
POWER SUPPLY
HEATING
ELEMENTS
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR
CYCLIC
SWITCH
NEON
INDICATOR
Heating System Schematic

Figure 2
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WASTE WATER
Heating System
Figure 3
17.1.4 Waste Water Collection And Drainage
Waste water collection and drainage depends on the aircraft. On some aircraft
the water from the washbasins drains directly overboard while on others it drains
into a soil tank and is used to flush the toilet system. Water drained overboard are
drained through drain masts under the fuselage. These masts are normally
electrically heated to prevent freezing and the forward motion of the aircraft
ensures that the water is finely atomised as it leaves the aircraft. To test the drain
mast heaters on the ground the hand is carefully used feeling for warmth.
17.1.5 Quantity Indication
Some aircraft use a simple sight gauge by the side of the tank to indicate the
level of the waste tank contents. On larger aircraft the tank will be fitted with a
sensor to remotely signal the tank levels to the cabin crew. One method of
indication is to use a gauge on the attendants panel and a corresponding gauge
which is fed from the same float and electrical transmitter on the water service
panel.
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Another method of indicating tank contents is to use a series of lights controlled

by magnetic floats installed inside the tank. When the waste water level operates
one of the magnetic floats a circuit is made and a corresponding light on the
panel is illuminated.
17.1.6 Water Service Panel
A water service panel will normally be found on the lower part of the fuselage,
where it can be easily reached by the maintenance crew who have the job of
replenishing the tank during the turnaround maintenance. The panel will probably
contain most of the following items. A filling point, a drain/overflow point, a
quantity indication, either in the form of an array of lights or a gauge unit and an
external air connection. A typical servicing panel is shown in Figure 4
QUANTITY
GAUGE
OPEN DRAIN
CONNECTION
WATER MAIN
CONNECTOR
WATER
DRAIN
HANDLE
WATER VENT
VALVE
OPEN
CLOSE
D
WATER SYSTEM
MAIN VALVE
WATER FILL
CONNECTOR
CLOSE
D
FILL CONNECTION
WITH COVER
Servicing Panel
Figure 4
The filling point on the panel will allow the replenishing rig/ truck to fill the tank
during a turnaround servicing, whilst the drain/overflow will show when the tank is
full. When full any excess water overflows out of the overflow line. Once the water
is seen from the overflow valve the fill/vent valve is closed to the vent position.
The quantity indicator will allow the tank to be filled to a 'less-than-full' quantity,
where the aircraft is, perhaps, on very short flight legs and the excess weight of
the water that will not be used, is traded-off against fuel. The external air
connection allows a ground air air source to be connected to allow the water to be
moved, within the system, whenever there is no internal air pressure available.
Figure 5 shows a typical potable water system.
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WASTE WATER
FILL LINE
FILL/VENT VALVE
STACK
PIPE
WATER
TANK
WATER DRAIN
VALVE
OVERFILL LINE
FILL POINT
QTY
GAUGE
Replenishment System
Figure 5
The water drain valve is manually operated and allows the tank contents to drain
under gravity. When the tank is emptied the drain valve is manually re-set. The
fill/vent valve can be manually or electrically operated and rotates the valve to the
fill or vent position. Its operation may also electrically isolate the air compressor, if
fitted during filling.
The purpose of the vent valve is to prevent an air lock occurring in the wash basin
taps by opening the tap lines to atmosphere. Modern aircraft have self venting
taps which automatically relieve any air locks.
17.2 WASTE SYSTEMS
The provision of aircraft toilets is an essential requirement for any aircraft carrying
passengers over long distances. These toilets must be maintained and serviced
with care, as the comfort and health of the passenger must be protected. They
should be clean and odour free at all times.
There are three main types of toilet fitted to aircraft. The type used will depend
upon the number of passengers the aircraft can carry, and also the age of the
aircraft. In all cases it is essential that all the relevant health precautions are
observed during all forms of servicing carried out on these units.
Due to the nature of the fluids carried in many toilets, protection must also be
given to the structure of the aircraft to protect it from corrosion caused by these
fluids.
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The three types of toilet are:
Removable toilet assembly.
Liquid flush type.
Vacuum toilet assembly.
17.2.1 Removable Toilet Assemblies

The removable, or 'carry out' toilet is of the simplest type of aircraft toilet. This
unit is often referred to as an Elsan, named after the original company which
manufactured this type of toilet. It is simply a storage bin with a toilet seat fitted
to the top and partially filled with a strong chemical deodorant.
This type of toilet is removed from the aircraft and emptied into an approved
disposal site. Once washed out, it is replenished with deodorant and re-fitted into
the aircraft, using some form of quick release attachment such as 'pip' pins.
You will only find this type of toilet fitted to short range small light aircraft.
17.2.2 Liquid Flush Toilets
These are the most common type of toilet found in passenger aircraft, each toilet
being a completely self contained quick release unit, having its waste collection
tank mounted directly beneath the toilet bowl. The tank is normally made out of
composites or plastics. Directly below the waste tank is a service panel. An
illustration of a typical liquid flush toilet assembly is shown overleaf.
The assembly shown in Figure 6, contains the following components, which will
be found in most liquid flush toilet installations:
Motor and Pump.
Filter.
Drain Valve
Rinse Ring.
Flush Line.
Air vent.
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A Typical Liquid Flush toilet

Figure 6
The bowl is constructed from stainless steel, but the tank units can be either the
same material or fibreglass laminate. The capacity of the tank depends on both
the duration of the flights and the number of passengers catered for by each unit.
An average tank capacity figure is 20 gallons, (90 litres) of which 3 gallons, (13.5
litres) are a pre-charge of chemical; which contains disinfectant, dye and
deodorant. This would be sufficient for about 100 uses, before emptying and recharging would be required.
System Operation
When the flush button is pressed, the motor runs for a fixed time, usually around
10 seconds, which pumps the fluid through the bowl spray pipe in a swirling
action. This action flushes the bowl contents into the tank, via a lightly sprung
(loaded into the closed position) hinged separator. At the end of the 10-second
cycle, the motor re-arms to run again, in the reverse direction, to ensure the filter
does not become blocked with solid waste.
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17.2.3 Vacuum Toilets

On an aircraft fitted with a number of liquid flush toilets, there were two major
problems, the corrosion risk and the time taken to drain and replenish each
individual toilet. Both of these problems are overcome by installing vacuum
toilets.
There are dry toilet modules installed at convenient locations, to suit the seating
layout around the passenger cabin and connected to a central storage tank by
pipelines.
The vacuum toilet uses a waste container that has a negative pressure inside,
(vacuum). This vacuum draws the waste from the bowl together with the clean
flushing water and deposits it into the tank. On very large aircraft, more than one
waste tank is used to overcome the problem of one tank filling up during the flight.
The toilet systems fitted to larger aircraft use a vacuum to empty a number of
toilets into a single collector tank. This saves having a self-contained tank, full of
de-odorising fluid and the associated pumping mechanisms attached to each
toilet assembly.
The flush operation consists of fresh water from the potable supply and, most
importantly, the vacuum, which draws the waste into the collector tank. This is
obtained by having the tank connected to the outside of the aircraft. As the
aircrafts speed increases the pressure at the connection drops which causes the
waste to be drawn to the storage tank.
Vacuum Toilet System

Figure 7
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WASTE WATER
At low speeds or low altitudes, when the pressure differential is insufficient to

draw the waste to the storage tank, a small vacuum pump called a vacuum
generator, is operated by a pressure switch to provide the required pressure
drop. Its normal range of operation is between sea level up to 16,000 ft.
The illustration below shows a typical vacuum waste storage tank installation:
Waste Storage Tank

Figure 8
Emptying
Large aircraft usually hold waste in a storage tank that is emptied after the aircraft
has landed. The task of emptying the tanks at the end of the flight usually rests
with the specialist companies, sub-contracted to the airlines, they empty all waste
tanks at particular airports.
The tanks are emptied in one of two methods, gravity or suction. The gravity
method empties the tank, after the hose of the toilet emptying vehicle has been
connected, by simply operating the shut-off valve. Once the tank is emptied, it is
flushed out and, depending on the type of tank, replenished with deodorising
fluid.
Suction requires both that the emptying vehicle has the correct equipment, (set at
the correct suction value), and that the aircraft has ducting that is cleared for use
with suction equipment. If the aircraft only has 'gravity' emptying ducting and
piping, severe damage will be caused to much of the toilet equipment, if used
with vacuum emptying equipment.
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17.2.4 Corrosion Control

All the areas where toilet equipment is fitted must be protected against corrosion.
The effect of many toilet chemicals on aluminium alloy aircraft structure is severe.
All spillages must be neutralised and cleaned off as soon as possible, whilst
thorough checks of all the areas of the aircraft that could be affected, must be
inspected at regular intervals.
Such areas could be the toilet floor itself and beneath that floor; the vicinity of the
collector tank(s), around the draining/filling panel and anywhere else the
corrosive fumes could affect the structure.
Some toilet units are enclosed in an anti corrosion tank. Any leaks would be self
contained within this tank. The tank would be connected to the drain lines. The
toilet floors may be made from composite materials to reduces the likelihood of
corrosion damage. All connections in the service panel are sealed off when the
service panel is closed.
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART ONE
CONTENTS
1
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31) ............................................. 1-1

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
THE ATMOSPHERE ....................................................................... 1-1

1.1.1
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ................................................ 1-3
PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS ............................................................. 1-4
1.2.1
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS.................................................. 1-4
1.2.2
LOCATION OF PROBES AND STATIC VENTS ....................... 1-7
ALTIMETERS ................................................................................ 1-10
1.3.1
ANEROID BAROMETER .................................................... 1-10
1.3.2
FRICTION COMPENSATION ............................................... 1-13
1.3.3
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION ....................................... 1-13
1.3.4
PRESSURE COMPENSATION............................................. 1-15
SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETERS ..................................................... 1-18
1.4.1
GENERAL ....................................................................... 1-18
DIRECT SERVO ALTIMETER ........................................................... 1-19
1.5.1
DATUM PRESSURE SETTING ............................................ 1-22
PRESSURE REVERTING SERVO ALTIMETER .................................... 1-23
1.6.1
SERVO MODE OPERATION ............................................. 1-25
1.6.2
STANDBY MODE OPERATION ........................................ 1-25
1.6.3
DATUM PRESSURE SETTING ............................................ 1-26
CABIN ALTIMETERS ...................................................................... 1-26
AIRSPEED INDICATORS ................................................................. 1-28
1.8.1
SIMPLIFIED AIRSPEED INDICATOR .................................... 1-28
1.8.2
PITOT PRESSURE............................................................ 1-31
1.8.3
SPEED OF SOUND ........................................................... 1-32
1.8.4
MACHMETER .................................................................. 1-33
1.8.5
COMBINED SPEED INDICATOR .......................................... 1-35
1.8.6
PRESSURE OPERATED CSI ............................................. 1-36
1.8.7
SERVO OPERATED CSI ................................................... 1-37
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS ...................................................... 1-38
1.9.1
BASIC OPERATION .......................................................... 1-38
1.9.2
CALIBRATION .................................................................. 1-40
1.9.3
ALTITUDE & TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION .................... 1-41
GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS ......................................................... 1-42
1.10.1 GYROSCOPIC PROPERTIES .............................................. 1-42
1.10.2 RIGIDITY......................................................................... 1-42
1.10.3 PRECESSION .................................................................. 1-43
1.10.4 PRECESSION .................................................................. 1-45
1.10.5 VERTICAL GYRO ............................................................. 1-46
GYRO HORIZON UNIT .................................................................... 1-48
VERTICAL REFERENCE UNIT (VRU) ............................................... 1-53
ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI) .......................................... 1-54
1.13.1 WARNINGS ..................................................................... 1-56
1.13.2 ATTITUDE DISTRIBUTION ................................................. 1-56
1.13.3 ATTITUDE TRANSFER SWITCHING..................................... 1-58
STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATORS .................................................. 1-59
1.14.1 DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION ........................................ 1-59
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
Part 1 Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
Part 1 - Page 2
1.14.2 RUNNING UP .................................................................. 1-60

1.14.3 ERECTION CONTROL ...................................................... 1-60
1.14.4 CAGING ......................................................................... 1-60
1.14.5 ATTITUDE INDICATION ..................................................... 1-60
STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATOR H 341 .......................................... 1-62
1.15.1 DESCRIPTION ................................................................. 1-63
DIRECTION INDICATORS ............................................................... 1-65
TURN & SLIP INDICATOR .............................................................. 1-67
1.17.1 BANK INDICATION ........................................................... 1-69
TURN CO-ORDINATOR .................................................................. 1-71
HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)..................................... 1-72
COLLINS 331A-8K HSI ................................................................ 1-74
1.20.1 WARNING FLAGS ............................................................ 1-76
ANGLE OF ATTACK (AOA) ........................................................... 1-77
STALL WARNING INDICATION ........................................................ 1-79
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS ............................................. 1-81
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM ................................... 1-84
ELECTRONIC ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (EADI) ................... 1-84
1.25.1 FULL TIME EADI DISPLAY DATA ...................................... 1-86
1.25.2 PART TIME EADI DISPLAYS ............................................ 1-87
ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (EHSI) .............. 1-89
1.26.1 FULL TIME EHSI DISPLAYS ............................................. 1-90
1.26.2 PART TIME EHSI DISPLAYS ............................................ 1-92
1.26.3 PARTIAL COMPASS FORMAT............................................ 1-93
1.26.4 MAP MODE .................................................................... 1-96
1.26.5 COMPOSITE DISPLAY ...................................................... 1-97
EFIS CONTROLLER ...................................................................... 1-98
1.27.1 DISPLAY CONTROLLER ................................................... 1-99
1.27.2 SOURCE CONTROLLER ................................................... 1-101
OTHER SYSTEM INDICATIONS ....................................................... 1-103
POWERPLANT INSTRUMENTATION ................................................. 1-103
FUEL CONTENTS GAUGE .............................................................. 1-103
1.30.1 RESISTANCE GAUGES..................................................... 1-103
1.30.2 CAPACITANCE QUANTITY INDICATORS ............................. 1-104
FUEL FLOW INDICATOR ................................................................ 1-106
1.31.1 FUEL FLOW TRANSMITTERS ............................................ 1-108
1.31.2 SYNCHRONOUS MASS FLOW FLOW-METER SYSTEM ......... 1-108
1.31.3 MOTORLESS MASS FLOW METER SYSTEM ....................... 1-109
PRESSURE INDICATORS................................................................ 1-111
1.32.1 PRESSURE CAPSULE DETECTION .................................... 1-112
1.32.2 BOURDON TUBE DETECTION ........................................... 1-113
OIL & FUEL TEMPERATURE INDICATORS ....................................... 1-115
1.33.1 RESISTIVE BULB SENSOR ............................................... 1-115
1.33.2 THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR ............................................... 1-116
ENGINE RPM INDICATORS ............................................................ 1-117
1.34.1 ENGINE SPEED GENERATOR ........................................... 1-119
EXHAUST TEMPERATURE INDICATING............................................ 1-121
ENGINE PRESSURE INDICATORS ................................................... 1-124
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.46
1.36.1 EPR FORMULA ............................................................... 1-125

VIBRATION INSTRUMENTS ............................................................. 1-126
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS (ENGINE & AIRFRAME) ........................ 1-130
ENGINE INDICATING & CREW ALERTING SYSTEM (EICAS) ............. 1-130
1.39.1 DISPLAY UNITS ............................................................... 1-131
DISPLAY MODES .......................................................................... 1-135
1.40.1 OPERATIONAL MODE....................................................... 1-135
1.40.2 STATUS MODE ................................................................ 1-135
1.40.3 MAINTENANCE MODE ...................................................... 1-135
DISPLAY SELECT PANEL ............................................................... 1-137
1.41.1 DISPLAY SELECT PANEL OPERATION ............................... 1-138
ALERT MESSAGES ....................................................................... 1-139
MAINTENANCE CONTROL PANEL ................................................... 1-141
ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING ...................... 1-142
1.44.1 DISPLAY UNITS ............................................................... 1-142
ECAM DISPLAY MODES ............................................................... 1-143
1.45.1 FLIGHT PHASE RELATED MODE ....................................... 1-143
1.45.2 ADVISORY MODE ............................................................ 1-144
1.45.3 ECAM FAILURE MODE .................................................... 1-145
CONTROL PANEL ......................................................................... 1-151
1.46.1 ECAM CONTROL PANEL ................................................. 1-152
Part 1 Page 3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PAGE
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Part 1 - Page 4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31)
Aircraft instruments can, on initial observation, appear a bewildering mass of dials

or 'TV ' type screens. The different types of instrumentation required fall into one
of the following types:
1. Pressure instruments.
2. Gyroscopic instruments
3. Compasses.
4. Mechanical indicators
5. Electronic instruments
1.1 THE ATMOSPHERE

A relatively thin layer of air called the atmosphere surrounds the earth. This
extends upwards from the surface for a distance of about 250 miles and is
composed mainly of nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21% plus 1% of other gases which
includes amongst others, argon, carbon dioxide and helium. Under the
gravitational effect of the earth, the atmosphere exerts a pressure upon the
surface of the earth. This pressure, if measured at sea level, it is approximately
1.013bar (14.7lbf/in2), and reduces with height.
The pressure reduction, is not linear, the rate of pressure reduction decreases
with a rise in altitude to form an exponential curve. Temperature and water
vapour within the air also affects the pressure of the air, and therefore the height
at which a particular pressure can be measured. Figure 1 shows a
Height/pressure graph.
65
60
55
AT 8,000ft
240mb
HEIGHT X 1000ft
50
45
40
35
30
AT 8,000ft
750mb
25
AT SEA
LEVEL
1013mb
20
15
10
5
0
0
.100
.200
.300
.400
.500
.600
.700
.800
.900
1.000
AIR PRESSURE IN BARS
Height/Pressure Graph
Figure 1
Page 1-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Temperature change within the atmosphere can be divided into 3 bands,

corresponding to the 3 layers or regions of the atmosphere:
1.
The Troposphere.
2.
The Stratosphere.
3.
The Chemosphere.
Figure 2 shows three bands of the atmosphere.
135
+22.473
140,000ft
CHEMOSPHERE TEMPERATURE INCREASES AT

APPROXIMATELY 2.256C FOR
AN INCREASE IN HEIGHT OF
1000ft
125
115
STRATOPAUSE 104,987ft
105
-56.5
95
ALTITUDE FEET X 1000
85
75
STRATOPHERE - TEMPERATURE
AT -56.5C
UPPER LIMIT OF ICAO ISA 65,800ftt
65
55
45
TROPOPAUSE 36,090ft
35
-56.5
25
TROPOSPHERE - TEMPERATURE
DECREASES 1.98C FOR AN
INCREASE IN HEIGHT OF 1000ft
15
5
+15
0
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
TEMPERATURE (DEGREES C)
Atmosphere Bands
Figure 2
Page 1-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The height of these layers varies considerably with latitude and the season. It is
assumed that the troposphere extends to a height of 36,090ft and has a
temperature gradient falling at a linear rate to 56.5C at 36,090ft. The
stratosphere is assumed to range from 36,090ft to 104,987ft and to have a
constant temperature of 56.5C. Above this is the Chemosphere, extending to
the limits of the atmosphere and which is assumed to have a temperature
gradient, which initially rises approximately 2C for each 1000ft of altitude. For
the purpose of aircraft pressure instruments, these higher levels are not
important.
1.1.1 STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
To be able to produce an instrument capable of accurately measuring aircraft
height (and speed) using only the prevailing atmospheric pressure, requires that
the instrument be calibrated and tested against a set of standard conditions.
Standard atmospheres have been in use since 1800s. the early ones being
based on very simple temperature laws. During WW1, these were found to be
inadequate, this led to the development and the international acceptance in 1924
of the International Committee on Air Navigation (ICAN) standard. This standard
was adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) in 1952.
Advances in aircraft performance and the introduction of missiles highlighted the
need for an increase in the altitude range of the standard atmosphere, the ICAO
limit being 65,000ft. This introduced two further standards to supplement the
ICAO standard, these being the Wright Air Development Centre (WADC) and the
Air Research Development Command (ARDC). Table 1 shows the comparison of
the standard atmospheres.
Height in feet
x 1000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
ICAN
1013.25
696.91
465.63
301.89
187.61
115.81
71.79
44.36
-
Air Pressure in Millibars

ICAO
WADC
1013.25
1013.25
696.81
696.81
465.63
465.63
300.01
300.89
187.54
187.54
115.97
115.97
71.72
71.72
44.35
27.43
16.96
10.49
6.53
4.22
2.84
1.97
Table 1
ARDC
1013.25
696.91
465.63
300.89
188.23
115.97
71.716
44.438
27.425
17.067
10.820
6.981
4.5779
3.0476
2.0575
1.4650
0.9727
Page 1-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.2 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

1.2.1 AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS
An Air Data system of an aircraft is one which the total pressure created by the
forward motion of an aircraft, and the static pressure of the atmosphere
surrounding it, are sensed and measured in terms of speed, altitude and rate of
change of altitude. The measurement and indication of these three parameters
may be achieved by connecting the appropriate sensors, either directly to
mechanical-type instruments, or to a remotely-located Air Data Computer (ADC),
which then transmits the data in electrical signal format to electro-mechanical or
servo-type instruments.
The basic Air Data Instruments display airspeed, altitude, Mach number and
vertical speed. All are calculated from air pressure received from a Pitot/Static
source.
1. Static air pressure, which is simply the outside air pressure at the instant of
measuring.
2. Pitot pressure is the dynamic pressure of the air due to the forward motion of
the aircraft and is measured using a tube, which faces the direction of travel.
Page 1-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 3 shows a Pressure head as fitted to aircraft to allow Pitot and Static
pressures to the relevant indicators.
PITOT LINE
STATIC LINE
HEATER
CONNECTION
FORWARD
PITOT PROBE
STATIC VENTS
Aircraft Pressure Head

Figure 3
Indicated Airspeed (IAS), Mach No, Barometric Height (Height above sea level),
and Vertical speed (Rate of climb/dive) are derived from the Pitot/Static inputs.
1. IAS = Pitot minus Static - (In knots).
2. Mach No = Pitot - Static divided by Static.
3. Baro Ht = Static - (In feet).
4. Vertical Speed = Change in Static pressure - (X 1000ft/min).
Page 1-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 4 shows typical aircraft static vent:
FUSELAGE
STATIC
VENT
STATIC
PIPE
Aircraft Static Vent

Figure 4
Page 1-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.2.2 LOCATION OF PROBES AND STATIC VENTS

The choice of probe/vent locations is largely dependent on the type of aircraft,
speed range and aerodynamic characteristics, and as result there is no common
standard for all aircraft. On larger aircraft it is normal to have standby probes and
static vents. These are always located one on each side of the fuselage and are
interconnected so as to balance out dynamic pressure effects resulting from any
Yawing or side-slip motion of the aircraft.
Figure 5 shows the location of probes and vents on a Boeing 737.
Boeing 737 Air Data Probe and Vent Location

Figure 5
Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and corrosionresistant metal (light alloy) pipelines. Flexible pipelines are also used when
connections to components mounted on anti-vibration mountings is required. In
order for an Air Data System to operate effectively under all flight conditions,
provision must also be made for the elimination of water that may enter the
system as a result of condensation, rain, snow, etc. This will reduce the
probability of Slugs of water blocking the lines. This provision takes the form of
drain holes in the probes, drain taps and valves in the systems pipelines. The
drain holes within the probes are of diameter so as not to introduce errors into the
system.
Page 1-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Methods of draining the pipelines varies between aircraft types and are designed
to have a capacity sufficient to allow for the accumulation of the maximum
amount of water that could enter the system between maintenance periods.
Figure 6 shows a typical water drain valve.
ORANGE
FLOAT
INDICATOR
TRANSPARENT
PLASTIC PIPE
DRAIN
VALVE
BAYONET
FITTING
CAP
(SELF SEALING)
Water Drain Valve

Figure 6
The three primary instruments in the Air Data System are:
1. Altimeter (Baro Ht).
2. Indicated Air Speed (IAS) Indicator.
3. Vertical Speed Indicator.
The IAS is often combined to display Mach No as well as indicated airspeed and
is referred to as the Combined Speed Indicator.
Page 1-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 7 shows the connection and equations for the primary Air Data
instruments.
Air Data Instrumentation

Figure 7
Page 1-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.3 ALTIMETERS
1.3.1 ANEROID BAROMETER
In its simplest form, if a membrane or pressure sensitive capsule is to be used to
measure pressure, it usually forms part of a sealed capsule. If the capsule is
evacuated, the atmospheric pressure on the outside of the capsule will force the
capsule into the chamber until its resistance is sufficient to support the
atmospheric pressure. The greater the atmospheric pressure the greater the
movement of the capsule, before a balance is attained, and vice versa.
If a linkage mechanism is attached to the membrane, this movement can be
transmitted to a pointer to reflect the movement of the capsule. This then is the
principle upon which the aneroid barometer is based for the measurement of
atmospheric pressure. Figure 8 shows a simplified aneroid barometer.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
PIVOT
CAPSULE STACK
Simplified Aneroid Barometer

Figure 8
Page 1-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Altitude measurements require little change in the basic instrument configuration

to enable barometric pressure (atmospheric pressure) to be translated into
aircraft altitude. Figure 9 shows a simplified mechanism of a directly operated
capsule altimeter.
POINTER
AIRTIGHT
INSTRUMENT
CASE
EXTERNAL STILL
AIR PRESSURE
(STATIC)
CAPSULE STACK
Simplified Altimeter
Figure 9
It consists of an airtight instrument case containing an evacuated capsule stack.
The capsule stack is connected by a system of levers and gears to a pointer
which, moves over a scale calibrated in feet. External still air (static) pressure is
fed in to the instrument case so that as the aircraft climbs the pressure in the
case falls, allowing the capsule to expand. This motion is then used by the
system of levers and gears to drive the pointer over the dial. When the aircraft
loses altitude, the reverse happens.
Page 1-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 10 shows the face of a barometric altimeter .
3 - POINTER ALTIMETER
SINGLEPOINTER ALTIMETER
Barometric Altimeter
Figure 10
Page 1-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.3.2 FRICTION COMPENSATION

Friction in the gearing of a simple altimeter cannot truly be compensated for,
however, it is reduced as much as possible by careful design and meticulous
attention to cleanliness and finish during manufacture. The rate of response of
the instrument to capsule movement can be further improved, when considered
necessary, by the use of a vibrator. This simply helps prevent the mechanism
from sticking.
1.3.3 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
Temperature affects the strength of the materials used in the manufacture of the
capsules and springs, causing them to become stronger as temperature
decreases. The overall effect of this is that with a drop in temperature the
capsule stack will tend to extend, with the result that the instrument will over-read.
Conversely, a rise in temperature causes the capsule stack to contract and the
instrument under-read. There are two main methods employed to compensate
for this temperature-induced variations in readings, both of which use a bimetallic element as the compensating mechanism.
The first method used is to mount the capsule stack within a U shaped bimetallic bracket, the open end of which is connected to the top of the capsule
stack by pins. The composition of the b-metallic brackets is arranged so that with
a drop in temperature the limbs tend to move inwards, exerting a compressive
force onto the capsule stack, in opposition to the tendency of the capsule stack to
expand with a fall in temperature. Figure 11 shows the U bracket method of
temperature compensation.
DROP IN TEMPERATURE
LIMBS MOVE INWARDS
EXERTING A COMPRESSIVE
FORCE ONTO THE CASULE STACK
CASULE
STACK
BIMETAL
U SPRING
Temperature Compensation U Bracket

Figure 11
Page 1-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The second method employed to compensate for changes in temperature of the

capsule stack is to introduce a bi-metallic link into the system of levers used to
transmit capsule movement to the instruments pointers. In this instance, a U
shaped bi-metallic link has been introduced. This effectively alters the length of
the linkage to compensate for the tendency of the capsule stack to expand or
contract with changes in temperature. Figure 12 shows the bi-metallic
compensating link method.
CAPSULE
BIMETAL
COMPENSATING
LINK
Bi-metallic Compensating Link

Figure 12
Page 1-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.3.4 PRESSURE COMPENSATION

All aircraft pressure operated altimeters, are calibrated to one of the standard
atmospheres, and will provide an accurate altitude indication providing that the
atmospheric pressure prevailing conforms to the standard atmosphere. Anyone
who is familiar with the weather forecast on TV will realise that the atmospheric
pressure is always changing at any given point, as well as varying from area to
area. We are not concerned with the reasons why this happens, only the effect
this has on the altimeter.
Under standard conditions, at sea level with an ambient atmospheric pressure of
1013.25 millibars, an altimeter calibrated to the ICAO standard atmosphere would
indicate zero feet. If the sea level pressure remains constant at 1013.15
millibars, the altimeter indications would correspond to the ICAO pressure
standards.
However, standard atmospheric conditions rarely prevail and variations in sealevel pressure will result in variations in the indicated altitude. For example, if the
sea-level pressure falls to 1010 millibars, then the capsule stack would sense this
decrease in pressure and expand, showing an error of +100ft. A corresponding
change in sea-level pressure to 1016.55 millibars would cause an error reading of
100ft. At this height, one-millibar change in pressure corresponds to a 30ft
change in altitude, but as altitude increases so does the error. This is shown in
figure 13.
ICAO
STANDARD
PRESSURE
DROP
PRESSURE
RISE
+100ft
ERROR
Ht 5,000ft
843.21
-100ft
ERROR
SEA LEVEL
1013.25
SEA LEVEL
1010.00
SEA LEVEL
1016.55
A1
A2
A3
Pressure Compensation
Figure 13
Page 1-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The ICAO standard atmosphere also assumes a temperature of 15C at sea level
and a temperature drop (lapse rate)of 1.98C per 1000ft up to 36,090ft, it then
remains at a constant temperature of 56.5C. If the lapse rate differs from this
assumption then even a correctly set altimeter will indicate an error when an
aircraft flies into an area where air temperature is higher or lower than that
expected.
Assuming the same sea-level pressures, the pressure at a certain height over a
column of cold air is less than the pressure over a column of warm air at the
same height. This is because cold air is denser than warm air. Therefore, in
these conditions, an altimeter will over-read in air colder than standard conditions
and under-read in air warmer than standard conditions.
To help overcome these problems, the altimeter is fitted with a mechanism which
enables the instrument datum can be adjusted to the prevailing barometric
pressure. This mechanism consists of a system of gears within the instrument,
which is controlled by a knob on the face of the instrument. This knob, called the
Ground Pressure Setting Knob, allows the instrument datum and therefore the
indicator pointers be repositioned without affecting the capsule stack. At the
same time, an indicator, usually calibrated in millibars, will rotate to display the
instrument datum setting. This indicator, known as the Baroscale, can be
displayed as a linear scale but more commonly displayed using a veeder counter
viewed through an aperture in the indicator face.
The altimeter may be adjusted by the ground engineers to the prevailing
atmospheric pressure before take-off, but is more commonly adjusted by the flight
crew, who will obtain information regarding the prevailing atmospheric pressure
from flight maps and from the local Air Traffic Control (ATC) via the aircrafts VHF
communication system. The information obtained in this way is given in the form
of radio Q codes, the most important of which are:
QFE Airfield barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set to this
will read zero feet when landing or taking-off at the airport for which the QFE was
given.
QNH Actual sea-level barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set
to this will indicate height above mean sea-level (MSL).
QNE Standard sea-level barometric pressure (1013.25). Altimeters with the
baroscale set to 1013.25 will indicate Standard Pressure Altitude.
QFE is normally set into the altimeter before take-off and on approach before
landing at any particular airport. QNH is normally set into the altimeter when the
aircraft is below 3,000. QNE set into the altimeter when the aircraft is above
3,000ft.
Page 1-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STANDARD SETTING
1013.25 MILLIBARS
SEA LEVEL
HEIGHT ABOVE
AIRFIELD
QFE
HEIGHT ABOVE
SEA LEVEL
QNH
FLIGHT LEVEL
QNE
Figure 14 shows the Radio Q Codes for atmospheric pressure.
Radio Q Codes
Figure 14
Page 1-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.4 SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETERS

Despite the use of a vibrator mechanism to enhance its response, the basic
altimeter becomes increasingly inaccurate with height. This results directly from
the non-linear changes in atmospheric pressure, with changes in altitude. For
example, the pressure drop from sea level to 1000ft is 36.08mb, whereas from
50,000ft to 51,000ft the pressure drop is only 5.44mb.
In addition to the errors caused by friction, the reduced pressure changes as
height increases also exaggerates the errors which result from capsule hysteresis
and creepage. Hysteresis occurs when the capsule movement lags behind the
pressure change causing the motion. Creepage is the tendency for the capsule
to readjust itself without a pressure change occurring.
1.4.1 GENERAL
The errors within the basic altimeter can be reduced to acceptable levels by
minimising the work done by the capsule. This is achieved by interposing a
servo-assistance mechanism between the capsule stack and the gearing
mechanism. The other main difference between the servo assisted altimeter and
the basic altimeter is the dial presentation. This consists of a single pointer
moving over a scale calibrated from 0-1000ft in 50ft divisions and a veeder digital
counter, which records height up to 99,950ft which again is displayed in 50ft
increments.
Two main methods are used to provide servo-assistance for the basic altimeter.
1.
Direct Servo-Control.
2.
Pressure Reverting Servo-Control.
Direct Servo-Control: The servomechanism is operated directly from the

capsule stack, with no mechanical link between the capsule stack and the
gearing. Consequently, there is no back-up mechanical operation of the
instrument in the event of a failure.
Pressure reverting Servo-Control: The servomechanism is controlled from a
remote pressure sensor, and a mechanical connection between the capsule and
the gearing is retained to allow reversion to mechanical operation (pressure
reverting) in the event of a power failure.
Page 1-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.5 DIRECT SERVO ALTIMETER

Referring to figure 15, the I bar of the transducer is connected to the capsule
stack and pivoted so that I bar position will change as the capsule expand and
contract in response to a change of altitude. The E core, whose position
relative to the I bar is controlled by the servo-motor, is wound as a transformer,
with the primary coil on the centre limb and the secondary coils wound in series
opposition onto the outer limbs. The primary is supplied via a transformer from
the aircrafts 115V 400Hz supply. Figure 15 shows the face of a direct reading
Altimeter.
Direct Reading Altimeter

Figure 15
Page 1-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
POINTER
Direct Reading Servo-Controlled Altimeter Schematic

Figure 16
Page 1-20
MILLIBAR
COUNTERS
GROUND
PRESSURE
SETTING KNOB
WORM GEAR
SHAFT
MILLIBAR
ADJUSTING BAR
LEVER
CAM
FOLLOWER
OVERRUN
SWITCH
HEIGHT
COUNTERS
WARNING
FLAG
SOLENOID
MOTOR
SERVO
AMP
TRANSFORMER
CAPSULES
115V
400Hz
Figure 16 shows a schematic diagram of a direct reading servo-controlled

altimeter.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Providing the I bar is equidistant from the E bar limbs, the resultant output
from the secondary coils will be zero. However, when a change of altitude
occurs, the I bar will pivot to follow the capsule movement and consequently the
air gaps between the outer limbs of the E bar and the I bar will become
unequal. The magnetic flux in the outer limb with the smaller gap will increase
and the induced voltage on that limb will also increase. The opposite effect
occurs in the other outer limb. This results in an output voltage, the magnitude
and phase of which depends upon the amount and direction of the movement of
the I bar. This output voltage is fed via an amplifier to the control winding of a
two-phase AC servo-motor. Figure 17 shows the operation of the E & I
transducer for increases and decrease of height.
A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT
(L O W L E V E L )
A LT I TU D E
R IS IN G
(L O W L E V E L )
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT
(H IG H L E V E L)
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
A LT I TU D E
F A L L IN G
(H IG H L E V E L)
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
E & I Bar Operation

Figure 17
Page 1-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The two-phase AC motor has its main winding supplied with a constant reference
voltage from the transformer. When the I bar is displaced by the movement of
the capsules, the resultant voltage output to the servo-motor control winding
either lags or leads the reference voltage. This sets up a rotating field in the
motor, which causes it to rotate in a direction such that the pointer and digital
counter moves in the correct sense to indicate the increase or decrease in
altitude. At the same time the servo-motor drives the cam and cam follower
which re-positions the E bar to equalise the air gaps between the E bar cores
and the I bar, thus reducing the transducer output to zero when the aircrafts
height stabilises.
As the motor only drives the indicator, any power failure will result in the
indication remaining at the height shown when the power failed. For this reason
a Power Failure Warning Indicator (PFWI) is fitted to the instrument. The PFWI
takes the form of a spring-loaded flag, which is held out of view by solenoid action
while the power is connected. Any power failure removes the supply from the
solenoid, allowing the flag to be returned into view by the spring action.
To prevent the servomotor overrunning and damaging the altimeter mechanism,
an overrun limit switch is incorporated. When the cam reaches a predetermined
position, a stud on the side of the cam makes contact with the limit switch, opens
its contacts and disconnects the electrical supply from the altimeter. The
servomotor stops and the PFWI comes into view.
1.5.1 DATUM PRESSURE SETTING
As with the basic altimeter, a Ground Pressure Setting Knob (GPSK) is provided
to allow the various Q codes to be set into the instrument. When this knob is
rotated, the veeder counter is turned by the associated gear train to show the
millibars set. Rotation of the knob also alters the setting of the millibar
adjustment rod; this moves the millibar lever about its pivot causing the worm
gear to move laterally. Movement of the worm gear shaft in this way rotates the
differential gear, cam and cam follower, displacing the E bar relative to the I
bar. An error signal is therefore generated and fed via the amplifier to the servomotor, driving the indicator gear train, the worm gear cam and cam follower and
the E bar back to the zero output position. The altimeter now shows aircraft
altitude with respect to the ground pressure set onto the baroscale.
Page 1-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.6 PRESSURE REVERTING SERVO ALTIMETER

This type of altimeter is servo assisted with automatic reversion to mechanical
operation from the capsule stack in the event of power or other failures. The
servo-assistance takes the form of a control transformer (synchro), amplifier and
a two phase drag cup motor connected to the gearing mechanism between the
capsule stack and the indicator pointer and counter. Figure 18 shows the face
of a pressure reverting altimeter.
Pressure Reverting Altimeter

Figure 18
In the servo mode of operation, the altimeter is connected to a master altimeter or
Air data Computer (ADC), which provides a signal so that the altimeter gives a
corrected indication of the aircrafts altitude. When the standby mode is selected,
or in the event of a failure, the altimeter will operate as an unassisted basic
precision altimeter. A vibrator mechanism is also incorporated within the
altimeter to help reduce the effects of friction when operating in the standby
mode.
Page 1-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
MILLIBAR
SETTING
KNOB
SIGNAL
CAPSULE
MECHANISM
ALTITUDE SIGNAL
FROM ADC
CX
SYNCHRO
CONTROL
TRANSFORMER
SERVO
AMP
DRAG
CUP
MOTOR
ANTI
BACKLASH
GEAR
HEIGHT
COUNTERS
MILLIBAR
COUNTER
POINTER
Figure 19 shows a schematic of the pressure reverting altimeter.
Pressure Reverting Altimeter

Figure 19
Page 1-24
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.6.1 SERVO MODE OPERATION

With power on, the altimeter functions in the standby mode until the altimeter is
switched to servo motor by momentarily turning the mode selector switch to the
RESET position. This via a self-maintaining relay circuit (nor shown), connects
the power to the amplifier and drag cup motor circuits, and retracts the standby
flag from view. A corrected altitude signal generated by a synchro transmitter in
the master altimeter or ADC, is fed to the stator of the control transformer (CT).
This gives an error signal related to the difference between the position of the
stators magnetic field and the position of the rotor coil. Provided these are
aligned at 90 to each other a null error signal is produced. The rotor position is
initially determined by capsule displacement.
Provided the rotor position and the CT stator input signal position remain at 90,
no error signal is produced, however, when the rotor position is out of alignment
with respect to the input signal position an error signal is produced. This error
signal is fed to the amplifier and then fed to the control phase of the two-phase
drag cup motor. The motor, which is connected to the altimeters gearing
mechanism now assists the capsules to drive the indicator to the correct reading
and also to align the CT rotor to the nil error position stopping the motor. Thus as
the CT rotor is always driven to the nil error position, the indications produced by
the instrument reflect the input signal position generated by the master altimeter
or ADC.
1.6.2 STANDBY MODE OPERATION
The altimeter is fitted with a failsafe detection circuit, which automatically returns
the altimeter to the standby mode under any one of the following conditions:
1.
AC power failure.
2.
Servo Motor failure.
3.
Amplifier failure.
4.
Detection circuit failure.
Difference at sea-level between the input signal and standby altimeter of more
than 4,000ft (difference increases with an increase of altitude).
Under these conditions, the main AC supply is isolated, the standby flag drops
into view and the vibrator is energised.
In addition to the circumstances listed above, the standby mode can be selected
by momentarily setting the mode selector switch to STANDBY. This interrupts
the supply and allows the self-maintaining relay to de-energise thus isolating the
main supply. This action completes the DC supply circuit for the vibrator and
returns the standby flag into view.
Page 1-25
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
A change in static pressure resulting from a change in altitude causes the

capsule to expand or contract. This motion is then used to drive the indicator
pointer and drum counter to indicate barometric altitude. Although the motor and
control transformer are permanently connected to the gearing, because of their
small size and low friction, they impose negligible additional friction upon the
system.
1.6.3 DATUM PRESSURE SETTING
The Q codes can be set into the altimeter using the millibar setting knob. The
knob when turned adjusts the millibar scale, the capsule position and, via bevel
gear and worm drive the stator of the CT. Thus the rotation of the setting knob
causes simultaneous adjustment of the millibar scale, the capsule mechanism,
the pointer and counter and the CT stator. It is necessary to simultaneously
adjust the CT stator with the CT rotor (via capsule mechanism) to ensure that
inputs from the master altimeter or ADC are not affected.
1.7 CABIN ALTIMETERS
In addition to the aircraft altimeters, most passenger aircraft also carry a cabin
altimeter. This is to enable the flight crew to monitor the pressurisation of the
cabin environment control system. This type of instrument is a single pointer
instrument with a range of zero feet to 20,000ft. The instruments case is
unsealed (vented to cabin pressure) and is normally only proved with
compensation for temperature fluctuation. As a consequence, it suffers from
errors due to changes in atmospheric conditions from the standard atmosphere to
which it is calibrated. In spite of this, the accuracy of the instrument is better than
500ft, which is sufficient for its normal application.
Page 1-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 20 shows a Cabin Altimeter and sectioned view.
EN D
P L A TE
T E M P E R A TU R E
C OM PEN SA TOR
F IL T E R
C IR C L IP
M E C H AN IS M
P L A TE
H A N D S T A FF &
P I N IO N A S S E M B L Y
R O C K IN G S H A F T
P O IN T E R
& S E C TO R A S S E M B L Y
Cabin Altimeter
Figure 20
Page 1-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.8 AIRSPEED INDICATORS

Airspeed is displayed in two ways, in nautical miles per hour, knots (1 nautical
mile = 6,080ft, 1.5 miles), or as a factor of the speed of sound, Mach (Mach 1 =
speed of sound). This information can be displayed separately, using an
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) displaying airspeed in knots and a Mach meter (MM)
displaying airspeed relative to the speed of sound, or both displays can be
combined into a single instrument.
1.8.1 SIMPLIFIED AIRSPEED INDICATOR
When an aircraft is stationary (on the ground) all external surfaces are subjected
equally to the prevailing atmospheric pressure. When the aircraft is in motion,
there are changes in the pressures felt on its external surfaces and the aircraft
experiences a build up of an additional pressure on its leading edges resulting
from its passage through the air. For any given height, the build up of this
pressure (known as dynamic pressure) is proportional to the speed of the aircraft.
This pressure when sensed by a Pitot tube, and ducted to an instrument, can be
used to measure aircraft speed.
Pitot pressure alone cannot be used to accurately measure speed, since no
allowances is made for the thinning of the air at altitude. This would if left
uncorrected lead to an apparent (indicated) loss of airspeed as altitude is
increased. Measuring the difference in pressure between the dynamic pitot
pressure, and the static pressure used to measure altitude compensates for this
apparent loss of speed.
Page 1-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
A IRS P E E D
PI VOT
A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E
PI T OT
PR ES SU R E
C A PSU L E S T AC K
A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E
S T AT IC
P R E S S U RE
G E A R ING
P IT O T
P R E S S U RE
P O IN T E R
C AP S UL E
Simplified Airspeed Indicator

Figure 21
Page 1-29
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The Airspeed Indicator in its most simple form consists of a sealed instrument
case with a capsule which has pitot pressure applied to its inside while static
pressure is fed to the case. The movement of the capsule is due only to the
effects of the dynamic pressure, which results directly from the aircrafts speed
through the air. Figure 22 shows two types of simple airspeed indicators.
DOUBLE POINTER AIRSPEED INDICATOR
SINGLE POINTER AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Airspeed Indicators
Figure 22
Page 1-30
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.8.2 PITOT PRESSURE

The Pitot pressure as sensed by the Pitot tube, is the sum of the dynamic
pressure and the static pressure and can be represented by the formula:
P = V2 + S
Where
P = Pitot Pressure.
= air density.
V = aircraft velocity.
S = Static Pressure.
It can be seen from the above formula that the actual dynamic pressure build-up
increases as the square of the aircrafts speed increases whereas the movement
of the capsule has a linear response to pressure change. If therefore, as is
normally required, the instrument scale is to be linear with respect to speed, and
not compressed or cramped at low speeds, the square law pressure rise must be
compensated for within the indicator. This is normally achieved using a ranging
spring assembly as shown in figure 23.
RANGING
SCREWS
RANGING
PLATE
RANGING
SPRING
CASULE
Ranging Assembly (Square Law Compensation)

Figure 23
Page 1-31
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.8.3 SPEED OF SOUND

When an aircraft flies at or near the speed of sound, shockwaves build up around
the aircraft due to the increased resistance of the air to the passage of the
aircraft. The effect of these shockwaves are such that the aerodynamic stability
of the aircraft is affected, resulting in buffeting, loss of directional control and loss
of lift. The severity of these effects when flying at, near or through the speed of
sound (sound barrier), is different for each type of aircraft but is always severe
enough for the pilot to be forewarned via instrumentation that he is approaching
the speeds at which these effects can be expected.
The problems associated with the speed of sound are aggravated by the fact that
the speed of sound varies with air density (altitude & temperature), as altitude
increases the speed of sound decreases. Hence the need for a Machmeter,
which indicates the aircrafts speed in relation to the speed of sound. This is
indicated as a Mach number, Mach 1 = speed of sound at the altitude at which
the aircraft is flying. Mach number can be represented by the formula:
Mach Number =
TRUE AIRSPEED
LOCAL SPEED OF SOUND
This can be derived from:

TRUE AIRSPEED (P - S)
ALTITUDE (S)
When referring to aircraft flying speeds with respect to the speed of sound, there
are three distinct speed bands:
Page 1-32
1.
Subsonic Speeds up to 0.75 Mach.
2.
Transonic Speeds from 0.75 to 1.20 Mach.
3.
Supersonic Speeds in excess of 1.20 Mach.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.8.4 MACHMETER
Figure 24 shows a typical Machmeter.
Machmeter
Figure 24
To enable the Machmeter to indicate aircraft speed as a factor of local or ambient
speed of sound, the airspeed as measured by the instrument is modified by
altitude. This is accomplished by using a different airspeed capsule operating in
conjunction with an aneroid altitude capsule. These two being housed within a
single instrument and coupled together in such a way that the Mach number
indicated is increased with an increase in the aircrafts airspeed and further
increased with an increase in the aircrafts altitude.
Page 1-33
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 25 shows a schematic of the Machmeter.
ALTITUDE
CAPSULE
RETAINING
SPRING
PUSH
ROD
SECTOR
ROCKING
ARM
POINTER
VERTICAL
LINK
HIGH
PITOT
ENTRY
PIVOT
LOW
AIRSPEED
CAPSULE
Machmeter Schematic
Figure 25
As can be seen from the diagram in figure 25, an increase of aircraft speed
causes the dynamic pressure P-S to increase and the airspeed capsule to
expand. This motion is then transmitted via the vertical link, rocking arm and
sector arm to the pointer; causing it to move up the Mach number scale. A rise in
altitude causes the altitude capsule to expand, this motion is transmitted to the
rocking arm, via the rocking arm pivot, moving the rocking arm towards the centre
line of the sector arm pivot. The rocking arm therefore moves closer to the pivot
of the sector arm. This action modifies and increases the effect of the airspeed
capsule causing the indicated Mach speed to be increased.
Page 1-34
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.8.5 COMBINED SPEED INDICATOR

As aircraft become more and more complex the demand for instrumentation is
continually rising. This has resulted, where practical, in two or more instruments
being combined into one. This practice has been particularly successful with
respect to airspeed and Mach speed indications. Two different examples of this
are shown in figure 26.
PRESSURE OPERATED CSI
SERVO OPERATED CSI
Combined Speed Indicators

Figure 26
Page 1-35
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.8.6 PRESSURE OPERATED CSI

Figure 27 shows the schematic layout for the pressure operated Machmeter.
AIRSPEED ROCKING SHAFT

AIRSPEED
DIAL
HAIRSPRING
BI-METALIC LINK
TUNING BLOCK
STATIC
SECTOR
AIRSPEED
CAPSULE
POINTER
PITOT
MACH
DISC
ALTITUDE
CAPSULE
HAIRSPRING
SECTOR
AIRSPEED
DIAL
HAIRSPRING
BI-METALIC LINK
ALTITUDE ROCKING SHAFT
Pressure Operated Machmeter Schematic

Figure 27
The construction of the pressure operated combined speed indicator is very
similar to the Machmeter discussed earlier. The main difference is that the
altitude capsule mechanism is not connected to the airspeed capsule
mechanism. The airspeed capsule and pointer operate as a conventional ASI
indicating the actual airspeed of the aircraft by pointer against the outer airspeed
dial.
Page 1-36
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The altitude capsule is connected to a disc located behind the ASI pointer and
inside the ASI scale. The Mach scale is printed on this disc. An increase in
altitude, causes the altitude capsule to expand driving the Mach scale disc
counter clockwise, whilst an increase in airspeed causes the pointer to move
clockwise. The result of this is that an increase of airspeed and/or altitude
produces an increase in the Mach number reading on the innerscale against the
ASI pointer.
1.8.7 SERVO OPERATED CSI
This instrument has a conventional ASI mechanism combined with a servocontrolled digital Mach speed counter providing the dual display. The
servomechanism usually receives its control signals from the ADC. Because the
Machmeter part of the instrument is power operated the instrument is provided
with a power failure warning indicator. This normally takes the form of a power
failure warning flag, or shutters which obscure the Mach digital counters in the
failed mode.
There is also a second pointer on this type of CSI and is known as the Velocity
Maximum Operating (Vmo) pointer. This is provided for the purpose of indicating
the maximum safe speed of an aircraft over its operating altitude range; in other
words, it is an indication of the critical Mach number.
This instrument also has a command bug and associated setting know in the
bottom left hand corner of the instrument. This is used to set a required airspeed
value, which can be used as the datum for an autothrottle control system, or as a
fast/slow speed indicator. There are also five external index pointers around the
bezel, which are manually set to any desired reference speed, i.e. take off speeds
V1 and V2.
Page 1-37
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.9 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

The vertical speed indicator, commonly known as the rate of climb indicator,
provides the flight crew with an accurate indication of the rate at which the aircraft
is changing height. This indication is very necessary when flying on instruments
only, at night or in poor visibility.
1.9.1 BASIC OPERATION
The rate of climb (Vertical Speed Indication) is a measure of an aircrafts rate of
altitude change, both climbing and descending. The instrument used is a further
adaptation of the differential pressure instrument (Cabin Pressure), however, this
time the pressure fed into the instrument case and into the capsule is static
pressure (atmospheric pressure). The difference being that pressure to the case
is fed through a restrictor. This has the effect of greatly reducing the rate at
which the pressure in the case can change, whilst allowing the capsule to
respond rapidly to any change in pressure. Figure 28 shows a simplified Vertical
Airspeed Indicator.
CALIBRATED
CHOKE
STATIC
PRESSURE
STATIC
TUBE
CAPSULE
Simplified Vertical Airspeed Indicator

Figure 28
Page 1-38
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Referring to figure 28, the pressure flow into and out of the case is restricted by a
calibrated choke, when the aircraft climbs, the pressure in the capsule falls,
maintaining a balance with external (to the aircraft) air pressure. The pressure
within the instrument case also falls, but is unable to escape at the same rate as
that from the capsule, causing a pressure differential to occur. The pressure
within the instrument case being the greater when compared to the capsule. This
causes the capsule to contract, and by a series of linkages the indicator pointer to
indicate the rate of climb.
The faster the change of altitude the greater the differential pressure, which
results in a greater contraction of the capsule and a further deflection of the
instrument pointer to indicate a greater rate of climb. Upon descent, the capsule
pressure becomes greater than that of the instrument case and the capsule
expands, causing the pointer to indicate a descent. In level flight the two
pressures are in balance and the pointer indicates zero
Figure 29 shows a typical vertical speed indicator.
Vertical Speed Indicator

Figure 29
The rate of climb/descent is indicated by a single pointer moving over a dial face,
which is graduated in feet per minute. The dial face, which can have either linear
or logarithmic graduations, conventionally has a zero point situated at the 9-oclock position. The indicator pointer moves clockwise over the face to indicate
ascent and anti-clockwise to indicate descent.
Page 1-39
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.9.2 CALIBRATION
Calibration is set during manufacture and cannot be adjusted during servicing
and testing. Calibration of the instrument is achieved by two calibration springs,
which act on the centre of the capsule via a calibration stem. The forces exerted
by the calibration springs are modified during calibration by two rows of screws,
one row bearing onto the top spring and the other the bottom spring.
Adjustment of the screws varies the effective length of the spring, which
dependant upon capsule position will control the capsules response to pressure
change and will therefore modify the indications produced. The upper spring
controls the expansion of the capsule (rate of descent) and lower spring controls
the compression of the capsule (rate of ascent). Figure 30 shows the inside of a
vertical speed indicator showing the calibration springs.
CALIBRATION
SPRINGS
ROCKING
SHAFT
MECHANISM
CALIBRATION
SCREWS
BALANCE
WEIGHT
LINK
CALIBRATION
SCREWS
METERING
UNIT
CALIBRATION
BRACKET
STATIC
CAPILIARY
TUBE
CAPSULE
Vertical Speed Indicator Calibration Spring

Figure 30
Page 1-40
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.9.3 ALTITUDE & TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

The way in which air passes through a metering device varies with air density and
with temperature. Since the metering unit is required to give a given pressure
difference for any given rate of altitude change, it must compensate for changes
in air temperature and the change in air density at different altitudes.
Altitude Compensation
Compensation for altitude changes is obtained by a combination of two basic

metering devices, an orifice and a capillary tube. The pressure difference across
an orifice for a given rate of altitude change decreases as altitude increases and
therefore produces a negative error. Whereas, the pressure difference across a
capillary tube for a given rate of altitude change increases as altitude increases,
and therefore produces a positive error. Thus, the two effects tend to cancel
each other.
Temperature Compensation
The viscosity of the air is proportional to temperature; viscosity falling with a drop
in temperature. The effects of this is that the pressure difference across an orifice
for a given rate of altitude change increases with a decrease in temperature.
Conversely, the pressure differential across a capillary tube for a given rate of
altitude change decreases as temperature decreases. Thus, during design, a
correct combination of orifice and capillary tubes can be chosen which will
provide a stable pressure differential over a wide range of altitude and
temperature changes. Figure 31 shows the internal working of a metering unit.
GASKETS
AIR
FILTER
CAPILLARY
STATIC
INPUT
ORIFICE
CONNECTING TUBE
TO CAPSULE
Metering Unit
Figure 31
Page 1-41
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.10 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

A number of instruments depend on the use of gyroscopes for their correct
operation. It is useful to know the basic principles of how they work, before
describing, in some depth, what they do.
1.10.1 GYROSCOPIC PROPERTIES
As mechanical device a gyroscope may be defined as a system containing a
heavy metal wheel (rotor), universally mounted so that it has three degrees of
freedom:
Spinning freedom:
About an axis perpendicular through its centre (axis of

spin XX).
Tilting Freedom:
About a horizontal axis at right angles to the spin axis

(axis of tilt YY).
Veering Freedom:
About a vertical axis perpendicular to both the other

two axes (axis of veer ZZ).
The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two
concentrically pivoted rings, called inner and outer rings. The whole assembly is
known as the gimbal system of a free or space gyroscope. The gimbal system is
mounted in a frame so that in its normal operating position, all the axes are
mutually at right angles to one another and intersect at the center of gravity of the
rotor.
The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the rotor is spinning.
When the rotor is spinning at high speed the device becomes a true gyroscope
possessing two important fundamental properties:
1. Gyroscopic Inertia (Rigidity).
2. Precession.
1.10.2 RIGIDITY
The property, which resists any, force tending to change the plane of rotor
rotation. It is dependent on:
1. The mass of the rotor.
2. The speed of rotation.
Page 1-42
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.10.3 PRECESSION
The angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under the influence of an
applied force. The change in direction takes place, not in line with the force, but
always at a point 90 away in the direction of rotation. The rate of precession
also depends on:
1. The strength and direction of the applied force.
2. The angular velocity of the rotor.
Figure 32 shows a gyroscope.
Z
FRAME
ROTOR
OUTER
RING
X
Y
INNER
RING
Gyroscope.
Figure 32
Page 1-43
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 33 shows the characteristics of gyro rigidity.
B
C
Gyro Rigidity
Figure 33
Gyro A has its spin axes parallel with the Earth's spin axes, located at the North
Pole. It could hold this position indefinitely.
Gyro B has its spin axes parallel to the Earth's spin axes, but located at the
Equator. As the Earth rotates, it would appear to continually point North.
Gyro C is also situated at the Equator. As the Earth rotates, it appears to rotate
about its axes, however it is the Earth that is rotating and not the gyro.
This rigidity can be used in a number of gyro instruments including the directional
gyro.
Page 1-44
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.10.4 PRECESSION
If an external force is applied to a spinning gyro, its effect will be felt at 90 0 from
the point of application, in the direction of gyro rotation. This is known as
precession. It can be seen in Figure 34, that if a force is applied to the bottom of
the rotating wheel, it will rotate about its horizontal axis.
This property is not wanted in some instruments, such as directional gyros. The
use of precession is used in turn indicators, which will be covered later.
DIRECTION
OF
ROTATION
PRECESSION RATE
= APPLIED FORCE
90 IN THE
DIRECTION OF SPIN
SPIN AXIS
90
APPLIED
FORCE
DIRECTION
OF
PRECESSION
Gyro Precession
Figure 34
Page 1-45
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.10.5 VERTICAL GYRO

Figure 35 shows the effects on a free gyro in an aircraft circling the earth. As can
be seen, it would only be perpendicular to the earth's surface at two points.
Behaviour of a Vertical Gyro

Figure 35
Page 1-46
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In order for the gyro to be used to indicate the aircraft's attitude, it has to be
corrected to continually be aligned to the vertical. These corrections are very
slow and gentle, since the amount of correction needed, for example, in a tenminute period is small. Figure 36 shows a vertical gyro corrected to the local
vertical.
Corrected Vertical Gyro

Figure 36
Page 1-47
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Instruments that use either the rigidity or the precession of gyros are:
1. Gyro Horizon Unit.
2. Attitude Director Indicator.
3. Standby Horizon Unit.
4. Direction Indicator.
5. Turn and Slip Indicator.
6. Turn Co-ordinator.
1.11 GYRO HORIZON UNIT
The Gyro Horizon Unit gives a representation of the aircrafts pitch and roll
attitudes relative to its vertical axis. For this it uses a displacement gyroscope
whose spin axis is vertical. Figure 37 shows a displacement gyro and the two
axis of displacement.
ROLL
PITCH
Displacement Gyro
Figure 37
Page 1-48
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Indications of attitude are presented by the relative positions of two elements, one
symbolising the aircraft itself, the other in the form of a bar stabilized by the
gyroscope and symbolising the natural horizon. Figure 38 shows a typical Gyro
Horizon Unit.
SPERRY
Gyro Horizon Unit

Figure 38
The gimbal system is so arranged so that the inner ring forms the rotor casing
and is pivoted parallel to an aircrafts lateral axis (YY1); the outer ring is pivoted at
the front and rear ends of the instrument case, parallel to the longitudinal axis
(ZZ1). The element symbolizing the aircraft may either be rigidly fixed to the
case, or it may be externally adjustable for setting a particular pitch trim
reference.
Page 1-49
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 39 shows the construction of the Gyro Horizon unit.
X
OUTER
RING
ROTOR
Z1
SYMBOLIC
AIRCRAFT
BALANCE
WEIGHT
PIVOT
POINT
Z
Y1
ROLL
POINTER
& SCALE
X1
HORIZON
BAR
Construction of a Gyro Horizon Unit

Figure 39
In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight the three axes
are mutually at right angles. When there is a change in the aircrafts attitude,
example climbing, the instrument case and outer ring will move about the YY1 of
the stabilized inner ring.
Page 1-50
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The horizon bar is pivoted at the side and to the rear of the outer ring and
engages an actuating pin fixed to the inner ring, thus forming a magnifying lever
system. The pin passes through a curved slit in the outer ring. In a climb attitude
the pivot carries the rear end of the bar upwards so that it pivots about the
stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar is therefore moved downwards
through a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and since the movement is
relative to the symbolic aircraft element, the bar will indicate a climb attitude.
Figure 40 shows climb attitude operation.
HORIZON BAR
Climb Attitude operation.

