Table of Contents

Introduction..1
Basics....2
Propulsion..3
Early Submarines4
The Turtle5
Civil War ....6
Mechanical Power.7
Diesel Electric8
Armament.....9
World at War.10
World War II: Atlantic..11
World War II: Pacific.12
Nuclear Power13
Nuclear Submarines..14
Life on a Submarine15
Polar Ice Expeditions.16
Civil Use....17
Dangers and Accident Prevention..18
Future.20
Glossary.21
Picture Sources....22
About the Authors..23

Introduction
Meaning the under the sea, the word submarine is the combination of
sub and marine. Submarines are vessels specifically design to dive and
operate freely under water. They should not be confused with
submersibles, which are unable to operate independent of a mother ship.
The earliest submarines were little more than small wooden vessels that
could accommodate only a few sailors and could operate over a very
limited range. Modern submarines, however, are massive ships which are
capable of remaining submerged for months at a time and are able to
cover thousands of miles. Submarines are incredibly useful as well; they
are valuable both commercially and militarily.

The picture above is a cross sectional view of a modern submarine.

Basics
Ships float on water because of buoyancy. All fluids exert pressure,
water included. It is this pressure that assist in keeping objects afloat.
While buoyancy helps ships stay above the surface of the water, it also
makes it difficult to submerge a submarine. In order to dive, the
submarine must overcome buoyancy. This is done by filling the ballast
tanks with water, weighing down the vessel, and sinking it.

Submarines must also protect the crew serving on the vessel from the
harsh underwater environment. Not only must the crew be supplied
with oxygen, but they must be protected from the immense pressure
water exerts. As a result, submarines are built with a pressurized
interior cabin where the crew can work safely. Shown in the diagram
above, are both the ballast tanks, as well as the pressurized interior of
the submarine.

Propulsion
The earliest submarines used either oars or a corkscrew to provide
propulsion. While they did work, these two propulsion devices were
inefficient; therefore, the propeller was adopted. A propeller works by
pushing water much like a fan blows air. Using angled blades, the
propeller moves the fluid backwards, which in turn propels the ship
forwards.

While the propeller is still standard, some ships deploy pump jets to
provide propulsion. A pump jet is an enclosed propeller system that
produces less noise than a conventional propeller, making any ship using
one stealthier. In addition, pump jets add maneuverability because the
direction of the resulting current of water can be changed. Pump jets are
more expensive, and they do negatively affect performance, such as the
case with fuel economy.

A pump jet.

Early Submarines
There is evidence that the ancient Greeks used a precursor to the
submarine, the diving bell. This was a vessel that could be lowered
underwater and held a small volume of air. It allowed the operator to
stay under the surface for a longer period of time. Diving bells are not
true submarines, which first appeared hundreds of years later.

Two early submarine designs, the design on the left dates from the fourteenth
century and the design on the right dates from the fifteenth century.

The first submarine to be built and successfully operated was

designed by a British Mathematician named William Bourne and
constructed by Cornelius Drebble. In the seventeen century, Drebble
tested the submarine in the Thames. It was received with much praise
and at one point King James I was a passenger on the vessels.

A painting of Drebbles submarine in action

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The Turtle
Designed by David Bushnell in 1776, the Turtle was to be used against
the British in the American War of Independence. The Turtle was an egg
shaped vessel equipped with a mine, specially designed to detonate in
water. Unfortunately for the Americans, the Turtles top speed was 3 mile
per hour in calm waters; this was largely due to the non-hydrodynamic
shape and insufficient propulsion system.

A sketch of Bushnells Turtle

According to an American account the Turtle was once used in

combat. On September 7, 1776, a volunteer attempted to sink the HMS
Eagle using the submarine. The attack ultimately failed when the Turtle
was unable to plant its charge on the ship and had to abandon the mission.
The mine was detached from the submarine and later detonated harmlessly
in New York harbor. The Royal Navy had no records of such an attack, and it
may be very likely that the attack never occurred. If the story is true
however, the Turtle would be the first submarine ever to be used in a
military action.

Civil War Submarines

The American Civil War is considered the first modern war and the
submarine was first effectively used in it. Both the Union and the
Confederacy built various types of submarines. Their philosophies differed
greatly; while the Union believed submarines could be used in a support
role, clearing underwater obstacle and mines, the Confederacy used them
in an attack role. Throughout the Civil War several advances to submarines
were made, including designs for steam and electrically powered vessels,
compressed air tanks, airlocks and even carbon dioxide scrubbers. In total,
over twenty submarines were constructed during the war. The most
famous submarines were the Union Alligator, an advanced craft that
influenced the future designs of many submarines, and the Confederate
Hunley, the first submarine to sink a ship.

