WEBINAR INDEX

2003 - 2011 WELLOG

Revised 09-05-2011
All Rights Reserved

Part I:

Geophysical Considerations

Rock types
Reservoir characteristics
Primary Porosity
Secondary Porosity
Permeability
Saturation

The Borehole

The Borehole environment

Hydrostatic pressure
Water loss of mud
Differential pressure
Time
Porosity
Permeability
Symbols

Well log Format

Log Heading
API Log Grid
Tracks
Columns
Depth Scales
Grid Scales

Well Evaluation

The base log

Correlation

Lithology

Spontaneous Potential
Gamma Ray
Shale Volume

Resistivity Logging

Resistivity concepts
Resistivity Tools

Jump to Part II

Jump to Part III

Jump to Part IV

Geophysical Considerations

ROCK TYPES:
A thorough understanding of reservoir characteristics is an important part of
evaluating oil, gas or water bearing formations. This understanding makes it
possible to understand how geophysical measurements made by the many
types of logging tools are related to reservoir parameters. What type of rock
is a reservoir rock and what type is not? How do we quantify the value of a
reservoir rock and the three important primary rock parameters; porosity,
permeability and water saturation?

RESERVOIR ROCKS:
Igneous rocks are volcanic in origin and rarely contain oil, gas or water.
Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary rocks that have been recompressed thru
a combination of extreme heat and pressure into solid rock material.
Metamorphic rocks are not a favorable reservoir rock.
Sedimentary rocks are formed thru erosion of igneous and metamorphic
rocks or thru organic deposition. Most reservoir rocks are sedimentary in
origin.
The three general sedimentary rock types of importance are Sandstone,
Limestone and Dolomite.
Clastic sediments are composed of broken and worn particles of pre-existing
minerals, rocks and shells. These sediments are transported and eventually
deposited in successive layers.
Non-clastic (carbonates) are characteristically Limestone or Dolomite. The
rock matrix is generally composed of once living organisms found in sea
water. Fossil remains of this sea life are found in the rock matrix.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS:
Complete analysis of a reservoir requires three pieces of data: porosity,
permeability and saturation.
Porosity is the capacity of a formation to contain fluids. By definition, porosity
is the percent of void volume divided by the total volume.
The symbol for porosity is the Greek symbol .
Porosity () = void volume / total volume
PRIMARY POROSITY:

Primary porosity results from the void space between inter-granular rock
fragments and particle grains after their accumulation as sediments. The
theoretical maximum porosity based on spherical sand grains stacked on top
of each-other is 46.7 percent. Primary porosity is a function of the
depositional environment, compaction, and cementation.
SECONDARY POROSITY:
Secondary porosity results from leaching of sediments or other actions that
remove material and form fractures, channels, caverns or vugs in a
formation. Carbonate rocks are frequently found to contain secondary
porosity in the form of vugs, solution cavities or channels.
In general, porosity decreases with depth. As depth increases, the increasing
pressure causes compaction. The older more cemented formations exhibit
lower porosity. A shallow, younger formation may have a porosity of 25
percent and an older deeper formation may have less than 10 percent
porosity.

PERMEABILITY:

Permeability defines the ability of a reservoir to allow flow or passage of

fluids.

The symbol for permeability is the letter (K).

Permeability is measured in darcies, a numerical expression named after the

French Engineer Henry d Arcy, who in 1865 devised a method for
quantifying permeability. Most producing reservoirs have permeabilities less
than 1 darcy. Permeability of rocks is measured in millidarcies (md).
Permeability may vary from 5000 md for an unconsolidated sand to .1 md for
some carbonates.

Permeability is one darcy when 1 sq. cm of rock releases 1 cc of fluid of unit

viscosity in 1 second under a pressure differential of one atmosphere/cm.

Determination of permeability using a chart

Porosity and permeability of selected oil sands: (Note: actual values may
vary from those given here)

Sandstone formation:

Porosity:

Permeability:

Clinch, Lee County, VA

9.6

.9

Bartlesville, Anderson County, KS

17.5

25.0

Nugget, Fremont County, WY

24.9

147.5

Woodbine, Tyler County, TX

22.1

3390.0

The rule of thumb for classifying permeability:

Excellent:
Very good:
Good:

> 1000 md
250 1000 md
50 250 md

Moderate

15 50 md

Poor to fair:

< 1 15 md

Permeability in reservoir rocks is directional property. Formations exhibit

both horizontal and vertical permeability. Horizontal permeability has the
greatest affect on production. The ratio of Kh to Kv is between 1.5 and 3.0
depending on deposition, grain type, size and shape.

