12.

Connections for lattice structures and bracing

12.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the connections we encounter in trusses, lattice girders,
lattice towers, gantries, and the various types of bracing roof, floor, vertical, etc.
The common denominator of these connections is that the smaller members
connected to them are typically regarded as carrying only axial force (i.e. they are
designed with pin connections). The bracing can be attached to a beam, column
or chord that carries large moments, in particular to the compression flanges of such
members
Because only tensile and compressive forces act on these connections, they are
commonly regarded as easy and left to somebody with limited training to do. But
they demand the same respect as any other connection: they can be designed
incorrectly and they can fail. Moreover, some aspects of the design of these simple
joints may not be familiar to all engineers engaged in steel design.
Note that here we only mention (in 12.2 below) heavy all-welded trusses, vierendeel
girders, etc., that occur for example in trusses welded up from H-sections. The joints
in such structures are best handled in the same way as rigid beam-to-column
connections (see Chapter 8).

12.2 Typical connections and practical details.

Figure 12.1 shows a typical light truss, all bolted. Typical connections encountered in
such trusses and similar lattice girders are shown in Figure 12.2.

Figure 12.1 Light bolted truss

Figure 12.2 Typical bolted connections in light trusses

The following remarks are apposite:
The splice plate shown in Figure 12.2 (b) serves to enhance the stability of this
connection which involves a change in the direction of the force.
Nevertheless, the joint still requires bracing against deflection out of the plate
of the truss which may, for a small enough truss, be provided by placing the
two top purlins close to the apex.
The gusset plates in the sketches are shown neatly trimmed. But if the
aesthetics of the structure is of little importance, rectangular gussets may be
more economic.
In Figure 12.2 (d) the gusset plate serves both as a gusset and as a splice
plate. There is nothing wrong with this arrangement, but the design must be
handled with due care.
2

In (g) the intersection of the chords falls on the centreline of the column, but
in (h) the vertical and diagonal forces cross on the column face. This
eccentricity will cause bending moment in the column.

Figure 12.3 Bolted connections in heavier trusses

Figure 12.3 shows bolted connections where the chords of the truss, and possibly
even the diagonals, consist of heavy sections. In some of the examples shown the
gussets are welded to the chord, but they can also be bolted, or vice versa.

Figure 12.4 Light welded truss

3

Figure 12.5 Welded connections in light to medium trusses.

Figure 12.4 shows a typical welded truss for a roof, whilst typical joint details for such
trusses appear in Figure 12.5. In Figure 12.5 (d) the diagonals are welded on two
sides of the vertical leg of the chord. This may be attractive from an engineering
point of view (although some doubts have been expressed about the torsional
effect on the chord) but it requires the whole truss to be turned over during
fabrication, which is highly inadvisable from the point of view of minimizing labour.
Figure 12.5 (b) requires welding for which quality can hardly be guaranteed. The
detail in (f) is easier to make, but the eccentricity e
must be taken into account in
designing the members.
Several of the details shown make it difficult to provide an adequate length of weld
(see the discussion in 12.4 below). It may be necessary to provide gusset plates. In
such a case it may be tempting to provide toe plates, as shown in Figure 12.6(a), but
the temptation should be resisted: it is difficult and expensive to weld a toe plate
properly and to ensure quality. A proper gusset is shown in Figure 12.6 (b).
4

(a) Toe plate

(b) Gusset plate

Figure 12.6 Toe and gusset plate

Figure 12.7 contains sketches of heavy welded connections. Such connections can
make real demands on the capacity of the engineer to innovate, especially as they
permit the opportunity to create steel structures that are aesthetically truly pleasing.
Note the connection in (f) applicable to large box columns, beams and bracing.
The flanges of the bracing element are brought together to allow bolting of the shoe
serving the function of gussets. This box is bolted to the column and beam.

Figure 12.7 Welded connections in heavy trusses and girders

5

Figure 12.8 shows various kinds of vertical (wall) bracing. Note that in Figure 12.8(c)
the slanted bracing element is itself braced by lattice members connecting it to a
similar element parallel to it.

Figure 12.8 Vertical bracing

Several of the connection details relating to trusses can also be used for vertical
bracing, especially the heavy connections, but Figure 12.9 shows more. In most
countries it is common practice always to design such details so that the centre lines
of the braces, column and horizontal element all cross at a single point, as shown in
(a) and (e). However, in South Africa the centreline of the brace is frequently made
to hit the column face at the level of the top or the bottom of the beam (as shown
in (c), (d) and (h)) or at the level of the centreline of the horizontal member ((b), (e)
and (g)). This makes eminent sense if the bracing element is relatively small
compared to the beam and/or the column, as it yields small gussets and little if any
change in the size of the column and/or beam. The eccentricity resulting from this
practice must, of course, be taken into account during design (see12.5 below).