Figure 40
Page 1-51
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Changes in the lateral attitude of an aircraft, i.e. rolling, displaces the instrument
case about the axis (ZZ1), and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral
attitude changes are indicated by movement of the symbolic aircraft element
relative to the horizon bar, and also by relative movement between the roll angle
scale and pointer. Figure 41 shows roll attitude operation.
BANK TO
PORT
DATUM
X
Roll attitude operation

Figure 41
Freedom of gimbal system movement is 360 for roll axis and 85 for the and
pitch axis. The pitch scale is restricted by means of a resilient stop. This will
prevent gimbal lock.
Page 1-52
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.12 VERTICAL REFERENCE UNIT (VRU)

The VRU consists of an electrically-driven gyroscope spinning about a vertical
axis. The gyro has full freedom of movement in roll, and plus 85 degrees, minus
85 degrees of freedom in pitch. It also has an erection system for maintaining the
rotor spin axis vertical. The VRU contains two synchros for detecting movement
about the roll (aileron) and pitch (elevator) axes of the aircraft, and also contains
circuitry for maintaining the functional operation of its internal components.
Figure 42 shows the Vertical Reference Unit (RU).
VIBRATION
ISOLATION
MOUNTS
PITCH ERECTION
CUTOFF SWITCHES
FRAME
DEHYDRATION
PLUG
GYRO
CASE
ROLL ERECTION
CUTOFF SWITCHES
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
BONDING
STRAP
GIMBAL
RING
Vertical Reference Unit (VRU)

Figure 42
Page 1-53
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.13 ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI)

The ADI presents a symbolic three-dimensional display of the aircrafts attitude,
combined with lateral and vertical steering commands. The aircrafts attitude is
displayed by the relationship of a stationary airplane symbol with respect to a
moveable horizon line. The horizon line is carried on a sphere, which is servo
driven in pitch and roll. The sphere is marked off in increments of 5 degrees, and
is coloured blue to represent sky above the horizon line, and black or
brown/orange to represent ground below the horizon line. The sphere is
unbalanced in the roll axis so that on loss of power it rotates to approximately 90
degree left bank indication. Cross pointer bars are used to indicate flight director
commands and are brought into view by operation of the flight director switches
(FD BARS). The horizontal (pitch) bar indicates below the miniature airplane
symbol to command pitch up attitude. The vertical (roll) bar indicates to the right
center display to command right roll, and to the left of center of display to
command left roll. Both bars are biased out of view when the FD BARS are off,
but the FD flag will not appear unless a power loss is experienced.
Aircraft position relating to a glideslope is given by a pointer moving over a
vertical display. Aircraft position above the glideslope beam is indicated by the
pointer being positioned below the glideslope scale index, and aircraft position
below the glideslope beam is indicated by the pointer being positioned above the
glideslope beam. The loss of the glideslope valid signal will cause the glideslope
warning flag (GS) to come into view. The glideslope indicator and warning flag
are mounted on the right hand side of the ADI presentation.
Localiser deviation is indicated by lateral movement of the localiser pointer, and
is a read on a fixed horizontal scale. The pointer indicates to the right of the fixed
scale index if the aircraft is to the left of the localiser beam and to the left of the
index if aircraft is to the right of the localiser beam. The loss of either the
localiser valid input or tuned to localiser input will bias the localiser pointer from
view. Loss of the localiser valid signal causes the localiser (LOC) flag to move
into view. The localiser indicator is positioned at the bottom of the ADI display,
above the inclinometer.
Slip information is conventionally displayed on the ball type inclinometer mounted
on the indicator at the bottom of the ADI display. Instantaneous testing of the
sphere and flight director is accomplished by pressing the TEST switch.
The sphere should indicate:
Page 1-54
(a)
10 5 Pitch Nose up.
(b)
20 5 Roll to the Right.
(c)
ATT and FD flag in view.
(d)
FD Bars Indicate Nose Up and Roll to the Right.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 43 shows an Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)
GSL
FD
2
AT
RW
TEST
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)

Figure 43
Page 1-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.13.1 WARNINGS
1. ATT Flag
Indicates an internal failure of the ADI or a Gyro Attitude (VRU) failure.
2. FD Flag
Indicates an internal failure of the command bars for any axis or flight director
failure.
3. LOC Flag
Indicates a loss of the localiser valid signal, or insufficient signal with index off
scale.
4. Glideslope Flag
Indicates loss of the localiser valid (G/S) signal with index off scale.
1.13.2 ATTITUDE DISTRIBUTION
Figure 44 shows a block schematic of the attitude transfer switching circuit and
shows the distribution of the attitude information. The transfer switching is drawn
in the NORMAL position fed from 28V ESS DC.
Switching allows either gyro to supply both ADI attitude displays and the
autopilot. The flight data recorder and weather radar are hard wired to No 1 gyro.
Primary outputs are used exclusively for the ADI attitude displays. Buffered
secondary 3 wire outputs are used for the autopilot, FDR and ADI crossswitching. The latter arrangement prevents a faulty ADI being paralleled with the
other ADI thus causing the loss of both.
The instrument comparator monitor (ICM) provides comparison of the ADI
attitude displays. A two wire roll signal is also fed to the ICM to increase the
heading warning threshold in turns.
Page 1-56
115V
AC No 2
115V
AC ESS
VERT GYRO 2
PRIMARY 3 WIRE & VALID
3 WIRE & VALID
SECONDARY
3 WIRE & VALID
SECONDARY
PRIMARY 3 WIRE & VALID
VERT GYRO 1
Attitude Distribution
Figure 44
Page 1-57
26V AC
NO 2
26V AC
ESS
26V AC
NO 2
ALL ON
1
P/R
AUTOPILOT
ADI
No 1
ADI
No 2
AUTOPILOT (RACO)
WX RADAR
APDU
FDR
WX
(ARINC 708)
P/R
P/R
P/R
P/R
ALL ON
2
P/R
ERROR
ROLL THRESHOLD
MONITOR
INSTRUMENT
COMPARATOR
MONITOR
(ICM)
COMPARARATOR
RESOLVER
COMPARARATOR
RESOLVER
26V AC
ESS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.13.3 ATTITUDE TRANSFER SWITCHING
VERT GYRO
No 2
115V AC (No 2)
VERT GYRO
No 1
115V AC (ESS)
N
1
A.I.D.S.
WX RX
2
1
AUTOPILOT
CAPTAIN
FROM HSI
COMPASS (LH)
INST. COMP.
MONITOR
FROM HSI
COMPASS (RH)
FIRST OFFICER
ROLL
ANGLE
CUTOUT
(RACO)
The attitude transfer switching comprises of two banks of relays operated by a

three position guarded switch on the left hand instrument panel, such, that ALLON-1 or ALL-ON-2 operation can be achieved. Operation of the switch to ALLON-2 energise the LH bank of relays and Vice-Versa. Figure 45 shows a
schematic of the Attitude Switching.
Attitude Switching
Figure 45
Page 1-58
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.14 STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATORS

The standby attitude indicator provides a continuous visual indication of the
aircraft attitude in the pitch and roll axes.
1.14.1 DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION
The standby attitude indicator display comprises a two-coloured drum supported
in an outer gimbal, a roll marker mounted on the outer gimbal shroud and a roll
scale and aeroplane index mounted on the front cover behind the dial glass. A
white line dividing the two colours on the drum, blue representing the sky and
dark orange representing the earth, represents the horizon. Attitude is indicated
by the position of the drum relative to the aircraft symbol. A graduated scale on
the drum, which can indicate 60 degrees of dive or 80 degrees of climb, indicates
pitch angle. Roll angle is indicated by a white marker relative to the roll scale
which is graduated at zero degrees and 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 degrees left
and right of zero. A fast erection knob is provided on the bottom right-hand side
of the instrument face and is a purely mechanical caging device. Figure 46
shows a Standby Attitude Indicator and its location.
Standby Attitude Indicator H 301

Figure 46
Page 1-59
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.14.2 RUNNING UP
28 V DC is applied to the indicator, which produces a three, phase 19 V, 400 Hz
supply to the stator winding of the gyro. The stator becomes energised and the
gyro rotor begins to run up. When it has reached 18,000 rpm a sensor operates
the gyro flag on the upper right part of the display causing it to disappear from
view. This indicates that the gyro has attained a usable airspeed and there is a
power supply to the unit.
1.14.3 ERECTION CONTROL
Erection control is achieved through a single-pendulum mechanical erector
device, which basically slaves the gyro erector assembly to the local vertical.
Should the gyro axis deviate from the vertical axis, it will be acted upon by the
erector device to cancel out this deviation and return the gyro to the vertical axis.
The erection control consists of a reduction gear, erector bob-weight and a
moving pendulum. Energy from the gyro is taken through a reduction gear to
drive a gearwheel integral with the erector bob-weight. An assembly consisting of
the erector bob-weight and moving pendulum is driven about the same shaft. The
erector bob-weight is also driven about the reduction gear shaft and rotates at a
speed of approximately 40-rpm. The moving pendulum is driven between two
limits called the stop and driving plates. When the shaft is aligned with vertical
axis the pendulum and bob-weight are in the horizontal plane. The pendulum is
then forced against its driving plate by the function torque of its bearings, which
counteracts the driving effect of the bob-weight.
If the shaft deviates from the vertical axis, the pendulum is no longer in the
horizontal plane. It will move erratically, the effect of which will be to bring the
shaft into alignment with the vertical axis.
1.14.4 CAGING
As the gyro runs up to speed, the gyroscopic assembly may occupy any random
position inside its casing. Caging to case datum may be rapidly achieved and
without abruptness, by pulling the fast erection knob approximately thirty seconds
after energising the gyro. This brings the gyroscopic assembly to the vicinity of
the vertical axis and when the knob is released it is free to move and aligns itself
precisely with the vertical axis.
1.14.5 ATTITUDE INDICATION
When the gyro is erected and running at full speed and the aircraft is in a level
flight attitude, then the horizontal line on the datum and the roll pointer (which are
both attached to the gyro mechanism) are aligned with the aeroplane index and
the roll scale datum respectively. Because the gyro axis remains at the local
vertical due to the gravity sensitive erection control system, movement of the
aircraft (and therefore the instrument dial carrying the pitch datum and roll datum)
from the vertical is relative to the gyro. Aircraft movement in the pitch axis causes
Page 1-60
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
a vertical displacement between the horizon line and the aeroplane index;
movement about the roll axis causes a rotational displacement between the
horizon line and the aeroplane index and also between the roll pointer and the
roll scale datum. Figure 47 shows a simplified circuit for the Standby Attitude
Indicator.
0.3 A
1A
28V DC
EMERG/BATT
STATIC
INVERTER
19V AC
400 Hz
GYRO
ROTOR
SPEED
SENSOR
5V AC
INSTRUMENT
LIGHTING
Standby Attitude Indicator Circuit

Figure 47
Page 1-61
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.15 STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATOR H 341

The attitude indicator type H341 is an electrically operated gyroscopic horizon
assembly that provides a visual presentation of the aircrafts flight attitude in the
pitch and roll axes. It is fitted with crossed pointers that display ILS deviations,
and with an inclinometer for providing slip indication.
The instrument operates from the aircraft 28 V DC supply; the 400 Hz 3-phase
AC supply for the gyroscope is provided by a built-in static inverter. Figure 48
shows the Standby Attitude Indicator and its location.
Standby Attitude Indicator H 341

Figure 48
Page 1-62
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.15.1 DESCRIPTION
The attitude display comprises a two-coloured spherical drum mounted on pivots,
a roll pointer registering against a roll scale, and an aircraft symbol, the horizon is
represented by the intersection of the two colours of the sphere; these are blue
and brown, denoting sky and earth respectively. Attitude is indicated by the
position of the sphere relative to the aircraft symbol. Pitch angle is indicated by a
graduated scale on the sphere, the indication is limited to 65 degrees in dive and
105 degrees in climb. Roll freedom is unlimited and roll angle is indicated by the
position of the roll pointer relative to the roll scale. Power failure or insufficient
gyro rotational speed is indicated by the appearance of a flag in the upper righthand portion of the dial presentation. The flag is coloured fluorescent red, with
four superimposed diagonal black stripes.
After the gyro commences to run up, a fast erection mechanism is used to bring it
to the vertical position. This is brought into operation by pulling the knob on the
front of the instrument and waiting for a few seconds until the horizon line
stabilises at its datum position and the roll index reads zero.
Localiser and glideslope pointers indicate ILS deviation and are driven from No. 1
VHF navigation system. LOC and G/S failure warning flags are driven out of view
by external 28 V DC validity signals also emanating from NAV 1 receiver; the
flags are in view when the validity signals are missing or do not conform. When
power is applied to the NAV 1 receiver but it is not tuned to a localiser frequency,
external bias voltages remove the LOC and G/S pointers and flags from view.
Figure 49 shows the Standby Attitude Indicator internal circuit.
Page 1-63
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1A
28V DC
EMERG/BATT
STATIC
INVERTER
GYRO
G/S
SIGNAL
LOC
SIGNAL
G/S
VALIDITY
LOC
VALIDITY
5V AC
INSTRUMENT
LIGHTING
Standby Attitude Indicator Internal Circuit

Figure 49
Page 1-64
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.16 DIRECTION INDICATORS

This indicator was the first gyroscopic instrument to be introduced as a Heading
Indicator and although for most aircraft currently in service it has been
superseded by remote-indicating compass systems (see later). The instrument
uses a horizontal axis gyroscope and, being non-magnetic, is used in conjunction
with a magnetic compass.
In its basic form, the outer ring of the gyro carries a circular card, graduated in
degrees, and referenced against a lubber line fixed to the gyro frame. When the
rotor is spinning, the gimbal system and card are stabilized so that, by turning the
frame, the number of degrees through which it is turning may be read on the
card. Figure 50 shows a Directional Indicator.
180
170
Directional Indicator
Figure 50
Page 1-65
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In the directional gyro, the rotor is enclosed in a case, or shroud, and supported
in an inner gimbal which is mounted in an outer gimbal, the bearings of which are
located top and bottom on the indicator case. The front of the case contains a
cut-out through which the card is visible, and also a lubber line reference.
The caging/setting knob is provided at the front of the case to set the indicator
onto the correct heading (magnetic). When the setting the heading, the inner
gimbal has to be caged to prevent it from precessing as the outer gimbal is
rotated. Figure 51 shows the construction of a directional gyro.
Directional Gyro
Figure 51
Page 1-66
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.17 TURN & SLIP INDICATOR

This indicator contains two independent mechanisms:
1. A gyroscopically controlled pointer mechanism for the detection and
indication of the rate at which an aircraft turns.
2. A mechanism for the detection and indication of slip/slide.
A gimbal ring and magnifying system, which moves the pointer in the correct
sense over a scale calibrated in what is termed Standard Rates, actuate the
rate of turn pointer. Although they are not always marked on a scale, they are
classified as follows:
1. Rate 1 - Turn Rate 180 per minute.
Figure 52 shows a typical Turn & Slip indicator.
2 MIN
Turn & Slip Indicator

Figure 52
Page 1-67
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
For the detection of rates of turn, a rate gyroscope is used and is arranged in the
manner shown in figure 53.
INPUT
AXIS
FWD
Y1
F
Y
X1
Rate Gyro Turn Indicator

Figure 53
It differs in two respects from the displacement gyro as it only has one gimbal ring
and a calibrated spring restraining in the longitudinal axis YY1. When the
indicator is in its normal operating position the rotor spin axis, due to the spring
restraint, will always be horizontal and the turn pointer at the zero datum. With
the rotor spinning, its rigidity will further ensure that the zero position is
maintained.
Page 1-68
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
When the aircraft turns to the left about the vertical input axis the rigidity of the
rotor will resist the turning movement, which it detects as an equivalent force
being applied to its rim at point F. The gimbal ring and rotor will therefore be
tilted about the longitudinal axis as a result of precession at point P.
As the gimbal ring tilts, it stretches the calibrated spring until the force it exerts
prevents further deflection of the gimbal ring. Since precession of a rate gyro is
equal to its angular momentum and the rate of turn, then the spring force is a
measure of the rate of turn.
Actual movement of the gimbal ring from its zero position can, therefore, be taken
as the required measure of turn rate.
1.17.1 BANK INDICATION
In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also necessary to have an
indication that an aircraft is correctly banked for the particular turn. A secondary
indicating mechanism is therefore provided, which, depends for its operation on
the effect of gravitational and centrifugal forces. A method commonly used for
bank indication is one utilising a ball in a curved liquid-filled glass tube as shown
in Figure 26.
In the normal level flight the ball is held at the center of the tube by the force of
gravity. Let us assume the aircraft turns left at a certain airspeed and bank angle.
The indicator case and the tube move with the aircraft and centrifugal force (CF)
in addition to that of gravity acts upon the ball and tends to displace it outwards
from the center of the tube. However, when the turn is executed at the correct
bank angle and matched with airspeed, then there is a balanced condition
between the two forces and so the resultant force (R) hold the ball in the center of
the tube.
If the airspeed were to be increased during the turn, then the bank angle and
centrifugal force would also be increased. As long as the bank angle is correct
for the appropriate conditions, the new resultant force will still hold the ball
central.
If the bank angle for a particular rate of turn is not correct (under-banked/overbanked), then the aircraft will tend to either skid or slip. In the skid condition the
centrifugal force will be the greatest, whereas in the slip condition the force of
gravity is greatest.
Page 1-69
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 54 shows bank indication for various aircraft bank conditions.
Bank Indications
Figure 54
Page 1-70
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.18 TURN CO-ORDINATOR

The final instrument in this group is the turn co-ordinator. Basically, its
mechanism is changed slightly from the turn and slip indicator, so that it senses
rotation about the longitudinal axis, (bank) as well as the vertical axis, (turn). This
gives a more accurate indication to the pilot, of the turning of the aircraft.
Figure 55 shows a Turn co-ordinator indicator.
TURN COORDINATION
R
2 MIN
NO PITCH
INFORMATION
Turn co-ordinator Indicator

Figure 55
Page 1-71
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.19 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)

The HSI consists of a servo-driven azimuth (compass) card, which is read in
relation to a miniature aircraft symbol in the center of the display, and a lubber
line at the 12 oclock position, the azimuth card being driven by the gyrocompass
system.
A glideslope pointer and scale on the right hand side of the indicator gives a
conventional display of the aircraft with respect to the glideslope. The scale is in
a three-position rotation display, the three positions being glideslope, when the
scale is presenting ILS glideslope deviation. The center mark is a rectangle and
the outer marks are dots. No 2 scale is presented to display vertical navigation
display and No 3 scale shows vertical navigation failure flag.
The course deviation bar represents the centerline of a selected VOR or a
selected localiser course. Deviation from a selected course is indicated by the
bar moving across a scale, which is represented by four white dots, two on either
side of the center of the rotatable mask.
Two windows in the course mask show indications of: 1. To-From a VOR station, (a solid triangle with a V annotation).
2. To-From a selected NAV co-ordinate (a solid triangle with an N
annotation).
3. To-From a station with aircraft ILS selected (a half-blue and half-yellow
flag).
4. Failure flag (orange and yellow striped flag).
One radio bearing pointer displays the bearing to the next WPT. The bearing
pointer is a pink arrow.
A window to the left of the heading dial displays an ALERT annunciator flag to
indicate the proximity of a navigation reference point.
On the top left and top right hand corners of the instrument are to windows
labeled DIST (distance to waypoint) and GND SPD (ground speed) respectively.
Three windows located in the lower left hand corner of the instrument are blank
until one of the auxiliary servo monitors detects a persistent excessive null, at
which time the ISM causes the appropriate servo symbol to come into view.
A cursor consisting of two trapezoids indicates the selected heading on the
heading dial. The heading select indicator is remotely positioned by the heading
(HDG) knob on the navigation selector. A heading (HDG) flag will be displayed,
Page 1-72
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
and will cover the heading index at the 12 oclock position if the heading source
fails, or if there is interrupted supply.
Selected course is displayed on the heading dial by an orange dagger-shaped
indicator, rotating in the centre of the heading dial. A similarly coloured pointer
opposite the dagger-shaped indicator provides the reciprocal of selected course.
The dagger and pointer, together with the airplane symbol, serve as the index for
the course deviation indicator. The course select indicator is remotely positioned
by means of the course setting knobs on the navigation selector. Figure 56
shows a Sperry RD700D HSI.
SELECTED
COURSE
CAPTURED
SELECTED
HEADING
CAPTURED
SELECTED
WAYPOINT
BEARING
CAPTURED
VERTICAL
FAIL FLAG
GLIDESLOPE
COURSE MASK
ANNUNCIATION'S
Sperry RD700D HSI

Figure 56
Page 1-73
VERTICAL
NAVIGATION
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.20 COLLINS 331A-8K HSI

The HSI consists of a servo-driven azimuth (compass) card, which is read in
relation to a miniature aircraft symbol in the center of the display and a lubber line
at the 12 o'clock position. The azimuth card is driven by the gyro compass
system.
A vertical track or glideslope deviation pointer and scale, on the right-hand side
of the HSI, gives a conventional display of the aircraft with respect to the
glideslope. The deviation scale is marked by five dash marks, one long dash
mark in the center, two short dash marks above it and two short dash marks
below it. The vertical track or glideslope deviation pointer is such that when the
aircraft is on the glidepath the pointer is in the central position on the scale. If the
aircraft is off the glideslope, the pointer will move to indicate whether the
deviation is up or down and the amount of movement indicates the extent of the
deviation.
The course deviation bar represents the centerline of a selected VOR or localizer
course. The course deviation scale is marked by five dots, the center one being
enclosed in a small circle. If the aircraft moves off course, the deviation bar will
move to indicate whether left or right of selected course, and the amount of
deviation.
A To-From pointer is used when the navigation receiver is tuned to, and receiving
a VOR signal. The to-from pointer indicates whether the selected course is "To"
(pointer up) or "from" (pointer down) the received signal. When the selected
course is the same as the selected VOR radial, and the aircraft is heading
towards the signal course, a "to" indication is given. When the selected course is
the same as the selected VOR radial and the aircraft is flying away from the
signal course, a "From" indication is given.
An RNAV bearing pointer indicates the direction to the active waypoint. When not
in the RNAV mode, the pointer is biased to the 6 o'clock position.
Two digital LCD displays in the top left-hand and right-hand corners of the HSI
indicate the distance to go to the next waypoint (MILES) and the groundspeed of
the aircraft (GND SPEED). The brightness of the two displays can be adjusted
using the HSI & RA DIM control located on the main instrument panel.
Page 1-74
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 57 shows a Collins 331A-8K HSI.
Collins 331A-8K HSI

Figure 57
Page 1-75
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.20.1 WARNING FLAGS

1. MAG annunciator.
Is displayed to show that the information is magnetic heading.
2. HEADING warning flag.
HEADING warning flag comes into view and covers the MAG annunciator if the
heading information becomes unreliable.
3. Navigation warning flag.
Comes into view if navigation data is (orange with white stripes) missing, or
unreliable, when the receiver is tuned to a VOR station.
4. VERT warning flag (GS).
Comes into view when glideslope data is missing or unreliable.
Page 1-76
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.21 ANGLE OF ATTACK (AOA)

Apart from the main flight instruments, one item of information that the pilot needs
to know at various stages of flight is the angle of attack. Earlier aircraft had a
range of devices that gave the pilot indication of an approaching stall, which was
an essential indicator but knowing the angle of attack has become an essential
part of flying modern, larger aircraft.
The simplest forms of angle of attack indicators are the Angle of Attack probe and
the stall vane. The probe consists of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the
leading edge of a wing so that the vane protrudes into the airstream. Figure 58
shows an Angle of Attack vane sensor.
ELCTRICAL
CONNECTION
FWD
HINGED
VANE
SYNCHRO
FUSELAGE
SKIN
INDEX
PINS
Angle of Attack Vane Sensor

Figure 58
Page 1-77
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in a parallel
position. If the aircrafts attitude changes such that the AOA increases, then by
definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so
cause the vane to be deflected. Figure 59 shows the detection of the AOA.
A330
ANGLE
OF
ATTACK
VANE ARM
ANGLE OF ATTACK
TRANSDUCER
AIRCRAFT
LONGITUDINAL
AXIS
FLIGHT PATH
AIRFLOW
Detecting AOA
Figure 59
When the AOA reaches that which the warning unit has been pre-set, the vane
activates a circuit to activate the stick shaker on the control column (Indicating the
aircraft is approaching a stall).
Page 1-78
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.22 STALL WARNING INDICATION
VANE SENSOR
SYNCHRO SUPP
HTR
SUPP
K1
GND
FLT
115V
400Hz
28V
DC
WOW
SW
STICK
SHAKER
M
SS1
FLAP
POSITION
TRANSMITTER
AOA SIGNAL
BIAS OFF
DEMODULATOR
Figure 60 shows the Stall Warning System
Stall Warning System

Figure 60
Page 1-79
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The system in figure 60 consists of a precision counter-balanced aerodynamic

vane, which positions a synchro. The vane is protected against ice formation by
an internal heating element. Also, since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is
changed by the extension of the flaps, the sensor synchro is also interconnected
with a synchro within the transmitter of the flap position indicating system, in
order to modify the AOA signal output as a function of the flap position.
Stick shaking is accomplished by a motor which is secured to the control column
and drives a weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to set up vibrations of
the column, to simulate the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition.
Figure 61 shows a stick-shaker installation.
MOUNTING
BRACKET
STICK-SHAKER
MOTOR
Stick-Shaker Installation
Figure 61
Page 1-80
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.23 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Modern technology has enabled some significant changes in the layout of flight
instrumentation on most aircraft currently in service. The biggest change has
been the introduction of Electronic Instrument systems. These systems have
meant that many complex Electro-mechanical instruments have now been
replaced by TV type colour displays. These systems also allow the exchange of
images between display units in the case of display failures.
There are many different Electronic Instrument Systems, including:
1. Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS).
2. Engine Instrumentation & Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
3. Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM).
Figure 62 shows a typical flight deck layout of an Airbus A320.
COMBINED
AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
EADI
ALTIMETER
BASIC T GROUPING WITH

ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
RADIO
MAGNETIC
INDICATOR
EHSI
EFIS
PFD
EFIS
ND
VERTICAL
SPEED
INDICATOR
ECAM
ENGINE
WARNINGS
EFIS
ND
EFIS
PFD
ECAM
SYSTEMS
GLASS FLIGHTDECK - AIRBUS A320
Flight Deck Electronic Instrumentation Layout

Figure 62
Page 1-81
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The Electronic Instrument System (EIS) also allows the flight crew to configure
the instrument layout by allowing manual transfer of the Primary Flight Display
(PFD) with the Navigation Display (ND) and the secondary Electronic Centralized
Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) display with the ND. Figure 63 shows the switching
panel from Airbus A320.
ATT HDG
AIR DATA
NORM
CAPT
3
E/S DMC
NORM
F/O
3
CAPT
3
ECAM / ND XFR
NORM
F/O
3
CAPT
3
NORM
F/O
3
CAPT
F/O
A320 EIS Switching Panel

Figure 63
Page 1-82
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
As well as a manual transfer, the system will automatically transfer displays when
either the PFD or the primary ECAM display fails. The PFD is automatically
transferred onto the corresponding ND, with the ECAM secondary display used
for the primary ECAM display.
The system will also automatically transfer the primary ECAM information onto
the ND if a double failure of the ECAM display system occurs. Figure 64 shows a
block schematic of the EIS for the Airbus 320.
DISPLAY
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DMS No 1
DISPLAY
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DMS No 3
DISPLAY
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DMS No 2
Electronic Instrument System (EIS)

Figure 64
Page 1-83
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.24 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

As in the case of conventional flight instrument systems, a complete EFIS
installation is made up of left (Captain) and right (First Officer) systems. Each
system comprises:
1. Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI).
2. Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI).
3. Display Control Panel.
4. Symbol Generator.
The EADI and EHSI can either be positioned side by side or vertically top and
bottom. Normally the EADI is positioned on the top or on the onside position.
1.25 ELECTRONIC ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (EADI)

The EADI displays traditional attitude information (Pitch & Roll) against a twocolour sphere representing the horizon (Ground/Sky) with an aircraft symbol as a
reference. Attitude information is normally supplied from an Attitude Reference
System (ARS).
The EADI will also display further flight information, Flight Director commands
right/left to capture the flight path to Waypoints, airports and NAVAIDS and
up/down to fly to set altitudes. Information related to the aircrafts position with
respect to Localizer (LOC) and Glideslope (GS) beams transmitted by an ILS.
Auto Flight Control System (AFCS) deviations and Autothrottle mode, selected
airspeed (Indicated or Mach No) Groundspeed, Radio Altitude and Decision
Height information.
Page 1-84
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 65 shows a typical EADI display
Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI) Display

Figure 65
Page 1-85
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The EADI has two display formats:

1. Full Time EADI Display (Data which is always present).
2. Part Time EADI Display (Data which is only present when active).
1.25.1 FULL TIME EADI DISPLAY DATA
Attitude Sphere:
Moves with respect to the aircraft symbol to display

actual pitch and roll attitude.
Pitch Attitude:
The pitch attitude display has white scale reference

marks at 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60 and 80 on
the sphere.
Roll Attitude:
Displays actual roll attitude through a moveable index

and fixed scale reference marks at 0, 10, 20, 30,
45, 60 and 90.
Aircraft Symbol:
Serves as a stationary symbol of the aircraft. Aircraft

pitch and roll attitudes are displayed by the
relationship between the fixed miniature aircraft and
the moveable sphere.
Flight Director Cue:
Displays computed commands to capture and

maintain a desired flight path. Flying the aircraft
symbol to the command cue satisfies the commands.
Fast/Slow Display:
The pointer indicates fast or slow error provided by an

angle-of-attack, airspeed or alternative reference
system.
Inclinometer:
The EADI uses conventional inclinometer, which

provides the pilot with a display of aircraft slip or skid,
and is used as an aid for coordinated maneuvers.
Page 1-86
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Attitude Source
Annunciation:
The selected attitude source is not annunciated if it is

the normal source for that indicator. As other attitude
sources are selected, they are annunciated in white at
the top left-hand side of the EADI. When the pilot and
co-pilot sources are the same, then the annunciation
is amber.
1.25.2 PART TIME EADI DISPLAYS

Several displays are in view only when being used. When not in use, these
displays are automatically removed from the EADI.
Radio Altitude:
Displayed by a four-digit display from 20 to 2500

feet. Display resolution between 200 and 2500 feet is
in 10-foot increments. The display resolution below
200 is 5 feet. The display disappears for altitudes
above 2500 feet (Radio Altitude max altitude is 2,500
feet).
Decision Height:
Decision Height is displayed by a three-digit display.

The set range is from 0 to 990 feet in 10-foot
increments. The DH display may be removed by
rotating fully counterclockwise the DH set knob.
Note; when the Radio Altimeter height is 100 feet above the DH, a white box
appears adjacent to the radio altimeter display. When at or below the DH, an
Amber DH will appear inside the white box.
Flight Director
Mode Annunciators:
Flight director vertical and lateral modes are

annunciated along the top of the EADI. Armed vertical
and lateral modes are annunciated in white to the left
of the captured vertical and lateral mode annunciators.
Capture mode annunciators are displayed in green
and are located on the top center for lateral modes
and in the top right corner for vertical modes. As the
mode's transition from armed to capture, a white box
is drawn around the capture mode annunciator for 5
seconds.
Page 1-87
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Marker Beacon:
Displayed above the Radio Altimeter height

information. The markers are of a specified colour of:
Blue
Outer Marker.
Amber
Middle Marker.
White
Inner Marker.
Rising Runway:
a miniature rising runway displays Absolute altitude

reference above the terrain. It appears at 200 feet,
and contacts the aircraft symbol at touchdown (0 feet).
Rate-of-Turn:
Pointer and scale at the bottom of the display

indicates rate or turn. Used with the inclinometer, will
enable coordinated turns to be achieved.
Glide Slope:
By tuning to an ILS frequency, the Glide Slope

information will be displayed. Aircraft displacement
from the Glide Slope beam centerline is then indicated
by the relationship of the aircraft to the Glide Slope
pointer. The letter G inside the vertical scale pointer
identifies the information as Glide Slope deviation.
When tuning to other than an ILS frequency, the Glide
Slope display is removed.
Expanded Localizer:
By tuning to an ILS frequency, the Rate-of-Turn

display is replaced by the expanded Localizer display.
When tuning to other than an ILS frequency, the
expanded localizer display is replaced by the Rate-ofTurn display.
Vertical Navigation
Display:
Page 1-88
The deviation pointer indicates the VNAVs computed

path center to which the aircraft is to be flown. In this
mode, the letter V inside the vertical scale pointer
identifies the information as VNAV deviation.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.26 ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (EHSI)

The EHSI presents a selectable, dynamic colour display of flight progress and
plan view orientation. The EHSI has a number of different modes of operation,
these are selectable by the flight crew and the number will be dependent on the
system fitted.
Figure 66 shows an EHSI display.
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) Display

Figure 66
Page 1-89
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The EHSI has two display formats:

1. Full Time EADI Display (Data which is always present).
2. Part Time EADI Display (Data which are only present when active).
1.26.1 FULL TIME EHSI DISPLAYS
Aircraft Symbol:
The aircraft symbol provides a quick visual cue as to

the aircrafts position in relation to the selected course
and heading, or actual heading.
Heading Dial:
Displays the heading information on a rotating

heading dial graduated in 5 increments. Fixed
heading indexes are located at each 45 position.
Heading Bug &

Heading Readout:
Course Deviation
Indicator:
Select Course Pointer

& Course Readout:
Page 1-90
The notched heading bug is positioned around the

rotating heading dial by the remote heading select
knob on the Display Controller. A digital heading
select readout is also provided for convenience in
setting the heading bug. Heading select error
information from the heading bug is used to fly to the
bug.
The course deviation bar represents the centerline of

the selected navigation or localizer course. The
aircraft symbol pictorially shows the aircraft position in
relation to the displayed deviation.
Course pointer is positioned inside the heading dial by

the remote select knob on the Display Controller.
Course error information from the course select
pointer is used to fly the selected navigation path. A
digital course select readout is provided for
convenience in setting the select course pointer.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Distance Display:
Navigation Source
Annunciators:
Time-to-Go/Ground
Speed:
The distance display indicates the nautical miles to the

selected DME station or LRN Waypoint. Depending
on the equipment, the distance will be displayed in a 0
to 399.9 NM or a 0 to 3999 NM format. An Amber H
adjacent to the distance readout indicates DME Hold.
This will indicate to the crew that DME information is
from the previous VOR/DME beacon, and not the one
providing VOR bearing.
Annunciation of the navigation source is displayed in

the upper right hand corner. Long range navigation
sources such as INS, VLF, RNAV and FMS are
displayed in blue to distinguish them from short-range
sources, which are annunciated in white.
Either Time-to-Go or Groundspeed can be displayed,

selected via the Display Controller. Ground Speed is
calculated using the LRN, if fitted. If no LRN, then the
EFIS uses the DME distance to calculate Ground
Speed.
Drift Angle Bug:
The drift angle bug with respect to the lubber line

represents drift angle left or right of the desired track.
The drift angle bug with respec to the compass card
represents actual aircraft track. The bug is displayed
as a magenta triangle that moves around the outside
of the compass card.
Desired Track:
When LRN is selected, the Course Pointer now

becomes the Desired Track Pointer. The position of
the desired Track Pointer is controlled by the LRN. A
digital display of desired track (DRAK) is displayed in
the upper left-hand corner.
TO-FROM Annunciator: An Arrowhead in the center of the EHSI indicates

whether the selected course will take the aircraft TO
or FROM the station or Waypoint. The TO-FROM
annunciator is not in view during ILS operation.
Heading Source
Annunciation:
At the top center of the EHSI is the heading source

annunciator.
Page 1-91
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Heading SYNC
Annunciator:
The heading SYNC annunciator is located next to the

upper left corner and indicates the state of the
compass system in the slaved mode. The bar
represents commands to the compass gyro to slew to
the indicated direction (+ for increased heading and 0
for decreased heading). Heading SYNC is removed
during compass FREE mode and for LRN derived
heading displays.
1.26.2 PART TIME EHSI DISPLAYS

Vertical Navigation
Display:
Glide Slope Deviation:
Bearing Pointer
Source Annunciators:
Elapsed Time
Annunciation:
Page 1-92
The vertical navigation display comes into view when

the VNAV mode on the flight director is selected. The
deviation pointer then indicates the VNAVs computed
path center to which the aircraft is to be flown. In this
mode the letter V inside the scale pointer identifies
the deviation display.
The Glide Slope display comes into view when a VHF
NAV source is selected and the NAV source is tuned
to an ILS frequency. The deviation pointer then
indicates the Glide Slope beam center to which the
aircraft is to be flown. The letter G inside the scale
pointer identifies the deviation display.
The bearing pointers indicate relative bearing to the

selected NAVAID. Two bearing pointers are available
and can be tuned to either VOR or ADF NAVAIDs. If
no NAVAIDs are selected then the pointers and
annunciators are removed. The bearing source
annunciators are colour and symbol coded with the
bearing pointers.
When in the Elapsed Time (ET) mode, the ET display

can read minutes and seconds or hours and minutes.
The hour/minute mode will be distinguishable from the
minute/second mode by an H on the left of the digital
display.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.26.3 PARTIAL COMPASS FORMAT

The partial compass mode displays a 90 ARC of compass coordinates. The
Partial mode allows other features such as MAP and Weather Radar displays to
Be selected. Figure 67 shows a Partial EHSI display (Compass Mode).
EHSI Partial Compass Mode Display

Figure 67
Wind Vector Display:
Wind information is displayed in any partial format.

The wind information can be shown as magnitude and
direction or as head/tail component and cross wind
component, type used is determined on installation of
EFIS. In both cases, the arrow shows the direction
and the number indicates the velocity of the wind (in
knots). Wind information is calculated from the LRN.
Page 1-93
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Range Rings:
Range rings are displayed to aid in the determining

the position of radar returns and NAVAIDs. The range
ring is the compass card boundary and represents the
selected range on the Radar.
NAVAID Position:
NAVAID position can be selected during MAP mode.

The source of the NAVAID position marker is selected
and annunciated in conjunction with the associated
bearing source and is colour coded.
Weather Information:
Weather information from the Radar can be displayed

in partial compass mode. Weather Radar data is
presented in the following colours:
Page 1-94
1.
Black
No storm.
2.
Green
Moderate storm.
3.
Yellow
Less severe storm.
4.
Red
Severe storm.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 68 shows an EHSI partial format with Weather Radar information.
EHSI Weather Radar Display

Figure 68
Page 1-95
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.26.4 MAP MODE

The MAP mode will allow the display of more navigational information in the
partial compass mode. Information on the location of Waypoints, airports,
NAVAIDs and the planned route can be overlaid on the compass mode.
Weather information can also be displayed in the MAP mode to give a very
comprehensive display.
Figure 69 shows an EHSI MAP mode display.
EHSI MAP Mode Display.

Figure 69
Page 1-96
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.26.5 COMPOSITE DISPLAY

In the event of a display unit failure, the remaining good display can display a
Composite Display. This display is selected via the Display Controller and is
basically a display consisting elements from an EADI and EHSI display.
Figure 70 shows a typical composite display.
EFIS Composite Display

Figure 70
Page 1-97
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.27 EFIS CONTROLLER

Allows the crew to select the required display configuration and what information
is to be displayed. Both Captain and Co-Pilot have their own display controllers.
The controllers have two main functions:
Display Controller:
Selects the display format for EHSI as either FULL,

ARC, WX or MAP.
Source Select:
Selects the system that will provide information

required for display. The source information will be
VOR, ADF, INS, FMS, VHF and NAV.
EFIS Display Controllers are shown at Figure 71.
DISPLAY SELECT BUTTONS
FULL
ARC
GS
TTG
WX
CRS
DIM
ET
DH
MAP
BOT
SC
CP
REV
HDG
TOP
TEST
RASTER DIM
DISPLAY CONTROLLER
SOURCE SELECT BUTTONS
NAV
VLF
FMS
INS 1
INS 2
HDG
ATT
VOR 2
ADF 2
ADF 1
VOR 1
ADF 2
AUTO
ADF 1
OFF
OFF
BRG
BRG
SOURCE SELECT CONTROLLER
EFIS Display and Source Controllers

Figure 71
Page 1-98
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.27.1 DISPLAY CONTROLLER

FULL/ARC:
The FULL/ARC button is used to change the EHSI

display from full compass rose display to a partial
compass display format. Successive pushes of the
button change the display format back and forth
between FULL and ARC.
WX (Weather):
The WX button is used to call up weather radar

returns on the partial compass display. If the EHSI is
in the FULL display format, selecting the WX display
will automatically select the ARC format. A second
push of the WX button will remove the weather
information but the ARC format will remain.
GS/TTG:
By pressing the GS/TTG button, Groundspeed or the

Time-to-GO will alternately be displayed in the lower
right corner of the EHSI.
ET:
By pressing the ET button, Elapsed time is displayed.

If the ET button is pressed again, it will zero the
displayed time. The sequence is:
1. Zero.
2. Start.
3. Stop.
MAP:
By pressing the MAP button, the full compass display

is changed to the partial compass display, with active
Waypoints displayed. Also VOR/DME ground station
positions will be displayed.
SC/CP:
By pressing the SC/CP button, the flight director

command cues are toggled back and forth from single
cue (SC) configuration to cross pointer (CP)
configuration.
Page 1-99
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
REV:
In the event of an EADI/EHSI display failure, the REV

button may also be used to display a composite
format on the remaining good display. The first push
of the button will blank the EHSI and put the
composite display onto the EADI. The second push
blanks the EADI and puts the composite display onto
the EHSI. A third push will return EHSI/EADI to
normal.
CRS Select Knob:
Rotation of the Course select knob allows the course

pointer on the EHSI to be rotated to the desired
course.
DIM:
Rotation of the outer concentric DIM knob allows the

overall brightness of the EADI, EHSI to be adjusted.
After the reference levels are set, photoelectric
sensors maintain the brightness level over various
lighting conditions.
DH:
Rotation of the inner concentric DH knob allows the

Decision Height, displayed on the EADI, to be
adjusted. If the knob is rotated fully counterclockwise,
the DH display is removed.
TEST:
By pressing the TEST button, the displays will enter

the test mode. In the test mode, flags and cautions
are presented along with a check of the flight director
mode annunciations. If the test is successful a
PASS is displayed. If the test is unsuccessful then
an FD FAIL is annunciated.
RASTER DIM TOP/BOT: Rotation of the outer (Bottom display) and inner (Top
display) concentric knobs adjusts the raster scan
display (Weather Radar and Attitude Sphere).
HDG:
Page 1-100
Rotation of the heading select knob allows the

heading select bug to be rotated to the desired
heading.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.27.2 SOURCE CONTROLLER

Used to select the available sources of heading, attitude, bearing and
navigational information for display. Since each aircraft is different, the source
controller is normally tailored to fit each need.
NAV:
This button is used to control the source of VHF NAV

display information. Each push of the button will
toggle the source between pilot and copilots NAV
information. VHF systems include DME, ILS and
VOR.
LRN:
Long Range Navigation selections depend on the

systems available. These include INS, VLF and FMS
systems.
ATT:
Attitude button selects the source of attitude

information. Each push of the button will select a
different source for display. Not available to all
aircraft.
BRG:
This knob allows the selection of VOR and ADF

bearings to be displayed. The selected source is
annunciated on the left-hand side of the display and
the bearing to the selected beacon via two bearing
pointers.
Page 1-101
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The EFIS comprises the following units:

1. Symbol Generator (SG).
2. Display units X 2 (EADI & EHSI).
3. Control Panel.
4. Remote Light Sensor.
Figure 72 shows the EFIS units and signal interface in block schematic form.
Honeywell
GS
ATT 2
AOA
F
20
20
10
10
10
10
G
GS
WX
TTG
DIM
CRS
DH
SC
MAP
BOT
REV
CP
TOP
S
CMD
M .99
200DH
HDG
TEST
RASTER DIM
AIR
DATA
COMP
NAV
VLF
FMS
INS 1
INS 2
ADF 2
AUTO
ATT
HDG
140RA
Honeywell
VOR 2
CRS
+0
OFF
N
33
H 2.1 NM
3
30
BRG
BRG
NAV 1
345
ADF 1
OFF
DH
VOR 1
ADF 1
E 1
2
INERTIAL
REF
SYSTEM
20
EFIS SG No 1
VOR 1
ADF 2
ADF 1
20
W
24
ARC
ET
21
HDG
NAV AID
ILS/VOR
15
FULL
GSPD
013
130 KTS
EFIS SG No 3
RAD ALT
Honeywell
GS
ATT 2
WEATHER
RADAR
AOA
F
20
20
10
10
10
10
G
S
CMD
M .99
200DH
DME
FULL
ARC
DIM
CRS
FMS
GS
TTG
WX
ET
DH
MAP
BOT
SC
CP
REV
TOP
20
20
DH
140RA
HDG
TEST
RASTER DIM
EFIS SG No 2
AFCS
Honeywell
FMS
INS 1
INS 2
CRS
ATT
HDG
NAV 1
345
+0
AUTO
VOR 1
BRG
ADF 1
HDG
E 1
2
OFF
BRG
013
EFIS Block Schematic

Figure 72
Page 1-102
H 2.1 NM
3
30
ADF 1
OFF
N
33
VOR 2
VOR 1
ADF 2
W
24
ADF 2
ADF 1
21
VLF
15
GPWS
NAV
GSPD
130 KTS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.28 OTHER SYSTEM INDICATIONS

There are endless different instrument displays, which show the pilot's or flight
engineer, the condition of the aircraft's many systems, the range of instruments
depending on the size of the aircraft. On earlier airliners there could have been
dozens of instruments on the panels to pass on information regarding, for
example, oil temperature & pressure, cabin altitude, hydraulic oil quantity,
electrical power being used, etc.
1.29 POWERPLANT INSTRUMENTATION
Information required by the flight crew to enable them to monitor the engines
include:
1. Fuel Contents.
2. Fuel Flow.
3. Engine RPM.
4. Engine Temperature.
5. Engine pressure.
1.30 FUEL CONTENTS GAUGE
Most modern aircraft have a number of fuel tanks within the wing structure and
each individual tank's contents must be known. There are two main methods of
indicating fuel contents:
1. Resistance Gauges.
2. Capacitance Quantity Indicators.
1.30.1 RESISTANCE GAUGES
This type of gauge tends to found on smaller aircraft. It has a float in the fuel tank
that is connected to a variable resistor. As the fuel level changes, the float will
move, thus changing the resistance, which in turn will alter the current flow
through a DC circuit, which in turn will operate a meter indicating fuel contents.
Page 1-103
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 73 shows a simplified resistance gauge.
INDICATOR
N
S
TANK
RESISTOR
+ DC
POWER
FUEL TANK
Resistance Gauge
Figure 73
1.30.2 CAPACITANCE QUANTITY INDICATORS
This has the advantage over other quantity systems in that it can give accurate
readings in very large or unusually shaped tanks. The probes within the fuel tank
are actually capacitors. The two plates of the capacitor will be separated by fuel
on the lower end and air on the upper end. Since fuel and air have different
dielectric constant values, the amount of capacitance will change as the fuel level
rises and falls. The probes will then send signals to the flight deck gauges to
indicate fuel contents. This system usually includes a totalizer, which will give a
reading of the total fuel on board. Some fuel systems will also include indications
of fuel used since take-off.
Page 1-104
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 74 shows a circuit of a capacitance quantity system.
TANK UNIT
EMPTY
IS
LOOP
A
IB
LOOP
B
REF C
FULL
2 - PHASE
MOTOR
DISCRIMINATION
STAGE
AMPLIFIER
STAGE
INDICATOR
REF
PHASE
AMPLIFIER UNIT
Capacitance Quantity Indicating System

Figure 74
Page 1-105
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.31 FUEL FLOW INDICATOR

Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight may vary slightly
between engines of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of
the satisfactory operation of the engine and the amount of fuel being consumed
during flight. A typical system consists of a fuel flow transmitter, which is fitted
into the low pressure fuel system, and an indicator, which shows the rate of fuel
flow and the total fuel used in pounds per hour. The transmitter measures the
fuel flow electrically and an associated electronic unit gives a signal to the
indicator proportional to the fuel flow. Figure 75 shows a fuel flow transmitter &
indicator.
Fuel Flow Transmitter & Indicator

Figure 75
Page 1-106
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In some aircraft, a combined fuel flow/pressure indicator is used. This type of

indicator usually has two pointers moving over the double-scale, one pointer the
right engine and the other the left engine. On most large passenger aircraft, a
dedicated fuel flow indicator is used for each engine. Figure 76 shows two types
of fuel flow indicators.
TWIN ENGINED COMBINED FUEL FLOW/PRESSURE

INDICATOR
SINGLE ENGINE FUEL FLOW INDICATOR
Fuel Flow Indicators

Figure 76
Page 1-107
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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.31.1 FUEL FLOW TRANSMITTERS

There are two types of fuel flow transmitters currently in use:
1. Synchronous Mass Flow Flow-meter System.
2. Motorless Mass Flow Meter System.
1.31.2 SYNCHRONOUS MASS FLOW FLOW -METER SYSTEM
This system measures mass flow rather than volume. In this way, it
compensates for fuel temperature in its readout. The system also measures in
pounds per hour. Figure 77 shows a schematic diagram of the Synchronous
Mass Flow Flow-meter System.
CALIBRATED
RESTRAINING
SPRINGS
TURBINE
DECOUPLING
DISK
IMPELLER
FUEL FLOW
IMPELLER
MOTOR
FLUID
PASSAGE
FLUID
PASSAGE
115V
400Hz
TRANSMITTER
MOTOR
CIRCUIT
INDICATOR
Synchronous Mass Flow Flow-meter System

Figure 77
Page 1-108
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Referring to figure 77, fuel enters the transmitter impeller, which is rotated at a
constant 60rpm by the synchronous impeller motor. The temperature of the fuel
will determine its volume and the amount of force to be created by the action of
the impeller. The turbine is twisted against its retaining springs by the mass flow
force created by impeller movement. The mass flow electrical transmitter
arrangement works on the principle of a torque synchro.
1.31.3 MOTORLESS MASS FLOW METER SYSTEM
The motorless flow meter represents the latest in electronic solid-state fuel
measuring systems. It is small in size and accounts for variables such as fuel
temperatures and specific gravity with an accuracy of 1% as opposed to 2% for
motor driven flow meters. Almost all the large turbine powered aircraft are
configured with the motorless type, pound per hour fuel flow meter system.
Figure 78 shows a schematic of the Motorless Mass Flow Meter.
DRUM
PICK-OFF
COIL 1
PICK-OFF
COIL 2
DRIVE
FUEL
FLOW
IMPELLER
MAGNET
ONE
SPRING
MAGNET
TWO
Motorless Mass Flow Meter

Figure 78
Page 1-109
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Referring to figure 78, The flow meter transmitter converts the rate into two
electronic signals. The signals are created as the flowing fuel gives an angular
displacement to two continuously rotating magnets. The magnets induce
electronic impulses into stationary coils and the time difference is used as a
measure of the mass flow rate.
The fuel enters from the drive end and rotates the drum containing magnet 1 and
the drive shaft. The spring connects the drive shaft to the impeller containing
magnet 2. As the magnets rotate, the pick-off coils receive current pulses, the
first pulse occurring at pick-off coil 1. Then as the spring deflects in proportion to
fuel flow, magnet 2 turns with the impeller and induces a current pulse with a time
lag into pick-off coil 2.
The greater the mass flow, the greater the spring deflection and angular
difference between the magnets. The time displacement which, results is directly
proportional to mass flow rate in this motorless transmitter design. The indicator
contains electronic circuits, which convert the time difference to a pound per hour
readout.
Page 1-110
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.32 PRESSURE INDICATORS

It is essential for the correct and safe operation of the engine that accurate
indication is obtained of both the temperature and pressure of the engine oil and
fuel supply. Figure 79 shows a fuel pressure indicator and an engine oil
pressure indicator.
FUEL PRESSURE INDICATOR
ENGINE OIL PRESSURE INDICATOR
Fuel & Oil Pressure Indicators

Figure 79
Page 1-111
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
There are two methods of detecting the pressure, these are:

1. Pressure Capsule detection.
2. Bourbon Tube detection.
1.32.1 PRESSURE CAPSULE DETECTION
This type of indicator utilizes a pressure capsule or diaphragm. Like the
bourbon tube, a diaphragm type pressure indictor is attached to a capillary tube,
which attaches to the fuel system and carries pressurised fuel to the diaphragm.
As the diaphragm becomes pressurised it expands, causing an indicator pointer
to rotate. Figure 80 shows a pressure capsule type fuel pressure indicator.
DIAPHRAGM
Capsule Type Pressure Indicator

Figure 80
Page 1-112
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.32.2 BOURDON TUBE DETECTION

The bourdon tube is made with a metal tube that is formed in a circular shape
with a flattened cross-section. One end is open while the other is sealed. The
open end of the bourdon tube is connected to a capillary tube containing the
pressurised medium. As the pressurised medium enters the bourdon tube, the
tube tends to straighten. Through a series of gears, this movement is used to
move the indicating pointer on the instrument face. Figure 81 shows a Bourdon
tube mechanism.
POINTER
STAFF
BOURDON
TUBE
ANCHOR
POINT
GEARING
Bourdon Tube Mechanism

Figure 81
Page 1-113
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The most common method used on modern passenger aircraft is a pressure

transmitter and indicator. The operation is that oil/fuel pressure acting on a
bourdon tube within the transmitter moves an electromagnet core. This
movement is then transmitted to the indicator via a torque synchro system,
moving a pointer over the calibrated pressure scale. Figure 82 shows a
schematic of this system.
PRESSURE
INPUT
26 V AC
ENGINE
FIREWALL
BOURDON
TUBE
FLIGHTDECK
PRESSURE
INDICATOR
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
Pressure Transmitter and indicator

Figure 82
.
Page 1-114
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.33 OIL & FUEL TEMPERATURE INDICATORS

There are two main types of temperature sensors used in the oil & fuel
temperature measurement, these are:
1. Resistive Bulb Sensor.
2. Thermocouple Sensor.
1.33.1 RESISTIVE BULB SENSOR
Oil & fuel temperatures are sensed by a temperature sensitive element (resistive
BULB), fitted in the oil and fuel system. A temperature sensor and indicator is
shown in figure 82.
28V DC
TEMPERATURE
BULB
(RESISTIVE TYPE)
OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
CONNECTOR
PINS
MICA
INSULATOR
MICA
CORE
NICKEL WINDING
ON MICA CORE
COMPENSATING
COIL
Temperature Sensor & Indicator

Figure 82
Page 1-115
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The indicator contains a Wheatstone Bridge circuit with the temperature sensor
as the variable resistance. A change rise in temperature causes a rise in the
resistance value and, consequently, unbalances the bridge network with a
corresponding flow of current at the indicator. The indicator pointer is deflected
by an amount equivalent to the temperature change and this is recorded on an
indicator calibrated in degrees centigrade.
1.33.2 THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR
The advantage of the thermocouple sensor over the resistive bulb type is that it
requires no power from the aircraft electrical system to operate, It is selfcontained and self-generating circuit. It derives its power from a pair of dissimilar
metals, iron and constantan, which when heated at the hot junction, produces a
millivoltage and causes a current flow through the meter. Figure 83 shows the
thermocouple sensor and indicator,
CONSTANTAN (-)
(YELLOW)
IRON (+)
(BLACK)
THERMOCOUPLE
HOT JUNCTION
OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
Thermocouple & Indicator

Figure 83
Page 1-116
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.34 ENGINE RPM INDICATORS

All engines have their rotational speed (rpm) indicated, on two spool or triple
spool engines, the high pressure assembly speed (N3) is always indicated; in
most cases, additional indicators show the speed of the low pressure (N1) and
intermediate pressure (N2) assemblies. Engine speed indication is electrically
transmitted from a small generator driven by the engine to an indicator that shows
the speed as a percentage of the maximum engine speed. Figure 84 shows the
compressor speeds for a triple spool engine.
INTERMEDIATE
PRESSURE
INTERMEDIATE
SPEED
N2 COMPRESSOR
LOW PRESSURE
LOW SPEED
N1 COMPRESSOR
HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH SPEED
N3 COMPRESSOR
Compressor Spool Speeds

Figure 84
The engine speed is often used to assess the engine thrust, but it does not give
an absolute indication of the thrust being produced because inlet temperature
and pressure conditions affect the thrust at a given engine speed.
Page 1-117
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 85 shows two types of engine rpm indicators.
ENGINE RPM
INDICATOR
N1 PERCENTAGE
INDICATOR
Engine Speed Indicators

Figure 85
Page 1-118
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.34.1 ENGINE SPEED GENERATOR

The Engine speed generator supplies a three-phase alternating current, the
frequency of which is dependent upon engine speed. The generator output
frequency controls the speed of a synchronous motor in the indicator, and
rotation of a magnet assembly housed in a drum or drag-cup induces movement
of the drum and consequent movement of the indicator pointer. Figure 86 shows
an engine speed generator & indicator.
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR FIELD
POINTER
YOKE
SPOOL
DRIVE
FLUX
COUPLING
SPRING
INDICATOR
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
FIELD
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
Engine Speed Generator & Indicator

Figure 86
Where there is no provision for driving a generator, a variable-reluctance speed
probe, in conjunction with a phonic wheel, may be used to induce an electric
current that is amplified and then transmitted to an indicator. This method can be
used to provide an indication of rpm, without the requirement for a separately
driven generator, with its associated drives, thus reducing the number of
components and moving parts of the engine.
Page 1-119
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 87 shows a variable-reluctance speed probe and phonic wheel system.
SPEED SIGNAL
TO AMPLIFIER
COMPRESSOR
CASE
DRIVE
SHAFT
SPEED
PROBE
PHONIC
WHEEL
Variable-Reluctance Speed Probe & Phonic Wheel

Figure 87
The speed probe is positioned on the compressor casing in line with the phonic
wheel, which is a machined part of the compressor shaft. The teeth on the
periphery of the wheel pass the probe once every revolution and induce an
electric current by varying the magnetic flux across a coil in the probe. The
magnitude of the current is governed by the rate of change of the magnetic flux
and is thus directly related to the engine speed.
In addition to providing an indication of rotor speed, the current induced at the
speed probe can be used to illuminate a warning lamp on the instrument panel to
indicate to the flightcrew that a rotor assembly is turning. This is particularly
important at engine start, because it informs the flightcrew when to open the fuel
cocks to allow fuel to the engine.
Page 1-120
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.35 EXHAUST TEMPERATURE INDICATING

The temperature of the exhaust gases is always monitored closely during engine
operation, especially during the starting cycle when overheat damage is most
prevalent. Hot section temperature is considered the most critical of all engine
operating parameters because an out of limits condition can render an engine
unairworthy in a matter of seconds.
There are a number of different locations that the exhaust temperature can be
measured and thus a number of different indicators such as:
1. Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) Indicates the temperature is being
monitored forward of the turbine wheel(s).
2. Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT) Indicates the temperature is being
taken at some intermediate position between multiple turbine wheels.
3. Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Indicates the temperature is being taken
aft of the turbine wheels.
4. Turbine Outlet Temperature (TOT) Indicates the temperature is being taken
aft of the turbine wheels.
Figure 88 shows a typical EGT indicator.
OVER TEMP
LIMIT BUG
OVERTEMP
WARNING
LIGHT
EGT Indicator
Figure 88
Page 1-121
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Each type of EGT system consists of several thermocouples spaced at intervals

around the circumference of the engine exhaust section casing. The EGT
indicator in the cockpit displays the average temperature measured by the
individual thermocouple probes. The thermocouple probes consist of two wires of
dissimilar metals that are joined together inside a metal guard tube. Transfer
holes in the tube allow the exhaust gas to flow across the junction. The metals
from which the thermocouple wires are made are usually nickel-chromium and
nickel-aluminium alloys. Figure 89 shows a thermocouple with figure 90 showing
a typical thermocouple harness.
NICKEL
ALUMINIUM
WIRE
NICKEL
CHROMIUM
WIRE
TRANSFER HOLES
Thermocouple
Figure 89
Page 1-122
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
TO GAS TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SYSTEM
AIR INTAKE
THERMOCOUPLE
JUNCTION
BOX
JET PIPE
THERMOCOUPLES
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Thermocouple Harness
Figure 90
Page 1-123
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.36 ENGINE PRESSURE INDICATORS

The Engine Pressure Ration (EPR) system has for many years been the most
widely used thrust indicating system for aircraft flight deck indication. The EPR is
used as a performance (thrust) setting instrument on many flight decks.
The EPR is ratio of two engine pressures: Turbine discharge total pressure and
compressor inlet pressure. Each manufacturer uses a slightly different engine
station numbering system, and engine stations are a means of identifying engine
pressure ratio tap off points. For example Pratt & Whitney uses station 2 (Pt2)
and station 5 (Pt5), to identify the engine pressure ratio tap-off points of singlespool engines. They also use stations 2 and 7 (Pt2) & (Pt7), to identify the engine
pressure ratio tap-off points of a dual-spool engine. Figure 91 shows a typical
EPR indicator.
EPR Indicator
Figure 91
Page 1-124
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.36.1 EPR FORMULA
= 1.3
19.11
14.70
EPR =
Pt2 = 14.70 PSI (ABSOLUTE)
Pt2 PROBE
PRESSURE RATIO
TRANSMITTER
EPR
INDICATOR
Pt7 MANIFOLD
Pt7 = 19.11 PSI (ABSOLUTE)
The following example is of a Pratt & Whitney JT12 engine EPR cockpit
indications. When turbine discharge pressure is 19.11 pounds per square inch
absolute and the compressor inlet pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch
absolute, the EPR will be 1.3. Figure 92 shows the EPR system and the
calculation of the example in this paragraph.
EPR System
Figure 92
Page 1-125
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.37 VIBRATION INSTRUMENTS

A turbo-jet engine has an extremely low vibration level and a change of vibration,
due to an impending or partial failure, may pass without being noticed. Many
engines are therefore fitted with vibration indicators that continually monitor the
vibration level of the engine. The indicator is usually a milliammeter that receives
signals through an amplifier from engine mounted transmitters. Figure 93 shows
a vibration transmitter and indicator.
ENGINE VIBRATION
MEASURED IN
MILS (THOUSANDTHS)
OF INCHES
VIBRATION
TRANSMITTER
Vibration Transmitter & Indicator

Figure 93
Page 1-126
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The vibration level recorded on the indicator is the sum total of vibration felt at the
pick-up. A more accurate method differentiates between in the frequency ranges
of each rotating assembly and so enables the source of vibration to be isolated.
This is particularly important on m multi-spool engines. A crystal-type vibration
transmitter, giving a more reliable indication of vibration, has been developed for
multi-spool engines. A system of filters in the electronic circuit to the indicator
makes it possible to compare the vibration source. A multiple selector switch
enables the pilot to select a specific area to obtain a reading of the level of
vibration. Figure 94 shows a multiple-selector vibration indicator.
Multiple-Selector Vibration Indicator

Figure 94
Page 1-127
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
FUEL PRESSURE
OIL
TEMPERATURE
OIL
PRESSURE
ENGINE
PRESSURE
RATIO
ENGINE VIBRATION
COMPRESSOR
SPEED
MONITOR
FUEL FLOW
EXHAUST GAS
TEMPERATURE
CORE SPEED
Figure 95 shows the functional diagram of a large engine indicating system.
Large Engine Indicating System

Figure 95
Page 1-128
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 96 shows a typical LED type electronic engine instrumentation group for a
four engine aircraft.
LED Electronic Instrument group

Figure 96
Page 1-129
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.38 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS (ENGINE & AIRFRAME)

With the introduction of the "Glass Cockpits", most traditional gauges,
instruments and warning lights have been replaced by fully electronic display
systems. There are different types of display systems available, the two main
ones being:
1. Engine Instrument and Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
2. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM).
1.39 ENGINE INDICATING & CREW ALERTING SYSTEM (EICAS)
The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel and two computers
supplied with analog and digital signals from the engine and system sensors.
The computers are designated Left and Right and only one is in control of the
system at any one time, the other is held in standby. In the event of a failure, it
may be switched in either manually or automatically.
Operating in conjunction with the system are discrete caution and warning lights,
standby engine indicators and a remotely-located panel for selecting
maintenance data display. The system provides the flight crew with information
on primary engine parameters (Full-time), with secondary engine parameters and
advisory/caution/warning alert messages displayed as required.
Page 1-130
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.39.1 DISPLAY UNITS

These units provide a wide variety of information relevant to engine operation,
and operation of other automated system. The operation of these displays is the
same as those in the EFIS as previously described.
The upper unit displays primary engine parameters, i.e. N1 speed, EGT, and
warning and caution messages. The lower unit displays secondary parameters,
i.e. N2 speed, fuel flow, oil quantity, pressure and temperature. In addition, the
status of non-engine systems e.g. flight control surface position, hydraulic
system, APU, etc., can be displayed.
On the upper unit, a row of Vs will appear when secondary information is being
displayed on the lower unit. Seven colors are produced by the CRTs for
displaying information. Table 1 shows the colors and description of there
uses.
Colour
White
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow
Magenta
Cyan
Description
All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.
Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales,
and digital readouts.
Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N1 speed marks or
target cursors.
Testing of system only.
Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scale,
digital readouts
During in-flight engine starting, and for cross bleed messages.
Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N1, oil pressure,
TAT, etc.) and status marks or cues.
Table 1
Page 1-131
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 97 shows layout of the EICAS Displays.
CAUTION
RESET CANCEL
0
1
SBY
1013 2
8
X 100 ft
UPPER
DISPLAY
(PRIMARY)
3 5 0 00
5
LOWER
DISPLAY
(SECONDARY)
-
COMPUTER BRT
DISPLAY
ENGINE STATUSEVENT
RECORD
THRUST REF SET

BOTH
L AUTO R
MAX IND
RESET
EICAS Primary and Secondary Display Formats

Figure 97
Page 1-132
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 98 and 99 show display formats for primary and secondary displays.
CAUTION
TAT 15c
0.0
0.0
10
CANCEL RECALL
10
2
N1
0
EGT
VVVVVVV
Primary EICAS Display

Figure 98
Page 1-133
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
50
50
OIL
PRESS
120
120
OIL
TEMP
18
18
OIL
88
88.00
N2
86
86
N3
4.4
4.4
QTY
N1
FAN
3.1
1.9
FF
VIB
Secondary EICAS Display

Figure 99
Page 1-134
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.40 DISPLAY MODES

EICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to the function and
usage. For this purpose there are three modes of displaying information:
1. Operational (selected by the flight crew).
2. Status (selected by the flight crew).
3. Maintenance (ground use only and selected via the maintenance
panel).
1.40.1 OPERATIONAL MODE
This mode displays the engine operating information and any alerts required to
be actioned by the crew in flight. Normally only the upper display unit presents
information: the lower one remains blank and can be selected to display
secondary information as and when required.
1.40.2 STATUS MODE
When selected this mode displays data to determine the dispatch readiness of an
aircraft, and is closely associated with details contained in the aircrafts Minimum
Equipment List. The display shows the positions of the flight control surfaces in
the form of pointers registered against vertical scales, selected sub-system
parameters, and equipment status messages on the lower display unit. Selection
is normally done on the ground, either as part of the pre-flight checks of dispatch
items, or prior to shutdown of electrical power to aid the flight crew in making
entries in the aircrafts Technical log. Figure 100 shows an example of a status
page.
1.40.3 MAINTENANCE MODE
This mode provides maintenance engineers with information in five different
display formats to aid them in fault finding and verification testing of major subsystems.
Page 1-135
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
HYD QTY
L
0.99
C
1.00
HYD PRESS
2975
3010 3000
APU
EGT 440
OXY PRESS
RPM 103
0.0
R
0.98
FF
0.0
OIL 0.75
1750
RUD
AIL ELEV AIL
EICAS Status Page

Figure 100
Page 1-136
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.41 DISPLAY SELECT PANEL

To control the operation of the EICAS, a control panel is situated on the center
pedestal. Figure 101 shows a typical EICAS control panel.
COMPUTER
DISPLAY
BRT
BRT
ENGINE
STATUS
EVENT
RECORD
BAL
L AUTO R
L BOTH R
MAX IND
RESET
EICAS Control Panel

Figure 101
Page 1-137
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.41.1 DISPLAY SELECT PANEL OPERATION

Engine Display Switch:
This is a push type switch for removing or presenting

the display of secondary information on the, lower
display.
Status Display Switch:
This is a push type switch for removing or presenting

the status page on the lower display.
Event Record Switch:
Normally, there is an auto event function, this will

automatically record any malfunctions as they occur.
The push switch enables manual event marking so
that the crew can record a suspect malfunction for
storage in a non-volatile memory. This data can be
retrieved from the memory and displayed by ground
engineers by operating the ground maintenance
panel. This manual switch can also be used for
activating the recording of fault data, either in the air
or on the ground, on the Environmental Control
system, Electrical Power system, Hydraulic system
and APU.
Computer Select Switch: In the AUTO position it selects the left or primary
computer and automatically switches to the other in
the event of a failure. The other positions are for
manually selecting either the right or left computers.
Display Brightness:
Thrust Reference Set

Switch:
Max Indicator Reset:
Page 1-138
Controlled by the inner knob for the display intensity,

the outer for display brightness.
Pulling and rotating the inner knob positions the

reference cursor on the thrust indicator display (either
EPR or N1) for the engines, which are selected by the
outer knob.
If any of the measured parameters e.g. Oil Pressure,
EGT etc. and if they exceed normal operating limits,
this will be automatically alerted on the display units.
The purpose of the reset button is to clear the alerts
from the display when the excess limits no longer
exist.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.42 ALERT MESSAGES

The system will continually monitor a large number of inputs (400+) from engine
and airframe systems. If a malfunction is detected then the appropriate alert
message is annunciated on the upper display. Up to 11 messages can be
displayed and are at the following levels:
LEVEL A - Warning:
Requiring immediate corrective action and are

displayed in RED. Master warning lights are also
activated and aural warnings from the Central
Warning System are given.
LEVEL B - Caution:
Requiring immediate crew awareness and possible

action. They are displayed in AMBER. An aural
tone is also repeated twice.
LEVEL C - Advisory:
Requiring crew awareness, displayed in AMBER.

There are no caution lights or aural tones associated
with this level.
Page 1-139
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 102 shows a display with the three different types of alert messages
Displayed.
LEVEL A
WARNING
LEVEL B
CAUTION
LEVEL C
ADVISORY
TAT 15c
APU FIRE
R ENGINE FIRE
CABIN ALTITUDE
C SYS HYD PRESS
R ENG OVHT
AUTOPILOT
C HYD QTY
R YAW DAMPER
L UTIL BUS OFF
70.0
110.0
10
6
10
2
N1
999
775
EGT
VVVVVVV
Upper EICAS Display Alert Messages

Figure 102
Page 1-140
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.43 MAINTENANCE CONTROL PANEL

This panel is used by maintenance engineers for the purpose of displaying
maintenance data stored within the systems computer memories. Figure 103
shows a typical maintenance control panel.
PERFORMANCE AND
AUXILLIARY POWER
UNIT FORMATS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SYSTEM AND MAINTENANCE
MESSAGE FORMATS
ELECTRICAL AND HYDRAULIC

SYSTEM FORMAT
EVENT
READ
EICAS MAINT
DISPLAY SELECT
ECS
ELEC
PERF
MSG
HYD
APU
CONF
MCDP
CONFIGURATION AND
MAINTENANCE
CONTROL/DISPLAY
PANEL
SELECTS DATA FROM

AUTO OR MANUAL EVENT
IN MEMORY
AUTO
MAN
REC
ERASE
ENG
EXCD
ENGINE
EXCEEDANCES
TEST
BITE TEST SWITCH

FOR SELF-TEST ROUTINE
ERASES STORED DATA

CURRENTLY DISPLAYED
RECORDS REAL-TIME
DATA CURRENTLY DISPLAYED
(IN MANUAL EVENT)
Maintenance Control Panel

Figure 103
Page 1-141
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.44 ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING

ECAM differs from EICAS in that the data displayed relate essentially to the
primary systems of the aircraft and are displayed in checklist and pictorial or
synoptic format.
1.44.1 DISPLAY UNITS
These can be mounted either side-by-side or top/bottom. The left-hand/top unit is
dedicated to information on the status of the system; warnings and corrective
action in a sequenced checklist format, while the right-hand/bottom unit is
dedicated to associated information in pictorial or synoptic format. Figure 104
shows the layout of ECAM displays.
350
400
8 4
300
MACH
60
1
0
9
80
250
120
IAS
KNOTS
240
220
200
140
180
LDG GEAR
GRVTY EXTN
RESET
OFF
DOWN
ECAM Display Layout

Figure 104
Page 1-142
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.45 ECAM DISPLAY MODES

There are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and
referred to as phase-related, advisory (mode and status), and failure-related
modes. The forth mode is manual and permits the selection of diagrams related
to any one of 12 of the aircrafts systems for routine checking, and also the
selection of status messages provided no warnings have been triggered for
display. Selection of the displays is by means of a system control panel. See
Figure 81
1.45.1 FLIGHT PHASE RELATED MODE
In normal operation the automatic flight phase-related mode is used, and the
displays will be appropriate to the current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. Preflight, Take-off, Climb, Cruise, Decent, Approach, and post landing. Figure 105
shows display modes. The upper display shows the display for pre-take off, the
lower is that displayed for the cruise.
E N G IN E
10
8 7. 0
10
F .US E D
6 5. 0
N1
1530
F O B : 1 4 0 0 0 KG
KG
10
6 50
EG T
QT Y
10
4 80
F LA P
80
1500
%
FF
K G /H
N O S M O K IN G :
S E A T B E LT S :
1 1 .5
V IB
1 .2
(N 2 )
1 .3
1 1 .5
A IR
C
N2
(N 1 )
0 .9
1530
O IL
5
V IB
0 .8
L DG E LE V A U TO
500F T
F UL L
8 0 .2
C AB V /S
1 5 00
C K PT 2 0
FWD 2 2
A FT 23
24
22
24
C AB A LT FT
4150
ON
ON
S P LR S :
F UL L
F LA P S :
F UL L
F T/M IN
250
L D G I N H I B IT
A PU B LEED
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
E C A M U P P E R D IS P L A Y
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
E C A M L O W E R D IS P L A Y - C R U IS E
ECAM Upper and Lower Display (Cruise Mode)

Figure 105
Page 1-143
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.45.2 ADVISORY MODE

This mode provides the flight crew with a summary of the aircrafts condition
following a failure and the possible downgrading of systems. Figure 106 shows
an advisory message following a Blue Hydraulic failure.
10
87.0
650
ADVISORY
MESSAGES
80
1500
65.0
N1
%
10
10
FOB : 14000KG
10
EGT
C
480
N2
%
80.2
FF
KG/H
1500
FULL
HYD B RSVR OVHT

B SYS LO PR
FAILURE
MESSAGES
FLAP
FLT CTL
SPOILERS SLOW
1 FUEL TANK PUMP LH
ECAM Advisory Mode

Figure 106
Page 1-144
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.45.3 ECAM FAILURE MODE

The failure-related mode takes precedence over the other modes. Failures are
classified in 3 levels
LEVEL 3: WARNING
This corresponds to an emergency configuration. This requires the flight crew to
carry out corrective action immediately. This warning has an associated aural
warning (fire bell type) and a visual warning (Master Warning), on the glare shield
panel.
LEVEL 2: CAUTION
This corresponds to an abnormal configuration of the aircraft, where the flight
crew must be made aware of the caution immediately but does not require
immediate corrective action. This gives the flight crew the decision on when
action should be carried. These cautions are associated to an aural caution
(single chime) and a steady (Master Caution), on the glare shield panel.
LEVEL 1: ADVISORY
This gives the flight crew information on aircraft configuration that requires the
monitoring, mainly failures leading to a loss of redundancy or degradation of a
system, e.g. Loss of 1 FUEL TANK PUMP LH or RH but not both.
The advisory mode will not trigger any aural warning or attention getters but a
message appears on the primary ECAM display.
Page 1-145
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 107 111 shows the 12-system pages and status page available.
C ON D
TE M P C
C AB P R E S S
L DG E LE V
AP
PS I
V/ S F T /M IN
A LTN M O DE
F AN
8
0
F W D 22
24
22
A FT 2 3
4 .1
10
1150
0
4150
DN
24
H
50 0 F T
C A B AL T
FT
UP
F AN
C KP T 2 0
MAN
M AN
SY ST 1
SY ST 2
SA F ET Y
VE NT
HOT
IN L ET
EX T RA C T
A IR
PA C K 1
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
2 3 H 56
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
T AT +1 9 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
S A T + 17 C
A IR C O N D IT IO N IN G S Y S T E M P A G E
PA C K 2
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
P R E S S U R IS A T IO N S Y S T E M P A G E
ECAM System Displays

Figure 107
Note; These pages are displayed:
Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.
Whenever called manually.
Page 1-146
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
BAT 1
28 V
15 0A
E LE C
DC
D C B AT
F/ CT R
BAT 2
28 V
15 0A
DC
G B Y
D C ES S
TR 1
28 V
15 0A
AC 1
GE N 1
26 %
11 6V
40 0H Z
ES S TR
28 V
13 0A
EM ER G GEN
11 6V
40 0H Z
A C ESS
A PU
26 %
11 6V
40 0H Z
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
2 3 H 56
SP D BR K
TR 2
28 V
15 0A
L
A IL
B G
P IT CH TR IM
R
A IL
G B
G Y
3 .2 UP
AC 2
EX T PW R
11 6V
40 0H Z
R UD
G B Y
L
EL EV
B G
GE N 2
26 %
11 6V
40 0H Z
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
T AT +1 9 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
S A T + 17 C
E L E C T R IC A L S Y S T E M P A G E
R
EL EV
Y B
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
F L IG H T C O N T R O L S Y S T E M P A G E

Figure 108
Page 1-147
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
FU E L K G
F .U SE D 1
1550
F .U SE D 2
A PU
H YD
1550
F OB
GR EE N
3000
L E FT
1 07 5 0
5 60 0
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
Y E LL O W
2 3 H 56
PSI
3000
PSI
3000
R IG H T
C TR
5 50
B LU E
2 87 5 0
1 07 5 0
5 50
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
T AT +1 9 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
S A T + 17 C
FUE L SYSTE M P AG E
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
H Y D R A U L IC S Y S T E M P A G E
-ECAM System Displays

Figure 109
Page 1-148
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
B LE E D
WHEEL
2 0 C
2 4 C
C
H
R AM A IR
5 0 C
170
1
C
REL
140
140
C
REL
LO
HI
140
4
2
GN D
A PU
AUTO BRK
23 H 56
2 3 0 C
LO
HI
TAT +19 C
SAT +17 C
LP
G.W. 60300 KG
T AT +1 9 C
C.G. 28.1 %
S A T + 17 C
LANDING GEAR/WHEEL/BRAKE SYSTEM PAGE
HP
HP
LP
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
A IR B LE ED SY STE M PA GE

Figure 110
The Gear/Wheel page is displayed at the related flight phase.
Page 1-149
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
A PU
O X Y 1 85 0 P S I
D OOR
A PU
ARM
ARM
A V I O N IC
26%
B LE E D
116 V
C A BIN
35 PSI
400 HZ
FW D C OM PT
C A RG O
N
10
ARM
EM ER
ARM
E X IT
80
F LA P O P E N
C A RG O
EG T
B U LK
ARM
ARM
C A BIN
3
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
580
T AT +1 9 C
2 3 H 56
S A T + 17 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
D O O R /O X Y S Y S T E M P A G E
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
AP U SY STEM PAG E

Figure 111
Related flight phase.
Page 1-150
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.46 CONTROL PANEL

The layout of the control panel is shown in Figure 112.
DISPLAY ON &
BRIGHTNESS
CONTROL
DISPLAY ON &
BRIGHTNESS
CONTROL
SGW SELECT
SWITCHES
TOP DISPLAY
OFF
ECAM
SGU
FAULT
FAULT
OFF
OFF
BOTTOM DISPLAY
BRT
OFF
BRT
MESSAGE
CLEARANCE
SWITCH
CLR
STS
RCL
STATUS
MESSAGE
SWITCH
RECALL
SWITCH
ENG
HYD
AC
DC
BLEED
COND
PRESS
FUEL
APU
F/CTL
DOOR
WHEEL
SYSTEM SYNOPTIC
DISPLAY SWITCHES
ECAM Control Panel

Figure 112
Page 1-151
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.46.1 ECAM CONTROL PANEL

SGU Selector Switches: Controls the respective symbol generator units. Lights
are off in normal operation of the system. The FAULT caption is illuminated
amber if the SGUs internal self-test circuit detects a failure. Releasing the switch
isolates the corresponding SGU and causes the FAULT caption to extinguish,
and the OFF caption to illuminate white.
System Synoptic Display Switches: Permit individual selection of synoptic
diagrams corresponding to each of the 12 systems, and illuminate white when
pressed. A display is automatically cancelled whenever a warning or advisory
occurs.
CLR Switch: Light illuminates white whenever a warning or status message is
displayed on the left-hand display unit. Press to clear messages.
STS Switch: Permits manual selection of an aircrafts status message if no
warning is displayed. Illuminates white when pressed also illuminates the CLR
switch. Status messages are suppressed if a warning occurs or if the CLR switch
is pressed.
RCL Switch: Enables previously cleared warning messages to be recalled
provided the failure conditions which initiated the warnings still exists. Pressing
this switch also illuminates the CLR switch. If a failure no longer exists the
message NO WARNING PRESENT is displayed on the left-hand display.
Page 1-152
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PART TWO
CONTENTS
2
AVIONICS SYSTEMS ................................................................... 2-1

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
2.25
2.26
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT ...................................................................... 2-1

AUTOPILOT SYSTEM ..................................................................... 2-1
2.2.1
Error Sensing ................................................................ 2-2
2.2.2
Correction ..................................................................... 2-2
2.2.3
Follow-Up ...................................................................... 2-2
2.2.4
Command ..................................................................... 2-2
AUTOPILOT INTERLOCKS .............................................................. 2-4
SERVOMOTORS ............................................................................ 2-6
SINGLE AXIS CONTROL SYSTEM ................................................... 2-8
TWO-AXIS SYSTEM ....................................................................... 2-8
THREE-AXIS SYSTEM.................................................................... 2-8
SENSING ATTITUDE CHANGES....................................................... 2-8
AUTOPILOTS & FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS .................................. 2-10
ALTITUDE HOLD SYSTEM .............................................................. 2-11
AIRSPEED HOLD........................................................................... 2-12
ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM ....................................................... 2-12
CONTROLS AND SELECTORS ......................................................... 2-13
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM (AFDS) ............................ 2-15
MODE CONTROL PANEL ............................................................... 2-21
2.15.1 Power supplies A and B ................................................ 2-21
2.15.2 Microprocessor A and B ................................................ 2-21
2.15.3 Push-Button and Toggle Switches ................................ 2-21
2.15.4 Fluorescent Tube Control .............................................. 2-21
2.15.5 Liquid Crystal Displays & Control Knob Encoders ......... 2-22
2.15.6 AFDS Disconnect Switches ........................................... 2-23
AUTOPILOT FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER (AFDC) ....................... 2-25
2.16.1 Input Signal Selection ................................................... 2-25
2.16.2 AFDC Processors ......................................................... 2-25
PRIMARY FLIGHT COMPUTER (PFC) .............................................. 2-26
COMMUNICATIONS ........................................................................ 2-27
RADIO WAVES ............................................................................. 2-27
WAVELENGTH & FREQUENCY ....................................................... 2-28
2.20.1 Frequency Bands .......................................................... 2-29
CARRIER WAVE............................................................................ 2-29
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) .................................................... 2-30
FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM).................................................... 2-31
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION ......................................................... 2-33
2.24.1 Ground Wave Propagation ............................................ 2-34
2.24.2 Sky Wave Propagation .................................................. 2-34
2.24.3 Space Wave Propagation.............................................. 2-34
ANTENNAS ................................................................................... 2-34
MICROPHONES (MIC) ................................................................... 2-37
Part 2 - Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.32
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.36
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
Page 2
2.26.1 Carbon Microphone ...................................................... 2-37

