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1.0 Devices
1.1
The MCT uses two MOSFETs to gate it. An example of the structure is shown in figure 1
1.1
1.2
Manufacturers
Silicon Power Corporation (SPCO) currently manufactures MCTs.
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3 Forward conduction drop of differing high speed switching devices. [Rashid 1]
1.2
If the MCT is non-conducting, but forward biased, then a negative voltage applied to
the gate will turn it on. If the gate voltage is removed, like a normal thyristor, the
MCT will continue conducting.
Applying a positive voltage to the gate will turn off the device. For large devices, the
length of the gate pulse is important and may need to be for the duration of the turn
off.
The MCT has a small negative temperature coefficient at low currents, but at high
currents the coefficient does become positive. The forward voltage drop of a 50A
MCT is about 1.1V (compared to at least 2.5V for an IGBT). A typically turn on delay
time is 300ns.
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
References
[Rashid 1] M. H. Rashid, "Power Electronics Handbook", Academic Press, 2001,
ISBN 0-12-581650-2
[Yuvarajan] Yuvarajan, S., "MOS Controlled Thyristors",
"Power Electronics
An electrostatic barrier
2.1 Manufacturers
Presently SITs are thought to be made by Japanese companies only. They do not
appear to be fully developed as commercial products at present.
1.9
Figure 2.2
For an N channel SIT, the more negative the gate voltage, the larger the Vds needs
to be before it will start conducting. A zero gate voltage ensures conduction.
1.10
Figure 2.5
References
[Wilamowski, B.] Wilamowski, B., "Static Induction Devices", ", "Power Electronics
Handbook", Rashid, M., Academic Press, 2001, ISBN 0-12-581650-2, pp 127-138.
1.11
power dissipated
Figure 3.1 Idealised turn off losses of a power transistor.
volts
current
Figure 3.1
Using a resonant circuit with the switching device, all switching can be performed at
zero current or zero voltage, thereby reducing the switching losses to zero. This
reduces the switching time and together with the reduced switching losses allows for
a large increase in the switching frequency. In general, hard switching devices can
only switch up to about 100kHz, whereas several mega Hertz is possible with
resonant switching.
Time
1.12
Figure 3.2
The principle shown in figure 3.1 is that after the switch is turned on, due to the
resonant interaction between the series inductor and capacitor circuit, the current
through the device will fall to zero.
The parallel capacitor of figure 3.3 ensures that the voltage on the right hand side of
the device will rise to equal that on the left hand side of the device hence providing
the opportunity for zero voltage turn off.
Note that for both the zero voltage and zero current resonant switching, condition
sensing circuits must be provided to ensure correct switching.
Under some
conditions, the switching may not always be losses at both turn on and turn off.
1.13
operating in the half wave state and full wave state respectively. Note that the
inductor Lf is large so that the current can be considered to be constant. L r and Lc
define the resonant condition.
1.14
Figure 3.4 A
Figure 3.4 B
Action
Transistor turns on with zero current switching
Cr charges up, current increasing until Cr voltage reaches
supply, then current decreases to zero.
Voltage V0 increases
t1
t1 - T
T
Hence it can be seen that the output voltage is a function of the frequency.
The following parameters are defined for these types of resonant circuits.
Parameter
Meaning
Definition
M = V0/Vi
Zr
Characteristic impedance
Zr = sqrt (Lr/Cr)
fr
Resonant frequency
r = RL/Zr
If I0 > Vi/Zr, then Is will not go to zero due to the resonant condition.
If the antiparallel diode of the MOSFET is allowed to conduct, then Lf, Cf and Cr
can resonate and put back energy into the supply. Hence at light loads, or no
loads, excess energy can be returned to the supply, rather than requiring a
change of the frequency to compensate.
With ZCS, there can be significant conduction losses. With ZVS, the issue can be
the voltage stress of the device, which can be proportional to the load.
1.16
References
Hui, S.Y., Chung, H., "Resonant and Soft Switching Converters", "Power
Electronics Handbook", Editor: Rashid, M.H., Academic Press, 2001, ISBN0-12581650-2, pp271-306.
1.17
5.0
The standard induction oven is a parallel resonant load directly coupled to a current
source single phase inverter (figure 1) [Bottari 1985] [Casella, 1986] [Dede 1993]
[Dede 1996], forming a resonant converter. The parallel resonant capacitor is added
to reduce the current load on the semiconductor devices and to achieve natural
commutation of the switching devices.
load
Figure 5.1 Induction oven configuration [Bottari 1985] with as standard a current source
inverter and a parallel resonant load (circled).
1.18
Figure 5.2 Induction oven with a thyristor rectifier followed by dc link inductor (circled)
[Dede 1996].
For the application envisaged for this report, the load impedance is low, hence a
parallel resonant load circuit is normally used.
5.3 Parallel Resonant Load
To form a parallel resonant load (figure 7.1), the load is modelled as a series inductor
and resistor and a resonating capacitor is added in parallel.