Figure 12.9 Typical connections for vertical bracing

Another common form of bracing is floor bracing, which will, in the case of concrete
or composite floors, only be of value during the construction process to ensure that
the floor is square and stable until the concrete has hardened. For buildings with
steel plate or grating floors the floor bracing will retain their function during the life of
the building. Figure 12.10 shows typical details for floor brace connections. In all of
the sketches the bracing is placed below the floor so as not to interfere with the
flooring, and with sufficient space to install the bolts. A distance of 110 mm from the
top of the beams to the gusset, as shown in (g), is normally sufficient. It would be
ideal to attach the bracing to the top flanges of the beams, but the bolt heads
would then interfere with the flooring. Countersunk bolts can be used to obviate this
problem, but that will be expensive.

Figure 12.10 Typical connections for floor bracing

The last form of bracing we will single out (there can be many other situations in
which some form of bracing can be used) is roof bracing. Such bracing is commonly
installed just below the purlins of a roof and serves the purpose of stabilizing the roof
trusses or rafters during erection and to assist in squaring up the building. They are
also often called on to resist wind forces acting on the gables of a building during its
lifetime. It is in any case comforting to know that the roof bracing is there during the
life of the building in case the big steel membrane that is the roof sheeting turns out
not to be as stiff or as stable as we assume.
Typical roof bracing connections are shown in Figure 12.11.
With small buildings it is commonly assumed that certain purlins will form part of the
bracing system, as implied by (a) and (b) in Figure 12.11. It is important that these
purlins are actually designed to resist the bracing forces.
8

Figure 12.11 Typical roof bracing connections

12.3 Attachment of members and its effect on their strength

12.3.1 Bolted connections
When a member in tension is attached with bolts, holes have to be drilled or
punched through the member, which means that it is weakened. As discussed in 6.3
above, this is taken into account by deducting the cross-sectional area of the holes
from the cross-sectional area of the element, giving an effective net area Anefor
that element. See 6.3 above for how to calculate the net area of a plate or section.
9

Here we deal with angles, which are commonly used in lattice structures or bracing,
but also with channels and other profiles.
In some cases the diagonals or verticals in a truss or bracing members may have all
of their constitutive parts fully connected at their ends, such as in Figure 12.7 (d) and
(e), but as can be seen in all the other examples in Figure 12.1 to 12.9 (Figure 12.9 (g)
is another exception), only some of the parts are typically connected. In the case of
an angle, for example, only one of the legs is usually attached. In such a case shear
lag will occur. Figure 12.13 demonstrates this phenomenon where, in an angle, the
connecting bolts apply force only to one leg. The stress spreads to the other leg, but
not abruptly. By the time you get to the last bolt, quite a bit of the stress has found its
way into the other leg, but the stress in the connected leg is still higher than the
average stress in the whole angle. Only at some distance after the last bolt do we
reach a situation where the stress is reasonably uniform in the angle.
To ensure that the localised overstress of the connected leg will not cause failure,
Clause 12.3.3.2 of SANS 10162-1 requires that we work with an adjusted effective net
1
area Ane
:
If there at least 4 bolts in line (i.e. in the direction the force is applied):

Ane1 = 0,8 Ane

(12.1)

For 3 or less bolts in line:

Ane1 = 0,6 Ane

(12.2)

where Ane = the net area of the angle, calculated as discussed in above.

10

Figure 12.13 Shear lag in angle connected by one leg

For an H-section connected only by the flanges with at least 3 fasteners in a line
Clause 12.3.3.2 (a) defines:

Ane1 = 0,9 Ane

(12.3)

For all other sections Clause 12.3.3.2 (c) states that:

If there are at least 3 fasteners in line parallel to the direction of force:

Ane1 = 0, 85 Ane

(12.4)

For 2 fasteners in line:

Ane1 = 0, 75 Ane

(12.5)

Then, according to Clause 13.2(a), the resistance,

of:

where

Trof the connection is the lesser

Tr = Ag f y

(12.6)

Tr = 0,85A' ne f u

(12.7)

Ag= gross area of the section.

12.3.2 Welded connections

In the case of a welded joint the elements are not weakened by holes, but shear lag
will still occur if the welds are only placed at the edges of elements. Figure 12.14 (a)
shows that there is negligible shear lag in a plate element with an end weld, but if
there are only welds along the sides as in (b) there will be significant shear lag.

Figure 12.14 Shear lag in welded plate

11

The requirements of Clause 12.3.3.3 can be explained with reference to Figure 12.15.