2.26.2 The Crystal Microphone ................................................ 2-38
2.26.3 Moving Coil Microphone ............................................... 2-39
2.26.4 Electrostatic Microphone .............................................. 2-40
EARPHONES ................................................................................ 2-41
VHF RADIO COMMUNICATION ....................................................... 2-44
2.28.1 VHF Control Panel ........................................................ 2-45
AUDIO CONTROL PANEL .............................................................. 2-46
VHF TRANSCEIVER ...................................................................... 2-47
2.30.1 Control .......................................................................... 2-47
VHF COMMUNICATION ANTENNA .................................................. 2-48
SERVICE INTERPHONE .................................................................. 2-49
2.32.1 Attendant Interphone Handsets .................................... 2-50
FLIGHT & GROUND CREW CALL SYSTEM ...................................... 2-51
PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM (PA) ............................................ 2-52
AUDIO INTEGRATION SYSTEM ....................................................... 2-53
CONTROL WHEEL MIC SWITCH ..................................................... 2-54
OPERATION OF VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM ............................ 2-56
HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) RADIO COMMUNICATION ........................... 2-57
2.38.1 HF Communication Control Panel................................. 2-59
SELECTIVE CALLING SYSTEM (SELCAL) ...................................... 2-61
2.39.1 SELCAL Control Panel ................................................. 2-62
2.39.2 SELCAL Decoder ......................................................... 2-63
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER (CVR) ............................................... 2-64
2.40.1 Voice Recorder Control Panel ...................................... 2-66
2.40.2 Voice Recorder Unit...................................................... 2-67
2.40.3 Underwater Locator Device .......................................... 2-67
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS ................................................................. 2-68
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI RANGE (VOR) ............................... 2-68
2.42.1 VOR Operation ............................................................. 2-69
2.42.2 Deviation Calculations .................................................. 2-72
2.42.3 VOR Aerial Locations ................................................... 2-73
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) ................................... 2-76
2.43.1 DME Operation ............................................................. 2-79
2.43.2 DME Controller ............................................................. 2-81
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)............................................ 2-82
2.44.1 ILS Operation ............................................................... 2-83
2.44.2 Antennas ...................................................................... 2-87
2.44.3 LOC/GS Operation ....................................................... 2-88
MARKER BEACON SYSTEM (MBS) ................................................ 2-90
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF).......................................... 2-92
2.46.1 Loop Aerial ................................................................... 2-93
2.46.2 Station Line .................................................................. 2-94
2.46.3 Sensing the Correct Null ............................................... 2-95
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADIO BEACON SYSTEM (ATCRBS) ......... 2-101
2.47.1 Transponders ............................................................... 2-101
2.47.2 ATCRBS Control Panel ................................................ 2-103
2.47.3 Mode A ......................................................................... 2-103
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.48
2.49
2.50
2.51
2.52
2.47.4 Mode C ......................................................................... 2-104

MODE S TRANSPONDERS ............................................................. 2-107
2.48.1 Mode S Interrogation & Replies..................................... 2-107
2.48.2 Discrete Addressing ...................................................... 2-107
2.48.3 Operation ...................................................................... 2-108
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM ................... 2-110
2.49.1 TCAS Introduction ......................................................... 2-110
2.49.2 The TCAS II System ..................................................... 2-112
2.49.3 Aural Annunciation ........................................................ 2-115
2.49.4 Performance Monitoring ................................................ 2-119
2.49.5 TCAS Units ................................................................... 2-119
2.49.6 Self Test........................................................................ 2-121
2.49.7 Data Loader Interface ................................................... 2-122
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS) ............................................. 2-123
2.50.1 General Principle........................................................... 2-124
2.50.2 INS Operation ............................................................... 2-126
2.50.3 Earth Rate Compensation ............................................. 2-130
2.50.4 Vehicle Rate Compensation .......................................... 2-131
2.50.5 Alignment ...................................................................... 2-135
2.50.6 The Navigation Mode .................................................... 2-135
2.50.7 Strapdown Inertial Navigation ....................................... 2-136
2.50.8 Laser Ring Gyro (LRG) Operation ................................. 2-138
2.50.9 Mode Select Unit (MSU)................................................ 2-140
2.50.10 Mode Select Unit Modes ............................................... 2-141
2.50.11 MSU Annunciators ........................................................ 2-142
2.50.12 Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU) ............................... 2-143
2.50.13 Keyboard ...................................................................... 2-144
2.50.14 Display .......................................................................... 2-144
2.50.15 System Display Switch (SYS DSPL) ............................. 2-144
2.50.16 Display Selector Switch (DSPL SEL)............................. 2-144
2.50.17 Dimmer Knob ................................................................ 2-145
2.50.18 Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) ......................................... 2-145
2.50.19 IRS Alignment Mode ..................................................... 2-147
2.50.20 Gyro Compass Process ................................................ 2-147
2.50.21 Initial Latitude ................................................................ 2-147
2.50.22 Alignment Mode ............................................................ 2-147
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI) .............................................. 2-150
2.51.1 Dual Distance Radio Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI) ......... 2-151
2.51.2 DDRMI Principle............................................................ 2-151
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) ........................................... 2-154
2.52.1 Space Segment ............................................................ 2-154
2.52.2 Control Segment ........................................................... 2-155
2.52.3 Operation ...................................................................... 2-156
2.52.4 Signal Structure ............................................................ 2-158
2.52.5 Time Measurements ..................................................... 2-158
2.52.6 Position Fixing ............................................................... 2-160
2.52.7 Ionospheric Propagation Error....................................... 2-161
2.52.8 Derived Information ....................................................... 2-162
2.52.9 Navigation Management ............................................... 2-162
2.52.10 Boeing 777 GPS ........................................................... 2-164
2.52.11 GPS Modes of Operation .............................................. 2-165
2.52.12 Acquisition Mode ........................................................... 2-165
Part 2 - Page 3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
2.58
Page 4
2.52.13 Navigation Mode ........................................................... 2-166

2.52.14 Altitude Aided Mode...................................................... 2-166
2.52.15 Aided Mode .................................................................. 2-167
2.52.16 Receiver Autonomous Integrity (RAIM) ......................... 2-169
2.52.17 Differential GPS ............................................................ 2-170
COMPASS SYSTEMS ..................................................................... 2-171
2.53.1 Direct Reading Compass .............................................. 2-171
2.53.2 Remote Reading Compass (Magnet Gyro) ................... 2-173
2.53.3 Flux valve (Detector Unit) ............................................. 2-174
2.53.4 Control Panel ................................................................ 2-175
2.53.5 Synchronisation Annunciator ........................................ 2-175
2.53.6 Synchronisation Knob ................................................... 2-175
2.53.7 Slaved/DG Switch ......................................................... 2-175
2.53.8 System Test.................................................................. 2-177
2.53.9 Gyro Unit ...................................................................... 2-177
2.53.10 Servo System ............................................................... 2-178
2.53.11 Slaving loop .................................................................. 2-180
RADIO ALTIMETER ....................................................................... 2-181
2.54.1 Basic Principles ............................................................ 2-181
2.54.2 Radio Altimeter Antenna ............................................... 2-184
2.54.3 Testing.......................................................................... 2-186
WEATHER RADAR ........................................................................ 2-187
2.55.1 Principle Of Operation .................................................. 2-190
2.55.2 Scanner Stabilization .................................................... 2-192
2.55.3 Weather Radar Installation ........................................... 2-194
2.55.4 Test Mode .................................................................... 2-197
2.55.5 Radome ........................................................................ 2-199
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM ......................................... 2-200
2.56.1 System Operation ......................................................... 2-204
2.56.2 Ground Proximity Warning Computer ........................... 2-205
2.56.3 GPWS Control Panel .................................................... 2-206
2.56.4 Warning Lights.............................................................. 2-206
2.56.5 GPWS Bite Operation ................................................... 2-208
2.56.6 BITE Tests .................................................................... 2-208
2.56.7 Fault Recording ............................................................ 2-208
ENHANCED GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM ...................... 2-210
2.57.1 Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) ............................. 2-211
2.57.2 Terrain Alerting & Display (TAD) ................................... 2-214
2.57.3 Envelope Modulation .................................................... 2-216
2.57.4 Terrain Look Ahead Alerting ......................................... 2-217
2.57.5 Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) ...................................... 2-218
2.57.6 TCF/TAD Control .......................................................... 2-220
2.57.7 EGPWS Interface ......................................................... 2-221
2.57.8 System Activation ......................................................... 2-223
2.57.9 Self Test ....................................................................... 2-223
AIR DATA SYSTEM (ADS) ............................................................ 2-226
2.58.1 Total Air Temperature Probe ........................................ 2-227
2.58.2 Location Of Probes And Static Vents ............................ 2-228
2.58.3 Air Data Computer (ADC) ............................................. 2-231
2.58.4 Altitude Module ............................................................. 2-233
2.58.5 True Airspeed/Indicated Airspeed Vs Altitude ............... 2-234
2.58.6 Air Data Computer (ADC) ............................................. 2-235
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.7
2.58.8
Digital Air Data Computer (DADC) ................................ 2-236

Definitions and Abbreviations ........................................ 2-237
Part 2 - Page 5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
AVIONICS SYSTEMS
2.1 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT

The Automatic Flight Control Systems or AFCS, in modern jet transports, are all
uniquely tailored to the specific aircraft, but all share common features. For
example, the flight aerodynamics of a DC-9 are different from those of a Boeing
747 but both aircraft would most likely require an "attitude hold" mode of
operation.
In this case, the attitude hold feature is common to both autopilot designs, but
gains in the two autopilots will differ to accommodate the differences in the
aerodynamics of each aircraft. Each AFCS receives attitude and heading signals
from a vertical and directional gyro and has its own rate gyro/accelerometer
system to develop attitude and flight path stabilization signals. The AFCS
computers comprise an electronic "brain" that receives signals from its "senses"
to compute the proper responses and provides outputs to electric and/or
hydraulic actuators, which move the aircraft's control surfaces.
2.2 AUTOPILOT SYSTEM
Today's modern autopilots are designed to provide pitch, roll, and yaw axis
stabilization around the pilot's desired reference attitude. To do this, the autopilot
system must detect changes in aircraft attitude and respond to those changes
more quickly and smoothly than its human counterpart.
For an autopilot to maintain this stability, it must:
1. Know what the pilot's desired aircraft attitude is.
2. Know what the actual aircraft attitude is.
3. Compares the two and produce a control signal if there is a difference or error:
4. Use the control signal to correct for the difference or error and Control the
speed of the correction.
The human pilot controls the aircraft by detecting a change in aircraft attitude by
one of his senses. His brain then computes the necessary corrective action
required and transmits a signal to his muscles to move the flight controls. Again
his senses will detect that corrective action has taken place and he will move the
flight controls back to where they started. A typical autopilot would have to do all
that the human pilot does, but would do it through electronic or electrohydraulic
devices.
Page 2-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The autopilot is divided into four main parts:

2.2.1
Error Sensing
Determines when the flight condition of the aircraft is differing from that
commanded by the pilot. Almost all-modern aircraft use a gyro of some type for
this purpose, and there are two ways that the error signal can be generated,
either by attitude gyros or rate gyros. The attitude gyros only detect how far the
aircraft is away from the settings; the rate gyros detect the rate at which it is
deviating and, hence, are more accurate.
2.2.2
Correction
This is the correcting input, sent to the actuators connected into the flying control
systems. This input is simply the command from the autopilot to reverse the
movement of the aircraft away from its set course. It does not have any idea of
when to stop the correction; this is the job of the follow-up mechanism.
2.2.3
Follow-Up
Is the detection mechanism, which senses that the aircraft is righting itself, under
the commands from the correction part of the autopilot. The mechanism reduces
the correction input as it nears the original selected position and, by the time the
aircraft is level, there will be no correcting input to the actuators.
2.2.4
Command
The command system is incorporated to allow the pilot to dictate which heading,
height, speed or rate of climb he wants the aircraft to follow. This can be a
simple 'Heading Hold' system which is controlled by a "bug" on the compass,
which the pilot sets with a knob on the instrument. Alternatively, the system
'Mode Control Panel' can have many different parameters commanded by the
pilot, such as autopilot modes, altitude, and vertical speed and airspeed/mach
number modes.
Page 2-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 1 shows a block schematic of a typical autopilot.
PITCH SERVO
VERTICAL
GYROSCOPE
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
AIRCRAFT
TRIM SYSTEM
COMPASS
GYROSCOPE
AUTOPILOT
CONTROLLER
ROLL SERVO
AIR DATA
COMPUTER
YAW SERVO
Basic Autopilot
Figure 1
The sensors take the place of our pilot's "senses" to detect various changes in
aircraft attitude. This information is fed to the computer, which calculates the size
of its output signal and which axis to send it on. The controller turns the autopilot
on and off and provides other system inputs not discussed here. Finally we come
to the loads which are the muscle of our system and move the aircraft's flight
control surfaces in response to the output signal of the computer. As the aircraft
responds to these signals, the sensors, through aerodynamic feedback, detect
the attitude change and tell the computer when the aircraft is back where it
should be.
Page 2-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.3 AUTOPILOT INTERLOCKS

Before an automatic control system can be engaged with an aircraft's flight
controls, certain preliminary operating requirements must be fulfilled to ensure
that the system is in a condition whereby it may safely take control of the aircraft.
The principal requirements are that the connections between system power
supplies, the elements comprising the system and the appropriate signal and
engage circuits are electrically complete. It is the practice, therefore, to
incorporate within any automatic control system, a series of switches and/or
relays, known as interlocks, which operate in a specific sequence to ensure
satisfactory engagement, and the coupling of input signals from outer loop control
elements. Figure 2 shows the interlock circuit.
A/P DISCONNECT
CAPT
A.C - D.C.
MACH TRIM
PITCH TRIM
ATT REF
F/O
K1
ENGAGE
RELAY
YAW
DAMP
MAN
AUTO
OFF
AUTO
PILOT
ENGAGE
RELAY
K2
OFF
SERVO
RUDDER
CLUTCH
SERVOS
ELEVATOR
AILERON
CLUTCHES
OFF
28V DC
Interlock Circuit
Figure 2
Page 2-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The number of interlocks incorporated in any one system varies considerably

according to the control capability of that system. The signals from the pitch roll
and yaw gyros or computers are at their respective servos, but cannot impose
their influence until the clutches are engaged.
In the yaw damper only position, K1 relay will close and energize the rudder servo
clutch and engage it to accept signals from a gyro or computer to move the
rudder. With No 1 switch in the autopilot position, it will energize K1 relay subject
to all the interlock switches being made, switch No 2 will now engage the aileron
and elevator clutches, and switch No 3 will pick a voltage from switch No 2 and
energize the rudder clutch. So in the yaw damper position, it is yaw damper only,
and in the autopilot position it is yaw, pitch and roll engagement.
In the yaw damper switch position, only the pilot's disconnect and power valid's
are needed; in the full autopilot condition all switches must be made.
Here is a review of the interlock switches.
Firstly, the autopilot disconnects; either the Captain's or the First Officer's switch
will disconnect the autopilot. The switches are usually located on the control
column.
The power ac and dc valid's are qualifying that power is available and any loss of
power will disconnect.
Mach trim has to be engaged in this case. In some systems, Mach trim is on all
the time, whether the autopilot is engaged or not, and in others it is disengaged
when the autopilot is engaged.
The pitch trim switch is qualifying that auto pitch trim is available in the autopilot
mode. The reason that this is important is that if there is a mis-trim, the autopilot
can compensate for that situation until the autopilot is disconnected, either
through malfunction or deliberate action, or the aircraft could nose up/down rather
dramatically.
The attitude reference switch is checking that the valid's from the vertical gyro are
all correct, and the attitude references are available for the autopilot.
On more sophisticated systems, there are other interlock switches, for example
air data computer, compass system, hydraulic pressure monitoring and radio
altimeters.
Some systems, apart from those that use electrical interlocks, do not use an
electrical servomotor. Instead they use a hydraulic servo.
Page 2-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.4 SERVOMOTORS
The power output element of any automatic flight control system consists of
servomotors, or servo-actuators as they are sometimes called, connected into the
aircraft's primary flight control system circuits; the number of servomotors
employed is governed by the number of control loops required. In addition to the
actuation of primary flight controls, servomotors may also be used, in some
cases, for the actuation of the secondary flight controls provided for trimming
purposes and for yaw damping.
In general, servomotors operate on either electro-pneumatic, electromechanical,
or electro-hydraulic principles, the choice, and constructional features adopted in
applying such principles being dependent on the type of automatic control
system, and on the methods adopted for actuation of the primary flight control
surfaces. Servomotors may be connected either in series or in parallel with the
normal flight control system of an aircraft. A series-connected servomotor is one,
which moves the flight control surfaces without moving the pilot's controls, while a
parallel-connected servomotor moves both the control surfaces and the pilot's
controls.
Servomotors may utilise either direct current or alternating current, depending on
the individual systems. Motor type ranges from dc permanent magnet to ac twophase or hysteresis type.
The closed loop servo technique can be applied as a means of achieving
automatic flight control of an aircraft. A functional diagram is at Figure 3. This
forms the basic control system for all classes of automatic flight control systems.
This system controls what is termed Inner Loop stabilization.
Page 2-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AUTOPILOT
MODE SELECT
FEEDBACK
SIGNAL
PROCESSING
ATTITUDE
SENSING
ERROR
SENSING
PILOTS DEMANDS
MANUAL
FLIGHT
CONTROLS
AERODYNAMICS
SERVOMOTORS
(ACTUATORS)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Inner Loop Stabilization

Figure 3
Page 2-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The number of control loops, or channels, comprising an automatic flight control

system is dependent on the number of axes about which control is to be effected
and in this connection it is usual to classify systems as:
1. Single Axis System.
2. Two-Axis System.
3. Three-Axis System.
2.5 SINGLE AXIS CONTROL SYSTEM
In the single axis system, control is normally about the Roll axis. The control
surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the Ailerons. It is found on
small aircraft to provide lateral stabilization (wing levelling).
2.6 TWO-AXIS SYSTEM
In the two-axis system, control is normally about the Roll and Pitch axes. The
control surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the Ailerons and
Elevators. These are found on medium sized aircraft and provide a means of
automatically controlling the aircrafts heading and altitude.
2.7 THREE-AXIS SYSTEM
In the three-axis system, control is about all three axes (Pitch, Roll and Yaw).
These systems are designed to meet the requirements for stabilization and
control of high performance category aircraft, and have a large number of modes
of operation.
2.8 SENSING ATTITUDE CHANGES
Under automatically controlled flight conditions, the sensing of all changes in the
aircrafts attitude is accomplished by referencing them against some form of
stabilized device. The device universally adopted for this purpose, from the
earliest types of control system to those now current, has been the gyroscope.
In addition to the gyro, it is also the practice in many cases to adopt a pendulous
device which although not purely stabilizing in function, can serve as a back-up
to a gyro by sensing short-term attitude changes brought about by the effects of
accelerations, vertical speed changes, and by side-slip.
Page 2-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
DIRECTION
OF PRECESSION
PITCH
AXIS
ROLL RATE
GYRO
DIRECTION
OF PRECESSION
YAW
AXIS
YAW RATE
GYRO
PITCH RATE
GYRO
DIRECTION
OF PRECESSION
ROLL
AXIS
Figure 4 shows the gyro configuration for a three-axis automatic control system.
Three-axis Automatic Control System.

Figure 4
Page 2-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.9 AUTOPILOTS & FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

Once the controller has been selected, and activated, the aircraft is controlled by
the Flight Director/Autopilot System. Rate gyros detect any movement of the
aircraft from the selected flight datum and will output a signal proportional to the
disturbance and in the opposite sense. The gyro output, along with other signals
from associated systems, are processed in the Flight Director/Autopilot
Computer, which in turn will give flight director information and or outputs to move
the control surfaces to bring the aircraft onto the correct flight datum.
Figure 5 shows a schematic of a Flight Director/Autopilot System.
AERODYNAMIC RESPONSE
FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
COMMAND BAR
FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
ENGAGED
GYRO INPUT
MODE SELECT
NAV AIDS INPUT
HEADING INPUT
PILOTS
INPUT
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
FEEDBACK
ALTITUDE INPUT
SERVO
AUTOPILOT
ENGAGED
Flight Director/Autopilot System

Figure 5
Page 2-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.10 ALTITUDE HOLD SYSTEM

We know that any change in the aircraft's attitude will be detected by the
Autopilot system. This system alone will not be able to detect a pure vertical
displacement of the aircraft. To maintain an aircraft at a selected altitude we
require further sensing elements.
The purpose of the Altitude Hold system is to maintain the aircraft at a selected
height. The pilot will select "ALT" on the Flight Mode Panel (FMP) and the
system will maintain that altitude. The sensing element consists of a pressure
transducer, similar to that in the Air Data System. Any change in the static
pressure will be felt and an output produced, this output will be fed to the pitch
channel of the autopilot system to adjust the aircraft's altitude.
A simplified Altitude Hold system is shown at Figure 6.
ANEROID
CAPSULE
STATIC
CONTROL
MOTOR
ERROR
AMP
CHASER
MOTOR
ALT HOLD
SELECT
REF
TO PITCH
CONTROL
CHANNEL
Altitude Hold System

Figure 6
Page 2-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.11 AIRSPEED HOLD

Since airspeed hold sensors are used in conjunction with altitude hold sensors,
the methods of transmitting error signals are of a common nature. The only
difference is that whereas an altitude sensor measures only static pressure
changes, an airspeed sensor is required to measure Static and Pitot pressures.
2.12 ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM
The Altitude Alerting System allows the pilot to make changes to the aircraft's
altitude and provide alerts to the pilot when the selected altitude is reached. The
pilot sets the required altitude, from 0 - 50,000 feet, in steps of 10 feet, on the
Flight Mode Panel (FMP).
The altitude alerter gives the pilot an alert when the aircraft approaches the
selected altitude, entry alert ("C" Chord) and illuminates a warning lamp. The
system will then alert the pilot when the aircraft does not follow the selected
altitude with an exit alert ("C" Chimes) and illuminates a warning lamp. Figure 7
shows the different alerts.
1000 feet
EXIT ALERT
ON
ENTRY ALERT
ON
C CHORD
ENTRY ALERT
OFF
250 feet
SELECTED HEIGHT
250 feet
EXIT ALERT
ON
C CHIME
1000 feet
Alert Levels
Figure 7
Page 2-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.13 CONTROLS AND SELECTORS

Figure 8 shows the controls from a BAe 146 aircraft.
S P L IT
A /P
M
O
D
E
GSL
A LT
A /P
VS
M A CH
N AV 1
V - NA V
N AV 2
IA S
0 6 8
2 4 6
C O U RS E
S
E
L
C O U RS E
T UR B
V /L
B -L O C
L -N AV
H DG
H DG
M OD E SELE CTO R
N A V IG A T IO N S E L E C T O R
R UD
EL EV
T EST
P IT CH
R OL L
L
A
L
T
A LT AR M
D OW N
A LT S E L
2 5 9.0 0
F EET
YD
S
E
L
YD 1
YD 2
A L T IT U D E S E L E C T O R
A /P
IN
UP
A U T O P IL O T S E L E C T O R
BAe 146 Autopilot controllers

Figure 8
a)
MODE SELECTOR : Is mounted on the glare-shield and contains the push

button switches for the selected mode. Hidden legends are used so that
the button appears blank, until a mode is selected when a white triangle is
illuminated. Engagement of the autopilot is indicated by a green triangle
on the AP button at the top of the panel.
In essence the bottom row selects lateral modes and the middle row
selects vertical modes.
b)
NAVIGATION SELECTOR : Mounted on the glare-shield and contains a

large rotary switch labeled NAV 1-SPLIT-NAV 2. This selects the
distribution of radio navigation information to the autopilot and to the pilots
flight instruments.
Page 2-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The autopilot and flight directors use the information that is displayed on
the captain's HSI. With SPLIT selected NAV 1 supplies HSI 1 and NAV 2
supplies HSI 2. If NAV 1 is selected then both HSIs are supplied from
NAV 1 and a NAV 2 selection supplies both HSIs from NAV 2.
The COURSE selector knobs allow rotation of the course pointer on the
HSIs. A HDG knob provides remote selection of the heading cursor on
both HSIs. Two ratios are available, coarse and fine.
c)
ALTITUDE SELECTOR : Mounted on the glare-shield this contains a fivefigure readout; the last two figures are fixed zeros. A mode select button
labeled ALT ARM allows arming of the selected altitude. The 'armed' state
is indicated by a white triangle.
A press to TEST switch allows warning altitudes to be checked against the
altitude set on the captain's altimeter.
e)
AUTOPILOT CONTROLLER : Mounted on the center console and

contains the autopilot (AP) and the yaw damper YD engage buttons.
These also indicate engagement by green illuminated IN for the AP, and
YD1/YD2 for the yaw damper.
PITCH and ROLL controls and associated out of trim indicators (ELEV and
RUD) are also found on the controller.
Page 2-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.14 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM (AFDS)

The Boeing 777 AFDS is used as an example in this module.
The purpose of the AFDS is to automatically control the aircrafts attitude and to
supply indications to the flight crew in order for them to manually control the
aircrafts attitude. The autopilot controls the aircrafts attitude through: Takeoff
(Flight Director only), Climb, Cruise, Descent, Approach, Go-around and
Autoland.
In the Flight Director mode, the director bars (horizontal/vertical) show on the
Primary Flight Displays (PFD). The bars are used as guides to control the
attitude of the aircraft. Figure 9 shows the Primary Flight Display (PFD).
HOLD
LNAV
VNAV
LOC
G/S
5100
5200
200
A/P
180
160
20
20
10
10
4800
14 2
120
5000
6
2
10
10
20
20
4600
2
6
100
4400
Primary Flight Display

Figure 9
Page 2-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
HOLD
VS/FPA
UP
DOWN
+3288
V/S
FPA
V/S
HOLD
SEL
(b)
AUTO
A/P DISENGAGE
A/T
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
HOLD
25
BANK
LIMIT
238
(a)
HDG
TRK
HDG
FLCH
V-NAV
OFF
A/T ARM
R
L
CLB
ON
IAS
288
FLCH
A/T
OFF
CLB
ON
IAS
IAS
MACH
L-NAV
A/P DISENGAGE
V-NAV
L-NAV
288
MACH
IAS
R
L
A/T ARM
AUTO
ALTITUDE
17000
1000
(c)
OFF
APP
HOLD
UP
BANK
LIMIT
SEL
AUTO
HDG
HDG
238
TRK
25
DOWN
V/S
V/S
FPA
+3288
VS/FPA
AUTO
ALTITUDE
17000
LOC
1000
APP
LOC
A/P
F/D ON
OFF
A/P
F/D ON
The mode select panel is the primary interface between the flight crew and
AFDS. Other flight crew inputs to the AFDS are; the disconnect switches and the
Go-around (GA) switches. Figure 10 shows the Auto Flight Director System
(AFDS) mode control panel for the Boeing 777 aircraft.
Boeing 777 AFDS Mode Control Panel

Figure 10
Page 2-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
With reference to Figure 10a:

A/P Engage Switch Captains autopilot engage button, shows white when
engaged.
A/T ARM Left and right autothrottle arm switches.
F/D Switch Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the
PFD.
CLB CON Switch Climb continuous thrust switch.
A/T Switch Engages the autothrottle system.
L-NAV Switch Engages lateral navigation mode.
V-NAV Engages vertical navigation mode.
FLCH Flight Level change engage switch.
IAS/MACH Window Shows the selected IAS/MACH as selected using the
IAS/MACH select knob.
IAS/MACH Switch Selects either IAS or MACH as the reference for speed hold
mode.
Page 2-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
With reference to Figure 10b:

A/P DISENGAGE Bar - There are three toggle switches under the disengage
bar. The left switch controls the left AFDS only and the right switch controls the
right AFDS. The center switch controls the center AFDS. The center AFDC
cannot do a single autopilot engagement because it does not connect to any back
drive unit. It is there only as a back up for the left or right. The bar is normally in
the up position. Pushing the bar down will disengages all the AFDS.
Figure 11 shows the operation of the disengage bar.
DISENGAGE BAR UP
(ALL THREE AFDS ENGAGED)
DISENGAGE BAR DOWN

(ALL THREE AFDS DIS-ENGAGED)
DISENGAGE BAR UP
RIGHT AFDS SWITCH DOWN
(ONLY LEFT AND CENTER AFDS ENGAGED)
Disengage Bar Operation

Figure 11
Page 2-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Light Sensor A photo light sensor on the MCP front panel monitors ambient
lighting. It controls the brightness of the LCDs on the mode panel.
HDG/TRK Switch This switch controls the reference for the Heading/Track
window.
HDG/TRK Window The window shows heading or track angle in increments of
one degree. The window range is from 001 to 360. At AFDS power-up, the
window shows 360.
Heading/Track Selector Switch This control has two concentric selectors and
one push-button. The outer selector controls the bank angle, the inner selector
controls the value of heading/track required. The inner selector (push-button)
selects between Heading, or Track select modes.
HOLD Push Button Engages the AFDS into Heading/Track hold mode.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle (V/S/FPA) reference Switch This switch
controls the reference for the vertical speed/flight path angle window.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle Window - The window shows vertical speed
value (range is +6000 fpm to 8000 fpm). The flight path angle is +9.9 to 9.9.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle selector Rotate the selector up to decrease
the value and down to increase the value.
VS/FPA Push Button Engages the VS/FPA mode.
Altitude Window Has a range from 0 to 50,000ft. The increment is variable.
The set altitude is also the altitude alert value for the caution and warning system.
At AFDS power-up the display is set at 1,000ft.
Altitude Selector The control has two concentric selectors. The inner selector
changes the reference altitude in the window. If the selector is pushed while in VNAV, this will activate the altitude intervention.
The outer selector changes the window increment. With it selected to 1000
position, the inner selector changes the window at 1000 feet/detent. With the
outer selector in the AUTO position, the window change rate is 100 feet/detent.
HOLD Push Button Engages the Altitude hold mode.
Page 2-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
With reference to Figure 10c:

A/P Engage Switch First Officers autopilot engage button, shows white when
engaged.
F/D Switch Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the
PFD.
LOC Push Button Engages the ILS LOC mode. Captures and holds the
aircraft to a Localizer flight path.
APP Push Button Engages the Approach mode. Captures and holds the
aircraft to a Glideslope (vertical descent) flight path.
Figure 12 shows a block schematic of the Mode Control Panel.
POWER SUPPLY
A
INPUT/OUTPUT
SIGNAL
PROCESSING
MICROPROCESSOR A
A/T
HDG
5
AUTO
LIGHTS
F/D ON
238
SEL
25
BANK
LIMIT
LCD
DIPLAY
& KNOBS
OFF
V-NAV
PUSH
SW
AFDC
L
ARINC
429 TX
AFDC
L/C
&
AIMS
ARINC
429 RX
AFDC
C
ARINC
429 TX
AFDC
R
&
AIMS
ARINC
429 RX
AFDC
R
A/T ARM
L
OFF
ON-OFF
SWITCHES
MICROPROCESSOR B
POWER SUPPLY
A
ARINC
429 RX
INPUT/OUTPUT
SIGNAL
PROCESSING
Mode Control Panel Schematic

Figure 12
Page 2-20
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.15 MODE CONTROL PANEL

2.15.1 Power supplies A and B
They receive 28V dc from the left and right 28V dc buses. The MCP functions
with either source. Power supplies A and B supply +12V, -12V and +5V dc to
their respective microprocessors and logic circuits. They also supply power
supply C, which is part of the fluorescent tube control.
2.15.2 Microprocessor A and B
There are two separate microprocessors within the MCP. Microprocessor A
receives data from the left and center AFDC and microprocessor B receives data
from the right and center AFDC. Microprocessor sends data to the left and center
AFDC, microprocessor B sends data to the right AFDS.
To make sure all three AFDC use data from one MCP processor, all AFDS use
the microprocessor data sent to the master AFDS. When the left AFDS is
master, microprocessor A writes to the LCD displays. The right and center AFDC
receive microprocessor A data through the AFDC cross-channel buses.
When the right AFDS is master, microprocessor B writes to the LCD displays.
The left and center AFDC receive microprocessor B data through the AFDC
cross-channel buses.
2.15.3 Push-Button and Toggle Switches
Each push-button and toggle switch has two sets of contacts. One set connects
to microprocessor A and one set connects to microprocessor B. The LED
annunciators in the push-button switches also connect to each microprocessor.
2.15.4 Fluorescent Tube Control
The fluorescent tube control circuit supplies current to drive the tube and the tube
heater. There is a heater coil around the tube, which will operate when the
temperature is <40F.
Page 2-21
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.15.5 Liquid Crystal Displays & Control Knob Encoders

There are four LCD windows, which show reference values. The values change
when the selector is rotated or when the AFDC command a new reference.
Microprocessor A and B drive each LCD. Each selector connects to the two
encoders and each encoder sends data to the on-side microprocessor. Figure 13
shows the LCD illumination.
FLUORESCENT
TUBE
LCD (TYPE)
DISPLAY
LCD Illumination
Figure 13
Page 2-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.15.6 AFDS Disconnect Switches

The autopilot disconnect switches are on the outboard side of each control wheel.
The switch is a push-button type with multiple contacts. These switches manually
disconnect all AFDCs.
Figure 14 shows the Captains Control wheel A/P disconnect switch.
ELEVATOR
TRIM SWITCHES
AUTOPILOT
DISCONNECT
BUTTON
A/P Disconnect Switch

Figure 14
Page 2-23
Page 2-24
DISC
TO/GA
SECONDARY
ATTITUDE &
AIR DATA
REFERENCE UNIT
AIR DATA INERTIAL

REFERENCE UNIT
A/C SENSORS
AIMS
ON
CLB
A/T
OFF
IAS
IAS
288
MACH
FLCH
V-NAV
L-NAV
ACTUATOR
CONTROL
ELECTRONICS
PRIMARY
FLIGHT
COMPUTER
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
COMPUTER
(AFDC)
Collins
MODE CONTROL
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
A/T ARM
AUTO
HOLD
SEL
238
25
TRK
LIMIT
BANK
V/S
PCU
FPA
+3288
V/S
POSITION
TRANSDUCERS
UP
DOWN
BACKDRIVE
ACTUATORS
NAVIGATION
SENSORS
A/P DISENGAGE
HDG
HDG
VS/FPA
APP
LOC
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
FLIGHT DECK
CONTROLS
HOLD
1000
ELEVATOR
AILERON &
RUDDER
AUTO
ALTITUDE
17000
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 15 shows the AFDS block schematic diagram
AFDS Block Diagram

Figure 15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.16 AUTOPILOT FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER (AFDC)

There are three AFDC within the AFDS each containing the following:
1. ARINC 629 Input/output modules (I/O).
2. Discrete Input/output (I/O) module.
3. Processor A.
4. Processor B.
5. Processor C.
6. Power supply module.
2.16.1 Input Signal Selection
Each ARINC and discrete input/output module monitors and selects input signals.
Each I/O module monitors the validity of the signal first, if validity check is good,
the I/O section selects the signal by one of the following methods:
1. Mid value selection which uses the middle value of the three signals.
Radio Altitude (RA) and ILS are examples of signals selected using this
method.
2. Priority selection for signals with two sources (left/right). Example; the Air
Data Inertial reference Unit (ADIRU) is the normal source of air/inertial
data. If the ADIRU fails, the AFDC selects the Secondary Attitude Air Data
reference Unit (SAARU).
3. Forced selection for Aeroplane Information Management System (AIMS)
data. AIMS tell the AFDC which signal to use.
2.16.2 AFDC Processors
The AFDC has three processors (A,B and C). Processor A and B receive digital
backdrive commands from the Primary Flight Computers (PFC). They convert
the digital backdrive signals into analogue signals for output to the backdrive
actuators.
Processor C calculates the autopilot and flight director control laws, test and data
loading, engage/disengage logic and failure detection/fault response monitoring.
Page 2-25
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PART 2
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AERODYNAMICS,
2.17 PRIMARY FLIGHT COMPUTER (PFC)

The PFC receives commands from the AFDC. The PFC calculates and sends
surface position digital commands to the Actuator Control Electronics (ACE).
The ACE converts these signals to analogue and sends the signal to the Power
Control Units (PCU). The PCU move the flight surface, sending positional
feedback signal to the ACE, which converts the feedback signals into digital and
sends it to the PFC. The PFC then calculates and sends the digital feedback
signals to the AFDC. The AFDC converts the signals into analogue, and sends
these signals to the backdrive actuators, which moves the control column, control
wheels and rudder pedals.
Figure 16 shows the Primary Flight Computer/Actuator Control Electronics Block
diagram.
ANALOG
ANALOG
POWER
CONTROL
UNIT
POSITION
TRANSDUCER
BACKDRIVE
ACTUATORS
PRIMARY
FLIGHT
COMPUTER
ACTUATOR
CONTROL
ELECTRONICS
CONTROL
SURFACE
ANALOG
FLIGHT CONTROL - ARINC 629 BUS (X3)
AFDC
AIMS
ADIRU
SAARU
PFC/ACE Block Diagram

Figure 16
Page 2-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.18 COMMUNICATIONS
The word "Communication" is defined as the exchange of information of any kind,
by any means and involves the transfer of meaningful information from one
location (the sender or transmitter), to another location (the destination or
receiver).
Radio Communication equipment in aircraft is primarily for the purpose of
communicating with Air Traffic Control (ATC), and other ground stations. It can
also be used for communicating with other aircraft and internally to speak with
cabin crew and passengers.
2.19 RADIO WAVES
Radio signals emanate from the antenna of a transmitter partly in the form of
Electromagnetic waves. During radio transmission, the antenna in addition to
the electromagnetic field also generates an electric field. The two fields radiate
from the antenna at the speed of light, which is approximately 186,300 Mls/sec
(300,000,000 mtr/sec). Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, as soon as
the transmitter starts to transmit, its signal may be detected instantly hundreds or
thousands of miles away, depending on the power of the transmitter and the
nature of the wave being transmitted.
The transmitter typically radiates an electromagnetic signal in a 360 pattern from
the antenna. Figure 17 shows the effect of a radio wave being transmitted from
an Omni-directional aerial.
AERIAL
Radio Wave Transmission

Figure 17
Page 2-27
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AERODYNAMICS,
2.20 WAVELENGTH & FREQUENCY

The length of a radio wave depends on its frequency. Like an ac sine wave, the
wave emanating from an antenna increases to a maximum in one direction, drops
to zero, and then increases to maximum in the opposite direction. The
wavelength, indicated by the Greek letter lambda (), is the distance from the
crest of one wave to the next. Since the wave travels at the speed of light
(300,000,000 mtr/sec) the wavelength in metres is equal to 300,000,000 divided
by the number of cycles per second (hertz).
Figure 18 shows the relationship between wavelength and frequency.
WAVELENGTH = CREST TO CREST (MTR)
RADIO WAVE
CYCLE
FREQUECNY = NUMBER OF CYCLES PER SECOND
WAVELENGTH =
VELOCITY
FREQUENCY
VELOCITY = SPEED OF LIGHT

( 300,000,000 METRES PER SECOND)
FREQUENCY =
VELOCITY
WAVELENGTH
Wavelength and Frequency

Figure 18
Page 2-28
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.20.1 Frequency Bands

Frequencies utilized in various types of radio systems range from 3 KHz to as
high as 30 GHz. The frequencies are divided into seven bands, and these bands
are assigned to certain types of operation. Table 1 shows the various types of
bands.
Designation
Very Low Frequency (VLF)
Low frequency (LF)
Medium Frequency (MF)
High Frequency (HF)
Very High Frequency (VHF)
Ultra High frequency (UHF)
Super High frequency (SHF)
Frequency range
3 30 KHz
30 300 KHz
300 3000 KHz
3 30 MHz
30 300 MHz
300 3000 MHz
3 30 GHz
Wavelength
1000,000 10,000 Mtr
10,000 1,000 Mtr
1,000 100 Mtr
100 10 Mtr
10 1 Mtr
1 Mtr 10 cm
10 cm 1 cm
Frequency Bands
Table 1
Above these radio frequencies lie the various light frequencies. Infrared and
white light are currently being used for some information transmission at
frequencies between 109 1011 KHz. Below the radio frequencies are the
audible sound waves, ranging from 20 Hz to 15 KHz. The audio frequency range
for radio transmission is between 300 Hz 3 KHz and is known as Commercial
Quality Speech. Without special techniques, the transmission of these low
frequencies would cause two major problems:
1. High power would be required to transmit them.
2. All radio transmissions would interfere with each other.
2.21 CARRIER WAVE
The energy that carries the intelligence of a radio signal is called the Carrier
Wave. The frequency of this carrier wave may be only a few hundred kilohertz
(VLF) or several thousand megahertz (UHF). Carrier waves are usually in the
Radio Frequency (RF) range, which is in excess of 20 KHz. Frequencies below
20 KHz are in the Audio Frequency (AF) range.
Page 2-29
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In order to carry intelligence, a RF carrier wave must be modulated. This means

its form and characteristics are changed by means of some form of signal
impressed onto it. There are two methods used for modulating the carrier wave,
these are:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM).
2. Frequency Modulation (FM).
2.22 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
In amplitude modulation, the audio signal is mixed in a Modulator with the
higher carrier frequency. The audio affects the amplitude of the carrier frequency
as shown in figure 19.
CARRIER FREQUENCY
AUDIO FREQUENCY
TRANSMITTED AMPLITUDE
MODULATED SIGNAL
Amplitude modulation
Figure 19
Page 2-30
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.23 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

This type of modulation provides a signal that is much less affected by
interference than an AM signal. Frequency modulation is accomplished by
varying the frequency of the carrier in accordance with the audio signal desired.
Figure 20 shows how frequency modulation affects the carrier wave.
AUDIO WAVE
FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNAL
Frequency Modulation (FM)

Figure 20
Page 2-31
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 21 shows the relationship of frequency modulation with different

amplitudes of audio frequency.
1KHz AUDIO
HALF MAX
AMPLITUDE
MAX
AMPLITUDE
10.5KHz
9.5KHz
11KHz
9KHz
10KHz CARRIER
FM Modulation
Figure 21
Page 2-32
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.24 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

The carrier wave emitted by a radio transmission antenna may be broken into
three different propagation categories:
1. Ground wave.
2. Space wave.
3. Sky wave.
Figure 22 shows the different propagation paths.
VE
IONOSPHERE
SK
C
PA
AC
A
EW
VE
GR
OU
ND
AV
SP
V
WA
Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 22
Page 2-33
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.24.1 Ground Wave Propagation

Ground waves tend to be held near the earths surface and bend with the
curvature of the earth. Ground waves travel a distance limited by the
transmitters output power, antenna design, local terrain, and current weather
conditions. Typically, a relatively powerful transmitter is capable of sending
ground waves a distance of 1,000 miles.
2.24.2 Sky Wave Propagation
Sky waves tend to travel in straight lines, but may also be reflected off the
ionosphere layer in order to reach the receiver. Because of this method, sky
waves may produce a skip zone, where no reception is possible. Neither the lineof-sight nor the reflected wave can be received in the skip zone.
The ionospheres density and distance from the earth determine the skip-zone
range and the exact frequencies that are reflected. The ionosphere is a layer of
ionized gases that surround the earth at an altitude of between 20 250 miles,
varying with the time of day, season and location. The density of this layer is also
affected by the suns solar flare activities. All these factors will determine the
frequencies that are reflected and their angle of reflection off the ionosphere.
2.24.3 Space Wave Propagation
Space wave frequencies have a short wavelength, which allows them to
penetrate the ionosphere. Because of this, space waves are limited to line-ofsight reception only. This method is used to communicate with satellites (SAT
COMM/GPS).
2.25 ANTENNAS
An antenna is a specially designed conductor that accepts energy from a
transmitter and radiates it into the atmosphere. During reception, an antenna
acts as a device that receives an induced current from passing electromagnetic
waves. This induced current is then sent to the radio receiver circuitry. Where
transmitters and receivers are built into one unit, often called a Transceiver, the
same antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving.
The size and design of antennas vary in accordance with the frequency or
frequencies of signals being handled. As frequencies increase the wavelengths
decrease and the length of the antenna must be matched as closely as possible
to the wavelengths of the carrier waves. On aircraft the size of the antenna is
normally .
Most aircraft communication antennas are of the Blade type. The radiating
surface is and is protected by a polyurethane rubber coating. They are
generally termed Broad band antennas, meaning they will receive a wide range
of frequencies. The required frequency is filtered out from all the others by
circuitry within the transceiver. Figure 23 shows a typical VHF blade antenna.
Page 2-34
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AERODYNAMICS,
ANTENNA
CAP
ANTENNA
EROSION
BOOT
AIRCRAFT
SKIN
MOUNTING
SCREWS
TUNING
CABLE
ANTENNA
CABLE
VHF Antenna
Figure 23
Page 2-35
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
RECEIVER
ANTENNA
COUPLER
ANTENNA
Figure 24 shows an Antenna Coupling unit.
Antenna Coupling Unit

Figure 24
Page 2-36
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26 MICROPHONES (MIC)

The purpose of the mic is to convert sound energy into electric energy. This
process uses the dynamic energy of the sound wave produced by the pilot. The
sound strikes a diaphragm, and the sound energy is converted into mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is then converted into electric energy. There
are four common aircraft microphones:
1. The Carbon Microphone.
2. The Crystal Microphone.
3. The Moving Coil Microphone.
4. Electrostatic Microphone.
2.26.1 Carbon Microphone
The carbon mic contains tiny carbon granules compressed in a sealed chamber.
The voice diaphragm vibrates the carbon chamber, changing the resistance of
the carbon granules. A current that passes through the granules changes in
amplitude as the sound wave moves the diaphragm. Figure 25 shows the
operation of a carbon microphone.
CERAMIC
CUP
CARBON
GRANULES
CONDUCTING
SURFACE
DIAPHRAGM
INSULATED
PLUNGER
Carbon Microphone
Figure 25
Page 2-37
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 2
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AERODYNAMICS,
2.26.2 The Crystal Microphone

The crystal mic is a voltage generator which utilizes the piezoelectric properties of
a quartz crystal. When the crystal is subjected to mechanical pressure it
develops a potential across two of its faces. This potential is dependent on the
pressure exerted on the crystal. This in turn produces an output, which
corresponds exactly to the applied pressure wave.
Figure 26 shows a crystal microphone operation.
DIAPHRAGM
ELECTRODES
CRYSTAL
Crystal Microphone Operation

Figure 26
Page 2-38
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26.3 Moving Coil Microphone

The moving coil microphone is again a type of voltage generator, this time
working on the electromagnetic-induction principle. The diaphragm is attached to
a coil, which is free to move in or out of a strong magnet. Movement of the
diaphragm causes the coil to cut the magnetic flux and a voltage is induced into
the coil. Figure 27 shows the operation of the moving coil microphone.
MAGNET
COIL
Moving Coil Microphone Operation

Figure 27
Page 2-39
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26.4 Electrostatic Microphone

An electrostatic microphone is similar to the carbon microphone in that it controls
the power taken from a dc supply. The principle is that of varying the value of a
capacitor by altering the distance between the capacitor plates. When the
diaphragm moves under the influence of a sound pressure wave the gap between
the plates varies and alters the capacitance. The current varies directly as the
charge across the microphone alters. Figure 28 shows the operation of the
electrostatic microphone.
DIAPHRAGM
AIRGAP
MOVEABLE
PLATE
FIXED
PLATE
Electrostatic Microphone Operation

Figure 28
Page 2-40
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
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AERODYNAMICS,
2.27 EARPHONES
The earphone is a transducer that converts electrical waves into sound (pressure)
waves. The waveform of the sound wave should be identical to the electrical
wave in all factors but amplitude. Earphones therefore, merely perform the
reverse process of a microphone. The same principles apply to earphones as
they did for microphones.
Figures 29 - 31 show the different types of earphones and microphones found on
modern aircraft.
HEADBAND
PRESS-TO-TALK
SWITCH
MOUTHPIECE
EARPIECE
ONLY USED TO
MONITOR AUDIO
NO TALK FACILITY
Headset and Hand Held Microphone

Figure 29
Page 2-41
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
HEADBAND
EAR PIECE
TRANSDUCERS
AUDIO TUBES
AMPLIFIER
BOOM MIC
JACK PLUG
Headset and Hand Held Microphone

Figure 30
HEAD
RESTRAINER
MASK
COMMUNICATION
JACK PLUG
OXYGEN
CONNECTION
Emergency Oxygen Mask

Figure 31
Page 2-42
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
DETECTOR &
DEMODULATOR
RADIO
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR
MICROPHONE
RADIO
FRQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
AUDIO
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
LOUDSPEAKER
AUDIO
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
MODULATOR
MODULATED
RADIO
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
Figure 32 shows a simplified block schematic diagram of a basic radio system.
Simplified Radio System

Figure 32
Page 2-43
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.28 VHF RADIO COMMUNICATION

Aircraft communication systems normally use the VHF wave band within a
118.000 MHz to 136.000 MHz range. Within this range the channel spacing was
previously 25 KHz, but because of the high demand for more channels it is
currently being reduced to 8.33 KHz. The VHF system provides short-range
(space wave) voice communication between:
1.
The aircraft and ground stations.
2.
Aircraft to aircraft.
All modern aircraft have at least two VHF systems, on the larger aircraft, there is
also a third system fitted.
Each VHF communication system receives RF energy via its antenna, processes
the RF signal and sends the resulting AF to the digital audio control system, and
the SELCAL (see later). During transmission, microphone audio from the flight
compartment is processed by the VHF communication system and the RF energy
is transmitted via the antenna. Control of the frequency selection is provided on a
VHF Communication control panel. Figure 33 shows a VHF Radio system block
schematic.
AUDIO OUT TO
INTERPHONE
VHF
AERIAL
RF IN & OUT
MICROPHONE
INTERPHONE
VHF
COMMUNICATION
TRANSCEIVER
1ST OFF
VHF
CONTROL
PANEL
CAPT
VHF Radio System

Figure 33
Page 2-44
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.28.1 VHF Control Panel

The purpose of the VHF communication control panel is to provide frequency
selection (tuning), frequency transfer, and testing of the associated VHF
transceiver.
There are two sets of concentric frequency select knobs. On each set, the out
knobs select the 2nd and 3rd digits and the inner knobs select the 4th and 5th digits.
Above each set of knobs is a frequency select readout for displaying the selected
frequency. A two position VHF COMM TRF (transfer) switch allows the selection
of one of the pre-selected frequencies. The unselected frequency window has a
bar obscuring the readout.
The COMM TEST switch is a push button switch that enables confidence testing
of the receiving circuits in the system. Figure 34 shows a VHF control panel.
VHF COMM
120.60
118.30
TFR
COMM
TEST
VHF Control Panel

Figure 34
Page 2-45
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.29 AUDIO CONTROL PANEL

The audio control panels provide microphone selector pushbuttons and listen
switches for the VHF communication systems. The mic selector pushbuttons
connect the microphone to the desired VHF transceiver. The audio volume
controls allow the selection of audio from the transceivers to heard over the flight
compartment speakers or headphones.
Figure 35 shows an audio control panel.
MIC SELECTOR
1 - VHF - 2
HF - 1
1 - NAV - 2
SERV
INT
INOP
1 - ADF
MASK
R/T
FLT
INT
PA
INOP
MKR
I/C
BOOM
Audio Control Panel

Figure 35
Page 2-46
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
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AERODYNAMICS,
2.30 VHF TRANSCEIVER

The purpose of the transceiver is to transmit and receive RF signals for voice and
data communication. It is a solid-state device with a minimum transmit power
output of 20 watts.
2.30.1 Control
The transceiver is tested using front panel controls. The squelch disable
pushbutton allows the testing of the receiver section of the transceiver. An amber
transmit monitor lamp illuminates whenever the transmitted output power
Exceeds 10 watts. There are also phone and mic jacks available for the
monitoring of the receiver and transmitter.
Figure 36 shows a VHF transceiver.
ON WHEN
TRANSCEIVER
POWER > 10W
TESTS THE
RECEIVER
SECTION OF
THE TRANSCEIVER
SQUELCH
DISABLE
TRANSMIT
POWER
PHONE
MIC
MONITORING
OF AUDIO
OUTPUT
OPERATION OF
TRANSMITTER
VHF Transceiver
Figure 36
Page 2-47
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AERODYNAMICS,
2.31 VHF COMMUNICATION ANTENNA

The purpose of the VHF antenna is to radiate and intercept radio signals in the
VHF frequency range (118.00 136.00 MHz). The No 1 VHF antenna is located
on top of the fuselage and VHF No 2 antenna is on the forward underside of the
fuselage. Figure 37 shows the VHF antenna location on a Boeing 737 aircraft.
UPPER VHF AERIAL

(NO 2 SYSTEM)
OPTION FOR 3RD

VHF SYSTEM
LOWER VHF AERIAL

(NO1 SYSTEM)
VHF Antenna Location (Boeing 737 aircraft)

Figure 37
Page 2-48
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.32 SERVICE INTERPHONE
BOOM
MASKS
1 - ADF
ON
FORWARD
ATTENDANTS
STATION
I/C
LIGHT
NORM
CALL
NOT
IN USE
ON
SERVICE
NOSE
WHEELWELL
FLIGHT
PILOT
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
EXTERNAL POWER
PANEL
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
HEADSET
SPEAKER
MIC
PILOTS
CONTROL
STAND
R/T
1 - NAV - 2
OFF
SERVICE
INTERPHONE
AFT
ATTENDANTS
STATION
MKR
INOP
PA
FLT
INT
SERV
INT
INOP
HF - 1
1 - VHF - 2
MIC SELECTOR
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL
AUDIO
ACCESSORY
UNIT
The service interphone system allows communication between the flight crew,
cabin attendants, ground crew or maintenance personnel. Jacks for plug-in
microphone and headsets are installed at various locations in the aircraft. These
jacks allow ground personnel to communicate with each other. An on/off switch
on the aft overhead panel on the flight deck controls the external jacks. Handsets
are available at the forward and aft attendants panels. Figure 38 shows the
layout of the Boeing 737 interphone system.
Boeing 737 Interphone System

Figure 38
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AERODYNAMICS,
2.32.1 Attendant Interphone Handsets

The handsets provide the facility for introducing microphone audio into the
system and for listening to audio from the systems other stations. The handsets
resemble the common hand-held telephone receiver. A pushbutton switch is
located on the grip to activate the mic. Handsets are permanently installed at
each attendants station. Figure 39 shows the forward attendants interphone
panel as fitted to the Boeing 737 aircraft.
MUSIC SYSTEM
VOLUME CONTROL
LIGHTS
ATTENDANTS
CALL LIGHT
MUSIC
CAPTAINS
CALL LIGHT
CALL SYSTEM
CAPTAIN ATTENDANT RESET
HANDSET
HANDHELD
MICROPHONE
Forward Attendants Interphone Panel

Figure 39
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.33 FLIGHT & GROUND CREW CALL SYSTEM

The crew call system is a three-way alerting system that signals crew members to
use the interphone system. The three types of crew call are:
Captains Call A Hi tone chime sounds once and the Captains
CALL light illuminates. This advises the flight crew that a call has been
initiated from the attendants panel or ground crew panel.
Attendant Call A Two-tone chime sounds and the Pink Master
Call lights illuminates when an attendants call is initiated from the
flight compartment or either attendants panels. The lights reset at the
attendants panels.
Ground Crew Call When the ground crew call is initiated in the flight
compartment, a call horn sounds in the nose wheel well.
Figure 40 shows the ground crews interphone panel, which is located in the nose
wheel bay.
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT
PILOT
SERVICE
NOSE
WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT
IN USE
CALL
LIGHT
Ground Crews Interphone Panel

Figure 40
Page 2-51
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.34 PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM (PA)

The passenger address (PA) system provides a means of transmitting flight crew
announcements, boarding music and chime signals to the passenger cabin.
Audio inputs from the pilots, attendants and tape reproducer are prioritized by the
PA amplifier. The priority is:
1. Pilots.
2. Cabin attendants.
3. Pre-recorded announcements.
4. Boarding music.
The audio with the highest priority is amplified and distributed to the passenger
cabin speakers, attendants speakers and audio integration.
Figure 41 shows the layout of the PA system for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
PA
AMPLIFIER
PA SPEAKER
PA MIC
PA SPEAKERS
PA System (Boeing 737 aircraft)

Figure 41
Page 2-52
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.35 AUDIO INTEGRATION SYSTEM
BOOM
MASKS
I/C
OXYGEN
MASK
SPEAKER
HEADSET
& BOOM MIC
HEADSET
CONTROL
SWITCHES
HAND
MIC
R/T
1 - NAV - 2
1 - VHF - 2
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL
INOP
1 - ADF
INOP
HF - 1
MIC SELECTOR
SERV
INT
FLT
INT
MKR
PA
Provides the flight crew with a means of controlling all radio communications,
interphone and PA selection and Navigation receivers audio signals. Both pilots
have their own individual system and control panel. Figure 42 shows a block
schematic of the audio integration system.
Audio Integration System

Figure 42
Page 2-53
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.36 CONTROL WHEEL MIC SWITCH

The purpose of the INT/MIC switch is to provide PTT input for the boom or
oxygen mask microphones. The switch is a three-position switch on the outboard
horn of the captains and first officers control wheel. In the MIC position, mic
audio is directed to the selected communication system. In the INT position, mic
audio is connected directly to the flight interphone system.
Figure 43 shows the control wheel INT/MIC switches of a Boeing 737 aircraft
MIC/INT SWITCH
PRESS-TO-TALK
MICROPHONE
INTERPHONE
Control Wheel INT/MIC Switches

Figure 43
Page 2-54
120.60
120.60
118.30
TEST
COMM
TFR
118.30
VHF COMM
TEST
COMM
TFR
VHF COMM
R/T
I/C
I/C
1 - NAV - 2
1 - NAV - 2
R/T
HF - 1
1 - VHF - 2
1 - VHF - 2
SERV
INT
INOP
BOOM
MASK
BOOM
MASK
1 - ADF
1 - ADF
HF - 1
INOP
INOP
PA
B
R
B
MKR
FLT
INT
INOP
FLT
INT
SERV
INT
MIC SELECTOR
MIC SELECTOR
MKR
PA
NO 2
VHF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
NO 1
VHF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 44 shows the layout for a two VHF communication system.
VHF Communication System

Figure 44
Page 2-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.37 OPERATION OF VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

To operate the system, apply power to the transceiver and allow a short warm up
period.
Select the VHF comm to be used (1 or 2) on the audio selector panel.
Select the frequency of the ground station that is going to be used and 'listen out'
to ensure that no other transmissions are taking place.
With the microphone close to the mouth, key the transmitter with the ac PTT
switch and speak slowly and clearly into the microphone to establish 2-way
communication with the ground station.
Identify your position by airline and aircraft registration using the standard
phonetic alphabet;
1. A = alpha.
2. B = Bravo etc
Once you have finished speaking, release the PTT switch and listen for the reply,
ensuring that it is loud and clear. Complete the check by confirming to the
ground station the receipt of the reply.
Some important points to note are:
1.
DO NOT TRANSMIT ON 121.50 MHz. This is a recognized

emergency/distress channel.
2.
DO NOT TRANSMIT WHILST REFUELLING IS TAKING PLACE.
3.
DO NOT INTERRUPT ATC-AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION.
Page 2-56
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.38 HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) RADIO COMMUNICATION

The HF communication system (HF COMM) is for communication between the
aircraft and ground stations. The ionosphere reflects the frequencies in the HF
band, so the line of sight does not limit the reception range of the system. That is
why the HF COMM is suitable for long range, worldwide communication.
The frequency range of the system is 2 to 29.999 MHz. Frequency selection is
made in 1 KHz steps, so there are 28000 channels available. There are two
modes of operation. These modes are:
1. AM AMPLITUDE MODULATION.
2. SSB SINGLE SIDE BAND.
In the AM mode the system transmits a carrier with amplitude modulation. In the
SSB mode the carrier and the lower side band is removed. The system only
transmits the upper side band (USB). Figure 45 shows a block schematic of a HF
system.
HF COMM
CONTROL
PANEL
TUNING &
CONTROL
POWER &
CONTROL
RECEIVE
TRANSMIT
HF COMM
ANTENNA
COUPLER
MIC
KEY
AUDIO
OUT
HF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
SELCAL
SYSTEM
HF Communication
Figure 45
Page 2-57
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
A HF aerial is of quite a different technology compared with most other aerials for
two reasons. One is the power output of the Transmitter (400 watts) the other
reason is that the quarter wavelength (/4) distance is about 40 metres at 2 MHz
but only 2.5 metres at 30 MHz, so broadband aerials are not possible. Instead all
HF aerials are fed from an aerial coupling unit to attempt to electrically lengthen
or shorten the aerial for optimum matching, especially to the transmitter. Figure
46 shows the location of the HF antenna and coupling unit.
HF ANTENNA
HF COUPLER
UNIT
HF Antenna & Coupling Unit Locations

Figure 46
Page 2-58
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
To get optimal power transfer from transmitter to antenna, the antenna

impedance must be the same as the transmitter output impedance (50-Ohm).
For each frequency the impedance of an antenna is different. Since the antenna
on the aircraft has a fixed length, it is only suitable for one frequency. The
antenna coupler tunes filters to adapt the antenna impedance for each different
frequency to the transmitter output impedance.
2.38.1 HF Communication Control Panel
The purpose of the HF Control Panel is to enable frequency selection, mode
control and RF sensitivity adjustment. There are four frequency select controls
for MHz, 100 KHz, 10 KHz and 1 KHz frequencies. The function selector allows
selection of the operating mode as either:
1. OFF.
2. Upper Side Band (USB).
3. Lower Side Band (LSB).
4. Amplitude Modulation (AM).
Note: LSB is reserved for military operations and normally, civil aircraft have the
facility to select USB.
Page 2-59
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 47 shows a HF communication control panel.
SELECTED
FREQUENCY
DISPLAY
MEGA HERTZ
SELECTOR
2
LSB
.0
KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR
AM
USB
OFF
RF
SENS
FUNCTION
SELECTOR
SWITCH
100 KILO HERTZ

SELECTOR
10 KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR
RECEIVER
GAIN
CONTROL
HF Communication Control Panel

Figure 47
Page 2-60
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.39 SELECTIVE CALLING SYSTEM (SELCAL)

The selective calling (SELCAL) system allows a ground station to call an aircraft
or group of aircraft using HF and VHF communications without the flight crew
having to continuously monitor the ground stations frequency.
A coded signal is transmitted from the ground station and received by the
aircrafts HF or VHF transciever tuned to the appropriate frequency. The output
code is fed to a SELCAL decoder, which, activates aural and visual alerts if and
only if the received code corresponds to the code, selected in the aircraft.
Figure 48 shows the SELCAL System layout.
SE
A
LC
VO
E
OD
IC
E
CO
UN
IC
AT
IO
AIRLINE DISPACH
COMMUNICATION
ARINC
REMOTE
STATION
ARINC
VOICE
STATION
SELCAL Operation
Figure 48
Page 2-61
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
There are a total of 10920 codes available and these codes are assigned to
airline organisations, who in turn assign codes to their individual aircraft either on
a flight number or aircraft registration basis.
2.39.1 SELCAL Control Panel
The SELCAL control panel consists of SELCAL warning lamps annotated to the
associated radio system, i.e. VHF 1, VHF 2, HF 1 and HF 2. It also provides a
means of resetting the SELCAL, thus cancelling the visual and audio indications.
The panel also has a self-test button to allow testing of the SELCAL system.
Normally located along with the control panel is the SELCAL code selection
panel, this is used to set the aircrafts SELCAL code.
Figure 49 shows a SELCAL selector panel.
SELCAL CODE SELECTION PANEL
SELCAL ANNUNCIATOR PANEL
SELCAL Selector Panel & Code Select Panel

Figure 49
Page 2-62
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.39.2 SELCAL Decoder

The SELCAL decoder determines if the aircrafts four-letter code has been
received and produces alert signals in the form of indicators on the SELCAL
control panel and audio tones to the audio system. The alerts are cancelled by
pressing the corresponding alert light on the SELCAL control panel. A self-test of
the alerts lights and audio warnings is carried out using the self-test button on the
SELCAL control, panel. Figure 50 shows a block schematic of the SELCAL
system.
LAMP DRIVES
5 WIRE
RESET
CODE
SELECT
TEST
AUDIO SYSTEM
CHIME
SWITCH
VHF 1
LAMP
SWITCH
LAMP
SWITCH
VHF 2
DECODER
VHF 3
LAMP
SWITCH
LAMP
SWITCH
VHF 4
VHF 5
INTERRUPTER
CIRCUIT
LAMP
SWITCH
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
SELCAL Block Schematic

Figure 50
Page 2-63
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.40 COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER (CVR)

The CVR records the last 30 minutes of the flight deck audio on continuous
magnetic tape. All voice communication is recorded. Operation is automatic
from engine start until five minutes after engine shutdown. The CVR receives
sound from the flight compartment and audio signals from the digital audio control
system. The voice recorder continuously records the sound and audio. Sensing
of the aircraft-on-ground and parking-brake-set is used to permit bulk erasure
of the voice recording.
The system records on four channels:
1. Channel 1 - Records the third crew members summed microphone
and telephone audio or passenger address system audio.
2. Channel 2 Records the First Officers summed microphone and
telephone audio.
3. Channel 3 records the Captains summed microphone and
telephone audio.
4. Channel 4 records the control panel area microphone audio.
Page 2-64
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ERASE
METER
MIC
A/C ON
GROUND
TEST
RECORDING
HEADS
PARKING
BRAKE ON
ERASE
HEAD
TAPE AND
MOTOR
Figure 51 shows a block schematic of the Cockpit Voice Recorder System.
Cockpit Voice Recorder System

Figure 51
Page 2-65
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.40.1 Voice Recorder Control Panel

The control panel allows remote monitoring and testing of the voice recorder unit
detects flight compartment sounds and conversations. It also controls bulk
erasure of the recording tape. It contains an area microphone (capacitive) which
senses compartment audio. Pressing the erase button for a minimum of 2
seconds erases the tape. This is only possible when the aircraft is on the ground
and the parking brake is set.
Pressing the TEST switch tests all 4 recording channels in sequence. The meter
indicates green during TEST if the test tone is recorded at a sufficient level. The
headset jack is used to monitor all 4 recorded channels. Figure 52 shows a CVR
control panel.
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER
TEST
2 4
6 8
10
ERASE
HEADSET
600 OHMS
CVR Control Panel

Figure 52
Page 2-66
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.40.2 Voice Recorder Unit

The voice recorder unit makes a 30 - minute recording of four audio channels on
a continuous polyamide tape. The recorder is shock and heat resistant and
contains an underwater locating beacon. It has a TEST switch to initiate an
internal test signal to be recorded. A phone jack monitors the recording as it is
being recorded. The Status indicator provides monitoring of the tape transport
operation and the recorded signal during test. Figure 53 shows a voice recorder
unit.
TEST
PHONE
STATUS IND
UNDERWATER
LOCATING
DEVICE
BATTERY
LIFE LABEL
Voice Recorder Unit

Figure 53
2.40.3 Underwater Locator Device
The underwater locating device is a battery operated acoustical beacon that is
activated when the unit is submerged in water. The unit provides a usable signal
for 30 days. The battery replacement date decal is located on the front of the
device.
Page 2-67
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.41 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

Aircraft navigation is simply a matter of knowing the direction in which we are
flying and our position in relation to the earth's surface. Navigation through the
air is a relatively simple matter of calculating the distance travelled in a given
period of time. In today's modern aircraft we have various methods of assisting
the crew to navigate their aircraft safely form A to B. These navigational aids are
as follows:
1. Very High Frequency - Omni-Range - VOR.
2. Distance Measuring Equipment - DME.
3. Instrument Landing System - ILS.
4. Marker Beacon System MBS.
5. Automatic Direction Finder - ADF.
6. Air Traffic Control - ATC.
7. Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System TCAS.
8. Inertial Navigation System - INS.
9. Radio Magnetic Indicator - RMI.
10. Global Positioning System - GPS.
11. Compass Systems
12. Radio Altimeter System RADALT.
13. Weather Radar.
2.42 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI RANGE (VOR)
VOR is an international standard navigational beacon system enabling a number
of aircraft to receive signals from a ground station and determine the bearing to
the station, with respect to magnetic North. This is possible because the VOR
ground station, or transmitter, continually broadcasts an infinite number of
directional radio beams or radials. The VOR signal received in an aircraft is used
to operate a visual indicator from which the pilot determines the bearing of the
VOR station with respect to the aircraft.
Page 2-68
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.42.1 VOR Operation

The VOR operates in the frequency band from 108.00 to 117.95 MHz. The VOR
ground-station transmits a combination of signals in all directions (omnidirectional). The VOR ground station modulates two signals of 30 Hz each on the
carrier. One 30 Hz signal is the reference signal and the other is the variable
signal. The phase shift between the reference signal and the variable signal
depends on the radial over which the two signals are transmitted. The radial in
the magnetic north direction has a phase shift of 0 degrees, the radial in the
magnetic east direction (90 degrees) has a phase shift of 90 degrees, the radial
in the magnetic south direction (180 degrees) has a phase shift of 180 degrees,
etc. In this way the VOR ground station identifies each radial with the phase shift
between the reference and the variable signal.
Figure 54 shows a VOR ground station and corresponding transmitted
frequencies.
000
VOR RADIAL = 45
VOR BEARING = 225
090
270
VOR
BEACON
180
VOR Ground Station Operation
Figure 54
Page 2-69
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The radial information is transmitted from the ground station to the aircraft. When
the VOR system in the aircraft detects the phase shift between the reference and
the variable signal it knows on which radial the aircraft flies. For the bearing
information (opposite direction from aircraft to ground station) the VOR system
adds 180 degrees. In this way the bearing to the station depends on the detected
radial from the station.
The phase shift between the reference and the variable signal identifies a radial
with respect to the magnetic north. The bearing, which is a result from the
detected radial, has therefore also a relation with the magnetic north. So the
bearing output from the VOR system is a MAGNETIC bearing output. This
information is displayed on a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). Figure 55 shows a
schematic of the VOR system.
RECEIVED
VOR SIGNAL
30Hz AM
DETECTOR
INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY
RF
IF
AUDIO
DETECTOR
ROTATION
TO PHASE
DETECTOR
RADIO
FREQUENCY
30Hz FM
DETECTOR
REFERENCE
RMI VOR Indications

Figure 56
Page 2-70
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 57 shows VOR control panel from a BAe 146 aircraft.
1 1 1 . 25
1 1 1 . 30
STBY
ACT
PRE
VOR/DME
NORM
ON
TEST
HOLD
I
L
S
T
E
S
T
DME
SPILT
NAV 1
NAV 2
068
246
COURSE
COURSE
VOR Control & Course select Panels (BAe 146)

Figure 57
Page 2-71
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.42.2 Deviation Calculations
VOR RADIAL
POSITION WRT
AIRCRAFT
SELECTED VOR
RADIAL
TO FLAG
IN VIEW
SELECTED
COURSE
FROM FLAG
IN VIEW
For lateral guidance in airways, the pilots can select a VOR course on the VOR
control panel. The deviation from the selected course is calculated in the
systems, which show course and deviation (EFIS) or use it for guidance
(AFCAS). Also calculated from the difference between received radial and
selected course is the information if the aircraft flies to or from a VOR station.
The navigation display shows selected course, deviation, and the to-from
information. Figure 58 shows HSI indications for a selected VOR course.
12
15
21
33
30
MILES
0 0 0
24
HSI Indications for a VOR Course