The Alligator

The Hunley

The Sinking of the Housatonic

By 1864, Charleston Harbor was under a Union blockade. On February 17, the
Hunley was deployed in an attempt to break the blockade; the target was the sloop,
U.S.S Housatonic. That night at 8:45, the Hunley and her crew of eight made their
approach while receiving small arms fire from the Union ship. After affixing an
explosive to Housatonic, the crew quickly retreated. The Housatonic sunk moments
later. The Hunley made the first successful attack in submarine history. Unfortunately
the submarine was lost in the process, going down with all hands.

Mechanically Powered Submarines

Although mechanically powered submarines were proposed during
the Civil War, all of the submarines used were still human powered. As far
back as Drebbles ship, submarines have been moved via oars or propellers
driven by men. The first submarine to use an alternative to man power was
the Plongeur, a French ship driven by compressed air.

The Plongeur was constructed in 1863.

Mechanical power marked a revolution in submarine design and

finally made them a practical craft. All submarines prior had huge
limitations due to dependency on human power. These submarines had
incredibly limited range and speed, and could go only as far as the human
operator could row or crank. With the use of mechanical power,
submarines could move further and faster. In addition size was no longer
limited by the propulsion system and larger ships could be constructed.

Diesel Electric
Powering submarines has always been a problem because coal,
gasoline, and diesel engines all require oxygen to function. When
submerged all the oxygen in the ship is used by the crew, and it is not in
free supply. Motors were considered as an alternative because they require
no oxygen to function. Unfortunately, batteries are heavy and a ship
equipped solely with batteries and motor would have an unreasonable
weight.
The solution was to make a hybrid ship, one that would run on diesel
on the surface and use electric when submerged. Diesel offered great fuel
efficiency and the range that a submarine needs, while the electricity
allowed the ship to run underwater. Originally, these crafts had a propeller
attached to both a diesel engine and an electric motor. In 1928 however a
more efficient system was designed. Rather than using the engine to power
the boat, it would be used to recharge the submarines batteries.

The diesel engine turns a generator producing electricity and

submarine is driven by an electric motor.

Armament
The earliest submarines had to physically plant explosives on ships;
needless to say this was not an efficient method. As they increased in size,
the submarines needed a better way to engage and sank enemy vessels.
Two solutions were developed: deck cannons, and the torpedo.

The deck gun would be used to attack ships while the

submarine was at the surface.

Torpedoes are self-propelled explosives that can be either fired from

above or below the surface of the water. In addition, torpedoes have
contact fuses, which detonate the explosive when it contacts a ship. The
first self-propelled torpedo was powered by compressed air. After
torpedoes became self-propelled, a method of maintaining depth was
needed. The solution was made in 1868; a special mechanism was added to
control the fins of the torpedo.

The image above is a sketch of an early

World at War

Submarines first played major role in World War One. The British
Navy was by far the most powerful navy in the world at the time, and the
German fleet could not match it. The Germans adopted a new strategy to
combat the British fleet, submarine warfare. While all sides had
submarines, only the Germans saw their value and their u-boats were by far
the most advanced submarines of the war.

A German u-boat

Initially, the u-boats were used to attack a military vessel, but the
disadvantages of submarines hindered the effectiveness of the attacks.
Despite being capable of sneaking up to a ship, u-boats were slow,
immovable, and almost blind underwater. Ultimately the Germans could
not seriously hinder the British Navy. They changed tactics and began
attacking merchant vessels in an attempt to cut off resources coming into
Britain.

The RMS Lusitania

On May 7, 1915, the RMS Lusitania and 1,195 occupants became victims of the
German submarine campaigns. The sinking of the ship caused both controversy and
outrage. While the Germans claimed the Lusitania, a luxury liner, was carrying weapons
and ammunition, both the British and American government claimed otherwise. It
changed the American opinion of Germany, who began to view the Germans as savages. A
few years later, when Germany began to pursue unrestricted submarine warfare, America
joined the war effort against Germany.

