DEFENSE MECHANISMS

MOD 1

Independent Variable
Also called the MANIPULATED variable. It is the variable that is `CHANGED.

Control Group
In an experiment, a group exposed to the same experimental environment but is not
given the treatment, used for purposes of comparison

Dependent Variable
What you are measuring, the data you are collecting

experimental group
receives treatment, or an active level of the independent variable

Educational Psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

belief perseverance
tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

quasi-experimental design
2 levels
Independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher
CV-DV(confounding)
IV-DV
can only infer correlations

Interviews
rely entirely on research subjects as sources of knowledge

observations
logical conclusions that help make a hypothesis

Surveys and tests

theory
explanation of a relationship or phenomenon that has experimental support

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principle
regularity between observed events or traits

Variables
Measurable factors or qualities that can change during an experiment.

Random Sample
In a survey, a method used to draw a sample in such a way that every member of the
population being studied has an equal chance of being selected.

random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance

Sample
A subset of a population. Page 43

population
group you wish to generalize

Volunteer Bias
People who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from those who do
not.

Disability
a condition resulting from a loss of physical functioning, or difficulties in learning and
social adjustment that significantly interfere with normal growth and development.

Discrimination
treat people differently and unfairly based on group affiliation

ethnic group
a category whose members are thought to share a common origin and to share
important elements of a common culture

Gender
The social categories of male and femal, established according to cultural beliefs and
practices rather than being due to biology

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identity

Minority Group
Members of a social group that is systematically denied in the same access to power
and resources available to societies dominant groups but who are not necessarily fewer
in number than the dominant group

Prejudice
Irrational generalizations about a category of people stemming from strong emotions
no fact

racial group
socially defined group distinguished by selected, inherited physical characteristics
bioloical

sexual orientation
pattern of sexual and emotional attraction based on the gender of one's partner

Norm-Referenced Test
test that is designed to compare one group of students with another group

4 Types of research studies

-Observational
-Case Studies
-Correlational
-Exerimentation

example of norm-referenced tests

ACT
SAT
IQ

examples of criterion referenced test

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Drivers test
BAR exam
Nursing exam

Achievement Test
Measure previous/current learning in specific academic area

aptitude test
measure potential for success in given profession or area of study

Interest inventories
preferences
ex: educational, career

Personality test:
Focus on behaviors, beliefs, and feelings
e.g. job test

frequency distribution
a count of the number of times that each score occurs in a set of scores

Central Tendency
Point on the distribution around which the data are centred, summarized through mean,
median, and mode

Measures of variabilitynumbers that indicate how much scores differ from each other and the measure of
central tendency in a set of scores

The Normal Distribution

+ - 1 Standard Deviation - 68% of all data
+ - 2 Standard Deviations - 95% of all data
+ - 3 Standard Deviations - 99.74% of all data

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Validity and Reliability
Validity does the test measure the construct for which it is designed to
assess/measuer
Realiability measure ment consistency, do we get consistent results over time?

Id, Ego and Superego

by Saul McLeod published 2008

Perhaps Freud's single most enduring and important idea was that the human psyche
(personality) has more than one aspect.Freud (1923) saw the psyche structured into three
parts (i.e. tripartite), the id, ego and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives.
These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical.

The id (or it)

The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited
(i.e. biological) components of personality, including the sex (life) instinct Eros (which
contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.
The id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds directly and
immediately to the instincts. The personality of the newborn child is all id and only later does
it develop an ego and super-ego.

The id demands immediate satisfaction and when this happens we experience pleasure,
when it is denied we experience unpleasure or pain. The id is not affected by reality, logic
or the everyday world.
On the contrary, it operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that
every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
The id engages in primary process thinking, which is primitive illogical, irrational, and
fantasy oriented.

The Ego (or I)

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Initially the ego is 'that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the
external world' (Freud 1923).
The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world.
It is the decision making component of personality. Ideally the ego works by reason whereas
the id is chaotic and totally unreasonable.
The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying
the ids demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative
consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules
in deciding how to behave.
Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure and avoids pain but unlike the id the ego is concerned
with devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. Freud made the analogy of the id being
a horse while the ego is the rider. The ego is 'like a man on horseback, who has to hold in
check the superior strength of the horse' (Freud, 1923, p.15).
Often the ego is weak relative to the head-strong id and the best the ego can do is stay on,
pointing the id in the right direction and claiming some credit at the end as if the action were
its own.
The ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is good simply if it achieves its end of
satisfying without causing harm to itself or to the id. It engages in secondary process
thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards problem solving.