At the resonant
frequency, the overall power factor of the load circuit is now near unity and the
impedance is high compared to that of the load itself. For this to be effective, it
should be driven by a current source inverter to limit the current that would otherwise
flow in the capacitor.
Figure 5.3 Current source inverter with a parallel resonant induction heating load [Dede
1993].
The heating load current shape is sinusoidal., even though the supply current may
be rectangular (as from a current source inverter) (figure 7.2) .
1.20
Figure 5.4
Current source inverter with parallel resonant load. Top: inverter output
current. Bottom: heating load current.
1.21
there is a limit to the current rise. Yet, by retaining the parallel resonant structure as
well, the current required to be supplied to the load is reduced. An example is given
in [Fischer 1994], whereby the resonance transformation structure provides an
operating point inbetween the series and parallel resonant loads (table 7.1).
Parallel
Series
Transformation
Switching current
410A
5500A
1570A
Blocking voltage
1500V
110V
450V
Table 5.1 Transformation load electrical characteristics
Figure 5.7
the
Induction oven with step up current transformer between the inverter and
resonant heating load [Akagi 1998/68].
1.23
[Dede 1999 58]. The effect is that the induction heating load is now in parallel with
the two capacitors in series.
Figure 5.8
Induction oven with capacitor voltage step up with parallel resonant load
[Dieckerhoff 1999].
1.24
Figure 5.9
Left current source inverter [Palmer 1995]. Right: voltage source inverter
[Akagi 1998/68].
There are few variations offered for the inverters to date - mostly changing devices or
paralleling them. Some of the older thermionic valve circuits did use only one valve
to produce the oscillation (figure 8.2) [Matthes 1998]. They used a Meisner oscillator
at frequencies from 400-600kHz with power ratings of up to 300kW [Matthes 1998].
1.25
Figure 5.11 Zero current switching inverter for induction heating [Satoru 1998].
To reduce the
required rating of the driving circuit, the load is often connected to a capacitor in
parallel to form a resonant circuit. If the load has a high impedance, it is usually
configured as a series resonant circuit (hence reducing the voltage required),
1.26
Figure 5.12 Current source inverter with a parallel resonant induction heating load
[Dede 1993].
1.27
The heating load current shape is sinusoidal., even though the supply current may
be rectangular (as from a current source inverter) (figure 7.2) .
Figure 5.13 Current source inverter with parallel resonant load. Top: inverter output
current. Bottom: heating load current.
1.28
410A
1500V
Series
Transformation
5500A
1570A
110V
450V
Figure 5.16 Induction oven with step up current transformer between the inverter and
the resonant heating load [Akagi 1998/68].
in [Dede 1999 58]. The effect is that the induction heating load is now in parallel
with the two capacitors in series.
Figure 5.17 Induction oven with capacitor voltage step up with parallel resonant load
[Dieckerhoff 1999].
1.31
of
discharge
processes",
induction
inverters
heating
with
IGBTs
current
working
et
al,
considerations for current-fed resonant load. Deals with the problem of distance of
inverters
for
induction
applications",
Power
Series
Resonant
Welding
International
Applications",
Induction
IGBT inverter.
Dede J., et al, "On the Design of High Transformer coupled inverter/load. Looks at
Power Current-Fed Inverters for Tube boundary where MOSFETS should take
Welding
Applications",
G.,
et
al,
Resonance
Transformation
Induction Heating Applications", proc. have not too much current and not too high
Power Conversion, June 1994, pp 57- voltage
67.
Fischer L., Doht H., "An Inverter 100kW-1MW, 100-500kHz, good for load
System for Inductive Tube Welding shorts, connection of inverter modules in
Utilizing Resonance Transformation", parallel.. Better load matching of inverter.
IAS Annual Meeting, 1994, pp 833-840
Satoru S., Yoshihiro H., "A Novel Zero Zero current switching high freq 2 transistor
Current Switching High Frequency inverter. IGBTs used. 18kHz switching
Inverter for Induction Heating", Proc. frequency. All diodes use zero current
ICPE'98, Seoul, Korea, 1998, pp 1056- switching
1061.
1.33
6.0
DC-DC Converters
Whenever the parallel Schottky diode begins to conduct, the MOSFET Q1 should
turn on. Since the inbuilt body diode needs to block the voltage when Q2 is on, the
orientation of the MOSFET needs to be opposite to the usual direction. In fact, the
synchronous MOSFET operates, not in the usual first quadrant, but in the 3 rd
quadrant as seen in figure 7.1.1.
1.34
P-channel devices are not often not preferred, as they have slightly higher r ds values
than the n-channel devices. A comparison of efficiencies is shown in figure 7.1.2.
References:
[onsemi] AN-1520, www.onsemi.com , 14/5/2005.