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World War II: Atlantic

Almost 20 years later, the German u-boat would once again roam the
seas, deadlier than ever. After their defeat in World War One, Germany
rebuilt under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, and once again relied on the uboat to cripple its enemies. The u-boats of World War Two were equipped
with more effective torpedoes, including torpedoes with proximity fuses.
The u-boats were largely used to attack transport vessels in attempt
to cut off the island nation of Britain from outside supplies. During the first
years of the war, the Germany had great success sinking commercial
shipping. Germany also developed the wolfpack, a large formation of
submarines that was very capable of sinking ships. Their success would not
last long however, as the war went on the Allies developed superior antisubmarine techniques.

Advances to depth charges, the most common anti-submarine weapon, decreased the
amount of ships sunk by U-boats.

Sonar and radar allowed the Allied Navy to detect U-boats on the
surface as well as when submerged. Along with better detection methods,
the Allies developed anti-submarine weapons. In addition aircraft were
equipped with technologies to combat the u-boat threat.

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World War II: Pacific

Submarines also played a major role in the Pacific theater. The
Japanese had a sizable submarine fleet, and even used midget submarines
to attack ships at Pearl Harbor. In addition, they developed some unique
submarines such as the aircraft carrier submarine.

The I-1400, a Japanese submarine that was

capable of launching three aircraft.

After Pearl Harbor, the American surface fleet was decimated, but the
American submarines were untouched. The United States proceeded to
carry out its own unrestricted submarine warfare policy, attacking the
shipping that was vital to the Japanese war effort. Submarines destroyed
over half of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling the economy of the
island nation. By the end of the war, Japan did not even have enough fuel
to power their naval vessels. Along with offensive roles, the American
submarines were used in support roles such as reconnaissance, and search
and rescue.

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Nuclear Power
Throughout both World Wars, all submarines were diesel electric.
While these submarines could submerge longer than their predecessors,
they still had to surface to recharge their batteries. After the Second World
War a new power source was available: nuclear power. Unlike diesel
generators, nuclear generators not require oxygen, instead they relied on
uranium.
All matter can be converted into energy, and in fission most of the
matter is converted into usable energy. In nuclear bombs all of the stored
energy of the bombs core, usually uranium, is released all at once,
producing an explosion that can level cities. In nuclear generators the same
amount of energy is released, but over long periods of time. In nuclear
fission the energy stored in matter is released efficiently. A baseball sized
piece of uranium can produce as much power as one million gallons of
gasoline.
Throttle
Valve
Turbine
Reactor

Water Pump
Generator

Electric
Generator

In nuclear generators the energy stored in the uranium is released through heat
energy. This heat converts the water, which is pumped in to cool the reactor, into
steam. This steam turns a turbine, which is connected to an electric generator. The
steam cools down, converting back into water, and is pumped through the reactor.

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Nuclear Submarines
Many modern submarines utilize nuclear energy to provide power.
Because they do not need to surface to recharge their batteries, submarines
are able to spend much of their time underwater. The only limitation of
how long a submarine can stay underwater is its food supply; the uranium
in the generators can last for 25 years.
The downside of nuclear submarines is a loss of stealth. Nuclear
generators create a great amount of heat. This heat comes directly from the
reactor, and is even produced when the generator is off. In order to keep
the generator from overheating, this heat must be dissipated into the water
surrounding the submarine. This process leaves a thermal scar, an area of
heated water that thermal imaging systems can detect. In addition, the
generator emits a large amount of noise, which comes from the steam and
water running through the reactor. This sound is loud enough to be
detected by other ships.

Nuclear submarines have more tubular shapes then submarines such as the u-boat.
Since nuclear submarines are underwater more often than on the surface, their shape
is designed to be hydrodynamic. This comes at a cost however; the ship is less stable
on the surface.

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Life on a Submarine
At first, submarines were not suitable for extended habitation. Early
submarines lacked the life support systems that sustain the crews of
modern submarines. However, the invention of diesel-electric engines
allowed larger submarines to be built, which in turn allowed for more
livable ships.
The first aspect of life on a submarine is the tight quarters. Being a
closed metal tube deep underwater, submarines have inevitable space
restraints. In fact, the earliest submarines resembled caskets more than
boats. They were generally built to accommodate only a few occupants,
unlike modern submarines, which can hold upwards of a hundred crew
members. The early submarine had a seat for the pilot and not much else.
They were used more like cars; they were transportation devices used to
move from one place to another. The pilot was not able to leave his seat
except when he was leaving the submarine. The development of newer
submarines brought about the idea of actually living on a submarine.