Figure 12.15 Welds in various positions

If the connected leg has a transverse weld (either at the end, as shown in (b) or on a
transverse line away from the end) it can be regarded as fully effective, i.e. for the
connected leg:

Ane1 = wt

(12.8)

If the connected leg only has welds along its sides, as shown in (c):
If L 2w : Ane1 = wt

(12.9)

If 2w > L w : Ane1 = 0,5 wt + 0, 25 Lt

(12.10)

If L < w : Ane1 = 0, 75 Lt

(12.11)

The other leg is connected only along its one edge, as shown in Figure 12.15 (d).
Let the length of this weld be L1. Then, according to Clause 12.3.3.3 (c):

If L1 w2 : Ane 2 = 1 w2 t
L1

(12.12)

If L1 < w2 : Ane 2 = 0,5 L1t

(12.13)

x is, as shown in (d), the distance from the weld to the centroid of the unconnected

leg.

The effective net area of the whole section is:

Ane = Ane1 + Ane 2

(12.14)

A channel would be treated the same way, except that the definitions of
connected both sides and connected on one side change, while some elements
may have to be disregarded see Figure 12.16.
12

Figure 12.16 Effective net area of a channel

If the flange of a Tsection is properly connected, the stem may be regarded as
connected on one side.
Designers may be concerned about placing the welds for an angle in such a way as
to balance the load. However, researchers have found that it does not make much
of a difference to the strength of a connection where the welds are placed. Clause
21.7 of SANS 10162 -1 states expressly that it is not necessary to balance the welds
about the neutral axis of an angle, except in fatigue situations. Thus the effective net
area of the connected leg will be the same for the angles in Figure 12.17 (a) and (b),
provided that the value of L
is the same.

Figure 12.17 Distribution of welds

The effective net area of the other leg will, however, depend on the length L1.
There comes a point, however, where the weld on one side of a connected leg may
be so short as to be ineffective. For that reason it would be wise to specify:

L1and L2 0,5w , and 40mm.

As for bolted connections, the tensile resistance Tr will be the lesser of:

Tr = Ag f y

(12.15)

Tr = 0,85Ane f u

(12.16)
13

Tables 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3 at the end of this chapter show the resistance of equal
and unequal angles when all these considerations are taken into account.
For members in compression the effective area is taken as the full area, except
where local buckling can play a role, i.e. in slender members. In other words, shear
lag is negated in compression members.

12.4 Nodes in trusses

When designing connections such as shown in Figure 12.18 an effort should be
made to let the gravity axes of the members meet at a single point, as shown in (a)
and (b). Space considerations may not allow this, however, in which case there will
be an eccentricity e
, as shown in (c).

Figure 12.18 Truss modes with an without eccentricity

If there is eccentricity in a node, the vertical and diagonal members can still be
designed as pinned at the ends, but the resulting moment must be taken into
account in the design of the truss, at least if e > w / 5, where wis the depth of the
chord member. The best way of doing this during analysis of the structure is to
assume that the chord is a continuous member with the diagonals and verticals (all
pinned) attached at the actual positions.
Each sketch in Figure 12.18 shows a line A-A. The shear capacity of the chord on this
line must be able to resist the shear force at this position.
In (a) and (b) minimum spacings between the members are indicated to ensure that
proper welds can be deposited in these areas.
When designing welded connections, it is logical to work with the actual gravity axes
of all the members. When detailing a bolted truss or bolted bracing, however, it is
acceptable to use the line of bolts closest to the heel of an angle as the setting out
line, as shown in Figure 12.19. This is, in fact, explicitly allowed by Clause 21.7 of SANS
10162-1.

14

Figure 12.19 Setting out lines for bolted angles

12.5 Design of gusseted connections

The first question to be answered is whether the gusset can resist the tensile and
compressive forces applied to it.

Figure 12.20 Gussets with tension and compression members attached

Consider Figure 12.20 and let us assume that the elements connected to each
gusset as well as the connecting elements bolts or welds - are strong enough and
that the bearing of the bolts on the gusset has been checked.
For a tensile force Tuin the connected element the next step should be to check for

tension and shear block failure, but as described in 6.5 above, it is safe to only do a
check on the Whitmore width as shown in Figure 12.20 (a) :

Tu t p f y Lw

(12.17)

This simple check confirms that the gusset plate is strong enough against all tensile
effects, including tension and block shear failure.
15

The Whitmore section test is also applicable where in the case of a gusset that is
properly attached to strong members it goes outside the plate proper, as shown in
(b). However, where the 30 lines go outside the free edges of the gusset, as shown
in (c), Lw should be limited to the actual width of the plate at the end of the
connected element. This sketch also demonstrates that the Whitmore section
applies to welded joints just as it does to bolted joints.
It is important that gussets should not buckle in compression; in fact, the design of
the diagonals and verticals in trusses and lattice girders assumes that the gussets will
give a degree of moment support to the ends of these members. The acceptable
approach is to design the end part of the gusset as a column of width Lw, thickness

t pand effective length 0,6 times the longest of 1, 2and 3shown in (a).

