Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prof. Ozlem
Imamoglu
Mitschrift von Manuela D
ubendorfer
October 19, 2008
ii
Contents
1 Groups
1.1 Basic Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Diedral groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Quaternion group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Symmetric group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Special subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Cyclic groups an their subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Group Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Homomorphisms and Normal subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Groups acting on themselves by conjugation - class equation . . . .
1.8 Composition series and the Holder program . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Sylows Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Direct products and Abelian groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10.1 The fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups
1.10.2 Semidirect products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 Free groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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41
42
2 Rings
2.1 Basic Definitions and examples . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Ideals, Ring Homomorphisms and quotient rings
2.3 Properties of ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Rings of fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Irreducible polynomials . . . . . . . . . .
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iv
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Groups
1.1
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Example 1.1.10. GLn (R) denotes the group of invertible n n matrices under
matrix multiplication.
Example 1.1.11. Let X be a set, S(X) Permutations of X
S(X) = {f : X X; f a bijection}
with composition as group oparation. When X = {1, . . . , n} we write Sn , the
Symmetric group on n letters.
1
. . a1}.
For any group G, a G, n Z+ , we denote an by aa
. . . a}, an by a
| .{z
| {z
n times
n times
a0 = 1 is the identity.
Proposition 1.1.12. Let (G, ) be a group then
(1) The identity of G is unique,
(2) For all a G, a1 is unique,
(3) (a1 )1 = a, a G,
(4) (a b)1 = (b1 ) (a1 ),
(5) for any a1 , . . . , an G, a1 an is independent of how the expression is
bracketed.
Proposition 1.1.13. Let G be a group, a, b G. The equations ax = b and
ya = b have unique solutions x, y G. In particular, the left and right cancelation
laws hold.
(1) If au = av then u = v,
(2) if ub = vb then u = v.
Definition 1.1.14. Let G a group, and x G. We define the order of x to be the
smallest positive integer n such that xn = 1. We denote this integer by |x|. If no
positive power of x is 1, x is said to be order.
Example 1.1.15. (1) a G has |a| = 1 if and only if a = 1.
(2) (Z, +), (R; +): every non-zero element has order.
(3) (R\{0}, ): 1 has order 2, all other elements have order.
(4) G = Z/6Z: 2 6= 0, 2 + 2 6= 0, 2 + 2 + 2 = 0, hence 2 has order 3 in Z/6Z.
Definition 1.1.16. Let G = {1 = g1 , . . . , gn } be a finite group. The multiplication
table or group table of G is the n n matrix whose ij-entry is the group element
gi gj .
Example 1.1.17. G = ((Z/3Z), +)
+ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0
2 2 0 1
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
There is another formulation of the axioms for a group, which is equivalent to the
original definition but somewhat simpler
Theorem 1.1.18. Let G be a set, an associative binary operation on G. Assume
that there exists an element e G such that x e = x for all x G and assume
that for any x G there exists an element y G such that x y = e. Then (G, )
is a group (e is called right identity, y is called right inverse)
Proof. We want to show that e is also a left identity and y is also left inverse of
x. Let x G, e e = e since x e = x, x G. Let y be the right inverse of x,
i.e. x y = e. Then x y = e = e e = e (x y) = (e x) y by association.
x y = (e x) y. Now we use right of y to cancel ys. x = e x, therefore e is
also a left identity. The other part is an exercise.
Note the following example
Example 1.1.19. (Z, ) where x y := x. Check: ist associative, 1 is a right
identity x 1 = x, x Z and 1 is a left inverse for every x Z, 1 x = 1. But
(Z, ) is not a group since for example there is no two-sided identity element.
Now we will study some very important examples of groups
1.1.1
Diedral groups
One important family of examples of groups is the class of groups whose elements
are symmertries of geometric objects. The simplest subclass is when the geometric objects are regular polygons. For each n Z+ , n 3, let D2n be the set
of symmetries of a regular n-gon. Fix a regular n-gon centered at the origin in
the xy plane. Label the vertices consecutively from 1 to n in clockwise direction.
and s the reLet r denote the rotation clockwise about the origin through 2
n
flection about the line of symmetry through vertex 1 and origin. Then one can
verify
(a) 1, r, r2 , . . . , rn1 all distinct and rn = 1, i.e. |r| = n,
(b) |s| = 2,
(c) s 6= ri for any i,
(d) sri 6= srj 0 i, j n with i 6= j.
D2n = {1, r, r2 , . . . , rn1 , s, sr, sr2 , . . . , srn1 }
{z
} |
{z
}
|
rotations
reflections
a group of order 2n. Every element can be written in terms of r and s. We say
r, s are generators. Well look at this example in more detail later. (Note also
sr = r1 s and hence D2n is not abelian).
1.1.2
Quaternion group
1.1.3
Symmetric group
Let X 6= be a set, and Sx be the set of all bijections from X to X. Then (Sx , )
is a group, where denotes the composition of functions, the permutations of X.
When X = {1, 2, . . . , n}, then we write Sx = Sn , which is the symmetric group on
n letters.
First note |Sn | = n! If is any permutation in Sn , it can send 1 to any of {1, . . . , n},
hence there are n choices for (1), n 1 choices for (2), n 2 choices for (3), . . . .
Therefore there are n! injective functions from {1, . . . , n} to itself.
An efficient way of writing elements of Sn is through their cycle decomposition.
Definition 1.1.20. A cycle is a string of integers which represents the elements
of Sn which cyclically permutes these integers and fixes all others.
r-cycle Sn when there exists r-element subset {x1 , . . . , xr } {1, . . . , n} such
that
(a) (xi ) = xi+1 , 1 i r,
(b) (xr ) = x1 ,
(c) (y) = y y {1, . . . , n}\{x1 , . . . , xr }
We write (x1 , x2 , . . . , xr ) for the r-cycle .
Example 1.1.21. = (15732) S8 is the permutation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 1 2 4 7 6 3 8
In general for every Sn , the numbers from 1 to n will be rearranged and
grouped into k-cycles
(a1 . . . am1 )(am1 +1 am1 +2 . . . am2 ) . . . (amk1 +1 . . . amk ).
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.2
1.3. SUBGROUPS
1.3
Subgroups
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
In fact nZ are all the subgroups of (Z, +). For if H is a subgroup of G, other than
{0}, then there exists positive integers in H. Let n = min{m Z+ ; m H}.
Then we claim H = nZ. Clearly since n H, H a subgroup nZ H.
To see that H nZ, note that if h H we can write h = qn + r, 0 r < n
by division algorithm. Then r = h qn H since h H, qn nZ H. But
this contradicts the minimality of n unless r = 0 in which case h = qn nZ. So
H nZ.
1.3.1
Special subgroups
Definition 1.3.7. Let G be any group. The center of G, denoted by Z(G) is the
set of elements that commute with everything in G, i.e.
Z(G) = {u G; zg = gz g G}.
Remark. If G is abelian then G = Z(G). If G is not abelian, then Z(G) $ G.
