Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Session: 2010-2014
Project Advisors
Prof. Dr. Syed Nadir Hussain
Project Members
Zain Ul Abidin
CE-M10-02
Ahmed Javed
PG-M10-03
Umar Draz
CE-M10-24
Ali Hasnain
CE-M10-47
Signatures
Date
Signature
Date
Director:
Prof. Dr. Amir Ijaz,
Institute of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Faculty of Engineering &
Technology, University of the Punjab.
Signature
Date
DEDICATION
To Almighty Allah; for His daily blessings, make all
our work possible.
To our Parents; who are full of sympathy and
everlasting love.
To Prof. Engr. Dr. Syed Nadir Hussain ; for his
fatherly behavior and inspiring guidance.
To our dearest homeland, Pakistan.
ABSTRACT
Light Ends are the valuable products of a Petroleum refinery, their utilization as
a refinery fuel is not an effective solution; considering economic, product slate
and environmental factors. Alkylated Gasoline is one of the most promising
additions to refinery's Gasoline pool, with its High Octane number and added
advantages of Lower sulfur, Lower RVP, Lower Drivability Index, No Aromatic
Contents.
The new environmental regulations are forcing refineries to adapt new
technologies to reduce the sulfur, aromatics contents while increasing the
products quality and reducing emissions for Gasoline. There are number of
ways by which these requirements can be met, and Alkylation is one of the
best method that a refinery can adopt, not only to meet new environmental
regulations, but also to increase the quality of Gasoline Pool by positively
affecting the Refinery economic end because of the utilization of the light ends,
that are converted to a more valuable Gasoline product.
The installation of Alkylation unit is quite feasible, as considerable amount of
Light ends can be obtained from petroleum refinery's number of processes, like
FCCU, Plat-forming Unit, Coker, Thermal Cracking, Gasoline Stabilization Unit
etc
The Alkylated Gasoline can be produced using different patented processes
available, depending on the type of catalyst or the technology offered by a
specific company. The properties of the Gasoline produced using these
processes depends on the type of feed available for the process, the relevant
processes taking place in refineries from which light ends are obtained, the
catalyst type used, the operating temperature & pressure conditions & several
other factors.
The H2SO4 Alkylation Process of Exxon Mobil with Auto-refrigeration
technology is used; all the calculations of Material & Energy are performed
with the designing of some important equipment as well. Consideration is
given to related factors for the safety of the environment and people working
and
residing
near
the
plant
area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I have only the pearls of my eyes to admire the blessings of the Compassionate
and Omnipotent because the words are bound, knowledge is limited and the
time is short to express HIS dignity. We are immeasurably grateful to Almighty
Allah, the Propitious, the Benevolent and Sovereign, who has endowed our
brain and instable instinct contraction of knowledge and body to accomplish
our work in the form of this dissertation, whose blessing and glory flourished
our thoughts, thrived our ambitions, granted us talented teachers, affectionate
parents, sweet sisters, loving brothers and exceptional friends.
Trembling lips and wet eyes praise for The Last Prophet Hazrat Muhammad
(PBUH) for enlightening our conscience with the essence of faith in ALMIGHT
ALLAH, enabling us to recognize the Oneness of our creator, and showed us
the right path for the success. Faithfulness in the performance of small duties
gives us strength to adhere to difficult determinations that life will someday
force us to make.
"The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr."
The work presented in this thesis was accomplished under the sympathetic
attitude, fatherly behavior, animate direction, observant pursuit, scholarly
criticism, sheering perspective and enlightened supervision of Prof. Dr. Engr.
Syed Nadir Hussain, Institute of chemical Engineering and Technology,
University of the Punjab for his thorough analysis and rigorous critique
improved not only the quality of this thesis, but also our overall understanding.
We are also very grateful to his ever inspiring guidance, keen interest, scholarly
comments and constructive suggestions during the course of our studies.
We appreciate his valuable comments and suggestions to make this work
complete. We deem it our utmost pleasure in expressing our cordial gratitude
with the strategic command at every step. His valuable suggestion will always
serve as beacon of light throughout the course of our studies.
We owe a great debt of gratitude to our worthy Director Prof. Dr. Amir Ijaz, for
his kind, loving positive thoughtful criticism, keen personal interest, sincere
advice, vital instructions throughout the course of our studies besides his very
busy schedule. We fervently extent my zealous thanks to him, also for creating
a healthy & beautiful environment.