Figure 58
Page 2-72
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.42.3 VOR Aerial Locations

Figure 59 shows the location of the VOR aerials on a Boeing 737 and a Fokker
100 aircraft.
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON TOP
OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON EITHER
SIDE OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
VOR Aerial Locations (B737 & F100 Aircraft)

Figure 59
Page 2-73
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
VOR operates in the VHF band responding to horizontally polarised

transmissions. It shares its frequency range with the Localiser facility of the ILS
and in so doing often shares the aerial system and much of the receiver unit. The
aerial can be mounted on either side of the fin and much be Omni directional to
receive VOR/ILS signals from all directions or flush mounted on either side of the
nose section. Figure 60 shows the construction of a typical VOR/ILS aerial
system.
No 2 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 2 SYSTEM
VOR/ILS Aerial
Figure 60
Page 2-74
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
I
L
S
TEST
ON
HOLD
PRE
VOR/DME
W 3
0
24
15
VOR
COURSE
30
MILES
NAV 1
24
000
COURSE
21
33
SPILT
15
246
12
068
NAV 2
NAV
SELECTOR
A
D
21
33
COMPASS HEADING
VOR
CONTROLLER
VOR
RECEIVER
12
VOR
A
D
STBY
DME
NORM
1 1 1 . 25
1 1 1 . 40
ACT
AUDIO
T
E
S
T
VOR
ANTENNA
Figure 61 shows a VOR system block diagram.
VOR Block Diagram

Figure 61
Page 2-75
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.43 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

The Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) system gives distance information
from the aircraft to the DME ground station. The system interrogates the ground
station and the ground station gives a reply on every interrogation. The system
then detects the time-delay between the transmitted interrogation and the
received reply and from the time-delay the distance is calculated. Figure 62
shows the principle of DME operation.
DME Operation
Figure 62
Page 2-76
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The DME system operates in the UHF band and interrogates the ground stations
in the frequency range from 1025 MHz to 1150 MHz. Within this frequency range
the following ground stations are interrogated:
1. DME - Gives a reply on every DME interrogation.
2. VOR/DME - Combination of VOR and DME station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
3. ILS/DME - Combination of ILS and DME station and gives ILS guidance and
distance replies.
4. MLS/DME - Combination of Microwave Landing System (MLS) and DME
station.
5. TACAN - Military station for bearing and distance information for military
aircraft. The civil aircraft use only the distance replies from these stations.
6. VOR/TAC - Combination of VOR and TACAN station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
In addition to the distance reply, identification tones (1350Hz) are received from
the ground station and may be heard as Morse code by the aircrew through
headsets.
Page 2-77
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 63 shows the location of DME antennas.
DME No 1
DME No 2
BROADBAND
L-BAND AERIAL
DME antenna Location

Figure 63
Page 2-78
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 64 shows the principle of operation of the DME.
DME TRANSPONDER
AIRCRAFT
RX
TX
TIMING
INTERROGATION
RANGE
CIRCUIT
50 SEC
DELAY
REPLY
TX
RX
DISTANCE
OUTPUT
DME Operation
Figure 64
2.43.1 DME Operation
In the DME system, the airborne unit transmits a 2-pulse group to the ground
station at a random rate of 150 pulse pairs a second. After a 50 second delay,
the ground station retransmits the pulse groups. Pulses are sent at one
frequency and received at a different frequency, using the same antenna.
Since many aircraft are using the DME facility, the aircraft equipment must be
capable of selecting only those pulses that are replies from their own
interrogations. A Search and Track circuit within the airborne equipment
achieves the selection.
Page 2-79
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The Search and Track circuit receives all DME replies and examines them to
determine which ones have a regular time relation with respect to the transmitted
signals. When the search circuit determines which received pulses are due to its
own interrogations, the tracking unit locks onto them. At the same time, the pulse
rate is greatly reduced; this in turn reduces the interrogation/replies at the ground
station.
VHF/NAV
CONTROL
PANEL
SUPPRESSOR
BUS
TRANSMITTER
CONTROLLED
VARIABLE DELAY
RCVR/XMITTR
FREQUENCY SYNTHESISER
NAUTICAL MILES
1 2 3.5
DME
DELAYED
TX
LOCK
ON
DUPLEXER
RECIEVER
AUDIO
IDENTIFICATION
MATCHING
CIRCUITS
FLIGHT
INTERPHONE
SYSTEM
INDICATOR
Figure 65 shows a basic DME system.
Basic DME System

Figure 65
Page 2-80
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.43.2 DME Controller

Figure 66 shows a NAV/VHF controller from a BAe 146 aircraft.
NAV/VHF Controller
Figure 66
All DME frequencies are paired with either VOR or ILS system frequencies.
When these system frequencies are selected, the associated DME facility will be
automatically be selected. DME frequency range is 960 to 1215 MHz.
Page 2-81
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.44 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

The purpose of the ILS is to provide approach information to the pilot when, due
to weather, the runway is obscured from view. A typical system will allow the pilot
to bring the aircraft to within mile of the runway and less than 200ft above the
runway without external visual reference. At these heights (Decision Height), the
pilot must have visual on the runway and surrounding environment in order to
continue the landing process. If the runway cannot be identified then a missed
approach procedure is carried out. Aircraft will then be flown around the circuit
for another attempt at landing.
Aircraft are fitted with ILS in three categories, these are:
Cat I - Operation down to a minimum of 200ft-decision height and runway visual
range of 800m with a high probability of approach success.
Cat II - Operation down to a minimum below 200ft decision height and runway
visual range of 800m, and to as low as 100ft decision height and runway visual
range of 400m with a high probability of approach success.
Cat III - Three options A, B and C.
A - Operation down to and along the surface of the runway,
with external reference during final phase of the landing
down to runway visual range minimum of 200m.
B - Operation to and along the surface of the runway and
taxiways, with external reference during final phase of the
landing down to runway visual range minimum of 50m.
C - Operation to and along the surface of the runway and
taxiways without external visual reference.
Page 2-82
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 67 shows the different ILS categories.
CAT 1
200
CAT 2
100
CAT 3
800
600
400
200
50
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (METRES)
ILS Categories
Figure 67
2.44.1 ILS Operation
The ILS gives horizontal and vertical guidance in the approach to a runway. The
system uses two radio signals:
1. The localizer for lateral guidance.
2. The Glideslope for vertical guidance.
The localizer signal comes from a transmitter located at the end of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 108.000 - 111.95 MHz. The localizer
transmits two beams one on the right side of the runway centerline and one on
the left side of the runway centerline.
The beam on the right side has a 150 Hz modulation; the one on the left side has
a 90 Hz modulation. When the aircraft flies over the extended centerline to the
runway it receives both signals with an equal strength. When the aircraft deviates
from the centerline there is a difference in signal strength. The system measures
the deviation from the center line by comparing the strength of these 90 Hz and
150 Hz modulation signals.
Page 2-83
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The Glideslope signal comes from a transmitter at the beginning of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 329.3 MHz to 335 MHz. The
Glideslope transmits two beams to give vertical guidance over the glidepath. The
glidepath has an angle of approximately 3.
The Glideslope beams are just like the localizer, modulated with 90 Hz and 150
Hz. The 90 Hz modulated beam is above and the 150 Hz modulated beam is
below the 3 glidepath. The system measures the deviation from the difference in
signal strength between the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulation signals.
Figures 67 and 68 show the localizer and Glideslope principles respectively.
Page 2-84
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
LOC
TX
4 ON LONG RUNWAY
5 ON SHORT RUNWAY
700 ft WIDE
AT THRESHOLD
2 DOT ENVELOPE
(COURSE WIDTH)
DOTS ON HSI
LATERAL
DEVIATION
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Localizer Principle
Figure 67
Page 2-85
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
1,000 ft
1,000 ft
50 ft
100 ft
14 ft
28 ft
2 DOT ENVELOPE
COURSE WIDTH 1.4
3,000 ft
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Glideslope Principle
Figure 68
Page 2-86
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.44.2 Antennas
GLIDESLOPE
VOR/LOC No 2
LOCATED ON THE
OTHER SIDE
VOR/LOC AERIAL
VOR/LOC No 2
LOCATED ON THE
OTHER SIDE
GLIDESLOPE
No 1 & No 2
VOR/LOC AERIAL
Figure 69 shows the location of the antennas.
ILS Antenna Location (BAe 146 & F50 aircraft)

Figure 69
Page 2-87
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.44.3 LOC/GS Operation

Figure 70 shows a diagram for the LOC signal detection and display.
RF AMP
WARNING
FLAG
IF AMP
DETECTOR
SUM
90Hz FILTER
250mV OUT
OF VIEW
150Hz FILTER
DIFFERENCE
DEVIATION
BAR
LOC Signal detection and Display

Figure 70
The receiver of the Glideslope and Localiser operate in the same manner and
include conventional Radio Frequency (RF), Intermediate Frequency (IF) and
Audio Frequency (AF) stages. The output of the AF detector stage is the 90Hz
and 150Hz signals. These are separated in there respective filters.
The two signals are 180 out of phase and so oppose each other. The two
signals are first summed together, and if the result is more than 250mV, the
LOC/GS flag will be out of view (ILS valid). If the result of the summing is less
than 250mV, the LOC/GS flags will remain in view (ILS invalid).
If the 90Hz and 150Hz signals have the same amplitude, they cancel each other
out in the difference circuit. This produces a 0V output to the deviation bar that is
basically a centre reading dc voltmeter. With the output 0V the deviation bar will
be central indicating the aircraft is positioned on the extended runway centerline
(LOC) or on the glideslope.
Page 2-88
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
If the aircraft is positioned in the 90Hz signal lobe, then the amplitude of the 90Hz
signal will be strongest. This will give a fly right signal (LOC) or fly down signal
(G/S). If the difference is -75mV, the deviation bar will be located on the first dot
right, if the difference is -150mV or more, then the deviation bar will be located on
the second dot right. If the 150Hz is the stronger signal, then the voltage
produced will be positive. This will give either fly left (LOC) or fly up (G/S).
Because the result of the difference circuit is either a +dc half-cycle or dc halfcycle, the signals are condensed using the capacitor, which will produce a steady
dc signal. These condenser capacitors also damp the deviation bar movement.
Page 2-89
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.45 MARKER BEACON SYSTEM (MBS)

In order to inform the pilot as to the aircraft's progress, during an ILS approach,
along the centerline and Glideslope, there is a marker system. The markers are
normally annotated as follows:
1. Outer marker.
2. Middle Marker.
3. Inner marker.
Note: With Category II & III, ILS the inner marker is virtually non existent.
The marker beacons transmit at a certain frequency to identify it and in a fan
shaped pattern. They will also illuminate certain colour warning lamps within the
flightdeck to inform the pilot of reaching the marker. Figure 71 shows the layout
of the marker system for an ILS approach.
3000 Hz
WHITE
INDICATOR
1300 Hz
AMBER
INDICATOR
400 Hz
BLUE
INDICATOR
MORSE
MORSE
MORSE
INNER
MARKER
MIDDLE
MARKER
OUTER
MARKER
Marker Beacon System

Figure 71
Page 2-90
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The inner marker is not normally used with ILS, but is now used as an Airways
marker, used for enroute navigation or as holding points above an airport.
Airways markers are identified when the white light comes on and a 3,000Hz tone
is heard.
Outer and Middle markers are associated with the ILS. The outer marker is
usually located directly below the point where an aircraft on a localizer course
should intersect the Glideslope and start descending. An outer marker is
identified when the blue light comes on and a 400 Hz tone is heard. The middle
marker is located near the runway, usually under a point on the glidepath where a
descent could be discontinued. The middle marker is identified when the amber
light comes on and a 1,300 Hz tone is heard. A 75MHz carrier modulates all
marker frequencies. Figure 72 shows the system layout.
75 MHz
FILTER
MARKER BEACON
SYSTEM
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
AUDIO
(MORSE)
3000 Hz
FILTER AMP
RF AMP &
DETECTOR
MARKER
INNER
1300 Hz
FILTER AMP
MIDDLE
400 Hz
FILTER AMP
OUTER
HIGH
LOW
SENSITIVITY
SWITCH
Marker Beacon System Layout

Figure 72
Page 2-91
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.46 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)

The ADF system detects the direction to a Non Directional Beacon (NDB) and
receives audio identification from the NDB. The ADF system shows the direction
to the NDB on the instruments with the bearing pointer. The ADF system
operates in the frequency range of 190 to 1750 KHz.
The NDB ground station transmits an AM (Amplitude Modulated) signal in circular
pattern in all directions. The radio energy induces RF (Radio Frequency) signals
in a combined loop and sense antenna. The receiver antenna signals are
measured in an ADF receiver and calculated to give relative station bearing.
Figure 73 shows the operation of ADF.
MAGNETIC
NORTH
ADF2
ADF 1
300
HEADING
30
RF
S
AD IGN
F 2 AL
ST S F
AT RO
IO M
N
60
M
RO
F
S
N
AL TIO
N
A
SIG ST
RF DF1
A
RELATIVE
BEARINGS
ADF Operation
Figure 73
Page 2-92
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.46.1 Loop Aerial

A 'loop aerial', is very sensitive to its directional position, meaning that when it is
pointing towards the transmitter, it receives a null signal but when pointing away
from the transmitter, it receives a strong signal. This ability is used to
automatically find the direction of the transmitter, relative to the aircraft heading
and is displayed on the Radio Magnetic Indicator, RMI.
Figure 74 shows the operation of a loop antenna.
LOOP AERIAL
AT 90 TO SIGNAL
NO
CURRENT
INCREASING
CURRENT
NO
CURRENT
INCREASING
CURRENT
NO
CURRENT
RADIO TRANSMITTER
Loop Antenna
Figure 74
Page 2-93
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.46.2 Station Line

By turning the loop aerial to either of its two null positions the directions of a line
joining the receiver with the transmitting station can be determined. This is called
the Station Line and is shown in Figure 75.
Station Line
Figure 75
As there are two nulls, 180 apart, the transmitter could be towards A or B in
figure 75, causing ambiguity. To resolve this ambiguity it is necessary to change
the directional properties of the aerial system. This is achieved by introducing a
second aerial which combines its horizontal polar diagram with that of the loop
aerial which produces a new heart shaped polar diagram called a Cardioid.
Figure 76 shows the resultant Cardioid polar diagram from the loop and sense
aerials.
Page 2-94
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
LOOP
POLAR
DIAGRAMS
SENSE
POLAR
DIAGRAM
CARDIOID
POLAR
DIAGRAM
Cardioid Polar Diagram

Figure 76
2.46.3 Sensing the Correct Null
The signal from the ADF transmitter induces a voltage into the loop using the
magnetic component of the signal. The sense aerial has a voltage induced by
the electric component of the signal. This produces 90 phase shift between the
loop and sense aerial voltages. Whether the sense voltage leads or lags the loop
voltage depends on which side of the station line the signal is coming from.
Given a means of rotating the loop and switching the sense aerial into and out of
the receiver input and a means of reversing the polarity of the loop signal to
produce a Cardioid either to the right or left of a relative bearing pointer, aural
sensing can be carried out. The bearing pointer is positioned along the loop axis
in one direction as shown if figure 77.
Page 2-95
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
BEARING POINTER
ALONG LOOP AXIS IN
ONE DIRECTION
LEFT CARDIOID
RIGHT CARDIOID
ADF AERIAL
Bearing Point and Cardiods

Figure 77
On tuning to the ADF beacon and listening to the audio signal, the loop is turned
until a minimum signal is received. The loop is then offset in one direction by 15
- 20. The sense aerial is now switched in for the right Cardioid and the loudness
of the audio noted. The loop is then reversed to give a left Cardioid, again the
loudness is noted. The sense aerial is now switched out and the loop is tuned in
the direction of the Cardiods, which gave the loudest signal. The first null the
loop aerial reaches will be the correct one and the pointer will now be pointing the
ADF transmitter the system is tuned to. Figure 78 shows this operation.
Page 2-96
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ADF
BEACON
ADF
BEACON
RIGHT IS
LOUDEST
LEFT IS
NOT AS
LOUD
POINTING TO
WRONG NULL
TURN TOWARDS
LOUDEST FOR
CORRECT NULL
LOOP OFFSET
BY 15 - 20
Calculating the Correct Null

Figure 78
Page 2-97
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In modern aircraft, the loop aerials are more streamlined and do not physically
rotate (rotated electronically).
Figure 79 shows the location of the ADF antenna.
NO 2 SENSE
ANTENNA &
COUPLER
NO 2 LOOP
ANTENNA
NO 1 LOOP
ANTENNA
NO 1 SENSE
ANTENNA &
COUPLER
ADF Antenna Location

Figure 79
Page 2-98
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 80 shows a block schematic of the ADF system.
SENSE
ANTENNA
FWD
90
SHIFT
BALANCED
MODULATOR
RS
AUDIO
AUDIO
DETECTOR
MIXER
47Hz
OSC
47Hz
FILTER
B
ADF
ANTENNA
TX
PHASE DETECTOR
& MODULATOR
47Hz
or
ADF RECEIVER
RMI
AC SUPPLY
TR
ADF System
Figure 80
The fixed loop antenna is preferred because it is more trouble free, due to fewer
moving parts. The fixed loop consists of two loops orientated at 90 to each
other. Each loop is connected to an individual stator of a receiving resolver within
the ADF receiver.
If the received station is directly ahead of the aircraft, loop A will have maximum
signal and the B loop will have a null signal. In this case the resolver will see a
null signal due to the orientation of the resolver rotor. If the aircraft is positioned
to the right of the station, then the A will see a null and the B will see maximum
signal. Intermediate positions of the received station would result in intermediate
positions of the resultant filed in the stator of the resolver.
Page 2-99
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 81 shows a typical ADF control panel.
ADF ANT
ADF 1
OFF
191. 5
TEST
ADF 2
1231.5
ADF 2
BFO
NORM
ADF ANT
OFF
TEST
ADF 1
ADF Control panel

Figure 81
Page 2-100
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.47 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADIO BEACON SYSTEM (ATCRBS)

2.47.1 Transponders
Transponders are not exactly navigation equipment, but are a "Means of
Identification". In the past, a radar controller watching his scope, would only know
if the 'blip' that he saw on his screen was the aircraft he was 'working', (handling),
if it identified itself by carrying out a turn at the controller's request. With the ATC
system, the controller can identify the aircraft by interrogating it.
The ground control has two types of radar with which to control air traffic:
1. Primary Radar.
2. Secondary Radar.
The primary radar provides the ground station operator with a symbol on his
surveillance radarscope for every aircraft in his area. It is a reflection type of
radar system not requiring any response from the aircraft.
The secondary radar system uses what is called an ATC Transponder in the
aircraft. The transponder is a transmitter/receiver, which transmits in response to
an interrogation from the ground station secondary surveillance radar system.
The primary and secondary radar antennas are mounted on the same rotating
mounting, and therefore both always look in the same direction at the same time.
The aircrafts transponder reply can also include a special code, which identifies
that particular aircraft on the scope. If the pilot receives instructions from the
ground station to do so he presses his Ident button on his control panel. This
causes the display on the radarscope to change thus identifying the aircraft to the
controller. The transponder can also transmit the aircrafts altitude, which can be
displayed to the ground controller.
Page 2-101
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 82 shows the operation of the ATCRBS.
GROUND SURVEILLANCE
RADAR
ATC RADAR
ANTENNAS
ATC RADAR
TRANSMITTER/
RECEIVER
ATCRBS Operation
Figure 82
Page 2-102
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.47.2 ATCRBS Control Panel

The ATCRBS control panel allows the flight crew to select ATC 1 or 2, mode of
operation and ident code select. Figure 83 shows a typical ATCRBS control
panel.
MODE
STBY
2567
ALT RPTG
ALT
IDENT
2
OFF
SOURCE
ATCRBS Control Panel

Figure 83
The ground station transmits its interrogation pulse on 1030 MHz as a three-pulse
signal. The space between the first and third pulse signifies the mode reply
required. The system operates in four modes, these are:
1. Mode A - Identify.
2. Mode B - Obsolete.
3. Mode C - Pressure Altitude.
4. Mode D Unassigned.
2.47.3 Mode A
Operating mode for normal operation. The transponder is ready to respond to
ATC any interrogations and replying with a unique identification code. The pulse
spacing is 8sec.
Page 2-103
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.47.4 Mode C
Altitude reporting capability of the transponder. The aircraft's Air Data System
will supply altitude information for use in Mode C replies. This allows the ground
controller, to not only identify an aircraft but also to ascertain its altitude, so he
can guide it safely through his allocated airspace. The pulse spacing is 21sec.
Figure 84 shows the interrogation pulses for mode A & C.
8 SEC
P1
P3
P2
MODE A IDENTITY ONLY

21 SEC
P1
P3
P2
MODE C IDENTITY & ALTITUDE
Mode A & C Interrogation Pulses

Figure 84
Once the aircrafts transponder has received an interrogation, it will reply with
either Mode A or C (1090 MHz). One problem to overcome with this system is an
aircraft replying to interrogations when not being illuminated by the primary radar.
To overcome this, a suppression pulse is transmitted (P2). If the amplitude of this
pulse is equal/greater than P1, the aircraft will not reply to the interrogation.
Figure 85 shows the operation of the suppression signal.
Page 2-104
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
P1
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA (P2)
P2
NO REPLY
P3
SIDELOBES
P1
ROTATION
P2
REPLY
P3
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA MAIN
BEAM (P1, P2 & P3)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ATCRBS Suppression
Figure 85
Page 2-105
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 86 shows the basic layouts of the ATCRBS.
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
A IR D A TA
C O M P U TE R
NO 1
A LT R PTG ON
N O 1 A TC
T RA N S P O N DE R
N0 1
A TC AE R IAL
N O 1 EN A B LE
A TC R BS
D UA L
C O N TR O L
M OD E, 40 9 6, ID EN T
SU P P
N O 2 EN A B LE
N O 2 A TC
T RA N S P O N DE R
A IR D A TA
C O M P U TE R
NO 2
A LT R PTG ON
N0 2
A TC AE R IAL
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
V ID E O
SU PP
C O M P A RA T O R
P1 - P2
R E CE IV E R
M O D E A or C
D E CO DE R
A TC R BS
T RA N S P O N DE R
D IP LE X E R
1 0 3 0 M Hz
M OD E SW
SEL F T EST
C IRC U ITS
S E L FT E S T
4096
T RA N S M ITT E R
1 0 9 0 M Hz
M O D U LA TO R
1 0 9 0 M Hz
ID E NT
E N CO DE R
E N CO DE D
H E IG H T
ATCRBS Block Schematic

Figure 86
Page 2-106
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.48 MODE S TRANSPONDERS

After 1989, a completely new type of ATC system was introduced. This system is
called mode S (mode select). The new interrogators and transponders are called
ATCRBS/mode S because they are capable of working with the old ATCRBS
equipment or with new mode S equipment.
For the present time, there will be ATCRBS only equipped aircraft sharing
airspace with ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft. On the ground, most of the
stations are ATCRBS-only, but there will be a gradual phasing in of
ATCRBS/mode S ground stations. Both types of station can interrogate either
type of transponder, and both types of transponder can respond to either type of
ground station. TCAS-equipped aircraft interrogate both ATCRBS and
ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft just as an ATCRBS/mode S ground station
would do.
At some point in the future, all ATCRBS-only equipment will be phased out for
commercial aviation. All ground stations and aircraft will then operate in mode S
only.
The mode S ATC system enables ground stations to interrogate aircraft as to
identification code and altitude just as the ATCRBS system does. These
interrogations, however, are only part of a larger list of (up-link and downlink)
formats comprising the mode S data link capacity. One of the most important
aspects of mode S is the ability to discretely address one aircraft so that only the
specific aircraft being interrogated responds, instead of all transponder-equipped
aircraft within the range of the interrogator.
2.48.1 Mode S Interrogation & Replies
The ATCRBS/Mode S system operates in a way similar to ATCRBS. As a
transponder equipped aircraft enters the airspace, it receives either a Mode S
only all-call interrogation or an ATCRBS/Mode S all-call interrogation which can
be identified by both ATCRBS and Mode S transponders. ATCRBS transponders
reply in Mode A and Mode C, while the Mode S transponder replies with a Mode
S format that includes that aircraft's unique discrete 24-bit Mode S address. The
Mode S only all-call is used by the interrogators if Mode S targets are to be
acquired without interrogating ATCRBS targets.
2.48.2 Discrete Addressing
The address and the Location of the Mode S aircraft is entered into a roll-call file
by the Mode S ground station. On the next scan, the Mode S aircraft is discretely
addressed. The discrete interrogations of a Mode S aircraft contain a command
field that may desensitise the Mode S transponder to further Mode S all-call
interrogations. This is called Mode S lockout. ATCRBS interrogations (from
ATCRBS only interrogators) are not affected by this lockout. Mode S
transponders reply to the interrogations of an ATCRBS interrogator under all
circumstances.
Page 2-107
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TCAS separately interrogates ATCRBS transponders and Mode S transponders.

During the Mode S segment of the surveillance update period, TCAS commences
to interrogate Mode S intruders on its own roll-call list.
Because of the selective address features of the Mode S system, TCAS
surveillance of Mode S- equipped aircraft is straightforward.
Figure 87 shows Mode S operation.
TRANSPONDER
REPLY
1090MHz
INTERROGATION
1030MHz
PRIMARY
RADAR
ECHO
PRIMARY
SURVEILLANCE
RADAR (PSR)
SECONDARY
SURVEILLANCE
RADAR (SSR)
ATC
RADAR
SCOPE
ROLL CALL
AIRPLANE 1
AIRPALNE 2
AIRPLANE 3
GROUND LINK
NEIGHBORING
AIRSPACE
CONTROLLER
(MODE S)
Mode S Operation
Figure 87
2.48.3 Operation
As a Mode S aircraft flies into the airspace served by another Mode S
interrogator, the first Mode S interrogator may send position information and the
aircraft's discrete address to the second interrogator by way of ground lines.
Thus the need to remove the lockout may be eliminated, and the second
interrogator may schedule discrete roll-call interrogations for the aircraft.
Because of the discrete addressing feature of Mode S, the interrogators may
work at a lower rate (or handle more aircraft).
Page 2-108
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
NO REPLY
P6
P2
P1
P5
P6
P2
P1
P1
P2
P5
P3
P4
REPLY
NO REPLY
ONLY MODE S
DISCREETLY
ADDRESSED
REPLIES
REPLY MODE S
(UNLESS LOCKED
OUT)
REPLY MODE S
(UNLESS LOCKED
OUT)
NO REPLY
REPLY
P3
P2
P1
P2
P1
INTERROGATION PULSE
P3
P4
REPLY
ATCRBS
TRANSPONDERS
REPLY
ATCRBS
ATCRBS/MODE S
TRANSPONDERS
In areas where Mode S interrogators are not connected by way of ground lines,
the protocol for the transponder is for it to be in the lockout state for only those
interrogators that have the aircraft on the roll-call. If the aircraft enters airspace
served by a different Mode S interrogator, the new interrogator may acquire the
aircraft via the replay to an all-call interrogation. Also, if the aircraft does not
receive an interrogation for 16 seconds, the transponder automatically cancels
the lockout. Figure 88 shows the different types of interrogation pulses for
ATCRBS and Mode S systems
ATCRBS & Mode S Interrogation Signals

Figure 88
Page 2-109
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM

2.49.1 TCAS Introduction
TCAS is an airborne traffic alert and collision avoidance advisory system, which
operates without support from ATC, ground stations. TCAS detects the presence
of nearby intruder aircraft equipped with transponders that reply to Air Traffic
Control Radar Beacon Systems (ATCRBS) Mode C or Mode S interrogations.
TCAS tracks and continuously evaluates the threat potential of intruder aircraft to
its own aircraft and provides a display of the nearby transponder-equipped
aircraft on a traffic display. During threat situations TCAS provides traffic
advisory alerts and vertical maneuvering resolution advisories to assist the flight
crew in avoiding mid-air collisions.
TCAS I provides proximity warning only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition
of intruder aircraft. It is intended for use by smaller commuter and general
aviation aircraft.
TCAS II provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories (recommended
escape maneuvers) in a vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline, larger
commuter and business aircraft will use TCAS II equipment.
TCAS III Still under development, will provide traffic advisories and resolution
advisories in the horizontal as well as the vertical direction to avoid conflicting
traffic.
The level of protection provided by TCAS equipment depends on the type of
transponder the target aircraft is carrying. It should be noted that TCAS provides
no protection against aircraft that do not have an operating transponder.
Page 2-110
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Table 1 shows levels of protection offered by the transponder carried by

individual aircraft.
TCAS I
OWN AIRCRAFT
TCAS II
TCAS III
TA
TA
TA
Mode C
Or Mode S
XPDR
TA
TA
VRA
TA
VRA
HRA
TCAS I
TA
TCAS II
TCAS III
TARGET AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
Mode A
XPDR Only
TA
VRA
TA
VRA
HRA
TA
TA
VRA
TTC
TA
VRA
HRA
TTC
TA
TA
VRA
TTC
TA
VRA
HRA
TTC
TA TRAFFIC ADVISORY
VRA - VERTICAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
HRA - HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
TTC - TCAS TCAS COORDINATION
Table 1
Page 2-111
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.2 The TCAS II System

TCAS II provides a traffic display and two types of advisories to the pilot. One
type of advisory, called a traffic advisory (TA) informs the pilot that there are
aircraft in the area, which are potential threats to his own aircraft. The other type
of advisory is called a resolution advisory (RA), which advises the pilot that a
vertical corrective or preventative action is required to avoid a threat aircraft.
TCAS II also provides aural alerts to the pilot. Figure 89 shows TCAS protection
area.
TCAS Protection Area
Page 2-112
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 89
When a Mode S or Mode C intruder is acquired, TCAS begins tracking the
intruder. Tracking is performed by repetitious TCAS interrogations in Mode S and
Mode C. When interrogated transponders reply after a fixed delay. Measurement
of the time between interrogation transmission and reply reception allows TCAS
to calculate the range of the intruder. If the intruder's transponder is providing
altitude in its reply, TCAS is able to determine the relative altitude of the intruder.
AURAL
ALERT
MODE S/TCAS
CONTROLLER
TA/RA
DATA BUS
TA/RA
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
TCAS
COMPUTER
UNIT
RADAR
ALTIMETER
BAROMETRIC
ALTIMETER
MODE S
TRANSPONDER
UNIT
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
Figure 90 shows a block schematic diagram of the TCAS system
TCAS System Block Schematic

Figure 90
Page 2-113
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Transmission and reception techniques used on TCAS directional aerials allows

TCAS to calculate the bearing of the intruder. Based on closure rates and
relative position computed from the reply data, TCAS will classify the intruders as
non-threat, proximity, TA, or RA threat category aircraft.
If an intruder is being tracked, TCAS displays the intruder aircraft symbol on an
electronic VSI or joint-use weather radar and traffic display. Alternatively in some
aircraft the TCAS display will be on the EFIS system.
The position on the display shows the range and relative bearing of the intruder.
The range of TCAS is about 30 NM in the forward direction. Figure 91 shows
TCAS TA and RA calculations.
SURVEILLANCE
OWN
AIRCRAFT
TRACK &
SPEED
TRACKING
TARGET
AIRCRAFT
BEARING &
CLOSING PEED
TRAFFIC
ADVISORY
(TA)
RANGE
TEST
ALTITUDE
TEST
THREAT
DETECTION
(RA)
SENSE
SELECTION
CLIMB
DECENT
RA
TCAS/TCAS
CO-ORDINATION
RATE OF
CLIMB/DECENT
STRENGTH
SELECTION
RA
TA
ADVISORY
ANNUNCIATION
(TA/RA)
AIR GROUND
COMMUNICATION
ATC
TCAS RA and TA Calculations

Figure 91
Page 2-114
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.3 Aural Annunciation

Displayed traffic and resolution advisories are supplemented by synthetic voice
advisories generated by the TCAS computer. The words "Traffic, Traffic" are
annunciated at the time of the traffic advisory, which directs the pilot to look at the
TA display to locate the intruding aircraft. If the encounter does not resolve itself,
a resolution advisory is annunciated, e.g., "Climb, Climb, Climb". At this point the
pilot adjusts or maintains the vertical rate of the aircraft to keep the VSI needle
out of the red segments.
Figure 92 gives an overview of TCAS air-to-air operation.
AIRCRAFT 2
TCAS
AIRCRAFT 2 RECIEVES SQUITTER
AND ADDS AIRCRAFT 1 TO
ITS ROLL CALL, THEN INTERROGATES
AIRCRAFT 1 (TCAS 1030 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 2 TRANSMITS
ATCRBS ALL CALL
(1030 MHz) AIRCRAFT 3
RESPONDS MODE C
(1090 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 3
ATCRBS ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1
MODE S ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1 TRANSMITS
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
SQUITTER SIGNALS
(MODE S 1090 MHz)
ALL 3 AIRCRAFT REPLY
TO INTERROGATIONS FROM
GROUND STATION
(1090 MHz)
GROUND STATION
TRANSMITS
INTERROGATIONS
AT (1030MHz)
NOTE:
TCAS OPERATION IS COMPLETELY INDEPENDENT

OF GROUND STATION OPERATION
TCAS Air-to-Air Operation

Figure 92
Page 2-115
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 93 shows typical Electronic VSI - TCAS indications.
Honeywell
.5
+03
-05
0
-03
.5
Electronic VSI - TCAS indications

Figure 93
Page 2-116
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 94 shows examples of TCAS warnings as displayed on EADI.
HOLD
LNAV
VNAV
LOC
110.90
142
DME
G/S
VERTICAL
SPEED LINE
DH150
25.3
2400
CMD
5200
180
5000
160
10
6
2
10
14
4800
REF
120
10
10
4600
2
6
MDA
CRS 123
4700
100
FLY OUT
OF AREA
STD
117
MAG
29.86IN
750
RA FLIGHT
BOUNDARY
(RED)
6
2
1
GREEN
SEGMENT
RED
SEGMENT
2
6
VERTICAL SPEED
LINE
TCAS Warnings EADI Display

Figure 94
Page 2-117
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Displayed traffic and resolution advisories are supplemented by synthetic voice

advisories generated by the TCAS computer. The words "Traffic, Traffic" are
annunciated at the time of the traffic advisory, which directs the pilot to look at the
TA display to locate the traffic. If the encounter does not resolve itself, a
resolution advisory is annunciated. The aural annunciations listed in Table 2
have been adopted as aviation industry standards.
The single announcement "Clear of Conflict" indicates that the encounter has
ended (range has started to increase), and the pilot should promptly but smoothly
return to the previous clearance.
Traffic Advisory: TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC
Resolution Advisories:
Preventative:
MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED, MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED. Ensure
that the VSI needle is kept out of the lighted segments.
Corrective:
CLIMB-CLIMB-CLIMB. Climb at the rate shown on the RA indicator:
normally 1500 fpm.
CLIMB.CROSSING CLIMB-CLIMB, CROSSING CLIMB. As above except
that it further indicates that own flightpath will cross through that of the
threat.
DESCEND-DESCEND-DESCEND. Descend at the rate shown on the RA
indicator: normally 1500 fpm.
DESCEND, CROSSING DESCEND-DESCEND, CROSSING DESCEND.
As above except that it further indicates that own flight path will cross
through that of the threat.
REDUCE CLIMB-REDUCE CLIMB. Reduce vertical speed to that shown
on the RA indicator.
INCREASE CLIMB-INCREASE CLIMB. Follows a "Climb" advisory. The
vertical speed of the climb should be increased to that shown on the RA
indicator nominally 2500 fpm.
INCREASE DESCENT-INCREASE DESCENT. Follows a "Descend"
advisory. The vertical speed of the descent should be increased to that
shown on the RA indicator: nominally 2500 fpm.
CLIMB, CLIMB NOW-CLIMB, CLIMB NOW. Follows a "Descend"
advisory when it has been determined that a reversal of vertical speed is
needed to provide adequate separation.
DESCEND, DESCEND NOW-DESCEND. DESCEND NOW. Follows a
"Climb" advisory when it has been determined that a reversal of vertical
speed is needed to provide adequate separation.
Table 2
Page 2-118
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.4 Performance Monitoring

It is important for the pilot to know that TCAS is operating properly. For this
reason a self-test system is incorporated. Self-test can be initiated at any time,
on the ground or in flight, by momentarily pressing the control unit TEST button.
If TA's or RAs occur while the self-test is activated in flight, the test will abort and
the advisories will be processed and displayed.
When self-test is activated an aural annunciation "TCAS TEST" is heard and a
test pattern with fixed traffic and advisory symbols appears on the display for
eight seconds.
After eight seconds "TCAS TEST PASS" or "TCAS TEST FAIL" is aurally
announced to indicate the system status.
2.49.5 TCAS Units
Figure 95 shows a typical Mode S/TCAS control unit.
XPDR FAIL
ATC
C
A
S
7777
IDENT
ALT RPTG
1
OFF
XPDR
ON
STBY
TA
/RA
TCAS
TEST
TA
AS
TC
TA DSPLY
AUTO
OFF
ON
XPDR
1
Dual Mode S Control Unit

Figure 95
Page 2-119
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The controls operate as follows:

(1)
Transponder Code Display

This shows the ATC code selected by the two dual concentric knobs below
the display. The system select switch (XPDR 1-2) controls input to the
display.
Certain fault indications are also indicated on the display. "PASS" will
show after a successful functional test and "FAIL" will show if a high level
failure is detected under normal operating conditions.
Also shown is the active transponder by displaying ATC 1 or 2.
(2)
Mode Control Selector Switch

This is a rotary switch labeled STBY-ALT RPTG OFF-XPNDR-TA-TA/RA.
The TCAS system is activated by selecting traffic advisory (TA) or traffic
and resolution advisory (TA/RA). When STBY is selected both
transponders are inactive. In the ALT RPTG OFF position the altitude data
sources are interrupted preventing the transmission of altitude.
(3)
ABV-N-BLW Switch
This selects the altitude range for the TCAS traffic displays. In the ABV
mode the range limits are 7,000 feet above and 2,700 feet below the
aircraft. In the BLW mode the limits are 2,700 feet above and 7,000 feet
below. When normal (N) is selected the displayed range is 2,700 feet
above and below the aircraft.
(4)
Traffic Display Switch

When AUTO is selected the TCAS computer sets the displays to "pop-up"
mode under a traffic/resolution advisory condition. In MAN the TCAS
displays are constantly activated advising of any near by traffic.
(5)
Range Switch
This selects different nautical mile traffic advisory horizontal range
displays.
(6)
IDENT Push-button
When pushed causes the transponder to transmit a special identifier pulse
(SPI) in its replies to the ground.
(7)
Flight Level Push-button (FL)

This is used to select between relative and absolute attitude information.
Page 2-120
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 96 shows a TCAS & Mode S computers.
ATC TPR/MODE S
Honeywell
BENDIX/KING
RT-950
TCAS
COMPUTER UNIT
TPR
"SELF TEST"
Replace TCAS CU if ONLY the red TCAS Fail
lamp is on during any status display (following
the lamp test). When additional lamps are on,
correct indicated subsystem PRIOR to
replacement of TCAS CU.
TCAS
PASS
TA
DISP
ALT
TCAS
FAIL
RA
DISP
DATA IN
TOP
ANT
RAD
ALT
TOP
BOT
ANT
XPDR
BUS
BOT
HDG
ATT
DATA LOADER
TCAS
MAINT
PUSH
TO
TEST
RESERVED
RESERVED
BITE
TEST
TCAS COMPUTER
MODE S COMPUTER
Honeywell TCAS & Mode S Computers

Figure 96
2.49.6 Self Test
If the test button is momentarily pressed fault data for the current and previous
flight legs can be displayed on the front panel annunciators.
When the TEST is initially activated all annunciators are on for 3 seconds and
then current fault data is displayed for 10 seconds, after which the test terminates
and all annunciators are extinguished.
If the test button is pressed again during the 10-second fault display period the
display is aborted and a 2-second lamp test is carried out. The fault data
recorded for the previous flight leg is then displayed for 10 seconds.
This procedure can be repeated to obtain recorded data from the previous 10
flight legs.
If the test button is pressed to display fault data after the last recorded data all
annunciators will flash for 3 seconds and then extinguish.
Page 2-121
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.7 Data Loader Interface

Software updates can be incorporated into the computer via a set of ARINC 429
busses and discrete inputs. These allow an interface to either an Airborne Data
Loader (ADL) through pins on the unit's rear connector or to a Portable Data
Loader (PDL) through the front panel "DATA LOADER" connector.
The computer works with either ARINC 603 data loader low speed bus or ARINC
615 high-speed bus.
A personal computer (PC) can be connected to the front panel "DATA LOADER"
connector. This allows the maintenance log and RA event log to be downloaded
to the PC via an RS 232 interface.
Page 2-122
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)

The modern inertial navigation system is the only self-contained single source for
all navigation data. After being supplied with initial position information, it is
capable of continuously updating extremely accurate displays of the aircrafts:
1.
Position.
2.
Ground Speed.
3.
Attitude.
4.
Heading.
It can also provide guidance and steering information for the auto pilot and flight
instruments. Figure 97 shows a representation of Inertial Navigation principal.
Navigation Triangle
TRK
CK
RA ED
T
E
S
FT DSP
A
N
R
RC O U
AI G R
&
DRIFT
HDG
EAST/WEST VELOCITY (VE)
Basic Navigation triangle

Figure 97
PRESENT
POSITION
VELOCITY NORTH/SOUTH (VN)
AI
R
& CRA
AI F
RS T
PE S H
ED EA
(A DIN
DC G
)
WIND SPEED & DIRECTION
Page 2-123
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.1 General Principle

In order to understand an inertial navigation system we must consider both the
definition of Inertia and the basic laws of motion as described by Sir Isaac
Newton. Inertia can be described as follows:
1. Newtons first law of motion states:
A body continues in a state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, unless
acted upon by an external force.
2. Newtons second law of motion states:
The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the sum of the forces acting
on the body.
3. Newtons third law states:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
With these laws we can mechanise a device which is able to detect minute
changes in acceleration and velocity, ability necessary in the development of
inertial systems. Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration
by the application of basic calculus. The relationship between acceleration,
velocity and displacement are shown in figure 98.
Page 2-124
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
TIME
DISTANCE IN
FEET
VELOCITY FEET
PER SECOND
ACCELERATION
FEET PER SECOND
PER SECOND
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Acceleration, Velocity and Distance Graphs.

Figure 98
Note; Velocity changes whenever acceleration exists and remains constant when
acceleration is zero.
Page 2-125
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.2 INS Operation

The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation system is the
accelerometer. Two accelerometers are mounted in the system. One will
measure the aircrafts accelerations in the north-south direction and the other will
measure the aircrafts accelerations in the east-west direction. When the aircraft
accelerates, the accelerometer detects the motion and a signal is produced
proportional to the amount of acceleration. This signal is amplified, current from
the amplifier is sent back to the accelerometer to a torque motor, which restores
the accelerometer to its null position.
The acceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to an integrator, which is a
time multiplication device. It starts with acceleration, which is in feet per second
squared (feet per sec per sec) and end up after multiplication by time with velocity
(feet per second).
The velocity signal is then fed through another integrator, which again is a time
multiplier, which gives a result in distance in feet. So from an accelerometer we
can derive:
1.
Ground Speed.
2.
Distance Flown.
If the computer associated with the INS knows the latitude and longitude of the
starting point and calculates the aircraft has travelled a certain distance
north/south and east/west it can calculate the aircrafts present position.
Page 2-126
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PRESENT
POSITION
START
POSITION
ACCELEROMETER
START
POSITION
MASS
RECENTRING (FEEDBACK)
COMPUTER
PRESENT POSITION
1ST
INTERGRATORS
DISTANCE FLOWN
2ND
VELOCITY
GROUNDSPEED
DESTINATION
DISTANCE
Figure 99 shows INS Operation.
INS Operation
Figure 99
Page 2-127
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
To accurately compute the aircrafts present position, the accelerometer must be

maintained about their sensing axes. To maintain the correct axes, the
accelerometers are mounted on a gimbal assembly commonly referred to as the
platform. The platform is nothing more than a mechanical device, which allows
the aircraft to go through any attitude change at the same time maintaining the
accelerometers level. The inner element of the platform contains the
accelerometers as well as gyroscopes to stabilize the platform. The gyros
provide signals to motors, which in turn control the gimbals of the platform.
Figure 100 shows an Inertial Platform (IP).
AZIMUTH
AXIS
ROLL
AXIS
PITCH
AXIS
Inertial Platform
Figure 100
Page 2-128
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
We can also measure the angular distance between the aircraft and the platform
in the three axes, giving us the aircrafts pitch, roll and heading angles. These
can be used in the navigation computations and also give heading and attitude
information to the relative systems.
The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal. When this
gimbal tips off the level position, the spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The
case of the gyro moves with the gimbal, and the movement is detected by a
signal pick-off within the gyro. This signal is amplified and sent to the gimbal
motor, which restores the gimbal back to the level position. Figure 101 shows the
operation of gyro stabilization.
INPUT AXIS
RATE
GYROSCOPE
OUTPUT
AXIS
PLATFORM
AMPLIFIER
GEARS
MOTOR
TACHO
GEN
Gyro Stabilization
Figure 101
Page 2-129
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.3 Earth Rate Compensation

The INS gyro operates on the principle of gyroscopic inertia, which is the
characteristic of a rotating mass to resist any forces, which tend to change the
direction of its spin axis. Because the earth rotates in space, the spaceorientated gyro appears to rotate with respect to an earth bound observer. This
makes the gyro unsuitable for use as an earth-fixed reference unless the gyro is
deliberately torqued to rotate at a rate proportional to the earths rotational rate
(earth rate = 15/hour). When torqued in this manner, the spin axis appears
stationary, and the gyro is effectively slaved to the earths co-ordinate system.
Figure 102 shows the calculations of earth rate for the north and vertical gyros.
E A RT H RA TE = (1 5 /H R ) X C O S LA TIT UD E
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N
= 15 D EG /H R
9 0
A T 0 L A T IT U D E
N O R TH G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
4 5
= 0 D E G /HR
A T 9 0 L A T IT U D E
E A R TH R AT E
= 1 0 . 6 /H R
E A RT H RA TE = (1 5 /H R ) X S IN L AT ITU D E
E A R TH R AT E
9 0
= 0 D E G /HR
A T 0 L A T IT U D E
V E RT ICA L G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
4 5
= 15 D EG /H R
E A R TH R AT E
= 1 0 . 6 /H R
North Gyro Earth Rate Calculation

Figure 102
Page 2-130
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.4 Vehicle Rate Compensation

These corrections are used to keep the platform horizontal and pointing to north.
The aim is to cancel out the apparent movement of the gyro as the aircraft moves
over the earths surface. These corrections are applied to all three gyros as
torque to the gyro torque motor, the amount of torque being dependant on the
direction of the aircraft movement over the earths surface.
Aircraft Moving North
This will cause the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This effect
is corrected by applying a signal to the East gyros torque motor. The strength of
the signal is dependant on the angular rate of change which is found out by the
following formula:
AIRCRAFTS VELOCITY
EARTHS RADIUS
Figure 103 shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling North.
Aircraft Travelling North

Figure 103
Page 2-131
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Aircraft Moving East
This again causes the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This is
corrected by applying a signal to th torque motor of the North gyro. Figure 104
shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the North
axis rotated.
Aircraft Travelling East (North Axis Rotated)

Figure 104
Page 2-132
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
When moving east at any latitude other than the equator, the movement also
causes the platform to move away from pointing north. To correct this, we apply
a signal to the torque motor on the vertical gyro. The size of the signal is
dependant on the latitude and the sped of the aircraft. Figure 105 shows the
vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the vertical axis rotated.
Aircraft Travelling East (Vertical Axis Rotated)

Figure 105
Page 2-133
Page 2-134
P
/
O
P
/
O
P
/
O
E
GYRO
V
GYRO
N
GYRO
T
/
M
T
/
M
T
/
M
(VEHICLE RATE CORRECTION)
(EARTH RATE CORRECTION)
(EARTH RATE CORRECTION)
E = (RATE OF CHANGE LAT)
V = (15/Hr + RATE OF CHANGE LONG) SIN LAT
N = (15/Hr + RATE OF CHANGE LONG) COS LAT
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 106 shows the Earth rate & Vehicle rate corrections.
Earth & Vehicle Rate Corrections

Figure 106
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.5 Alignment
The accuracy of an INS is dependent on the precise alignment of the inertial
platform to a known reference (True North), with respect to the latitude and
longitude of the ground starting position at the time of Starting Up the system.
The inertial system computer carries out a self-alignment calibration procedure
over a given period of time before the system is ready to navigate the aircraft.
The computer requires the following information prior to alignment so that it can
calculate the position of True North:
1. Aircrafts Latitude Position.
2. Aircrafts Longitude Position.
3. Aircrafts Magnetic Heading (from Mag Heading System).
The alignment procedure can only be carried out on the ground, during which the
aircraft must not be moved. Once started the alignment procedure is automatic
2.50.6 The Navigation Mode
In the navigation mode the pitch, roll attitude and the magnetic heading
information is updated mainly with the attitude changes sensed by gyros.
Because the IRS is aligned to true north a variation angle is used to calculate the
direction to magnetic north. Each location on earth has its own variation angle.
All variation angles between the 73 North and 60 South latitude are stored in the
IRS.
The present position is updated mainly with accelerations sensed by the
accelerometers. The accelerations are corrected for the pitch and roll attitude
and calculated with respect to the true north direction.
Page 2-135
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.7 Strapdown Inertial Navigation

As already discussed, inertial navigation is the process of determining an
aircrafts location using internal inertial sensors. Unlike in the gimballed system,
in a strapdown system the accelerometers and gyros are mounted solidly to the
aircrafts axis. There are no gimbals to keep the sensors level with the earths
surface, so that one sensor is always on the aircrafts longitudinal axis, one on
the lateral axis and one on the vertical axis. Likewise the gyros are mounted
such that one will detect the aircrafts pitch, another the roll and the third the
aircrafts heading.
The accelerometer produces an output that is proportional to the acceleration
applied along the sensors input axis. A microprocessor integrates the
acceleration signal to calculate a velocity and position. Although it is used to
calculate velocity and position, acceleration is meaningless to the system without
additional information.
Example: Consider the acceleration signal from the accelerometer strapped to
the aircrafts longitudinal axis. It is measuring the forward acceleration of the
aircraft, however, is the aircraft accelerating north, south, east, west, up or down?
In order to navigate over the surface of the earth, the system must know how its
acceleration is related to the earths surface.
Because the accelerometers are mounted on the aircrafts longitudinal, Lateral
and vertical axes of the aircraft, the IRS must know the relationship of each of
these axes to the surface of the earth. The Laser Ring Gyros (LRGs) in the
strapdown system make measurements necessary to describe this relationship in
terms of pitch, roll and heading angles. These angles are calculated from angular
rates measured by the gyros through integration e.g. Gyro measures an angular
rate of 3/sec for 30 seconds in the yaw axes. Through integration, the
microprocessor calculates that the heading has changed by 90 after 30 seconds.
Given the knowledge of pitch, roll and heading that the gyros provide, the
microprocessor resolves the acceleration signals into earth-related accelerations,
and then performs the horizontal and vertical navigation calculations. Under
normal conditions, all six sensors sense motion simultaneously and continuously,
thereby entailing calculations that are substantially more complex than a normal
INS. Therefore a powerful, high-speed microprocessor is required in the IRS in
order to rapidly and accurately handle the additional complexity.
Page 2-136
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
LONGITUDE
VECTOR
SOLVER
LATITUDE
PITCH
ROLL
YAW
GYROS
B MATRIX
COORDINATE
CONVERTER
ACCELEROMETERS
ALTIMETER
POSITION
COMPUTER
Figure 107 shows the block schematic of the Strap-Down inertial Navigation
system.
Strap-Down Inertial Navigation System

Figure 107
Page 2-137
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.8 Laser Ring Gyro (LRG) Operation

Laser Ring Gyros (LRG) are not in fact gyros, but sensors of angular rate of
rotation about a single axis. They are made of a triangular block of temperature
stable glass. Very small tunnels are precisely drilled parallel to the perimeter of
the triangle, and reflecting mirrors are placed in each corner. A small charge of
Helium-neon gas is inserted and sealed into an aperture in the glass at the base
of the triangle.
When a high voltage is run between the anodes and the cathode, the gas is
ionized, and two beams of light are generated, each travelling around the cavity
in opposite directions.
Since both contrarotating beams travel at the same speed (speed of light), it
takes the exact same time to complete a circuit. However, if the gyro were
rotated on its axis, the path length of one beam would be shortened, while the
other would be lengthened. A laser beam adjusts its wavelength for the length of
the path it travels, so the beam that travelled the shortest distance would rise in
frequency, while the beam that travelled the longer distance would have a
frequency decrease.
The frequency difference between the two beams is directly proportional to the
angular rate of turn about the gyros axis. Thus the frequency difference
becomes a measure of rotation rate. If the gyro doesnt move about its axis, both
frequencies remain the same and the angular rate is zero.
Page 2-138
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 108 shows a Laser Ring Gyro.
FRINGE
PATTERN
CORNER
PRISM
Laser Ring Gyro (LRG)

Figure 107
Page 2-139
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.9 Mode Select Unit (MSU)

The mode select unit controls the mode of operation of the IRS. There are two
types in common use:
1.
Six Annunciator MSU.
2.
Triple-Channel MSU.
The six-annunciator MSU provides mode selection, status indication and test
initiation for one Inertial Reference Unit (IRU). Figure 109 shows six-annunciator
MSU and Figure 110 shows a triple-channel MSU.
LASEREF
NAV
ATT
ALIGN
OFF
ALIGN
FAULT
NAV RDY
NO AIR
ON BATT
BATT FAIL
TEST
IRS Six-Annunciator MSU

Figure 109
Page 2-140
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
NAV
NAV
NAV
ATT
ATT
ATT
ALIGN
ALIGN
ALIGN
OFF
OFF
OFF
SYS 1
SYS 2
SYS 3
ALIGN
ALIGN
ALIGN
ON BATT
ON BATT
ON BATT
BATT FAIL
BATT FAIL
BATT FAIL
FAULT
FAULT
FAULT
TEST
IRS Triple-Channel MSU

Figure 110
2.50.10
Mode Select Unit Modes
IRS Modes or set by setting the MSU mode select switch as follows:
OFF-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. The IRU remains in the alignment mode until the mode select switch is set
to OFF, NAV or ATT. The NAV RDY annunciator illuminates upon completion of
the alignment.
OFF-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. Upon completion of the alignment mode the system enters the navigation
mode.
Page 2-141
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters navigate mode from alignment mode upon completion of
alignment.
NAV-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the align downmode from the navigate mode.
NAV-TO-ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the align downmode and after 30 seconds, automatically reenters the navigate mode.
ALIGN-TO-ATT or NAV-TO-ATT
The IRU enters the erect attitude submode for 20 seconds, during which the MSU
ALIGN annunciator illuminates. The IRU then enters the attitude mode.
2.50.11
MSU Annunciators
ALIGN Indicates that the IRU is in the alignment mode. A flashing ALIGN
annunciator indicates in-correct LAT/LONG entry, excessive aircraft movement
during align.
NAV RDY
Indicates that the alignment is complete.
FAULT
Indicates an IRS fault.
ON BATT
Indicates that the back-up battery power is being used.
BATT FAIL
Indicates that the back-up battery power is inadequate to sustain IRS operation
during back-up battery operation (less than 21 volts).
NO AIR
Indicates that cooling airflow is inadequate to cool the IRU.
Page 2-142
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.12
Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU)
The ISDU selects data from any one of three IRUs for display and provides initial
position or heading data to the IRUs. Figure 111 shows an ISDU.
Honeywell
LASEREF
DSPL SEL
P/POS
TK/GS
TEST
WIND
HDG/STS
W
4
1
BRT
SYS DSPL
2
1
7
W
4
ENT
OFF
N
2
H
N
5
2
S
H
8
5
S0
8
3
E
36
E9
6
CLR
Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU)

Figure 111
Page 2-143
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.13
Keyboard
The keyboard is used to enter latitude and longitude in the alignment mode or
magnetic heading in the attitude mode. The ISDU then sends the entered data
simultaneously to all IRUs when ENT pressed.
The keyboard contains 12 keys, five of the 12 keys are dual function: N/2, W/4,
H/5,E/6 AND S/8. A dual function key is used to select either the type of data
(latitude, longitude or heading) or numerical data to be entered. Single function
keys are used to select only numerical data.
The CLR (clear) and ENT (enter) keys contain green cue lights which, when lit
indicate that the operator action is required. CLR is used to remove data
erroneously entered onto the display; ENT is used to send data to the IRU.
2.50.14
Display
The 13-digit alphanumeric spilt display shows two types of navigation data at the
same time. The display is separated into one group of 6 digits (position 1 through
6) and one group of 7 digits (positions 7 through 13). Punctuation marks (located
in positions 3,5,6,10,12,and 13) light when necessary to indicate degrees,
decimal points, and minutes.
2.50.15
System Display Switch (SYS DSPL)
The SYS DSPL switch is used to select the IRU (position 1,2 or 3) from which the
displayed data originates. If the switch is set to OFF, the ISDU cannot send or
receive data from any of the 3 IRUs.
2.50.16
Display Selector Switch (DSPL SEL)
The DSPL SEL switch has five positions to select data displayed on the ISDU.
TEST Selects a display test that illuminates all display elements and keyboard
cue lights to allow inspection for possible malfunctions. The DSPL SEL switch is
spring loaded and must be help in this position.
TK/GS Selects track angle in degrees on the left display and ground speed in
knots on the right.
PPOS Selects the aircrafts present position as latitude on the left display and
longitude on the right. Both latitude and longitude are displayed in degrees,
minutes, and tenths of a minute.
WIND Selects wind direction in degrees on the left display and wind speed in
knots on the right display.
Page 2-144
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
HDG/STS Selects heading or alignment status for display, depending upon the
current IRU mode. Heading is displayed in degrees and tenths of degrees, and
time-to-alignment completion is displayed in minutes and tenths of minutes. In
the alignment mode, the ISDU displays alignment status (time to NAV ready) in
the right display. In the NAV mode, the ISDU displays true heading in the left
display. In the attitude mode, the ISDU displays magnetic heading in the left
display and ATT in the right display.
2.50.17
Dimmer Knob
The dimmer knob is mounted on, on operates independently of, the DSPL SEL
switch. As the dimmer knob is rotated clockwise, the display brightens.
2.50.18
Inertial Reference Unit (IRU)
The IRU is the main electronic assembly of the IRS. The IRU contains an inertial
sensor assembly, microprocessors, and power supplies and aircraft electronic
interface. Accelerometers and LRG in the inertial sensor assembly measure
acceleration and angular rates of the aircraft.
The IRU microprocessors performs computations required for:
1.Primary Attitude.
2.Present Position.
3.Inertial Velocity Vectors.
4.Magnetic and True North Reference.
5.Sensor Error Compensation.
The power supplies receive a.c. and d.c. power from the aircraft and back-up
battery. It supplies power to the IRS, and provides switching to primary a.c. and
d.c. or backup battery power
The aircraft electronic interface converts ARINC inputs for use by the IRS. The
electronic interface also provides IRS outputs in ARINC formats for use by
associated aircraft equipment.
A fault ball indicator and a manual Interface Test switch are mounted on the
front of the IRU and are visible when the IRU is mounted in an avionics rack.
Page 2-145
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 112 shows an IRU
Inertial Reference Unit
INTERFACE
TEST

Figure 112
Page 2-146
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.19
IRS Alignment Mode
During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and
the direction of true north.
2.50.20
Gyro Compass Process
Inside the inertial reference unit, the three gyros sense angular rate of the aircraft.
Since the aircraft is stationary during alignment, the angular rate is due to earth
rotation. The IRU computer uses this angular rate to determine the direction of
true north.
2.50.21
Initial Latitude
During the alignment period, the IRU computer has determined true north by
sensing the direction of the earths rotation. The magnitude of the earth rotation
vector allows the IRU computer to estimate latitude of the initial present position.
This calculated latitude is compared with the latitude entered by the operator
during initialization.
2.50.22
Alignment Mode
For the IRU to enter ALIGN mode, the mode select switch is set to either the
ALIGN or NAV position. The systems software performs a vertical levelling and
determines aircraft true heading and latitude.
The levelling operations bring the pitch and roll attitudes to within 1 accuracy
(course levelling), followed by fine levelling and heading determination. Initial
latitude and longitude data must be entered manually either via the IRS CDU or
the Flight Management System CDU.
Upon ALIGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically if the mode
select switch was set to NAV during align. If the mode select switch was set to
ALIGN, the system will remain in align until NAV mode is selected. The
alignment time is approximately 10 minutes.
Page 2-147
Page 2-148
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
A
I
R
C
R
A
F
T
IRU 1
IRU 3
IRU 2
INTERFACE
TEST
INTERFACE
TEST
INTERFACE
TEST
ENT
S
0
8
H
8
5
H
N
5
N
2
FAULT
FAULT
ATT
ON BATT
ALIGN
SYS 3
NAV
CLR
E9
6
E
6
3
FAULT
BATT FAIL
OFF
ALIGN
MODE SELECT UNIT
ON BATT
BATT FAIL
ATT
ON BATT
SYS 2
NAV
ALIGN
OFF
ALIGN
SYS 1
ATT
ALIGN
NAV
BATT FAIL
OFF
ALIGN
7
W
W
4
1
HDG/STS
WIND
SYS DSPL
BRT
P/POS
LASEREF
INERTIAL SYSTEM
DISPLAY UNIT
OFF
TEST
TK/GS
DSPL SEL
Honeywell
TEST
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 113 shows a block schematic of a three IRU inertial system.
IRS Block Schematic

Figure 113
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
THRUST
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
YAW
DAMPER
FLIGHT
DATA
ACQN UNIT
AIR DATA
COMPUTER
EHSI/EADI
VSI
RDMI
ANTI-SKID
AUTOBRAKE
SYSTEM
WEATHER
RADAR
IR
MODE
PANEL
INERTIAL
REFERENCE
UNIT
FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
GROUND
PROXIMITY
WARNING
FLIGHT
CONTROL
COMPUTERS
Figure 114 shows a block schematic of the interface of the IRS with the aircrafts
avionics systems.
IRS Interface Block Schematic

Figure 114
Page 2-149
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.51 RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)

The radio magnetic indicator is a very useful navigation tool due to its ability to
display several different pieces of information simultaneously. Primarily, the
circular rotating 'card' is a self- correcting compass which is much more accurate
that the older, floating magnet type of compass. Secondly, the displays from the
ADF or VOR units can be displayed on top of the card, using two pointers, one
single and one double. This allows the pilot to see, in one instrument, his
heading and the orientation of up to two ground stations, relative to the aircraft,
using two different navigation systems. Figure 115 shows an RMI display and
aircraft position with respect to an ADF and VOR station.
AIRCRAFT HEADING
MAGNETIC NORTH
BEARING TO
VOR 2
BEACON
BEARING TO
ADF 1
BEACON
30
33
24
12
21
VOR
A
D
F
15
A
D
VOR
RMI Display
Figure 115
Page 2-150
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.51.1 Dual Distance Radio Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI)

The Dual-Distance Radio-Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI) is an instrument that gives
indications for various navigation systems:
1.
Magnetic heading from Compass system.
2.
Bearings from VORs or ADFs.
3.
Distances from the DMEs.
2.51.2 DDRMI Principle

Figure 116 shows the principle operation of the DDRMI system.
NM
VOR NO 2
DM
ED
IST
AN
CE
=
75
.5
BEARING TO
VOR NO 2 = 30
DME DIS
65.5 NM
TANCE =
BEARING TO
VOR NO 1 = 87
VOR NO 1
DDRMI Operation
Figure 116
Page 2-151
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 111 shows a DDRMI indications resulting from the situation in figure 117.
65.5
75.5
DME - 1
DME - 2
24
12
21
ADF
15
V
O
R
30
33
V
O
R
ADF
DDRMI Indication
Figure 117
Page 2-152
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
CAPTS
DDRMI
DME
SYSTEM
NO 1
COMPASS
SYSTEM
NO2
ADF
SYSTEM
NO 1
VOR
SYSTEM
NO 1
ADF
SYSTEM
NO 2
VOR
SYSTEM
NO 2
COMPASS
SYSTEM
NO 1
DME
SYSTEM
NO 2
F/OS
DDRMI
Figure 118 shows a block schematic of the DDRMI system and the source of all
displayed data.
DDRMI Schematic
Figure 118
Page 2-153
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

GPS is a space based radio navigation system, which provides worldwide, highly
accurate three-dimensional position, velocity and time information. The overall
system is divided into three parts.
1.Space Segment.
2.Control Segment.
3.User Segment.
2.52.1 Space Segment
Consists of 24 satellites (21 active + 3 spare), in six orbital planes with 4 satellites
in each orbit. They are orbiting the earth every 12 hours at an approximate
altitude of between 11,000nm 12,500nm. The orbits are such that a minimum
of 6 satellites are in view from any point on the earth. This provides redundancy,
as only 4 satellites are required for three-dimensional position. Figure 119 shows
the Space Segment.
GPS Space Segment

Figure 119
Page 2-154
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.2 Control Segment

This is a ground station that controls all satellites and is made up of:
1.
Master Control Station.
2.
Monitor Stations.
The Master Control Station is located at Colorado, USA, and is responsible for
processing satellite-tracking information received from the five Monitor Stations.
The Control Segments monitor the total system performance, corrects satellite
position and re-calibrates the on-board atomic time standards as necessary. The
Monitor Stations are located to provide continuous "ground" visibility of every
satellite. Three of the five monitor stations have ground antennas, which are
used to upload data to the satellites. Figure 120 shows the location of the Control
Segment.
COLORADO
SPRINGS
HAWAII
KWAJALIEN
ASCENSION
DIEGO
GARCIA
MASTER CONTROL
MONITOR STATION
GROUND ANTENNA
GPS Control Segment

Figure 120
Page 2-155
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.3 Operation
GPS operates by measuring the time it takes a signal to travel from a satellite to a
receiver on-board the aircraft. This time is multiplied by the speed of light to
obtain the distance measurement. This distance results in a Line Of Position
(LOP). Figure 121 shows GPS LOP.
LINE OF
POSITION
(LOP)
GPS Line of Sight (LOP)

Figure 121
The satellites transmit a signal pattern, which is computer generated, in a
repeatable random code. The receiver on the aircraft also generates the same
code and the first step in the process of using GPS data is to synchronies these
two codes. The receiver will receive the LOPs from three different satellites and
uses this information to establish synchronization. The receiver is programmed
to receive signals that intersect the same point, if they dont, then the two codes
are not synchronized. The receiver will now add or subtract time from its code to
establish the LOPs intersecting the same point and thus synchronize its code with
the one from the satellite.
Page 2-156
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 122 shows the principle of code synchronisation.
R EC EIV ER C OD E N OT
SY NC H R ON ISE D
W IT H T HE SA T ELL IT E CO DE
W ILL GIV E T W O/T H R EE
PO SSI BLE POS IT ION S
R EC EIV ER AD D S/ SU BT R AC T S
T IM E F R OM I TS C OD E T O
ES T ABL ISH T H E LOP S
IN T ER SE CT I NG T H E SA ME PO IN T
Code Synchronisation
Figure 122
Page 2-157
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.4 Signal Structure

GPS satellites transmit on 2 frequencies in 2 modes in the UHF band. The 2
modes are:
1.
Precision Mode (P).
2.
Coarse/Acquisition Mode (C/A).
The P code is for military use only. Both codes transmit signals in a "Pseudo
Random Code" at a certain rate.
2.52.5 Time Measurements
Once the GPS receiver has synchronized with the satellite code, it can then
measure the elapsed time since transmission by comparing the phase shift
between the two codes. The larger the phase shift, the longer the length of time
since transmission. The length of time since transmission times the speed of light
equals distance.
Page 2-158
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
SIGNAL RECEIVED
FROM SATELLITE
TIME DELAY = RANGE
SIGNAL TRANSMITTED
FROM SATELLITE
Figure 123 shows code synchronization and time measurements.
Code synchronization and Time measurement

Figure 123
Page 2-159
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.6 Position Fixing

If we know our distance from a specific point in space (satellite), then it follows
that we are located somewhere on the surface of a sphere, with its radius of that
distance. The addition of a second satellite and a second distance measurement
further refines the position calculation as the two LOPs intersect each other. The
addition of a third distance measurement from a third satellite further refines the
position calculation as we now have three LOPs intersecting at a specific point in
space. This point in space represents the distance measured between the
aircraft and the three satellites. Figure 124 shows the process of position fixing.
AIRCRAFTS
VERTICAL
POSITION
AIRCRAFTS
HORIZONTAL
POSITION
GPS Position Fixing

Figure 124
Page 2-160
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.7 Ionospheric Propagation Error

The ionosphere refracts UHF satellite transmission in the same way it refracts
VLF, L.MF and HF transmissions, only to a lesser degree. Since a refracted
signal has a greater distance to travel than a straight signal, it will arrive later in
time, causing an error in the distance measurement. The ionosphere refracts
signals in an amount inversely proportional to the square of their frequencies.
This means that the higher the frequency, the less the refraction and hence the
less error induced in the distance measurement.
Since the GPS satellites transmit two different UHF frequencies (1575.42 MHz
and 1227.60 MHz), each frequency will be affected by the ionosphere differently.
By comparing the phase shift between the two frequencies, the amount of
ionosphere distortion can be measured directly. By knowing the amount of
distortion that is induced, the exact correction factor can be entered into the
computer and effectively cancel ionosphere propagation error. Figure 125 shows
the principle of Ionospheric Propagation Errors.
Ionospheric Propagation Errors

Figure 125
Page 2-161
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.8 Derived Information

Although the GPS is primarily a position determining system, it is possible to
derive certain data by taking into account the change in position over time.
Actual track can be obtained by looking at several position fixes. Ground speed
can be calculated by measuring the distance between two fixes. Drift angle can
be obtained by comparing the aircrafts heading, with the actual track of the
aircraft. GPS is able to produce all the derived data commonly associated with
existing long-range navigation systems such as INS.
2.52.9 Navigation Management
A typical GPS provides Great Circle navigation from its present Position direct to
any waypoint or via a prescribed flight plan. When necessary, a new route can
be quickly programmed in flight.
Up to 999 waypoints and up to 56 flight plans are retained by the GNS-X when
power is turned off or interrupted. Selection of waypoints or of the leg to be flown
is not necessary to determine aircraft position; however, when these are
provided, the GNS-X computes and displays on the Colour Control Display Unit
all pertinent navigation data including:
Greenwich Date and Mean Time.
Present Position Coordinates.
Magnetic Variation.
Stored Waypoint Coordinates.
Stored Flight Plans.
Departure Time/Time at last Waypoint.
Bearing to Waypoint.
Distance to Waypoint.
Estimated Time to Waypoint (ETE).
Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA).