Further we can show that Z(G) is a subgroup of G:
Proof. Since if z1 , z2 Z(G) then z1 g = gz1 and z2 g = gz2 g G. It follows
(z1 z2 )g = z1 (z2 g) = z 1(gz2 ) = (z1 g)z2 = g(z1 z2 )
hence z1 z2 Z(G). Further
z11 g = (g 1 z1 )1 = (z1 g 1 )1 = gz11 ,
and so z11 Z(G). Clearly e Z(G) and eg = ge = e by definition of e. Therefore
we have Z(G) < G.
na b
o
Example 1.3.8. Let G = GL2 (R) =
; a, b, c, d R, ad bc 6= 0 . Let
c d
a b
0 1
Z(G), then since
G and
c d
1 0
a b
0 1
0 1
a b
b a
c d
=
we have
=
.
c d
1 0
1 0
c d
d c
a b
a b
a b
and hence we have a = d, b = c and therefore
=
.
c d
b a
1 1
On the other hand since
GL2 (R) then
0 1
a b
1 1
1 1
a b
a a+b
a+b b
=
, hence
=
b a
0 1
0 1
c d
b b+a
b+a a
1.3. SUBGROUPS
a 0
and therefore b = 0. Hence every element in Z(G) has the form
, a 6= 0.
0 a
a 0
1 0
Converse is easy clearly
=a
Z(G), and therefore
0 a
0 1
na 0
o
Z(GL2 (R)) =
; a 6= 0 .
0 a
Definition 1.3.9. Another imoportant subgroup is the Centralizer of an element
x in G:
CG (x) = {g G; gx = xg} = {g G; gxg 1 = x}.
Remark. Check that CG (x) < G. Further if G is abelian then CG (x) = G, x G.
Definition 1.3.10. Two elements x, y G are called conjugate in G if there exists
g G such that gxg 1 = y.
Remark. This defines an equivalence relation on G: a b if there exists g G
such that a = gbg 1 .
Definition 1.3.11. The equivalence class a is called the conjugacy class of a
a = {gag 1 ; g G}.
One more example of an important subroup
Definition 1.3.12. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Let x G and x1 Hx
denote {x1 ax; a H}. First note x1 Hx is also a subgroup of G. Then
NG (H) = {g G; g 1 Hg = H} = {g G; Hg = gH}
is called the normalizer of H, where gH = {gh; h H}.
Remark. Then NG (H) < G. Note H < NG (H) trivially.
To verify that a subset H G is a subgroup, we check that it is closed under
multiplication and inverses. These two can be combined to give
Proposition 1.3.13. Let G be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is a subgoup
iff for all x, y H we have xy 1 H. If H is finite, then is suffices to check that
it is closed under muliplication.
Proof. If H G then certainly for all x, y H we have xy 1 H. Assume =
6 H
satisfies xy 1 H x, y h. We apply this with y = x then xy 1 = xx1 = 1 H,
hence the identity is in H. Further 1x1 = x1 H, and hence H is closed under
multiplication and therefore a subgroup of G.
Suppose H is finite and closed under multiplication. Let x H. Then {x, x2 , . . . }
is a finite set, hence xa = xb for some a, b with b > a. If n = b a then xn = 1, so
every element of H has finite order and x1 = xn1 H, hence H is also closed
under inverses.
10
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.3.2
1.3. SUBGROUPS
11
0 0
0 0
hn = g an = g a n = g da n = (g dn )a = 1
Applying proposition 1.3.18 |h| divides n0 . Let |h| = k. Then k|n0 and g ak =
hk = 1. Applying proposition 1.3.18 again to hgi, we have |g| = n | ak and
dn0 | ak = da0 k, so n0 | a0 k, but (n0 , a0 ) = 1, hence n0 | k together with k | n0 gives
k = n0 .
The next proposition gives a criteria to find all generators of a cyclic group.
Proposition 1.3.20. Let G = hgi.
(1) If |g| = then G = hg a i if and only if a = 1.
(2) If |g| = n < then G =< g a > if and only if (a, n) = 1. In particular the
number of generators of G is (n), Eulers -function
(n) := #{k Z; 1 k n, (n, k) = 1}
Proof. Exercise.
Next well see that subgroups of a cyclic subgroup as in the case of Z, have special
stucture.
Theorem 1.3.21. Let G = hgi be a cyclic group.
(1) Every
of G is cyclic, more precisely if H G then either H = {1}
dsubgroup
or H = g where d is the smallest positive integer such that g d H.
b
a
(2) If |G| = then for any
distinct
non-negative
integers
a
and
b,
hg
i
=
6
g .
For any integer m hg m i = g |m| where |m| is the absolute value. The nontrivial
subgroups of G correspond bijectively with positive integers.
12
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
n there exists a
unique subgroup H of G of order a.
This subgroup H is g d where d = na . For
every integer m, we have hg m i = g (n,m) , i.e. the subgroups of G correspond
bijectively with positive divisors of n.
Proof. (1) Let H G. If H = {1} there is nothing to prove. So assume H 6= {1}.
Then there exist a 6= 0 such that g a H. If a < 0 then since H is a subgroup,
g a H and a > 0. Hence H contains some positive power of g. By well
ordering principle the set
S = {a; Z+ , g a H}
has a minimum, call it d. Since h is a subgroup of G = hgi every element h of H
is of the form g t where t = qd + r. Therefore we have g qd+r = (g d )q g r H, but
(g d )q H
and g r H. This contradicts the minimality of d unless r = 0, t = qd,
hence h g d .
(2) Is similar to the proof of (3).
(3) Assume |G| = n < and a|n. Let d = na . Then
n
|g|
= =a
(|g| , d)
d
by proposition 1.3.19. Hence H = g d is a subgroup of order a.
d
g =
To show
|g|
n
=
,
(|g| , b)
(n, b)
n
and hence a = nd = (n,b)
and d = (n, b). In particular d | b, so b = db0 and
0
g b = (g d )b
g d , and therefore K = g b g d . But < g d > = a = |K|,
hence K = g d .
hg m i g (m,n) , |g m | =
n
n
n
and g (m,n) =
=
,
(n, m)
(n, (m, n))
(n, m)
then hg m i = g (m,n) . Since (m, n) is a divisor of n, every subgroup of G arises
from a divisor of n.
13
Example 1.3.22. G = (Z/12Z, ). Then G =< 1 >, |G| = 12. Positive divisors
of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6,12, hence the distinct subgroups of G are
G = h1i ,
order12
h2i ,
12
=6
(2, 12)
h3i ,
h4i ,
12
=4
(3, 12)
12
=3
4
h6i ,
h0i = {e}
Note h5i = h1i = G since (5, 12) = (1, 12). Similarly h7i = h11i = 1. We have
h8i = h4i since h8, 12i = h4, 12i and h9i = h3i, h10i = h2i. Lattice of subgroups
G = h1i
h2i
h3i
h4i
h6i
h0i
1.4
Group Actions
14
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
by definition of ,
by definition of g1 g2 ,
by property 1. of group actions
definition of g1 , g2 ,
definition of .
15
16
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Example 1.4.13. The group G = SL(2, R) acts on the UHP (upper half plane)
H = {z = x + iy; y > 0} via
a b
az + b
.