NOMENCLATURE
SYMBOL
V
V
DESCRIPTION
UNIT
m3
m3
Cp
W/m2.oC
W/m2.oC
W/m2.oC
kg/m3
kJ/kmol.K
Bar
C
M
Mm
Mm
Mm
um
m/s
kg/s.m2
kg/h
Watt
m3.Pa/mol.C
m/s2
S
E
H
Ad
Ah
An
AT
Ada
(m2)
Df
(m)
diameter of tower
(m)
reflux ratio
Rm
relative volatility
UOP
HF
Hydrofluoric Acid
hi
hs
U
P
CP
AP
T
L
Do
Di
Dp
Dd
Ut
G
M
q
R
Nt
Re
g
(kg/sec)
(kJ/kgmol C)
(m2)
(m2)
(m2)
(m2)
Table of Contents
1.1 WHAT IS GASOLINE? ................................................................................. 24
1.2 BACKGROUND & USES .............................................................................. 24
1.3 OCTANE RATING ....................................................................................... 25
1.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE ........................................................ 26
1.5 WHAT IS ALKYLATION? ............................................................................. 26
1.6 HISTORY OF ALKYLATION .......................................................................... 27
1.7 ALKYLATION FEEDSTOCKS ......................................................................... 28
1.8 TYPES OF ALKYLATION PROCESSES ........................................................... 29
1.8.1
1.10.2
HF ALKYLATION ................................................................................... 32
1.11.2
1.11.3
1.11.4
1.11.5
1.11.6
1.11.7
MAINTENANCE .................................................................................... 38
2 CHAPTER # 2: ..................................................................................... 40
2.1 METHODS OF H2SO4 ALKYLATION MANUFACTURE ................................... 40
2.2 EFFLUENT REFRIGERATION ....................................................................... 40
2.2.1
CASCADE AUTOREFRIGERATION.......................................................... 41
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
3 CHAPTER # 3: ..................................................................................... 46
3.1 CAPACITY & BASIS .................................................................................... 46
3.2 EQUATION OF MATERIAL BALANCE .......................................................... 46
3.3 REACTOR (R-101) ...................................................................................... 47
3.3.1
MATERIAL IN ....................................................................................... 47
3.3.2
REACTIONS .......................................................................................... 48
3.3.3
MATERIAL IN ....................................................................................... 50
3.4.3
MATERIAL IN ....................................................................................... 52
3.5.3
MATERIAL IN ....................................................................................... 54
3.6.3
4 CHAPTER # 4: ..................................................................................... 57
4.1 ENERGY BALANCE EQUATION ................................................................... 57
4.2 HEAT OF REACTIONS................................................................................. 57
4.2.1
At 298K ............................................................................................... 57
4.2.2
REACTION 1 ......................................................................................... 57
4.2.3
REACTION 2 ......................................................................................... 57
4.2.4
REACTION 3 ......................................................................................... 58
4.2.5
4.3.1.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
Balance ............................................................................................... 63
4.5.3
63
4.5.4
kJ ......................................................................................................... 63
4.6.3
Balance: .............................................................................................. 63
4.10.1.2
4.11.2
4.11.2.1
4.11.3
Balance: .............................................................................................. 69
5 CHAPTER # 5: ..................................................................................... 70
5.1 HEAT EXCHANGER .................................................................................... 70
5.2 TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................................... 70
5.3 HEAT-TRANSFER FLUIDS ........................................................................... 70
5.4 HEAT-EXCHANGER EVALUATION AND SELECTION .................................... 71
5.5 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER ......................................................... 74
5.5.1
Tube diameter:.................................................................................... 74
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
Shell .................................................................................................... 75
5.6.2
Tubes .................................................................................................. 76
5.6.3
IMPINGEMENT PLATE.......................................................................... 78
5.8.3
5.8.4
5.8.5
5.9 BAFFLES 78
5.9.1
5.9.2
5.9.3
Segmental Baffles:............................................................................... 79
5.9.4
5.9.5
5.9.6
5.9.7
5.9.8
5.9.9
5.9.10
5.10.2
5.10.3
5.11.2
5.11.3
Unknowns: .......................................................................................... 86
5.11.4
5.11.5
Flowrate .............................................................................................. 86
5.11.6
5.12.2
5.17.2
5.17.3
5.17.4
Renould's # :........................................................................................ 90
5.17.5
Prandle # : ........................................................................................... 90
5.18.2
Linear Velocity..................................................................................... 91
12
5.18.3
Equivalent Diameter............................................................................ 91
5.18.4
5.18.5
5.20.2
6 CHAPTER # 6: ..................................................................................... 96
6.1 CHEMICAL REACTORS ............................................................................... 96
6.2 TYPES OF REACTORS ................................................................................. 96
6.3 SELECTION OF REACTOR ........................................................................... 96
6.4 WHY WE SELECTED CSTR? ........................................................................ 97
6.5 SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF THE CSTR................................................ 97
6.6 PFR (PLUG FLOW REACTOR) ..................................................................... 98
6.7 CSTR (CONTINUOUS STIRRED-TANK REACTOR) ........................................ 98
6.8 SELECTION OF IMPELLER .......................................................................... 100
6.8.1
6.19.1
6.19.2
6.20.2
6.20.3
7.10.2
7.10.3
7.10.4
7.11.2
14
7.11.3
7.11.4
7.11.5
7.11.6
7.12.2
7.12.3
7.13.2
7.13.3
7.13.4
7.13.5
7.13.6
7.14.2
7.14.3
8.2.2
15
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.5
8.6.2
8.6.3
8.6.4
8.7.2
129
Explosion: 129
8.8.1
8.8.2
130
8.11.1
8.11.2
8.12.2
8.14.2
8.14.3
8.14.4
8.15.2
8.16.2
8.16.3
8.16.4
8.17.2
8.17.3
8.17.4
8.19.2
8.19.3
8.20.2
8.20.3
8.20.4
8.21.2
8.21.3
8.21.4
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
9.5.5
9.5.6
10 141
11 CHAPTER # 10 .................................................................................... 142
11.2 Fixed Cost: ................................................................................................ 145
11.3 Annual Production Cost: ........................................................................... 146
11.4 Processing Cost / Liter: ............................................................................. 146
11.5 Profit per annum: ..................................................................................... 146
18
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
19
20
CHAPTER # 01:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHAT IS GASOLINE?
A volatile mixture of flammable liquid hydrocarbons
derived chiefly from crude petroleum and used principally as a fuel for
internal-combustion engines. Gasoline is a complex mixture of over 500
hydrocarbons that may have between 5 to 12 carbons. Smaller amounts of
alkane cyclic and aromatic compounds are present. Gasoline has a typical
boiling range from 100 to 400F (38 to 205C) as determined by the ASTM
method.
Alkylate gasoline is the product of the reaction of
isobutane with propylene, butylene, or pentylene to produce branched-chain
hydrocarbons in the gasoline boiling range. Alkylation of a given quantity of
olefins produces twice the volume of high octane motor fuel as can be
produced by polymerization. In addition, the blending octane (PON) of alkylate
is higher and the sensitivity (RON _ MON) is significantly lower than that of
polymer gasoline.
Gasoline
Chemical Formula
C4 to C12
Molecular Weight
100-105
0.720.78
Density, lb/gal @ 60 F
6-6.5
Boiling temperature, F
80-437
Heating values
>Lower (Btu/lb)
18,676
>Higher (Btu/lb)
20,004
Freezing point, F
-40
Viscosity, mm2/s
>@104 F
0.5-0.6
>@68 F
0.8-1.0
-45
0.4
1.7.1.1
Table 1: Olefins and isobutane production from
different units
LV %
Iso-Butane
Olefins
Hydro-cracker
FCC
15
Coker
15
Hydrotreater
Reformer
Isomerization
Crude Unit
0.5
1.9.1.1
Table 2: COMPARISON BETWEEN THERMAL
AND CATALYTIC ALKYLATION
THERMAL ALKYLATION
CATALYTIC ALKYLATION
It takes place at high temperature It takes place at much lower temperature
and pressure without the aid of pressure with the aid of catalyst.
catalyst.