Wind Direction and Speed.
Desired Track.
Drift Angle.
Ground Speed.
Track Angle.
Crosstrack Distance.
HSI/CDI/RMI Course Display.
The computer determines the composite position based on sensor

position/velocity. Plotting multiple moving position points allows determination of
Track Angle and the rate of change of position equals groundspeed. Drift Angle
becomes available with the Heading input, and with a True Airspeed (TAS) input
allows calculation of the Wind direction and speed.
The computer is constantly processing all available inputs. The displays of
Present Position, Distance-to-Go, and Crosstrack as well as the displays of Track
Angle, Drift Angle, Groundspeed, Wind, and Estimated Time Enroute are updated
at periodic intervals.
Page 2-162
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 126 shows the block schematic of a GNS-X system.
GP S
A N TE N NA
E FIS
N AV I G A TIO N
PR OC ESSOR
U NI T
A DC
A UT O P IL O T
C OM PA SS
A UT O P IL O T
M O D E S E L E CT
M U LT IF U N C T I O N
C O N TR O L
D IS P L A Y U N IT
R TE
D EP
ARR
LE GS
H OLD
PR OG
VN A V
A TC
T IT L E F IEL D
L EF T
F IE LD
R IGH T
F IE LD
SC R A T CH PA D
BRT
C LR
D IM
PR E V
N EX T
M EN U
D A TA
EX EC
SP
GNS-X CONTROL & DISPLY UNIT

GNS-X System
Figure 126
Page 2-163
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.10
Boeing 777 GPS
The Boeing 777 has two independent GPS, which are used to calculate the
following:
1. Aircrafts Latitude.
2. Aircrafts Longitude.
3. Aircrafts Altitude.
4. Aircrafts Groundspeed.
5. Accurate Time.
Figure 127 shows the system layout.
LEFT GPS
SENSOR UNIT
RIGHT GPS
SENSOR UNIT
GPWC
RIGHT GPS
ANTENNA
CHR
DATE
60
AIR DATA
INERTIAL
REFERENCE
UNIT
ADIRU X 3
DAY. MON . YR
50
23 : 59
10
GMT
DIGITAL
CLOCK X2
ET/CHR
45
20
30
RUN
HLD
ET
RUN
HLD
99 : 59
RESET
FS D
629 DATA BUS X 3

AIMS CABINET X 2
Boeing 777 GPS

Figure 127
Page 2-164
SS MT
M
LEFT GPS
ANTENNA
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The two sensor units receive GPS satellite signals from their respective antennas
and calculate the aircrafts position and accurate time. This data is sent to the
Aircraft Information Management System (AIMS) cabinets and the Ground
Proximity Warning Computer (GPWC). The Flight Management Computing
system uses the AIMS GPS data to calculate the aircrafts position for use in its
navigation calculations.
The AIMS cabinets also send GPS data to the Air Data Inertial Reference Units
(ADIRU) which is used to calibrate the inertial sensors, thus decreasing any
inertial reference drift.
GPS time goes to the Universal Time Co-ordinated function (UTCF) within the
AIMS, the AIMS also outputs time data to the flight deck clocks.
2.52.11
GPS Modes of Operation
The Boeing 777 GPS operates in the following modes:
2.52.12
1.
Acquisition Mode.
2.
Navigation Mode.
3.
Altitude Aided Mode.
4.
Aided Mode.
Acquisition Mode
The GPS sensor units look for and lock onto the satellite signals. The sensors
must find at least 4 satellites before it can start to calculate GPS data. Whilst the
sensor is in the acquisition mode, itreceives the following data from the Flight
Management system:
1.
Aircrafts Present Position.
2.
Aircrafts Velocity.
3.
Time & Date.
The GPS sensor unit uses this data to calculate which satellites are available at
the current aircrafts position, allowing the sensor unit to receive the signals from
those satellites available and which ones may be used for navigation calculations.
Page 2-165
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.13
Navigation Mode
Once the GPS sensor has acquired and locked onto at least 4 satellites it will
enter the navigation mode. In this mode the sensor unit it will compute the GPAS
data. If during the Navigation mode the GPS accuracy is not within 16NM of the
actual aircrafts position, the sensor output will go into None Computed Data
(NCD).
2.52.14
Altitude Aided Mode
With 4 satellites available, the GPS sensor stores the difference between the Air
Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU) altitude and the GPS altitude. When the
GPS sensor is only receiving signals from 3 satellites, it will use this stored data
so that it can estimate the GPS altitude. During this phase the GPS sensor will
use the aircrafts altitude from the ADIRU and the length of the earths radius as
the fourth range required for GPS altitude calculations. Figure 128 shows the
Altitude Aided Mode.
Altitude Aided Mode

Figure 128
Page 2-166
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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.15
Aided Mode
The GPS sensor enters the Aided Mode during short periods (Less than 30
seconds) of bad satellite coverage. An example of bad satellite coverage is poor
satellite geometry, where at least 4 satellites are available but they are not spread
out far enough so the GPS sensor unit can make an accurate position fix.
In the aided mode, the GPS sensor unit receives altitude, heading and
groundspeed from the Flight Management System (FMS). The GPS sensor unit
uses this data to go back into Navigation mode when there is good satellite
coverage again. During the Aided Mode the GPS sensor unit output is once
again Non Computed Data (NCD)
Page 2-167
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ARE
4
SATS
AVAIL?
NO
BAD
SAT
COVERAGE?
NO
ALTITUDE AIDED
MODE
30
SEC
PASSED?
ARE
THERE
ONLY 3
SATS
AVAIL?
NO
BAD
SAT
COVERAGE?
NAVIGATION
MODE
YES
NO
NO
ARE
4
SATS
AVAIL?
ACQUISITION
MODE
POWER-UP
YES
YES
NO
NO
AIDED
MODE
ARE
4
SATS
AVAIL?
YES
YES
YES
Figure 129 shows the Boeing 777 GPS modes of operation.
GPS Modes of Operation

Figure 129
Page 2-168
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.16
Receiver Autonomous Integrity (RAIM)
The purpose of the RAIM is to monitor the status of the satellites that the GPS
sensor unit is using for its navigation calculations. The output of the RAIM
function is an estimate of the GPS position error. The RAIM value goes to the
Flight Management System (FMS) and is used by the FMS to determine if the
GPS data can be used for navigation. Figure 130 shows the operation of RAIM.
1
5
SATELLITE
CURRENTLY
MONITORED
RAIM Operation
Figure 130
Page 2-169
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.17
Differential GPS
The accuracy of the GPS is typically 15 25 metres in 95% of the position fixes
available. The USA Department of Defence degrades this accuracy for security
reasons to 100 metres in 95% of the position fixes. However, this error can be
further reduced to almost zero by the use of Differential GPS.
If GPS receivers are placed on the ground in known locations (Latitude
Longitude), the exact errors of the GPS satellites can then be calculated by
comparing the known position of the receivers against the GPS satellites
calculated position. This error is then transmitted to other receivers who use it to
correct the GPS errors and thus have a more accurate position fix. Figure 131
shows the operation of differential GPS.
ERROR CALCULATION
ERROR TRANSMISSION
Differential GPS
Figure 131
Page 2-170
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53 COMPASS SYSTEMS

2.53.1 Direct Reading Compass
This type of compass comprises a magnet system in a liquid filled bowl. In this
type the compass card is attached to single angular cobalt steel magnet which is
suspended in a sapphire cup by an iridium tipped pivot. Figure 132 shows a
common type of direct reading compass.
MOUNTING
PLATE
HORIZONTAL
(B & C)
CORRECTORS
FILLER
PLUG
BELLOWS
BOWL
MAGNET
SYSTEM
STEM & BRACKET

ASSEMBLY
Direct Reading Compass

Figure 132
Damping is achieved by filling the compass bowl with a mineral liquid or alcohol,
which has a low viscosity, low freezing point, high resistance to corrosion and
does not discolour. The compass is also given buoyancy by the liquid and this
reduces wear on the pivots. The compass liquid expands and retracts with
changes in temperature and this has undesirable effects. To compensate for this,
a bellows or corrugated diaphragm is fitted.
Note:
B and C correctors are for East-West, North-South errors respectively.
Page 2-171
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
On some modern aircraft the direct reading compass is stowed on the center
windscreen strut, only being used in an emergency. They also have to have
some sort of lighting; this lighting is operated by dc and does not effect the
compass operation. Figure 134 shows two types of compass fitted to modern
aircraft.
FIXED
COMPASS
HINGED
COMPASS
Direct reading Compass

Figure 134
Page 2-172
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.2 Remote Reading Compass (Magnet Gyro)

The (magnetic gyro) compass system provides the flight crew with magnetic
heading information. A compass card in the radio magnetic indicators (RMI's) on
the instrument panel displays the heading, which must be read against a
reference point or a lubber line.
The compass heading is controlled by a directional gyro, which has a stable
direction. For proper orientation of the system with the earths magnetic field and
to correct for gyro drift, a flux valve is used. The flux valve senses the direction of
the earth magnetic field. Figure 135 shows the layout of a basic system.
115v 400 Hz
6
E
12
21
VOR
S
15
A
D
F
_ +
W 3
0
24
N
33
A
D
F
VOR
SLAVED
DG
VOR/ADF
SYNC
Remote Reading Compass System

Figure 135
Page 2-173
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.3 Flux valve (Detector Unit)

A flux valve, or detector unit, senses the angle of the horizontal component of the
Earth's magnetic field with respect to the aircraft's heading, and gives a long-term
stable signal to monitor the gyro controlled master shaft. The detector unit can
best be described as a North sensing device which is capable of detecting the
direction of the horizontal component of the Earth's field and transmitting it to
other components. It is similar to a CX in a synchro control system.
Figure 136 shows a Detector Unit and internal circuit.
SIDE
VIEW
LAMINATED
COLLECTOR
HORNS
AC POWER
EXCITER
COIL
C
TOP
VIEW
B
C
SECONDARY
PICK-OFF
COILS
DETECTOR UNIT CIRCUIT
Flux Valve Construction

Figure 136
Page 2-174
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.4 Control Panel

The control panel consists of the following:
1.
Synchronisation Annunciator.
2.
Synchronisation Knob.
3.
Slaved/DG Switch.
2.53.5 Synchronisation Annunciator

This indicates the synchronisation between the DU heading and the gyro
heading. If there is a discrepancy between the two headings then the indicator
will show either a DOT or a CROSS.
2.53.6 Synchronisation Knob
This allows for manual synchronisation of the DU/gyro headings. The
Synchronisation Knob has two directions (DOT & CROSS), moving the
synchronisation knob in the direction indicated by the synchronisation indicator
will ensure the system will indicate the correct heading.
2.53.7 Slaved/DG Switch
The compass systems normal operation mode is the slaved mode, where the
DU/gyro headings are slaved together (DU will precess the gyro when an error
occurs between the two detected headings. In the DG mode, the DU is removed
from the system and the compass operates as a Directional Gyro. This mode is
used more in maintenance when aircraft heading is required. If used in flight
there is a possibility that the heading indication will drift due to gyro drift.
Page 2-175
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 137 shows the Compass Control Panel.
SYNCHRONISATION
ANNUNCIATOR
SLAVED/DG
SWITCH
COMPASS
DG
HDG
SLEW
COMPASS
SLAVE
SLAVED
SYNCHRONISATION
SWITCH
Compass Control Panel

Figure 137
The synchro transmitters in the RMI and in the directional gyro unit are used to
"transmit" the heading information to the following systems:
Page 2-176
1.
Autopilot.
2.
Flight director system (if installed).
3.
Horizontal situation indicators (HSI's).
4.
Flight data recorder system (if installed).
5.
VHF NAV receivers.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.8 System Test

Three items can be tested in the compass system:
The sensitivity of the cross-dot annunciator. When the card is moved 5 away
from the synchronised position with the manual synchronisation knob the cross or
the dot must be completely visible.
The slaving speed when the card is moved 10 away from the synchronised
position the automatic slaving system should move the card to the synchronised
position within 10 minutes (min. slaving speed 1/min).
The directional gyro drift with the slaving cut-out switch in DG the gyro drift should
not exceed (3.75 x sine attitude + 1.75 per 15 minutes).
2.53.9 Gyro Unit
The basic element of this compass system is a directional gyro. When the
system is supplied with 115-V AC the gyro starts to rotate and becomes a stable
element, which means that its direction (heading) in space is fixed.
Page 2-177
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.10
Servo System
A servo loop between the gyro and the compass card in the RMI ensures that any
change of aircraft heading causes a corresponding rotation of the compass card,
but in the opposite direction. The servo loop comprises a synchro transmitter
(Tx), a control transformer (CT), a servo amplifier and a servomotor.
The rotor of the synchro transmitter points in the same direction as the gyro.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
The rotor is powered with a 400-Hz signal, which causes a 400-Hz magnetic field.
This magnetic field produces 3 voltages in the stator windings of the synchro
transmitter. The 3 voltages in the control transformer cause a resulting magnetic
field.
The rotor of the control transformer produces an error signal any time the rotor of
the control transformer is not perpendicular with the direction of the resulting
magnetic field.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
If the aircraft changes heading, the direction of the 400-Hz magnetic field in the
synchro transmitter changes with respect of the stator windings and therefore the
direction of the resulting magnetic field in the control transformer changes too.
An error signal is now present and after amplification the "heading" of the
compass card and the rotor of the control transformer changes accordingly and
the compass card reads the new aircraft heading.
Page 2-178
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
COMPASS
CARD
TORQUE
MOTOR
TM
ANNUNCIATOR
SYNCH
KNOB
DU
EXCITATION
(AC)
DETECTOR
UNIT
(FLUX VALVE)
CT
SLAVING
AMP
HEADING SHAFT
SERVO
AMP
CT
VELOCITY FEEDBACK
TG
TACHO
GENERATOR
GYRO CASE
OUTER
RING
GYRO
CX
INNER
RING
26V AC
400 Hz
Figure 138 shows the Compass System Schematic.
Compass System Schematic

Figure 138
Page 2-179
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.11
Slaving loop
To obtain a common reference for all aircraft, use is made of the earth magnetic
field the direction of which is detected by a flux valve. A second control
transformer in the RMI compares the compass card reading with the direction of
the earth magnetic field.
Any difference between these two causes an error signal at the output of the rotor
of the control transformer. The error signal is amplified in a slaving amplifier and
this signal drives a torque motor in the directional gyro unit. The torque motor
changes the position of the stable element and of the rotor of the synchro
transmitter. As described for the servo loop, the compass card and rotors of both
control transformers rotate accordingly until the error signals have been reduced
to zero.
The amplified error signal at the output of the slaving amplifier also drives a
cross-dot annunciator. Either a cross or a dot indicates any unsynchronised
condition of the compass system. The cross-dot annunciator can be used to
manually synchronise the compass system by turning the manual synchronising
knob on the control panel in the cross or dot direction until the cross or dot has
disappeared.
Page 2-180
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.54 RADIO ALTIMETER

Radio altimeters are carried in virtually all aircraft outside the general aviation
sector. The outputs from the system play a vital role in the operation of automatic
landing and ground proximity warning systems. Because the radio altimeter
comes into play at a critical part of the flight, when the aircraft is close to the
ground, the serviceability and accuracy are perhaps more important than with any
other radio system.
Barometric altitude is the altitude of the aircraft as a function of change in air
pressure. Since it involves a measure of the change in pressure it is the altitude
of the aircraft above the level at which a certain air pressure exists. For aircraft
flying above about 3000 feet the usual reference pressure is 1013.25 millibars
(mb) or 29.92 inches of mercury (in Hg). This is known as the mean sea level
(msl) pressure. The actual pressure at sea level is unlikely to be exactly 1013.25
mb; hence the altimeter will not be reading the aircraft's height above sea level,
let alone the ground.
Radio altitude, on the other hand, is always the height above the ground
regardless of air pressure or indeed the terrain the aircraft is flying over. It follows
that radio altitude is more useful at low levels, in particular when in the landing
phase or to give ground collision warning.
2.54.1 Basic Principles
Radio altimeters are primary radar systems that transmit RF energy and time how
long it takes before an echo is received.
The radio altimeter target is always the ground immediately below the aircraft.
The transmitted beam is broadly directional, pointing straight down, so for
moderate bank and pitch angles part of the beam will be vertical. Figure 139
illustrates the idea showing dual aerial working.
Page 2-181
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
MODULATOR
BEAT FREQUENCY
COUNTER
INDICATOR
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER/MIXER
Radio Altimeter Operation

Figure 139
The system transmits a continuous wave, constant amplitude; frequency
modulated carrier at 4,300 MHz. The depth of modulation is 50 MHz, so the
transmission is continuously varied between 4,250 MHz and 4,350 MHz. With an
aircraft flying over the ground, there is a difference in the frequency of the
reflected signals seen by the receiver and the transmitted frequency at the same
instant. This difference is due to the distance the radio wave has had to travel
from the transmitter antenna to the ground and back to the receiver antenna.
For each foot of transmitted distance, there is a frequency change of
approximately 10 cycles. Since the transmission must travel to the ground and
back again to the receiver, the frequency change per foot of aircraft altitude is
approximately 20 cycles. For example, if the aircraft is 1,000ft above the ground,
there will be 20,000 cycles of frequency difference between the transmitter
frequency and the received frequency.
Page 2-182
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In the receiver mixer, the transmitted and received frequencies are mixed and the
beat frequency (difference) is counted in the counter. The beat counter converts
the frequency difference to an analog dc voltage whose amplitude is a function of
aircraft altitude above the ground. A servo system in the indicator drives the
indication to a position corresponding to the amplitude of the dc voltage received
from the beat counter.
Figure 140 shows two types of indicator used.
DIAL
INDICATOR
RIBBON
INDICATOR
Radio Altimeters
Figure 140
On the ribbon type indicator, the aircraft reference symbol remains fixed in the
centre while the tape is driven behind it. Different tape colours are used to give
an instant indication of the approximate height. The flag, when activated, partially
obscures the aircraft symbol.
A manually set altitude trip (decision height) is provided. By means of a DH Index
control a marker or bug can be set to any desired height. If the aircraft is flying
below the DH bug setting the DH lamp will be illuminated to give a warning.
Page 2-183
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.54.2 Radio Altimeter Antenna

The antennas are so designed so that as long as the roll angle does not exceed
30, and the pitch attitude is not more than 20, the altitude indication remains
correct. If these limits are exceeded, then the altitude indications would be
excessive. These high values would not be maintained very long, so do not
present a problem. Figure 141 shows the effects of aircraft roll on the operation
of the Radio Altimeter system.
FAN BEAM
TRANSMISSION
30 30
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
30
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
Roll Angle Effect on Radio Altimeter System

Figure 141
Page 2-184
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Radio Altimeter systems are called Low Range because they are not intended
to operate at aircraft altitudes above the ground greater than 2,500ft. It is used
mostly during final approach. When making a CAT II approach, the radio
altimeter notifies the crew when the aircraft is 100 feet above the extended
runway. This is the point at which the flight crew must be able to see the runway
to land and is called the Decision Height. The decision height may be selected
above 100ft as required.
Figure 142 shows a Radio Altimeter antenna and its location.
RX
ANTENNAS
TX
ANTENNAS
HORN ANTENNA
Radio Altimeter Antenna & Location

Figure 142
Page 2-185
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.54.3 Testing
The Radio Altimeter system may be tested from the transceiver or other areas
depending on aircraft type. When the test switch on the transmitter/receiver is
operated, the integral test lights are tested. A test altitude of 40 ft is given and
lights displayed, 'SYS OK' for serviceable, 'RT' or 'ANT' for a fault, give test
results. Figure 143 shows a radio Altimeter Transceiver.
TEST
SYSTEM OK
R/T UNIT
ANT
IND
Radio Altimeter Transceiver

Figure 143
Page 2-186
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55 WEATHER RADAR

Weather Radar is designed to detect turbulent conditions so as to allow the pilot
to avoid areas, which could cause an uncomfortable flight for the passengers and
even the possibility of structural damage to the aircraft. At present there is no
direct method of detecting turbulence. The Weather Radar, therefore, relies on
detecting the conditions associated with turbulence. A vast amount of water
exists in the air in one of three forms: vapour, liquid or solid, the form taken
depending, most importantly, on the temperature, and the number of microscopic
particles in the air.
Calm conditions mean that the water droplets in the air are very small and float
gently around, their weight being balanced by air resistance so that they do not
fall to the ground. In turbulent conditions the water droplets or ice particles are
thrown around, collide and stick together. Eventually they become large and
heavy enough to fall to earth.
The more violent the turbulence the larger the droplets will become before falling,
particularly so where there is an updraft of air. If a water droplet is large enough
it will scatter incident electro-magnetic waves, with some of the scattered energy
being in the direction of the transmitter-receiver.
Primary radar, therefore, can be used to detect water droplets and ice particles.
The smaller the wavelength of the incident waves the smaller the water droplets
that will scatter energy.
This also applies to ice particles but the situation is complicated by the form of the
ice i.e.: snowflakes, hailstones or sleet. The larger the droplet, the more energy
is scattered and a cloud mass with large droplets will give rise to strong signals.
Strong signals from a cloud, therefore, suggest turbulent conditions.
Sometimes strong signals are received from one region of a cloud and small
signals from an adjacent region. In this case a high rainfall gradient exists with
strong clearly defined updrafts in the region of the strong signals.
Page 2-187
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TRANSMITTED
ENERGY
SELECTED
RANGE
SCAN ANGLE
RFLECTED
ENERGY
Figure 144 shows the operation of weather radar.
Weather Radar Operation

Figure 144
Page 2-188
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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The part of a cloud, which gives the strong radar returns, is known as the storm
cell. The closer the storm cell is to the edge of the detected cloud, the higher the
rainfall gradient and the worse the conditions are likely to be.
The function of Weather Radar is to detect and display conditions involving storm
cells and rainfall gradients in such a way as to allow the operator to assess the
probability of turbulence associated with such conditions. Figure 145 shows a
typical weather radar scanner.
AZIMUTH
GEAR
REFLECTOR
ELEVATION
GEAR
AERIAL
GIMBAL
WAVEGUIDE
Weather Radar Scanner

Figure 145
Page 2-189
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.1 Principle Of Operation

The radar antenna is installed in the nose of the aircraft behind a radome. The
radar transmitter/receiver transmits high-energy pulses via the antenna to the
area in front of the aircraft. The weather radar system moves the antenna from
the left to the right and back again so pulses are transmitted in a wide area in
front of the aircraft.
The weather circumstances in front of the aircraft (rain density in the clouds)
reflect the transmitted pulses back to the weather radar system. The weather
radar antenna receives the reflected pulses. The weather radar receiver converts
the received pulses into a picture, which represents the weather circumstances.
To produce this picture the weather radar system makes use of:
The strength of the reflected pulses which depends on the amount of rain in the
clouds. (The weather radar system converts the strength of the reflected pulses
into a colour).
The time delay between the transmission and reception of the pulses. (The
weather radar system converts the time delay into the distance between the
aircraft and the weather circumstances).
The azimuth angle of the antenna. (The weather radar system uses the azimuth
angle of the antenna to position the weather information on the display.
A secondary function of the weather radar system is to show a ground terrain
map of the area ahead of the aircraft. Therefore the crew tilts the antenna down
with help of the tilt knob on the weather radar control panel. Because the cloud
returns are different from the ground returns the weather radar system is
switched over to the MAP mode for the correct interpretation of the ground
returns.
The radar must display three things: the range, the bearing and the signal
intensity of the cloud.
The display device best suited to showing all three of the above in an easily
assimilated form is the cathode ray tube (CRT) used as a plan position indicator
(PPI).
Page 2-190
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 146 shows a typical weather radar display unit.
GAIN
TILT
SB/T
WX
WX/T
RCT
GCR
MAP
UP
DWN
MIN
MAX
VAR
10
20
40
80
160
DISPLAY
OFF
320
SEC
MARKER
MAX
OFF
MAX
FRZ
FRZ
LEFT
RIGHT
INOP
ALRT
Weather Radar Display Unit

Figure 146
Page 2-191
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.2 Scanner Stabilization

As the aircraft pitches and rolls, the scanner will also pitch and roll. The weather
radar is designed to scan directly in front of the aircraft, so as the aircraft pitches
and roll; the scanner must pitch and roll in the opposite direction to that of the
aircraft. The scanner is therefore mounted on a stabilized platform, which is
maintained at a constant attitude with respect to the horizon. Stabilization is
derived from the Inertial Reference System (IRS).
The pitch and roll stabilization is completely independent system. Each having a
separate motor, giving freedom of rotary movement in both pitch and roll. There
must also be a freedom of movement in azimuth for scanning to port and
starboard. Therefore three rotating joints are required in the scanner waveguide
assembly. Figure 147 shows stabilization for pitch and roll.
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 0
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
WITH NO STABILIZATION
WITH NO STABILIZATION
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
STABILIZED
STABILIZED
Roll/Pitch Stabilization
Figure 147
Page 2-192
40
WX/T
80
RCT
160
GCR
TILT
UP
ALRT
MAX
RIGHT
OFF
MARKER
SEC
DWN
INOP
320
MAP
LEFT
INDICATOR
CONTROL
20
WX
FRZ
MAX
10
SB/T
FRZ
OFF
MAX
VAR
DISPLAY
MIN
GAIN
POWER
SUPPLIES
VIDEO
POWER
CONTROL
28V D.C.
115V A.C.
ROLL
SWEEP
TRANSMITTER
-RECEIVER
PITCH
IRS
STAB
POWER
WAVEGUIDE
ANTENNA
ASSEMBLY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 148 shows a block schematic of a radar system.
Radar System Schematic

Figure 148
Page 2-193
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.3 Weather Radar Installation
WX
RX/TX
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 3
30" FLAT
PLATE
ANTENNA
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 2
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 1
ANTENNA
PEDESTAL
Figure 149 shows the type of weather radar fitted to modern aircraft.
Weather Radar Installation (B737)

Figure 149
Page 2-194
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The weather radar system has a dedicated control panel for selection of the
required mode of operation. This type of system uses the EFIS ND to display the
weather information. Figure 150 shows the weather display on the EFIS ND on a
Boeing 737 aircraft.
WX
WEATHER
RETURN
+10
14
MODE
ANNUNCIATION
13
40
TILT ANGLE
1/2 RANGE
INDICATION
EFIS ND Weather Display (B737 Aircraft)

Figure 150
Page 2-195
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The display is controlled via the EFIS control panel. Figures 151 and 152 shows
an EFIS control panel and a weather radar control panel.
HSI
RANGE
EXP
ADI
DH REF
150
80 160
VOR/
ILS
NAV
40
VOR/
ILS
MAP
NAV
CTR
MAP
FULL
320
20
10
PLAN
WXR
ON
RST
MAP
BRT
VOR/ADF
ON
NAV AID
ARPT
ON
RTE DATA
ON
ON
WPT
ON
EFIS Control Panel

Figure 152
MODE
TEST
-7
WX
WX+T
MAP
10
-6
MIN
15
-5
-4
UP
TILT
GAIN
-3
CAL
DN
-2
MAX -1
15
10
IDNT
STAB
Weather Radar Control Panel

Figure 153
Page 2-196
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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.4 Test Mode

With the mode selector on the control panel in the TEST position the transmitter
is on for 1 second for a transmitter test. For the remainder of the test the
transmitter is off. A test picture is 'painted' on the EFIS.
A test sweep of + 15 up and -15 down is carried out by the antenna. At the end
of the test the antenna centralizes at 0.
The following precautions are to be observed for Boeing 737 weather radar
ground operation:
If the radar system is to be operated while the aircraft is on the ground, direct the
nose of the aircraft such that a 240-degree forward sector is free of large metallic
objects (hangars, other aircraft).
Tilt the antenna upward 15 degrees and prevent personnel from standing closer
than 10 feet to the 240-degree forward section of the aircraft. The receiver may
be damaged as a result of strong returns from nearby metallic objects.
Page 2-197
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
120
R = 6 MTRS
120
RED/WHITE ROPE
WARNING
SIGN
Figure 154 shows safety areas and boundary marks to be displayed during
ground operation of weather radar.
Safety Areas and Boundary Marks

Figure 154
Page 2-198
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.5 Radome
The radome is an aerodynamically shaped nose cone made of a dielectric
material, which can have an overriding effect on the weather radar systems
performance. The radome should transmit 90% of the incident energy, posses
structural strength, protect against erosion, prevent spark discharge of static and
protect against lightning strikes.
Structural strength comes from how the radome is constructed. Normally they
are of the sandwich type, consisting of a honeycomb structure supported on each
side by a thin skin of laminated glass fibre.
Anti static/erosion is overcome by coating the nose area with a polyurethane
material. This material is bonded onto the radome, but must not be too thick so
as to effect the transmission of energy. The radome is also coated with an anti
static paint containing small graphite particles.
Lightning strike protection takes the form of metal strips bonded to the surface of
the radome and painted over. The strips run from the nose of the radome to the
bulkhead, where good electrical bonding must be achieved so that any lightning
strikes are dissipated in the airframe with minimum damage. Figure 155 shows
the construction of a radome.
Radome Construction
Figure 155
Page 2-199
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56 GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM

The purpose of the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is to alert the
flight crew to the existence of an unsafe condition due to terrain proximity. The
various hazardous conditions that may be encountered are divided into 7 Modes.
These are:
1. Mode 1 - Excessive Descent Rate.
2. Mode 2 - Excessive Closure Rate (with respect to rising terrain).
3. Mode 3 - Excessive Altitude Loss (during climb-out after take-off).
4. Mode 4 - Insufficient Terrain Clearance (when not in landing
configuration).
5. Mode 5 - Excessive Deviation below the Glideslope (ILS Landing).
6. Mode 6 - Descent Below selected Decision Height.
7. Mode 7 Windshear.
Figures 156 - 162 show schematics of each of the above modes.
SINK RATE
WHOOP!
WHOOP!
PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 1
Figure 156
Page 2-200
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TERRAIN
TERRAIN
TERRAIN
TERRAIN
WHOOP!
WHOOP!
PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 2
Figure 157
DONT SINK
GPWS Mode 3
Figure 158
Page 2-201
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TOO LOW
GEAR...
GPWS Mode 4
Figure 159
GLIDESLOPE
GLIDESLOPE
GPWS Mode 5
Figure 160
Page 2-202
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
MINIMUMS
MINIMUMS
DECISION HEIGHT
GPWS Mode 6
Figure 161
STRONG DOWNDRAFT
HEADWIND
TAILWIND
WINDSHEAR
WINDSHEAR
GPWS Mode 7
Figure 162
Page 2-203
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.1 System Operation

The main component of the system is the GPWS computer. It receives
information from other aircraft systems (Baro/Rad Alt Ht, speed, etc.). From
these inputs, the computer makes calculations to determine if the aircraft is in
danger of contacting the terrain below. GPWS only operates within the Rad Alt
range (50' to 2,500'). Figure 163 shows a block schematic diagram of a typical
GPWS.
EFIS
SYMBOL
GENERATORS
PULL UP
DATA &
LOGIC
INPUTS
SYSTEM
TEST
GROUND
PROXIMITY
WARNING
COMPUTER
BELOW G/S
P - INHIBIT
INOP
EADI
PFD
EADI
PFD
CAPT
F/O
GPWS
CONTROL
PANEL
RADIO
ELECTRONICS
UNIT
GPWS Block Schematic

Figure 163
Page 2-204
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.2 Ground Proximity Warning Computer

The GPWC establishes the limits for the GPWS modes and compares the
aircrafts flight and terrain clearance status against established mode limits. If the
aircraft is found to have entered a GPWS mode, the computer issues appropriate
warning or alerting signals. The computer also stores failure data in a nonvolatile memory for display on a front panel window on the GPWC.
Figure 164 shows a GPWC and Control panel.
STATUS/HISTORY
PRESENT
STATUS
GROUND PROXIMITY
FLIGHT
HISTORY
INOP
CAUTION
OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS
FOR HANDLING
ELECTROSTATIC
SENSITIVE
DEVICES
FLAP/GEAR
INHIBIT
NORMAL
SYS TEST
CONTROL PANEL
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING

COMPUTER
GPWC and GPWS Control Panel

Figure 164
Page 2-205
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.3 GPWS Control Panel

The GPWS control panel provides the flight crew with visual indications of GPWS
operation; self-test capability and flap/gear inhibit capability.
INOP Light
Amber INOP light is illuminated when a computer or input signal malfunction is
detected, or a GPWS self-test is being performed.
Flap/Gear Inhibit
This switch is a two-position toggle switch; guarded and safety-wired in the
NORMAL position. When it is placed in the INHIBIT position, Modes 2,3 and 4
are inhibited.
Self Test Switch
This switch is used to initiate a GPWS self-test. A self-test can be conducted on
the ground or in-flight.
2.56.4 Warning Lights
Two warning lights are provided to give visual indication of ground proximity
warnings. These are:
1.
PULL-UP.
2.
BELOW G/S.
A WINDSHEAR warning message (displayed on the EFIS PFD) provides visual

indication of a Windshear condition.
The red PULL-UP light illuminates when Mode 1,2,3 or 4 flight path is detected.
The amber BELOW G/S warning light illuminates when glide slope deviation
becomes excessive. Pressing the BELOW G/S switch inhibits the warning.
Page 2-206
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 165 shows a PFD with Windshear annunciation.
MCP SPD
CLMB
HDG SEL
V NAV
10
10
180
160
150
140
10
10
120
WINDSHEAR
GS
173
DH 350
RA 1620
Primary Flight Display (Windshear)

Figure 165
Page 2-207
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.5 GPWS Bite Operation

The purpose of the BITE is to perform an internal check of the GPWC functions,
to record past faults that occur during the last ten flights, and to annunciate
system status information.
2.56.6 BITE Tests
The BITE function carries out three BITE tests:
Continuous Test Performed during each program loop. This checks the CPU
operation and data input integrity for shorts to ground or open circuits. The ADC,
IRS, ILS and RAD ALT systems and internal power supplies are also monitored
for valid data.
Periodic Test Tests requiring excessive processing time are subdivided into
small segments. Tests on the individual segments are performed sequentially,
one segment during each program loop. Periodic tests include checks on the
processor instruction sets, program memory contents, RAM addressing and
storage functions, voice memory addressing and contents, parity of received data
and the ability to read the data.
Event-Initiated Tests These are performed during or after a specific event has
occurred. They include resetting the program a fraction of a second prior to a
power supply failure. Checksumming the data stored in the non-volatile fault
memory at power up. Checksumming the data written after entering data and
sampling and storing program pin status at power up. Restarting the CPU at a
known location in the program after loss of CPU.
2.56.7 Fault Recording
Faults are recorded in a non-volatile fault memory by flight segments. The
beginning and the end of each flight segment are identified using radio altitude,
IAS and Mode 3 4 transitions. Up to 24 faults may be recorded during each
flight segment.
Page 2-208
FMC
LS
LS
MODE
CONTROL
IRU
PP/TKE
COURSE
SELECT
FLAPS/AOA
HS
HS
PP/TKE/ROLL
PITCH/ACCL
STALL
WARNING
IAS/ALT
ALT RATE
RAD ALT HT
LOC/GS
LS
LS
ADC
RAD ALT
ILS
FLAP
POS
GEAR
POS
FDAU
G/S
GPEW
W/S
NORMAL
INHIBIT
INOP
BELOW G/S
P - INHIBIT
PULL UP
MONITOR
G/S
WARNING
G/S
INHIBIT
GPWS
WARNING
WINDSHEAR
CAPT
PFD
GEAR
POSITION
SWITCHES
FLAP
POSITION
SWITCHES
BELOW G/S
P - INHIBIT
PULL UP
F/O
PFD
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 166 shows GPWS block schematic for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
GPWS Block Schematic (B737)

Figure 166
Page 2-209
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57 ENHANCED GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM

The EGPWS contains all the modes as with the standard GPWS with some
additional features. The system contains a worldwide terrain database, an
obstacle database and a worldwide airport database, and using this extra data
enables the system to give an Enhanced GPWS. The additional features are as
follows:
Terrain alerting and display (TAD) - This provides a graphic display of the
surrounding terrain on the Weather Radar Indicator, EFIS or a dedicated GPWS
display. Based on the aircrafts position and the internal database (terrain
topography), all terrain that is above or within 2000 feet below the aircrafts
altitude is presented on the system display. This feature is an option, enabled by
program pins during installation.
Peaks Is a TAD supplemental feature providing additional terrain display
features for enhanced situational awareness, independent of the aircrafts
altitude. This includes digital elevations for the highest and lowest displayed
terrain, additional elevation (colour) bands, and a unique representation of 0 MSL
elevation. This feature is an option enabled by program pins during installation.
Obstacles This feature utilizing an obstacle database for obstacle conflict
alerting and display. EGPWS caution and warning visual and audio alerts are
provided when a conflict is detected. Additionally, when TAD is enabled,
Obstacles are graphically displayed similar to terrain. This feature is an option,
enabled by program pins during installation.
Terrain Clearance Floor This feature adds and additional element of protection
by alerting the flight crew of possible premature descent. This is intended for
non-precision approaches and is based on the current aircraft position relative to
the nearest runway. This feature is enabled with the TAD feature.
Geometric Altitude Based on the GPS altitude, this is a computed pseudobarometric altitude designed to reduce or eliminate altitude errors resulting from
temperature extremes, non-standard pressure altitude conditions, and altimeter
miss-sets. This ensures an optimal EGPWS alerting and display capability.
Note; Some of these features have been added to the EGPWS as the system
evolved and are not present in all EGPWS part numbers.
Page 2-210
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PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.1 Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)

Because the overwhelming majority of Controlled Flight Into terrain accidents
occur near to an airport, and the fact that aircraft operate in close proximity to
terrain near an airport, the terrain database contains higher resolution grids for
airport areas. Lower resolution grids are used outside airports areas where
aircraft enroute altitude make CFIT accidents less likely and terrain feature detail
is less important to the flight crew.
With the use of accurate GPS and FMS information, the EGPWS is provided
aircrafts present position, track, and ground speed. With this information the
EGPWS is able to present a graphical plan view of the aircraft relative to the
terrain and advise the flight crew of any potential conflict with the terrain or an
obstacle.
Conflicts are recognised and alerts are provided when terrain violates specific
computed envelope boundaries on the projected flight path of the aircraft. Alerts
are provided in the form of visual light annunciation of a caution or warning, audio
enunciation based on the type of conflict, and colour enhanced visual display of
the terrain or obstacle relative to the forward look of the aircraft. Figure 167
shows Terrain/Obstacle database.
OBSTACLES
SURVEY POINTS
ABOVE SEA LEVEL
MEAN SEA LEVEL
Terrain/Obstacle Database
Figure 167
Page 2-211
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
50% YELLOW
25% YELLOW
50% GREEN
16% GREEN
REF ALTITUDE +1000
REF ALTITUDE -250/500
REF ALTITUDE -1000
REF ALTITUDE -2000
REFERENCE
ALTITUDE
MIN ELEVATION No
50% RED
REF ALTITUDE +2000
MAX ELEVATION No
Figure 168 shows a graph on when caution and warning alerts are triggered.
Terrain Caution/Warning Graph

Figure 168
Page 2-212
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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Table 3 shows the different Terrain/Obstacle threat levels and the colour
indication present with TAD and Peaks selected.
Colour
Solid Red
Solid Yellow
50% Red Dots
Indication
Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
Terrain/Obstacle that is more than 2000 feet
above the aircraft.
50% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is between 1000 and 2000
feet above the aircrafts attitude.
25% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 feet above the
aircrafts altitude.
Solid Green
Shown only when no red or yellow
(Peaks Only)
Terrain/Obstacle areas are within range on the
display. Highest terrain/obstacle not within 500
(250 with gear down) feet of the aircrafts
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 below the aircraft'
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is in the middle elevation
(Peaks Only)
band when there is no red or yellow terrain
areas within range on the display.
16% Green
Terrain/Obstacle that is 1000 to 2000 feet below
the aircrafts altitude.
16% Green
Terrain/Obstacle that is the lower elevation band
(peaks Only)
when there is no Red or Yellow terrain areas
within range on the display.
Black
No significant Terrain/Obstacle
16% Cyan
Water at Sea Level Elevation (0 feet MSL)
Magenta Dots
Unknown terrain. No terrain data in the
database for the magenta area shown.
Terrain/Obstacle Threat Levels

Table 3
Page 2-213
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 169 shows a Weather Radar Display used for EGPWS displays.
40
20
160
10
OFF
CAUTION TERRAIN
(YELLOW)
DIM
80
320
WARNING TERRAIN
(RED)
RANGE
RNG 20
TERRAIN
(GREEN)
TERR
EGPWS Display
Figure 169
2.57.2 Terrain Alerting & Display (TAD)
With a compatible EFIS or Weather Radar display, the EGPWS TAD feature
provides an image of the surrounding terrain represented in various colours and
intensities. There are two types of TAD display depending on the options
selected:
Standard TAD Provides a terrain image only when the aircrafts altitude is 2000
feet or less above the terrain.
Peaks Enhances the standard display characteristics to provide a higher
degree of terrain awareness independent of the aircrafts altitude. In either case,
terrain and obstacles (if enabled) forward of the aircraft are displayed.
Note; Obstacles are presented on the display as terrain, using the same colour
scheme. Peaks and Obstacle functions are enabled by EGPWS program pin
selection.
Page 2-214
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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
16% BETWEEN 1000 - 2000 FEET
50% UPTO 1000 FEET
REF
ALT
> 500 Ft
SOLID GREEN WHEN NO RED OR YELLOW
Figure 170 shows the Peaks function of EGPWS.
EGPWS Peaks Function

Figure 170
Page 2-215
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.3 Envelope Modulation

This special feature utilizes the internal database to tailor EGPWS alerts at
certain geographical locations to reduce nuisance warning and provide added
protection. Due to terrain features at or near certain specific airports around the
world, in the past, normal operations have resulted in nuisance or missed alerts
at these locations. With the introduction of accurate position information and a
terrain and airport database, it is possible to identify these areas and adjust the
normal alerting process to compensate for the condition.
An EGPWS Envelope Modulation feature provides improved alert protection and
expanded alerting margins at identified key locations throughout the world. This
feature is automatic and requires no flight crew action.
Modes 4,5, and 6 are expanded at certain locations to provide alerting protection
consistent with normal approaches. Modes 1,2 and 4 are desensitized at other
locations to prevent nuisance warnings that result from unusual terrain or
approach procedures. In all cases, very specific information is used to correlate
the aircraft position and phase of flight prior to modulating the envelopes.
Figure 171 shows the Envelope Modulation function.
ENVELOPE
MODULATION
AREA
Envelope Modulation
Figure 171
Page 2-216
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.4 Terrain Look Ahead Alerting

Another enhancement provided by the internal terrain database, is the ability to
look ahead of the aircraft and detect terrain or obstacle conflicts with greater
alerting time. This is accomplished (when enabled) based on the aircraft position,
flight path angle, track and speed relative to the terrain database image forward
of the aircraft.
Through sophisticated look ahead algorithms, both caution and warning alerts are
generated if terrain or an obstacle conflict with Ribbons projected forward of the
aircraft. Figure 172 shows the Terrain Look Ahead Alerting function.
WARNING
(TYPICALLY 30 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
CAUTION
(TYPICALLY 60 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
Terrain Look Ahead Alerting

Figure 172
Page 2-217
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
laterally (more if turning). The look-ahead and up angles are a function of the
aircraft flight path angle, and the look-ahead distance are a function of the
aircrafts altitude with respect to the nearest runway. This relationship prevents
undesired alerts when taking off and landing.
The look-ahead distance is a function of the aircrafts speed and distance to the
nearest runway. A terrain conflict intruding into the caution ribbon activates the
EGPWS caution lights and the aural message CAUTION TERRAIN, CAUTION
TERRAIN or TERRAIN AHEAD, TERRAIN AHEAD. The caution alert is given
typically 60 seconds ahead of the terrain conflict and is repeated every seven
seconds as long as the conflict remains within the caution area.
When the warning ribbon is intruded, typically 30 seconds ahead of the terrain,
EGPWS warning lights activate and the aural message TERRAIN, TERRAIN,
PULL UP is enunciated with PULL UP repeating continuously while the conflict
is within the warning area.
Note; the specific aural message provided is established during the initial
installation of the EGPWS and is a function of whether or not the terrain features
are enabled and the selected audio menu (via program pins).
2.57.5 Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF)
The TCF function enhances the basic GPWS Modes by alerting the flight crew of
a descent below a defined Terrain Clearance Floor regardless of the aircrafts
configuration. The TCF alert is a function of the aircrafts RAD ALT and distance
(calculated from Lat/Long position) relative to the center of the nearest runway in
the database.
TCF alerts result in the illumination of the EGPWS caution lights and the aural
message TOO LOW TERRAIN. The audio message is provided once when
initial envelope penetration occurs and again only for an additional 20% decrease
in RAD ALT altitude. The EGPWS caution lights will remain on until the TCF
envelope is exited.
Page 2-218
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The TCF envelope is shown in Figure 173
R U N WA Y
LE NG TH
EN V ELOP E
B IA S FA C TOR
15N M
12N M
4N M
15 N M
12 N M
4 NM
E N V E LO P E
B IA S
TO O LOW TE RR A IN
TO O LOW TE RR A IN
4 0 0 ' - 7 0 0 ' ft
F AC T O R
0 ' - 4 0 0 ' ft
T E R RA IN C L E A RA N C E F L O O R
Terrain Clearance Floor

Figure 173
Page 2-219
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.6 TCF/TAD Control

The EGPWS TCF and TAD functions are available when all required data is
present and acceptable. Aircraft position and numerous other parameters are
monitored and verified for adequacy in order to perform these functions. If
determined invalid or unavailable, the system will display TERRAIN
INOPERATIVE or unavailable annunciations and discontinue the terrain display
if active. TAD/TCF functions may be inhibited by manual selection of a cockpit
TERRAIN INHIBIT SWITCH.
Note; neither loss nor inhibited TAD/TCF effects the basics GPWS functions
Modes 1 7.
Figure 174 shows EGPWS control switches and annunciations.
GND
PROX
G/S
INHIBIT
FLAP
OVRD
GEAR
OVRD
G/S INHB
OVRD
OVRD
GND PROX
TERR
OVRD
OVRD
EGPWS Control Switches & Annunciation

Figure 174
Page 2-220
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.7 EGPWS Interface

The EGPWS uses various input signals from other on-board systems. The full
compliment of these other systems depends on the EGPWS configuration and
options selected. The basic enhanced facilities require:
1. Altitude (RAD ALT/GPS/IRS).
2. Airspeed (IAS/TAS).
3. Attitude (IRS).
4. Glideslope (ILS).
5. Present Position (FMS/IRS/GPS).
6. Flap/Gear Position.
7. The Windshear function requires additional information of:
a)
Accelerations (IRS).
b)
Angle of Attack.
c)
Flap Position.
Inputs are also required for discrete signals. These discrete inputs are used for
system configuration, signal/status input and control input functions. EGPWS
program pins are utilized to inform the system of the type of aircraft and interface
that is in use. These are established during EGPWS installation.
Discrete signals also include signals for Decision Height, Landing Flaps
selected, display range and status discrete such as RAD ALT/ILS valid.
EGPWS provides both visual and audio outputs. The visual outputs provide
discrete alert and status annunciations and display terrain video on a compatible
CRT screen. Audio enunciations are provided (via the aircrafts interphone
system) at specific alert phases.
Page 2-221
Page 2-222
DADC
IRS
GPS
FMS
RAD ALT
AIRCRAFT
SENSORS
CONTROL
DISCRETE
INPUTS
P
R
O
C
E
S
S
I
N
G
I
N
P
U
T
EGPWC
WINDSHEAR
DETECTION &
ALERTING ALGORITHMS
TERRAIN CLEARANCE
FLOOR ALGORITHMS
TERRAIN AWARENESS &

OBSTACLE ALERTING &
DISPLAY ALGORITHMS
AURAL
CALLOUTS
GPWS
ALGORITHMS
P
R
O
C
E
S
S
I
N
G
O
U
T
P
U
T
TERRAIN
DISPLAY
DATA
WARNING/
CAUTION
LAMPS
AUDIO
ALERT
MESSAGES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 175 shows EGPWS system schematic.
EGPWS System
Figure 175
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.8 System Activation

The EGPWS is fully active when the following systems are powered and
functioning normally:
1.
EGPWS.
2.
RADIO ALTIMTER.
3.
AIR DATA SYSTEM
4.
ILS (Glideslope).
5.
GPS/FMS or IRS (PP).
6.
GEAR/FLAPS.
7.
WEATHER RADAR/EFIS DISPLAY.
In the event that the required data for a particular function is not available, then
that function is automatically inhibited and annunciated (e.g. if PP data is not
available or determined unacceptable, TAD/TCF is inhibited, any active terrain
display is removed and TERR INOP indicated on CRT display.
2.57.9 Self Test
The EGPWS provides a Self-Test Capability for verifying and indicating intended
functions. This Self-Test capability consists of six levels to aid testing and
troubleshooting the EGPWS. These six levels are:
Level 1 - GO/NO GO Test. Provides an overview of the current operational
functions and an indication of their status. The flight crew as part of their PreFlight test carries out this test.
Level 2 - Current Faults. Provides a list of internal and external faults currently
detected by the EGPWC.
Level 3 EGPWS Configuration. Indicates the current configuration by listing
the EGPWS hardware, software, databases and program pin numbers detected
by the EGPWC.
Level 4 Fault History. Provides an historical record of the internal and
external faults detected by the EGPWC.
Level 5 Warning History. Provides an historical record of the alerts given by
the EGPWS.
Level 6 Discrete Test. Provides audible indication of any change to a discrete
input state.
Page 2-223
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Note: Level 2 6 tests are typically used for installation checkout and
maintenance operations.
Figure 176 shows TAD/TCF display test pattern.
20
40
160
10
OFF
DIM
80
320
RANGE
RNG 160
TERR ST
TAD/TCF Test Display

Figure 176
Page 2-224
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 177 shows a EGPWS computer as fitted to the Boeing 777.
EGPWS Computer (B777)

Figure 177
Page 2-225
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58 AIR DATA SYSTEM (ADS)

Air Data systems depend upon Pitot and Static pressure sensing, as well as
temperature sensing. Static air pressure is the pressure of the outside air at the
location of the aircraft. Pitot pressure is the dynamic pressure caused by the
forward motion of the aircraft. Temperature sensing is required to calculate the
Total/Static Air Temperature (TAT/SAT), and for calculating True Air Speed
(TAS). Figure 178 shows a Pitot/Static probe.
STATIC
LINE NO1
PITOT
LINE
HEATER
CONNECTION
STATIC
LINE NO2
PITOT
STATIC
PORTS
Pitot/Static Probe
Figure 178
In a parked aircraft, the pitot and static pressures are equal. In a moving aircraft,
the pitot pressure is greater because additional pressure is developed at the
forward end of the tube by its motion through the air. Altitude is calculated on the
basis of static air pressure, and airspeeds are calculated on the basis of the
difference between pitot and static pressures.
Since a pitot/static probe is, under certain conditions, subjected to icing, it is
necessary to have available a heater to melt the ice which would block the ports.
Flush static ports may also be heated, if required.
Page 2-226
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.1 Total Air Temperature Probe

Total Air temperature (TAT), is the static air temperature plus the rise in
temperature created due to the pitot effect. TAT is of great importance in setting
the operating conditions of a jet engine, since the temperature of the air entering
the engine is static air temperature increased by the pitot factor. It is also
possible to derive Static Air Temperature (SAT), from TAT and pitot pressure
information. Figure 179 shows a basic Total Air Temperature (TAT) probe.
AIR FLOW
SENSING
ELEMENT
METERED
ORIFICE
(VERY SMALL)
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL OF
TEMPERATURE
Total Air Temperature Probe

Figure 179
The TAT probe is constructed similar to a pitot probe. It is however, more
complicated due to the need for providing de-icing heat. The air entering the TAT
probe must be shielded from the de-icing heat. The TAT probe has metered
orifices to allow the air to flow through the sensing element.
Page 2-227
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.2 Location Of Probes And Static Vents

The choice of probe/vent locations is largely dependent on the type of aircraft,
speed range and aerodynamic characteristics, and as result there is no common
standard for all aircraft. On larger aircraft it is normal to have standby probes and
static vents. These are always located one on each side of the fuselage and are
interconnected so as to balance out dynamic pressure effects resulting from any
Yawing or side-slip motion of the aircraft. Figure 180 shows the location of the
pitot/static sensing elements on a Boeing 737 aircraft.
Boeing 737 Pitot/Static Locations

Figure 180
Page 2-228
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and corrosionresistant metal (light alloy) pipelines. Flexible pipelines are also used when
connections to components mounted on anti-vibration mountings are required. In
order for an Air Data System to operate effectively under all flight conditions,
provision must also be made for the elimination of water that may enter the
system as a result of condensation, rain, snow, etc. This will reduce the
probability of Slugs of water blocking the lines.
This provision takes the form of drain holes in the probes, drain taps and valves
in the systems pipelines. The drain holes within the probes are of diameter so as
not to introduce errors into the system. Methods of draining the pipelines varies
between aircraft types and are designed to have a capacity sufficient to allow for
the accumulation of the maximum amount of water that could enter the system
between maintenance periods. Figure 181 shows a typical water drain valve.
ORANGE
FLOAT
INDICATOR
TRANSPARENT
PLASTIC PIPE
DRAIN
VALVE
BAYONET
FITTING
CAP
(SELF SEALING)
Water Drain
Figure 181
Page 2-229
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
LOWER
PRESSURE HEADS
UPPER
PRESSURE HEADS
LOWER
UPPER
PC
A/S 2
MS 1
DIFF
PRESS
A/S 1
MS 2
ADC 2
ADC 1
FLT
REC
Figure 182 shows a typical air data system for a large aircraft.
PITOT
PITOT
F/O
CAPT
IAS
VS
ALT
ALT
VS
STATIC
IAS
STATIC
Air Data System

Figure 182
Page 2-230
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.3 Air Data Computer (ADC)

The ADC receives Pitot/Static pressure and an electrical signal representing
temperature. It uses these inputs to calculate the following parameters:
1.
Indicated Air Speed (IAS).
2.
True Airspeed (TAS).
3.
Speed of Sound (Mach).
4.
Altitude.
5.
Rate of change of Altitude.
6.
Total Air Temperature (TAT).
7.
Static Air Temperature (SAT).
The system supplies air data information to any system in either digital or analog
form.
Page 2-231
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TRUE AIRSPEED
STATIC AIR TEMP
TOTAL AIR
TEMPERATURE
MACH
PITOT
PRESSURE
INDICATED
AIRSPEED
STATIC
PRESSURE
TRUE
AIRSPEED
AUTO THROTTLE
MACH HOLD
(AUTOPILOT)
AUTO THROTTLE
AIRSPEED HOLD
(AUTOPILOT)
FDR
ALTITUDE
VSI, FDR
ATC TRANSPONDER
CABIN PRESSURE
ALT HOLD (AUTOPILOT)
ALT RATE (AUTOPILOT)
Figure 183 shows a block schematic of an Air data Computer.
Air Data Computer

Figure 183
The four blocks within the computer represent modules, which are capable of
supplying the information and controls indicated with the information required.
Page 2-232
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.4 Altitude Module

The module contains a capsule for measuring the static pressure and an E & I
pick off. The E & I pick-off changes the capsule movement into an electrical
signal. This electrical signal is amplified and then fed to a motor servo system.
The motor will drive a gear train to move the output devices to give the correct
altitude reading. Figure 184 shows the altitude module of an ADC.
AC
EXCITATION
M
STATIC
PRESSURE
ALTITUDE
RATE
GEAR TRAIN
ALTITUDE
DIGITAL
ENCODER
CT
ATC
TRANSPONDER
ALTITUDE
0V
+10V
Altitude Module
Figure 184
If the aircraft is parked, or on a holding altitude, the static pressure will be
constant. The servo motor will have driven until the force exerted by the spring
balances the force exerted by the evacuated bellows, and the E pick-off
armature has been moved to its null position. Any position other than the null
causes the servo-motor to run in one direction or the other. The tacho-generator
gives position feedback and also gives an output off altitude rate.
Page 2-233
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.5 True Airspeed/Indicated Airspeed Vs Altitude

True Airspeed (TAS) and Indicated Airspeed (IAS) are the same value at sea
level; however, as altitude increases, holding the same IAS results in an
increasing TAS. For example; 400kts IAS at sea level becomes 450kts TAS at
10,000ft, and approximately 550kts TAS at 20,000ft. Figure 185 shows the
relationship between IAS/TAS/Mack with an increase of altitude.
.90
.885
50
MACH NO
40
IAS
36,000ft
350
30
400
21,000ft
20
ALTITUDE
1,000ft
10
0
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
TAS/IAS/Mach Vs Altitude
Figure 185
In the diagram above the Mach No lines are drawn on the basis of a standard day
temperature chart; It can be seen that .90 Mach at sea level would be 600kts
TAS. From above 36,000ft, .90 Mach equals only 525kts TAS. If an aircraft is
limited to Mach .885/IAS 390kts, it could fly at 390kts up to 21,000ft. Above this
height, the IAS would have to decrease to ensure that the maximum Mach No of
.885 is not exceeded.
Page 2-234
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.6 Air Data Computer (ADC)
MACH MODULE
M
POT
ALT
(ALT MODULE)
POT
MACH
TAS MODULE
POT
IAS MODULE
ALT
RATE
ALT
(MACH MODULE)
E
PICK-OFF
ALT
MODULE
POT
ENCODER
CT
CT
ATCRBS
ALT HOLD
ALT
ALT
CABIN
PRESS
E
PICK-OFF
CT
IAS
POT
CT
TAS
TAT
POT
Figure 186 shows the four modules of an ADC.
Air Data Computer Modules

Figure 186
Page 2-235
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.7 Digital Air Data Computer (DADC)

The DADC uses digital computing and electronic circuits rather than the servo
motor system to calculate the outputs. Analog inputs are converted into digital for
computation. The outputs required are then either converted back to analog or
left as digital signals and output via the ARINC 429 or 629 data busses.
IAS HOLD
ENGAGE
ALT HOLD
ENGAGE
MACH HOLD
ENGAGE
TEMP
BRIDGE CCTS
& MULTIPLEXER
PITOT
TRANDUCER
PITOT
MILLIBAR
SET
STATIC
TRANDUCER
STATIC
I/P
CCTS
CENTRAL
PROCESSOR
& MEMORY
A/D
D/A
O/P
DIGITAL
O/Ps
ANALOG
O/Ps
Figure 187 shows a DADC block schematic.
Digital Air Data Computer (DADC)

Figure 187
Page 2-236
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.8 Definitions and Abbreviations

Static pressure (Ps) - Is the ambient atmosphere pressure, which acts on the
surface of a body in rest.
Total pressure (Pt) or pitot pressure - Is the sum of static pressure and the
impact pressure and is the total force which acts on the surface of a body in
motion.
Impact pressure - Is the force we need to stop moving air. It is the actual
pressure, which a body in motion feels. It is equal to total pressure minus static
pressure (Pt-Ps). The relation impact pressure - speed is not linear due to the
compressibility and changes in density of the air. The computer software has the
formula to change impact pressure into airspeed.
Pressure altitude - Is the altitude in a standard atmosphere. We do not take in
account the variations in pressure or temperature, which occur on earth when the
weather changes. A standard atmosphere is equal to 29.921 inches of mercury
(in Hg) or 1013.25 milibars (mB) at sea level.
Baro corrected altitude - Is the pressure altitude corrected for QFE or QNH
barometric correction signals (this requires a manual input for the computer from
an altimeter set panel).
Altitude rate - The change in altitude in ft per min. We also call this signal
vertical speed, vertical rate, rate of climb or baro rate.
Computed airspeed (CAS) - Is an air data function related to impact pressure.
The computer corrects the airspeed for instrument errors and installation errors.
Mach number (Ma) - Is the ratio between the true airspeed and the speed of
sound.
Maximum operational speed (Vmo/Mmo) - Vmo is the maximum safe airspeed
an aircraft can fly with no excessive stress on its structure. The Mmo is the
maximum safe mach number an aircraft can fly without the negative effects
caused by subsonic shock waves. The aircraft manufacturer specifies the
Vmo/Mmo and this value is pre-programmed in the ADC.
Overspeed warning - A discrete signal from the ADC, present at Vmo/Mmo.
Angle Of Attack (AOA) - Is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
and the flight path of the aircraft measured from the aircrafts centre of mass.
Corrected angle of attack - Is the local AOA from the AOA transducers
corrected for errors as a function of machnumber.
Page 2-237
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
True airspeed (TAS) - Is the speed of the aircraft with respect to the ambient air
through which it flies. It is airspeed (impact pressure) corrected for
compressibility and density. This depends on altitude and temperature.
Total Air Temperature (TAT) - To measure the outside air temperature we install
a sensor outside the aircraft. When we fly the sensor is in an airstream. The
airstream hits the sensor, comes to a stop, rises in pressure and therefore rises in
temperature. The air temperature plus the temperature rise is called total air
temperature.
Static Air Temperature (SAT) - Is the temperature of the undisturbed ambient
air (TAT corrected for speed).
Page 2-238
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PART THREE
CONTENTS
3
ELECTRICAL POWER ................................................................. 3-1

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
BATTERIES .................................................................................. 3-1

3.1.1
Primary Cell/Secondary Cell ......................................... 3-1
3.1.2
Cell Voltage And Capacitance ....................................... 3-1
3.1.3
Lead Acid Cell ............................................................... 3-3
3.1.4
Chemical Action ............................................................ 3-4
LEAD/ACID BATTERIES ................................................................. 3-5
3.2.1
Cell Characteristics ....................................................... 3-6
3.2.2
Capacity of Batteries ..................................................... 3-7
3.2.3
State of Charge ............................................................. 3-8
BATTERY CHARGING (WORKSHOP) ................................................ 3-9
3.3.1
Preparation for Charge .................................................. 3-9
3.3.2
Charging The Battery .................................................... 3-9
3.3.3
Completion of Charge ................................................... 3-10
3.3.4
Capacity Test ................................................................ 3-11
3.3.5
Fully Discharged Condition ........................................... 3-12
NICKEL/CADMIUM (NI/CD) CELL ................................................... 3-12
3.4.1
Chemical Action ............................................................ 3-13
3.4.2
Nickel Cadmium Batteries ............................................. 3-15
3.4.3
Thermal Runaway ......................................................... 3-16
3.4.4
Causes.......................................................................... 3-16
NI/CD BATTERY CHARGING .......................................................... 3-17
3.5.1
Cell Caps ...................................................................... 3-17
3.5.2
Voltmeter ...................................................................... 3-17
3.5.3
Cell Shorting Links ........................................................ 3-17
3.5.4
Battery Characteristics .................................................. 3-18
3.5.5
Battery Characteristics .................................................. 3-19
3.5.6
Preparation For Charge................................................. 3-19
3.5.7
Constant Current Charging ........................................... 3-20
3.5.8
Charging Rate ............................................................... 3-20
3.5.9
Action Prior To Charge .................................................. 3-20
METHODS OF CONSTANT CHARGING ............................................. 3-21
3.6.1
Method 1 ....................................................................... 3-21
3.6.2
Method 2 ....................................................................... 3-22
3.6.3
Completion Of Charge .................................................. 3-23
BATTERY TESTING ....................................................................... 3-23
3.7.1
Capacity Test ................................................................ 3-23
3.7.2
Capacity Test ................................................................ 3-23
3.7.3
Capacity Recycling........................................................ 3-24
3.7.4
Deep Discharge ............................................................ 3-24
3.7.5
Cell Balancing ............................................................... 3-25
3.7.6
Voltage Recovery Check ............................................... 3-26
3.7.7
Storage ......................................................................... 3-26
3.7.8
Ready For Service ........................................................ 3-26
3.7.9
Long Term..................................................................... 3-26
3.7.10 Facts And Figures ......................................................... 3-26
3.7.11 Aircraft Charging Systems ............................................. 3-27
3.7.12 Constant Current Mode ................................................. 3-27
Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
Page 2
3.7.13 Constant Voltage Mode ................................................ 3-27

3.7.14 Charger Isolation .......................................................... 3-28
TYPICAL AIRCRAFT BATTERY SYSTEM .......................................... 3-29
3.8.1
Parallel/Series Batteries ............................................... 3-31
3.8.2
Aircraft Battery Charger Units ....................................... 3-32
3.8.3
DC-10 Charger Unit ...................................................... 3-34
3.8.4
Operation...................................................................... 3-34
3.8.5
Charging Unit................................................................ 3-34
3.8.6
Boeing 373 Charger System ......................................... 3-35
DC POWER GENERATION ............................................................. 3-38
3.9.1
DC Generator ............................................................... 3-38
3.9.2
Fixed Winding Arrangement ......................................... 3-39
VOLTAGE REGULATION ................................................................ 3-40
3.10.1 Vibrating Contact Type Regulator ................................. 3-40
3.10.2 Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator ..................................... 3-41
3.10.3 Transistorised Voltage Regulation ................................ 3-43
REVERSE CURRENT CUT-OUT RELAY ........................................... 3-44
CURRENT LIMITER ....................................................................... 3-45
THREE UNIT CONTROL PANEL ...................................................... 3-47
PARALLEL & LOAD SHARING ........................................................ 3-49
AC POWER GENERATION ............................................................. 3-53
3.15.1 Brushless Generators ................................................... 3-53
3.15.2 Constant Speed Drive (CSD) Unit................................. 3-54
3.15.3 Variable Displacement Unit........................................... 3-55
3.15.4 Control Cylinder ............................................................ 3-55
3.15.5 Governor ...................................................................... 3-55
3.15.6 Fixed Displacement Unit ............................................... 3-55
3.15.7 Differential Gear Unit .................................................... 3-55
3.15.8 CSD Operation ............................................................. 3-56
3.15.9 Underdrive Phase ......................................................... 3-56
3.15.10 Overdrive Phase ........................................................... 3-57
3.15.11 CSD Disconnection....................................................... 3-59
INTEGRATED DRIVE GENERATOR (IDG)......................................... 3-60
FIELD EXCITATION ....................................................................... 3-61
VOLTAGE REGULATION ................................................................ 3-61
3.18.1 Operation...................................................................... 3-61
VARIABLE-SPEED CONSTANT-FREQUENCY POWER SYSTEMS ........ 3-64
FREQUENCY-WILD SYSTEMS ........................................................ 3-66
3.20.1 Frequency-Wild Generator Construction ....................... 3-66
3.20.2 Operation...................................................................... 3-67
3.20.3 Stator Assembly ........................................................... 3-67
3.20.4 Rotor Assembly ............................................................ 3-67
3.20.5 Generator Cooling ........................................................ 3-67
3.20.6 Frequency Wild Generator Excitation ........................... 3-69
THREE PHASE GENERATOR .......................................................... 3-70
3.21.1 Interconnection Of Phases............................................ 3-71
3.21.2 Star Connection ............................................................ 3-71
3.21.3 Delta Connection .......................................................... 3-72
BUSBARS .................................................................................... 3-73
3.22.1 Busbar Systems ........................................................... 3-73
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
3.28
3.29
3.30
3.31
3.32
3.33
3.22.2 Split Bus-Bar A.C. Generation System .......................... 3-75

3.22.3 Bus-Bar Supply Priority ................................................. 3-78
3.22.4 Parallel Electrical System .............................................. 3-81
3.22.5 Split Parallel Electrical System ...................................... 3-82
GENERATOR CONTROL UNITS (GCU) ............................................ 3-83
3.23.1 Power Distribution System Control ................................ 3-83
3.23.2 Current Transformers .................................................... 3-85
3.23.3 Generator Control & Protection ..................................... 3-87
3.23.4 Under-voltage & Reverse Phase Sequence Unit ........... 3-89
3.23.5 Time Delay Activation ................................................... 3-91
3.23.6 Abnormal Frequency Protection .................................... 3-92
3.23.7 Differential Current Protection ....................................... 3-93
3.23.8 Over-Current Protection ................................................ 3-95
3.23.9 GCU Operation ............................................................. 3-96
TRANSFORMERS .......................................................................... 3-98
3.24.1 Voltage transformers ..................................................... 3-98
3.24.2 Transformer Ratings ..................................................... 3-100
3.24.3 Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU) ................................. 3-101
ROTARY INVERTER ....................................................................... 3-105
3.25.1 Static Inverter ................................................................ 3-107
BOEING 737 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM ................................................ 3-109
3.26.1 Controls & Indications ................................................... 3-110
3.26.2 Boeing 737 P5-13 Electrical Panel ................................ 3-111
3.26.3 Boeing 737 P5-5 Electrical Panel .................................. 3-112
3.26.4 B737 Electrical Power Distribution ................................ 3-118
3.26.5 Operation ...................................................................... 3-119
3.26.6 Generator Feeder Lines ................................................ 3-120
3.26.7 Boeing 737 D.C. Power ................................................. 3-123
B747 GENERATING SYSTEM ......................................................... 3-124
3.27.1 Operation ...................................................................... 3-125
LOAD SHARING ............................................................................ 3-126
3.28.1 Real Load Division ........................................................ 3-127
3.28.2 Reactive Load Division .................................................. 3-130
EMERGENCY AC POWER GENERATION .......................................... 3-136
3.29.1 Standby Generator ........................................................ 3-136
3.29.2 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) Boeing 737......................... 3-136
3.29.3 Ram Air Turbine (RAT).................................................. 3-137
3.29.4 Emergency Pump.......................................................... 3-138
3.29.5 Emergency Generator ................................................... 3-138
3.29.6 Generator And Pump .................................................... 3-138
3.29.7 Extended Twin Engined Operations (ETOPS) ............... 3-138
EXTERNAL/GROUND POWER ......................................................... 3-139
DC EXTERNAL POWER ................................................................. 3-139
3.31.1 External DC Multiple Busbar System.......................... 3-141
AC EXTERNAL POWER ................................................................. 3-143
3.32.1 A.C. External Power Circuit ........................................... 3-145
B747 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM .......................................................... 3-148
3.33.1 Normal Operation .......................................................... 3-148
3.33.2 Ground Handling and Ground Service Systems ............ 3-148
3.33.3 Main Standby System ................................................... 3-149
3.33.4 APU Standby Power System ......................................... 3-150
Page 3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.34
3.35
3.36
3.37
3.38
Page 4
3.33.5 Electrical System Control Module ................................. 3-152

3.33.6 Electrical Synoptic EICAS Display ................................ 3-154
3.33.7 DC Distribution ............................................................. 3-156
CIRCUIT PROTECTION .................................................................. 3-158
3.34.1 Fuses ........................................................................... 3-159
3.34.2 Current Limiters ............................................................ 3-159
CIRCUIT BREAKERS ..................................................................... 3-161
REVERSE CURRENT CUT-OUT RELAY ........................................... 3-163
3.36.1 Operation...................................................................... 3-166
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION ........................................................ 3-167
3.37.1 Operation...................................................................... 3-168
SOLID STATE OVERVOLT PROTECTION.......................................... 3-169
3.38.1 List of Abbreviations ..................................................... 3-171
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.1 BATTERIES
In almost all aircraft electrical systems a battery has the following principal
functions:
To help maintain the dc system voltage under transient high load current.
To supply power for short-term heavy loads when generator, or ground power, is
not available: e.g. engine starting.
To supply power for essential services, under emergency conditions.
3.1.1 Primary Cell/Secondary Cell
A battery is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy and is
made up of a number of primary or secondary cells. As a primary cell
discharges, i.e. supplies electrical energy, the chemical action destroys the cell
and it cannot be re-formed, i.e. charged.
As a secondary cell discharges, the chemical action converts the cell material into
other forms and these can be converted into the original material, i.e. charged.
Therefore secondary cells can be discharged and charged during the 'life' of a
battery.
Secondary cells are used in aircraft batteries of which there are two types
1.
Lead - Acid (L/A)
2.
Nickel - Cadmium (Ni/Cd)
3.1.2 Cell Voltage And Capacitance

Each cell gives a voltage:
1.
The nominal voltage of a L/A cell is 2 volts
2.
The nominal voltage of a Ni/Cd is 1.2 volts.
Each cell has capacity, a measure of current it is capable of delivering over 1

hour. The unit is Ampere-Hour (AH).
Page 3-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
If cells are connected in series, the total voltage across the arrangement is the
sum of each cell voltage. The capacity is as for one cell.
If cells are connected in parallel, the total voltage is as for one cell. The total
capacity of the arrangement is the sum of each cell capacity. Figure 1 shows the
connection of cells.
SERIES CONNECTION
PARALLEL CONNECTION
Cell Connection
Figure 1
Page 3-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.1.3 Lead Acid Cell

The cell consists of a positive electrode and a negative electrode, each made up
of a group of lead-antimony alloy grid plates; the positive plates have lead
peroxide paste (Pb 02) forced in as the active material and the negative plates
have pure spongy lead (pb) forced into them. Figure 2 show the arrangement of
plates in a cell.
POSITIVE PLATE
GROUP
NEGATIVE PLATE
GROUP
C E LL
C O N NE C TO R
VEN T C A P
S E P A RA TO R
P R O TE C TO R
P LA TE S TR AP
C E LL
C OVER
TE R M IN A L
POST S
S E P A RA TO RS
P LA TE
Cell Arrangement
Figure 2
Note that there are more negative plates than positive plates. This is because
positive plates may buckle under discharge; negative plates do not buckle so
when the cell is complete, positive plates are completely enclosed by negative
plates, keeping buckling to a minimum.
The electrolyte consists of two constituents, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water
(H2O), which are mixed in such proportions that the relative density (RD) is
generally about 1.25 to 1.27 for a charged cell.
Page 3-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.1.4 Chemical Action