GHH ,
, z 7
c d
cz + d
Since
az + b
im(z)
im
=
>0
cz + d
|az + d|2
1 0
z =z
0 1
c d
C D
c d
Cz + D
Let i H. The stabilizer of i is
na b ai + b
o
Gi =
;
=i
c d
ci + d
therefore ai + b = c + di and a = d,
n a
Gi =
b
b = c, so
o
b
; a2 + b 2 = 1 ,
a
17
y x
GL2 (R),
i 1
where R is a set of representations for the equivalence classes. We write for the
set of orbits G\X if G acts on the left and X/G if G acts on the right.
Example 1.4.18 (important example). We have seen that G acts on itself by
multiplication. One can also make a subgroup H of G act on G by multiplication
on the left or on the right
r : H G G, (h, g) 7 hg (on the right)
l : H G G, (h, g) 7 gh1 (on the left).
The orbit of g G then has the form
Hg = {hg; h H}
for some action r and is called a right coset of H in G (or gH = {gh; h H} for
some action l is the left coset of H in G).
Example 1.4.19. 3Z Z act on Z by translation
3Z |{z}
Z Z, (3n, m) 7 3n + m.
|{z}
=G
=X
Orbits, Cosets:
3Z + 0 = {0, 3, 6, . . . }
3Z + 1 = {. . . , 5, 2, 1, 4, 7, . . . }
3Z + 2 = {. . . , 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, . . . }
= 3Z + 3 = 3Z + 6, . . . ,
= 3Z + 4 = 3Z + 7 = 3Z 2, . . . ,
= 3Z + 5 = 3Z 1 = 3Z + 8, . . . .
18
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
This is not the case in general (see the next series for an example, G = S3 , H =
h1, (23)i).
Example 1.4.20. Z R under addition. Z acts on R by translation.
Z R R, (n, r) 7 n + r.
How does the orbits look like? What is a set of representatives for this action?
For any r R, the orbits or the right cosets are
Z + r = {n + r; n Z}.
Write r =
[r]
|{z}
integer part
Example 1.4.22. G = (Z/2Z, ), H =< 4 >= {0, 4, 8}. The right cosets of H
are
H =H 0
=H 1
=H 2
=H 3
= {0, 4, 8}
= {1, 5, 9}
= {6, 10, 2}
= {7, 11, 3}
=H 4
=H 5
=H 6
=H 7
=H 8
=H 9
= H 10
= H 11
Note each coset has the same number of elements, i.e. 3 elements. There are 4
different cosets.
Definition 1.4.23. The number of distinct right cosets of H is called the index of
H in G, denoted by [G : H].
19
20
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.5
21
Proof. It suffices to check that this rule of multiplication is well-defined. (The fact
the multiplication is associative is inherited from the associativity of multiplication
in G.) Pick two left cosets g1 H, g2 H. Suppose gi H = gi0 H, i = 1, 2, i.e. gi0 is another
representatives for gi H.We want to show that g1 g2 H = g10 g20 . If gi H = gi0 h then
hi H such that gi0 = gi hi . Then
g10 g20 = (g1 h1 )(g2 h2 ) = g1 (h1 g2 )h2 .
Now since
H / G, g 1 Hg H, g21 h1 g2 g 1 Hg H
there exists h01 such that g21 h1 g2 = h01 , i.e. h1 g2 = g2 h01 for some h01 H. Therefore
we have g10 g20 = g1 (h1 g2 )h2 = g1 g2 h01 h2 and (g10 g20 )H = (g1 g2 )H as wanted.
Example 1.5.4. Check that for G = S3 , H = {1, (23)} H 6C G since right cosets
6= left cosets.
Example 1.5.5. G = S3 , K = h(123)i. Check that K / G.
Example 1.5.6. If : G G0 a group homomorphism. Then weve seen that
ker is a subgroup of G. In fact ker / G. To see this, let H = ker . Take an
aribitrary element g 1 hg in g 1 Hg then
(g 1 hg) = (g 1 )(h)(g) = (g)1 e(g) = e.
Therefore g 1 Hg ker = H. Hence g 1 Hg H and ker / G.
Example 1.5.7. Let G be any group, Z(G) < G. In fact Z(G) / G and any
subgroup of Z(G) is normal in G. To see this, let H Z(G).
To show that H / G we need to show that g 1 hg H for all g G, h H, but
since h H Z(G) we have hg = gh, for all g G and g 1 hg = g 1 gh = h H.
A corollary of this is
Lemma 1.5.8. If G is abelian then every subgroup of G is normal.
Proof. If G is abelian, then Z(G) = G and every subgroup of G is a subgroup of
Z(G), hence normal by the previous result.
Example 1.5.9. It can happen that G is not abelian, yet every subgroup is normal.
For example G = Q8 , the quaternions. The subgroups of Q8 are {1}, {1}, hii , hji , hki.
{1} and {1} are normal because theyre contained in Z(Q8 ). The other subgroups
are normal because they have index 2 in Q8 since
Lemma 1.5.10. Let H G. If [G : H] = 2, then H E G
22
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Proof. Exercise.
Example 1.5.11. G = Q8 , H = {1}, H / G and G/H is a group of order
|G|
= 4. Is it Z4 or V4 (kleins 4 group)?
[G : H] = |H|
(Hi)2 = Hi2 = H(1) = H = eG/H .
Similarly (Hj)2 = H, (Hk)2 = H, therefore every element in G/H = {H, Hi, Hj, Hk}
has order 2 and Q8 /{1}
= V4 .
Example 1.5.12. G = (Z, +), H = nZ. Then G/H has n elements, namely
H + 0, H + 1, . . . , H + (n 1), which is Z/nZ.
1.6
In this section well extablish a connection between the seemingly unrelated concepts homomorphisms and normal subgroups. Weve seen that the kernel of a
homomorphism is a normal subgroup. More precisely
Proposition 1.6.1. Let : G G0 be a group homomorphism. Then
ker = {g G; (g) = eG0 }
is a normal subgroup of G.
In fact, normal subgroups are precisely the same as the kernels of homomorphisms.
Namely
Proposition 1.6.2. A subgroup N of G is normal if and only if it is the kernel
of some homomorphism.
Proof. : is Proposition 1.6.1.
: Let N / G. Then G/N is a group. Define a map
: G G/N, g 7 gN, g G.
Then by definition of operation in G/N
(g1 g2 ) = g1 g2 N = (g1 N )(g2 N ) = (g1 )(g2 )
and is a homomorphism,
ker = {g G; (g) = eG/N = N } = {g G; gN = N }
= {g G; g N } = N,
as wanted.
23
G0
%
G/H
Moreover if H = ker then is injective.
Proof. We define a map : G/H G0 , gH 7 (g). We first check that it is
well-defined. Suppose gH = g 0 H then g 0 = gh for some h H and
(g 0 ) = (gh) = (g)(h) = (g).
Since by assumption h ker we have (h) = e and therefore is well-defined.
(Note clearly that , has the same image.)
From its definition it is clear that = . The fact that is a homomorphism follows easily since is a homomorphism. Finally if H = ker then is
injective since if (g1 H) = (g2 H), then (g1 ) = (g2 ) and (g1 g21 ) = e, hence
g1 g21 ker = H and g1 H = g2 H.