A problem arises in a situation as shown in (d), where the Whitmore sections of the
various elements connected to the gusset overlap. The best approach to this
situation is to combine the forces in the elements and to work with a combined
Whitmore section. It is obviously always desirable to make the gusset as small as
possible and bring the elements in as close as possible. Note how this was achieved
in (e).
It is customary in American practice to check the moment resistance of gusset
plates against the forces acting on various sections through the plate. However, if
the Whitmore section approach is used, the gusset is made as small as possible, and
it is welded to a sturdy member such a check will not be needed. It is still necessary
to check the shear resistance in certain situations, such as on the line A-A in Figure
12.21.

Figure 12.21 - Line for shear checks

Another issue to deal with regarding gussets is their attachment to the supporting
elements, be that by welding or bolts.

16

Figure 12.22 - Attachments of gussets

Whatever the forces acting on the gusset (provided they all act in the plane of the
gusset), they can be resolved into a tensile (or compressive) force Fu, a shear force

Vu and

a moment

M u,

as shown in Figure 12.22(a). Note that even where the

centrelines of the members meet at a single point

, as shown in (b), the forces
could still cause moment about the point X. Only if the centrelines of all the
members attached to the gusset intersect at X will there be no moment on the joint.
If the gusset is bolted to the supporting member the joint should be designed as
described in , while welded joints can be designed as described in ---.
Much attention has been given in American literature to connections for major
bracing members, such as one would find in braced multi-storey buildings (see
Figure 12.24). The bracing is attached to a gusset, which is, in turn, attached to both
the column and the beam by welds or bolts. The beam, being primarily part of the
bracing system, is considered to have little bending moment at its end, but it could
carry a significant axial force. If there is a beam on the far side of the column, with
axial force in it, it will influence how much horizontal force the connection can
transfer to the column. Without a beam on the far side the bending stiffness of the
column may cause it to resist some horizontal force, but this will typically be small.

Figure 12.24 Gusset connection for brace

17

It is, of course, possible to do a detailed analysis of the joint, including the possibly
using finite elements, and to design each part of the connection properly, including
the connection of the gusset to the beam and to the column, and the beam to the
column. It would then be possible to handle any shear and bending moment in the
beam too, and to look at the attachment of the gusset and the beam to the
column as one connection. However, this is hardly practicable in a real design office
situation. Also, in most braced frames the moment and shear forces in the beam are
small.
Several approximate methods have been advanced and used over the years for
the analysis and design of these connections, and any one that satisfies the Lower
Bound Theorem (see 1.5 above) can be used. We will here discuss a Generalised
Uniform Force (GUF) Method based on earlier work by Larry Muir and William
Thornton, which approximates what happens in actual connections better than
most other approaches and thus yields economical connections.

Figure 12.24 Sketches for GUF method

Figure 12.24 (a) shows a typical brace connection. Note that we leave it to the
engineer to specify the details of the connection: where the line of force in the
brace crosses the centreline of the column, and the lengths (and positions) of the
connections of the gusset to the column and beam.
Figure 12.24 (b) shows the assumptions we make with respect to how the connection
works:
18

The line of force in the brace crosses the centreline of the column at A, a
distance z
above the point O on the mid-height of the beam ( z
is negative if A
lies below O).
O is the centroid of the connection of the gusset to the column. Because we
assume that there will be no bending moment in this connection (and equilibrium
does not require it to) we can replace the whole connection with a hinge at C.
Similarly, theres a hinge at B, the centroid of the connection of the gusset to the
beam.
The beam is connected to the column with a hinge at E.
The horizontal component of Fu is resisted by an axial force in the beam. There
are no other horizontal forces acting on the beam.
The column resists the vertical component Fu and the moment because of any

eccentricity ( z Fu Sin ) , the latter by moments Mand M 2, proportional to the

stiffness of the column above and below the connection.
There is no moment in the beam. (If the beam is loaded we design it as simply
supported and assume that it will not cause moment in the connection.)