It occurs with both normal and iso- It occurs with paraffins containing tertiary
paraffins.
carbon atom.
In this process, ethylene reacts more In this process, the higher molecular
readily than higher molecular weight weight olefins react more readily than
olefins.
ethylene.
Thermal alkylation is of little Catalytic process has economic advantage
importance in refinery operation.
with better selectivity and milder operating
conditions that make them preferred for
commercial processing.
The olefin is fed to the first reactor in the cascades, together with the recycled
acid and refrigerant. Recycled and make-up isobutanes are distributed to each
reactor. Evaporated gases are compressed and fed back to the reactor along
with the fresh olefin feed which is also cooled by this stream. The reactor
operates at a pressure of 90 kPa (10 psig) and at a temperature of 5 oC (40 oF)
for up to 40 min.
In the Stratco process, the reactor is operated at a higher pressure of 420 kPa
(60 psig), to prevent evaporation of hydrocarbon, and at a temperature of 10
o
C (50 oF). The effluent refrigeration process uses a single Stratco reactor
design as shown in Figure 2. An impeller emulsifies the hydrocarbonacid
mixture for about 2035 min.
1.10.1.2
1.10.2 HF ALKYLATION
This is highly successful process for combining iso-butane and iso-butane
involves the recirculation of about 6 parts of iso-butane to 1 part of iso-butane.
A temp of 75-105 oF and a Pressure of 100-150psig is maintained on the
reaction contractor. The acid is currently dried, about 6% of heavy oils are
removed, and acid consumption is 0.20lb per barrel of alkylates produced.
Plain carbon steel is used throughout except that some rundown lines are
constructed of Monel metal. The cycle time efficiency is said to be 96%.The
basic advantage of HF Alkylation process over H 2SO4 alkylation process is that
acid recovery is easy.
Two hydrofluoric acid (HF) alkylation processes are commonly available. These
are the Phillip process and the UOP process. The HF processes have no
mechanical stirring as in the sulphuric acid processes. The low viscosity of HF
and the high solubility of isobutane in the acid allow for a simpler design. The
emulsion is obtained by injecting the hydrocarbon feed into the continuous HF
phase through nozzles at the bottom of a tubular reactor. Reaction
temperature is about 30 oC (86 oF), allowing for the use of water as a coolant to
the reactor. The two processes are quite similar. The flow diagram of the
Phillips process is shown in Figure 3. The residence time in the reactor is 2040
s. The hydrocarbon phase is sent to the main fractionation column to obtain
1.10.2.1
1.11.1.1
Types of Olefin
RON
MON
HF
H2SO4
HF
H2SO4
Propylene
91-93
91-92
89-91
90-92
1-Butene
90-91
97-98
88-89
93-94
2-Butene
96-97
97-98
92-93
93-94
Iso-Butene
94-95
94-95
91-92
92-93
Amylenes
90-92
89-92
88-89
88-90
Another major safety concern is the acid catalyst used to promote the
reaction. Both HF and H2SO4 acids are hazardous materials, however, HF is
considerably more dangerous. In the United States, HF has been identified as a
hazardous air pollutant in current federal and state legislation. Sulfuric acid has
not. HF and H2SO4 represent an ever-present danger to personnel working on
alkylation units. Contact with either HF or H 2SO4 can result in chemical burns.
However, HF burns tend to be more severe, since the fluoride ion penetrates
the skin and destroys deeper layers of tissue. If not treated, it may even cause
dissolution of the bone. In addition, inhalation of HF vapors may cause
pulmonary edema and, in severe cases, may result in death. The volatility of
the acid at ambient conditions is a chief concern. HF is a toxic, volatile gas at
these conditions, while H2SO4 is a toxic liquid. Therefore, H2SO4 is much easier
to contain in the event of an accidental release. The hazardous nature of both
materials has been known and respected for years. In more densely populated
areas of the world, safety and environmental concerns of HF usage have given
H2SO4 alkylation a notable advantage.
In 1986, tests were conducted in the Nevada desert to determine the dangers
of a possible HF liquid release. Under conditions similar to those that exist in
an alkylation unit, lethal concentrations of an HF aerosol were present up to 8
km (5 miles) from the release points. It was during these tests that HF releases
were observed to be much more dangerous than anticipated. Due to the risk,
many refiners are implementing water mitigation and detection devices in an
effort to remove any HF that would vaporize in the event of a release. With
water/HF ratios of 40:1, nearly 90% of the HF can be removed. However, these
systems are expensive and there is the concern that the water sprays could
become inoperative as a result of an accident. In addition, details have not yet
been obtained, or at least reported, on the fate of the HF that is not removed
by the water sprays. For a major leak (200 lb/s 100 kg/s) that might result from
a 4 inch (10 cm) hole at process conditions, water systems are thought to be
less effective. Major HF leaks have been rare in the industry, and when they
have occurred, there has usually been a major fire event that has dissipated
the HF cloud as it formed. However, the impact of a major HF release should
always be considered.
H2SO4
HF
5000
14.9
14.5
7000
18.8
18.2
It is not surprising that the two processes are competitive on a capital cost
basis, when one considers the basic process differences. The H 2SO4 process has
a more expensive reactor section and requires refrigeration. However, equal
costs are realized in the HF unit by the need for feed driers, product treating,
regeneration equipment and more exotic metallurgy. In addition, most refiners
will require a dedicated cooling system for an HF unit, to remove the risk of
site-wide corrosion in the case of an HF leak.
It should be noted that these capital cost estimates do not account for the
additional safety and mitigation equipment now required in HF units. Due to
the possible hazardous aerosol formation when the HF catalyst is released as a
superheated liquid, expensive mitigation systems are now required in many
locations throughout the world where HF is used as an alkylation catalyst.