Corollary 1.6.4 (Fundamental Theorem of Isomorphisms). If : G G0 is a
homomorphism, then
G/ ker
= im(),
the image of .
Proof. The in Theorem 1.6.3 is injective, clearly onto, im() = im().
Example 1.6.5. Let : Z Cn = hgi be a cyclic group of order n with a 7 g a .
(a + b) = g a+b = g a g b = (a)(b).
Clearly is surjective:
ker = {m Z; g m = 1} = {m Z; |g| |m}
= {m Z; n|m} = nZ
hence Z/nZ
= Cn . The fiber of over an element g a of Cn is
1 (g a ) = {m Z; g m = g a } = {m Z; g ma = 1}
= {m Z; n|m a} = {m Z; m a mod n} = a.
24
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
g0 = 1
g1
ga
g n1
a b
Example 1.6.6. Let : GL(1, R) (R\{0}, ),
7 ad bc. is onto
c d
r 0
r 0
since for any r 6= 0, g =
GL2 (R) and
=r
0 1
0 1
nZ
0
n
2n
..
.
25
G/K
H/K
= G/H.
26
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
K
H K
|
e
V4 = {e, a, b, c}
|
hai
hbi
hci
|
e
The lattice for G/N appears at the top of the lattice for G.
Next we go back to group actions. We have seen that if G acts on a set X. The
relation defined by a b iff a = g b for some g G is an equivalence relation.
Lemma 1.6.16. The number of elements in the equivalence class containing a is
[G : Ga ], index of stabilizer if a G.
Proof. Let Ga = be the orbit of a, G/Ga the set of cosets of Ga in G,
: Ga G/Ga , b = g a 7 gGa.
is surjective since for any g G, g a Ga. is injective since
g a = h a h1 g Ga hGa = gGa ,
hence is a bijection.
1.7
28
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Proof. {a} is conjugacy class of size 1 if and only if a Z(G). Let Z(G) =
{1, z1 , . . . , zm }. Let K1 , K2 , . . . , Kr be conjugacy classes of G not contained in the
center. Let gi be a representative of Ki , i = 1, . . . , r. Then the conjugacy classes
of G are
1, {z1 }, {z2 }, . . . , {zm }, K1 , K2 , . . . , Kr .
This partitions G into disjoint sets and we have
|G| =
m
X
i=1
1+
r
X
i=1
r
X
|Ki | = |Z(G)| +
[G : CG (gi )].
i=1
Note that all the summands on the righthandside of class equation are divisors
of |G|. (Since they are indices of subgroups of G.) This restricts their possible
values.
30
1.8
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.8. COMPOSITION SERIES AND THE HOLDER
PROGRAM
31
kp
(kp,k)
= p and g k
The proof worked because both N , G/N are subgroups of order smaller than G,
and we could piece each information together. Clearly a basic obstruction to this
method is the non-existence of a normal subgroup. In the Theorem 1.9.9 we
could find a normal subgroup, because G was abelian. Groups without non-trivial
normal subgroups are fundamental obstruction to this method.
Definition 1.8.4. A group G is called simple if |G| > 1 (can be ) and the only
normal subgroups of G are 1 and G.
We have seen that if |G| is prime then G
= Zp , Zp has no non-trivial subgroups,
therefore they are simple for all primes p. The smallest non-abelian simple group is
A5 of order 60. Simple groups cannot be factored as N , G/N and can be thought of
building blocks as the primes in Z. There is also a unique factorization theorem.
Definition 1.8.5. In a group G, a sequence of subgroups
1 = N0 N1 N2 Nk1 Nk = G
is called a composition series if Ni E Ni+1 and Ni+1 /Ni are simple, 0 i k 1.
The quotient groups Ni+1 /Ni are called composition factors.
Note were not assuming Ni E G, just Ni E Ni+1 .
Example 1.8.6. 1 E hsi E hs, r2 i / D8 or 1 E hr2 i E hri E D8 . 2 different
composition series, 3 compsition factors each of which isomorphic to (simple) Z2 ,
hsi /1
= Z2 , hs, r2 i / hsi
= Z2 , D8 / hs, r2 i
= Z2 .
Theorem 1.8.7 (Jordan-Holder Theorem). Let G 6= 1 be a finite group. Then
(1) G has a composition series (not unique),
(2) The composition factors in a composition series are unique, i.e. if
1 = N0 E N1 E E Nr = G and 1 = M0 E M1 E E Ms = G,
then r = s and there exists some permutation of {1, . . . , r} such that
M(i) /M(i)1
= Ni /Ni1 , 1 i r.
Proof. Exercise.
32
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Remark. (1) Every group has a factorization. Even though composition series
is not unique the number and isomorphism type of composition factors are unique.
(2) Note that non-isomorphic groups might have the same (up to isomorphism)
list of composition factors, e.g. 1 E {1}/ < i > /Q8 .
Composition factors: Q8 / hii
= Z2 , hii /{1}
= Z2 , {1}/{1}
= Z2 , the same as
D8 , but Q8 6= D8 .
H
older program is a two part-program for classifying all finite groups up to
isomorphism
(1) Classify all finite simple groups.
(2) Find all ways of putting simple groups together to form other groups.
The classification of all finite simple groups, i.e. part (1) was completed in 1980.
Theorem 1.8.8. There is a list of 18 (infinite) families of simple groups and 26
simple groups not belonging to these families (the sporadic simple groups) such that
every finite simple group is isomorphic to one of the groups in the list.
A big theorem in this classification (whose proof 255 pages).
Theorem 1.8.9 (Feit-Thompson). If G is simple group of odd order, then G
= Zp
for some prime p.
Part (2) is very difficult, sometimes called extention problem. A class of groups
which appear in the theory of polynomial equations is solvable groups.
Definition 1.8.10. G is called solvable if there exists a chain of subgroups
1 = G0 E G1 E G1 E E Gs = G
such that Gi+1 /Gi is abelian for i = 0, 1, . . . , s 1.
(Finite solvable groups are precisely those groups whose composition factors are
all of prime order.) Finite solvable groups satisfy the following generalization of
Sylows Theorem.
Theorem 1.8.11 (Hall). Let G be a finite solvable group, then for every divisor
) = 1, G has a subgroup of order n.
n of |G| such that (n, |G|
n
1.9
Sylows Theorems
33
Theorem 1.9.2 (1st Sylow Theorem). Let G be a finite group, p prime. If pk | |G|
then G has a subgroup of order pk . In particular G has a p-Sylow subgroup.
Theorem 1.9.3 (2nd Sylow Theorem). If P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G and Q
is any p-subgroup of G, then there exists g G such thath Q gP g 1 , i.e. Q is
contained in some conjugate of P . In particular, any two Sylow p-subgroups of G
are conjugate in G.
Theorem 1.9.4 (3rd Sylow Theorem). The number of Sylow p-subgroups of G,
called np , is of the form 1 + kp, i.e. np 1 ( mod p). Further np (G) = [G :
NG (P )], hence np | m.
For the proof of Sylows theorems recall following lemma and corollary
Lemma 1.9.5. If G acts on a set X. Let a X, a = Ga = {ga; g G} orbit of
a. Then |a| = [G : Ga ] where Ga = {g G; g a = a} stabilizer of a in G.