Here it is assumed that the line of force of the brace is always above point E.
Figure 12.24 (c) shows free body diagrams for the column, beam and gusset.
From (b) we can say:

M 1 + M 2 = z Sin Fu

(12.21)

From the free body diagram for the column:

M 1 + M 2 = H c (eb + y C ) (VE + Vc )ec

(12.22)

Vertical equilibrium of the column gives us:

VE + VC = Fu cos

(12.23)

Thus we can combine (12.21), (12.22) and (12.23) to say:

HC =

Fu ( z Sin + ec Cos )
eb + y C

(12.24)

Horizontal equilibrium of the gusset yields:

H B = Fu Sin H C

(12.25)

Moment equilibrium for the beam about E(equilibrium considerations do not

require us to have a bending moment in the beam) gives an expression for V B:

VB =

H B eb
xB

And from vertical equilibrium of the gusset:

19

(12.26)

VC = Fu Cos VB

(12.27)

Horizontal equilibrium of the column gives us:

H E = HC

(12.28)

And vertical equilibrium of the beam gives us:

VE = VB

(12.29)

We have all the information to design the connection. However, in practice there
can also be a horizontal force coming from a beam and/or brace on the other side
of the column (see also the discussion on transfer force under 12.6 below) and a
shear force in the beam because of loads applied along the span of the beam, as
shown in Figure 12.25.
In the case depicted in Figure 12.25(a) the connection of the beam to the column
at E
has to be designed for a larger force:

H E = H C Fu

(12.30)

In the case of (b):

H E = H C Fu Sin

(12.31)

Furthermore, there can be a shear force in the beam, as also shown in Figure 5.25, in
which case:

VE = VB Vu

(12.32)

Figure 12.25 Forces on opposing side

20

Consider now the case where the beam and gusset are connected to the web of a
column, as depicted in Figure 12.26 (a). We can follow exactly the same approach
as before, with the points O and E coinciding. Equations (12.16) to (12.24) can be
used to determine the forces to be designed for, taking ec = 0 . Again, there will be
no moment in the beam.

Figure 12.26 Setting out point at end of beam

The situation is quite similar if the setting out point is placed at mid-height of the
beam but on the column face, as shown in Figure 12.26 (b). The difference is that
now the column has to be designed for a couple equal to (Vc Vub ) ec , where Vubis
the shear force in the beam not resulting from the connection.

Another option is to place the setting out point at the place where the top of the
beam meets the face of the column, as shown in Figure 12.27.

Figure 12.27 Setting out point in corner

Now V B = 0 and H c = 0 . This will give a solution where we only have shear forces
H B (= Fuh )and Vc (= Fuv ) along the two interfaces. The column has to be designed

21

for a locally-applied bending moment equal to Vc Vub ec , while the couple acting
on the beam at X equals eb

H B.

The last situation to be considered is where the gusset is only connected to the
beam and not to the column, as shown in Figure 12.28 (a). This may be economical
where the force in the brace is relatively modest compared to the beam size.

Figure 12.28 Brace attached to beam only

Figure 12.28 (a) shows the setting out point on the face of the column, a logical
place, but it could be anywhere else.
Considering the free body diagram of the gusset in (b), we can say from
considerations of equilibrium that:

VB = Fuv

(12.33)

H B = Fuh

(12.34)

M B = Fuv x B x

(12.35)

This implies that the gusset-to-beam joint must be designed to resist the vertical and
horizontal forces and the moment.
The beam (see free body diagram in (c)) must be designed for a vertical force

VB

H Bacting at X, as well as a couple equal to M B + H b eb , and

the loads on the beam itself, including Vuband Fub. The connection of the beam to
the column must be able to resist a shear force V B Vub and a horizontal force
H B Fub . The column must be designed to resist the locally-applied moment
(VB Vub ) ec .
and a horizontal force

22

12.5 Underfloor bracing

Bracing under a floor is often attached to the webs of the beams and girders, as
shown in several of the sketches in Figure 12.10. If bracing is attached to the centre
of a web as shown in Figure 12.10 (f) there should not be any lateral forces acting on
the web. However, it is possible that in some instances there may be a lateral force
Fuas shown in Figure 12.28, and this case can be handled as follows:

Figure 12.28 Gusset attached to web of beam

At issue here is the resistance of the web to a horizontal force

Fu.

Assuming,

conservatively, that the gusset is at mid-height of the web, that the web acts as a
simply-supported beam between the flanges and that the force act over a width
equal to L g + 12t w , the moment per unit width of web equals.

M U1 =

Fu (h 2t w )
4(L g + 12t w )

(12.36)

Which should be less than

M r1 =

t w2 f y

(12.37)

This implies:

Fu t w2 f y .