Consequently, capital costs for a grassroots HF unit are greater by $2-5 million
(U.S.) depending upon the degree of sophistication of the mitigation design.
1.11.7 MAINTENANCE
Maintenance costs and data are difficult to obtain on a comparable basis. HF
units have much more peripheral equipment (feed driers, product treaters,
acid regeneration column and an acid-soluble oil neutralizer); thus, more
pieces of equipment to operate and maintain. H 2SO4 units have larger pieces of
equipment, such as the compressor and reactor, but maintenance costs are
generally lower. Unit downtime to prepare for a full unit turnaround can take
longer for HF units, since the reactor-settler system and all the fractionators
must be neutralized before maintenance work can proceed. In H 2SO4 units,
only the reactor-settler system requires neutralization. In addition, extensive
safety equipment (breathing apparatus, etc.) is required whenever
maintenance is performed with a potential of HF release.
are sensitive to base conditions for feed stocks and operating conditions, as
well as refined product pricing. Thus, the actual choice for a particular refinery
is governed by a number of site-specific factors, which require a detailed
analysis.
As a result of these factors, nearly 90% of new units licensed since 1990 have
selected H2SO4 alkylation technology over HF.
2 CHAPTER # 2:
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
On the basis of the above discussion we select ultimately H 2SO4 alkylation
process.
sales specifications. The side stream n-butane can be used for gasoline
blending. In this type of reactor there are chances of
Degradation of alkylate
Polymerization may occur at a high level
Compressor demands for the effluent refrigeration process are larger
2.2.1 CASCADE AUTOREFRIGERATION
The major alkylation processes using sulfuric acid as a catalyst are the autorefrigeration process, licensed by Exxon Research and Engineering (similar to a
process previously licensed by the M. W. Kellogg Company), The major
differences between the auto-refrigeration and effluent refrigeration
processes are in the reactor designs and the point in the process at which
propane and isobutane are evaporated to induce cooling and provide the
process refrigeration required. The auto-refrigeration process uses a
multistage cascade reactor with mixers in each stage to emulsify the
hydrocarbonacid mixture. Olefin feed or a mixture of olefin feed and
isobutane feed is introduced into the mixing compartments and enough mixing
energy is introduced to obtain sufficient contacting of the acid catalyst with the
hydrocarbon reactants to obtain good reaction selectivity. The reaction is held
at a pressure of approximately 10 psig (69 kPag) in order to maintain the
temperature at about 40F (5C). In the Stratco, or similar type of reactor
system, pressure is kept high enough [4560 psig (310420 kPag)] to prevent
vaporization of the hydrocarbons. In the Exxon process, acid and isobutane
enter the first stage of the reactor and pass in series through the remaining
stages. The olefin hydrocarbon feed is split and injected into each of the
stages. Exxon mixes the olefin feed with the recycle isobutane and introduces
the mixture into the individual reactor sections to be contacted with the
catalyst. The gases vaporized to remove the heats of reaction and mixing
energy are compressed and liquefied, the liquefied hydrocarbon is sent to a
depropanizer column for removal of the excess propane which accumulates in
the system. The liquid isobutane from the bottom of the depropanizer is
pumped to the first stage of the reactor. The acidhydrocarbon emulsion from
the last reactor stage is separated into acid and hydrocarbon phases. The acid
is removed from the system for reclamation, and the hydrocarbon phase is
then sent to a deisobutanizer. The deisobutanizer separates the hydrocarbon
feed stream into isobutane (which is returned to the reactor), n-butane, and
alkylate product. Although high amount of iso-butane is required to maximize
the conversion and high power input is also needed to achieve better mixing
but acid consumption values are lesser and high quality Alkylate is produced.
This reaction with sulfuric acid results in the production of alkyl sulfates.
Occasionally alkyl sulfates are called esters. Propylene tends to form much
more stable alkyl sulfates than either C4 or C5 olefins. With either 1-butene or 2butene, the sec-butyl cation formed may isomerize via methyl shift to give a
more stable t-butyl cation.
These initiation reactions are required to generate a high level of ions but
become less important at steady state. Typically, this can be observed as a
higher rate of acid consumption initially when using fresh acid. The t-butyl
cation is then added to an olefin to give the corresponding C 8 carbocation:
3 CHAPTER # 3:
MATERIAL BALANCE
3.1 CAPACITY & BASIS
10000 BPSD of Alkylate Produced
Since 1m3 = 6.29bbls & Density of Alkylate = 720 kg/m3
Avg. Molecular Mass of Alkylate = 113.85 kg/kmol
Alkylate
= 47694.75 kg/hr
= 418.92 kmol/hr
Basis: 1 hr Operation
At steady State,
Overall Material Balance can be given by equation,
3.3.1.1
Component
kmol
Kg
Butane
412.67
23109.52
Isobutane
5105.61
296128.2
n-butane
1033.82
59961.67
Propene
6.20
260.48
Propane
95.42
4198.26
Sum
6653.76
383658.1
3.3.1.2
Substance
kmol