Vo
D
Vi 1 D
This
(5.1)
is the same as a step up-step down converter, but requires
Switch
switch is on
Event
L1 current increasing
C1 and L1 discharges L2 current through switch
L1 charges C1 through D
L2 discharges through D
In low voltage
systems, the loss can be significant, as can be the effect of the voltage drop. For
example, with a 3.3V bus, as 0.6V drop means that there is only 2.7V available. One
solution is to have a very low resistance MOSFET in parallel to the diode (figure
5.31).
1.36
1.37
References
Czarkowski, D., "DC-DC Converters", "Power Electronics Handbook", Editor: Rashid,
M.H., Academic Press, 2001, ISBN0-12-581650-2, pp211-224.
1.38
References
Holmes, D.G., "A new modulation algorithm for voltage and current source inverters
based on ac-ac matrix converter theory", IEEE IAS Annual Conference, 1990.
operating over a larger range of voltage and able to maintain a more constant light
output for a range of voltages.Fluorescent lamps are examples of discharge lamps.
Whereas most discharge lamps emit a light based directly on the excitation of the
gas, fluorescent lamps emit primarily ultraviolet light, which is converted to white light
by a coating on the inside of the tube.
The ballasts' two main functions are to provide a high voltage to start the lamps and
to limit the current when the lamps are operating. Fluorescent lamps and other
discharge lamps have the property of negative effective resistance. This is when the
current increases, its resistance decreases. Hence the ballasts limit the current to
prevent the lamps' destruction.
For good lamp life, the current should be sinusoidal that is alternating current and
with a low crest factor (usually lower than 1.7). Then both electrodes are equally
loaded.
1.40
1.41
For compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), resonant circuits appear to be usually used
(figure 6.2). It is likely to be the same for tube fluorescent lamps also (TFLs).
1.42
Power line
EMI Filter
AC-DC
Convert
er
DC Bus
H.F. Ballast
AC-DC
Converter H.F.)
Starting
Circuit
Manufacturers in the self-oscillating form often use figure 6.3b. C1 is used to provide
the resonance as well as the block any dc currents. This ensures good lamp life as
well as the magnetic elements (eg. inductors and transformers) do not saturate.
With lamps with filaments, a capacitor C2 is in parallel to the electrodes so that the
filaments warm up to provide soft ignition.
8.3 Operation
Since a resonant circuit is used, the frequency is varied to control the current and
voltage (figure 6.5). Initially, a high frequency is used above that of the resonant
frequency to heat the filaments without producing a voltage high enough to ignite the
1.43
lamp. Then as the lamps become hot enough, the frequency is reduced until the
voltage rises and ignition occurs.
Once ignition has occurred, the frequency is then shifted to the resonant frequency
for stable operation.
This introduces electrical noise into the wiring and can cause
interference with other devices. To limit this, standards such as IEC 1000-3-2 and
EN 61000-3-2 have been implemented. These are relevant to equipment drawing
less than 16A (per phase) and supplied from 220-240/380-415V lines.
All equipment is divided into classes A-D, with lighting as class C.
Table 6.1 Maximum Current Harmonic Content for Class C Equipment IEC 1000-3-2
Harmonic Order n
10
11<=n<=39 (odd
harmonics only)
1.44
8.4.1
LC Filters
The harmonic content and power factor may be reduced by using an LC filter, but
this also struggles to meet the requirements.
8.4.2
8.4.2
Figure 8.7
All the circuits have in common an input rectifier with no output capacitor. This is
required so that the input current can be shaped solely by the transistor.
Exercise
1.
Measure the power factor and total harmonic distortion (THD) of magnetic
ballast tube fluorescent lamp.
2.
Take a CFL, measure the power factor and THD. Construct and test a
passive circuit to improve the THD and the power factor. You may need to
simulate the circuit to assist in choosing the parameters.
References
Nelms, R., "Electronic Ballasts", "Power Electronics Handbook", Editor: Rashid,
M.H., Academic Press, 2001, ISBN0-12-581650-2, pp507-532.
current harmonics as smaller step voltage changes can be applied, hence lower
switching frequencies can be used, if required.
Examples of inverters are shown below, starting off with the conventional inverter.
SA1
V DC
VA
S'A1
1.47
SB1
SA1
V DC
V AB
S'A1
S'B1
VA
VB
VDC
VDC
VDC
VDC
VDC
VDC
VC
Figure 9.3 Phase, 5 level, cascaded inverter with series inverters and isolated
supplies. MW power levels are manufactured.
1.48
+V DC
S1
S2
VA
S1'
S2'
-VDC
Figure 9.4
S2
+VDC
VA
S2'
S1'
-VDC
Figure 9.5 Flying capacitor, 3-phase level leg. Voltage outputs: +Vdc, -Vdc, 0.
1.49
4V DC
2V DC
3V DC
2V DC
V DC
3V DC
2V DC
V DC
3V DC
V DC
VA
VB
VC
present, or, worse still, 5Hz oscillations, the filter cannot assist.
1.50
The concept of an active filter is that of an inverter adding energy to the line at
whatever frequency required. It can be in series with the line, or in parallel to the
line. Hence it can also provide reactive power compensation.
1.51