Actual permeability can be measured by core analysis. The results depend

on the testing method used for determination of permeability. Gas and fluid
permeability are two different values. Core samples having permeability
measured under surface conditions without the pressure of overburden are

more willing to liberate fluids. The result is permeability that is optimistic

by 25 % to 1000 %.

Permeability, a primary rock parameter, can be indicated by but not

measured directly with logging tools which measure secondary rock
parameters like resistivity and porosity.

Permeability of sandstone and shaly sands chart

Go to our page on permeability for complete permeability interpretation.

SATURATION:

The fluid saturation of a rock is the ratio of the volume of fluid filled porosity
to the total porosity. Fluid saturations are expressed as a percent of total
pore volume. For example, a water saturation of 20 percent means that 20
percent of the pore volume is water filled. In a hydrocarbon reservoir, other
fluids usually hydrocarbons fill the remaining pore space.

Due to differences in specific gravity, fluids having lower specific gravity

become segregated in ascending layers in a reservoir. Gas will move upward
until it reaches a layer of rock that is impermeable. A formation layer of this
type is referred to as a trap. Oil will occur below the layer of gas and water
will be in a layer below the oil.

Some of the oil cannot be produced. The non-producible oil is referred to as

RESIDUAL or IRREDUCIBLE saturation. Residual hydrocarbons may be
producible using secondary recovery techniques including the use of steam
or chemicals or other methods.

The portion of pore space that does not contain formation water is assumed
to contain hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons are in the form of oil or gas.

Hydrocarbon saturation (Sh) = 1 Water Saturation (Sw)

The Borehole

THE BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT:

The borehole environment begins with the fluid within the borehole which is
usually drilling mud but can be air or water. The resistivity of the borehole
fluid is referred to as Rm.

As the borehole fluid is forced into the surrounding formation, a mud cake
having resistivity (Rmc) and thickness (hmc) is formed on the wall of the
borehole.
Fluid from the borehole that enters into the immediate surrounding rock
formation and which flushes that part of the formation has resistivity (Rxo)

and also is called mud filtrate (Rmf) resulting in saturation of the flushed
zone (Sxo).
Continuing outward from the borehole, the invaded zone having resistivity
(Ri) and (Rz) is saturated with water and is defined as (Swi).
Beyond the invaded zone is a zone that is not invaded by borehole fluid. This
zone is called the uninvaded zone. The uninvaded zone contains fluid (water)
having resistivity (Rw) and total resistivity (Rt) with water saturation (Sw).
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE:
Hydrostatic pressure is a measure of the pressure at any given point in a
well. The pressure is a function of the weight of the fluid in the well and the
depth. Water has a weight of approximately .4 lbs. PSI per foot.
A water filled well would have a pressure of 400 PSI at 1000 feet. Drilling
fluid may have heavy chemicals added to increase the hydrostatic pressure.
If the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the pressure exerted by the
surrounding formations then positive hydrostatic pressure occurs. When a
well is drilled using rotary drilling methods, it is customary to maintain the
weight of the drilling fluid at a weight that gives positive hydrostatic
pressure.
The advantage of positive hydrostatic pressure is that the formation fluids do
not escape. It is also an advantage that the pressure is greater in the well
that fluid flows from the well into the surrounding formation. As fluid flows
into a formation, a mud cake is formed on the sides of the well.
WATER LOSS OF MUD:
A well having positive hydrostatic pressure will have water loss as water
within the well invades into the surrounding formations. The higher the water
loss, the deeper the invasion will be.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE:
Invasion is a function of Differential Pressure. As the Differential Pressure
increases, the amount of invasion also increases. Drilling fluids are designed
to minimize water loss thru the process of creating a mud cake that limits
invasion of fluids into the formation.
TIME:
The length of time that a formation is exposed to the forces of a mud column
in a well also affects the amount of invasion. It is important to know that the
longer a formation is exposed to invasion, the deeper the invasion.
POROSITY:

Under given conditions, a formation having greater porosity will invade LESS
deeply than a formation having lower porosity.
PERMEABILITY:
Normally, the permeability of the mud cake is low and it controls the amount
of invasion. When a formation is highly permeable, it may have greater
control over the amount of invasion than the mud cake. It is interesting to
note in a given well, the differences in filtrate invasion and resulting
thickness of mud cake from one formation to another.
BOREHOLE TEMPERATURE:
Borehole temperature increases from a surface average temperature (Tsurf)
to a maximum borehole temperature (TTD) assumed to be at the termination
depth or TD. This differential is usually measured in degrees per 1000 feet
and is referred to as geothermal temperature gradient.
Often times it is necessary to calculate the temperature at an intermediate
depth (Tf) in the well.
If the average surface temperature is 70 degrees F and the Temperature at
TD of 10000 feet is 170 degrees, What is the temperature at 3500 feet?
The temperature differential is 100 degrees over 10000 feet or 10 degrees F
per 1000 feet.
Tf = (TTD-Tsurf)/TD * Fd + TSurf)
Tf = (170 -70 )/10000 * 3500 + 70 = 105 degrees at 3500 feet.
Temperature versus depth is often obtained from a chart.

SYMBOLS:
A few symbols used in Well Drilling, Well logging, and Well Log Analysis: (this
is not a complete list)
d
hole
di =

diameter

=
diameter
Porosity
of

invasion

density
h = thickness of a formation bed
Delta T

of

the
=
t =

hmc = thickness of the mud cake

Ra = Apparent Resistivity
Ri = Resistivity of the invaded zone
Rm = Resistivity of the mud
Rmc = Resistivity of the mud cake
Rmf = Resistivity of the mud filtrate
Rt = True Formation Resistivity
Rw = Resistivity of the Water
Rwa = Apparent Water Resistivity
Rwe = Equivalent Water Resistivity
Rxo = Resistivity of the flushed zone
Sw = Water Saturation
Sxo = Water saturation of the flushed zone
F

= Formation factor

= Cementation factor

= Saturation exponent

Well Log Formats

A well log is a permanent record of the geophysical information measured at

the time the log was performed.
It is important to future analysis that the heading information be complete
and thorough.
The log heading should contain all of the information that is necessary to
analyze the log traces. Because auxiliary documents are frequently
unavailable to other users of the log, all of the critical information concerning
the log should be on the final log heading.
The header information should also be included in the same computer file as
the log data!
If information is not available or not applicable it should be noted on the
heading!

The following information should be included:

Background well information: Owner of well and address. Location of well;

date; logging contractor and address; Logging operator; drilling contractor
and address; client and address; observer and address; elevation of top
casing and distance above ground; and drilling history, methods etc.

Borehole conditions: Casing description; description of log depth datum;

elevation of log depth datum; type of drilling fluid; resistivity and
temperature of borehole fluid; depth of origin of borehole fluid samples; fluid
level; time since last circulation; bottom hole temperature; and problems and
unusual conditions.

Equipment data and logging parameters: Description of probe reference

point; model and manufacturer of logging tools; logging company tool
number; date and type of last calibration; date, type, and response of field
standardization; top and bottom of logged interval; logging speed and
direction; vertical depth error after logging; time constant or the time
interval of digital samples; identification of the disk containing digitized logs;
and equipment problems.

Specific information for nuclear logging probes: source description, initial

source strength and date determined; source to detector or receiver spacing;
detector description; and data filtering or enhancement parameters.

Specific information for acoustic and electric logging probes: Source or

transmitter description and signal output; source or transmitter to detector
or receiver spacing; detector or receiver description; and data filtering or
enhancement parameters.
(Reference: ASTM)
API LOG GRID:
Well logs are graphic representations of tool response with reference to
depth. On occasion a log is made at a fixed depth (station) with reference to
time. As a log Analyst, it is important to properly interpret the graphically
indicated numeric response from the log.