During discharge of the cell, i.e. when an external circuit is completed between
the positive and negative plates, electrons are transferred through the circuit from
lead (negative plates) to lead peroxide (positive plates), the net result of the
chemical reaction is that lead sulphate (PbSO4) forms on both plates.
At the same time molecules of water are formed, thus weakening the electrolyte
solution. The cell is therefore considered discharged when both plates are
covered with lead sulphate and the electrolyte has become weaker. Figure 3
shows a lead acid battery in charged and discharged states.
E L E CT R O N S
Pb
O2
Pb
L E AD
L E AD P E R O X ID E
H2
SO4
S U L P H U R IC A C I D
B AT TE R Y IN A C H AR G E D S T AT E
Pb
Pb
L E AD S U LP H A TE
Pb
O2
Pb
SO4
SO4
L E AD S U LP H A TE
H2
SO4
D IL U T E D S U L P H U R I C A C ID
B AT TE R Y IN A D IS C H AR G E D S T AT E
Lead Acid Charged/Discharged

Figure 3
Page 3-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The cell may be recharged by connecting the positive and negative plates,
respectively, to the positive and negative terminals of a D.C. source of a slightly
higher voltage than the cell. All foregoing reactions are then reversed; the lead
sulphate on the positive plate being restored to lead peroxide, the negative plate
restored to lead, and the electrolyte restored to its original relative density.
3.2 LEAD/ACID BATTERIES
The battery in figure 4 is made up of two blocks, each containing six cells of 2
volts per cell, connected in series. Hence, each block delivers 6 x 2 volts = 12
volts. Since there are 2 blocks of 12 volts in series, Battery Voltage = 24V.
Lead/Acid Battery
Figure 4
Page 3-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.2.1 Cell Characteristics

The chemical action of a lead acid battery is shown in Table 1.
Battery
Type
State of
charge
Positive Plate
Negative Plate
Electrolyte
Lead-Acid
Charged
PbO2
(Lead Dioxide)
Pb
(Lead)
H2SO4
Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
Lead-Acid
Discharged
PbSO4
(Lead Sulphate)
PbSO4
(Lead Sulphate)
H2SO4
Weak Sulphuric Acid
Table 1
Fully charged cell voltage
2.2 volts (Approx). 2.0 volts (Nominal).
Discharged cell voltage
1.8 volts.
Relative Density (RD) of electrolyte:

Charged
1.25 1.27.
Discharged
1.150.
Note: The solution becomes weaker on discharge and that the SG figures may
vary and manufacturer's instructions should be referred to.
Page 3-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.2.2 Capacity of Batteries

The capacity of a battery, or the total amount of energy available, depends upon
the size and number of plates. The capacity rating is measured in AmperesHours and is based on the maximum current, in amps, which it will deliver for a
known time period, until it is discharged to a permissible minimum voltage of each
cell.
The time taken to discharge is called the Discharge rate and the rated capacity
of the battery is the product of this rate and duration of discharge (in hours).
Thus a battery which discharges 5A for 5 hours is rated at 25 Amperes-Hours
capacity. Figure 5 shows the discharge rate for a 24V lead-acid battery rated at
20 Amperes/Hour.
LEAD-ACID - RATED AT 20 AMPERE/HOUR
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
24V
21.6V
DISCHARGED
20 AMP
DISCHARGE
10 AMP
DISCHARGE
TIME IN HOURS
Discharge Rate 20 Ampere/Hour Battery

Figure 5
Page 3-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.2.3 State of Charge

All batteries display certain indications of their state of charge, and these are of
practical help in maintaining operating conditions.
When a lead-acid battery is in the fully charged condition each cell displays three
distinct indications:
1. Terminal voltage reaches its maximum value and remains steady.
2. Relative density of the electrolyte ceases to rise and remains
steady.
3. The plates gas freely.
The relative density is the sole reliable guide to the electrical condition of the cell
of a battery which is neither fully charged nor yet completely discharged. If the
relative density is midway between normal maximum (1.25 1.27) and minimum
(1.150), then the cell is approximately half discharged. Figure 6 shows a
Hydrometer used to check the RD of lead-acid batteries.
CHARGED = 1.260
RUBBER
BULB
DISCHARGED = 1.150
SYRINGE
1.100
1.150
1.100
FLOAT
1.250
1.300
1.350
1.400
RUBBER
TUBE
Hydrometer
Figure 6
Page 3-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.3 BATTERY CHARGING (WORKSHOP)

3.3.1 Preparation for Charge
The procedure is as follows:
1. Unscrew the vent plugs but leave in the vent holes. This allows the cell
to gas freely during the charge.
2. Adjust the level of electrolyte, if required, to the level specified in the
manufacturer's instructions by adding distilled water. The plates must
always be covered, do not over-fill. Record amount of distilled water
added in ccs.
Note: Most batteries have a perforated strip above the plates to protect against
foreign objects. The level is measured from this strip.
3. Connect to charging board.
3.3.2 Charging The Battery
The charging rate (current) is the value specified in the manufacturer's
instructions. A typical figure is 3.5 amps. The larger the ampere-hour (AH), the
higher the current required to charge a battery.
The charge must be monitored at frequent intervals to:
1. Adjust the charging current, as cell voltage will increase during the
charge.
2. Ensure electrolyte remains above plates and cells are gassing. Adjust
the level by adding distilled water. Record the quantity added; if the
battery is always requiring distilled water, it must be rejected.
3. Monitor electrolyte temperature; stop the charge if the value rises
above that specified by the manufacturer (approximately 60C) until the
temperature drops (to approximately 12C).
4. Record the terminal voltage to determine when the battery is fully
charged.
5. Record the RD. This will indicate when the battery is fully charged. Do
not forget that if you want to find the state of charge by measuring the
RD, it is relative to a temperature of 15C and a correction must be
made.
Page 3-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The manufacturer's instructions give RD figures at a standard temperature,

therefore a correction must be made to the actual RD reading to bring it back to
the standard temperature reading.
The standard temperature is 15C (60F). Correction figures are:
1. For every 4C above 15C add 0.003 to RD.
2. For every 4C below 15C subtract 0.003 from RD.
(For 60F use 0.001 and 2.5F in the same manner)
Without this correction we will not know the state of the cell.
After level adjustment, the electrolyte is mixed by the cell gassing while still on
charge, therefore, any RD reading taken immediately after adding distilled water
will be incorrect.
3.3.3 Completion of Charge
Completion of charge will be indicated as follows:
1. Constant terminal voltage, with charging current flowing, for three
hours,
2. Constant RD and within the manufacturer's limit (after temperature
correction),
3. Cells gassing freely.
If all three conditions are met, the battery is fully charged and charging should
cease.
The final 'on charge' voltage will vary on different batteries. It is normally between
30 and 32.4 volts (2.5V to 2.7V per cell). The RD is approximately 1.260 at 15C.
Following a charge, the voltage immediately falls. If it falls below 28.5 volts the
battery must be rejected for service. Over a longer period the voltage will fall
below 28.5 volts.
Note that gently rocking the battery disperses any gas retained in the electrolyte.
Check electrolyte level one hour after battery is removed from charge. If distilled
water needs to be added, re-connect to the charging board and adjust while on a
low charge and gassing. NB: Gassing aids mixing. Finally, record date and
state of charge.
Page 3-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
Figure 7 shows the charge curve for a lead-acid battery.
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
FOLLOWING CHARGE
BATTERY TERMINAL VOLTAGE
MUST NOT FALL BELOW 28.5V
FINAL
ON CHARGE
VOLTAGE
30V
28V
24V
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
CONSTANT
CHARGE CURRENT
TIME
Charge Curve Lead-Acid Battery
Figure 7
3.3.4 Capacity Test
Reasons for a Capacity test are as follows:
1. After initial charge.
2. Routine maintenance at specified periods: e.g. 3 months.
3. If the capacity of the battery is in doubt.
This test is to determine whether the battery will be able to carry out its function
as an emergency power source on the aircraft. To measure capacity, a fully
charged battery is discharged at the battery rating, whilst the time to discharge is
recorded, i.e. a 30AH battery at the one hour rate is discharged at 30 amps.
Page 3-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.3.5 Fully Discharged Condition

There are two conditions to check: 1. First cell to reach 1.8 volts, or, if cell voltage cannot be read (block
construction), read battery voltage. A 24V battery reads 21.6V (12 x
1.8), OR,
2. First cell to reach discharge level of RD.
After a capacity test, the battery should be re-charged as described earlier.
3.4 NICKEL/CADMIUM (NI/CD) CELL
The Ni/Cd cell is one of three possible alkaline cells. The three are:
1. Nickel Cadmium (Ni/Cd).
2. Nickel Iron (Ni/Fe).
3. Silver Zinc.
Of the three, the Ni/Cd cell has become that preferred for use in aircraft batteries.
Figure 8 shows the construction of a Ni/Cd battery cell.
CELLOPHANE
NYLON
NYLON
PLATE
NICKEL MESH
Ni/Cd Battery Cell Construction

Figure 8
Page 3-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The case is made of a plastic/nylon material, which allows for slight expansion of
the cell when fully charged. It acts as an insulator between cells and is
impervious to electrolyte.
The electrolyte in a Ni/Cd cell is an alkaline:
Potassium Hydroxide, and may be topped up with distilled or de-ionized water.
The relative density is normally between 1.240 and 1.300 depending on the
manufacturer's instructions.
The plates are made from wire screens sintered with nickel powder. They are
impregnated with the active plate material.
1. Positive Plate - Nickel.
2. Negative Plate - Cadmium.
3.4.1 Chemical Action

During charging, the negative plates lose oxygen and become metallic cadmium.
The positive plates are brought to a higher state of oxidation by the charging
current until both materials are completely converted; i.e. all the oxygen is driven
out of the negative plates and only cadmium remains, the positive plates pick up
the oxygen to form nickel oxides. The cell emits gas towards the end of the
charging process, and during overcharging; the gas being caused by
decomposition of the water component of the electrolyte into hydrogen at the
negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates. A slight amount of gassing is
necessary to completely charge the cell and so it therefore loses a certain
amount of water.
The reverse chemical action takes place during discharging, the negative plates
gradually gaining back the oxygen as the positive plates lose it. Due to this
interchange there is no gassing on a normal discharge. In this way, the chemical
energy, and the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates to a point where it is not
visible from the top of the cell.
The electrolyte does not play an active part in the chemical reaction; it is used
only to provide a path for current flow.
Page 3-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The chemical reaction of a nickel-cadmium cell is summarized in Table 2.
Battery
Type
NickelCadmium
State of
charge
Positive Plate
Negative Plate
Electrolyte
Charged
Ni2O2 & Ni2O3

(Nickel Oxides)
Cd
(Cadmium)
KOH (Potassium
hydroxide) unaffected
by state of charge
Ni(OH)2
(Nickel
Hydroxide)
Cd(OH)2
(Cadmium
Hydroxide)
KOH (Potassium
hydroxide) unaffected
by state of charge
NickelCadmium Discharged
Table 2
Fully charged cell voltage
1.55 volts (Approx). 1.2 volts (Nominal).
Discharged cell voltage
1.1 volts.
Relative Density (RD) of electrolyte: 1.24 1.30.
Page 3-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.4.2 Nickel Cadmium Batteries
BATTERY CASE
Ni/Cad CELL
VENT
PIPE
71C THERMOSTAT
(RED TOP)
57C THERMOSTAT
(BLACK TOP)
NUT
THERMOSTAT
CONNECTOR
O-RING
LID ASSEMBLY
WASHER
PINS C - D RED 71C
PINS A - B BLACK TOP 57C
HOLD DOWN
BAR
NON-RETURN
VALVE
STRAP
RUBBER
GASKET
Figure 9 shows the construction of a Ni/Cd battery. Note the inclusion of a

thermostat for warning of a 'thermal runaway'.
Ni/Cd Battery Construction

Figure 9
Page 3-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.4.3 Thermal Runaway

Thermal runaway, perhaps more appropriately termed overcharge runaway, is a
condition of overcharge instability. It occurs in the later part of the charge cycle.
In a normal charge cycle, the heat generated by the charging current is dissipated
within the battery and its temperature does not rise appreciably. As the Ni/Cad
cell reaches its charged state, higher gassing takes place.
All power sources, including batteries, have 'internal resistance'. If the cell
temperature were allowed to rise higher, the internal resistance and the terminal
voltage would fall.
If the internal resistance falls, the charging current will increase, which in turn
causes more heat. This chain reaction builds up rapidly and leads to the
destruction of the gas barrier, then the cell and finally a fire or even an explosion.
So thermal runaway takes place very rapidly and is a danger to aircraft.
3.4.4 Causes
1. Some of the causes of thermal runaway are:
2. Aircraft battery location, poor ventilation.
3. Higher than normal charging current.
4. Frequent or lengthy engine starts. (Electric starter).
5. Loose cell connection.
6. Low electrolyte.
7. Damaged gas barrier.
8. Unbalanced cells.
Although Ni/Cd batteries are more susceptible to thermal runaway, the process
can occur in Lead/Acid batteries.
Page 3-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.5 NI/CD BATTERY CHARGING

3.5.1 Cell Caps
All batteries give off gas during charging. The cell caps of a Lead/Acid battery
are open and the cell can vent at all times.
In a Ni/Cd cell however, the cap is 'semi-open'. It is fitted with a non-return valve
to allow gas to vent but not allow air to enter. This is because carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere contaminates the electrolyte and reduces its RD.
Semi-open caps are susceptible to being blocked by potassium crystals and cell
gassing increases during charge. To prevent damage therefore, the caps are
removed during the charge and may be cleaned with warm water and then rinsed
in de-mineralized or distilled water.
3.5.2 Voltmeter
Voltages are critical in the servicing of Ni/Cd batteries. The voltages we are
required to measure are to two decimal places (1.24V, 1.55V, and 0.04V). To
achieve this accuracy a Digital Voltmeter must be used.
3.5.3 Cell Shorting Links
If a single cell in a battery discharges to 0.0 volts and current is still flowing, the
cell will have a reversed charge and reversed polarity. This reversal, if continued,
can damage the cell.
A preventative measure is to short the cell when it is discharged, or nearly
discharged, with a shorting link. The clip connectors must be firm. Sometimes a
1 ohm 2 watt resistor is used to compensate for internal resistance lost in shorting
out the cell.
Page 3-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.5.4 Battery Characteristics

The discharge and charge characteristics of a Ni/Cd battery are shown at Figure
10 and Figure 11 respectively. The example is from a 24V battery rated at 36 AH
at the one hour rate and 100% capacity.
C
E
L
L
V
O
L
T 1.0 V
A
G
E
DISCHARGED
72 amps
36 amps
1h
18 amps
1h
2h
TIME
Ni/Cad Discharge Curve

Figure 10
Note:
1. The voltage falls on initial discharge then remains almost constant.
Finally it falls more rapidly.
2. If the discharge current is more than the 36 amps, the voltage falls
more sharply and we do not get a 100%, while if the discharge current
is less than 36 amps, we obtain more than the battery rated output.
Page 3-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
C
E
L
L
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
IF THE CHARGE CONTINUES

EXCESSIVE GASSING OCCURS
AND THE ELECTROLYTE RUNS
OUT
VOLTAGE INITIALLY
RISES THEN SETTLES
DOWN TO A STEADY
RISE
AT THE SECOND
RISE THE CELLS
START TO GAS
TIME
Ni/Cd Charge Curve

Figure 11
3.5.5 Battery Characteristics
The charge curve at Figure 9 shows:
1. The voltage initially rises then settles down to a steady rise. This is followed
by a second rise where it levels off at the fully charged condition.
2. At the second rise in voltage, the cells start to gas and at the fully charged
state, the gassing becomes livelier. If the charge is continued, excessive
gassing takes place and the electrolyte will flow out of the cell. This loss of
electrolyte can lead to overheating and thermal runaway.
3.5.6 Preparation For Charge
Assuming no defects on the battery and satisfactory physical condition, its state
of charge must be determined and the balance of cells confirmed. This is done by
discharging the battery.
The results from this discharge will determine the next step we must take to
electrically recondition the battery. The battery is discharged at a constant
current stated in the manufacturer's instructions. An example is a 36 AH battery
which is discharged at 30 amps.
Page 3-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
During this discharge, the time is recorded in hours, from the start of the
discharge and at each stage. The individual cell voltages are also recorded.
The battery voltage and each cell voltage are monitored periodically to ensure the
discharge remains constant.
Initially, the first cell to reach 1.0 volt is looked for then the discharge is continued
until the battery voltage is equal to an average of 1.0 volt per cell. A 24V Ni/Cd
battery has 20 cells. At 1.0 volt per cell, battery voltage will equal 20 volts. By
discharging the battery to its minimum capacity and timing the discharge, the
capacity of the battery has been ascertained. Also, by discharging to a known
point, the amount of charge required is found and the risk of overcharging is
minimized.
3.5.7 Constant Current Charging
Constant current charging is always used in the battery workshop. Its advantage
over constant potential (voltage) charging is that constant current charging
maintains cell balance and capacity.
Note: Always follow the manufacturer's instructions for charging.
3.5.8 Charging Rate
Consider a battery rated at 24V, 40AH at the 1hr rate.
The charge current is expressed in multiples of 'C' amps. Therefore, when we
say the charge rate is:
0.1C = 4 amps
0.5C = 20 amps, etc.
3.5.9 Action Prior To Charge

1.
Battery cover removed, (we require to measure the cell voltages).
2.
Vent caps released but not removed from vent.
3.
Check electrolyte is above the plates. If below the plates, high

temperature and damaged gas barrier will be caused. Note: this is not
looking for a set level.
4.
Remove cell shorting links.
Page 3-20
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.6 METHODS OF CONSTANT CHARGING

Two basic methods of charging can be used.
3.6.1 Method 1
Charge at 0.1C amps until battery voltage reaches an average of 1.5 volts per
cell (20 cells = 30 volts), then continue the charge for a further four hours. The
time for this charge should be between fourteen and fifteen hours. Figure 12
shows charge method 1.
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
CHARGE AT 0.1C AMPS

UNTIL BATTERY VOLTAGE
REACHES AN AVERAGE
OF 1.5 PER CELL
(20 CELLS = 30 VOLTS)
30V
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
CONTINUES THE CHARGE

FOR A FURTHER 4 HOURS
TOTAL TIME FOR CHARGE
14 - 15 HOURS
4 HOURS
10 - 11 HOURS
TIME
Charge Method 1
Figure 12
Page 3-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.6.2 Method 2
Charge at 0.5C amps for two hours. Battery voltage should have reached an
average of 1.55 volts per cell (20 cells = 31 volts). If it is not up to 31 volts, then
charge for a further half-hour at this rate. Continue the charge at 0.1C amps for a
further four hours. Figure 13 shows charge method 2.
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
BATTERY VOLTAGE SHOULD

HAVE REACHED AN AVERAGE
OF 1.55 V PER CELL
(20 CELLS - 31 VOLTS)
31V
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
IF NOT UPTO 31 VOLTS THEN

CHARGE FOR A FURTHER
HALF HOUR ONLY AT 0.5 C AMPS
CONTINUE THE CHARGE AT

0.1 C AMPS FOR A FURTHER
FOUR HOURS
CHARGE AT 0.5C AMPS
2 HOURS
0.5 HOURS
4 HOURS
TIME
Charge Method 2
Figure 13
Page 3-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.6.3 Completion Of Charge

During the last thirty minutes of charge, the electrolyte level should be adjusted.
Remember that the level rises during charge and the cells will be gassing more
freely at this stage.
At completion of charge the cells' voltages should be between 1.5 and 1.7 volts.
When the charge is complete, tighten and torque-load the cell vent caps. Refit
the battery cover.
3.7 BATTERY TESTING
3.7.1 Capacity Test
Start the capacity test with a fully charged battery. This means carrying out the
initial discharge and then charging the battery. After charge, stand for fifteen to
twenty four hours.
Discharge at 1.0C amps 36 AH = 36 amps and record the time. Stop the
discharge when battery voltage reaches an average of 1.0 volts per cell.
The minimum acceptable capacity is 80% of the stated capacity, or the
authorized capacity.
3.7.2 Capacity Test
Note: As in the initial discharge, where we looked for the first cell to 1.0 volt, we
can do the same in the capacity test. It can indicate an out of balance cell, if that
cell voltage falls faster than the rest.
The capacity test is carried out at the periods stated in the maintenance manual.
This is normally no longer than three months.
If the battery fails to achieve 80% capacity, it is not immediately rejected. A cell
balancing procedure is carried out to restore the capacity and then a further
capacity test is carried out.
Page 3-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.7.3 Capacity Recycling

This helps to prevent premature damage and failure by cycling the battery,
discharging it and then charging it.
1.
Discharge at the required rate, 1.0C amps or less. As each cell

approaches, or is zero volts, connect a shorting link across the cell.
2.
When all cells are discharged, stand the battery, with shorting links on, for
sixteen to twenty four hours.
3.
The shorting links should then be removed and the battery charged at the
recommended recycling charge rate for twenty four hours.
4.
After the first five minutes of charge, any cell over 1.5 volts requires the
addition of water, distilled or de-mineralized.
5.
After the first ten minutes of charge, cell voltages must be between 1.20 and
1.55 volts. If any cell is below or above these voltages, it must be rejected
and replaced.
6.
After twenty hours of charge, record each cell voltage and adjust the
electrolyte level.
After twenty four hours of charge, record each cell voltage. These readings must
not be below the twenty hour readiness. Any cell below by more than 0.04 volts
must be rejected and replaced.
3.7.4 Deep Discharge
This is a term sometimes used. It is when the battery is discharged and all the
available capacity is removed.
Page 3-24
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.7.5 Cell Balancing

This is similar to the capacity recycling but uses a normal charge, not the long
twenty four-hour charge.
This is used if the battery fails to give 80% capacity, or the cells are out of
balance.
1.
Discharge the battery at 1.0C amps until battery voltage falls to 20 volts and
then stop the discharge.
2.
Monitor cell voltages prior to the battery reaching the 20 volts. If any cell
falls to zero volts, or goes reverse, then stop the discharge. Zero voltage
indicates a shorted cell and reverse indicates a weak cell.
3.
Continue the discharge at 0.1C amps.
4.
Record the time each cell falls to 1.0 volts.
5.
As each cell approaches, or is zero volts, connect shorting link
6.
When all cells are discharged, stand battery, with shorting links on, for
sixteen hours.
7.
Charge battery.
Repeat the 'cell balancing'. The time that each cell takes to fall to 1.0 volt should
have improved: i.e. longer time recorded. Reject any weak or shorted cells.
Note: As already discussed, a battery must be able to deliver at least 80% of its
rated capacity to be suitable for aircraft use. Ni/Cd batteries are discharged then
charged before a capacity test to determine their efficiency. With certain types of
cell, this figure of 80% does not apply.
These cells and their rated capacity are as follows:
After discharge Charge Capacity Test carried out, the capacity of the cells
must be at least:
White Ni/Cd cell -
85%
Blue Ni/Cd cell
100%
Page 3-25
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.7.6 Voltage Recovery Check

The purpose of this is to detect high resistance connections and short circuits
inside the cells.
1.
Deep discharge the battery, stand for sixteen to seventeen hours with
shorting links on.
2.
Remove shorting links.
3.
Stand the battery for a further twenty four hours, without the shorting links
on.
4.
Measure the cell voltages, they should have recovered to above 1.08 volts.
Below this voltage indicates a high internal resistance, or an open circuit
inside the cell.
3.7.7 Storage
Ni/Cd batteries should be stored in a clean, dry, well ventilated room and
separate from L/A batteries.
3.7.8 Ready For Service
Store in a charged condition.
Ni/Cd batteries will self discharge if left standing, therefore a trickle charge is
required, (approximately 1 mA per AH).
3.7.9 Long Term
Deep discharge and store with main terminals shorted.
3.7.10 Facts And Figures
Batteries, L/A or Ni/Cd, proved to have less than 80% capacity should be rejected
for aircraft use.
During emergency use, e.g. main power failure, batteries must be able to sustain
essential services for at least 30 mins.
Page 3-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.7.11 Aircraft Charging Systems

Aircraft battery chargers generally charge in a constant current mode, or constant
voltage mode. Note: The figures below refer to a Ni/Cd battery installation.
3.7.12 Constant Current Mode
Supplies a constant current, (an example is 38 amps but this value depends upon
the capacity size of the battery fitted to the aircraft). As the battery starts to
charge, its terminal voltage will rise at a predetermined value (approximately 31
to 32 volts, giving 1.55v per cell). The constant current mode is switched off and
the constant voltage mode switched on.
On some aircraft, the battery temperature is monitored and the voltage cut off
point of the constant current mode is reduced with a corresponding rise in battery
temperature.
3.7.13 Constant Voltage Mode
In this mode, the charger holds a constant voltage, or TR mode (as in TRU), at
27.5v or 28v. As the battery terminal voltage is higher than the charger voltage,
no charging current will flow.
Figures 14 and 13 illustrate typical battery charger charging cycles.
CHARGER VOLTAGE
31.5 V
CONSTANT
CURRENT
MODE
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
MODE
27.5
POWER
FIRST
APPLIED
TIME
Battery Charging Cycle

Figure 14
Page 3-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Note: When electrical power is first applied to the charger, it goes into the
constant current mode and the battery is being charged.
CHARGER VOLTAGE
BATTERY VOLTAGE
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
INITIAL
CONSTANT
MODE
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
MODE
CONSTANT
CURRENT
MODE
TIME
Four Charging Cycles

Figure 15
It can be seen that the initial constant current mode is independent of battery
voltage. The second constant current mode is slightly shorter; as the battery
becomes charged, the charge cycles get shorter.
These cycles are monitored when the battery charging current starts to flow in the
constant voltage mode. After the four charging cycles, the voltage is held at
27.5v, unless the power supply is interrupted, in which case it starts all over
again.
3.7.14 Charger Isolation
There are certain times when we want to switch the charger off automatically and
have no DC output. These are:
1.
If the battery temperature is rising to a dangerous level (towards thermal

runaway),
2.
If the battery to be used for excessively high discharge currents, for

example engine starting, that would pull the battery voltage down.
On some aircraft, flight deck indication of battery over-temperature is provided for

the pilot who takes the appropriate action.
Page 3-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.8 TYPICAL AIRCRAFT BATTERY SYSTEM

Figure 16 shows the circuit arrangement for a battery system from a turboprop
aircraft. The circuit serves as a general guide to the methods adopted. Four
batteries, in parallel are directly connected to a battery busbar which, in the event
of an emergency, supplies power for a limited period to essential services (Radio,
Fire Warning Systems, Navigation Systems etc.) Direct connections are made to
ensure that the battery power is available to the busbar at all times.
The batteries also require to be connected to ensure that they are maintained in a
charged condition. In figure 14, this accomplished by connecting the batteries to
the main D.C. busbar via a battery relay, power selector switch and a reverse
current circuit breaker.
Under normal operating conditions of the D.C. supply system, the power selector
switch is set to the Battery position (This is normally termed Flight on modern
aircraft). With the switch in this position, current will flow from the batteries
through the battery relay coil, the switch and then to ground via the reverse
current circuit breaker contacts.
The battery relay coil energises connecting the batteries to the main D.C. busbar
via the reverse relay coil and its second set of contacts. The aircrafts generators
supply the main D.C. busbar and so the batteries will also be supplied with
charging current form this source.
Under emergency conditions (e.g. generator/busbar failure) the batteries must be
isolated from the main busbar since their total capacity is not sufficient to keep all
aircraft services in operation. The power selector switch must therefore be put to
the OFF position, thus de-energising the battery relay. The batteries then
supply the essential services for the time period pre-calculated on the basis of the
battery capacity and current consumption of the essential services.
The reverse current coil will reverse its polarity when the battery current flows up
to the DC Main busbar (in the event of a failure of the Main DC busbar). This
reverse in polarity will cause the reverse current circuit breaker to open, thus
isolating the battery from the Main DC busbar.
Page 3-29
Page 3-30
EXT
EXT
PWR
OFF
MAIN D.C. BUS-BAR
BATT
REVERSE
CURRENT
(C/B)
TO GENERATOR SYSTEMS
AND ALL D.C. SERVICES
MAIN BUS
OFF
BATTERIES
BATTERY
RELAY
VOLTMETER
BATTERY BUS
BATTERY BUS-BAR
TO ESSENTIAL SERVICES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Typical Battery System

Figure 16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.8.1 Parallel/Series Batteries
BATTERY SWITCHING
RELAY
BATTERY
2
EXT
2a 3a
2b 3b
1a
1b
BATTERY
1
BATT
EXT
OFF
BATTERY
RELAY 1
BATTERY BUSBAR
BATT
TO ENGINE
STARTING
SYSTEM
OFF
BATTERY
RELAY 2
The battery system on certain types of turboprop aircraft are designed so that the
batteries may be switched from a parallel configuration to a series configuration
for the purpose of engine starting from battery power. The circuit arrangement of
this type of system using two 24-volt Nickel-cadmium batteries is shown in
simplified form in Figure 17.
Parallel/Series Battery System

Figure 17
Page 3-31
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
With reference to figure 15; under normal parallel operating conditions, battery 1
is connected to the battery busbar via its own battery relay and also contacts 1a
1b of a battery switching relay. Battery 2 is directly connected to the busbar via
its relay.
When its necessary to use the batteries for starting an engine (i.e. an internal
start). Both batteries are connected to the battery busbar in the normal way and
24V supply is fed to the engine starting system via the battery busbar. Closing
the starter switch energises the corresponding starter relay, and at the same time
the 24V supply is fed via the starting circuit, to the coil of the battery switching
relay energising it. Contacts 1a 1b are now opened to interrupt the direct
connection between battery 1 and the busbar. Contacts 3 a 3b are also opened
to interupt the grounded side of the battery 2. Since contacts 2 a 2b of the
switching relay are closed they connect both batteries in series so that 48V is
supplied to the busbar and the starter motor.
After the engine has started and reached self-sustaining speed, the starter relay
automatically de-energises and the battery switching relay coil circuit is
interrupted to return the batteries to their normal parallel configuration.
Note: The power selector switches are left in the Battery position so that when
the generators are switched onto the battery busbar, charging current will flow to
the batteries.
3.8.2 Aircraft Battery Charger Units
In most modern transport aircraft, the battery system incorporates a separate unit
for maintaining the batteries in a state of charge. These units also provide some
method of sensing the temperature of the batteries during the charging cycle and
will automatically isolate the charging unit whenever an over temperature is
sensed.
The circuits of On-Board charger units vary between aircraft types. The
following explains the operation of the charger unit fitted to the McDonnell
Douglas DC-10.
Page 3-32
A
115V
3 A.C. B
MAIN
C
3
REVERSE
CURRENT
C/B
DIRECT FROM
BATTERIES
D.C.
A3
B2
A2
B1
PWR SUPPLY
INTERUPT
TEMP SENSOR
CURRENT
TEMP CONTROL
REF VOLTS
B2
D.C. FROM
T.R.U.
TEMP SENSOR
LOGIC
CCT
CHARGING CURRENT
PWR SUPPLY
MONITOR
SCR SW
CCT
SCRS
A3
SENSING RELAYS
A2
B1
TEMPERATURE
CUT-OFF
REGULATOR
PWR SUPPLY
D.C.
BATTERY
SWITCH
BATT
BATTERY
SWITCH
D.C. FROM
T.R.U.
B1
A1
D.C.
RELAY
B2
OFF
A2
A.C.
RELAY
TO BATT
BUS
1 A.C.
MODULE 11
TEMP SENSOR
TRANSFORMER
RECTIFIER
UNIT
OFF
ON
EMERGENCY
POWER SWITCH
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Figure 16 shows the charger circuit for the DC-10.
DC 10 Charger Unit Circuit

Figure 16
Page 3-33
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.8.3 DC-10 Charger Unit

On the DC-10, the D.C. systems operate from a 28V supply, this is achieved by
connecting two 14V batteries in series. Under normal conditions the D.C. busbar
is fed via two Transformer Rectifiers Units (TRU) from the main A.C. generating
system. If the normal D.C. power is not available, then the batteries are
automatically connected to the D.C. busbar via the Charger/Battery relay and
Sensing realys. When the batteries are supplying the D.C. busbars the charger
is isolated form the batteries.
3.8.4 Operation
When power is available from the main generating system, D.C. is supplied to the
battery busbar from the TRUs, which also feed the coils of the sensing relays.
With these relays energised, the circuit through contacts A2 A3 is interrupted,
while the contacts B1 B2 are made. The battery switch, which controls the
operation of the Charger/Battery relay, is closed to the Batt position when the
main electrical; power is available, and the emergency power switch is closed in
the OFF position.
The charger/Battery relay is of the dual type, one relay being A.C. operated and
the other D.C. operated. The A.C. relay coil is supplied with power from 1 phase
of the main three-phase supply to the battery charger and is energised via
contacts B1 B2 of the sensing relays, the battery switch and the emergency
switch. When energised, the contact A1 A2 close to connect the D.C. positive
output from the battery charger to the batteries, thus supplying them with
charging current.
In the event of a main power failure, the battery charger will become inoperative,
the A.C. charger relay will de-energise to the centre off position, and the two
sensing relays will also de-energise, thereby opening contacts B1 B2 and
closing contacts A2 A3. The closing of contacts A2 A3 now permits a positive
supply to flow direct from the battery to the coil of the D.C. battery relay which on
being energised also actuates the A.C. relay thereby closing contacts B1 B2
which connect the batteries directly to the battery busbar. The function of the
battery relay contacts is to connect a supply from the battery busbar to the relays
of an emergency warning light circuit.
3.8.5 Charging Unit
The charging unit converts the main three-phase supply 115/200volts A.C. into
controlled D.C. output of a constant current and voltage. This is achieved using a
transformer and a full-wave rectifying bridge circuit made up of silicon rectifiers
and silicon controlled rectifiers SCRs. The charging current is limited to
approximately 65A, this is controlled via current/voltage monitoring circuits and
temperature sensing elements within the batteries. The output if these circuits
are fed to a logic circuit which in turn controls the operation of the SCRs, thus
controlling the charging current.
Page 3-34
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.8.6 Boeing 373 Charger System
BATTERY
CHARGER
BATTERY
CHARGER
TRANSFER
RELAY
BUSBAR
GRND SERV
GROUND
SERVICE
RELAY
EXTERNAL A.C. BUSBAR
APU START
INTERLOCK
RELAY
TRANSFER
RELAY
NORM
No 1 GENERATOR BUSBAR
ALT
No 1 TRANSFER BUSBAR
TRANSFER
SIGNAL 28V
D.C. (No 2
GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT)
No 2 MAIN BUSBAR
No 2 GENERATOR BUSBAR
The charger operates from the aircrafts 115V 3-phase A.C. power supplied from
a Ground Service busbar, which in turn is normally powered by the No 1
generator system, or the external power source. This ensures that the aircrafts
battery is maintained in a state of charge both in flight and on the ground. Figure
17 shows the chargers A.C. input circuit.
Battery Charger A.C. Input circuit

Figure 17
Page 3-35
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
BATTERY
BUSBAR
HOT BATTERY
BUABAR
BATTERY
THERMAL
SWITCH
BATTERY
CHARGER
MODE
CONTROL
RELAY
115V
400Hz
3
TRU
HIGH
LOW
FROM MAIN
TRU
BATTERY
TRANSFER
RELAY
BATTERY
BUSBAR
RELAY
EXT POWER
RELAY
METERING
SHUNT
EXT A.C.
BUSBAR
BATTERY
SWITCH
115V 400Hz
EXT POWER
BUSBAR
In flight the A.C. supply is routed to the charger throughh the relaxed contacts of
a battery charger transfer relay and an APU start interlock relay. This interlock
ensures the charger is inhibited when the APU is starting. Figure 18 shows the
battery charger control circuit.
Battery Charger Control Circuit

Figure 18
Page 3-36
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The D.C. supply for battery charging is obtained from a TRU within the charger
unit, which will maintain the battery cell voltage levels in two modes of operation:
1.
High Charge.
2.
Low Charge.
Under normal operating conditions of the aircrafts power generation system, the
charging level is in the high mode since the mode switch is energised by a
rectified output through the batteries thermal switch, and the relaxed contacts of
both the battery bus relay and the external power select relay.
The charger operates firstly in the high mode, providing an unregulated supply to
the battery until the battery voltage rises above that of the charger. The charger
current then falls to zero until the battery voltage falls below that of the charger, at
which time the charger provides the battery with a pulsed charge and the process
is repeated. This pulsing continues until the control circuits within the charger
change the operation to the low mode, approximately 2 minutes after pulse
charging commenced.
In the event that the number 1 generator supply fails, there will be a loss of A.C.
power to the ground service busbar, and therefore, to the battery charger.
However, with the number 2 generator still on line, a transfer signal from the
number 2 generator control unit is automatically supplied to the coil of the battery
charger transfer relay, its contacts change over to the connect the charger to the
number 2 A.C. supply. Thus the battery chargers operation is not interrupted.
The APU start interlock relay is connected in parallel with a relay in the starting
circuit of the APU, and is only energised during initial stage of starting the APU
engine. This prevents the starter motor from drawing part of its heavy starting
current through the battery charger. The interlock relay releases automatically
when the APU engine reaches 35% rev/min.
In addition to the control relay within the battery charger, there are three other
ways in which the charging mode can be controlled, each of them fulfilling a
protective role by interupting the ground circuit to the mode control relay and so
establishing a low mode of charge. They are:
1.
Opening of the battery thermal switch in the event of the battery

temperature exceeding 46C.
2.
The loss of D.C. power from the designated TRU, causing the battery
transfer relay to relax and the battery bus relay to energise.
3.
Energising the fuelling panel power select relay when external A.C. power is
connected to the aircraft
Page 3-37
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.9 DC POWER GENERATION

The majority of today's aircraft are equipped with ac generation systems.
However, dc generation systems are still in use and this section gives an
overview of these.
3.9.1 DC Generator
Figure 19 shows the construction of a D.C. generator.
GENERATOR
END
HOUSING
FIELD WINDING
FRAME
DRIVE SHAFT
LAMINATED ARMATURE
POLE PIECES
D.C. Generator
Figure 19
Page 3-38
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.9.2 Fixed Winding Arrangement

Figure 20 shows the arrangement of the fixed windings of a basic four-pole
machine suitable for use as a self-excited generator.
COMMUTATOR
POLE
TERMINAL
BOX
YOKE
Z
A
A1
Z1
FIELD
WINDING
BRUSH
Fixed Winding arrangement

Figure 20
The fixed portion of the armature circuit consists of four brushes, the links
connecting together brushes of like polarity and the cables connecting the linked
brushes to the terminals A and A1. The four field coils are of a high resistance
and connected in series to form the filed windings. They are wound and
connected in such a way as to produce alternate North and South polarities. The
ends of the windings are brought out to the terminals indicated Z and Z1.
Page 3-39
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.10 VOLTAGE REGULATION

The efficient operation of an aircrafts electrical equipment requiring D.C.
depends on the fundamental requirement that the generator voltage at the
distribution busbar system be maintained constant under all conditions of load
and at varying speeds, within the limits of a prescribed range. It is necessary,
therefore, to provide a device that will regulate the output voltage of a generator
at the designed value and within a specified tolerance. There are a number of
factors which, either separately or in combination, affect the output voltage of a
D.C. generator, and of these the one which can be most effectively be controlled
is the Field Circuit current, which in turn controls the flux density.
3.10.1 Vibrating Contact Type Regulator
Figure 21 shows a vibrating contact regulator circuit.
TO
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CURRENT
REGULATOR
SHUNT
WINDING
SERIES
WINDING
GEN
RESISTOR
Vibrating Contact Regulator Circuit

Figure 21
Page 3-40
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The regulator consists of two armatures (1 for current regulation, 1 for voltage
regulation). The voltage regulator consists of windings assembled on a common
core. The shunt winding consists of many turns of fine gauge wire and is
connected in series with the current regulator winding and in parallel with the
generator. The series winding consists of a few turns of heavy gauge wire and is
connected in series with the generators shunt field winding.
When the generator is operating, the contacts of both regulators are closed so
that a positive supply flows through the generator field winding providing the
necessary excitation for raising the generator output. At the same time current
passes through the shunt winding of the voltage regulator, which will increase the
electromagnetic field. As soon as the generator output voltage reaches the preadjusted regulator setting, the electromagnetic field becomes strong enough to
oppose the tension of the armature spring and opens the contacts.
The circuit in the series winding is opened causing the field to collapse, at the
same time the supply to the generator field passes through the resistor, reducing
the field current which will cause the generator output to reduce. This reduced
output in turn reduces the electromagnetic field strength of the regulator causing
the spring tension to close the contact to restore the generator output voltage to
its regulated value. The operation is then repeated to maintain the correct
voltage output. The frequency of operation dependant on the electrical load
carried by the generator, typically between 50 to 200 times a second.
3.10.2 Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator
The carbon pile voltage regulator derives its name from the fact that the
regulating element (variable resistance) consists of a stack or pile of carbon
disks. The disks are contained in a ceramic tube with a carbon or metal contact
plug at each end. At one end of the pile, a number of radially arranged leaf
springs exert pressure against the contact plug, thus keeping the disks pressed
firmly together.
For as long as the disks are compressed, the resistance of the pile is very low. If
the pressure on the carbon pile is reduced, the resistance increases. By placing
an electromagnetic in a position where it will release the spring pressure on the
disks as the voltage rises above a predetermined value, a stable and efficient
voltage regulator is obtained. The carbon pile regulator is connected in a
generator system in the field circuit and an electromagnet to control the
resistance. The carbon pile is in series with the generator field and voltage coil is
shunted across the generator output.
A small manually operated rheostat is connected in series with the voltage coil to
provide a limited amount of adjustment. This is necessary where two or more
generators are connected in parallel to the same electrical system.
Page 3-41
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
REGULATED
SETTING
LOAD
Figure 22 shows a carbon pile voltage regulator circuit.
VOLTAGE
COIL
PILE PRESSURE
CARBON
PILE
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
GEN
RPM
MAX
F
I
E
L
D
PILE
RESISTANCE
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator

Figure 22
Page 3-42
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.10.3 Transistorised Voltage Regulation

Vibrating contact and carbon pile regulators are mainly used on light aircraft:
larger aircraft have transistorized voltage regulators (See figure 23). These
regulators use a Zener Diode to regulate the field current.
The two key points to understand with respect to the operation of the
transistorized voltage regulator are the Zener diode operation and the control
transistor. The zener diode can be compared to a relief valve that opens at a
given pressure in a hydraulic system. When the zener diode conducts current, it
causes the control transistor to switch ON which in turn causes the power
transistor to switch OFF. With the power transistor off, the current flow to the
generator field winding is zero. Once the generator output starts to fall, the zener
diode will close, switching OFF the control transistor which will cause the power
transistor to switch ON again, thus restoring the current flow to the generator
field winding. The operation is then repeated to maintain the correct voltage
output. The frequency of operation dependant on the electrical load carried by
the generator, typically between 50 to 200 times a second.
TR1
R1
POWER
D1
TR2
R2
D2
C1
CONTROL
R3
R4
C2
ZD1
R5
R6
DC
GEN
FIELD
TO LOAD
Transistorized Voltage Regulator

Figure 23
Page 3-43
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.11 REVERSE CURRENT CUT-OUT RELAY

In every system in which the generator is used to charge a battery as well as
supply operating power, an automatic means must be provided for disconnecting
the generator from the battery when the generators voltage is lower than the
battery voltage. If this is not done, the battery will discharge through the
generator and may burn out the armature. To prevent this occurring, a Reverse
Current Cutout Relay is used. Figure 24 shows a reverse current cutout relay
circuit.
A+
F+
LOAD +
CURRENT
COIL
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
VOLTAGE
COIL
F
A
Reverse Current Cutout Relay Circuit

Figure 24
The voltage coil and current coil are both wound on the same soft-iron core. The
voltage coil has many turns of fine wire and is connected in parallel with the
generator output. The current coil consists of a few turns of large wire connected
is series with the generator, thus it carries the entire load current of the generator.
Page 3-44
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
A pair of heavy contact points is placed where it will be controlled by the magnetic
field of the soft iron core. When the generator is not operating, these contacts
are held open by the spring. When the generator is operating, and its voltage
value is slightly higher than the battery, the voltage coil in the relay magnetizes
the soft iron core sufficiently to overcome the spring tension.
The magnetic field closes the contact points and connects the generator to the
load. As long as the generator voltage remains higher than the battery voltage,
the current flow through the current coil will be in a direction that aids the voltage
coil to keep the points closed. This means that the field of the current coil will be
in the same direction as the magnetic field of the voltage coil and the two will
strengthen each other.
When the engine turning the generator slows down or stops, the generator
voltage will decrease and fall below that of the battery. In this case the battery
voltage will cause current to start to flow toward the generator through the relay
current coil.
When this happens, the current flow will be in a direction that creates a field
opposing the field of the relay. This results in the weakening of the total field of
the relay, and the contact points are opened by the spring, thus disconnecting the
generator and the battery. The tension of the spring controlling the contact points
should be adjusted so that the points close at approximately 13.5 V in a 12 V
system or 26.6 27 V in a 24 V system.
3.12 CURRENT LIMITER
In some generator systems a device is installed that will reduce the generator
voltage whenever the maximum safe load is exceeded. This device is called a
Current Limiter. It is designed to protect the generator from loads that will cause
it to overheat and eventually burn the insulation and windings.
The current limiter operates on a principle similar to that of the vibrator type
voltage regulator. Instead of having a voltage coil to regulate the resistance in
the field circuit of the generator, the current limiter has a current coil connected in
series with the generator load circuit. Figure 25 shows the circuit of a current
limiter.
Page 3-45
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
CURRENT
COIL
TO REVERSE
CURRENT
LIMITER
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CONTACT
POINTS
RESISTOR
Current Limiter Circuit

Figure 25
When the load current becomes excessive, the current coil magnetizes the iron
core sufficiently to open the contact points, which adds the resistor to the
generator field circuit. This causes the generator voltage to decrease, with a
corresponding decrease in generator current. Since the magnetism produced by
the current limiter coil is proportional to the current flowing through it, the
decrease in generator load current also weakens the magnetic field of the current
coil and thus permits the contact points to close. This removes the resistor from
the generator field circuit and allows the voltage to rise again. If an excessive
load remains connected to the generator, the contacts of the current limiter will
continue to vibrate, thus holding the current output at or below the minimum safe
limit.
The contact points are normally set to open when the current flow is 10% above
the rated capacity of the generator.
Page 3-46
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.13 THREE UNIT CONTROL PANEL

A three unit control panel consists of a:
1.
Voltage Regulator.
2.
Current Limiter.
3.
Reverse Current Cutout Relay.
This combination will provide for both voltage regulation and protection from
excessive loads. It has proved very successful for the control of 12 and 24-volt
generator systems. Figure 26 shows the circuit for a three-unit generator control
panel.
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CURRENT
LIMITER
REVERSE
CURRENT LIMITER
A+
F+
Three Unit Generator Control Panel

Figure 26
Page 3-47
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 27 shows a typical three unit Generator Control Panel.
Typical Three Unit Generator Control Panel

Figure 27
Page 3-48
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.14 PARALLEL & LOAD SHARING

In a multi-engine aircraft, it is generally desirable that both generators driven by
each engine should operate in parallel thereby ensuring that in the event of an
engine or generator failure, there is no interruption of the primary power supply.
Parallel operation requires generators carry equal shares of the system load, and
so their output voltages must be as near equal as possible under all operating
conditions. Generators are provided with voltage regulators which independently
control the generators voltage output, but as variations in output and electrical
loads can occur, it is essential to provide additional regulation circuits, having the
function of maintaining balanced outputs and load sharing.
The method most commonly used for this purpose is that which utilises a LoadEqualising circuit to control generator output via their voltage regulators. This is
shown in figure 28.
BUSBAR
LINE
CONTACTORS
CP
GEN
No 1
FC
VC
CP
VC
EC
FC
EC
EQUALISING
RELAYS
INTERPOLE
COIL
INTERPOLE
COIL
Load Sharing (Carbon Pile Regulation)

Figure 28
Page 3-49
GEN
No 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Both generators are each feeding 150 amps to a common bus bar. The current is
fed to the loads and the 150 amps complete the circuit to each generator through
its earth connection. It can be seen that there is a voltage drop across (usually)
an interpole of each generator and since the load currents are equal, the voltage
drops are also equal. The same potential occurs at each end of the equalizing
loop and so no current flows in the equalizing coils.
When there is an imbalance of currents between the generators, the voltage drop
across the interpole of the generator supplying the largest current is greater than
the voltage drop in the other generator. The end of the equalizing loop with the
largest voltage drop will be driven more negative, causing equalizing current to
flow from the lightly loaded generator to the overloaded generator.
Current flow in this direction causes one regulator to increase the output of the
associated (lightly loaded) generator. The other regulator causes the associated
(over loaded) generator to reduce its output. Figure 29 shows the operation of
the equalising circuit when the No 2 generators output is higher than that of the
No 1 generator.
300 AMPS
BUSBAR
100 AMPS
LINE
CONTACTORS
CP
GEN
No 1
FC
200 AMPS
VC
CP
VC
EC
FC
GEN
No 2
EC
EQUALISING
RELAYS
100
AMPS
- 0.17V
- 0.34V
Load Sharing Unbalanced Loads

Figure 29
Page 3-50
200
AMPS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
FIELD
EXCITATION
CURRENT
GEN
No 1
No 1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
BUSBAR
PARALLEL RELAY UNIT
GEN
No 2
No 2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
FIELD
EXCITATION
CURRENT
Paralleling load sharing can also be controlled utilising vibrating contact voltage
regulation. Figure 30 shows a load sharing circuit using vibrating contact voltage
regulators.
Load Sharing (Vibrating Contact Regulation)

Figure 30
Page 3-51
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
For this method of load sharing the circuit comprises an additional coil Eq in the
voltage regulation section A of each regulator and a paralleling relay unit. When
both generators are in operation and supplying the correct regulated outputs
voltages, the contacts in the voltage and current (B) regulation sections of each
regulator are closed. The contacts of the reverse current relays C are also
closed thereby connecting both generators to the busbar. The outputs from each
generator are also supplied to the coils of the paralleling relay unit so the contacts
of its relays are closed.
The paralleling relays and the equalising coils form the paralleling (equalising)
circuit between both generators. Under load-sharing conditions, the current
flowing through the coils Eq is in the same direction as that of the voltage coils
of the voltage regulating sections of each regulator, but in equal and opposite
directions at the contacts of the paralleling relay unit.
If the voltage output of the No 1 generator should rise, there will be a greater
voltage input to the voltage regulating section of the number 1 voltage regulator
compared with that of the corresponding section of the number 2 regulator.
There will be an unbalanced flow of current through the equalising circuit such
that the increase of current through coil Eq of the number 1 voltage regulator
will now assist the electromagnetic effect of voltage coil D causing the relay
contacts to open. This connects the resistance into the field circuit of the number
1 generator, reducing its excitation current and its voltage output.
Because of the unbalanced condition, the increased current in the equalising
circuit will also flow across the paralleling relay unit contacts to the coil Eq in the
number 2 voltage regulator so that it opposes the electromagnetic effect of its
associated coil D.
In a paralleled generator system utilising solid sate regulation, any unbalanced
conditions are detected and adjusted by interconnecting the regulators via two
additional paralleling transistors, one in each regulator.
Page 3-52
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.15 AC POWER GENERATION

AC generators are used as the primary source of electric power in almost all
transport category aircraft. The AC system supplies most of the electrical power
required for the aircraft.
3.15.1 Brushless Generators
Brushless generators were developed for the purpose of eliminating some of the
problems of generators that employ slip-rings and brushes to carry exciter current
to the rotating field. The advantages of a brushless generators are:
1. Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush or slip ring wear.
2. High stability and consistency of output, because variations of resistance
and conductivity at the brushes and slip rings are eliminated.
3. Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing at the brushes is
eliminated.
The brushless generators operation is to use electomagnetic induction to transfer
current from the stationary components of the generator to the rotating
components and use a three-phase Star connected armature. Figure 31 shows a
schematic of a brushless generator.
TO AC BUSBAR SYSTEM
TO GCU
T1
T2
T3
FROM
GCU
PMG
PERMANENT
MAGNET
GENERATOR
RECTIFIER
EXCITER
GENERATOR
MAIN
FIELD
MAIN GENERATOR
Brushless Generator
Figure 31
Page 3-53
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The permanent magnet, which is connected to the rotor, is used to induce an

alternating current into the stationary PMG three-phase armature winding. The
Generator Control Unit (GCU) rectifies the AC armature current to DC voltage,
which is applied to the exciter filed winding. The exciter field induces an AC into
the exciter armature. The exciter armature is connected to the rotating rectifier,
which changes the AC to DC for the main generator field winding. The main field
induces an AC voltage into the main generator stator fields. The stator fields are
induced with 115V phase voltage giving the 200V between two phases.
3.15.2 Constant Speed Drive (CSD) Unit
When an AC generator system is used as the primary source of power, numerous
consumer services are dependent on a Constant-Frequency. A constant
frequency is inherent in an AC system only if the generator is driven at a constant
speed. The aircrafts engines cannot be relied on to do this directly and, if a
generator is connected directly to the accessory drive of an engine the output
frequency will vary with engine speed.
Some form of conversion equipment is therefore required and the type most
commonly used utilizes a transmission device interposed between the engine and
the generator, and which incorporates a variable ratio drive mechanism. Such a
mechanism is referred to as a Constant-Speed Drive (CSD) unit. Figure 32
shows the basic arrangement of a CSD unit.
CHARGE
OIL
VARIABLE
DISPLACEMENT
FIXED
DISPLACEMENT
HYDRAULIC UNIT
CONTROL
CYLINDER
DIFFERENTIAL UNIT
OUTPUT
TO
GENERATOR
INPUT
FROM
ENGINE
TO OIL PUMPS
AND GOVERNOR
GOVERNOR
Constant-Speed Drive Unit

Figure 32
Page 3-54
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The power used to drive the generator is controlled and transmitted through the
combined effects of the units. Oil for the system operation is supplied from a
reservoir via charge pumps within the unit, and a governor.
3.15.3 Variable Displacement Unit
The variable displacement unit consists of a cylinder block; reciprocating pistons
and a variable angle wobble or swash plate, the latter being connected to the
piston of a control cylinder. Oil to this control cylinder is supplied from the
governor. This unit is driven directly by the input gear and the differential planet
gear carrier shaft, so that its cylinder block always rotates (relative to the port
plate and wobble plate) at a speed proportional to the input gear speed and
always in the same direction.
3.15.4 Control Cylinder
When the control cylinder moves the wobble plate to some angular position, the
pistons within the cylinder block are moved in and out as the block rotates, and
so the charge oil is compressed to a high pressure and then ported to the fixed
displacement unit. Under these conditions the variable displacement unit
functions as a hydraulic pump.
3.15.5 Governor
The supply of charge oil to the units control valve is controlled by a governor
valve which is spring biased, flyweight operated and driven by the out gear
driving the generator. It therefore responds to changes in transmission output
speed.
3.15.6 Fixed Displacement Unit
The fixed displacement unit is similar to the variable displacement unit, except
that its wobble plate, which has an inclined face, is fixed and has no connection
to the control cylinder. When oil is pumped to the fixed displacement unit by the
variable displacement unit, it functions as a hydraulic motor and the volume of oil
pumped to it determines its direction of rotation and speed.
3.15.7 Differential Gear Unit
The differential gear unit consists of a carrier shaft carrying two meshing (1:1
ratio) planet gears, and a gear at each end; one meshing with the input gear and
the other with the gear which drives the variable displacement unit cylinder block.
The carrier shaft always rotates in the same direction and at a speed which via
the input , varies with engine speed. Surrounding the carrier shaft are two
separate housings, and since they have internal ring gears meshing with the
planet gears, then they can rotated differently. Each housing also has an
external ring gear; one (input ring gear) meshing with the fixed displacement unit
gear, and the other (output ring gear) meshing with the output gear drive to the
generator.
Page 3-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.15.8 CSD Operation

With the CSD in operation, the output ring gear housing serves as the
continuous drive transmission link between the engine and the generator. Since
the input ring gear housing is geared to the fixed displacement hydraulic unit,
then depending on the direction of rotation of this unit , the housing can rotate in
the same direction as, or opposite to, that of the carrier shaft and the output ring
gear housing. In this way, speed is either added to, or subtracted from the
engine input speed, and through the gear ratio (2:1) between the ring gears and
the carrier shaft planet gears, the output ring gear housing rotational speed will
be appropriately adjusted to maintain constant governor speed.
3.15.9 Underdrive Phase
If the input speed supplied to the transmission exceeds that required to produce
the required output speed, the governor, in sensing the speed difference will
cause oil to flow away from the control cylinder. In this condition, the
transmission is said to be operating in the Underdrive phase. Figure 33 shows
the CSD operating in Underdrive Phase.
VARIABLE
UNIT
FIXED
UNIT
CONTROL
CYLINDER
CARRIER
SHAFT
T
EN
ER
F
IF
IAL
OUTPUT
RING GEAR
TO
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
GEAR
TO
GOVERNOR
INPUT
GEAR
INPUT
RING GEAR
TO
PUMPS
FROM
ENGINE
Underdrive Phase
Figure 33
Page 3-56
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The control cylinder changes the angular of the variable displacement units
wobble plate so that the oil is pumped at high pressure to the fixed displacement
unit causing it to rotate in the same direction as that of the variable displacement
unit. This rotation is transmitted to the input ring gear housing, of the differential
unit, so that it will rotate in the same direction as the output ring gear housing,
and the carrier shaft. Because the input ring gear housing is now rotating in the
same direction as the carrier shaft then the speed of the freely rotating planet
gear meshing with the housing will be reduced. The speed of the second planet
gear will also be reduced in direct ratio thereby reducing the speed of the output
ring gear housing. This hydromechanical process of speed subtraction
continues until the required generator drive speed is attained.
3.15.10 Overdrive Phase
When the output speed supplied to the transmission is lower than that required to
produce the required output speed, the governor causes charge oil to be supplied
to the control cylinder. In this condition, the transmission is said to be operating
in the Overdrive phase. Figure 34 shows the CSD operating in Overdrive
Phase.
Overdrive Phase
Figure 34
Page 3-57
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The control cylinder changes the angular of the variable displacement units
wobble plate so that the oil is pumped at high pressure to the fixed displacement
unit causing it to rotate in the opposite direction as that of the variable
displacement unit. This rotation is transmitted to the input ring gear housing, of
the differential unit, so that it will rotate in the opposite direction as the output ring
gear housing, and the carrier shaft. Because the input ring gear housing is
now rotating in the opposite direction as the carrier shaft then the speed of the
freely rotating planet gear meshing with the housing will be increased. The speed
of the second planet gear will also be increased in direct ratio thereby increasing
the speed of the output ring gear housing. This hydromechanical process of
speed addition continues until the required generator drive speed is attained.
Figure 35 shows a typical CSD-Generator Unit.
BRUSHLESS
GENERATOR
OIL LEVEL
SIGHT GLASS
CONSTANT SPEED
DRIVE UNIT
CSD- Generator Unit

Figure 35
In multi CSD generator systems the control of the drives is important in order that
real electrical loads are evenly distributed between generators. This will be
covered at a later point in these notes.
Page 3-58
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.15.11 CSD Disconnection

The disconnection of the CSD transmission system following a malfunction may
be accomplished mechanically via handles located in the flight crew compartment
utilising electro-mechanical principles. Figure 36 shows a typical CSD
disconnection system.
RESET
SPRING
DOG TOOTH CLUTCH

SEPARATION POINT
INPUT
SPLINE
SHAFT
INPUT
SHAFT
THREADED
PAWL
SOLENOID
INPUT
GEAR
PAWL
SPRING
HANDLE
SPRING
TRANSMISSION
CASE
CSD Disconnection System

Figure 36
Page 3-59
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The drive from the engine is transmitted to the CSD via a dog-tooth clutch, and
disconnect is initially activated by a solenoid controlled from the flight deck.
When the solenoid is energised, a spring-loaded pawl moved into contact with the
threads of the input shaft, which serves as a screw causing the input shaft to
move away from the input spline shaft (driven by the engine) therby seperating
the driving dogs of the clutch.
Resetting of the disconnect mechanism can only be accomplished on the ground
following shut-down of the appropriate engine. This is accomplished by pulling
out the reset handle to withdraw the threaded pawl from the input shaft, and
allowing the reset spring on the shaft to re-engage the clutch. At the same time,
and with the solenoid de-energised, the solenoid nose pin snaps into position in
the slot of the pawl.
3.16 INTEGRATED DRIVE GENERATOR (IDG)
The IDG is a state-of-the-art means of producing A.C. electrical power. It
contains both generator and the CSD unit in one unit. This concept helps to
reduce both the weight and the size of the traditional two-unit system. The CSD
contains a hydraulic trim unit and a differential assembly, which converts the
variable engine rpm to a generator input speed of 12,000 rpm. Figure 37 shows
a typical IDG as used on Boeing 757 aircraft.
OUTPUT
115 V 400 Hz
GENERATOR
CONSTANT
DRIVE UNIT
Integrated Drive Generator (IDG)

Figure 37
This type of unit is capable of producing 90 kVA continuously, 112.5 kVA for a 5minute overload, and 150 kVA for a 5-second overload. The output voltage is
115V A.C. at 400 Hz.
Page 3-60
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.17 FIELD EXCITATION

The production of a desired output by any type of generator requires a magnetic
field to provide excitation of the windings. In D.C. generators, this is achieved in
a fairly straightforward manner by residual magnetism in the electromagnet
system and by the build up of current through the field windings. The field current
is controlled by a voltage regulator system. The excitation of A.C. generators
involves the use of more complex circuits, the arrangement of which are
essentially varied to suit the particular type of generator and its controlling
system. However, they all have one common feature, i.e. the supply of D.C. to
the field windings to maintain the desired A.C. output.
3.18 VOLTAGE REGULATION
Regulation of the output of a constant-frequency generator system is based on
the principle of controlling the field excitation. In installations requiring a multiarrangement of constant frequency generators, additional circuitry is required to
control output under load-sharing or paralleling operating conditions; this also
involves control of the field excitation.
With reference to figure 37, the regulation circuit is comprised of three main
sections:
1. Error Detection.
2. Pre-Amplification.
3. Power Amplification.
3.18.1 Operation
The function of the error detector circuit is to monitor the generators output
voltage, compare it with a fixed reference voltage and to transmit any error to the
pre-amplifier. It is made up of a three-phase bridge rectifier connected to the
generator output, and a bridge circuit of which two arms contain gas-filled
regulator tubes, the two arms containing resistors. The inherent characteristic of
the tubes are such that they maintain an essentially constant voltage drop across
their connections for a wide range of current through them and for this reason
they establish the reference voltage against which the output voltage is
continuously compared.
The output side of the reference bridge is connected to an error control winding
of the pre-amplifier and then from this amplifier to a signal control winding of the
power amplifier. Both the amplifiers are three-phase magnetic amplifiers. The
output of the power amplifier is supplied to the shunt windings of the generators
A.C. exciter stator.
Page 3-61
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
GENERATOR
PMG
ERROR DETECTOR
REFERENCE
SENSING
R1
R2
RV1
PRE-AMP
ERROR
CONTROL
WINDING
SIGNAL
CONTROL
WINDING
POWER AMP
A.C. EXCITER
EXCITER FIELD
Figure 38 shows the voltage regulation circuit for an AC Brushless Generator.
AC Brushless Generator Voltage Regulation

Figure 38
Page 3-62
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The output side of the reference bridge is connected to an error control winding
of the pre-amplifier and then from this amplifier to a signal control winding of the
power amplifier. Both the amplifiers are three-phase magnetic amplifiers. The
output of the power amplifier is supplied to the shunt windings of the generators
A.C. exciter stator.
The output of the error bridge rectifier is a D.C. voltage slightly lower than the
average of the three A.C. line voltages: This voltage may be adjusted via a
variable resistor (RV1) to bring the regulator system to a balance condition for
any nominal line voltage.
A balanced condition of the reference bridge circuit is obtained when the voltage
applied across the bridge (points A & B) is exactly twice that of the voltage drop
across the two tubes. Since under this condition, the voltage drop across R1 &
R2 will equal the drop across each tube, then no current will flow in the output
circuit to the error control winding of the pre-amplifier.
If the A.C. line voltage should go above or below the fixed value, the voltage
drops across R1 & R2 will differ causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit and a
flow of current to the error control winding of the pre-amplifier. The direction
and magnitude of the current flow will depend on whether the error in line voltage,
is above (positive error signal) or below (negative error signal) the balanced
nominal value.
The output from the pre-amplifier to the power amplifier will either be positive or
negative. For a positive error, the exciter current will be decreased and for a
negative output it will be increased.
Page 3-63
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.19 VARIABLE-SPEED CONSTANT-FREQUENCY POWER SYSTEMS

In an effort to simplify and improve the production of ac power for aircraft and to
get away from the need for hydro-mechanical constant-speed drives, a number of
systems have been devised for producing 400 Hz three-phase electric power
through electronic circuitry. This has been made possible by great advances in
solid-state technology developed in recent years.
Variable-speed constant-frequency systems are referred to as VSCFR, VASCOF,
CFG (constant-frequency generator), and ECEPS (electronic convertor, electric
power supply). The systems employ a generator whose variable speed and
variable-frequency power would not be suitable for power needs in aircraft
system but the variable-frequency power is converted to constant-frequency
power by means of solid-state circuitry, and this makes the power suitable for
aircraft use.
The drawing at Figure 38 is a block diagram showing the principal elements of an
ECEPS system. The brushless ac generator is similar to those described in
module 3 but since it is driven directly by the engine, its speed and output
frequency will vary as engine speed varies. The variable three-phase power is
fed to the full wave crystal-diode rectifier, where it is converted to direct current
and filtered. This direct current is fed to the conversion circuitry, where it is
chopped into square-wave outputs that are separated and summed up to produce
three-phase 400 Hz alternating current.
Variable-speed constant-frequency systems can be designed with separate
components, or as an integrated unit. The generator and static inverter are
mounted as a unit on the engine. The GCU, which contains the voltage regulator,
is mounted in the aircraft.
Page 3-64
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
NEUTRAL
B PHASE
C PHASE
3 PHASE AC
400 HZ
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
BRUSHLESS
AC GENERATOR
FULL-WAVE
CRYSTAL-DIODE
RECTIFIER &
FILTER
3 PHASE AC
VARIABLE
FREQUENCY
FILTERED
DC
CONVERSION
CIRCUIT
A PHASE
VOLTAGE
SENSING
Figure 39 shows the basic elements of a Variable-Speed, Constant-Frequency

Electric Power System
Variable-Speed, Constant-Frequency Electric Power System

Figure 39
Page 3-65
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.20 FREQUENCY-WILD SYSTEMS

A frequency-wild system is one in which the frequency of its generator voltage
output is permitted to vary with the rotational speed of the generator. Although
such frequency variations are not suitable for the direct operation of all types of
a.c. consumer equipment, the output can (after constant voltage regulation) be
applied directly to resistive circuits such as electrical de-icing systems. It can
also be transformed and rectified to provide medium low voltage DC, which in
turn could be fed into a static inverter to produce a frequency controlled AC
supply.
3.20.1 Frequency-Wild Generator Construction
The construction of a typical generator used for the supply of heating current to a
turbo-propeller engine de-icing system is shown in Figure 40.
Frequency-Wild generator Construction

Figure 40
Page 3-66
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.20.2 Operation
The Frequency-Wild Generator has a three-phase output of 22kVA at 208 volts
and supplies full load at this voltage through a frequency range of 280 to 400 Hz.
Below 280 Hz the field current is limited and the output relatively reduced. The
generator consists of two major assemblies:
1. Fixed stator assembly in which the current is induced.
2. Rotating assembly (rotor).
3.20.3 Stator Assembly
The stator assembly is made up of a high permeability laminations and is
clamped in a main housing by an end frame having an integral flange for
mounting the generator at the corresponding drive outlet of an engine-driven
accessory gear-box.
The stator winding is star connected, the star or neutral point being made by
linking three ends of the winding and connecting it to ground. The other three
ends of the winding are brought out to a three-way output terminal box mounted
on the end frame of the generator. Three small current transformers are fitted
into the terminal box and form part of a protection system.
3.20.4 Rotor Assembly
The rotor assembly has six salient poles of laminated construction; their seriesconnected field windings terminate at two slip rings secured at one end of the
rotor shaft. Three brushes are equal-spaced on each slip ring and contained
within a brush-gear housing which also forms a bearing support for the rotor. The
brushes are electrically connected to d.c. input terminals housed in an excitation
terminal box mounted above the brush-gear housing.
3.20.5 Generator Cooling
The generator is cooled by ram air passing into the main housing via an inlet
spout at the slip ring end, the air escaping from the main housing through
ventilation slots at the drive end. An air collector ring encloses the slots and is
connected to a vent through which the cooling air is finally discharged. Provision
is made for the installation of a thermally operated switch to ensure there is
overheat protection.
Page 3-67
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
R
O
T
O
R
STATOR
COMPOUNDING
RECTIFIER
EXCITATION
RECTIFIER
SIGNAL
COMPOUNDING
TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
DISCONNECT
TO 208V AC
BUSBAR
AIRCRAFT
DE-ICING
SYSTEM
28V DC
BUSBAR
START
SWITCH
Figure 40 shows the circuit for the frequency wild generator shown in figure 41.
Frequency Wild Generator Schematic Circuit

Figure 41
Page 3-68
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.20.6 Frequency Wild Generator Excitation

Referring to figure 40, excitation is provided by DC from the aircrafts main busbar
and by rectified AC. The principle components and sections of the control system
associated with excitation are:
1. Control Switch.
2. Voltage Regulation Section.
3. Field Excitation Rectifier.
4. Current Compounding Section. (Consisting of threephase current transformers and rectifier).
The primary windings of the compounding transformer are in series with the three
phases of the generator and the secondary windings in series with the
compounding rectifier.
When the control switch is in the Start position, DC from the main busbar is
supplied to the slip rings and the windings of the generator rotor; thus, with the
generator running, a rotating magnetic field is set up to induce an alternating
output to the stator. This output is tapped to feed magnetic amplifier type of
voltage regulator, which supplies a sensing current signal to the excitation
rectifier. When this signal reaches a pre-determined Off-Load value, the
rectified AC through the rotor winding is sufficient for the generator to become
self-excited and independent of the main busbar supply which is then
disconnected.
The maximum excitation current for wide-speed-range high-output generators is
quite high, and the variation in excitation current necessary to control the output
under varying load conditions is such that the action of the voltage regulator
must be supplemented by some other medium of variable excitation current. The
compounding transformer and rectifier provide this, and are connected in such a
manner as to ensure the excitation current is proportional to load current.
Page 3-69
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.21 THREE PHASE GENERATOR

The output terminals of a three-phase generator are marked to show the phase
sequence, and these terminals are connected to busbars, which are also
identified correspondingly. Figure 42 shows a basic three-phase A.C. generator.
PHASE A
STATOR
ROTOR
PHASE B
PHASE C
Basic Three-Phase Generator

Figure 42
Page 3-70
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.21.1 Interconnection Of Phases

Each phase of a three-phase generator may be brought out to separate terminals
and used to supply separate groups of consumer services (see figure 38). This is
an arrangement rarely encounted in practice since pairs of Line wires would be
required for each phase and would involve uneconomic use of cable. The
phases are therefore interconnected by two different methods, these are:
1. Star connection.
2. Delta connection.
3.21.2 Star Connection
The Star connection is commonly used in generators. One end of each phase
is connected to the Neutral point, while the opposite ends of the windings are
connected to three separate lines. With this arrangement, two-phase windings
are connected between each pair of lines. A star connection arrangement is
shown in figure 43.
A
A PHASE
VOLTAGE
A1
NEUTRAL
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE
B PHASE
VOLTAGE
C1
B1
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE
C PHASE
VOLTAGE
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE
C
PHASE VOLTAGE = 115V
LINE VOLTAGE = 200V
Star Connection
Figure 43
Page 3-71
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.21.3 Delta Connection

In this configuration, the windings are connected in series to form a closed
Mesh and the lines being connected at the junction points. As only one phase
winding is connected between each pair of lines then, in the delta method, phase
voltage is always equal to line voltage. Figure 44 shows the Delta method of
connection.
LINE
VOLTAGE
A1
C1
E
AS GE
PH TA
L
VO
A
VO PH
L T AS
AG E
E
L CURRENT = 3 PHASE CURRENT
LINE
VOLTAGE
L CURRENT
= 3 PHASE CURRENT
B1
B PHASE
VOLTAGE
LINE
VOLTAGE
L CURRENT = 3 PHASE CURRENT
PHASE CURRENT = 100A