Corollary 1.9.6. The number of conjugates of a set S in a group G is the index
of normalizer of S, [G : NG (S)]. In particular the number of conjugates of an
element s of G is [G : CG (S)].
We first prove the existence of Sylow p-subgroups
Proof of Theorem 1.9.2. We proceed by induction on |G|. If |G| = 2, the result
is trivial. Assume the statement is true for all groups of order less than |G|, and
suppose pk | |G|. If G has a proper subgroup H whose index is not divisible by
p, then pk divides |H| so by induction hypothesis H has a subgroup of order pk ,
which is of course also a subgroup of G. Thus we may assume p | [G : H] for every
proper subgroup H of G. Recall the class equation
|G| = |Z(G)| +
r
X
[G : CG (gi )].
i=1
34
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Before proving the 2nd and 3rd Sylow Theorems we overse some facts; By the 1st
Sylow Theorem, we know that there exists P Sylp (G). Let
X = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pr } = {gP g 1 ; g G},
be the set of all conjugates of P . (Note G acts on X, G has only one orbit.) Let Q
be any p-subgroup of G. Q also acts on X by conjugation. Write X as a disjoint
union of orbits under this action
X = O1 O2 Os , where r = |O1 | + + |Os | .
Note r does not depend on Q, but the number of Q-orbits s does. Renumber
the elements of X if necessary such that the Q orbits = Pi Oi , 1 i s.
|Oi | = [Q : NQ (Pi )] by Lemma 1.9.5. By definition
NQ (Pi ) = NG (Pi ) Q = Pi Q,
because of the following Lemma
Lemma 1.9.7. Let P Sylp (G). If Q is any p-subgroup of G. Then
Q NG (P ) = Q P.
Using these
()
Since Q was arbitrary, we may take it as Q = P1 , |O1 | = 1. Now, for all i > 1, P1 6=
Pi such that P1 Pi < P1 . By () we have |Oi | = [P1 : P1 Pi ] > 1, 2 i s.
Since P1 is a p-group, [P1 : P1 Pi ] is a power of p, hence P | Oi , 2 i s. Thus
r = |O1 | + (|O2 | + + |Os |) 1 mod p.
Now we prove Theorem 1.9.3 and Theorem 1.9.4.
Proof of Theorem 1.9.3. Let Q be any p-subgroup of G. Suppose Q is not contained in Pi for any i {1, . . . , r}, Q 6E gP g 1 for any g G. Then QPi < Q i,
hence by (*) we have |Oi | = [Q : Q Pi ] > 1, 1 i s. Thus p | |Oi | , i, so
p divides |O1 | + |O2 | + + |Os | = r. But this contradicts r 1 mod p (r does
not depend on choice of Q). This proves Q gP g 1 for some g G.
To see that all Sylow p-subgroups of G are conjugate, let Q be any Sylow psubgroup of G, by preceding argument Q < gP g 1 for some g but |Q| = |P | =
|gP g 1 | = p we must have gP g 1 = Q. This proves Theorem 1.9.3.
35
Proof of Theorem 1.9.4. Finally since all sylow p-subgroups are conjugate, X =
{all Sylow p-subgroups}. G acts on X by conjugation, P Sylp (G), orbit of P
under G is all of X. |X| = np = [G : NG (P )] for any P Sylp (G). We have
already seen that np 1 mod p.
Corollary 1.9.8. Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Then there holds equivalence
(1) P is the unique Sylow p-subgroup of G, i.e. np = 1,
(2) P / G,
(3) p = char(G).
Examples of some applications of Sylow Theorems
Remark. No group of order 20 is simple.
Proof. If |G| = 20 = 4 5, G has Sylow-5 subgroups n5 1 mod 5 and n5 | 20.
Note in general np | [G : NG (P )], hence
np | [G : NG (P )] [NG (P ) : P ] = [G : P ] =
mp
= m.
p
36
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1
1
hence a1
A B = {e}, a1
and a1 = a, b1 = b. To see (5)
1 , b1 b
1 a = e = b1 b
let
1
1
1 1
bab1 a1 = ( bab
| {z } )a = b( ab
| {za } ),
A,since A/G
B, since B/G
37
Now G acts on X by conjugation. The permutation representation of this action gives a homomorphism
: G SX = S4 , g 7 (g) = P gP g 1 , P X.
ker = {g G; (g) = identity} = {g G; gPi g 1 = Pi , i = 1, 2, 3, 4}.
In particular ker NG (P ) = P . Since P 6C G, ker / G, ker = 1, hence
G
= (G) S4 .
G contains 8 elements of order 3 and these are precisely 8 elements of order 3
in S4 . All these elements (of order 3) are contained in A4 . Hence (G) A4
has order at least 8. But (G) A4 is a subgroup of A4 , which has order
|A4 | = 12, |(G) A4 | > 8 and divides 12, implies that |(G) A4 | = 12 and
hence (G) = A4 and G
= A4 .
1.10
Weve seen before that given two groups G1 , G2 we can form another group, namely
G1 G2 , the direct product of G1 and G2 by defining the group operation componentwise. In general we have
Definition 1.10.1. The direct product G1 G2 Gn of the groups (G1 , 1 ),
(G2 , 2 ), . . . , (Gn , n ) is the set of n-tuples (g1 , . . . , gn ), gi Gi with operation
defined as
(g1 , g2 , . . . , gn ) (h1 , . . . , hn ) := (g1 1 h1 , g2 2 h2 , . . . , gn n hn ).
Typically even though the operation may be different in each of the factors of a
direct product we drop subscrips in i s and simple write
(g1 , g2 , . . . , gn ) (h1 , . . . , hn ) := (g1 h1 , g2 h2 , . . . , gn hn ).
When the groups are abelian we write the operation additively and call the group
n
L
direct sum of groups G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn ,
Gi .
i=1
Direct products, aside from providing us with an easy way of building new groups
they often also enable us to understand a given group better. This happens when
we are able to realize that the given group is isomorphic to the direct product of
some of its subgroups. In this way, we can break the group down into simpler
components that are easier to deal with. We have already seen in Thm 1.9.9, the
conditions under which a group G is isomorphic to the direct product of two of its
38
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
2 : H K K, (h, k) 7 k
ker 2 = H {eK } = H
nm
nm
ord x
=
=
= m.
(ord x, n)
(m, n)
n
The order of any element in H K must divide |H| and |K|, hence must divide
m, n but (m, n) = 1, so H K = {e}.
|HK| =
|H| |K|
mn
=
= mn,
|H K|
1
39
G Gi , (g1 , g2 , . . . , gn ) 7 gi , then i is a
= G1 Gi1 Gi+1 Gn .
(3) Under the identification in part (1), if x Gi , y Gj for some i 6= j, then
xy = yx.
Example 1.10.5. Let p be a prime, n Z+ . Consider Epn = Zp Zp Zp .
Then Epn is an abelian group of order pn . Every element x of Epn satisfy xp = 1.
Epn is called elementary abelian group of order pn .