The API Log Grid is the standard format used for recording Well Logging
measurements.
Other
formats
that
may
at http://www.rockware.com .

be

acceptable

can

be

seen

TRACKS:
The log is organized into three tracks in the following format:
From left to right;
A single track (on the left) (track 1), a depth track, and two tracks called
track 2 and track 3. Each track is 2.5 inches wide. The depth track is .75
inches wide. Each track is divided or scaled.
COLUMNS:
Tracks appear as columns. Each track may contain one or more curves
representing the logged data at a given depth.
DEPTH SCALES:
The Depth scale is established in terms of inches of log per 100 feet of well.
Standard scales are:
1 inch per 100 feet

called 1 inch

2 inches per 100 feet -

called 2 inch

5 inches per 100 feet -

called 5 inch

GRID SCALES:
The divisions within a track are referred to as the grid scale.
Three types of grid scales are available; Linear, Logarithmic, and Split Grid.
Data that is linear in nature is recorded on a linear scale. For example
porosity on a scale from 0 to 40 percent across 10 linear divisions provides 4
percent porosity per division.
Data that needs a larger dynamic scale for example resistivity, may be
indicated on a logarithmic scale. A typical logarithmic scale may be two cycle
meaning the scale is from 1 to 10 to 100 ohm-meters or it might be on a four

cycle scale .2 to 2.0 to 20.0 to 200 to 2000 ohm-meters depending on the

desired ranges.
LOG ASCII FILES:
Digital logging systems record logs in a text file using a format called log
ASCII, abbreviated LAS. These text files use a .las extension. You may learn
more about LAS format at the Canadian Well Logging Society web
site www.cwls.org .

Most oil producing states in the United States have websites that contain LAS
files on wells drilled in that state.
Later in this webinar, log interpretation including import to Microsoft Excel
spreadsheets. Charting is performed on LAS files.

Well Evaluation an Overview

WELL EVALUATION:
The reason for running a Well Log is to help locate an Oil or Gas bearing
formation. Other reasons may be related to defining bed thickness of Coal or
other minerals and defining aquifers for production of water.
In order to analyze a formation, three types of logs are available. The types
are; Lithology, Resistivity, and Porosity. Each will be discussed in detail in
subsequent parts of this webinar.
When a well logging unit arrives on location, a geologist or engineer
approaches the evaluation task in the following manner:
The first step is to run a base log , normally a resistivity log, which is used
to correlate formations with previous logs ran in the local area. This base log
helps establish the structural position of the well.

Information from the base log that indicates lithology or formation type is
examined to determine which zones have sufficient porosity and
permeability to be of most interest for production. The resistivity anomalies
are then further evaluated.
No definite conclusions can be made at this point regarding the commercial
value of the well. Further information on porosity must be obtained in order
to make a quantitative evaluation.
Note: The porosity logs only respond to variation in porosity. Therefore
logging engineers are advised that the porosities calculated from tool
response may be subject to correction after further evaluation.
When Lithology, resistivity, and porosity logs are available then the analyst
has sufficient information to proceed with a numerical analysis of
porosity and saturation. This data combined with other geological
information provides the basis for determination of the commercial value of a
well.
WHAT ASTM says about Log Interpretation:
The American Society for Testing and Measurement is actively involved in
testing a measurement processes and setting acceptable standards.
ASTM, founded in 1898, is a developer and publisher of technical information
designed to promote the understanding and development of technology and
to ensure the quality of commodities and services and the safety of products.
WELLOG strongly recommends the following ASTM publication:
ASTM standards on Ground water and Vadose Zone investigations Drilling,
Sampling,
Geophysical
logging,
Well
Installation
and
Decommissioning. Stock #: Drill99

The website is http://www.astm.org

Quoting ASTM:
The full potential of a logging program cannot be realized until the logging
measurements are interpreted. Log interpretation should start at the time of
data acquisition and should continue as an iterative process through-out the
project.