LINE CURRENT = 173A
Delta Connection
Figure 44
Page 3-72
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.22 BUSBARS
In most types of aircraft, the output from the generating sources are coupled to
one or more low impedance conductors referred to as Busbars. These are
usually situated in junction boxes or distribution panels located at central points
within the aircraft, and they provide a convenient means for connecting positive
supplies to the various consumer circuits.
Busbars vary in form dependent on the methods to be adopted in meeting the
electrical power requirements of a particular aircraft type. In a very simple
system a busbar can take the form of a strip of interlinked terminals while in more
complex systems main busbars are thick metal (usually copper) strips or rods to
which input and output supplies are connected. The strips or rods are insulated
from the main structure and are normally provided with some form of protective
covering.
3.22.1 Busbar Systems
The function of a distribution system is prmarily a simple one, but it is complicated
by having to meet additional requirments which concern a power source, or a
power consumer system operating either separately or collectively, under
abnormal conditions. The requiremnets and abnormal conditions may be
considered in relation to three main areas, which are as follows.
1.
Power-consuming equipment must not be deprived of power in the event of

power source failure unless total power demands exceeds the available
supply.
2.
Faults on the distribution system (i.e. fault currents, grounding of busbars)

should have the minimum effect on the system function, and should
constitute minimum possible fire risk.
3.
Power-consuming equipment faults must not endanger the supply of power

to other equipment.
These requirements are met in a combined manner by paralleling generators

where appropriate, by providing adequate circuit protection devices, and by
arranging for faulted generators to be isolated from the distribution system. Most
distribution systems are so arranged that they may be fed from a number of
different power sources. In adopting this arrangement it is usual to categorise all
consumer services into their order of importance. The categories are:
1.
Vital Services (Hot Battery Busbar).
2.
Essential Services.
3.
Non-Essential Services.
Page 3-73
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Vital Services; are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up
landing, e.g. emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers.
These services are connected directly to the battery.
Essential Services; are those required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight
emergency situation. They are connected to D.C. and A.C. busbars, as
appropriate, and in such a way that they can always be supplied from a generator
or from batteries.
Non-Essential Services; are those which can be isolated in an in-flight
emergency for load shedding purposes, and are connected to D.C. and A.C.
busbars, as appropriate, supplied from a generator.
Figure 45 shows a typical two D.C. generator distribution system.
GEN
No 1
No 2
INVERTER
No 3
INVERTER
GEN
No 2
NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
No 2
BUSBAR
No 1
BUSBAR
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
BATTERY
BUSBAR
VITAL D.C.
CONSUMERS
No 1
INVERTER
ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
ESSENTIAL BUSBAR
ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
Two D.C. Generator Distribution System

Figure 45
Page 3-74
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
In figure 44, the power supplies are 28v D.C. from two engine driven generators
operating in parallel, 115v A.C. 400 Hz A.C. from rotary inverters, and 28v D.C.
from the batteries. Each generator has its own busbar to which are connected
the Non-essential consumer services. Both busbars are in turn connected to a
single busbar, which supplies power to the Essential consumer services.
With both generators operating, all consumer services are supplied with power.
The essential busbar is also connected to the battery busbar ensuring that the
batteries are maintained in the charged condition. In the event that one generator
should fail it is automatically isolated from its respective busbar and all busbar
loads are taken over by the operative generator.
Should both generators fail, the non-essential services are no longer provided
with power, the batteries automatically supply power to the essential busbar to
supply the essential services (A.C. essential services via the No inverter). The
batteries will maintain the essential busbar for a period calculated on consumer
load requirements and the battery states of charge.
3.22.2 Split Bus-Bar A.C. Generation System
The generators supply three-phase power through separate channels, to the
main busbar and these in turn supply the non-essential consumer loads and
Transformer rectifier Units (TRUs). The essential A.C. loads are supplied from
the essential busbar, which under normal operating conditions is connected via a
change over relay to the No 1 main busbar. The main busbars are normally
isolated from each other (i.e. the generators are not paralleled). If however one
of the generators should fail, the busbars are automatically inter-connected by the
energising of the Bus-Tie breaker, thus maintaining supplies to all A.C.
consumers and both TRUs.
Page 3-75
Page 3-76
VITAL D.C.
CONSUMERS
BATTERY
D.C. BUSBAR
BATTERY
RELAY
ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
ESSENTIAL
A.C. BUSBAR
NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
CHANGE
OVER
REALY
ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
ESSENTIAL
D.C. BUSBAR
STATIC
INVERTER
No 1 A.C. BUSBAR
GEN
No 1
No 1
TRU
ISOLATION
RELAY
BUS TIE
BREAKER
No 2
TRU
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. BUSBAR
NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
No 2 A.C. BUSBAR
GEN
No 2
EXTERNAL
POWER
RELAY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 46 shows a schematic of an A.C. Split Busbar system.
A.C. Split Busbar System

Figure 46
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The supply of D.C. is derived from independent TRUs and the batteries. The No
1 TRU supplies essential loads and the No 2 TRU supplies non-essential loads
connected to the main D.C. busbar. Both the main and essential D.C. busbars
are automatically interconnected by an isolation relay.
In the event that one generator should fail it is automatically isolated from its
respective busbar and all busbar loads are taken over by the operative generator.
If, for any reason, the power supplied from both generators should fail the nonessential services will be isolated and the change over relay between No 1 main
busbar, and the essential A.C. busbar will automatically de-energize and connect
the essential A.C. busbar to an emergency static inverter. The main D.C. busbar
is isolated from the essential D.C. busbar by the isolation relay de-energizing.
The essential D.C. busbar deriving its D.C. supply directly from the battery busbar
to maintain the operation of the essential D.C. and A.C. supplies.
External power can also be connected to the whole system to supply both A.C.
and D.C. to the system.
Page 3-77
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.22.3 Bus-Bar Supply Priority

The supply of the automatic ac bus transfer system and the dc bus transfer
system are given below at Figures 47.
P R I O R IT Y
GEN 1
GEN 1
ESS AC BUS
GEN 2
EXT PWR
EXT PWR
GEN 2
E M E R IN V
EXT PWR
A C B US 2
GEN 3
GEN 3
GEN 3
GEN 2
EXT PWR
GEN 1
AC BUS 1
ESS A C
B US
E M E R AC
B US
AC BUS 2
A C G RN D
S E R V B US
* M A N U A L O P E R A T IO N
P R I O R IT Y
T RU 1
B AT 1
T RU 3
T RU 3
B AT 2
T RU 2
D C EX T
PW R
T RU 2 *
DC BUS
1
DC BUS
1
T RU 1 *
GR N SER V
T RU
B AT TE R IE S
DC BUS 1
B AT B US 1
ESS D C
B US
EM ER
DC BUS
DC BUS 2
D C G RN D
S E R V B US
B AT B US 2
Bus-bar Supply Priority

Figure 47
Page 3-78
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
GCB 1
EMERG AC BUS
AC Busbar System
Figure 48
AC GRND SERV
GSBC 1
GSBC 2
EBTR
EMERGENCY
INVERTER
GEN
1
AC BUS 1
BTB 1
GPTC
GEN
3
EBTC
APTC
APC
EPC
ESS AC BUS
EXT
PWR
BTB 2
GEN
2
AC BUS 2
GCB 2
Figure 48 shows the AC Busbar system, which would satisfy the requirements of
AC priority as shows in Figure 47.
Page 3-79
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
AC GND
SERV BUS
BATT 1
DC Busbar System
Figure 49
Page 3-80
DC EXT
PWR
DC EBTC
BIC 1
BATT BUS 1
BATTERY
CHARGER
ESS DC BUS
DC EPR
DC BTC
DC BUS 1
AC BUS 1
AC BUS 1
TRU
1
DC GRND SERV BUS
BPC
EMERG DC BUS
1
2
TRU
3
ESS AC BUS
DC EBPC
TRU
2
DC BUS 2
GND
SERV
TRU
BIC 2
BATT 2
BATT BUS 2
AC BUS 2
AC BUS 2
BATTERY
CHARGER
Figure 49 shows the DC Busbar system, which would satisfy the requirements of
DC priority as shows in Figure 47.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.22.4 Parallel Electrical System

In a parallel electrical system, all A.C. generators are connected to one
distribution bus called the Tie-Bus. This type of system maintains equal load
sharing for three or more generators. Since the generators are connected in
parallel to a common bus, all generator voltages, frequencies and their phase
sequence must be within very strict limits to ensure proper system operation.
Figure 50 shows a simplified schematic of a parallel electrical system.
GPU
APU
XPC 2
APB
TIE BUS
BTB 1
AC BUS 1
BTB 2
AC BUS 3
AC BUS 2
GCB 1
GCB 2
GEN 1
BTB 3
AC BUS 4
GCB 3
GEN 2
BTB 4
GCB 4
GEN 3
GEN 4
Parallel Electrical System

Figure 50
Page 3-81
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.22.5 Split Parallel Electrical System

A split parallel electrical system allows for the flexibility in load distribution but
maintains isolation between systems when required. When closed, the split
system breaker connects all generators together, thus paralleling the system.
When open, the split system breaker isolates the right and left systems, thus
creating a more flexible parallel system. Figure 51 shows a split parallel system
for a four engine aircraft.
GPU
GPU
APU
XPC 2
XPC 2
APB
SSB
TIE BUS
BTB 1
AC BUS 1
TIE BUS
BTB 2
AC BUS 3
AC BUS 2
GCB 1
GEN 1
BTB 3
GCB 2
GEN 2
BTB 4
AC BUS 4
GCB 3
GEN 3
GCB 4
GEN 4
Split Parallel Electrical System

Figure 51
Page 3-82
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.23 GENERATOR CONTROL UNITS (GCU)

Aircraft electrical power control systems include functions such as:
1. Voltage Regulation.
2. Current Limiting.
3. Protection for out-of-tolerance Voltages.
4. Protection for out-of-tolerance Frequencies.
5. Crew Alerting
The major component used to perform these functions is called the Generator
Control Unit (GCU). The GCU regulates generator output by sensing the
aircrafts system voltage and comparing it with a reference signal. The voltage
regulator then sends an adjusted current flow to the exciter field of the main
generator. This in turn controls the main generators output voltage.
Protection circuitry monitors various electrical system parameters including over
voltage and over current conditions, frequency, phase sequence, and current
differentials. If a fault occurs, the protection circuitry then operates corresponding
electric relays in order to isolate the defective components. In the case of a
generator system failure, the GCU senses partial loss of electrical power and
automatically sends the appropriate signal to the Bus Power Control Unit
(BPCU). In this event the BPCU will automatically isolate any defective generator
and reconnect the load bus to another power source.
3.23.1 Power Distribution System Control
On modern aircraft employing a parallel, or split-bus system, a centralized means
of controlling the power distribution between individual load busses is essential.
If a generator fails or a bus shorts to ground, the appropriate bus ties and
generator circuit breakers must be set to the correct position. In the event of a
system overload, the control unit must reduce the electrical load to an acceptable
level. This is called Load Shedding. In load shedding, the aircrafts galley
power is normally the first nonessential load to be disconnected.
The control unit must automatically reconnect any essential loads to an operable
bus. This power manipulation must take place within a fraction of a second to
ensure an uninterrupted flight. To achieve this, modern aircraft employ a solid
state Bus Power Control Unit (BPCU).
Page 3-83
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The BPCU also receives data from the Generator Control Unit GCU, the Ground
Power Control Unit (GPCU) and various bus ties and circuit breakers of the
system. It also receives input information concerning system loads from Load
Controllers. Load controllers are electric circuits that sense real system current
and provide control signals for the generators CSDU rpm governor. The CSDU
output rpm in turn affects the generator output frequency. Load controllers
receive their input signals from current transformers. Figure 52 shows current
transformers as fitted to the Boeing 737 aircraft.
GEN 1 LINE CURRENT
APU LINE CURRENT
GEN 2 LINE CURRENT
TO PROTECTION
CIRCUITS
Current Transformers
Figure 52
Page 3-84
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.23.2 Current Transformers

Current transformers consist of three inductive pickup coils that provide current
sensing signals. The main power leads carrying the three phase A.C. supply
from each generator are routed through the corresponding holes in the current
transformer. As the A.C. travels through the cable, the corresponding magnetic
field induces a voltage into the current transformer. The electrical signals from
the current transformer, in conjunction with the GCU and BPCU, are used to
control protection circuitry and supply signals to load meters on the overhead
panel in the flightdeck. Figure 53 shows the operation of a current transformer.
Current transformers
Figure 53
Page 3-85
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
BTB
BTB
GTB
LEFT
IDG
LEFT
GCU
RIGHT
IDG
GTB
RIGHT
GCU
BTB
BPCU
APU
GEN
APB
APU GEN
GCU
Figure 54 shows a schematic of the Power Distribution Control System (PDCS).
Power Distribution Control System (PDCS)

Figure 54
Page 3-86
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.23.3 Generator Control & Protection

Each GCU contains the following items:
1. A Field Power Supply (TR unit) which converts 3-phase ac power from the
generator to a rippled dc voltage for the generator exciter.
2. A Control dc Power Supply (TR unit) which converts 3-phase ac power from
the generator to 28 volt dc power for the generator switch and the protection
circuits.
3. A transistor voltage regulator, which controls dc power returning to the field
power supply from the generator exciter.
4. A double-coil magnetic latching relay called the Generator Control Relay
(GCR) which connects the output of the field power supply to the generator
exciter.
5. Transistorised protection circuits for:
Over-voltage (OV)
Over-current (OC)
Under-voltage (UV)
Differential Current Protection (DP)
Over-frequency (OF)
Under-Frequency (UF)
The GCR can be tripped by three manual actions and automatically by the
detection of five faults:
Manual
1.
Generator switch off. (Normally left in the ON position).
2.
CSD disconnect switch activated (where applicable).
3.
Fire handle pulled.
Automatic (Figures quoted are typical)

1.
Over-voltage (130 3 volts).
2.
Under-voltage (100 3 volts).
3.
Over-current (170 amps).
4.
Differential Protection (20 amp difference).
5.
Over Frequency.
Page 3-87
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
6.
Over-voltage Unit
The unit is designed to protect electrical systems of 200 volts, 3-phase, 400 Hz
from over voltage faults. The unit will operate, to protect the system, when the
voltage rises to (typically) above 220 volts and in effect disconnects the generator
from its loads. Figure 55 shows the circuit for the Over-voltage Unit.
VOLTAGE NORMAL
TR1
DE-ENERGISED
OVERVOLT
RELAY
TR2
D1
D3
D9
D5
R1
D2
D4
LOW
VOLTS
D6
HIGH
VOLTS
ZD4
NO BREAKDOWN
D8
R4
T1
RV1
ZD1 ZD2 ZD3
C1
ZD5
OFF
T2
ON
T3
OFF
D7
R5
R2
R3
C2
Over-voltage Unit
Figure 55
The supply to the unit is via two open-delta connected transformers TR1 and TR2
via the full-wave Rectifier Bridge, across which is connected the potential divider
network R1, RV1 and R2. Under normal conditions, the voltage developed
across RV1 and R2 is not sufficient to break down Zener diodes ZD1, ZD2 and
ZD3. Transistor T1 is therefore not conducting but transistor T2 is, due to the
high potential on its base. This means that T3 is not conducting and the over
voltage relay is not energised.
Page 3-88
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
When the supply voltage exceeds 220 volts, ZD1, ZD2 and ZD3 break down and
(after a time delay afforded by R4, R5 and C2) the voltage across R3 is able to
energise transistor T1. Thus T1 conducts, shutting off T2, which causes T3 to
conduct and the relay to be energised.
C1 is smoothing capacitor. D7 enables C2 to discharge through R3 for operation
on subsequent over-voltage faults. Overall temperature compensation for
transistor T1 is effected through Zener diodes ZD1, ZD2 and ZD3, and by Zener
diodes ZD4 and ZD5 for transistors T2 and T3 respectively. The increased gain
of the transistors due, to a rise in ambient temperature, is compensated for by the
decreased output of the Zener diodes. Diode D9 suppresses the peak inverse
voltage, which would be applied to transistor T3 from the relay coil when the
transistor is shut off.
The length of the time will vary considerably, depending on the value of the overvoltage and on the rate at which the voltage is rising. The following figures are
given as a rough guide: at 220 volts the unit will operate in less than 10
seconds; at 225 volts it will operate in 0.7 to 1.6 seconds; at 250 volts it will
operate in 0.35 to 0.65 seconds. From this it can be said that the time delay is
Inversely proportional to the value of the over-voltage (i.e. the higher the overvoltage the shorter the time delay).
3.23.4 Under-voltage & Reverse Phase Sequence Unit
This unit is designed to protect electrical systems of 200 volts, 3-phase, 400 Hz
from under-voltage faults. It will operate, to protect the system, when the voltage
falls to (typically) 173 2 volts and in effect disconnects the generator from its
load. It also affords protection against incorrect phase rotation in the event of the
generator being incorrectly connected.
The supply to the unit is applied to two open-delta connected transformers TR1
and TR2. Each transformer has two secondary windings S1 and S2. The S1
secondary windings supply the phase sequence circuit, whilst the S2 windings
supply the transistor amplifier and voltage sensing circuits.
Page 3-89
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 56 shows the Under-voltage & Reverse Phase Sequencer Unit circuit.
PART OF GCB CLOSE AND
S1
TR1
TR2
S2
S2
UNDERVOLT
RELAY
D4
S1
D1
D3
D5
D2
D4
D6
R6
T1
D2
C1
D1
ZD1
T2
ZD2
D3
R1
R
4
C2
T
H
R
R
5
R
7
C4
C3
Under-voltage & Reverse Phase Sequencer Unit

Figure 56
Under normal operating conditions the under volt relay is energised, i.e.:
transistors T1 and T2 are switched on. This is accomplished using a two-input
AND gate circuit formed by D1, R6 and D3, R5, thermistor THR and R4. When
D1 and D3 are blocked by the phase sequence circuit and by the voltage
sensing circuit respectively, the transistors are switched ON and the relay is
energised. Should either diode be unblocked, current will flow through it and
through R6, resulting in the relay being de-energised.
Page 3-90
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.23.5 Time Delay Activation

The time delay is to prevent tripping of the GCR due to transient under-voltages,
or to allow the CSD to slow down to a UF (Under-frequency) condition on engine
shutdown and inhibit tripping of the GCR.
The GB can be tripped by a fault tripping the GCR, or an over-frequency
condition: (430 5Hz). Faults of under-frequency or over-frequency on their own
do not trip the GCR. Figure 57 shows the time delay circuit.
NO
R E G U L AT E D DC
B R E A KD O W N
F RO M G C U
PO W E R SU PPL IES
Z D1
R1
D1
NO
OU TPU T
(G C U N O T R I P )
C1
+V E W H E N G E N
NO
C H AR G E
O U T PU T N O R MA L
Q1
ON
R2
B R E A KD O W N
R E G U L AT E D DC
(A F T E R C 1 C H A R G E D )
F RO M G C U
PO W E R SU PPL IES
Z D1
R1
D1
OU TPU T
(G C U T R IP )
0V
WH EN GEN
O U T P U T U ND E R V O LT A G E
C1
C H AR G E
O R IN C O O R E C T P H A S E
S E Q U E N CE
Q1
OFF
R2
Time Delay Circuit

Figure 57
Page 3-91
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.23.6 Abnormal Frequency Protection

Both the over-frequency (OF) and under-frequency (UF) detectors are
transistorised voltage sensitive electronic circuits within the GCU, normally
sensing one phase at the generator breaker terminal.
At a level greater than 430 5Hz the OF detector will send a signal to trip the
GCB.
At a level of less than 365 5Hz, the UF detector will send a signal to trip the
GCB, to inhibit the power ready circuit involved in closing the GCB and to prevent
an under-voltage (UV) signal from tripping the GCR during engine shut down.
Figure 58 shows the Abnormal Frequency Protection circuit.
PWR
READY
INHIBIT UV
ON ENG
SHUTDOWN
GEN
O/P
UF DETECTOR
365 Hz 5Hz
0.5 - 1 SEC
OF DETECTOR
430 Hz 5Hz
Abnormal Frequency Protection circuit

Figure 58
Page 3-92
GB
TRIP
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.23.7 Differential Current Protection

The purpose of a Differential Current Protection system is to detect a shortcircuited feeder line or generator busbar which would result in a very high current
demand on the generator, and possibly result in an electrical fire. The difference
between the current leaving the generator and the current arriving at the busbar
is called a Differential Fault or a Feeder Fault. In an A.C. system, current
comparisons are made phase for phase, by two three-phase current
transformers, one on the neutral side of the generator (Ground DPCT) and the
other on the up stream side of the busbar (Load DPCT).
Figure 59 shows the arrangement and principle of a system as applied to a
single-phase line.
BUSBAR
LOAD
DPCT
GROUND
DPCT
GEN
GENERATOR
CONTROL RELAY
I-IF
FAULT
IF
LOAD
(I - I F) + (IF) = I
I-IF
DP DETECTOR
IN GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
Differential Current Protection

Figure 59
Page 3-93
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
If the current from the generator is I, and the fault current between the generator
and busbar equals If, then the net current will flow through the aircrafts structure
and back to the generator through the ground DPCT. The remainder of the
current I - If , will flow through the load DPCT, the load, the aircraft structure, and
then back to the generator via the ground DPCT. Thus, the ground DPCT will
detect the generators total current (I - If) + (If) which is equal to I, and the load
DPCT will detect I - If.
The difference in current (i.e. the fault current) between the two current
transformers on the phase line is sensed to be greater than the specified limit (20
30A are typical values) a protector circuit within the GCU will trip the generator
control relay.
Figure 60 shows a 3-Phase Differential Protection circuit.
GCB
CT1
CT4
CT2
CT5
CT6
CT3
GEN
R
1
R
3
R
5
D1
R7
D2
D3
R
2
R
4
R
6
C1
R
V
1
ZD1
D4
3-Phase Differential Protection Circuit

Figure 60
Page 3-94
TO TRIP
GCR
& GCB
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.23.8 Over-Current Protection

If a very heavy, potentially damaging load is placed on the generator, it is
possible to form three simultaneous faults: over-current (OC), under-frequency
(UF) and under-voltage (UV). If the underlying cause is the OC, it in itself will
cause the voltage to drop and possibly the generator shaft to slow down. In this
case, the OC detector will send out OC LOCKOUT signals to inhibit UF trip of
the GCB or UV trip of the GCR. The OC fault takes priority in this case and will
trip the GCR itself. Figure 61 shows an Over-current Protection circuit.
GCB
CT1
CT2
CT3
GEN
TO TRIP
GCR
& GCB
R
1
R
3
R
5
D1
R7
D2
D3
R
2
R
4
R
6
C1
R
V
1
ZD1
Over-Current Protection Circuit

Figure 61
Page 3-95
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.23.9 GCU Operation

The primary purpose of the Generator Control Unit (GCU) is to connect the output
of the field power supply to the generator field. This is achieved using a
Generator Control relay (GCR).
The GCR can only be closed by momentarily placing the generator control switch
to ON.
The GCB can only be closed by placing the generator switch momentarily to ON,
energising the power ready relay (GCR closed, not UV, not UF) and tripping other
breakers necessary to prevent paralleling.
The GCR can be tripped by three manual actions and automatically by the
detection of five faults.
Manual actions:
1. Generator Switch to OFF.
2. CSD disconnect switch activated.
3. Fire handle pulled.
Automatic Trip:
1. OV (220V 6V).
2. UV (173V 6V).
3. OC (170A B737).
4. DP (20A Typical for Boeing).
5. OF (430 5 Hz).
The GCR having been tripped, or an UF (365 5 Hz) condition will trip the GCB.
Note: A fault of Under Frequency will not trip the GCR.
Figure 62 shows a block schematic of the GCU.
Page 3-96
CSD DISC
GEN OFF
FIRE HANDLE
CUURENT
DETECTOR
OC - DP
FREQUENCY
DETECTOR
UF/OF
VOLTAGE
DETECTOR
(OV - UV)
PS
CONTROL
DC PWR
CLOSE
GCR
UF
UV
OV/UV
OF
UF
GCR
TRIP
GB TRIP
CIRCUIT
TRIP
GCB
CLOSE
TO
GEN
FIELD
TRIP &
INTERLOCK
CCTS
MODULE 11
LINE
CCTS
GEN AC
3 PHASE
BATTERY
BACK UP
FIELD
POWER
SUPPLY
PART OF POWER
READY RELAY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Generator Control Unit (GCU)

Figure 62
Page 3-97
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.24 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device for converting A.C. at one frequency and voltage to an
A.C. at the same frequency but at another voltage level. It consists of three main
parts:
1. An Iron Core: provides a circuit of low reluctance for an alternating magnetic
field.
2. A Primary Winding: connected to the main power source.
3. A Secondary Winding: which receives electrical energy by mutual induction
from the primary winding and delivers it to the secondary circuit.
There are two classes of transformers:
1. Voltage or Power transformers.
2. Current Transformers.
3.24.1 Voltage transformers
Voltage transformers are connected so that the primary windings are in parallel
with the supply voltage, in the current transformers, the primary windings are
connected in series with the supply voltage. These transformers may be single
phase or three-phase devices. Transformers for three-phase circuits can be
connected in one of several combinations of star and delta connections
depending on the requirements for the transformer.
When the star connection is used in a three-phase transformer for the operation
of three-phase equipment, the transformer may be connected as a three-phase
system. If a single phase load has to be powered from a three-phase supply it is
sometimes difficult to keep them balanced, itr is therefore essential to provide a
neutral wire so that connections of the loads may be made between this and any
one of the three-phase lines. Figure 63 & 64 show transformer connections.
Page 3-98
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
STAR CONNECTION
THREE-WIRE
ELECTRICAL POWER
STAR CONNECTION
FOUR-WIRE
Transformer Three-Phase To Three-Phase Supplies

Figure 63
STAR-WOUND
PRIMARY
DELTA-WOUND
PRIMARY
STAR - DELTA
CONNECTION
Transformer Three-Phase To Single-Phase Supply

Figure 64
Page 3-99
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.24.2 Transformer Ratings

Transformers are usually rated in Volt/Amperes or Kilovolt/Amperes. The
difference between the output terminal voltages at full load and no-load, with a
constant input voltage is called the regulation of the transformer.
As in the case of an A.C. generator, regulation is expressed as a percentage of
the full load voltage, and depend not only on actual losses (i.e. eddy current,
magnetic leakage and hysteresis losses), but also on the power factor of the load.
Thus, an inductive load, i.e. on having a lagging power factor, will give rise to a
high percentage regulation, while with a capacitive load, i.e. one having a leading
power factor, the regulation may be a negative quality giving a higher output
voltage on full load then on no-load.
Changes in power supply frequency, or the connection of a transformers supply
whose frequency differs from that for which the transformer was designed, has a
noticeable effect on its operation. This is due to the fact that the resistance of the
primary windings is so low that they may be considered to be a purely inductive
circuit.
If the frequency is reduced at a constant value of voltage, then the current will
rise. The increased current will in turn bring the transformer core nearer to
magnetic saturation and this decreases the effective value of inductance leading
to still larger current. Thus, if a transformer is used at a frequency lower that that
for which it was designed, there is a risk of excessive heat generation at the
primary windings and subsequent burn out.
On the other hand, a transformer designed for low frequency can be used with
higher frequencies, since in this case the primary current will be reduced.
Page 3-100
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.24.3 Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU)

Transformer-rectifier units (TRU) are a combination of a static transformer and
rectifiers, and are used in some A.C. systems as secondary supply units, and
also as the main conversion units in aircraft having rectified A.C. power systems.
D4
D2
D6
D3
3 PHASE
A.C. SUPPLY
D1
D5
D.C.
LOAD
Figure 64 shows the basic principle of operation of a Transformer-rectifier.
Transformer-Rectifier Operation
Figure 64
Page 3-101
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 65 shows a TRU designed to operate on a regulated three-phase input of

200V at a frequency of 400Hz and to provide a continuous output of 110A at
approximately 26V.
RECTIFIER
SECTION
TRANSFORMER
SECTION
AMMETER SHUNT
TERMINALS
A.C. INPUT
TERMAINLS
TEMPERATURE
WARNING SYSTEM
TERMINAL
D.C. OUTPUT
TEMINALS
Transformer-rectifier Unit
Figure 65
Page 3-102
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
METER
RECTIFIER UNIT
A.C.
I/P
STAR
STAR
TRANSFORMER UNIT
DELTA
D.C.
O/P
WARNING
SYSTEM
Figure 66 shows the schematic circuit for the TRU shown in figure 65.
TRU Schematic Circuit

Figure 66
Page 3-103
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The unit consists of a transformer and two three-phase bridge rectifier assemblies
mounted in separate sections of the casing. The transformer has a conventional
star-wound primary winding and secondary windings wound in both star and delta
configurations.
Each secondary winding is connected to individual bridge rectifier assemblies
made up of six silicon diodes, and connected in parallel. An ammeter shunt
(dropping 50mV at 100A) is connected in the output side of the rectifier to enable
current taken from the main D.C. output terminals to be measured at ammeter
auxiliary terminals. These terminals together with all others associated with input
and output circuits are grouped on a panel at one end of the unit (see figure 60).
Cooling for the unit is by convection through gauze covered ventilation panels
and in order to give warning of over-heating conditions, thermal switches are
provided at the transformer and rectifier assemblies, and are connected to
independent warning lights. These switches are supplied with D.C. from an
external D.C. source (normally on of the busbars) and their contacts close when
temperature conditions at their respective locations rise to approximately 150C
and 200C.
Page 3-104
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.25 ROTARY INVERTER

Used to produce 26V or 115V 400Hz from a D.C. source. It consists of a D.C.
motor driving an A.C. generator, and since many of the systems, which are to be
operated from it, are dependent on constant voltage and frequency, the A.C.
supply must be regulated accordingly. Figure 67 shows a Rotary Inverter circuit.
28V D.C.
INVERTER
CONTROL
BREAKER
115V
400Hz
MOTOR
GENERATOR
Rotary Inverter Circuit

Figure 67
When the inverter is switched on, D.C. is supplied to the motor armature and
shunt filed winding, and also to the excitation field winding of the generator. The
motor will start to drive the generator, which in turn produces a three-phase A.C.
output at 115V. In order to control the voltage at this level, the D.C. supply is
passed through a resistor in series with the generator field. This resistor is preset to give the required excitation current at the regulated D.C. system voltage
level.
Since the frequency of the generator output is dependent of the speed of rotation
of the motor, this requires some form of control. This is achieved by using
another pre-set resistor , which is connected in series with the motor shunt filed to
provide sufficient excitation current to run the motor and generator at the speed
necessary to produce a 400Hz output.
Page 3-105
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 68 shows a schematic of another type of rotary inverter, and although it is

only found on older types of transport aircraft, it shows an example of variation in
application of principles.
28V D.C.
INVERTER
CONTROL
BREAKER
CARBON
PILE
115V
400Hz
SHUNT
FIELD
SERIES
FIELD
RECTIFIER
REGULATOR
FIELD
Rotary inverter Circuit

Figure 68
The motor and generator share a common armature and filed system, and control
of voltage and frequency is based on the carbon pile regulator system. The D.C.
section of the machine is of the four-pole compound wound type, the D.C. being
supplied to the armature winding, series and shunt field-windings. The A.C.
section corresponds to a star-wound generator, the winding being located in slots
of the armature and beneath the D.C. windings.
The A.C. winding is connected to a triple slip ring and brush-gear assembly at at
the opposite end to the commutator. When the inverter is in operation, a threephase output is induced in a rotating winding and not a fixed stator winding as in
the case of a conventional A.C. generator.
The A.C. output is rectified and supplied to the voltage coil of the regulator which
varies the pile resistance in the usual manner, this in turn, varying the current flow
through the common field system to keep both the voltage and frequency of the
A.C. output within limits.
Page 3-106
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.25.1 Static Inverter
REGULATOR
NOTCH
CONTROL
TURN ON
DELAY
PULSE
SHAPER
400Hz SQUAREWAVE
GENERATOR
28V
D.C.
FILTER
NETWORK
NOTCH
TIME
POWER
DRIVER
CONSTANT
CURRENT
GENERATOR
NOTCH
TIME
OUTPUT
STAGE
CURRENT
SENSOR
VOLTAGE
SENSOR
115V
400Hz
A.C.
ODD
HARMONIC
FILTER
These inverters perform the same conversion function as the rotary machines,
but by means of solid state circuit principles. They are employed in a number of
types of aircraft and in some cases providing the normal source of A.C. They are
more commonly used in supplying emergency sources of A.C. to certain essential
A.C. systems when a failure of the normal source of A.C. has occurred. Figure
69 shows a block schematic of a static inverter.
Static Inverter Block Schematic

Figure 69
Page 3-107
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The D.C. is supplied to transistorised circuits of a filter network, a pulse shaper, a

constant current generator, power driver stage and the output stage. After any
variations in the input have been filtered or smoothed out, D.C. is supplied to a
square wave generator which provides the first stage conversion of the D.C. into
square-wave form A.C. and also establishes the required operating frequency of
400Hz.
This output is then supplied to a pulse shaper circuit, which controls the pulse
width of the signal and changes its waveform before passing it onto the power
driver stage. The D.C. required for pulse shaper operation is supplied via a turnon delay circuit. This is to cause the pulse shaper to delay its output to the power
driver stage until the voltage is stabilised.
The power driver supplies a pulse-width modulated symmetrical output to control
the output stage, the signal having a square-wave form. The power driver also
shorts itself out each time the voltage falls to zero, i.e. during notch-time.
The output stage also produces a square-wave output but of variable pulse width.
This output is finally fed to a filter circuit, which reduces the total odd harmonics
to produce a sine wave output at the voltage and frequency required for operating
the systems connected to the inverter.
As in the case of other types of generators, the output of a static inverter must be
maintained within certain limits. In the example shown, this is achieved by means
of voltage and current sensors, both of which control the notch time of the pulse
width shaper output via a regulator and notch control circuit.
Page 3-108
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.26 BOEING 737 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
TRU 3
DC BUS 1
GRND SERV BUS
TRU 1
GRND SERV
RELAY
26V A.C. BUS 1
TRANSFER
RELAY 1
TR 1
MAIN BUS 1
115 V
GEN BUS 1
EXT PWR BUS
TRANS BUS 1
BTB 1
GCB 1
GEN 1
TRU 3
DISCONNECT
DC BUS 2
TRU 2
APU
GCB
EPC
EXT
POWER
BATTERY BUS
26V A.C. BUS 2

TRANS BUS 2
TRANSFER
RELAY 2
MAIN BUS 2
GEN BUS 2
115 V
BTB 2
APU
GEN
GCB 2
TR 2
GEN 2
The Boeing 737 aircrafts electrical system operates using a split busbar system
and is shown in Figure 70
Boeing 737 Electrical System Schematic

Figure 70
Page 3-109
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.26.1 Controls & Indications

The controls for the electrical system on the Boeing 737 300 are on the
'ELECTRIC' section of the overhead panel. There are 4 panels controlling the
electrical system. Figure 71 shows the P5-13 panel.
Boeing 737 P5-13 Electrical Panel

Figure 71
Page 3-110
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.26.2 Boeing 737 P5-13 Electrical Panel

D.C. AMMETER Indicates current of a source selected by the D.C. meter
selector for TR 1, 2, 3 AND BAT.
D.C. VOLTMETER Indicates voltage of a source selected by the D.C. meter
selector (all positions).
D.C. METER SELECTOR Selects the D.C. source for the D.C. voltmeter
indications.
TEST Used by maintenance personnel. Connects the voltmeter to the power
systems test module for selection of additional reading points.
BATTERY SWITCH (guarded in ON). OFF no power to battery bus unless
STANDBY POWER Switch (P5-5) is in the BAT Position.
FREQUENCY METER Indicates frequency of the source selected by the A.C.
meter selector.
RESIDUAL VOLTS SWITCH Push to read the residual voltage of the selected
generator (with associated generator control relay tripped).
A.C. VOLTMETER Indicates (130 volt scale) voltage of the source selected.
When the residual volts switch is pushed, the 30 volt scale reads residual voltage
of the selected generator.
A.C. METERS SELECTOR Selects the A.C. source for A.C. voltmeter and
frequency meter indications.
TEST Used by maintenance personnel. Connects the voltmeter and frequency
meter to the power systems test module for selection of additional reading points.
GALLEY POWER SWITCH ON provides electrical power to the galleys when
both generator buses are energized.
Page 3-111
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 72 shows the P5-13 panel.
Boeing 737 P5-5 panel

Figure 72
3.26.3 Boeing 737 P5-5 Electrical Panel
STANDBY POWER OFF LIGHT Illuminated amber when standby buses are not
powered.
GENERATOR DRIVE LOW OIL PRESSURE LIGHT Illuminated amber when
No 1 or 2 generator CSD oil pressure is below minimum operating limit.
GENERATOR DRIVE HIGH OIL TEMPERATURE LIGHTS Illuminated amber
when No 1 or 2 generator CSD oil temperature exceeds limits.
GENERATOR DRIVE OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATORS No 1 or 2 RISE
scale displays the temperature rise within the CSD. IN scale displays
temperature of oil entering the CSD.
Page 3-112
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
ELECTRICAL STANDBY POWER SWITCH (Guarded in AUTO)

AUTO - Normal operation switch position. With loss of all A.C. power in the air,
the battery is automatically connected to supply the D.C. standby bus power for
essential D.C. equipment and to the inverter to supply A.C. standby bus power for
essential A.C. equipment. To prevent unnecessary battery drain on the ground,
the standby busses are not powered by the battery.
OFF Turns off the power to standby power busses.
BAT Battery supplies power to the battery bus. The D.C. standby bus and turns
on the inverter to supply the A.C. standby bus.
GENERATOR DRIVE DISCONNECT SWITCHES (Guarded in the connected
position). Disengages the CSD from No 1 or No 2 generator.
GENERATOR DRIVE TEMPERATURE SWITCH Selects CSD oil temperature
displayed on indicators (N or RISE).
Page 3-113
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 73 shows the P5-4 panel.
Boeing 737 P5-4 panel

Figure 73
GROUND POWER AVAILABLE LIGHT Illuminated blue when ground power is
connected.
TRANSFER BUS OFF LIGHTS illuminated amber when the No 1, or 2
generator transfer bus, is not powered.
BUS OFF LIGHTS Illuminated amber when the No 1, or 2 generator bus, is not
powered.
GENERATOR OFF BUS LIGHTS Illuminated blue when the generator is not
supplying the generator bus (generator is OFF the bus).
APU GENERATOR OFF BUS LIGHT Illuminated blue when the APU is running
but the generator is not supplying a generator bus.
GENERATOR SWITCHES For No 1 or 2 generator, three-position switch,
momentary ON OFF and spring loaded to centre, neutral position.
Page 3-114
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
ON Disconnects either external power or APU generator power from the

generator bus and connects engine generator to the generator bus.
OFF Disconnects generator from the generator bus.
APU GENERATOR BUS SWITCHES - Three-position switch, momentary ON
OFF and spring loaded to centre.
ON Connects APU generator to No 1 (or No 2) generator bus.
OFF Disconnects APU generator from No 1 (or No 2) generator bus.
NOTE; Both APU generator switches work the same on the ground. Only one bus
can be powered by the APU generator in the air.
GENERATOR A.C. AMMETER Displays engine generator No 1 or 2 load in
amperes.
GROUND POWER SWITCH Three-position switch, momentary ON OFF and
spring loaded to centre position.
ON If ground power is available, the engine or APU generators are tripped off
the generator busses and ground power is supplied to the generator busses.
OFF Ground power tripped off the generator busses.
BUS TRANSFER SWITCH (Guarded in AUTO).
AUTO Transfer bus automatically transfers to opposite generator power
source if one becomes inoperative.
OFF Isolates D.C. systems (de-energizes TR3 disconnect relay) and
deactivates automatic transfer feature.
Page 3-115
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 74 shows the APU control panel
APU Control Panel

Figure 74
Page 3-116
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The controls for the APU are located on the forward overhead panel and consist
of the following:
APU SWITCH Three position switch OFF momentary START and spring
loaded to ON.
START Start circuit armed. Momentarily holding in START and allowing
return to ON, fuel valve opens, air inlet door opens and the start sequence is
initiated.
ON Operating position after start.
OFF Shuts down the APU.
LOW OIL QUANTITY LIGHT Illuminated blue when oil tank fluid level is low.
LOW OIL PRESSURE LIGHT Illuminated amber when oil pressure is low. APU
automatically shuts down.
HIGH OIL TEMPERATURE LIGHT Illuminated amber when APU oil
temperature exceeds maximum allowable. APU automatically shuts down.
OVERSPEED LIGHT Illuminated amber when APU turbine speed exceeds
allowable rpm. APU automatically shuts down.
A.C. AMMETER Displays APU generator load current.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE INDICATOR Displays APU exhaust gas
temperature in C.
Page 3-117
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.26.4 B737 Electrical Power Distribution

The primary power source is non-paralleled 115/200V 3 phase 400Hz A.C. from
two 40kVA generators. A source of A.C. power can be supplied from another
40kVA generator riven by an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). Power can also be
supplied form an external A.C. power unit. All D.C. is supplied via three TRUs.
The four power sources are connected to the busbars by six 3-phase breakers
and two transfer relays, which are energised and de-energised according to the
switching selections, made on the system control panels. An interlocking circuit
between breakers and switches is also provided to enable proper sequencing of
breaker and overall system operation. A source of power switched onto or
entering the system always takes priority and so will automatically disconnect any
existing power source.
The switches on the control panel (P5-4) are of a Momentary Select type in that
following a selection, they are returned to a neutral position by spring loading.
The bus transfer switch is retained in the Auto position by a guard cover to
provide a path for signals controlling the Normal and Alternate positions of the
transfer relays. In the Off position the transfer relays are prevented from being
energised to the Alternate position so that the two generating systems are
completely isolated from each other.
The indicating lights on the P5-4 panel are as follows:
Ground Power Available (Blue) aircraft.
When external power is plugged into the
Transfer Bus Off (Amber)

relay is de-energised.
When either the normal coil or a transfer
Bus Off (Amber)

open.
If both the respective GCB and BTB are
Gen Bus Off (Blue)
If the respective GCB is open.
APU Gen Bus Off (Blue)
If APU engine is running and over 95%

rev/min, but there is no power from the
generator.
The ammeters indicate the load current of both main generators.
Page 3-118
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.26.5 Operation
When external power is connected to the aircraft and is switched on, the external
power contactor closes and energises both bus-tie breakers (BTB) to connect
power to the whole busbar system. The connection between the generator
busbars and the transfer bus busbars is made via the transfer relays which are
energised to the Normal position by the BTBs.
Once the number one engine is started and the generator switch (P5-4) is
selected to ON, the BTB 1 will open and GCB 1 will closes, ensuring that all the
number one systems power is delivered from the number one generator. At this
time however the external power is still providing power for the number 2 system.
When the number two engine has been started and its generator switched on,
BTB 2 trips open, GCB 2 closes to connect the generator to the number two
system busbars, and the external power contactor also trips open.
If it is only necessary for the services connected to the ground service busbar to
be operated from external power, this may be achieved by leaving the ground
power switch on P5-4 in the OFF position, and switching a separate ground
service switch (forward attendants panel) to ON. The switch energises a
ground service relay the contacts of which change over a connection from the
generator bus 1 to the external power busbar.
The APU generator is connected to the entire busbar system via its own threephase breaker, this, in turn being energised by two APU generator switches on
the P5-4 panel. Placing the left (No 1) switch to ON closes the APU generator
breaker and also BTB 1, and with the right or (No 2) switch placed to ON the
BTB 2 is closed. As in the case of connecting an external power supply, the
transfer relays are energised to the Normal position by the BTBs.
The normal in-flight configuration of the power distribution system is for each
generator to supply its respective busbars through its own breakers (GCB1 &
GCB 2). The generator switches (P5-4) then energise these breakers; the
interlock circuits keep BTBs 1 & 2 in the open position, so that the generator
systems are always kept entirely separate. GCB 1 and GCB 2 have a set of
auxiliary contacts which in the closed position energise transfer relays to their
Normal positions and so provide connections between generators and transfer
busbars 1 and 2. As will be noted from the diagram, the transfer busbars supply
TRUs 1 and 2 while TRU 3 is supplied direct from main busbar 2.
In the event of a loss of power from one or the other generators, say the number
1 for example; GCB 1 will open thus isolating the corresponding busbars. When
GCB 1opens, another set of auxiliary contacts within the breaker permit a D.C.
signal to flow from the control unit of the number 2 generator via a bus transfer
switch, the alternate coil of transfer relay 1. The contacts will change over so
that power is supplied to the number 1transfer busbar from generator 2
generator, which is still supplying its busbars in the normal way. A similar
transfer of power takes place in the event of loss of power from generator 2.
Page 3-119
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Generator busbar 1 and main busbar 1 which carry non-essential loads, can not
be supplies with power from generator 2 under the power loss example given on
the previous page. If, however, power to these busbars is required, the APU may
be started in flight and its number 1 switch (P5-4), momentary placed to the ON
position, thereby closing the APU breaker and the BTB 1. At the same time,
transfer relay 1 contacts would change over from Alternate to Normal so that
the APU supplies the whole number 1 system. If a loss of power from the
number 2 system should occur, it is not possible to connect it to the APU since its
number 2 switch is electrically locked out during in flight operations.
3.26.6 Generator Feeder Lines
Figure 75 shows the routing of the feeder lines from the main generators and the
APU generators. At the wing/fuselage junction, the lines pass through sealed
connectors into the underfloor area. All lines are then routed through an
electrical/electronics compartment. Those from the main generators pass
through sealed connectors into unpressurised nosewheel well to connect up with
the generator breakers.
TO LOAD
BUSBARS
P6 PANEL
APU
GENERATOR
BREAKER
LINE CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
ENGINE/WING
DISCONNECT
No 1
GENERATOR
BREAKER
No 2
GENERATOR
BREAKER
ENGINE/WING
DISCONNECT
CSD/GENERATOR
NUMBER 1
CSD/GENERATOR
NUMBER 2
FROM APU
GENERATOR
Generator feeder Lines B737

Figure 75
Page 3-120
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
The feeder lines from the APU generators are connected to its breaker located
above floor level within a special compartment (P6) on the flight deck to the rear
of the First Officers position. This compartment contains most of the A.C. and
D.C. busbars, bus-tie breakers, and voltage control and protection units for all
three generators and an external power control unit. Figure 76 shows the
location of the electrical/electronics compartment and the P6 compartment.
EXTERNAL
POWER
GENERATOR
BREAKERS
P6
PANEL
APU
BREAKER
BUSBAR
PROTECTION
PANEL
GENERATOR &
APU CONTROL
UNITS
BUSTIE
BREAKERS
TRUs
BATTERY
CHARGER
NOSE
WHEEL
BAY
EXTERNAL
POWER
CONTACTOR
INVERTER
E1 RACK
E3 RACK
BATTERY
EXTERNAL D.C.
RECEPTACLE
E2 RACK
ACCESS DOOR
TO COMPARTMENT
Electrical/Electronic/P6 Compartments
Figure 76
The feeder lines from the main generator breakers pass into this compartment to
connect with the A.C. busbars. A circuit breaker panel is mounted on the front
side of the compartment, thus this compartment is termed the Load Control
Centre of the aircraft.
Page 3-121
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 77 shows the P6 panel.
APU GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
BUS
PROTECTION
PANEL
G7
POWER
SUPPLIES
FOR TEST
EQUIPMENT
G5
115 V A.C.
28V D.C.
No 2 GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
G4 G3
GEN BUS GEN BUS

No 2
No 1
No 1 GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
P6 PANEL
(BEHIND F/O)
P18 PANEL
(BEHIND CAPT)
P6 Panel
Figure 77
Page 3-122
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.26.7 Boeing 737 D.C. Power

The 28V D.C. system consists of:
1. Three 50-amp transformer-rectifier units (TRU).
2. A 36 Ampere/hour battery.
3. Battery Charger.
The TRUS convert 115V A.C. to 28V D.C. and are identified as TRU 1, TRU 2
and TRU 3. The three TRUs are connected in such a way that the loss of any
one unit will not result in the loss of a D.C. busbar. The relay between TRU 1 and
TRU 3 is held closed by supplying D.C. signals from the generator control units
via the bus transfer switch in its Auto position. Figure 78 shows the D.C. power
distribution system.
115 V AC
GRND SERV BUS
115 V AC
MAIN BUS 2
ALTERNATE
BATT CHRG
TRANS RLY
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 1
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 2
BATT
OVERHEAT
RLY
BATT
CHRG
T/R
1
T/R
2
T/R
3
APU START
INTERLOCK
RLY
DC BUS 1
DC BUS 2
HOT BATT BUS

ALTERNATE
NORMAL
OFF
BAT
BATTERY BUS CONTROL
ON
STANDBY POWER
BATT BUS
BATTERY
BAT
OFF
AUTO
B737 D.C. Power Distribution Layout

Figure 78
Page 3-123
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.27 B747 GENERATING SYSTEM
GEN 4
GEN 3
GEN 2
GEN 1
GCB 4
GCB 3
GCB 2
GCB 1
AC BUS 4
AC BUS 3
AC BUS 2
AC BUS 1
BTB 4
TIE BUS
BTB 1
GPU
XPC 2
APB
APU
BTB 2
SSB
BTB 3
TIE BUS
XPC 2
GPU
The B747 aircraft uses a further variation of the split busbar system. Its A.C.
power generating system utilises a system of interlocking GCBs and BTBs, but
in this case various combinations of generator operation are possible. Figure 79
shows a simplified diagram of the B747 A.C. power generation system.
B747 A.C. Power Generating System

Figure 79
Page 3-124
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.27.1 Operation
If the GCBs only are closed, then each generator will only supply its respective
load busbar; in other words, they are operated individually and unparalleled. The
generators may, however, also be operated in parallel when the BTBs are closed
to connect the load busbars to the Tie-Busbar. As will be noted from figure 77,
this busbar is split into two parts by a split system breaker (SSB) which, in the
open position allows the generators to operate in two parallel pairs.
Closing of the SSB connects both parts of the Tie-Busbar so that all four
generators can operate as a fully paralleled system. By means of the interlocking
system between breakers and the manual and automatic sequencing by which
they are controlled, any generator can supply power to any load busbar, and any
combination of generators can be operated in parallel.
Page 3-125
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.28 LOAD SHARING

When a load is placed on an ac busbar, the nature of the load will determine the
power factor of the system. Any load current, whether leading or lagging, can be
thought of as having two components: 1. One in phase with the voltage.
2. One in quadrature with the voltage.
The component in phase with the voltage is termed the real load component and
the quadrature component is termed the reactive load component. Figure 80
shows the In-phase and In-Quadrature components of load current.
CURRENT (REACTIVE)
VOLTAGE
CURRENT (REAL)
CU
RR
EN
T(
AC
TU
AL
)
POWER FACTOR =
CURRENT (REAL)
CURRENT (ACTUAL)
In-Phase & In-Quadrature Components Of Load Current

Figure 80
Page 3-126
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.28.1 Real Load Division

Division of real load among paralleled generators becomes necessary, because it
is not possible to attain exactly identical speed governor settings on all four
generator constant speed drives. Therefore, in a paralleled system, the
generator, which has the highest speed governor setting, will carry more than its
share of real load. The unbalance in real load among paralleled generators is
detected by means of current transformers and a real load division loop, whereby
signals proportional to the unbalance are supplied to control devices, which
correct the torque on the generator rotors. Figure 81 shows balanced real loads
whereas figure 82 shows unbalanced real loads.
TOTAL REAL LOAD
I1
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REACTIVE)
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
I1 (REAL)
I2
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
GENERATORS SUPPLYING SAME

LOAD AND SHARING LOAD EQUALLY
POWER FACTORS EQUAL
Balanced Real Loads

Figure 81
Page 3-127
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TOTAL REAL LOAD
I1
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REACTIVE)
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
I1 (REAL)
I2
(A
CT
U
AL
)
GEN 2
GENERATOR 1 IS SUPPLYING MORE

REAL LOAD THAN GENERATOR 2
GEN 1s POWER FACTOR INCREASES
GEN 2s POWER FACTOR DECREASES
Un-balanced Real Loads

Figure 82
The frequency of an isolated generator is determined by the initial setting of the
basic speed governor on its associated constant speed drive. Since the ac
generators are synchronous machines, two or more generators operating in
parallel will be locked together with respect to frequency, whereby the frequency
of the paralleled system is that of the generator which supplies the highest
frequency.
If the speed governor setting on one constant speed drive is higher than others in
a parallel operating system, its associated generator will motor the generators
with which it is paralleled. In this case, the generator with the higher speed
governor setting rotates at the same speed as its constant speed drive output.
Since each generator is mechanically coupled to its own constant speed drive
through an overrunning clutch, the generators which are being motored rotate at
a speed which is higher than their associated constant speed drive output.
Therefore there is less transfer of energy from the constant speed drives to the
generators, which are being motored.
Page 3-128
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
Since the energy supplied to the motored generators originates from a generator
with a higher speed governor setting, this generator carries more than its share of
real load and the motored generators carry less than their share of real load. To
equally divide real load among parallel generators, equal amounts of energy must
be supplied in the form of torque on the generator rotors.
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
LOAD
CONTROL
LOAD
CONTROL
LOAD
CONTROL
LOAD
CONTROL
GEN
1
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
2
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
3
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
4
ERROR
DETECTOR
Real Load sharing is controlled by adjustment of the Constant Speed Drive Unit.
Figure 83 shows a real load sharing loop.
Real load Sharing

Figure 83
Page 3-129
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.28.2 Reactive Load Division

Gen A and Gen B are two ac generators operating in parallel. If the excitation
(field current) of an ac generator is altered, the output voltage will be altered also.
Assume Gen B to be overexcited and thus receiving more field current than Gen
A. The output voltage of Gen B will increase and the voltage difference between
the generators will cause a circulating current to flow from Gen B to Gen A.
Figure 84 shows reactive current circuit.
GEN A
115V
REACTIVE
CIRCULATING 125V GEN B
CURRENT
Reactive Current Circuit

Figure 84
Because of the very inductive nature of the ac generator, this current will be
lagging by approximately 90 to the generators emf and so represents a reactive
load. Although no real power circulates between the generators, the current
causes the generators and their lines to overheat due to power developed within
the resistance of the copper conductors. This loss restricts the real power output
current of the generator and limits the amount of power or torque available to
keep the generators synchronised. The excitation of the generators must
therefore be kept equal, so that zero reactive currents flows between them.
Page 3-130
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
Figure 85 shows balanced reactive loads whereas figure 84 shows unbalanced

reactive loads.
TOTAL REAL LOAD
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REAL)
I1
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REACTIVE)
I2 (REAL)
I2
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
GENERATORS SUPPLYING SAME

LOAD AND SHARING LOAD EQUALLY
POWER FACTORS EQUAL
Balanced Reactive Loads

Figure 85
TOTAL REAL LOAD
I1
(A
CT
U
GEN 1
AL
)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REACTIVE)
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
I1 (REAL)
I2 (REAL)
I2 (
AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
GENERATOR 1 IS SUPPLYING MORE

REACTIVE LOAD THAN GENERATOR 2
GEN 1s POWER FACTOR DECREASES
GEN 2s POWER FACTOR INCREASES
Un-balanced Reactive Loads

Figure 86
Page 3-131
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
ERROR
DETECTOR
ERROR
DETECTOR
ERROR
DETECTOR
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
1
MUTUAL
REACTOR
GEN
2
MUTUAL
REACTOR
GEN
3
MUTUAL
REACTOR
GEN
4
MUTUAL
REACTOR
Reactive Load Sharing is controlled by adjustment of generator field. Figure 87

shows a reactive load sharing.
Reactive Load Sharing

Figure 87
Page 3-132
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
The mutual reactor is a device capable of sensing reactive load. Note that its
primary winding (P) is fed from a current transformer at phase C. Its secondary
winding (S) is fed directly from the same phase. The air gap in its core causes a
phase shift of 90 between the primary current and the secondary voltage. Figure
88 shows the circuit of the mutual reactor operation.
GENERATOR OUTPUT
REACTIVE
LOAD SHARE
LOOP
MUTUAL
REACTOR
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
TO THE
TIE BUS
Mutual Reactor Operation

Figure 88
Page 3-133
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figures 89 92 show how reactive load division is calculated.
Ip
DUE TO THE INDUCTIVE

CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE MUTUL REACTOR
PRIMARY CURRENT SETS
UP SECONDARY VOLTAGE
90 TO IT
Vs
Figure 89
SECONDARY CURRENT, FED

DIRECTLY FROM PHASE C
IS AT 90 TO V SECONDARY
AND THUS 180 TO THE
PRIMARY CURRENT
Is
Ip
Vs
Figure 90
Page 3-134
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
WITH A POWER FACTOR OF 1

OR UNITY, THE VOLATGE FROM
WITH A REACTIVE LOAD
PHASE C WILL BE INTHE
PHASE
VOLTAGE FROM
WITH THE SECONDARY
CURRENT
PHASE C WILL BE IN PHASE
WITH THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE
Is
Ip
I PHASE C
(SECONDARY)Vc
V SECONDARY
V PHASE C
THE REGULATOR SEES
THIS AS TOO HIGH A
VOLTAGE AND REDUCES THE
FIELD EXCITATION
I PRIMARY
Vs
Figure 91
Is
Ip
WITH A REACTIVE LOAD
THE VOLTAGE FROM
PHASE C WILL BE IN PHASE
WITH THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE
Vc
THE REGULATOR SEES

THIS AS TOO HIGH A
VOLTAGE AND REDUCES THE
FIELD EXCITATION
Vs
Figure 92
Page 3-135
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.29 EMERGENCY AC POWER GENERATION

Emergency A.C. is available in case of all aircraft engine driven generators
failing. Emergency A.C. generation is available from either:
1. Standby Generator.
2. Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).
3. Ram Air Turbine (RAT).
3.29.1 Standby Generator
Some larger aircraft have standby generators. These generators are a variable
speed, variable frequency type and operate when the engines are running. They
connect to a back-up generator converter, which makes the standby generator
output into a stable 115V, 400Hz.
3.29.2 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) Boeing 737
Normally located in the aft end of the fuselage, behind the pressure bulkhead and
below the horizontal stabilizer and is a single shaft gas turbine. The APU
generator is normally identical to the engine generators and will supply 55kVA on
the ground or 45kVA as an alternate electrical power source. Figure 93 shows
the location of the APU (Boeing 737).
COOLING
FAN
APU
ENGINE
APU AIR
INLET
EXHAUST DUCT
COOLING AIR
INLET
EXHAUST
MUFFLER
COOLING
AIR EXIT
ACCESS
DOOR
GENERATOR
Boeing 737 APU Location

Figure 93
Page 3-136
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.29.3 Ram Air Turbine (RAT)

The RAT is used on aircraft to supply an emergency source of hydraulic power,
electrical power, or both, in the event of failures.
The RAT is stowed in the fuselage, usually in the underbelly or in the lower side
of a wing to body fairing. Should the main hydraulic system pressure fall to zero
(i.e. all pumps failed), or the electrical generators should all fail, the RAT will
automatically deploy into the airstream. Figure 94 shows the RAT from a Boeing
777 aircraft.
FWD
PROPELLER/GOVERNER
UNIT
INBD
G E N E R A TO R
O U T P UT
RAT
GENERATOR
E L E CT R ICA L
C O N NE C T O R S
HYDRAULIC
PUMP
M O U N TIN G
H OL ES
G C U S IG N AL S
& POW ER
IN P UT
S H AF T
FW D
RAT Generator (Boeing 777)

Figure 94
Page 3-137
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The RAT consists of the following components: 1.
A variable pitch propeller,
2.
A hydraulic pump,
3.
An electric retract/deploy actuator,
4.
A speed sensing device,
5.
A teleflex lock cable,
6.
Up and down limit switches.
3.29.4 Emergency Pump

The ram air turbine drives a hydraulic Pump, which directly powers flight controls
and landing gear. The RAT supplies electric loads such as actuators and DC
Power loads by driving a hydraulic motor generator. Some aircraft have sufficient
battery reserves for minimal functions.
3.29.5 Emergency Generator
The ram air turbine drives a generator when the aircraft makes use of electric
motor pumps (EMP) for hydraulic functions. Flight controls and landing gear are
operated by the RAT through the EMP, while AC and DC power loads are drawn
directly off the RAT generator.
3.29.6 Generator And Pump
The ram air turbine can drive both the generator and pump if the use of other
subsystems for power conversion is not desired. Higher total power availability is
achievable by managing pump, or generator loading, at the RAT according to
system priorities and turbine capability.
3.29.7 Extended Twin Engined Operations (ETOPS)
Certification for ETOPS operation must consider operation of the aircraft with
partial loss of power due to one engine out. Additional consideration of loss of
main generator or pumps is also a concern in this situation. Therefore ram air
turbine operation throughout the envelope in all weather for 120 or 180-minute
diversions can help optimize the number of backup subsystems aboard the
aircraft.
Page 3-138
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.30 EXTERNAL/GROUND POWER

Electrical power is required for the ground operations of aircraft for turn rounds,
engine starting, lighting and so on. While the aircraft batteries are capable of
supplying these services for a very limited period, they should be conserved for
the important role of supplying power under emergency conditions. A separate
circuit is therefore incorporated to allow for connection of external power supplies
to aircraft.
3.31 DC EXTERNAL POWER
Figure 95 shows a 3-pin external power receptacle.
3 PIN EXTERNAL
POWER RECEPTACLE
EARTH
EXTERNAL
SUPPLY SOCKET
POSITIVE D.C.
3 PIN
PLUG
POSITIVE D.C.
ACCESS
DOOR
D.C. External Power Plug & Receptacle

Figure 95
Page 3-139
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
A basic external power circuit incorporating a 3-pin socket is shown at Figure 96.
MAIN D.C. BUS
REVERSE
CURRENT
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
EXTERNAL
POWER
RELAY
BATTERY
SYSTEM
EXT
BATT
POWER
SELECTOR
D.C. External power Schematic

Figure 96
Note that there are 2 large pins (carrying the main busbar load) and one small
pin, which carries the supply to the coil of the external power relay. This means
that if ground power is being applied and the external power plug is withdrawn,
the small pin leaves the power receptacle first, thus breaking the supply to the
external power relay, which opens its contacts. In this way, the main busbar load
is no longer supplied and arcing is prevented as the 2 large pins leave the power
receptacle.
Page 3-140
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.31.1 External DC Multiple Busbar System
MAIN
MAIN
AUX
GROUND
POWER
PLUG
ON
OFF
GROUND SUPPLY
MASTER SWITCH
AUX
GROUND SUPPLY
CONTACTOR
MAGNETIC
INDICATORS
No 1 BUS
TIE CONTACT
AUX
MAIN
No 1 DC
BUS
ESS DC
BUS
No 2 DC
BUS
No3 BUS
TIE CONTACT
AUX
No 3 DC
BUS
In some aircraft D.C. power is distributed from a multiple busbar system and it is
necessary for certain services connected to each of the busbars to be operated
when the aircraft is on the ground. This requires a more sophisticated
arrangement of the external power supply system. Figure 97 shows a schematic
of a multiple D.C. busbar system.
Multiple D.C. Busbar System External Power supply

Figure 97
Page 3-141
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Referring to Figure 97, it can be seen that in addition to the external supply relay
or contactor, there are contactors for tying the busbars together. There are also
magnetic indicators to indicate that all connections have been made.
When the external power unit is connected to the aircraft and the master switch is
selected to ON, it energises the external power supply contactor, thus closing its
auxiliary and main sets of contacts. One set of auxiliary contacts complete a
circuit to the magnetic indicator, which then indicates that an external supply is
connected, and on (Indicator C). A second set complete circuits to coils in the
No 1 and No 3 bus-tie contactors while a third and main heavy-duty set connect
the supply direct to the Vital and No 2 busbars.
When both bus-tie contactors are energized their main contacts connect the
supply from the external supply contactor to their respective busbars. Indication
that both busbars are also Tied to the ground power supply is provided by
magnetic indicators A and B which are energized from the Vital busbar via
the auxiliary contacts of the contactor.
Page 3-142
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.32 AC EXTERNAL POWER

Figure 98 illustrates an ac external power receptacle. There are 4 large pins
through which three phases and neutral are fed and 2 small pins, which are fed
by dc for operating a ground power contactor.
These small pins carry out the same function as the small pin in the dc receptacle
in that they ensure the 3 phase and neutral load bearing pins are open circuited
before the external power supply plug can be disconnected, thus preventing
arcing.
EXTERNAL
POWER
READY
LIGHT
SERVICE
INTERPHONE
CONNECTION
NOSE
WHEEL
WELL
LIGHTS
A.C. PHASE A
A.C. PHASE B
A.C. PHASE C
A.C. NEUTRAL
D.C.
A.C. External Power Receptacle

Figure 98
Page 3-143
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Three phase 400 Hz 115V AC power is supplied to the aircraft through the
external power receptacle. Before being connected to the aircraft systems, a
Ground Power Control Unit (GPCU) monitors the supply. Although aircraft
ground power systems vary from type to type the following parameters are
generally monitored:
1. Over voltage
2. Phase sequence
3. Under voltage
4. Over current
5. Over frequency
6. Open phase
7. Under frequency
8. Phase imbalance
When these parameters are within specified limits, then ground power is allowed
to feed the aircraft systems.
Page 3-144
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.32.1 A.C. External Power Circuit
28V DC FEEDBACK
RESISTOR
AC GROUND
POWER PLUG
LIMITING
SELECTOR
SWITCH
FREQ
VOLTS
EXT
CONTROL
RELAY
TRIP
CLOSE
GROUND
POWER
SWITCH
28V DC BUS BAR
GROUND
POWER
AVAILABLE
PHASE
SEQUENCE
PROTECTION
GROUND POWER
TRU
TRIP
CLOSE
3 A.C. MAIN BUS BAR
GROUND POWER
BREAKER RELAY
Figure 99 shows a typical external A.C. power supply circuit.
A.C. External Power Supply Circuit

Figure 99
Page 3-145
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
When external A.C. power is coupled to the receptacle a three-phase supply is

fed to the main contacts of the external power breaker, to an external power TRU
and to a phase sequence protection unit. The TRU provides a 28v D.C. feedback
supplies to a hold-in circuit of the ground power unit. If the phase sequence is
correct the protection unit completes the circuit to the control relay coil, thus
energising it. A single-phase supply is also fed to an amber light, which comes
on to indicate that external power is coupled, and to a voltmeter and frequency
meter via a selector switch.
The circuit is controlled by an external power switch connected to a busbar
supplied with 28v D.C. from the aircrafts battery system. When the switch is set
to the Close position current flows across the main contacts of the energized
control relay, to the Close coil of the external power breaker, thus energising it
to connect the external supply to the three-phase A.C. main busbar. Selecting
the Trip position on the external power switch disconnects the external power
supply. This action connects a D.C. supply to the trip coil of the external power
breaker, thus releasing its main and auxiliary contacts and isolating the external
power from the A.C. main busbar.
Figure 100 shows the A.C. external power receptacle and nose wheel bay control
panel for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT
SERVICE
PILOT
NOSE
WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT
IN USE
CALL
LIGHT
Boeing 737 External Power

Figure 100
Page 3-146
BATTERY
HOT BATT BUS
ALTERNATE
Boeing 737 External Power Schematic

Figure 101
Page 3-147
OFF
AUTO
STANDBY POWER
BAT
NORMAL
DC BUS 2
BATT BUS
T/R
2
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 2
BATTERY BUS CONTROL
ALTERNATE
DC BUS 1
T/R
1
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 1
TO GEN 1
VIA EPC 1
A.C.
EXT PWR
ON
BAT
OFF
T/R
3
115 V AC
MAIN BUS 2
EPC2
MODULE 11
D.C.
EXT PWR
APU START
INTERLOCK
RLY
BATT
CHRG
BATT
OVERHEAT
RLY
BATT CHRG
TRANS RLY
115 V AC
GRND SERV BUS
FROM
GEN BUS 1
GRND SERV
RELAY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Figure 101 shows an external power schematic for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.33 B747 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

A detailed schematic diagram of the electrical system for a Boeing 747
commercial transport is shown in Figure 102.
3.33.1 Normal Operation
There are many AC and DC buses throughout the Electrical Power Generation
System (EPGS). Power from these buses is distributed to all the electrical loads
required for flight and ground operations. The Bus Control Units (BCU),
Generator Control Units (GCU), and the Auxiliary Generator Control Units
(AGCU), receive inputs from the flight deck control panel, current transformers,
and current sensors to monitor and control the contactors, breakers, and relays to
provide distribution of both AC and DC power to the different buses.
The 115 volt AC power from the four IDGs is applied to the four main ac buses;
ac bus 1, 2, 3, and 4 through the GCBs. The output of the four IDGs is normally
operated in parallel through the Bus Tie Breakers (BTB), sync bus, and the Split
System breaker (SSB).
For ground operations, provided external power is not available, the APU
generators can power the main AC buses through the Auxiliary Power Breakers
(APB), sync bus, and the BTBs. The APU generator can not be paralleled
through the SSB.
External power applied to the airplane supplies the main ac buses through the
External Power Contactors (XPC), sync bus, and the BTBs. External power can
not be paralleled through the SSB.
If only one APU generator or one side of the external power is available, both the
right and the left sync bus halves can be powered through the SSB.
The 115 volt AC three phase power from ac bus 1, 2, 3, and 4 is supplied to the
four TRUs, which supply the inputs of the main DC buses; DC bus 1, 2, 3, and 4.
The main DC buses are normally tied together by the DC isolation relays (DCIR)
and the DC tie bus.
3.33.2 Ground Handling and Ground Service Systems
The AC ground handling bus is energised automatically through the ground
handling relays (GHR), provided BCU No. 1 determines the power from either
external power No. 1 or APU generator No. 1 is of good quality. External power
has priority over auxiliary power if both are connected.
The external power TRUs are supplied with 115 volt AC three-phase power from
the AC ground handling bus. The 28 volt DC output of the external power TRUs
will power the DC ground handling bus.
Page 3-148
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The ground service bus receives 115 volt AC three phase power from either AC
bus 1, external power No. 1, or APU generator No. 1 through the ground service
select relays (GSSRs) and the ground service transfer relays (GSTRs),
depending on the source selected by BCU No. 1. External power has priority
when connected for ground operations. AC bus 1 powers the ground service bus
for electrical loads necessary during normal flight operations.
An autotransformer powered by the ground service bus, supplies 28 volt AC
single phase power to the 28 volt AC ground service bus.
An autotransformer powered by the ac bus 3, supplies 28 volt AC single phase
power to the main 28 volt AC bus.
The main and APU battery chargers receive power from the ground service bus.
The output of the battery chargers power the main and APU hot battery buses,
also maintaining the batteries at full charge condition.
3.33.3 Main Standby System
During normal power operations, DC bus 3 powers the main and APU battery
buses through the battery transfer relay. The AC standby bus is powered by AC
bus 3 through the AC standby power transfer relay.
If power is lost on AC and DC bus 3, the system switches to standby power,
energising the main battery relay, and also de-energising the battery transfer
relay and the AC standby power transfer relay. The main and APU battery buses
will now be powered by the main and APU hot battery buses. The static inverter
will also receive 28 volt DC power from the main battery hot bus. The 115 volt
AC single phase power from the static inverter will power the AC standby bus.
The captain's transfer bus receives power from AC bus 3 through the instrument
bus voltage sense unit (IBVSU), and the first officer's transfer bus receives power
from AC bus 2 through another IBVSU.
If the voltage is lost on AC bus 3, the IBVSU will automatically switch to AC bus 1
to power the captain's transfer bus. If AC bus 2 has a power loss, the IBVSU will
switch the first officer's transfer bus to AC bus 1.
Page 3-149
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.33.4 APU Standby Power System