If n = 2, Ep2 = Zp Zp is a group of order p2 . It has exactly p + 1 subgroups
of order p (There are more than the two obvious ones). Since every non-identity
element of Ep2 has order p, each of these elements genereate a cyclic subgroup of
order p. Since distinct subgoups of order p intersect trivially, the p2 1 non-identity
elements are partitioned into subsets of size p1, i.e. each of these subsets consists
of the non-identity elements of some subgroup of order p. Hence there must be
p2 1
= p + 1 subgroups of order p.
p1
V4
= Z2 Z2 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)} has 3 subgroups:
{(0, 0), (0, 1)}, {(0, 0), (1, 0)}, {(0, 0), (1, 1)} of order 2.
1.10.1
40
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
41
1.10.2
= Z30 Z6
= Z90 Z2
= Z60 Z3
= Z180
Semidirect products
k3
since H / G. These calculations were done by the assumption that there already
existed a group G containing H, K with H E G, H K = 1.
The product k1 k2 is obtained from the multiplication in K, hence easy to understand. If we understand how the element k1 h2 k11 arises in terms of H and K
42
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
without reference to G then the group HK will have been described entirely in
terms of H and K.
Since H / G, K acts on H by conjugation k h := khk 1 , (h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 ) =
(h1 (k1 h2 ), k1 k2 ). The action of K on H gives a homomorphism : K
Aut(H) = SH , k 7 (k) : h 7 khk 1 . Multiplication in HK depends on
multiplication in K, multiplication in H and the homomorphism .
Theorem 1.10.14. Let H, K be groups, let be a homomorphism from K into
Aut(H). Let G be the set of ordered pairs (h, k) with h H, k K, define the
multiplication on G by
(h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 ) := (h1 (k)(h), k1 k2 ).
Then G is a group and H
= {(h, 1); h H} = H , K
= {(1, k); k K} = K ,
moreover H E G, H K = {e}.
Proof. Exercise.
Definition 1.10.15. The group G is called the semidirect product of H and K
with respect to denoted by H o K. We mostly drop and write H o K when
there is no danger of confusion.
Example 1.10.16. Let H be any abelian group, K = hxi
= Z2 group of order
2. Define : K Aut(H), 1 7 identity map, x 7 (x) : h h1 . Then
G = H o K contains the subgroup H of index 2 and xhx1 = h1 , h H.
(1, x)(h, 1)(1, x1 ) = (1(x)(h), x1)(1, x1 ) = (h1 , x)(1, x1 )
= (h1 (x)(1), xx1 ) = (h1 11 , 1) = (h1 , 1).
If H = Zn , then G = H o K = Zn o Z2
= D2n . The diedral group of order n is
the group of symmetries of a regular n-gon.
1.11
Free groups
43
Definition 1.11.3. The set of all reduced words from an alphabet S is F (S), the
free group generated by S (S is free of relations).
Theorem 1.11.4. F (S) is a group under juxtaposition.
F (S) has the important universal property that any map from the set S to a
group G can be uniquely extented to a homomorphism from the group F (S) to G.
Theorem 1.11.5. Let G be a group, S a set and f : S G a set map. Then
there exists a unique group homomorphism : F (S) G such that the following
diagram commutes
S
, F (S)
.
f &
G
Definition 1.11.6. The cardinality of S is called the rank of the free group.
Theorem 1.11.7 (Schreier). Subgroups of a free group are free.
Warning: The rank of a subgroup of a free group can be greater than the rank
of the whole group.
Example 1.11.8. Let S = {x, y}, G = F (S), a free group on two letters. The
rank of G is 2. Let yk = xk yxk , k 0. Let H = F ({yk ; k 0}) the free group
generated by yk . Then H G, but rank(H) = !
44
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Chapter 2
Rings
2.1
Definition 2.1.1. A ring R is a set together with two binary operation + and
(called addition and multiplication) satisfying the following axioms
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group
(2) is associative, i.e. (a b) c = a (b c), a, b, c R,
(3) The Distributive laws hold: (a + b) c = (a c) + (b c) and a (b + c) =
(a b) + (a c), a, b, c R.
R is called commutative if multiplication is commutative. R is said to have identity,
if there exists 1 R such that a 1 = 1 a = a a R. We write ab instead of
a b.
Example 2.1.2. (Z, +, ), (Q, +, ), (R, +, ) are all commutative rings with
1.
Example 2.1.3. (2Z, +, ) commutative ring, but without 1.
46
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
a bi cj dk
.
a2 + b 2 + c 2 + d 2
47
ithas ab = 0 or ba = 0.
0
.
0
since ab = a
n
d
a
d
48
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
Important examples
Example 2.1.23. Let R be a ring. Well take R commutative with 1, even though
this is not necessary. Let x be an indeterminate. Let
R[x] = {an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a0 x0 ; n 0, ai R}.
R[x] is the ring of polynomials in the variable x with coefficients in R. Addition,
multiplication are given by the familiar operation from elementary algebra.
(an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a0 x0 ) + (bn xn + bn1 xn1 + . . . + b0 x0 )
= (an + bn )xn + + (a0 + b0 )
(an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a0 x0 ) (bn xn + bn1 xn1 + . . . + b0 x0 )
l
X
= a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + b0 a1 )x + +
ak blk xl + . . . .
k=0
49
Proposition 2.1.24. Let R be an integral domain and p(x), q(x) R[x]. Then
(1) degree(p(x)q(x)) = degree(p(x)) + degree(q(x)),
(2) units of R[x] are just the units of R,
(3) R[x] is an integral domain.
Proof. If R has no zero-divisors, if p(x), q(x) has leading coefficient an xn , bm xm
resp. then the leading term of p(x)q(x) = an bm xn+m and an bm 6= 0. Hence R[x] is
an integral domain and (1) holds.
Finally to see (2): If p(x) is a unit then there exists q(x) such that p(x)q(x) =
1 hence degree(p(x)) + degree(q(x)) = 0 so deg(p(x)) = deg(q(x)) = 0 and
p(x), q(x) R, hence p(x), q(x) are units in R.
Example 2.1.25. Group Rings. Let R be a commuative ring with 1 6= 0, G a
finite group. The group ring of G, RG is defined as the set of all formal sums
a1 g1 + a2 g2 + + an gn , ai R, 1 i n, where G = {1 = g1 , . . . , gn }, ai
R, agi = ai RG. Similarly 1g RG, g G. Addition is defined componentwise. To define multiplication we first define (agi )(bgj ) = (ab)gk where gk = gi gj
the product in G. Then extend P
this multiplication
to all formal sums by distribuP
P
tive laws. Coefficients of gk in ( ai gi )( bj gj ) is
= gk ai bj .
gi gj
2.2
In dealing with groups, we have seen that some subgroups are better than
others. For example if H < G, then G/H has a group structure iff H / G. We
encounter a similar situation with rings.
Let (R, +, ) be a ring, S a subring. Since (R, +) is abelian (S, +) is a normal subgroup, and (R/S, +) is a group whose elements are true cosets of S in R,
{a + S; a R} with addition defined as (a + S) + (b + S) = (a + b) + S.