Lithology Identification

LITHOLOGY IDENTIFICATION:
A logging tool that could measure lithology and produce a lithology Log
would be a valuable tool! When software is applied to multiple logs in a well
defined area, methods have been demonstrated that give lithological
representations.
One tool that is considered by many to measure lithology is the Photoelectric
Density tool. The measurement of bulk density when plotted with a

measurement of atomic cross-section comes very close to providing rock

type identification.
MINEROLOGY:
Lithology is associated with certain mineralogy. Sandstone is composed
largely of quartz minerals. Limestone formations are composed of calcite and
other related calcium minerals. Dolomite is another common type of
lithology.
Major physical differences in these mineral types allow analysts to identify
the mineralogy.
Mineral:

Density:

Cross-section:

Dolomite

2.850 gm/cc

4.78

Sandstone

2.655 gm/cc

8.66

Limestone

2.690 gm/cc

8.72

Anhydrite

2.950 gm/cc

Sigma matrix (x1021 Barns/cc)

12.30

Mineral densities Table 1

Mineral densities Table 2
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL:
One of the first logging measurements ever recorded, Spontaneous Potential,
or SP provides information that infers lithology. In addition, SP can infer
permeability. It is possible to perform Lithology identification using multiple
logs.
From Schlumberger, C. & M., (1934), Doll, H. G., (1948), Wyllie, M. R. J.,
(1949) (1951) & others
Spontaneous potential is a measurement of the natural voltage that is
created from current produced in the earth because of electrochemical
action. It is normally recorded in wells drilled with water.
Formations having permeability are invaded by mud filtrate from the drilling
mud. The result is electrochemical action that causes current flow in the
formation. Shale formations have very low or non-existent permeability and
therefore no current flow and low spontaneous potential.

The SP curve is recorded in track 1 (left-hand track) of the well log. The
intensity of the Spontaneous potential can be determined by charts using the
resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) and the Formation water resistivity (Rw).

SP is expressed as:
SP = -(60 + .133T) log10 (Rmf/Rw)
Where:
T = temperature
Rmf = Resistivity of the mud filtrate
Rw = resistivity of the formation water.
SSP = -(K) log10 (Rmfe/Rwe)
Where:
T = temperature
Rmfe = Resistivity of the mud filtrate effective.
Rwe = resistivity of the formation water effective.
Rmfe and Rwe are obtained from charts

EXERCISE 1:
Generate an MS excel spreadsheet with 4 columns. Calculate SP in the
4th column.
Use the following values:
Temp: Rmf:

Rw:

SP:

110

100

.5

110

100

.5

View a copy of an example spreadsheet (sp.xls).

Since SP is not a zero based curve, its deflection is measured from a shale
base line or predominant right most deflection.
Shale formations have little or no permeability. Sandstone, limestone and
dolomite do have some degree of permeability. The SP is useful in detecting
permeable beds, locating bed boundaries, determining water resistivity, and
as a shale indicator.
In formations containing hydrocarbons, SP is depressed because of the
reduction of conductive ions.
SP curves may be calibrated using a fixed voltage calibrator.
CORRECTION CHARTS:
Charts are used to predict SP from Rwe.

SP measurements can be corrected for bed thickness and Rm and Rs.

GAMMA RAY:
Clean sandstones and carbonates are low in gamma radiation. In contrast
formations containing shale are higher in gamma radiation.
Gamma radiation is statistical in nature because the radioactive decay of
radioisotopes is random.
Because radioactive isotopes tend to concentrate in shale or clay formations
and clean sandstone and carbonate formations are low in radioactive
isotopes, the Gamma ray tool may be used to infer lithology.
Gamma tools should be calibrated with a reference test source in order to
perform in a standardized manner.
Spontaneous Potential and Natural gamma ray curves are positioned in track
one of the log and indicate sandstone or carbonate formations when at the
extreme left of the scale and indicate shale or clay at the extreme right side
of the scale.
CORRECTION FOR SHALE:
Certain porosity logs require correction for shale volume (Vsh). Neutron
porosity is optimistic in shale. Acoustic porosity is optimistic in shale. When
shale is present, effective porosity, (phi subscript e), can be used to more
accurately determine water saturation (Sw) .
Using information from the natural gamma log;
Shale Volume = Vsh = (Gr Grcs) / (Grsh Grcs)
Where:
Gr = Gamma ray counts in the zone of interest
Grcs = Gamma ray counts in a clean sand
Grsh = Gamma ray counts in a shale zone
Using information from the SP log;
Shale Volume = Vsh = (sp spcs) / spsh spcs)
Where:
SP = SP in zone of interest
Spcs = sp in clean sand
Spsh = sp in shale zone

Which shale volume equation should be used?