Kg
H2SO4
47.69
4674.01
Water
5.23
95.38
Sum
52.99
4769.4
3.3.2 REACTIONS
REACTION 1
C4H8 (l) + iC4H10 (l)C8H18 (l)
REACTION 2
C3H6 (l) + iC4H10 (l) C7H16 (l)
REACTION 3
C3H6 (l) + 2iC4H10 (l) C3H8 (l) + C8H18 (l)
From Patent
At 12 oC & 25 Psig, Conversion to Alkylate according is:
Reaction 1 98.51%
Reaction 2 0.341%
Reaction 3 1.149%
3.3.3.1
Component
kmol
kg
Isobutane
4682.54
271588
nbutane
1033.94
59968.54
propane
100.19
4408.68
alkylate
418.92
47694.04
Sum
6235.61
383659.3
3.3.3.2
Component
kg
Spent Acid
4769.4
Balance:
Stream 3 = 383658.1 kg
Stream 13 = 4769.4
kg
Stream 4 = 383659.3 kg
Stream 14 = 4769.4 kg
Total Material Out = 383659.3 + 4769.4 = 388428.7 kg
3.4.2 MATERIAL IN
3.4.2.1
Component kmol
kg
Isobutane
4682.54 271588
nbutane
1033.94 59968.54
propane
100.19
4408.68
alkylate
418.92
47694.04
Sum
6235.61 383659.3
3.4.3.1
Component kmol
kg
Isobutane
1791.62
103914.1
nbutane
271.96
15773.91
propane
62.02
2729.183
Sum
2125.61
122417.2
3.4.3.2
Component kmol
kg
Isobutane
2890.93
167673.9
nbutane
761.97
44194.63
propane
38.17
1679.49
alkylate
418.92
47694.04
Sum
4109.99
261242.1
= 383659.3 kg
3.5.2 MATERIAL IN
3.5.2.1
Component kmol
kg
Isobutane
2890.93
167673.9
nbutane
761.97
44194.63
propane
38.17
1679.49
alkylate
418.92
47694.04
Sum
4109.99
261242.1
3.5.3.1
Component
kmol
kg
Isobutane
2886.16
167397.2
n-butane
590.20
34232.16
propane
38.17
1679.49
Sum
3514.53
203308.9
3.5.3.2
Component
kmol
kg
n-butane
171.75
9962.46
Isobutane
4.77
276.73
Alkylate
418.92
47694.04
Sum
595.44
57933.23
Balance:
Stream 6 = 7 + 11
Stream 6
=261242.1 kg
Stream 7+8+11
3.6.2 MATERIAL IN
3.6.2.1
Component kmol
kg
Isobutane
1791.62
103914.1
nbutane
271.96
15773.91
propane
62.02
2729.183
Sum
2125.61
122417.2
3.6.3.1
Component
kmol
kg
Propane
28.62
1259.62
3.6.3.2
Component
kmol
kg
Isobutane
1791.62
103914.1
nbutane
271.96
15773.92
propane
33.39
1469.56
Sum
2096.98
121157.6
Balance:
Stream 5 = 9 + 10
Stream 5
= 122417.2 kg
Stream 9 + 10
3.7.1.1
Stream 2
Component
kmol
kg
Butene
412.67
23109.52
nbutane
85.87
4980.665 85.77
propene
6.20
260.483
propane
4.77
209.9131 19.07
Iso Butane
Sum
509.51
kmol
Stream 12
kg
kmol
kg
4974.926 862.17
50006.08
839.2908 71.57
3149.057
427.87
28560.58 532.71
4 CHAPTER # 4:
ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 ENERGY BALANCE EQUATION
At steady State,
Overall Energy Balance can be given by equation,
4.2.3 REACTION 2
C3H6 (g) + iC4H10 (l) C7H16 (l)
4.2.4 REACTION 3
C3H6 (g) + 2iC4H10 (l) C3H8 (l) + C8H18 (l) H298 = -79.16 kJ/gmol
H298 = -223.9 103.85 (20.41 2(134.5)) = -79.16 kJ/gmol
4.2.5 Heats of Formation Data: Hf (kJ/gmol): Vol. 6
C3H6 (g) = 20.41
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
kmol
H (kJ)
Propene
66.92
6.20
5395.504
propane
76.96
95.41
95461.71
butene
93.51
412.67
501665.9
butane
105.82
1033.82
1422218
isobutane
106.52
5105.65
7070434
H2SO4
140.97
47.69
87405.2
Water
24.65
5.29
1698.173
H1: 9.18E+06 kJ
4.3.1.1
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
kmol
H(kJ)
propane
76.96
100.19
-100246.29
butane
105.822
1033.94
-1422380.91
isobutane
106.52
4682.55
-6484507.20
2,2,4,Tmpentane
196.47
417.24
-1065710.48
2,3,Dmpentane
183.49
1.67
-3995.63
H2SO4
140.97
47.69
-87405.19
Water
24.65
5.29
-1698.17
H2: -9.17E+06 kJ
4.3.2 Heat of Reaction Added At 298 K
H298 = (-90572*412.67) + (-79160*4.57) + (-83810*1.675)
= -3.8E+07 kJ
4.3.3 Total Heat of Reaction:
Hr
= H1 + H298 + H2
= 9.18E+06 - 3.8E+07 - 9.17E+06
= -3.79E+07 kJ
= 4.28E+07 kJ
Balance:
H3
= 9.10E+06 kJ
H4
= 3.37E+07 kJ
Hi
Component
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
kmol
H(kJ)
propane
75.80
100.19
75956.22
butane
102.62
1033.94
1061079
isobutane
102.36
4682.55
4793516
Alkylate
196.01
418.92
821137.7
4.4.1.2
Component
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
kmol
H(kJ)
Isobutane
102.37
1791.62
1834084
nbutane
102.62
271.96
279089.47
propane
72.37
62.02
44888.853
4.4.1.3
Component
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H(kJ)
Isobutane
2890.92
102.37
2959444.7
nbutane
761.97
102.62
781940.14
propane
38.17
72.37
27623.909
alkylate
418.92
196.013
821137.66
H6 = 4.59E+06 kJ
Tr = 0.704
Pr = 0.053
Y= 1.06
Efficiency Ep = 0.67
m = 0.133
n = 1.114
Wp = 2270.63 kj/kmol
Actual Work = W
W = Wp/Ep = 3389.01 kj/kmol
Power = W x No. of moles/ 3600
Z= 0.95
P = 2MW
Final Temp = 370 K = 97oC
4.5.2 Balance
kJ
7203732.5
H out of compressor
5.21E+07
4.6.2.1
Component kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H ( KJ)
= kJ/kmol H (kJ)= N *
5734237.5
20001.02
35834289.66
nbutane
271.96 144.84
866609.95
21799.22
5928604.833
propane
62.026 103.13
140733.06
15920.62
987506.5037
Sum
2125.61
6.74E+6
4.27E+7
5.21E+07 kJ
Total H out =
2.62E+06 kJ
4.7.1.1
Component
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
Delta T
H (kJ)
Propane
28.62
103.13
15
44286.493
Hd = 4.428E+4 KJ
4.7.1.2
Component
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
Delta T
H (kJ)
Isobutane
1791.62
145.48
55
14335597
nbutane
271.96
144.84
55
2166525.4
propane
33.39
103.13
55
189448.4
Hb = 1.67E+7 kJ
4.7.1.3
Component kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
Ln
22.90
103.13
15
Vn
51.53
103.13
15
Hl=3.54E+4
4.56E+5
Hv=5.68E+5
Stream 6 in:
P= 14.2 Psig
Hin = 4.59E+06 kJ
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H (kJ)
Isobutane
2890.92
139.74
4039785.2
nbutane
761.97
140.36
1069510
propane
38.17
101.62
38788.748
alkylate