We would like to define a multiplication on the quotient R/S such that (R/S, +, )
becomes a ring. There is a natural choice, namely (a + S)(b + S) := ab + S. We
need to check that this multiplication is well-defined, i.e. if a + S = a0 + S and
b + S = b0 + S, then ab + S = a0 b0 + S, i.e. we want to show if a a0 S, b b0 S
50
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
by the two conditions on S, hence ab a0 b0 S and our multiplication is welldefined. Subrings that have the special properties required to make multiplication
of the additive cosets well-defined are called ideals.
Definition 2.2.1. A subring S of a ring R is called an ideal of R if for all s
S, r R, we have rs S, sr S.
Definition 2.2.2. Let R be a ring, I a subset of R. Let r R.
(1) rI = {ra; a I}, Ir = {ar; a I}
(2) A subset I of R is a left ideal of R if
(i) I is a subring of R
(ii) rK I, r R (closed under left multiplication). Similary for left ideals,
if Ir I, r R, i.e. I is an ideal (two-sided ideal) if it is both, a left and
right ideal.
Theorem 2.2.3. Let (R, +, ) be a ring, (I, +, ) be an ideal of R. Then the set
of cosets R/I is a ring under the operation (I + a) + (I + b) := I + (a + b), (I +
a)(I + b) := I + ab.
Proof. Exercise.
Definition 2.2.4. R/I is called the quotient ring or factor ring of R by I.
The next theorem gives an efficient characteritic of ideals.
Theorem 2.2.5. Let R be a ring, S be a subset. Then S is an ideal of R iff the
following holds
1) S is an additive subgroup of R ( S 6= and S is closed under subtraction),
2) For all r R, s S, we have rs S, sr S.
Proof. Exercise.
Example 2.2.6. (Z, +, ), (nZ, +, ) is an ideal since if we multiply an element
of mZ by an element of Z, we get an element of mZ.
51
(
0, if n is even
n 7
1, if n is odd
is multiplicative since the product of even integers is even, the product of an even
and an odd integer is even and the product of two odd integers is odd, ker = 2Z,
which is an ideal of Z.
Example 2.2.12. Fix n Z. The maps n : Z Z, x 7 nx are not ring homomorphisms in general (except for n = 0, 1). Since n (xy) = nxy, n (x)n (y) =
n2 xy, hence n is a ring homomorphism if n2 = n. Hence only when n = 0, 1. But
note
n (x + y) = n(x + y) = nx + ny = n (x) + n (y),
hence n is a homomorphism of groups.
52
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
a b
a b
Example 2.2.13. : (M2 (R), +, ) (R, +, ),
7 det
.
c d
c d
(AB) = (A)(B), but (A + B) 6= (A)(B), hence is not a ring homomorphism.
Example 2.2.14. Let R be the ring of real valued functions on R under pointwise
addition and multiplication. Let R, : R R, f 7 f () evaluation at ,
then is a ring homomrophism, since
(f + g) = (f + g)() = f () + g() = (f ) + (g).
Similarly for (f g) = (f ) (g).
Proposition 2.2.15. Let R, S be rings. : R S be a ring homomorphism.
Then
(1) The image of is a subring of S,
(2) ker is an ideal of R.
Proof. (1) If s1 , s2 im(), then s1 = (r1 ), s2 = (r2 ) for some r1 , r2 R.
Then (r1 r2 ) = s1 s2 , (r1 r2 ) = s1 s2 , hence s1 s2 , s1 s2 im(), so im()
is a subring of S.
(2) If a, b ker then (a) = (b) = 0. Hence (a b) = (a) (b) =
0, (ab) = (a)(b) = 0, so ker is a subring of R. To see that it is an ideal,
let r R, ker then (r) = (r)() = (r) 0 = 0, hence r ker .
Similarly r ker , so ker is an ideal.
The following theorem is the analog of the first isomorphism theorem of groups.
Theorem 2.2.16 (1st isomorphism theorem). (1) If : R T is an onto homomorphism then
R/ ker
= T.
(2) If is the canonical homomorphism from R to R/ ker then there exists an
isomorphism : R/ ker T , such that = .
Proof. Exercise.
If : R T is an onto homomorphism, then we have a one-to-one correspondence between subrings of T and subrings of R which contain ker , with ideals
corresponding to ideals.
53
Example 2.2.17. Let R = Z[x], I = {p(x) Z[x]; each term of p(x) has degree 2}
{0}, i.e. p(x) I has no constant term and has no x term. Then I is an ideal
since the product of p(x) I and any q Z[x],
(a2 x2 + + an xn )(b0 + bx + + bxm ) = b0 a2 x2 + + an bm xn+m
has no constant term and has no x-term, hence p(x)q(x) I. Two polynomials
p, q are in the same subset p(x) q(x) I, i.e. they differ by a polynomial of
degree at least 2, e.g. 1 + 3x x4 , 1 + 3x x5 are in the same coset.
A complete set of representatives of R/I are given by polynomials of degree at most
1, i.e. {a + bx; a, b Z} = R/I, for example 1 + 3x x4 = 1 + 3x = 1 + 3x x5 .
Addition and multiplication in the quotient are performed by representatives. e.g.
(1 + 3x) + (2 + 5x) = 3 + 8x, (1 + 3x)(2 + 5x) = (2 + 11x + 15x2 ) = 2 + 11x.
Since 15x2 = 0, i.e. 15x2 I = eR/I .
Note in R/I we have zero-divisors for example xx = x2 = 0 even though x = 0,
even though R has no zero-divisors. This example shows that the structure of the
quotient ring may seem worse than the original ring.
This is also the case for
Example 2.2.18. Z, 8Z is an ideal of Z. Z/8Z
= Z8 , Z8 has zero-divisors, Z does
not, but
Example 2.2.19. I = {0, 3} Z6 is an ideal of Z6 , Z6 /I has 3 elements
0 + I = {0, 3}, 1 + I = {1, 4}, 2 + I = {2, 5},
Z6 /I
= Z3
m 7 m = m mod n.
54
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
n
X
ai gi 7
i=1
n
X
ai ,
i=1
2.3
55
Properties of ideals
(2) RA denotes the set of finite terms of elements of the form ra, with r R, a
A
RA = {r1 a1 + + rn an ; ri R, ai A, n Z+ }.
Similarly for AR.
RAR = {r1 a1 s1 + + rn an sn ; ri , si R, ai A, n Z+ }.
(3) (a) denotes the ideal generated by a single element and is called the principal
ideal (generated by a).
(4) An ideal generated by a finite set is called finitely generated.
If R is commutative then RA = AR = RAR = (A) and (a) = {ra; r R}. In
a commutative ring, principal ideals is a particularly easy way of forming ideals.
Similar to generating cyclic subgroups of a group. Note for b R, b (a) iff
b = ra for some r R, i.e. b (a) iff b is a multiple of a or iff a devides b
(i.e. divide is to contain). Note also b (a) iff (b) (a).
Commutative rings in which all ideals are principal are among the easiest to study
and have arithmetic properties similar to Z.
Definition 2.3.2. An integral domain with the property that every ideal is principal is called a principal ideal domain (PID).
Example 2.3.3. Z is a principal ideal domain, since every ideal in Z is of the
form nZ for some n.
We have observed that for a ring R and an ideal I the structure of R/I can be
better or worse than that of R.
Example 2.3.4. (a) Z has no zero-divisors, Z/6Z has zero-divisors.