Use SP for shale volume calculation for instances of high Rmf/Rw.
Use Gamma ray for shale volume calculation for instances of low Rmf/Rw.

Resistivity Logging
RESISTIVITY CONCEPTS:
Resistivity can be defined as the degree to which a substance resists the flow
of electric current.

Resistance from Ohms Law relates to current and voltage as follows:

R = V/I
Where:

R = Resistance
V = Voltage
I = Current

The most simple galvanic measurement is Resistance. A Resistance log is

performed by connecting one electrode to the surface (ground) and another
electrode to a downhole tool that is immersed in borehole fluid. Applying a
constant current and measuring voltage allows calculation of resistance. This
type of log is called a single-point resistance log. If both electrodes are
placed on the tool then a differential resistance log is produced.

Multiple-electrode arrays extend the depth of investigation. A better

representation of True Formation resistivity (Rt) is obtained. Formation
Resistivity can be measured when four electrodes are used. Two electrodes
one on the surface and one down-hole on the tool are used to generate an
electrical current in the formations in and around the electrodes. The surface
electrode is referred to as B and the down-hole electrode as A. The voltage
measured between two points referred to and M and N is then calculated as
follows:

VMN = R x I/4p x ((1/rAM-1/rAN)-(1/rBM-1/rBN))

View of resistivity model.

The Resistivity (R) (in a homogenous medium) is determined by:

R=V/IxG

The apparent Resistivity (ra) (in a heterogeneous medium) is determined by:

ra = V / I x G

Where:

G = Geometric array factor

V = Voltage
I = Current

Note about symbology:

The greek symbol (r) is commonly used in geophysics and (R) is used in the
well logging industry for Resistivity.

The meaning is the same in both cases.

Calculation of Geometric Factor (G):

Normal array:

G = 4 x p x (1/rAM 1/rAN 1/rBM + 1/rBN)

Simplified:

-1

G = 4 x p x MN

For example: 16 Normal; 16 = .4 meters; G = 12.56 x .4 = 5.02.

Where:
meters

MN = distance between MN electrodes in meters for ohm-

Or

MN = distance between MN electrodes in feet for ohm-feet

Lateral array:

G = 4 p x (1/rAM 1/rAN) -1

Resistivity is a physical property and is independent of size and shape.

Resistivity, (R) is expressed in units of ohm-meter 2 / meter abbreviated

ohm-meters or ohms.

Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.

Conductivity = 1 / R

Conductivity is frequently expressed in units of micro-mhos/cm.

Conductivity in micro-mhos/cm = 10000/R

Where Resistivity (R) is in units of ohms meter2 / meter (also ohm-meters).

Also, conductivity is expressed in units of milli-mhos per meter or

simply milli-mhos. Another unit is milli-siemens.

Visit this web page for more information on the units of siemens and mhos.

Conduction in liquids is controlled by ion flow. Ions are created when sodium
chloride (or NaCl equivalent i.e. Potassium) are present in drilling and
formation waters. The higher the sodium chloride concentration the higher
the conductivity and lower the resistivity. Ion flow is controlled by fluid
viscosity and therefore temperature affects the flow of ions and
conductivity. Resistivity is affected by temperature. As temperature
increases, conductivity increases and resistivity decreases.

Determination of Rw:

This step is often overlooked! Heres a couple of rules

Before any interpretation of resistivity data can take place, Rw must be

known.

As mentioned previously, the value of Rw is affected by temperature. If a

water sample is taken and Rw is measured, it is equally important to

Note the temperature of the water sample!

Determination of Rw from SP:

Resistivity of formation water is related to the SP curve.

Rw may be obtained from a chart.

Geothermal gradient:

Geothermal gradient is a measure of temperature increase with depth.

Geothermal gradients are normally 1.0 to 1.7 degrees per 100 feet. For
example: If a well has a surface temperature of 75 degrees F and bottom
hole temperature is 175 degrees F at a depth of 10,000 feet, the geothermal
gradient is 1.0 degrees per 100 feet.