The primary flight displays, navigation displays, and the flight management
computers normally receive 115 volt AC power from the captain's and first
officer's transfer buses. With a loss of the captain's transfer bus, the APU static
inverter will energise and supply power to the left flight display, left navigation
display, and the left flight management computer.
A power loss of the first officer's transfer bus will result in the loss of the right
primary flight display and right navigation display. Power can be restored by the
APU static inverter by switching the EFIS power display switch to F/O position. If
both the captain's and the first officer's bus have a power loss, then only the
captain's or the first officer's displays may be powered at one time.
The APU static inverter receives 24 volt DC power input from the APU inverter
transfer relay when the system switches to standby power.
Page 3-150
EXT
PWR
1
GHR
GHR
AC GHB 2
AC GHB 1
GSTR
GSTR
DC GHB
TRU
APU
BATT
APU BATT
CHRG
MAIN
BATT
MAIN BATT
CHRG
AC GSB UTIL
AC GSB
DC GHB
TRU
DC BUS 2
AC BUS 2
DC BUS 1
IDG
1
BTB 2
TRU
DCIR
GCB 1
LEFT SYNCH BUS
TRU
AC BUS 1
28V AC
XFMR
BTB 1
APB 1
IBVSU
IDG
2
APU HOT
BATT BUS
MAIN HOT
BATT BUS
APU INV
XFR RLY
DCIR
FO TRNS BUS
GCB 2
MAIN
BATT
RLY
FO XFR
RLY
APU
BATT
XFR
RLY
APU
START
RELAY
APU
STATIC
INV
DC BUS 3
TRU
AC BUS 3
DCIR
GCB 3
APU BATT BUS

BATT
XFR RLY
PRI FLT DISP - R

NAV DISP - R
FMC
IDG
3
BTB 4
RIGHT SYNCH BUS
PRI FLT DISP - L

NAV DISP - L
MAIN BATT BUS
CAPT XFR
RLY
BTB 3
CPT TRNS BUS
IBVSU
DC BUS TIES
SSB
STATIC
INV
28V AC
XFMR
DC BUS 4
TRU
AC BUS 4
STBY PWR
XFR RLY
DCIR
GCB 4
APB 2
XPC 2
AC STBY BUS
28 AC MAIN BUS
IDG
4
APU
GEN 2
EXT
PWR
2
MODULE 11
28V AC GSB
GSSR
GSSR
XPC 1
APU
GEN 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Boeing 747 Electrical System

Figure 102
Page 3-151
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.33.5 Electrical System Control Module

Switches are provided on the electrical system control module for manually
selecting and monitoring the operating status of the functions selected by the
operator. Figure 103 shows the Electrical System Power Module.
Electrical System Power Module

Figure 103
Generator Control Switches (Gen Cont)
The generator control switch is a latched, alternate action switch. When

depressed to the latched (ON) position, the electrical power generating system is
directed to place the 115 volt AC power from the integrated drive generator onto
the AC bus. The release (OFF) position removes the integrated drive generator
voltage from the ac bus.
Page 3-152
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Generator Drive Disconnect Switches (Drive Disc)
The generator drive disconnect switch is a protected momentary action switch

that controls mechanical disconnection of the integrated drive generator from the
engine gearbox.
Bus Tie Breaker Switches (Bus Tie)
The bus tie breaker switch is a latched, alternate action switch. When depressed
to the latched (AUTO) position, automatic paralleling of the ac buses occurs. The
release (ISLN) position isolates the selected bus from the other AC buses.
APU Generator Control Switches (APU GEN)
The APU generator switch is a momentary switch. Actuation alternately allows

APU generator power to be applied or removed from the AC buses.
External Power Control Switches (EXT PWR)
The EXT PWR switch is a momentary switch. Actuation alternately allows

external power to be applied or removed from the AC buses.
Page 3-153
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.33.6 Electrical Synoptic EICAS Display

The electrical synoptic display presents graphic views and parameters for
generator control, generator drive disconnect status, bus tie, split system breaker,
main bus, electrical power flow, and galley and utility bus status.
Illuminated combinations of green coloured flow segments within the bus outlines
indicate electrical power flow. The electrical synoptic display is selected via the
EICAS display select panel located on the glareshield. Figure 104 shows the
EICAS Display Select panel and the EICAS synoptic display for the electrical
system.
LOWER EICAS DISPLAY

Collins
EICAS DISPLAY
SELECT PANEL
EICAS Display Select Panel & Synoptic Display

Figure 104
Page 3-154
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Split System Breaker
The Split System Breaker (SSB) status is indicated pictorially in the open or
closed positions.
Bus Tie
Bus tie breaker status is indicated by square box symbology. If bus tie breaker 14 is open, an amber coloured ISLN message is displayed within a box. If bus tie
breaker 1-4 is closed, two white coloured vertical lines overlay the bus outlines
and are enclosed within a box. For invalid bus tie data, the respective bus tie
symbol is replaced by a low intensity white box.
Main Bus
A coloured message and outline indicate main bus status. If ac bus 1-4 is on, the
bus number message and outline are coloured white. If ac bus 1-4 is off, the bus
number message and outline are coloured amber. For invalid main bus data, the
outline changes to low intensity white.
Galley and Utility Bus
Galley and utility bus status is indicated by the display of an associated message
located next to the appropriate main bus indicator. If main bus 1-4 is on and the
galley bus 1-4 relay is closed, the GALLEY message is coloured green;
otherwise, the message is coloured amber. If main bus 1-4 is on and the utility
bus 1-4 relay is closed, the UTILITY message is coloured green; otherwise, the
message is coloured amber. If galley or utility bus data becomes invalid, the
associated message changes to low intensity white.
Generator Control
Generator control status is indicated by square box symbology. If generator

control breaker 1-4 is open, an amber coloured message OFF is displayed within
an amber box. If generator control breaker 1-4 is closed, two white coloured
vertical lines overlay the bus outline and are enclosed within a white box. For
invalid generator control data, the associated symbol is replaced by a low
intensity white box.
Generator Drive
Generator drive disconnect status is displayed by a message enclosed in a

coloured box. If a drive overtemperature or low oil pressure condition exists, then
an amber DRIVE TEMP/PRESS message is displayed within an amber coloured
box. For normal conditions, a white coloured box is displayed. For invalid data,
the box changes to low intensity white.
Page 3-155
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.33.7 DC Distribution
There are four main transformer rectifier units (TRUs), each TRU powers an
associated main 28 volt DC load bus. In addition, under normal operation, the
battery buses are supplied from DC bus No. 3. The TRUs are normally operated
in parallel through the DC isolation relays (DCIRs), 75 amp thermal circuit
breakers, and a DC tie bus. The TRUs are identical and are interchangeable.
Main Transformer Rectifier Unit
The main TRUs are static devices which convert 3-phase nominal 115/200 volt,
400 Hz ac input power into unregulated 28 volts dc output power for the airplane
main dc system. Each TRU employs a transformer with a star connected primary
and paralleled star-delta secondary connections. The 6-phase output from the
secondaries is connected to a 6-phase full wave rectifier bridge and filtered to
produce the desired output. Each TRU has an output voltage of 29 volts at no
load and approximately 27 volts at rated load. The four main TRUs are rated for
a continuous output load of 75 amps.
DC Bus Isolation Relay
The DC isolation relay parallels the four main DC buses when de-energized
during normal operation. When energized, they isolate their associated main
buses. The four DCIRs operate in conjunction with the BTBs and the bus tie
switches.
DC Current Sensor (DCCS)
The DCCS is used in six locations in the airplane DC system to operate in

conjunction with the batteries, TRUs, BCUs, and GCUs to provide the required
current sensing. They are rated for continuous operation at 180 amps DC. The
DCCSs are used for the following functions:
1. Provide TRU current sensing to the GCUs and BCUs for indication on
the EICAS maintenance page.
2. Provide monitoring of TRUs for proper operation and relaying this
information to the GCUs and BCUs which provide failed TRU indication
on EICAS and for triple channel autoland operation.
3. Provide battery current indication on the EICAS maintenance page and
battery discharging indication at an advisory level on EICAS via the
BCUs.
Page 3-156
PFD - L
ND - L
PMG - L
PWR TEST
APU BAT
RELAY
CAPT XPR
RELAY
EPC 1
PFD - R
ND - R
BCU
1
AGCU
1
APU
GEN 1
APB 1
GCU
1
GCB 1
CAPT XPR
RELAY
IDG
1
AC BUS 1
BTB 1
AC 1
DIST
APU BAT
XPR RELAY
DC BUS 1
TRU
LEFT SYNC BUS
EFIS SW
FO
CAPT
APU STATIC
INVERTER
DC BUS 2
TRU
AC 2
DIST
APU INV
XPR RELAY
CAPT XPR
IBVSU
GCU
2
GCB 2
FO XPR
IBVSU
IDG
2
AC BUS 2
BTB 2
SSB
OFF
BAT SW
ON
APU BAT
HOT BUS
DC BUS 3
TRU
AC 3
DIST
IDG
3
VOLTAGE
SENSE RELAY
DC BUS 4
TRU
GCU
3
AC 4
DIST
SINGLE
TRU RELAY
MN BAT
HOT BUS
AC BUS 3
GCB 3
BTB 3
TO BCU
BAT XPR
RELAY
MN BAT RELAY
IDG
4
EPC 2
STBY PWR
SW
BAT
OFF
AUTO
STBY PWR
XPR RELAY
APU
GEN 2
AGCU
2
APB 2
BCU
2
STATIC
INVERTER
AC BUS 4
GCB 1
BTB 4
GCU
4
RIGHT SYNC BUS
AC STBY
EXT
PWR
No 2
MODULE 11
APU BAT
BUS
EXT
PWR
No 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Figure 105 shows a schematic of the total electrical system.
B747 Electrical System Schematic

Figure 105
Page 3-157
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.34 CIRCUIT PROTECTION

A common cause of circuit failure is called a Short Circuit. A short circuit exists
when an accidental contact between conductors allows the current to return to
the source through a short, low-resistance path as shown in Figure 106.
SHORT
HIGH
CURRENT
FLOW
LOAD
A Short Circuit
Figure 106
If the current flow caused by a short circuit at some section of a cable is left
unchecked, the heat generated in the cable will continue to increase until
something gives way. A portion of the cable may melt, thereby opening the
circuit so that the only damage done would be to the cable involved. However,
there is a probability that much greater damage would result; heat could char and
burn the cable insulation and that of other cables within the loom, and so causing
more short circuits and setting the stage for an electrical fire.
This failure is prevented by making sure that all insulation on the wires is in good
condition and strong enough to withstand the voltage of the power source.
Furthermore, all wiring should be properly secured with insulating clamps or other
devices so that they cannot rub against any structure and wear through the
insulation. To further protect the circuits the installation of protective devices,
such as Fuses and Circuit Breakers are used.
Page 3-158
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.34.1 Fuses
A fuse is a thermal device designed primarily to protect the cables of a circuit
against the flow of short-circuits and overloads currents. In its basic form, a fuse
consists of a low melting point fusible element or link, enclosed in a glass or
ceramic casing. This casing not only protects the element, but also localizes any
flash, which may occur when Fusing. The link or fusible element is made of
either:
1. Lead.
2. Lead/Tin.
3. Tin/Bismuth.
Or some other low melting temperature alloy. When the current flowing through a
fuse exceeds the capacity of the fuse, the metal strip melts and breaks the circuit.
The strip must have low resistance, and yet it must melt at a comparatively low
temperature. When the strip melts, it should not give off any vapor or gas that will
serve as a good conductor, because this would create an arc between the melted
ends of the strip. The metal or alloy used must be of a type that reduces the
tendency towards arcing.
Fuses are generally enclosed in glass or some other heat-resistant insulating
material to prevent an arc from causing damage to electrical equipment or other
parts of the aircraft. Fuses in aircraft are classified as:
1. Cartridge Type.
2. Plug-in Type.
3. Clip Type.
All types are easily inspected, removed and replaced.
3.34.2 Current Limiters
Current Limiters are essentially a Slow-blow fuse. That is, when the circuit
becomes overloaded, there is a short delay before the metal links melts and
disconnects the circuit. This is because the link is made of copper, which has a
higher melting point than the alloys used in other types of fuse. The current
limiter will carry more than its rated capacity and will also carry a heavy overload
for a short time. They are designed to be used in heavy-power circuits where
loads may occur of such a short duration that they will not damage the circuit or
equipment. The capacity of a current limiter for any circuit is so selected that the
current limiter will always interrupt the circuit before an overload has had time to
cause damage.
Page 3-159
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 107 shows some typical aircraft fuses and current limiters.
LIGHT DUTY
FUSES
FUSE HOLDER
FU S IB LE
E LE M E N T
TE R M IN A LS
HEAVY DUTY
FUSES
CURRENT LIMITER
Typical Aircraft fuses & current limiters

Figure 107
Page 3-160
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.35 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Circuit breakers, unlike fuses or current limiters, isolate faulted circuits and
equipments by means of a mechanical trip device actuated by a bi-metallic
element through which the current passes to a switch unit. Figure 108 shows two
types of circuit breakers found on aircraft.
TYPICAL
CIRCUIT BREAKER
CIRCUIT BREAKER
WITH A MANUAL TRIP
BUTTON
Circuit Breakers
Figure 108
They are used for the protection of cables and components and, since they can
be reset after clearance of a fault, they avoid some of the replacement problems
associated with fuses and current limiters. Furthermore, close tolerance trip time
characteristics are possible because the manufacturer, to suit the current ratings
of the element, may adjust the linkage between the bi-metallic element and the
trip mechanism.
Page 3-161
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The mechanism is of the Trip-Free type; i.e. it will not allow the contacts of the
switch unit to be held closed while fault current exists in the circuit. The design
and construction of circuit breakers varies, but in general they consist of three
main assemblies:
1. A Bi-metallic element.
2. A contact type switch unit.
3. A mechanical latching mechanism.
A push-pull button is also provided for manual resetting after thermal tripping has
occurred, and for manual tripping when required to switch off the supply to a
circuit or system. The construction and operation of a circuit breaker is shown in
figure 109.
PUSH-PULL
BUTTON
CONTROL
SPRING TRIPS
MAIN CONTACT
MAIN
CONTACT
CONTROL
SPRING
LATCH
MECHANISM
OPERATES
THERMAL
ELEMENT
THERMAL
ELEMENT
OPENS
LATCH
MECHANISM
LOAD
SUPPLY
CLOSED CONDITION
TRIPPED CONDITION
Circuit Breaker Operation

Figure 109
Page 3-162
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
In the closed position; current passes through the switch unit contacts and the
thermal element, which in thus carries the full current supplied to the load being
protected. At normal current values, heat is produced in the thermal element, but
is radiated away fairly quickly, and after an initial rise in temperature remains
constant.
If the current should exceed the normal operating value due to a short circuit, the
temperature of the thermal element starts to rise and becomes distorted. This
distortion will eventually become enough to release the latch mechanism,
allowing the control spring to open the main contact, thus isolating the load from
the main supply. At the same time the push-pull button extends, exposing a
white band to indicate that the circuit breaker has operated.
After the circuit breaker has tripped, the distorted thermal element starts to cool
down and reverts to its original state. Once the fault causing the trip has been
rectified, the circuit can then be reset using the push-pull button.
In a three-phase a.c. circuit, triple-pole circuit breakers are used, and their
mechanisms are so arranged that in the event of a fault current in any one or all
three of the phases, all three poles will trip simultaneously. Similar tripping will
take place should an unbalanced phase condition develop as a result of a phase
becoming Open-circuited. The three trip mechanisms actuate a common pushpull button.
3.36 REVERSE CURRENT CUT-OUT RELAY
A reverse current cut-out relay is used principally in a D.C. generating system
either as a separate unit or as part of a voltage regulator (see section 3.11).
These circuit breakers are designed to protect power supply systems and
associated circuits against fault currents of a magnitude greater than those at
which cut-outs normally operate. Furthermore, they are designed to remain in a
Locked-out condition to ensure complete isolation of a circuit until a fault has
been cleared.
Page 3-163
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 110 shows an example of a Reverse Current CB.
RUBBER SHROUDED
SETTING HANDLE
MANUAL TRIP
BUTTON
TERMINAL
BLOCK
MAIN
TERMINAL
(BUSBAR)
MAIN
TERMINAL
(GENERATOR)
Reverse Current CB
Figure 110
It consists of a magnetic unit, the filed strength and direction of which are
controlled by a single-turn coil connected between the generators positive output
and the busbar via a main contact assembly. An auxiliary contact assembly is
also provided for connection in series with the shunt-field winding of the
generator. Opening both contact assemblies is controlled by a latching
mechanism actuated by the magnet unit under heavy reverse current conditions.
Page 3-164
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
CONSUMERS
GEN
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CUT-OUT
LINE
CONTACTOR
REVERSE CURRENT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
Figure 111 shows the circuit arrangement for a Reverse Current CB.
Reverse Current CB Circuit

Figure 111
Page 3-165
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.36.1 Operation
Under normal current flow closing of the relay energises the line contactor, the
heavy-duty contacts, which connect the generator output to the busbar via the
coil, and main contacts of the normally closed reversed current circuit breaker.
The magnetic field set up by the current flow assists that of the magnetic unit,
thus maintaining the breaker contacts in the closed position. The generator shunt
filed circuit is supplied via the auxiliary contacts.
When the generator is being shut down, or a failure of its output occurs, the
reverse current resulting from the drop in output to a value below that of the
battery flows through the circuit. The cut-out relay will operate and de-energise
the line contactor, which takes the generator off line. Under these conditions, the
reverse current circuit breaker will remain closed, since the current magnitude is
much lower than that at which it will operate.
If the cut-out or line contactor failed to open, then the reverse current would
continue to flow towards the generator, and in addition to its motoring effect on
the generator, it would also reverse the generator field polarity. The reverse
current passing through the circuit breaker coil would continue to increase, thus
its magnetic field strength would also increase until the latch mechanism opened.
This would isolate both the main and auxiliary contacts of the circuit breaker.
Note; the breaker must be reset after the circuit fault has been cleared.
Page 3-166
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.37 OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

Overvoltage is a condition which could arise in a generating system in the event
of a fault in the filed excitation circuit, i.e. internal grounding of the filed windings
or an open-circuit in the voltage regulator sensing lines. Devices are therefore
necessary to protect consumer equipment against voltages higher than those at
which they are normally designed to operate.
GEN
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
VOLTAGE
SENSING
COIL
OVER VOLTAGE
RELAY
SENSING
COIL
SHUNT
FIELD
LINE
CONNECTOR
D.C. BUSBAR
The methods used vary between aircraft systems and also on whether they
supply D.C. or A.C. Figure 112 shows an overvoltage relay method of protection
for a D.C. system.
Overvoltage Relay
Figure 112
Page 3-167
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3.37.1 Operation
The relay consists of a number of contacts connected in all essential circuits of
the generator system, and mechanically coupled to a latching mechanism. The
mechanism is electromagnetically controlled by a sensing coil and armature
assembly, the coil being connected in the generators shunt field circuit and in
series with a resistor, the resistance of which decreases and the current through
it is increased.
Under normal regulated voltage conditions, the sensing coil circuit resistance is
high enough to prevent generator shunt-field current from releasing the relay
latch mechanism, and so the contacts remain closed and the generator remains
connected to the busbar. If an open circuit occurs in the regulator voltage coil
sensing line, shunt field current will increase. Because of the inverse
characteristics of the relay sensing coil resistor, the electromagnetic filed set up
by the coil causes the latch mechanism to release all the relay contacts to the
open position, thereby isolating the system from the busbar.
After the fault has been cleared, the contacts are reset by depressing the push
button.
Page 3-168
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.38 SOLID STATE OVERVOLT PROTECTION

Figure 113 shows a solid state overvoltage protection system
TO
BUSBAR
GEN
GB TRIP
RELAY
INVERSE
TIME DELAY
S1
OVERVOLTAGE
DETECTOR
GENERATOR
CONTROL RELAY
S2
GENERATOR
FIELD
O.V. LIGHT
RELAY
28V
DC
28V
DC
FIELD SUPPLY
FROM VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
Overvoltgage Protection (Solid State)

Figure 113
The detector uses solid state circuit elements which sense all three phases of the
generator output, and is set to operate at a level greater than 130 3 volts. An
overvoltage condition is an excitation type fault probably resulting from a loss of
sensing to, or control of, the voltage regulator such that excessive field excitation
of a generator is provided.
The signal resulting from an overvoltage is supplied through an inverse time
delay to two solid state swicthes. When switch S1 is made it completes a circuit
through the coil of the generator control relay, one contact of which opens to
interrupt the generator excitation filed circuit. The other contact closes and
completes a circuit to the generator breaker trip relay, this in turn, de-energises
the generator breaker to disconnect the generator from the busbar. The making
of switch S2 energises the light relay causing it to illuminate the annunciator light.
Page 3-169
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The purpose of the inverse time delay is to prevent nuisance tripping under
transient conditions. Figure 114 shows the principle of operation of the inverse
time delay.
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
160V
GB
TR
IP
145V
130V
0.1 SECS
0.55 SECS
1 SEC
TIME
Inverse Time Delay Operation

Figure 114
Page 3-170
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.38.1 List of Abbreviations

A.
ABTR
CBX APU
AC EBTR
ACR
AIR
APC
APPR
APTC
ASC
ASCR
ASR
autoland bus transfer relay

control bus transfer relay
AC emergency bus transfer relay
autoland control relay
autoland inverter relay
auxiliary power contactor
auxiliary power pilot relay
auxiliary power transfer contactor
APU start contactor
APU start control relay
APU start relay
B.
BCR
BIC
BPC
BPO WR
BTC
BTCR
battery charger relay

battery isolate contactor
battery power contactor
battery power only warning relay
bus tie contactor
bus tie control relay
In GCU 1/ 2/ 3
D.
DC BTC
DC EBPC
DC EBTC
DC EPR
DC GR
DC but tie contactor

DC emergency bus power contactor
DC essential bus transfer contactor
DC external power relay
DC galley relay
E.
EBTC
EIC
EPC
EPIR
EPPR
EPRR
essential bus transfer contactor

emergency inverter contactor
external power contactor
external power interlock relay
external power pilot relay
external power ready relay
GC
CR
GCU
GHBC
GHR
GLC
GLPPR
GPCU
GPPR
GPTC
GSBC
galley contactor
generator control relay
generator control unit
ground handling bus contactor
ground handling relay
generator line contactor
galley power pilot relay
ground power control unit
generator power pilot relay
generator power transfer contactor
ground service bus contactor
H.
HSOR
high speed oven relay
In equipment panel
I.
IDG
integrated drive generator
On engines
G.
In GPCU
In GPCU
In GCU 1/ 2/ 3
In flight compartment
In equipment panel
In flight compartment
Page 3-171
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
O....OIR....
off indicator relay
In relay box 1/ 2
P.
PMG
POR
PRR
permanent magnet generator

point of reference
power ready relay
In IDG 1/ 2 and Gen 3
TFR
TPR
TRU
TRU fault relay

TRU power relay
transformer rectifier unit 1/ 2/ 3
T.
Note:
Page 3-172
In GCU 1/ 2/ 3
In forward avionics bay
All relays are located in the electrical power centre unless mentioned.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PART 4
CONTENTS
4
LIGHTS ......................................................................................... 4-1

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
EXTERNAL LIGHTING .................................................................... 4-1

INTERNAL LIGHTING ..................................................................... 4-1
BOEING 737 EXTERNAL LIGHTING ................................................. 4-2
NAVIGATION LIGHTS ..................................................................... 4-3
LANDING LIGHTS .......................................................................... 4-4
4.5.1
Retracting Landing Lights.............................................. 4-5
RUNWAY TURN-OFF AND TAXI LIGHTS .......................................... 4-6
ANTI-COLLISION LIGHTS ............................................................... 4-6
4.7.1
Strobe Light Operation .................................................. 4-7
4.7.2
Strobe Light Safety........................................................ 4-7
4.7.3
Rotating Beam Anti-Collision Lights .............................. 4-8
WING ILLUMINATION LIGHTS ......................................................... 4-10
EMERGENCY ESCAPE SLIDE LIGHTS.............................................. 4-10
EXTERNAL LIGHT CONTROL PANEL ............................................... 4-11
CARGO & SERVICE LIGHTING ........................................................ 4-12
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT LIGHTS ..................................................... 4-14
4.12.1 Pillar & Bridge Lighting .................................................. 4-16
4.12.2 Wedge Lighting ............................................................. 4-16
4.12.3 Master Caution/Failure Lights ....................................... 4-17
PASSENGER COMPARTMENT LIGHTS ............................................. 4-18
4.13.1 Passenger Service Unit (PSU) ...................................... 4-19
PASSENGER READING LIGHTS ...................................................... 4-20
ATTENDANT CALL SYSTEM ........................................................... 4-21
EMERGENCY EXIT LIGHTING.......................................................... 4-22
4.16.1 Emergency Lighting Operation ...................................... 4-24
SELF ILLUMINATING SIGNS............................................................ 4-27
Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
LIGHTS
Lighting is important in the safe operation of aircraft and aircraft systems and falls
into two main groups:
4.1 EXTERNAL LIGHTING
1. Navigation Lights to mark the extremities of an aircraft and give
position reference.
2. Flashing lights to mark the position of an aircraft.
3. Landing and taxiing lights for forward and lateral illumination.
4. Lights to illuminate wings for ice inspection.
5. Illumination to assist in the evacuation of passengers and crew in
the event of an emergency landing.
4.2 INTERNAL LIGHTING
1. Lights to illuminate consoles/control panels.
2. Lights for passenger compartments and information signs.
3. Warning lights to indicate system-operating condition.
4. Emergency lighting.
Page 4-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.3 BOEING 737 EXTERNAL LIGHTING

Figure 1 shows the layout of the Boeing 737 aircrafts external lighting.
110
140
110
140
Boeing 737 External Lighting

Figure 1
Page 4-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.4 NAVIGATION LIGHTS

All aircraft in flight or moving on the ground during the hours of darkness must
display the following lights.
A GREEN light, at or near the starboard wing tip so that it is visible in the
horizontal plane from a point directly ahead through an arc of 110 to starboard.
A RED light, at or near the port wing tip so that it is visible in the horizontal plane
from a point directly ahead through an arc of 110 to starboard.
A WHITE light visible from the rear of the aircraft in the horizontal plane through
an arc of 140.
Figure 2 shows the layout of the Boeing 737 aircrafts navigation/position lights.
WING TIP NAVIGATION LIGHTS
TAIL CONE STROBE LIGHT
WING TIP REAR POSITION LIGHT
Navigation/Position Lights
Figure 2
Page 4-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.5 LANDING LIGHTS

These lamps provide illumination for aircraft landing and taxiing in conditions of
night or poor visibility. The term Landing and Taxi lamp also covers such
equipment as flare-out lights and runway turn-off lights.
The Boeing 737 aircraft has a total of 4 landing lights. Two are the fixed type and
are located on the wing leading edges near the fuselage. Two are the retractable
type and are located in the outboard flap track fairing.
Note: When the retractable landing lights are extended the lights shine forward,
regardless of the flap position. The outboard lights provide good visibility under
adverse weather conditions and minimise the effect of reflected light into the flight
deck. Figure 3 shows landing and turn-off lights Boeing 737 aircraft.
FIXED LANDING & TURN OFF LIGHTS
RETRACTABLE LANDING LIGHT
Landing & Turn-off Lights

Figure 3
Page 4-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.5.1 Retracting Landing Lights

These lamps are extended by means of an actuator via a slipping clutch or shear
links. This ensures lamp retraction in the event of it failing to do so at high speed,
for whatever reason. The lamp unit is generally of the sealed beam type.
Figure 4 shows the typical arrangement of an extending landing lamp. The lamp
is shown fully retracted.
EXTEND
D
A
LIGHT
115V
400Hz
M
B
RETRACT
C
G
Retracting Landing Light Circuit

Figure 4
When an extend selection is made, the motor M is supply through contacts D.
As the motor runs, cams A B C rotate. A rotates to open contacts D and
close contacts E when the lamp is fully extended. Cam B closes contacts F to
enable a supply via closed contacts E to the lamp. Contacts G close as cam
C rotates to arm the circuit for a retract selection.
Page 4-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.6 RUNWAY TURN-OFF AND TAXI LIGHTS

Runway turn-off lights in each wing root inboard of the inboard landing lights.
They are aimed ahead and to the side of the aircraft to illuminate taxiway turnoffs.
A nose gear taxi light is mounted on the inner cylinder of the nose gear shock so
that it turns with the nose gear.
4.7 ANTI-COLLISION LIGHTS
Anti-Collision Lights are intended as attention-getters to warn of the presence of
an aircraft and identify its position. Anti-collision lights are mounted on the top
and bottom of the fuselage, aft of the wing leading edge. Each anti-collision light
is a strobe light covered in a red lens.
Note: In addition to the anti-collision lights, some aircraft are fitted with white
strobe lights on each wing tip and tail and act as aircraft position indicators.
Figure 5 shows the lower anti-collision light (strobe), Boeing 737 aircraft.
Anti-Collision (Strobe) light

Figure 5
Page 4-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.7.1 Strobe Light Operation

The strobe light works on the principle of a capacitor-discharge flash tube. The
capacitor converts an input power of 28V dc or 115V ac into a high dc output of
around 450V. This discharge occurs between two electrodes in a neon-filled tube
and this in turn produces a high intensity flash of light at a rate of approximately
60 flashes per minute.
4.7.2 Strobe Light Safety
WARNING:
1. Do not handle the unit for at least 5 minutes after power is removed.
2. Never touch a new flash tube with bare hands.
3. Damage to the eyes may result from looking directly into high intensity
light.
Figure 6 shows the circuit for Anti-Collision Lighting
115V
400Hz
GND SRV
AC BUS 1
OFF
ANTI-COLL
CONTROL
PANEL
WARNING
LIGHT
PWR
ANTI-COLLISION TOP
NOISE FILTER
TIMING CCT
VOLTAGE
DOUBLER
CCT
VOLTAGE
DOUBLER
CCT
STORAGE CCT
STORAGE CCT
ANTI-COLLISION
BOTTOM
TRIGGER CCT
Anti-Collision Lighting Circuit

Figure 6
Page 4-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.7.3 Rotating Beam Anti-Collision Lights

There are two types of rotating beam anti-collision light:
1. Rotating Reflector.
2. Rotating Lamp.
Figure 7 shows a rotating reflector beacon type anti-collision light.
SPREAD
BEAM
NARROW
BEAM
Rotating Reflector Anti-Collision Light

Figure 7
In this type of light a motor drives a rotating reflector which reflects light from one
lamp. The speed of rotation is (typically) 40-45 rpm giving a flashing frequency of
80-90 Hz/min. The reflector has one half flat to emit a narrow high intensity
beam, while the other half is curved to increase the vertical spread of the light
beam to 30 above and below the horizontal.
Page 4-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 8 shows a rotating lamp unit type of anti-collision light.
Rotating Lamp Anti-Collision Light

Figure 8
This type of lamp employs two filaments mounted in tandem; each pivoted on its
own axis. One half of each lamp consists of a reflector and a motor rotates the
two lamps through 180. Since the lamps are set in opposite directions, 180 to
each other, then the effect is of a continuously rotating light beam.
Page 4-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.8 WING ILLUMINATION LIGHTS

Two wing illumination lights are provided for scanning the wings and engines in
flight for ice detection purposes. Also used on the ground to illuminate the
immediate area. The lights are flush mounted, one on each side of the fuselage
forward of the wing leading edge and just above the cabin floor level.
4.9 EMERGENCY ESCAPE SLIDE LIGHTS
Four exterior lights illuminate the escape slide areas for the forward and aft entry
and forward and aft service doors. An additional four lights illuminate the
overwing escape doors and the areas just aft of the wing trailing edge. Figure 9
shows emergency lights from the Boeing 737 aircraft.
OVERWING ESCAPE LIGHT
DOOR ESCAPE SLIDE LIGHT
Emergency Lights
Figure 9
Page 4-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.10 EXTERNAL LIGHT CONTROL PANEL

The control panel for the external lights is normally located on the lower overhead
panel. Figure 10 shows the external light control panel for the Boeing 737
aircraft.
RUNWAY
TURNOFF
LANDING
E
X
T
E
N
D
RETRACT
ENGINE START
STROBE
OFF
TAXI
L
L ON R
OUTBOARD
APU
OFF
L ON R
INBOARD
OFF
OFF
OFF
GRD OFF CONT

FLT
ON
ON
BOTH
IGN
L
GRD OFF CONT

IGN
FLT
R
POSITION
ON BAT
ANTI
COLLISION
WING
WHEEL
WELL
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
ON
OFF
ON
ON
ON
START
RUNWAY
TURNOFF
LANDING
E
X
T
E
N
D
RETRACT
L ON R
OUTBOARD
OFF
TAXI
R
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
L ON R
INBOARD
STROBE
OFF
ANTI
WHEEL
WING
WELL
POSITION COLLISION
ON BAT
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
ON
OFF
ON
ON
External Light Control Panel

Figure 10
Page 4-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.11 CARGO & SERVICE LIGHTING

The purpose of the cargo and service compartment lights is to provide the
necessary illumination for cargo handling and for performing all service activities.
Dome lights and floodlights are used to provide illumination in the cargo
compartments, wheel wells and servicing compartments. The lights can operate
from internal power or from an external power source. Light switches are
provided within the compartments the lighting serves. Figure 11 shows the
distribution of cargo/service lighting for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
Cargo/Service Lighting
Figure 11
Page 4-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 12 shows a simplified diagram of the compartment lights circuit.
OFF
ELEC
RACK
LOWER
NOSE
ON
OFF
E/E
ON
A/C
BAY
OFF
RIGHT
A/C
ON
28V
GRND
SERV
BUS
OFF
LEFT
A/C
ON
OFF
AFT
ACCESS
APU
BAY
ON
ACCESSORY
BAYS
OFF
TAIL
CONE
ON
Compartment Lights Circuit

Figure 12
Page 4-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.12 FLIGHT COMPARTMENT LIGHTS

The purpose of the flight compartment lights is to provide illumination for the flight
compartment, its instruments, controls and other equipment so that the flight
crewmembers can perform their jobs.
Dome lights supply general illumination for the cabin. The lightshield provides
background lighting for the pilots. Each instrument and instrument panel has
integral lighting. The control stand is illuminated from an overhead floodlight.
Floodlights illuminate circuit breaker panels. There are also lights for the standby
compass and for map lighting.
Figure 13 shows the position of the flight compartment light control panels.
FLOOD
DOME WHITE
PANEL
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
DIM
OFF
OFF
OFF
BRIGHT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
BRIGHT
OFF
PANEL
BRIGHT
OFF
LIGHTS
TEST
BRT
DIM
MAP
PANEL
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
BACKGROUND
MAP
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
AFDS FLOOD
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
OFF
OFF
PANEL
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
Flight Compartment Light Control Panels

Figure 13
Page 4-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 14 shows the rear flight compartment and circuit breaker panel
illumination.
Rear Flight Compartment & Circuit Breaker Panel Lamps

Figure 14
Page 4-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.12.1 Pillar & Bridge Lighting

The pillar light contains a miniature center contact filament lamp (pea lamp). A
single cable carries the supply, while a ground tag completes the circuit for the
lamp. An aperture has a filter through which the light is distributed. These lights
can be used as single items or in a bridge configuration.
4.12.2 Wedge Lighting
Wedge lighting uses two wedges of glass, inner wedge A and outer wedge B.
Light is introduced to wedge A by a lamp, some light penetrates directly to the
instrument dial while some is trapped within wedge A to be distributed down the
dial. Light escaping into wedge B is reflected down the wedge but is prevented
from further escape by none reflective black paint. In this way, the light is
retained and illuminates the dial. Figure 15 shows Pillar/Bridge and Wedge type
lighting.
APERTURE
PILLAR
LAMPS
BRIDGE
LIGHTING
GROUND
CONNECTION
LAMP
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
INNER
WEDGE A
PILLAR
LIGHTING
PILLAR & BRIDGE LIGHTING
INSTRUMENT
DIAL
OUTER
WEDGE B
BLACK
PAINT
WEDGE LIGHTING
Pillar/Bridge & Wedge Integral Lighting

Figure 15
Page 4-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.12.3 Master Caution/Failure Lights

The master caution/failure system informs the flight crew that a system fault
annunciator has illuminated on the forward overhead, aft overhead or fire control
panels. The system receives inputs from various fault annunciators to illuminate
two master caution lights and one of twelve sections of the master caution
annunciators. Both annunciators have a Push to Cancel, Push to Recall
function. Figure 16 shows the Master Caution lights for the First Officer and
captains position.
ANTI-ICE
ENG
HYD
OVERHEAD
DOORS
AIR COND
MASTER
CAUTION
FIRE
WARN
PUSH TO RESET
PUSH TO RESET
FIRST OFFICERS PANEL
FIRE
WARN
MASTER
CAUTION
PUSH TO RESET
PUSH TO RESET
FLT CONT
ELEC
IRS
APU
FUEL
OVHT/DET
CAPTIANS PANEL
Master Caution/Failure Panel (B737)

Figure 16
Page 4-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.13 PASSENGER COMPARTMENT LIGHTS

The passenger compartment is illuminated by ceiling and window lights. Entry
and threshold lights provide additional lighting for the doorways. Other cabin
lighting systems include lavatory lights, reading lights, passenger information
signs and attendant call system. Figure 17 shows the layout for passenger
lighting.
CEILING LIGHTS
DEFUSER PANELS
MID AISLE
SIGN
EXIT
PASSENGER
LIGHT PANEL
WINDOW
LIGHTS
CEILING
LIGHTS
EMERGENCY
EXIT DIRECTION
INDICATORS
Passenger Compartment Lighting

Figure 17
Page 4-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.13.1 Passenger Service Unit (PSU)

The passenger service unit contains:
1.
Reading Lighting.
2.
Fasten Seat Belt & No Smoking signs.
3.
Attendant Call button.
4.
Air conditioning fans.
5.
Life vest storage.
6.
Oxygen mask storage.
Figure 18 shows the Passenger Service Unit.
PUSH
INSIDE
PUSH LI
FEVEST
LIFE VEST
STORAGE
NO SMOKIN
FASTEN SE
AT BELT
READING
LIGHTS
READING
LIGHT
SWITCHES
AUDIO
SPEAKER
OXY MASK
STORAGE
Passenger Service Unit (PSU)

Figure 18
Page 4-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.14 PASSENGER READING LIGHTS

Passenger Panel and Fwd Cabin Attendant Panel circuits are shown at Figure
19.
DC BUS 1
DC BUS 2
AC BUS 1
AC BUS 2
16 S
DELAY
RH
OTHER
PASSENGER
LTS
LH
FLT
DECK
SW
ATT
CALL
N/S LIGHTS
F/S LIGHTS
READ LT
TOUCH
CONTROL
READ LT
CALL
READ
Passenger Panel and Fwd Cabin Attendant Panel Circuits

Figure 19
All passengers have a reading light with a touch-control button on a Passenger
Panel to switch the light on or off. There is a Reading Reset switch on the
Attendant Panel to switch off all reading lights in one action. When operated, the
reading lights supply is broken for 16 seconds only. When the supply is restored,
the lights remain off but are ready for ON selection. A Read Lights Test switch
on a maintenance and test panel enables all reading lights to be switched on for
inspection.
Note:
Page 4-20
N/S Lights
F/S Lights
S/R Read Lt
=
=
=
No Smoking Lights
Fasten Seat Belt Lights
Set/Reset Reading Lights
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.15 ATTENDANT CALL SYSTEM

Figure 20 shows an Attendant Call System circuit.
DC BUS 2
CALL
READ
ATT
CALL
READ LT
TOUCH
CONTROL
READ LT
N/S LIGHTS
F/S LIGHTS
TO/FROM
OTHER PASS
PANELS
PASS TO ATT
PA
SYSTEM
LAV TO ATT
ATT TO ATT
ATT CALL
LAVATORY
PILOT TO ATT
ATT TO PILOT
CREW CALL SYSTEM
Attendant Call System Circuit

Figure 20
AN ATTENDANT CAN BE CALLED FROM EACH PASSENGER STATION THROUGH THE
ATT. CALL TOUCH BUTTON. THIS ACTION BRINGS ON A LIGHT IN THE AREA CALL
LIGHTS AFT AND FWD STATIONS. A CHIME ON THE P/A SYSTEM ALSO ALERTS THE
ACTION. RESET IS ACHIEVED BY A SECOND TOUCH AT THE ATT CALL SWITCH.
Operation of a switch in either lavatory will call an attendant in similar fashion and
from which lavatory the call was made is identified at the Area Call Lights Aft
and Fwd stations.
Page 4-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.16 EMERGENCY EXIT LIGHTING

Emergency lights automatically illuminate exit signs and egress paths when
normal lighting system power is lost. They are powered by battery packs and are
located in the flight and passenger compartments. The system also includes the
external lights used to illuminate the escape routes form the doors and overwings
hatches.
Floor proximity lighting provides visual; guidance for cabin evacuation when all
sources of cabin lighting above four feet is obscured by smoke. They are
positioned on the left-hand side of the aisle and have an illuminated arrow spaced
every 40 inches to indicate the direction to the nearest exit. Figure 21 shows the
position of the emergency exit signs and floor proximity lighting.
FLOOR TRACK
LIGHTING
EXIT
SIGNS
Emergency Exit Signs & Floor Proximity Lights

Figure 21
Page 4-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 22 shows details of the floor proximity lighting.

LENS
COVER
LAMP
ASSEMBLY
TRACK
COVER
FLOOR TRACK
Floor Proximity Lighting

Figure 22
Figure 23 shows over-wing escape hatch exit lights.
EXIT
EXIT
INDICATOR
Over-wing Escape Hatch Lights

Figure 23
Page 4-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.16.1 Emergency Lighting Operation

The emergency lights (6V) are fed from battery packs, which under normal
conditions are trickle charged from the aircraft main electrical system. The 6V
lights operate as for the following conditions. A three-position switch located on
the flight deck controls the system. The three positions are:
1.
OFF.
2.
ARMED.
3.
ON.
ARMED
Is the normal in-flight position of the switch. A warning light, NOT
ARMED is displayed if the switch is in the OFF or ON position during flight.
ON
The battery packs are not charged. 6V lights ON even though main electrical
power available and normal lights are also ON.
OFF
The battery packs are charged. 6V lights remain OFF even in the event off main
electrical power loss.
Page 4-24
AC BUS 2
OFF IND
AC BUS 1
OFF IND
GSBC 1
28V DC
STANDBY
LIGHTS
DC BUS 1
CABIN/
ENTRANCE
28V DC
EXIT SIGNS
PASS DOOR LT
ESCAPE HATCH LT
CEILING LT
TOILETS
EMER
POWER
EMER DC BUS
DN
R LG
UP
EXIT
LTS
ON
EMER LIGHTS
UP
BATTERY POWER
SUPPLY UNIT
(BPSU)
NORM
Emergency Lighting System

Figure 24
Page 4-25
SCR 1
ARMED
EMERGENCY LIGHTS
Q1
OFF
ON
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 24 shows an Emergency Lighting system circuit.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The following explains the operation of the circuit in Figure 24 with the selector
switch in the ARMED position.
The battery power supply units supply electrical power to the emergency lights (6Volt) and the inverters of the floor proximity emergency lighting when the
transistor Q 1 is on (conducting).
Transistor Q1 comes on when the gate in the supply unit has:
1.Logic zero at the inverting input and;
2.Logic one at the non-inverting input
To have logic one at the non-inverting input, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier
SCR 1 must be on. This occurs when there is a positive voltage on pin B (ARM).
As long as 28 Volt is on pin A (CHARGE and HOLD-OFF), the internal batteries
are charged and logic one at the inverting input of the gate keeps the transistor
off.
When the voltage is removed from pin A and B, there is a logic zero at the
inverting input and a logic one from the internal batteries at the non-inverting
input. This turns the transistor on and the emergency lights and floor proximity
emergency lighting comes on.
The only way to switch off the emergency lights is to put 28 Volt on pin C
(DISARM). This reverse biases the Silicon Controlled Rectifier SCR 1.
Note: The voltage at pin B, necessary to arm the emergency lights, can also be
supplied by the battery power supply unit itself, through pin K (6 Volt) and
the attendant switch or EMER LIGHT rotary selector in the ON position.
WARNING
Minimum use of the battery packs (testing etc) must be made. The battery packs
take up to 20 hours to recharge.
Page 4-26
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PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
4.17 SELF ILLUMINATING SIGNS

The only possible hazard attendant upon the use of such signs is that due to
inhalation or absorption into the body of gas released in the event of breakage of
the glass envelope. Tritium gas is mildly radioactive; therefore, the signs should
be handled carefully to avoid breakage. Should breakage occur, the aircraft
should be evacuated and all doors left open to allow maximum ventilation.
Disposal of broken signs are subject to the Radioactive Substances Act 1960 and
the Radioactive Substances (Luminous Articles) Exemption Order 1962 and
should, therefore, be returned to the manufacturer for disposal. All selfilluminating signs should be checked for luminosity level on initial fitting and at
periods specified in the relevant maintenance schedule. Such signs usually have
a scrap life of 5 years and should then be returned to the manufacturer for
disposal.
Page 4-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 4
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AERODYNAMICS,
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 4-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PART FIVE
CONTENTS
5
ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS ..................................... 5-1

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
MULTI FUNCTION COMPUTER SYSTEM (MFC) ................................ 5-1

5.1.1
Function ........................................................................ 5-1
5.1.2
Maintenance Panel ....................................................... 5-3
5.1.3
Built-In Test Equipment (BITE) ...................................... 5-6
5.1.4
Operation ...................................................................... 5-10
DATA LOADING ............................................................................ 5-11
5.2.1
Navigation Data Base ................................................... 5-12
STRUCTURE MONITORING ............................................................. 5-13
5.3.1
Low Cycle Fatigue......................................................... 5-14
5.3.2
Health & Usage Monitoring (Hum) ................................. 5-14
5.3.3
Structural Monitoring ..................................................... 5-15
CENTRAL MAINTENANCE COMPUTING SYSTEM (CMCS) ................. 5-17
5.4.1
Flight Deck Effect (FDE)................................................ 5-18
5.4.2
Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT)............................ 5-18
PORTABLE MAINTENANCE ACCESS DEVICE (PMAT) ...................... 5-21
AIRPLANE CONDITION MONITORING SYSTEM (ACMS) .................... 5-22
5.6.1
Airplane Condition Monitoring Function (ACMF) ........... 5-24
5.6.2
Quick Access Recorder (QAR) ...................................... 5-25
AIRPLANE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (AIMS) ............... 5-26
5.7.1
Flight Compartment Printing System ............................. 5-28
Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AERODYNAMICS,
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INTENTIONALLY
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Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
On board maintenance systems enable the engineer to confirm faults and in

some cases go straight to the defective item, thus saving time and money in the
maintenance of aircraft. There are many different on board maintenance systems
in use on modern aircraft, ranging from a simple magnetic indicator on an LRU, to
complex systems that allow engineers to connect laptop computers to down load
system parameters and fault data.
5.1 MULTI FUNCTION COMPUTER SYSTEM (MFC)
In flight monitoring and ground test capabilities are provided by the MFC system
(as fitted to the ATR 72). It consists of two independent computers MFC1 and
MFC2. The use of these two computers has meant the removal of a total of 9
redundant LRUs.
Each computer includes two independent modules, Module A & B. Each Module
receives signals from all the various systems and system controls. They also
include a self-test capability so that each module can be tested to ensure it is
operating correctly.
5.1.1 Function
After processing the input information, the unit will output to the various systems
to:
1. Monitor, control and authorise operation of the aircraft systems.
2. Manage system failures and flight envelope anomalies and command
triggering of associated warning in the "Crew Alerting System" (CAS).
3. Provide readout of BITE memory via a maintenance panel on the flight
deck, giving information of any system failures.
Page 5-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 1 shows a simplified block diagram of the MFC system.
FAULT
ACTIVATE
FAULT
ACTIVATE
MFC 1
MFC 1A
STATUS
MFC 1B
STATUS
INPUTS
INPUTS
MFC 1A
MFC 1B
OUTPUTS
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
OUTPUTS
ELECTICAL
POWER
ELECTICAL
POWER
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
MFC Block Schematic Diagram

Figure 1
Page 5-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.1.2 Maintenance Panel

The ATR 72 maintenance panel (located right-hand console), enables the
operator to identify faults on the system using a rotary switch and a failure
display. The control panel (located on the overhead panel) allows the switching
on and fault monitoring of the MFC system. Figure 2 shows the MFC
Maintenance and control panels.
MFC
1A
1B
2A
2B
FAULT
FAULT
FAULT
FAULT
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
MFC CONTROL PANEL (OVERHEAD)

BITE ADV DISPLAY
F F
MFC
DATA
BUS
F F
BITE
LOADED
NORM
FLT
WOW & L/G
ERS
MFC
DOORS
BOOTS
PTA/ERS
MISC
MAG
IND
TEST
NAV
1
BRK
FLT
CTL
MFC MAINTENANCE PANEL (OVERHEAD)
MFC Maintenance & Control Panels

Figure 2
Page 5-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The Maintenance panel has the following functions:

Bite Loaded Indicator - Indicates when a fault has been recorded by the
maintenance system.
System Selector Switch - Normally placed in the NORM FLT position.
During maintenance operations, enables the various systems to be selected and
the relevant failure codes displayed.
Bite Advisory Display - Indicates, through illuminated lights, the code of the
failure recorded. Combination of illumination of these lights enables up to 14
failures per system to be coded.
PTA/ERS push-button - PTA function (push to advance) enables recorded
failures on selected system to be run. At the end of the selected system test
FFFF is displayed. It also acts as an "Erase" function; this will clear current faults
from the system. They will be stored in the systems non-volatile memory.
Test push-button - Used to check operation of the "BITE LOADED" magnetic
indicator.
Data Bus connector - Enables the connection of the Maintenance Test Set
system to be connected. This enables the down load of all faults onto a
Notebook type computer.
Page 5-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The failure codes are all listed in the aircraft maintenance manual. Table 1
shows an example of the code/failure relationship.
SYSTEM: WOW/L/G
CODE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
2
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
1
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
DEFINITION
Right Main Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Right Main Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
Right Main Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
Right Main Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
F
F
F
End of list for selected system
Failure Codes - De-icing Boots System

Table 1
Page 5-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.1.3 Built-In Test Equipment (BITE)

Large aircraft often incorporate "built-in Test Equipment" (BITE) systems to
monitor and detect faults in a variety of aircraft systems. Before BITE systems,
faults finding often required the connection of special Test Equipment then
lengthy tests to establish where the fault lay. Then the rectification by replacing
the required Line Replacement Unit (LRU) followed by a functional test to confirm
the system serviceability, and finally, the removal of the test equipment. The use
of BITE systems reduces the time-spent fault finding and thus eliminates the
need for specialist test equipment.
The BITE continuously tests the various systems and stores all fault information
to be recalled later, either by the flight crew or a maintenance team. Once the
appropriate repair has been made, the BITE system can then be used to reset
the system for operation. Most BITE systems are capable of isolating system
faults with at least 95% probability of success on the first attempt.
The introduction of digital systems on the aircraft has made BITE systems
possible. Discrete digital signals are used as the code language for BITE
systems. The BITE system interprets the various combinations of digital signals
to determine a system's status. If an incorrect input value is detected, the BITE
system records the fault and displays the information upon request. This
information may be by illuminating a number of Light Emitting Diodes (LED's), or,
as with modern systems, a display on a CRT or TV display.
A complex BITE system is capable of testing thousands of input parameters from
several different systems. Most BITE systems perform two types of test
programs:
1. Operational Test
2. Maintenance test
Normal operational checks start with initialisation upon switch on of system power
supplies.
Page 5-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 3 shows the BITE flow sequence.
POWER
POWER
UP
UP
RESET
RESET
PROTECTION
PROTECTION
INITIALIZE
INITIALIZE
CONTROL
CONTROL
INPUT
INPUT
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
OPERATIONAL
OPERATIONAL
BITE
BITE
BITE Flow Diagram

Figure 3
Page 5-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The operational BITE program is designed to check:

1. Input signals.
2. Protection circuitry.
3. Control circuitry.
4. Output signals.
5. Operational BITE circuitry.
During normal system operation, the BITE monitors a "Watchdog" signal initiated
by the BITE program. This watchdog routine detects any hardware failure or
excessive signal distortion, which may create an operational fault. If the BITE
program detects either of these conditions, it automatically provides isolation of
the necessary component, initiates warnings and records the fault in a Nonvolatile memory.
The maintenance program of the BITE is entered into only when the aircraft is on
the ground and the "Maintenance Test" routine is requested.
On aircraft fitted with Flight Management System FMS, a more complex BITE
system is provided. In the Boeing 737, the FMS BITE provides fast and accurate
diagnosis of the main FMS components.
Page 5-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 4 shows the Boeing 737 FMS Bite System.
Boeing FMS BITE System

Figure 4
Page 5-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.1.4 Operation
Self-contained In-flight monitoring and ground test capabilities are provided for
the main FMS components. Each major FMS component contains
comprehensive tests for itself, its sensor inputs, and other interfaces. In-flight
data is automatically stored for analysis on the ground through the BITE system.
BITE is controlled via the FMS Control Display Unit, CDU. The FMS display will
display (in plain English), system status for all systems under test. The operator
simply selects from a menu of test options and inputs interactive responses via
the CDU. BITE runs the test and provides corrective action diagnostics. The
system is designed for line maintenance fault isolation to a single line
replacement unit (LRU), within minutes. The BITE system will also carry out
system verification; to check interfaces after corrective maintenance action.
Page 5-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.2 DATA LOADING

Navigation information required by the aircraft systems is loaded using "Data
Loaders". These loaders are capable of downloading thousands of bytes of
information into the required system in a matter of seconds. The validity of the
current data loaded into an aircraft can be checked using the FMS CDU, which
will show the current version, loaded into it. Figure 5 shows a Data Loader as
fitted to the Boeing 737
DISK STORAGE
DISK STORAGE
429 BUS
INTERFACE
POWER
PROG
CHNG
COMP
RDY
XFER
R/W
FAIL
SPARE
FUSE
PROG
CHNG
COMP
RDY
XFER
R/W
FAIL
DATA TRANSFER IN PROGRESS

DATA CHANGE IS REQUIRED
DATA TRANSFER IS COMPLETE
UNIT READY FOR OPERATION
DATA TRANSFER FAILURE
UNABLE TO ACCESS DISK DATA
SYSTEM TEST FAILURE
LINE
FUSE
ON/OFF
Boeing 737 Data Loader

Figure 5
Page 5-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.2.1 Navigation Data Base

The Navigation database (NDB) contains data that describes the environment in
which the aircraft operates. The type of information loaded includes:
1. Approaches.
2. Country Name.
3. Waypoints.
4. Airports.
5. Runways.
6. Marker Beacons.
7. Holding Patterns.
This information is used by the Flight Management Computer (FMC), to create

flight plans that define the aircraft route from origin to destination.
The source data and the NDB are updated on a 28-day cycle that it corresponds
to the normal revision cycle for navigation charts. Each update disk contains the
data for the current cycle and the next one. This arrangement provides the user
with greater flexibility since it is not necessary to load a new disk on a specific
day. Each PCMCIA card contains 8 megabytes of storage.
Page 5-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.3 STRUCTURE MONITORING

Structural (Health), monitoring and usage monitoring have evolved over the years
to improve the methods of monitoring critical aircraft components. Structural
monitoring was first applied to the monitoring of aircraft engines. This was for two
primary reasons:
1. To prevent engine damage and possible hazard to the aircraft
following a catastrophic failure.
2. The detection of failures before any real damage has occurred.
The engine was monitored for:
1. Engine Speeds.
2. Engine Temperatures.
3. Engine Pressures.
4. Engine Vibration.
Figure 6 shows Engine monitoring set up.
ENGINE
MONITORING
RECORDER
OFF
AIRCRAFT
ANALYSIS
Engine Structural Monitoring

Figure 6
Page 5-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The first British application of engine health monitoring was on BEA Trident
aircraft. Initially simple discrete inputs giving the engine parameters were
monitored and recorded on a suitable on-board recorder. This data was then
removed from the aircraft for the necessary analysis using ground-based
equipment.
5.3.1 Low Cycle Fatigue
The availability of cheap microprocessors in the early 1970's enabled a further
development to be embodied. This has allowed more precise measurements and
calculations to be made of which "Low Cycle Fatigue" is a typical example. The
Low Cycle Fatigue Counter (LCFC), receives inputs from the engine for such
parameters as engine speed (NL and NH) of compressors and turbines. It then
processes this information to calculate engine damage cycles. These damage
cycles are not related to actual damage but more a measure of the component
life being consumed by these critical items.
5.3.2 Health & Usage Monitoring (Hum)
Typical parameters monitored by modern HUM systems are:
1. Engine Speed.
2. Engine Temperature.
3. Engine Pressure.
4. Engine Torque.
5. Accelerations.
6. Vibration Levels.
7. Aircraft Stress.
The extension of HUMS is extended to the monitoring of gearboxes and

transmission trains on helicopters where the continued operation of the power
train is essential to airworthiness.
Page 5-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
A typical HUMS is shown at Figure 7. The engine and other health parameters
are conditioned and converted into suitable digital format for use by the
microprocessor. After the necessary calculations and algorithms have been
executed the data is stored in non-volatile memory until conclusion of the flight.
The data is then extracted by means of a suitable "Data Transfer Unit" (DTU).
PROCESSOR
MONITORED
PARAMETERS
INPUT
SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
HUMS
ALGORTHIMS
DATA
BUS
INTERFACE
NON-VOLATILE
MEMORY
HUMS
DATA
TRANSFER
UNIT
OFF
AIRCRAFT
ANALYSIS
HUMS
Figure 7
5.3.3 Structural Monitoring
When an aircraft comes into service, the manufacturer will have calculated its life
as the number of cycles (take-off - flight - landing) it will achieve. This is normally
in the region of 10s of thousands of cycles, with say an average flight time. The
aircrafts life in hours is calculated by taking an average flight time, this could be
1 hours. Therefore to calculate the aircrafts life in hours simply multiply the
average flight time by the number of cycles, e.g. 1 hours X 60,000 cycles =
90,000 hours life.
Page 5-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Manufacturers will also test a sample airframe to destruction, simulating the

effects of flight, 24 hours a day until the airframe fails. Structural testing could
also be carried out on actual aircraft in service. Strain gauges, positioned at
various points on the airframe, measure the structural stress on the airframe.
This information is gathered by an on board computer for analysis after every
flight.
With the requirements for modern aircraft having flight data recorders, these can
also be used to monitor the aircrafts structure and thus identify any faults before
they cause catastrophic failure. Figure 8 shows the FDR system.
FDR
ARINC 429
ANALOGUE
AIRCRAFT
SYSTEMS
ANALOGUE
DISCRETES
ARINC 573
ARINC 629
FAULT
MONITORING
DFDAU
AIMS
FDR System
Figure 8
Page 5-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.4 CENTRAL MAINTENANCE COMPUTING SYSTEM (CMCS)

The CMCS supports both line and extended maintenance functions through
menu selections on the Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT) or Portable
Maintenance Access Terminal (PMAT). Other menu selections support special
maintenance functions, on-line help and report production. Figure 9 shows the
location of the MAT.
MAT KEYBOARD
MAT KEYBOARD
SLOT
MAINTENANCE ACCESS
TERMINAL (MAT)
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
REAR RIGHT SIDEWALL
Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT)

Figure 9
Page 5-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The CMCS is used for:

1. Monitoring the aeroplanes systems for faults.
2. Processing fault information.
3. Supplying maintenance messages.
4. Monitoring flight deck effects (FDE).
Maintenance messages give the engineers detailed fault information to help in
troubleshooting. The Aeroplane Condition Monitoring System (ACMS) monitors
for any system faults, if a fault is detected, a maintenance message is sent to the
CMCS. The CMCS processes the data and shows a maintenance message so
the maintenance crew can examine it and find a corrective action.
5.4.1 Flight Deck Effect (FDE)
FDE inform the flight and ground crews of the conditions relating to the safe
operation of the aircraft. The ground crew must find the cause of an FDE to find
the corrective action. The FDE data is used along with the aircrafts maintenance
manuals to isolate the fault.
The ACMS monitor conditions related to the loss of a system or function. If a
condition exists that requires repair or deferral, the ACMS sends FDE data to the
AIMS Primary Display System (PDS). The PDS will show the FDE on the MAT
and PMAT.
5.4.2 Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT)
The MAT has a display screen and controls for selecting and viewing fault data.
A keyboard is also provided (stored when not in use) which allows certain entries
and controls displayed data. The MAT also has a cursor control device, which
has a power supply module that receives 115V ac via the MAINT ACCESS
TERMINAL circuit breaker located on the overhead panel. This PSM then
distributes power for the remainder of the MAT. The cursor control device
contains the following controls:
1. Track Ball.
2. Selection Keys.
3. Brightness Control.
Page 5-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 10 shows the MAT and cursor control device.
MAT DUAL
DISK DRIVE
MAT DISPLAY
MAT CURSOR
CONTROL DEVICE
SELECTION KEYS (3)

TRACK BALL
POWER SUPPLY
MODULE
BRIGHTNESS
CONTROL
CURSOR CONTROL
DEVICE
MAT & Cursor Control Device

Figure 10
Page 5-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 11 shows the MAT display showing FDE data.
LINE
MAINTENACE
EXTENDED
MAINTENANCE
OTHER
FUNCTIONS
HELP
N77701
TBC1234 KBFI/KMWH
LEG STATRT WAS 1753Z 07 JUL 00
THIS DATA IS FROM LEFT CMCF
INBOUND FLIGHT DECK EFFECTS

Select text of Maintenance Message, then select the
MAINTENANCE MESSAGE DATA button to get more
data.
MAINTENANCE
MESSAGE DATA
Flight Deck Effects recorded during the present leg
FDE: F/D ZONE TEMP CTRL
STATUS
Fault Code : 216 011 00
FDE: CAPT RA FLAG
Maintenance Message: 34-42011

Approach
NOT ACTIVE
1948z 07JUL00
PFD FLAG
Fault Code : 343 311 31
REPORT
ACTIVE
1948z 07JUL00
ACTIVE
1941z 07JUL00
Radio Altimeter Transceiver (left) has an internal fault.
GO BACK
ERASE
FAULT
MAT Displayed Data

Figure 11
Page 5-20
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.5 PORTABLE MAINTENANCE ACCESS DEVICE (PMAT)

The PMAT is stored within the electronics bay and has the same functions as the
MAT. There is a PMAT terminal receptacle located on the MAT position. There
are also four other PMAT receptacles located throughout the aircraft. These are
located:
1. Electronics Bay.
2. Nose Gear.
3. Right Main Gear Bay.
4. Stabilizer Bay.
Figure 12 shows a PMAT and receptacle.
PMAT
SELECTION
SWITCHES
POWER
SWITCH
CURSOR
CONTROL
PMAT RECEPTACLE
LCD
DISPLAY
KEYBOARD
DISK
DRIVE
Portable Maintenance Access terminal (PMAT)

Figure 12
Page 5-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.6 AIRPLANE CONDITION MONITORING SYSTEM (ACMS)

The ACMS (Boeing 777) collects monitors and records data from the aircrafts
system. The data collected by the system is used to produce reports. These
reports are used to:
1. Analyse airplane performance.
2. Analyse trends.
3. Report significant events.
4. Troubleshoot faults.
Figure 13 shows the layout of the Boeing 777 ACMS.
AIRPLANE CONDITION
MONITORING SYSTEM
(ACMS)
ACMS REPORTS
ACMS REPORTS
ACMS
XXXX REPORTS
XX X XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
XXXX XX X XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX XXXX XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
XXXX XX
XX X XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX XXXX XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
X X XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XX XXXX XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XX X XXXXX
XXXXXXXXXX
X XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX XXXX
XXXX XXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
XXXX
XXXX XXX XX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
XXXX
XXXXXXX
XXX XX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXX
XX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX X X X X
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXX X X X X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX X X X
XXXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX
XXXXXX
ACMF
PDF
CMCF
QAR
AIMS
FMCF
DCMF
TMCF
FDCF
TA
DA
DFDAF
Boeing 777 ACMS

Figure 13
Page 5-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The ACMS receives data from the Airplane Conditioning Monitoring Function
(ACMF) which is located in the left-hand AIMS cabinet. The ACMS is accessed
through formats on the Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT), Portable
Maintenance Access Terminal (PMAT) or the side displays on the flight deck.
The ACMS can if required be programmed by the user airline to carry out custom
features. Figure 14 shows the general arrangement of ACMS.
RH
DISPLAY
LH
DISPLAY
QAR
MAT
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
PRINTER
PMAT
A
I
R
C
R
A
F
T
FLIGHT CONTROL
ARINC 629 BUS (3)
SDU
VHF
TX/RX
SYSTEMS
ARINC 629 BUS (4)
ARINC 429
ANALOG
DISCRETES
LEFT HAND AIMS CABINET
ACMS (Boeing 777)

Figure 14
Page 5-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.6.1 Airplane Condition Monitoring Function (ACMF)

The ACMF is a combination of standard and custom software. The custom
software is set to the following functions:
1. Report Format.
2. Report Content.
3. Triggers.
Triggers are logic equations that detect conditions and cause data to be
recorded, e.g. engine exceedances. The ACMF sends data to the following units:
1. Quick Access Recorder (QAR).
2. Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT).
3. Portable Maintenance Access Terminal (PMAT).
4. MAT or PMAT disk drives (to record data onto diskette).
5. Flight deck Side Displays (SD).
6. Data Communication Management Function (DCMF).
Note: The DCMF is used to send data to the airline base while the aircraft is
airborne via either the VHF communication or Satellite communication system.
The ACMS collects data to record and sends reports to many output devices.
The MAT and PMATs allows the user to see the ACMS data and control the
function of the ACMS. Aircraft systems send data into the AIMS cabinet
input/output modules on:
1. Flight Control ARINC 629 Buses.
2. System ARINC 629 Buses.
3. ARINC 429 Buses.
4. Analogue Inputs.
5. Discrete Inputs.
Page 5-24
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.6.2 Quick Access Recorder (QAR)

The QAR records data sent from the ACMF onto a 3.5 inch 128 MB optical disk
and holds 41 hours of data. A spare disk is located within the unit should the
active disk become full. Figure 15 shows a QAR and optical disk.
PRESS
SPARE DISK
POWER ON
OPTICAL QAR
DISPLAY
DISPLAY
PENNY
&
GILES
FAIL
LOW CAPACITY
MAINTENANCE
EJECT
MADE IN
U.K.
OPTICAL DISK CARTRIDGE
QUICK ACCESS RECORDER
Quick Access Recorder (QAR)

Figure 15
The optical disk has a magnetic surface with an infrared laser optically tracking
the disk. Data from the ACMF (Core Processing Module, CPM) is received by
the QARs CPU. The CPU does a self-test to check the validity of the data and
then sends control information to the memory device.
Page 5-25
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The QRA memory device contains two memories:

1. Flash memory (non-volatile).
2. Formatter memory.
The flash memory holds configuration data, system data and identification files
and sends this data to the formatter. The formatter arranges the received data,
then sends it to the cartridge drive circuits.
The cartridge drive circuits control the position of the laser tracking recording
head. They also write data on and read data from the optical disk. The front
keyboard is used to read information from the optical disk and to run functional
tests. The CPU also sends data to the 16 bit LCD displays. These displays
show:
1. Stored data.
2. QAR menus.
3. Test results.
4. Messages.
The QAR sends data and status to the CPM/COMM in the left AIMS cabinet. The
ACMF monitors the data and status.
5.7 AIRPLANE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (AIMS)
The AIMS collects and calculates large quantities of data and manages this data
for several integrated aircraft systems. The AIMS has software functions that do
all the calculations for each aircraft system. The AIMS has two cabinets, which
do the calculations for these systems. Each cabinet contains:
1. Cabinet Chassis.
2. Four input/output Modules (IOM).
3. Four Core Processor Modules (CPM).
The IOM and CPM are in the cabinet chassis, which has a backplane data bus
and a backplane power bus to distribute data and power to the IOMs and CPMs.
Page 5-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The IOMs transfer data between the software functions in the AIMS CPMs and
external sources. The CPMs supply the software/hardware to do the
calculations. There are four types of CPMs:
1. CPM/COMM Core Processor Module/Communication.
2. CPM/ACMF - Core Processor Module/Aircraft Condition Monitoring
Function.
3. CPM/B - Core Processor Module/Basic.
4. CPM/GG - Core Processor Module/Graphics Generator.
Figure 16 shows the AIMS system (Boeing777).
AIRCRAFT CONDITION
MONITORING SYSTEM
(ACMS)
FLIGHT DATA
RECORDER SYSTEM
(FDRS)
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT
COMPUTING SYSTEM
(FMCS)
PRIMARY DISPLAY
SYSTEM
(PDS)
CENTRAL MAINTENCE
COMPUTING SYSTEM
(CMCS)
AIMS LEFT-HAND CABINET

AIMS RIGHT-HAND CABINET
THRUST MANAGEMENT
COMPUTING SYSTEM
(TMCS)
DATA COMMUNICATION
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
(DCMS)
AIMS System
Figure 16
Page 5-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
5.7.1 Flight Compartment Printing System

The flight compartment printer supplies high-speed hard copies of text for the
following systems:
1. Primary Display System (PDS).
2. Airplane Condition Monitoring System (ACMS).
3. Central Maintenance Computing System (CMCS).
The flight compartment printer receives data from the print driver partition of the
Data Communication Management Function (DCMF). The DCMF is located
within the AIMS. The DCMF prioritises data sent to the printer in the following
order:
1. Flight Deck Communication Function (FDCF) of the DCMS.
2. Central Maintenance Computing Function (CMCF) of the CMCF.
3. Airplane Condition Monitoring Function (ACMF) of the ACMS.
4. Multi Function Display (MFD).
The printer can print at 300 dots per inch (DPI). It uses a roll of paper, which is
125 feet long and is A4 European Air standard paper. The printer contains all
mechanical components and electronics necessary for printer operation. The
mechanical components include:
1. Printer head.
2. Rollers to move paper.
3. Motor and drive system.
The electronic components include:
1. Power supply module.
2. Processor board.
3. Controller board.
4. Interconnection board
Page 5-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 17 shows the flight compartment printer.
FAIL
PAPER
CUT
SLEW
RESET
TEST
TOP VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Flight Compartment Printer

Figure 17
Controller Board Receives brightness controls from dimmer controls that drive
the lights on the front panel.
Processing Board Processes all inputs for the left AIMS cabinet and changes
the data signals to control the thermal printer.
Interconnection Board Controls the flow of data between the processor board
and the controller board and the mechanical devices that print three paper.
Page 5-29
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 5-30

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TRAINING NOTES ON

AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS ..................... 1-2

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

MODULE 11 (AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES

The principles of Aircraft Theory of Flight are covered in JAR 66 Module 8.

1.1 AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS

An aircraft is equipped with fixed and moveable surfaces, or aerofoils, which

Typical Aircraft Flight Controls

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

The horizontal stabiliser is used to provide longitudinal pitch stability and is

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

The T-Tail Arrangement places the complete stabiliser/tailplane and elevator

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Off-Set Vertical Stabiliser

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

1.1.2 MOVEABLE CONTROL SURFACES

Moveable Control Surfaces

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Roll Control - Ailerons

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Roll Control - Spoilers

The use of spoilers as a primary control, will be to operate asymmetrically in

Roll Spoiler Controls

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Pitch Control - Elevators

Pitch Control Stabilators

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Pitch Control Variable Incidence Stabilisers

Incorporating a conventional elevator control system, the variable incidence

Variable Incidence stabiliser

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

A fundamental feature of a canard design is that the angle of attack of the

Canard Design Beech Starship

Yaw Control - Rudder

Combined-Function Controls Elevons and Ruddervators

An example of combined-function controls is found on delta-wing aircraft, where

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Flaps and Slats

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

As previously stated, a modern airliner is an extremely smooth, low drag design

Spoilers and Lift Dumpers.

Lift Dump Spoilers

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Speed Brake Installation

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

1.1.5 AIRFLOW CONTROL DEVICES WING FENCES

Airflow Control Devices Saw Tooth Leading Edges

Leading Edge Notch

Airflow Control - Winglets

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Boundary Layer Control - Vortex Generators

Boundary Layer Control - Stall Wedges

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Boundary Layer Control - Leading edge Devices

Krueger (left) and Drooped (right) Leading Edge Flaps

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

1.1.7 TRIM TABS

Fixed Trim Tabs

Fixed Trim Tab

Controllable Trim Tabs

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Controllable Trim Tab

Issue 1 04 Sept 2001

Aircraft Dynamics Structure & Systems

Aircraft Dynamics Structure & Systems