Lb + 12t w
h 2t f

(12.38)

The only case from Figure 12.10 that requires further discussion is that of the
boomerang gusset as shown in (e) and also in Figure 12.29 (a) below. A variation on
the theme is shown in (b). It can be shown that the force in the bracing is resisted
primarily in shear where the gusset is connected to the beam webs, with only a
minimal lateral force exerted on each web. This means that it is correct to assume,
as shown in the figure, that the components Fuxand Fuyof the force Fuare applied
as shear forces and that any other forces acting on the webs can be neglected.
23

Figure 12.29 Boomerang gusset

The stress conditions in the boomerang gusset are quite complex and the dimensions
can be substantial, involving shear, bending and compressive stresses, which can
cause buckling. No problems should be experienced with buckling if the thickness of
the plate is made to be more than 0,04times its biggest (diagonal) dimension.
12.6 Transfer forces
Consider the connection in Figure 12.30 (a). The two diagonals and the vertical
member are in equilibrium and no force is transferred to the chord. The two bolts
shown connecting the gusset to the chord carry no loads. In contrast, three bolts are
required to connect the gusset to the chord in (b), because there is an unbalanced
horizontal force of 240 kN that has to be transferred to the chord.
In cases like that shown in Figure 12.30 one cannot complete the connection design
from the maximum member forces alone. A load case which does not reflect the
maximum member forces may result in the maximum force to be transferred to the
chord. The load case with the smallest member forces may actually be the one
requiring the most bolts for connecting the gusset to the chord. This example
illustrates that there are situations where it is not possible to design a connection
safely and economically if only the maximum forces in all the members are
available.
We can call the controlling force from the gusset to the chord in Figure 12.30 (b) a
transfer force. In general a transfer force is any controlling force that is transmitted
24

across a joint and needs to be communicated to the connection designer because

it is not evidently calculable from maximum member forces.

(a) No transfer force to chord

(b) Transfer force to chord

Figure 12.30 Illustration of transfer force

A discussion of transfer forces is only relevant where the steelwork structural engineer
designing the structure as a whole is not the connection designer as well. This is
frequently the case in South Africa but it is important to note that the steelwork
structural engineer remains responsible for the adequacy of the design of the
connections even where the actual work is delegated to another entity. This means
the engineer must provide the connection designer with sufficient information to
design connections that are safe and economical.
In order for such delegated work to be successful the engineer must accurately
anticipate what connection types and geometries are likely to be used by the
connection designer. This will allow the engineer to provide relevant information
without unduly including extraneous and confusing data. The engineer can provide
the requisite information to the connection designer in one of two forms:
All the member forces for each load combination that can realistically act on
the structure can be provided.
The maximum forces in each member (tensile and compressive where
applicable) can be provided in addition to the controlling force(s) that must
be transferred through a joint.
The second option is typically more manageable for large or complex structures
where multiple load combinations may control the design of various members. In the
case of Figure 12.30 (b) for instance the only requirement besides the maximum
forces in the diagonals would be to say that a force of 240kN has to be transferred
to the chord.
One can find relatively more information on the concept of transfer forces in
American literature as compared to others. The concept can at times be
complicated to understand or difficult and tedious to apply in practice. However, it
is one of the most efficient and accurate ways of communicating forces to the
25

connection designer. Therefore it is not uncommon for large and complex projects
to use commercial software or in-house spreadsheets that calculate transfer forces
for common connection configurations.
Two more examples can be used to illustrate the concept of transfer forces.
The shear force

Vu in

the panel zone of Figure 12.31 is equal to (M u M 2 ) / h .

However its value is not evident from maximum member forces alone.
not only on the maximum values of

Vu depends

M 1 and M 2 but also on their direction in each

load case and on their relative values.

Figure 12.31 Shear in panel zone

Figure 12.32 shows an elevation and a plan of a node in a multi-story braced frame.
The horizontal (tensile) force transferred to the column by the beam, vertical and
horizontal bracing on the left hand side of the column is:

Fut = Fubl + Fubl + Fuxl

(12.39)

This must clearly be the same as the forces on the right hand side:

Fut = Fubr + Fuhr + Fuxr

(12.40)

We must design the connections on both the right and left of the column to resist

Fut

in addition to the other forces. The problem is of course that the maximum values of
all the forces don't necessarily occur in the same load case. But if we are given the
maximum forces in the members and the maximum value of the transfer force we
can design a safe and economical connection.

26

Figure 12.32 Node in a multi-story braced frame

12.7

Examples

Example 12.1
What tensile force can we put on the angle below?
M20 Class 8.8 bolts
22 mm holes, punched
As = 935 mm2

f y = 355 MPa

Shear resistance of bolts:

Vu = 4Vr = 4 x87,6 = 350

kN

Bearing resistance of bolts:

End distance = 35 mm < 3d = 3x 20 = 60
Thus equation 3.8:

Br = br antf u
27

mm

kN

Br = 0,67 x35 x4 x6 x479 = 265

Block failure:
Equation 6.4:

Tu Ant f u + 0,6Agv f y
Tu 0,9(935 0,5(22 + 2) )6 + 0,6 x0,9(3x70 + 35)6 x355 = 646

kN

Equation 6.5:

Tu Ant f u + 0,6Anv f u
Tu 0,9(935 0,5(22 + 2) x6)470 + 0,6 x0,9(3x70 + 35 3,5(22 + 2))6 x470 = 610

kN

Effect of shear lag, with 4 bolts in line:

Equation 12.1:

Ane' = 0,8 Ane

Ane' = 935 (22 + 2)6 = 791

mm2

Equation 12.6:

Tr = Ag f y
Tr = 0,9 x935 x355 = 299

kN

Equation 12.7:

Tr = 0,85Ane' f u
Tr = 0,85 x0,9 x791x470 = 284

kN

Thus Tr = 265 kN
Conclusion
The bearing resistance of the bolts controls. If the end distance was made more
than 35 mm (in fact, if it was made 37,5 mm) the shear lag resistance would control.

Example 12.2
Design the following welded connection:

28

Diagonals: 100x100x8 L
Horizontal chord: 150x150x10L
All 6 mm fillet welds.

Resistance of welds (taking resistance of fillet weld from Table ):

Frw = (180 + 75)0,914 + 100 x1,29 = 362

kN > 300 kN

OK

Resistance of angle:
Connected leg fully effective.
Other leg:

L1 = 75 < 100

mm

Equation 2.11:

Ane 2 = 0,5L1t = 0,5 x75 x8 = 300

Thus

mm2
mm2

Ane = Ag (b t )t + Ane2 = 1550 (100 8)8 + 300 = 1114

Equation 12.13:

Tr = Ag f y = 0,9 x1550 x355 = 495

kN

OK

Equation 12.14:

Tr = 0,85Ane f u = 0,85x0,9 x1114 x470 = 401

kN

OK

Check shear in leg of chord angle between diagonals:

From SANS 10162-1 Clause 13.4.2, with Av 0,67bt = 0,67 x150 x10 = 1000

Vr = 0,66Av f y = 0,66 x0,9 x1000 x355 = 210

kN < 212 kN

mm2
OK

Conclusion
The diagonals and their attachment to the chord are stronger than required, but the
chord is just strong enough in shear, which demonstrates that this check should
always be performed.

29

Example 12.3
Check whether the connection below can carry the force of 35 kN in the brace.

Angles attaching boomerang gusset to beam web 70x70x6L with M20 bolts. A force
of 27 kN will be transferred in shear to the beam running in the vertical direction of
the paper, and 22,4 kN to the horizontal beam. These are small forces and the
cleats, bolts and beam webs will obviously be strong enough to carry them
Check resistance of gusset to buckling in compression:
Estimate L = 375

A = 250 x10 = 2500

mm; K = 0,75 ; KL = 281

mm

mm2

10 3
I
r=
=
= 2,89
12 x10
A

mm

KL
= 97,3
r
From Table 4.3 in the Red Book:
Thus C r = 0,9 x2500 x155 = 349

Cr
= 155MPa
A

kN > 27 kN

OK

Check bending in the gusset:

Consider the horizontal leg of the gusset, at the inner corner:

M u = 27 x0,21 = 5,67

kN.m

30

M r = Z e f y
Ze =

tb 2 10 x250 2
=
= 104167
6
6

M r = 0,9 x104167 x355 = 33,3

mm3
kN.m > 5,67 kN.m

OK

Example 12.3
Design the gusset in the connection below.

Check bolt bearing:

The member with the 1200 kN tensile load clearly governs.
Equation 3.11:

Br = 3br tdnf u = 3x0,67 x12 x20 x10 x470 = 2267

kN > 1200 kN

OK

Equation 3.12:

Br = br antf u = 0,67 x40 x10 x12 x470 = 1512

kN >1200 kN

We need only check the Whitmore width, but will also do block failure.
Check tension and shear block failure:
Equation 6.4:

Tr = Ant f u + 0,6Agv f y
31

OK

Tr = 0,9(70 22)12 x470 + 0,6 x0,9 x2(4 x70 + 40)12 x350 = 1695

kN > 1200 kN OK

Tr = Ant f u + 0,6Anv f u
Tr = 0,9(70 22)12 x470 + 0,6 x0,9 x2(4 x70 + 40 4,5x22)12 x470 = 1590

kN

OK

Check the Whitmore width:

Equation 6.13:

Lw = (m 1) g + 1,15(n 1)s = (2 1)70 + 1,15(5 1)70 = 392

mm

Equation 6.13:

TrLwtf y = 0,9 x392 x12 x350 = 1481

kN > 1200 kN

OK

Check buckling of the gusset with the 1200 kN compressive force acting on it.
Stress on Whitmore width:

1400000
= 298
392 x12

MPa

L* = 280 mm

I
t3
r=
=
= 3,5 mm
A
12t

KL* 0,6 x 280

=
= 48
3,5
r
According to Table 4.3 in the Red Book:

Cr
= 288MPa
A
Thus C r = 0,9 x 280 x12 x 288 = 871

kN

This is less than 1200 kN, so we have to increase the thickness of the gusset . A
check will show that 16 mm is adequate.
Design the welding connecting the gusset to the column.
Resolve the forces in vertical and horizontal components and apply them
where they intersect the weld line, as shown in the sketch. The welds are
subjected to the following forces:

Tu = 700 kN; Vu = 2 x848 = 1696

kN; M u = 2 x150 x848 = 254000

32

kN.mm

Z weld =

1000 2
= 167000
6

mm2

Thus maximum vertical force per mm, noting that there is a weld each side:

fv =

1696
= 0,848
2 x1000

kN/mm

Maximum horizontal force par mm:

fh =

254000
= 0,76
2 x167000

Tan 1 =

kN/mm

0,76
= 0,896
0,848

, thus = 42 o

Resultant force per mm:

f ru = 0,848 2 + 0,76 2 = 1,14

kN/mm

According to Table 5. A 6 mm weld will be just strong enough.

Check shear in gusset:

Vr = 0,66f y 0,67bt = 0,66 x0,9 x355x0,67 x1000 x16 = 2260

kN > 1200 kN

OK

Conclusion
Reflection on this example proves that, if such a connection is subjected to various
load cases, it would be impossible to design the connection properly if all the forces
were not given for each load case. However, if the maximum member forces are
given as well as the transfer forces Tu, Vuand M u the connection can be
designed.

Example 12.4
Determine the forces in the members, the cleated connections of the gusset to the
column and the beam to the column, and the welded connection of the gusset to
the beam in the following connection. Note that C is the centroid of the gusset-tocolumn cleat, and B the centroid of the gusset-to-beam weld, neither of which has
necessarily been shown to scale.

33

Using the symbols in Figure 12.24 we can say:

ec = 127 mm

eb = 203 mm

yC = 300 mm

x B = 300 mm

z = 50 mm
Couple acting on column because of connection:
Equation 12.21, plus eccentricity of shear force of 150 kN in beam:

M 1 + M 2 = z Sin Fu + ecVu = 0,05 Sin35o 600 + 150 x127 = 36,3

kN.m

Horizontal forces:
On connection of gusset to column from Equation 12.24:

HC =

Fu ( zSin + ec Cos 600(0,05Sin35 o + 0,127Cos35 o )

=
= 90
eb + y C
0,203 + 0,3

On connection of gusset to beam from Equation 6.25:

H B = Fu Sin H C = 600Sin35o 90 = 254

kN

Vertical forces:
On connection of gusset to beam from Equation 6.26:

34

kN

VB =

H B eb 254 0,203
=
= 172
0,3
xB

kN

On connection of gusset to column from Equation 12.27:

VC = f u Cos VB = 600Cos35o 172 = 320

kN

Forces on connection of beam to column:

Vertical force, from Equation 12.32:

VE = VB Vu = 172 150 = 22

kN

Horizontal force, from Equation 12.30:

H E = H C Fu = 90 100 = 10

kN

12.8 Resistance tables

The only tables contained in this chapter relate to the tensile resistances of angles
connected by welding or bolts. These tables cover essentially the same subject
matter as Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 in the Red Book.
Figure 12.30 shows the dimensions and assumptions relating to the tables for bolted
angles Tables 112.1 to 12.3. Figure 12.31 contains the same information for Tables
12.4 to 12.6, for welded angles. The tables in the Red Book are presented as
resistance tables for angle ties; here we see the situation from the point of view of
the connections.

35

Bolt holes 2 mm larger than bolt diameter;

assumed for calculations to be 4 mm larger.
Dimensions and bolt classes:
M16
M20
25
35
a
50
70
s
Class
4.8
8.8

M24
45
90
8.8

Steel:

fy

Equal angles up to 60x60 assumed

= 200 MPa, f u = 365 MPa
All other angles:

f y = 355 MPa, f u= 470

MPa

Single line of bolts

Two lines of bolts

Figure 12.30 Dimensions, details and symbols for bolted connections for
angles.

L=

L1 + L2
2

For calculating contribution of

unconnected
('other')
leg,
assumed L1 = 0,5 L .
All welding E70xx
Steel:
Equal angles up to 60x60:
f y = 200 MPa, f u = 365 MPa

Other

angles:

f y = 355

MPa, f u = 470 MPa

Without transverse weld

With transverse weld

Figure 12.31 Dimensions, details and symbols for welded connections for
angles.
36

37

38

39

40

41

42