Evaluation of a formation using Rw should always be performed using a

corrected Rw at formation temperature.

Rw @ temperature should be documented on the log heading.

A FREE CALCULATOR:

When interpretation is performed on resistivity IT MUST BE AT IN-SITU

TEMPERATURE. For example: given Rw at 70 degrees F. What is Rw in the
well at 200 degrees F? Heres a Resistivity at T2 calculator.

Resistivity related to porosity:

The amount of water contained in a formation is directly related to porosity.

Porosity therefore affects formation resistivity. As the volume of water
increases, the capacity for ions increases. More ions mean more conductivity.
Conductivity and Resistivity are inversely related as previously mentioned.

Resistivity of a formation 100 percent water saturated (Ro) = Formation

resistivity factor (F) times Resistivity of the water (Rw).

Formation resistivity is affected by three factors: Salt Concentration,

Temperature, Pore volume (porosity).

Formation Resistivity Factor is a proportionality constant based on the ratio

of Ro to Rw.

The equation is:

equation.

F = Ro/Rw

Known as the Archie

Ro is resistivity of a 100 percent water filled formation and Rw is resistivity of

the water.

Given Rw = .05,

If Ro = 5.0 then F = 100

If Ro = 1.25 then F = 25

If Ro = .55 then F = 11

Formation resistivity Factor (F) is related to Porosity (f) as follows:

F = a / fm

The variables (a) and (m) are related to lithology. Cementation factor (m) in a
cemented sandstone or a porous limestone is 2.0 and (a) is equal to 1.0.

Resulting in the equation:

F = 1 / f2
Calculation of Formation factor from porosity:

Porosity of 10 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 100

Porosity of 20 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 25

Porosity of 30 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 11

Notice these three Formation Resistivity factors are the same as calculated
with F = Ro/Rw above.

RESISTIVITY TOOLS:

Water saturation and hydrocarbon saturation affect formation resistivity. The

measurement of resistivity is therefore one of the most important
measurements to be made in logging a well. A resistivity tool is most useful if
it measures two or more characteristics of formation resistivity. Resistivity
measurements combined with porosity measurements and estimations of
permeability allow a complete analysis of a well to be performed.

ELECTRIC LOG (E-LOG):

The Electric Logging tool was originally introduced by Conrad and Marcel
Schlumberger in 1927 in Pechelbronn France.

[First Log] [E-log page]

Mono-electrode configuration.

The concept of operation of the electric logging tool is as follows:

When two electrodes are placed in a oil or water filled well and voltage is
applied to them, a current will flow through the well fluid and formation
fluids. If additional electrodes are placed in the vicinity of the current
producing electrodes, a voltage can be measured. The voltage measured is
directly related to the resistivity of the surrounding formation fluids. Electric
logging tools generate an alternating current and measure the resulting
alternating voltage at measurement electrodes. The depth of measurement
is directly related to the spacing or separation between electrodes. The
depth is approximately equal to of the distance from the measure
electrode and the midpoint between the two current electrodes.

Different electrode configurations yield different depths of investigation.

The normal electrode configuration is as follows:

One current electrode (A) on the tool down-hole and the other current
electrode (B) located at the surface. Measurement electrodes (M) are spaced
from the down-hole current electrode at 8 inches, 16 inches, 32 inches or 64
inches above the A electrode depending on tool design. The reference
electrode (N) is on the surface. The most common configuration is 16 inch
(short normal) and 64 inch (long normal) spacing. This configuration results
in a shallow resistivity and deep resistivity measurement.

The lateral configuration uses a current electrode (A) down-hole on the

upper part of the tool or on an electrode bridle and the other current
electrode (B) on the surface. Two lower electrodes (M) (N) measure the
lateral voltage which is representative of a much deeper formation resistivity.
Lateral measurements can be from 72 inches to 18 feet or more depending
on electrode spacing and tool design. See AMN Lateral configuration. Also a
configuration referred to as MAB electrode configuration.

The advantage of short spacing is better thin bed definition. The advantage
of longer spacing is a deeper measurement of true formation
resistivity. Comparison of deep and shallow resistivity give information about
invasion. If shallow and deep resistivity are the same, no invasion has
occurred. If there is separation, the most probable reason is that invasion
has occurred causing the shallow (invaded) and deep water resistivities to
differ.