418.92
284.02
1189816.6
Hout = 6.34E+6 kJ
4.8.2.1
kJ
4.59E+06
H out
6.34E+06
4.9.1.1
T = 67 C
Component
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H (kJ)
Isobutane
2890.92
139.74
16967098
nbutane
761.97
140.36
4491942.1
propane
38.17
101.62
162912.74
alkylate
418.92
284.02
4997229.7
Hout = 2.66E+07 kJ
4.9.1.2
kJ
2.03E+07
H in
6.34E+06
H out
2.66E+07
4.10.1.1
Top T = 50 C
Component
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H (kJ)
Isobutane
2886.15
126.48107
9126110.5
n-butane
590.21
127.84035
1886315.2
propane
38.17
94.132021
89826.398
Hd = 1.11E+07 kJ
4.10.1.2
T = 160oC
Component
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H (kJ)
n-butane
172
140.0362
3.25E+06
Isobutane
4.77
137.254
8.84E+04
Alkylate
419
284.124
1.61E+07
Hb = 1.94E+07 kJ
4.10.1.3
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
Ln
1581.54
126.35
25
Vn
5096.08
126.35
25
Hl=3.54E+4
7.12E+07
Hv =8.73E+7
4.11.1.1
T = 22oC
Substance
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H (kJ)
Butene
412.67
91.41
113178.54
nbutane
85.87
106.95
27554.564
propene
6.20
68.26
1270.0411
propane
4.77
78.87
1128.9069
H1 = 1.43E+05 kJ
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H (kJ)
propane
19.07
78.87
9027.36
nbutane
85.77
106.95
55045.62
isobutane
427.87
105.27
270256.63
H2 = 3.34E+05 kJ
4.11.2.1
T = 50 oC
Substance
kmol
Cp (kJ/kmol K)
H (kJ)
Isobutane
4677.78
105.27047
12310807
nbutane
862.17
106.95793
2305408
propane
71.56
78.876949
141129.57
H12 = 1.48E+07 kJ
4.11.3 Balance:
H3 = H1 + H2 + H12
1.52E+07 kJ
5 CHAPTER # 5:
HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN
5.1 HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one medium
to another, whether the media are separated by a solid wall so that they never
mix, or the media are in direct contact. They are widely used in space heating,
refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical
plants, petroleum refineries, and natural gas processing. One common
example of a heat exchanger is the radiator in a car, in which a hot enginecooling fluid, like antifreeze, transfers heat to air flowing through the radiator.
Corrosivity
Viscosity
5.4.1.1
Table 35: Different types of tube sheets and their
properties:
Type
Significant
feature
Applications best
Limitations
suited
Approximat
e
relative
cost
in
carbon steel
constructio
n
Condensers;
liquid-liquid; gasgas;
gas-liquid;
Fixed tube Both tube sheets
cooling
and
sheet
fixed to shell.
heating,
horizontal
or
vertical, reboiling.
Temperature
difference
at
extremes
of
1.0
o
about 200 F Due
to
differential
expansion.
One tubesheet
floats in shell
Floating
or with shell,
head
or tube bundle may
tubesheet
or may not be
(removable removable from
and
shell, but back
nonremova cover can be
ble bundles) removed
to
expose
tube
ends.
High temperature
differentials,
above about 200
o
F extremes; dirty
fluids
requiring
cleaning of inside
as well as outside
of
shell,
horizontal
or
vertical.
Internal gaskets
offer danger of
leaking.
Corrosiveness of
fluids on shell- 1.28
side
floating
parts.
Usually
confined
to
horizontal units.
High temperature
differentials,
which
might
require provision
for expansion in
fixed tube units.
Easily
cleaned
Bends must be
carefully made, or
mechanical
damage
and 0.9-1.1
danger of rupture
can result. Tube
side velocities can
U-tube;
U-Bundle
conditions
both tube
shell side.
Pipe coil
Plate
frame
Spiral
on cause erosion of
and inside of bends.
Fluid should be
free of suspended
particles.
Relatively small
transfer
area
service, or in
banks for larger
applications.
Especially suited
for high pressures
in tube (greater
than 400 psig).
Services suitable
for finned tube.
Piping-up a large
0.8-1.4
number
often
requires cost and
space.
Transfer
Condensing,
or
coefficient is low,
relatively
low
requires relatively 0.5-0.7
heat loads on
large space if heat
sensible transfer.
load is high.
Composed
of
metal-formed
thin
plates
and
separated
by
gaskets.
Compact, easy to
clean.
Compact,
Cross-flow,
concentric plates;
condensing,
no
bypassing,
heating.
high turbulence.
Process corrosion,
suspended
0.8-1.5
materials.
need to ensure that there are tubes available in lengths that are twice the
required length (so that the tubes can be withdrawn and replaced). Also, it has
to be remembered that long, thin tubes are difficult to take out and replace.
5.5.4 Tube pitch:
When designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i.e. the
centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1.25 times the tubes'
outside diameter
5.8 NOZZLES
The nozzles are the inlet and exit ports which allow the entrance and
departure of two fluid streams separately in the shell and tube heat exchanger.
5.9 BAFFLES
Baffles serve two functions:
They support the tubes in the proper position during assembly and operation
and prevent vibration of the tubes caused by flow-induced eddies
They guide the shell-side flow back and forth across the tube field, increasing
the velocity and the heat transfer coefficient.
20%, as it affords the highest heat transfer for a given pressure drop. Baffle
cuts smaller than 20% can result in high pressure drop. As the baffle cut
increases beyond 20%, the flow pattern
deviates more and more from cross flow and can result in stagnant regions or
areas with lower flow velocities; both of these reduce the thermal
effectiveness of the bundle.