Shown above is the forward torpedo room of a World War Two era submarine.
Due to the lack of space on the ship, there are actually bunks on top of torpedoes.

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Polar Ice Expedition

The first attempt to reach the North Pole in a submarine was made by
the US ship Nautilus in 1931, while under the command of Sir Hubert
Wilkins. The expedition was called off after the diving plane was damaged
during travel under the ice. This forced the captain to retreat; however, the
expedition did show that submarines were capable of operation under ice.
However, the ship was seriously damaged in its efforts.
It would take another twenty years for additional attempts to sail
under the North Pole. The honor of being the first ship to reach the North
Pole, and operate under ice for a significant portion of time goes to the USS
Nautilus. This submarine was the successor of the diesel powered Nautilus
of the 1930s, and was the first nuclear submarine. The Nautiluss success
would be followed up by the USS Skate, the first submarine to surface at
the North Pole. It traveled under the ice, and then broke through the
surface at the North Pole on March 19, 1959. Both of these ships conducted
research there for the navy, and proved that submarines could effectively
and safely operate under ice.
.

This picture is of the USS Skate at the North Pole, 1959.

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Civil Use
Although most submarines are used for military purposes, some are
used outside the military. Submarines, as well as submersibles, can be used
for tourism, explorations, and investigations of undersea cables and
structures. Tourist submarines first appeared in 1985 and because of
increasing popularity the number these ships today is around forty-five.

The largest passenger submarine is the Atlantis XIV,

which can hold 64 passengers.

Submersibles
Submersibles are very useful to scientists who wish to explore underwater.
They are used for oceanography, underwater archeology, ocean exploration, or even
underwater photography or video recording. Being smaller, submersibles are a more
economic choice than submarines. Submersibles can be dropped into deep ocean
trenches. The submersible is tethered to the mother ship, which the submersible is
dependent on for surfacing and refueling. Scientists onboard can control external
robotic appendages to collect samples and conduct experiments. Submersibles excel
in this aspect of underwater research because small size of submersibles makes them
maneuverable in tight areas.

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Dangers and Accident Prevention

The first submarines were made of wood and were very fragile. A
small hole would be enough to fill the submarine; hitting a large rock, boat,
or even another submarine could be enough to sink the vessel. Newer
submarines are not nearly as weak, but a breach of the hull can still be
disastrous. To prevent the complete filling of the submarine, newer designs
have a hull that is segmented with bulkheads. Each individual section can
be sealed off from the rest should a rupture occur and most of the ship will
remain dry. The submarine will then be able to sail to a port for repairs.
Nuclear submarines have the danger of radiation. If the generator is
not maintained properly, radiation leaks are possible. If one of the pipes
holding steam leaks, the released steam is capable of seriously burning
someone. Submarines contain steam suits, as seen below, to protect the
crew while making repairs. Surprisingly, fire is another danger. In the event
of a fire, the crew cannot just flood the submarine; they would drown if
they did that. Submarines have sprinklers, like those in buildings, to put the
fire out. The sprinklers spray an ultra-fine mist to reduce water usage.

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Dangers and Accident Prevention

Submarines are very complicated machines and reckless actions on
board can have huge consequences. Just one of numerous possible
mistakes can cause the submarine to crash. For example, traveling too deep
or too fast are easy ways to endanger the submarine. If the submarine
sinks while underwater, it is very difficult for crew members to escape.
First, the crew has to deal with the change of water pressure, which can
cause decompression sickness. At deep depths the water pressure is high
enough to kill. If a submarine does sink in deep water, a pressurize rescue
craft is required to evacuate the crew.

The McCann Rescue Chamber is a pressurized vessel that is used to rescue

sailors trapped in a sunken submarine.

The most effective safety precaution is attentiveness. If anything on

the ship seems like it is slightly off, then there is a potential safety hazard.
Standard procedures include checking for any problems, which must be
done thoroughly. Procedures also include directions to avoid incidents.
Safety can also come from smart design; systems that warn crew members
of missed inspection steps can be enough to save the ship. Internal
monitors that measure depth and speed can also warn the pilot when
procedures are not being followed properly.