The electric logging tool requires a fluid filled borehole in order to have a
complete electrical path.

CONSIDERATIONS:

All logging methods have limitations to consider.

Bed thickness effect: The curves produced by the normal devices are
affected by bed thickness and resistivity (Lynch 1962).

View a chart for bed thickness correction for 16 normal.

View a chart for bed thickness correction for 64 normal.

Formation transitions:

Where the resistive bed is more than 6 AM spacings thick, logging up hole,
there is a gradual increase in resistivity until the M electrode on the sonde
enters the bottom of the bed. This level of resistivity is maintained until the A
electrode enters the bed. As the sonde continues there is a gradual increase
in resistivity until the midpoint of the bed is reached. Thereafter a gradual
reduction occurs in resistivity, which is symmetrical with the curve below the
midpoint of the bed, until the sonde passes out of the bed. The recorded
resistivity approaches but does not fully equal the true resistivity of the bed.
The bed also appears to be 1 AM spacing thinner than it actually is, the
major resistivity deflections occurring AM above the bed bottom and AM
spacing below the bed top. As the bed thickness decreases, the resistivity
peak at the center decreases in amplitude. Further thinning to AM or less
than AM causes the resistivity deflection to disappear entirely, and the curve
actually reverses. The resistive bed now appears to be more conductive than
the surrounding formations.

Although the radius of investigation increases as the electrode spacing

increases, the use of AM spacing greater than 64 inches is not practical
because thinner beds are not only shown at less than true resistivity but may
be recorded as conductive beds if their thickness is less than or equal to the
AM spacing. Focused resistivity tools overcome this limitation.

INVERSION METHODS:

Recently, software has been developed for improving resistivity log

interpretation. Old logs and new are being subjected to inversion processing
that removes the effect of surrounding formations. These techniques will
make electrical resistivity a more accurate viable logging method well into
the future.
INDUCTION LOG:

Induction tools operate on the concept of electromagnetic induction. A

transmitter coil is energized at a frequency of 20,000 cycles per second (20
KHz). The electromagnetic field is coupled through the surrounding
formations. Variation in formation fluid resistivity causes phase shifting of the
transmitted signal. The formation produces a secondary electromagnetic
field. A receiver coil having a fixed spacing receives the transmitter signal
and the phase shifted secondary signal related to conductivity is converted
into resistivity. Depth of investigation is directly related to coil spacing. The
induction resistivity tool does not require conductive fluid in the borehole
because it uses electromagnetism.

The induction tool will not operate in steel casing.

DUAL INDUCTION LOG:

Because depth of investigation is related to coil spacing, the Dual Induction

tool was developed in order to get two depths of investigation. The Dual
Induction tool has one or more transmitter coils and two receiver coils at two
fixed positions from the transmitter. Focusing is performed thru the addition
of other coils. Focusing of the electromagnetic field reduces the effect of
borehole signal.

Invasion profiles are obtained from charts available from the logging service
company.

GUARD LOG:

In wells containing highly conductive drilling fluids, guard tools are

used. A focused guard tool offers the function of having a focused current
path into the formation. Electrodes surrounding the current electrode are
used to focus the tool current outward into the surrounding formation and
not allow the current to travel through the conductive borehole fluid.

Proper interpretation of focused logging tool measurements involve use of

correction charts.

OTHER RESISTIVITY TOOLS:

Many specialized varieties of resistivity tools are available. Microresistivity [Wall] devices, for example, micro-log, mini-log, FoRxo, Contact
and others that measure resistivity of the borehole mud cake and flushed
zone. One such tool has a depth of investigation of 2 inches for example.

Micro-resistivity provides a measurement of Rxo and Rmf. This information is

valuable for the purpose of determination of permeability. Permeability is
established by calculation of the saturation of the flushed zone (Sxo).

Sxo = (Rmf/Rxo)1/2

Determine porosity from micro resistivity using this chart.

Recently added Electric and Induction tools can perform a synthetic aperture
measuring at a great many different depths into the surrounding formation.

Such tools give a more precise profile of resistivities surrounding the

borehole.