5.9.4 BAFFLE SPACING
The practical range of single-segmental baffle spacing is to 1 shell diameter,
though optimum could be 40-50%. TEMA provides maximum baffle spacing for
various tube outer diameters, tube materials, and the corresponding maximum allowable temperature limit. The baffles are generally spaced between
the nozzles. The inlet and outlet baffle spacings are in general larger than the
central baffle spacing to accommodate the nozzles, since the nozzle
dimensions frequently require that the nozzle should be located far enough
from the tube sheets.
5.9.5 Disk and doughnut baffle
The disk and doughnut baffle is made up of alternate disks and doughnut
baffles as shown in Fig. Disk and doughnut baffle heat exchangers are primarily
used in nuclear heat exchangers.
5.17.5 Prandle # :
Pr = Cp / k
= 4.52 & (Pr)1/3 = 1.653
From Appendix A-3
Jh= 3.00E-03 (Graph)
hi = jh.(k/Di)( Pr)1/3.( /w)0.14. NRe
hi = 1429.15 W/m2.C
Neglecting viscosity factor ( /w)0.14 , as the temperature difference is not too
high.
1040 Tubes
Number of passes = Np = 2 passes
Tube Di = 0.022 m
Neglecting Viscosity term
Linear Velocity: Vt = 0.979569 m/s
Reynolds Number : NRe= 7.25E+04
From Figure for jf = 3.80E-02( Appendix A-6 )
Pt= 36542.73 Pa
Pt= 5.30 PSI
5.20.2.1
Identification:
HX101
Function:
Cooling
Operation:
Continuous
Type
Heat Duty
H = 3257.654 kW
Tube Side
Process Stream
Tubes Side
Components
Molar Fraction
Outer Dia
0.025 m
Butene
0.062
Inner Dia
0.022 m
Isobutane
0.76
BWG
16
n-butane
0.155
Length
4.8 m
Propene
0.00093
No. of tubes
1040
Propane
0.0143
No. of Passes
Square pitch
0.03125 m
Flowrate
Shell Side
Shell
Utility Stream:
Shell Dia
1.18 m
Component
Mol fraction
No. of passes
NaCl
25
Baflle Spacing
0.59 m
Water
Flowrate
75
Velocity
0.52 m/s
Material
Steel 303
7.2 PSI
6 CHAPTER # 6:
REACTOR DESIGN
6.1 CHEMICAL REACTORS
Chemical reactor is the heart of the chemical reaction process. Chemical
reactors are containers that are designed for a chemical reaction to occur
inside of them. The design of a chemical reactor deals with multiple aspects of
chemical engineering.
Conversion
Selectivity
Productivity
Yield
Heat exchange
Mixing
Catalyst Distribution
Hold-up Time
Availability
Energy utilization
Safety
Economics
10
Residence Time
Impeller specifications
Baffles Dimensions
Shell thickness
Reactor head
Power calculations
Material of construction
6.7.1.2
Factors/Types
Propellers
Paddles
Turbine
Viscosity
For Low to
ModerateVisco
us Liquids
Flow Pattern
For
Moderate
Viscous
Liquids
For
Radial
flow
Types
No. of Blades
RPM Ranges
Square Pitched
Marine
Propellers
3-blade,
4Blade Toothed
400-800, 1150
Flat Paddle,
Anchor
Agitator
2
and
4
bladed
Paddles
20-150
50-250
Stream 3
Substance
Butane
Isobutane
n-butane
Propene
Propane
Sum
Stream 4
H2SO4
Water
Sum
Mass
Density
Kgs
23109.52
296128.2
59961.67
260.483
4198.261
383658.1
Kg/m3
601.9
566.6
588.1
528.01
512.1
4674.016
95.38808
4769.404
1853
1017
Volume
Flow
m3/hr
38.39428
522.6406
101.9583
0.49333
8.198128
671.6846
2.522405
0.093794
2.616198
6.14 BAFFLES
Baffles are used to prevent vortexing and rotation of the liquid mass as a
whole. Four radial baffles at equal spacing are mostly used.
Baffles width Of one compartment = D/12 = 0.31 m
N Re
Nd 2
Hemispherical
Ellipsoidal
Torispherical
Selected: Ellipsoidal
Moderate Pressures
Moderately Economical
Less thickness for a particular Pressure as compared to Flanged only and
torispherical heads.
P * Di
C
2* J * f P
e=thickness of shell
P=internal pressure=273.64 KPa
f=permissible stress=1.65*105 KPa
J=joint efficiency=0.9 (Table 13.3 Coluson & Richadson - Chemical
engineering design Vol 6)
Type of joint: Single welded joint with bonding strips
Degree of radiography: 100%
C=corrosion allowance=3mm (Optimum)
e = 8.5 mm
6.19.2 ELLIPSOIDAL HEAD THICKNESS
e
e=thickness of head
P=internal pressure=273.64 KPa
Pi * Di
2 * J * f 0.2 * Pi
Item Number
R-101
Required No.
Function
Operation
Continous
Type
6.21.1.1
Design Data
Overall
Compartment
Reaction Volume
303.43 m3
Impeller type
Propeller
Settling Volume
22.16 m3
Diameter of impeller
1.24 m
Total Volume
374.43 m3
RPM
300
Residence time
27 min
Mixing Time
21.2 sec
Settling time
2 min
Pumpimg Rate
4.56 m3/sec
Shell thickness
8.5 mm
Power Consumed
67.36 kW
Cover Head
Ellipsoidal
Material
SS-316
Head thickness
5.5 mm
No. of baffles
Material
SS-304
Baffle Width
0.31 m
7 CHAPTER 7:
DE-ISOBUTANIZER COLUMN DESIGN
7.1 CHOICE BETWEEN PLATE AND PACKED COLUMN
Vapour liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate column or
packed column. These two types of operations are quite different. A selection
scheme considering the factors under four headings.
Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors,
corrosive systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment.
Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column
and its internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation,
continuous distillation, turndown, and intermittent distillation.