The Superego (or above I)

The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's
parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 5 during the phallic stage
of psychosexual development.
The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society
forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to
moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.
The superego consists of two systems: The conscience and the ideal self. The conscience
can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the ego gives in to the
id's demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt.

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The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an imaginary picture of how you ought to be, and represents
career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to behave as a member of society.
Behavior which falls short of the ideal self may be punished by the superego through guilt.
The super-ego can also reward us through the ideal self when we behave properly by
making us feel proud.
If a persons ideal self is too high a standard, then whatever the person does will represent
failure. The ideal self and conscience are largely determined in childhood from parental
values and how you were brought up.

FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL

Oral Stage (0-1 year)

In the first stage of personality development the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets
much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its
id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking,
biting, and breast-feeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral
personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb
suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1-3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from
defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that
their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e. their ego
has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which
adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this
first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of
authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality
who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be
stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions. This is all related to pleasure got

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from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's then insisting that they get
rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilettraining regime during the anal stage. In adulthood the anal expulsive is the person who
wants to share things with you. They like giving things away. In essence they are 'sharing
their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 5 or 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes)
becomes a new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex
differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry,
jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra
complex (in girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the
child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.

Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of
Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from Greek myth where Oedipus, a young
man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this he pokes his eyes out
and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e. general) term for both Oedipus and
Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly conflict, arises because the boy
develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother
exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks
that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves
the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy
develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in
masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five
year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex. Identification means internally adopting the
values, attitudes and behaviors of another person. The consequence of this is that the

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boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the
superego.
Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence for the oedipus complex.

Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl
desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the
development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for
a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state' and
this creates great tension. The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension)
and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role.

Latency Stage (5 or 6 to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden).
The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the
latent stage and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school
work, hobbies and friendships. Much of the child's energies are channeled into developing
new skills and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other
children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins
in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of
which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure like during the
phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop. For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person
gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

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Erikson Psychsocial

1. Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust

Trust versus mistrust is the earliest psychosocial stage that occurs during the first year
or so of a child's life. During this critical phase of development, an infant is utterly
dependent upon his or her caregivers. When parents or caregivers respond a child's
needs in a consistent and caring manner, the child then learns to trust the world and
people around him.

2. Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

The second psychosocial stage involves the conflict between autonomy and shame or
doubt. As the child enters the toddler years, gaining a greater sense of personal control
becomes increasingly important. Tasks such as learning how to use the toilet, selecting
foods and choosing toys are ways that children gain a greater sense of independence.

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3. Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt

The third psychosocial stage occurs between the ages of about three and five and is
centered on developing a sense of self-initiative. Children who are allowed and
encouraged to engage in self-directed play emerge with a sense of strong initiative,
while those who are discouraged from these activities may begin to feel a sense of guilt
over their self-initiated activities.

4. Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority

During middle childhood between the ages of about six and eleven, children enter
the psychosocial stage known as industry versus inferiority. As children engage in social
interaction with friends and academic activities at school, they begin to develop a sense
of pride and accomplishment in their work and abilities. Children who are praised and
encouraged develop a sense of competence, while those who are discouraged are left
with a sense of inferiority.

5. Stage 5: Identity Versus Confusion

In the fifth psychosocial stage, the formation of a personal identity becomes critical.
During adolescence, teens explore different behaviors, roles and identities. Erikson
believed that this stage was particularly critical and that forging a strong identity serves
as a basis for finding future direction in life. Those who find a sense of identity feel
secure, independent and ready to face the future, while those who remain confused may
feel lost, insecure and unsure of their place in the world.

6. Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation

The sixth psychosocial stage is centered on forming intimate, loving relationships with
other people. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during the intimacy
versus isolation stage, which lasts from approximately age 19 to 40. By successfully
forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love
and enjoy intimacy. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and
alone.

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7. Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation

Once adults enter the stage that occurs during middle adulthood, the psychosocial
conflict becomes centered on the need to create or nurture things that will outlast the
individual. Raising a family, working and contributing to the community are all ways that
people develop a sense of purpose. Those who fail to find ways to contribute may feel
disconnected and useless.

8. Stage 8: Integrity Versus Despair

The final psychosocial stage begins around the age of 65 and lasts until death. During
this period of time, the individual look back on his or her life. The major question during
this stage is, "Did I live a meaningful life?" Those who have will feel a sense of peace,
wisdom and fulfillment, even when facing death. For those who look back on life with
bitterness and regret, feelings of despair may result.

Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny

1. Brainstem
2. Limbic System amygdala, hippocampus
3. Cortex