(b) I = {0, 3} Z6 ,
Z6 /I
= Z3 has no zero-divisors.
56
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
Given R a ring, I an ideal we can sensibly ask which properties of R translate into
R/I?
For example if a R, when is I + a a zero-divisor in R/I? I + a is a zerodivisor iff there exists I + b R/I such that I + b 6= 0R/I = I + 0 and either
(I + a)(I + b) = I or (I + b)(I + a) = I. Hence I + a is a zero-divisor iff there
exists b
/ I such that either ab I or ba I. I + a is a (non-zero) zero-divisor in
R/I iff a
/ I and there exists b
/ I such that ab I or ba I.
Example 2.3.5. 2
/ 6Z, 3
/ 6Z but 6 6Z, hence 2 + 6Z is a zero-divisor in
Z/6Z.
To rule out zero-divisors in R/I the condition we need on I is
Definition 2.3.6. Let R be a ring, I an ideal. Then I is called prime if whenever
a, b R and ab I, then at least one of a or b is in I.
Example 2.3.7. p is prime in Z. Then pZ = (p) is a prime ideal because ab (p)
iff p | ab iff p | a or p | b.
Theorem 2.3.8. R/I has no zero-divisors iff I is a prime ideal.
Proof. Clear from the discussion above.
Corollary 2.3.9. If R is a ring with 1, I an ideal in R. Then R/I is an integral
domain iff I is a (proper) prime ideal.
Natural question: When is R/I a field? Let R be a ring with 1. R/I is a field
iff it is non trivial and each of its non-zero elements is a unit. R/I is nontrivial iff
I is a proper ideal.
Every non-zero element of R/I is a unit iff for all a R\I,there exists b R such
that
(I + a)(I + b) = I + 1
iff
()
a
/ I b R such that ab 1 I.
57
58
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
59
2.4
Rings of fractions
60
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
a c
ac
= .
b d
bd
bd
0
d
=
= = 0 in Q,
1
b
b
2.5. POLYNOMIALS
61
homomorphism such that (d) is a unit in S for all d D. Then there existis
an injective homomorphism : Q S such that R = . In other words, any
ring containing an isomorphism copy of R in which all elements of D become units
must also contain an isomorphism copy of Q.
Proof. Let Q = {(r, d); r R, d D} and : (r, d) (s, e) re = sd. Then
(r, d) = {(a, b); a R, b D and rb = ad}.
ad + bc a c
ac
a c
+ =
,
= .
b d
bd
b d
bd
Show
1) These operations are well-defined.
2) Q is an abelian group under addition. Additive identity is
inverse of ad is ad .
3) Multiplication is associative, distributive and commutative.
4) Q has an identity (= dd for any d D).
0
d
for all d D,
Definition 2.4.2. The ring Q is called the ring of fractions of D with respect to
R and is denoted by D1 R. If R is an integral domain and D = R\{0} then Q is
called field of fractions or quotient field of R.
Example 2.4.3. (1) If R is a field, its ring of fractions is R.
(2) The ring of fractions of Z is Q.
(3) 2Z also has no zero-divisors (no identity), its field of fractions is also Q.
(4) Let R be an integral domain. R[x] is also an integral domain and its field of
fractions is the field of rational functions in x, R[x].
2.5
Polynomials
Let R be a ring, then R[x] denotes the ring of polynomials in x with coefficients
in R. Weve seen that
Proposition 2.5.1.
Let R be an integral domain, p(x), q(x) R[x], then
1) deg p(x)q(x) = deg p(x) + deg q(x) ,
2) units of R[x] are the units of R,
3) R[x] is an integral domain.
The property being an integral domain is clearly passed from R to R[x]. One
property that will obviously not be passed on is that of being a field. If F is a
field, then F [x] is not a field. Clearly x is not a unit in F [x]. It is still reasonable
to expect that assuming F to be a field will have some beneficial impact on F [x].
62
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
Theorem 2.5.2. Let F be a field and f (x), g(x) F [x]. If g(x) 6= 0 then there
exist q(x), r(x) F [x] such that
f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)
and either f (x) = 0 or deg(r) < deg(g). (Division algorithm for F [x].)
Proof. If f (x) = 0 or if f (x) 6= 0 and deg(f ) < deg(g) we write f (x) = 0g(x)+f (x)
and we are done.
We proceed induction on deg(f ). If deg(f ) = 0 then we are done by above unless
deg(g) = 0. In this case both f, g are constant polynomials, f (x) = a0 , g(x) = b0
and then
f (x) = (a0 b1
0 )g(x) + 0.
Note b1
0 exists because F is a field and b0 6= 0. Assume the result has been proved
for deg(f ) < n and suppose
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn , g(x) = b0 + b1 x + + bm xm , an , bm 6= 0.
If n < m we are done by the beginning of the proof. If n m we write
nm
f (x) = an b1
g(x) + h(x)
m x
2.5. POLYNOMIALS
63
64
2.5.1
CHAPTER 2. RINGS
Irreducible polynomials
Q,
(m,
n)
=
1
and
= 2 then m2 = 2n2 , hence we have
n
n
2 | 2n2 2 | m2 2 | m 4 | m2 4 | 2n2
2 | n2 2 | n, but (m, n) = 1,
and hence we have the contradiction.
Theorem 2.5.10. Let F be a field, f (x) a non-constant polynomial in F [x]. Then
there exist irreducible polynomials f1 (x), . . . , fk (x) F [x] such that
f (x) = f1 (x) . . . fk (x).
Proof. Use induction on deg(f ). If deg(f ) = 1 then f (x) itself is irreducible and
were done. Suppose deg(f ) = n, and the theorem is proved for all polynomials
of degree less than n. If f (x) is irreducible we are done. Otherwise we can write
f (x) = g(x)h(x), where g, h have degree at least 1; hence each have degree strictly
less than n. So by inductive hypothesis we can factor g(x) and h(x) into irreducible
factors. This yields the desired factorization.
If f has degree 2 or 3, f F [x], F a field, then f is reducible in F [x] f (x) has a
root in F . Note this is not true for deg(f ) > 3. For example (x2 +1)(x2 +1) R[x]
is clearly reducible but has no root in R. There are special techniques that can be
used in case of checking irreducibility in Q[x]. In fact we can confine our attention
to polynomials with integer coefficients. Since if
a0 a1
an
f (x) =
+ x + + xn Q[x],
b0
b1
bn
then the irreducibility of f (x) is equivalent to the irreducibility of g(x) where
g(x) Z[x] obtained from f (x) by multiplying f (x) by b0 b1 . . . bn . We have
2.5. POLYNOMIALS
65
Lemma 2.5.11. Let f (x) Z[x]. If f (x) can be written as the product of two
non-constant polynomials in Q[x] then f (x) can be written as the product of two
non-constant polynomials in Z[x].
To prove this lemma we first define
Definition 2.5.12. The content of a non-zero polynomial in Z[x] is the greatest
common divisor of its coefficients. A polynomial is called primitive if its content
is 1.
The essential fact about those concepts is
Lemma 2.5.13 (Gauss lemma). The product of two primitive polynomials is
primitive.
Proof. Exercise.
Proof of lemma 2.5.11. Exercise too!