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Future
Unmanned vehicles are a new technology that future submarines
could utilize. These miniature aquatic crafts would be used to search areas
by using onboard sensors, allowing them to gather information about
enemy locations and activities without being detected. Submarines might
even be able to launch unmanned aerial vehicles. These would be incredibly
efficient at collecting information about the location of enemy boats. Noncombative submarines can also utilize unmanned vehicle technologies;
smaller submarines can be used to explore areas that were otherwise
unreachable. This would allow for the research of underwater caves and
crevices.

An unmanned vehicle being deployed from a submarine

The future developments of submarines are difficult to foresee,

because technology is developing incredibly fast. A hundred years ago no
one thought nuclear power was possible, let alone capable of powering
submarines. The evolution of the submarine is remarkable. With advances
in current technologies, many exciting changes can be expected in the
future.

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Glossary
Mother ship: This is the vehicle that other smaller vehicles are dependent on for refueling or
transportation.
Buoyancy: Buoyancy is when the water pressure pushes back on a floating object. It keeps objects
above the surface of the water. Objects with low buoyancy do not float.
Ballast Tank: Ships have a compartment near the base called the ballast tank. These tanks contain
water, which lowers the center of gravity of the vessel and prevent tipping.
Hydrodynamic: An object that is hydrodynamic does not resist movement through a fluid, generally
water. Boats and submarines are designed to be hydrodynamic.
Sloop: A sloop is a ship, smaller than a frigate, used by the navy.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: The type of naval warfare where submarines sink shipping boats
without warning is considered unrestricted submarine warfare. In conventional warfare, the
submarines are supposed to allow the passengers leave the target ship before it the target is
sunk.
Wolfpack: This is the German U-boat strategy of massive attacks on single targets. It was used during
the Battle of the Atlantic in WWII.
Depth Charge: An anti-submarine explosive is known as a depth charge. They are dropped into the
ocean with a fuse that sets off the explosion at the correct depth. These are used to damage
submarines that are hidden underwater.
Uranium: The radioactive element that is used as fuel for nuclear reactors is uranium.
Fission: The nuclear reaction or decay of the radioactive substance is called fission. This process
releases energy that is harnessed by nuclear reactors.
Bulkhead: A bulkhead is a partition in the hull of a boat; typically ships have many bulkheads. They
separate the hull into multiple water tight compartments
Thermal Scar: As a nuclear submarine travels through the water, it leaves a trail of heat called a
thermal scar. It can be detected by thermal imaging systems.

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Picture Sources
Page 1:
ashokachakra.blogspot.com
Page 2:
http://ffden2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2009.web/Taylor_Duggar/Movement2.html
Page 3:
http://www.mercurymarine.com/propellers/about/how-propellerswork/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump-jet
Page4:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine
Page 5:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine
Page 6:
http://www.modelshipmaster.com/products/civil_war/index.htm
Page 7:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine
Page 8:
http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/blowballast/sub/work6.htm
Page 9:
http://www.u-35.com/prewar/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedos

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Picture Sources
Page 10:
http://ceweb2.uml.edu/FinalProjects/Jbarl50367/pics/ww1/uboats.html
Page 11:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare
Page 12:
http://www.istorya.net/forums/general-discussions/375584-i-400submarine-aircraft-carrier.html
Page 13
http://mitnse.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/nuclear_power_011.pdf
Page 14:
http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/barracuda/barracuda1.html
Page 15:
http://www.sqlskills.com/BLOGS/PAUL/post/Photos-of-the-USSSilversides-WWII-submarine.aspx
Page 16:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Skate_%28SSN-578%29
Page 17:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine
Page 18:
http://americanhistory.si.edu/subs/operating/aboard/damage/index.html
Page 19:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCann_Rescue_Chamber
Page 20:
http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/Military_Subs_
4.htm

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About the Authors

Tony

Trakadas

is

student

at

the

Eric Williams also attends the Massachusetts

Massachusetts Academy of Math and Sciences.

Academy of Math and Science. He wrote this

When he is not thoroughly enjoying school

book to educate young minds. He hopes to

work, he loves to bone up on history, or just lie

inspire children to not only learn more about

down and relax. He has a significant interest in

submarines, but to also become interested in

technology and unique inventions, and of

writing. Eric is greatly interested in the fields of

course, he really likes talking about ships.

math and science. However, he still wants to be

Through writing this book, he hopes that

a better writer, because writing is very

students can also be fascinated and awed by

important for many other professions. Eric also

something as simple as a submarine.

enjoys robotics and hope to make a career of it.

And

above all he hopes everyone enjoys reading

Dive In!

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