The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows:
Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates
without flooding.
If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column,
because solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials
and making it ineffective.
Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of
liquid are low as compared to gases.
For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than
plate column.
If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning.
In packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
For non-foaming systems the plate column is preferred.
Design information for plate column are more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column.
Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution
in plate column.
Plate Design
10
7.2.1.2
Table 40: FEED, DISTILLATE AND BOTTOM
SPECIFICATION
Feed: T = 64oC
Kmoles
Mol.Frac X
propane
38.17
0.01
Isobutane
2890.93
0.70
nbutane
761.98
0.19
alkylate
418.92
0.10
Top: T = 58oC
Kmoles
Mol.Frac X
propane
38.17
0.01
Isobutane
2886.16
0.82
n-butane
590.21
0.17
Bottom: T = 130oC
Kmoles
Mol.Frac X
isobutane
4.77
0.01
nbutane
171.76
0.29
Alkylate
418.92
0.70
=64 0C
Pressure
=100 psig
7.3.1.1
Feed
propane
Kmol
Fraction
K Value
Alpha
38.17
0.01
2.29
2.54
2890.93
0.70
1.14
1.27
761.98
0.19
0.90
1.0
418.92
0.10
0.07
0.078
Isobutane(LK)
N-butane(HK)
alkylate
=58 oC
81.76 oC
106.24 oC
Component
At Tn=81.76
C3
iC4
nC4
C8
2.541
1.2
1
0.0754
At Tm=106.24 Xf
o
C
2.61
3.211
1
0.07581
0.10
Since:
xnA
rf
XnA
= 0.785
X nB
= 0.215
rf
(1 rf )(1 x fh )
xnB
xnA
rf
xnB= 0.215
Rm = 0.361
*Xf
Xfh
0.0077
N min
x x
log LK HK
xHK d xLK b
log LK
7.6.1.1
Table 43: relation between reflux ratio and number of
plates
(R-Rm)/(R+1)
R
0.397
0.433
0.469
0.5
0.54
0.026
0.05
0.07
0.096
0.12
((n+1)-(nm+1))
/(n+2)
0.6
0.68
0.55
0.52
0.5
n
15.5
14.67
13.55
12.58
12.
Eo 51 32.5Log (a * a )
Viscosity = 0.136 cp
a= 1.27
Eo
=76.6%
Nr / Ns = 0.163
Nr + Ns = 18
Ns = 15
7.9.1.1
Top condition
Ln=27.41 kmol /min
Vn =85.99 kmol/min
Lw= 1589.28 kg/min
Vw= 4985.01 kg/min
Vap density =20.1 kg/m3
Liq density =510.13 kg /m3
Bottom condition
Lm=95.91 kmol/min
Vm=85.99 kmol/min
Lw=9361.1 kg/min
Vw=8392.5 kg/min
Vap density =25.46 kg/m3
Liq density =560.28 kg /m3
FLV(top)=0.063
FLV(bottom)=0.24
When Plate spacing= 0.8m
k1(top)= 1.30E-01 (Appendix B-1)
k1(bottom)= 7.00E-02
Top
Bottom
Corrected k1 =0.1046
Corrected k1 =0.057
Uf=
Uf=
0.5167 m/s
0.26 m/s
qv
qv=4.13 m3/sec
Vw
dv
qv= 5.49 m3/sec
qv
An=9.42 m2
An=24.88 m2
Ac
An
0.88
Ac= 28.27 m2
Dc
4 * Ac
Dc= 3.71m
Dc=6m
Selecting Dc=6m. Constructing the column on the basis of this diameter and
reducing the perforations to the top in order to accommodate the desired flow
conditions.
Dc
(Ad / Ac)*100 = 12
how(max)
Lw
750
d w lw
2/3
how = 91.1 mm
hw +how =141.1mm
From
At:
Appendix
hw + how = 141.1 mm K2 = 31
K 2 0.9(25.4 d h )
dv
o.5
B-4
Vw
U ( actual) 0.7
d A
h
v
= hd = 92.2 mm liq
dv
dl
12.5 103
dl
ht hd hr (ho how )
= P
Pt 9.8110 ht dl
P = 1471.92 Pa
hdc= 1.12 mm
Lw
hdc 166
d l Aap
H D H t H dc (ho how )
Ad hbc d l
Lw
Ad = 3.4 m2
hbc= 1.12 mm
tr= 5 sec
Greater than 3 sec, so satisfactory
7.16 ENTRAINMENT
Where
Un
Vm
d v Ah
Un = 0.221 m/s
Since: Uf (bottom) = 0.3 m/s
% flooding = Un*100/uf =85%
Flv = 0.237
From Appendix B-3
Fractional entrainment= = 0.011
As, entrainment is less than 0.1, process is satisfactory.
ah
dh
Ah
ah
Item No.
D-101
No. required
Tray type
Sieve tray
Function:
Operation:
Continuous
7.19.1.2
Design Data
No. of trays =19
Weir height = 50 mm
Diameter of column = 6 m
Hole size = 5 mm
Tray thickness = 5 mm
8 CHAPTER 8
HAZOP STUDY
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of
systematic qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing
facilities and can be applied to a whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of
equipment It uses as its database the usual sort of plant and process
information and relies on the judgment of engineering and safety experts in
the areas with which they are most familiar. The end result is, therefore
reliable in terms of engineering and operational expectations, but it is not
quantitative and may not consider the consequences of complex sequences of
human errors.
The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:
To identify (areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard
potential.
To identify and study features of the design that influence the
probability of a hazardous incident occurring.
To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant
hazard potential.
To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the
team.
To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team's
detailed comments.
Oil
of
vitriol;
Babcock
acid;
sulphuric
acid
CAS No.:
7664-93-9
Molecular Weight:
98.08
H2SO4 in H2O
Product Codes:
J.T. Baker:
5030, 5137, 5374, 5802, 5815, 5858, 5859, 5868, 5889,
5897, 5961, 5971, 5997, 6163, 6902, 9671, 9673, 9674, 9675, 9676, 9679,
9680, 9681, 9682, 9684, 9687, 9690, 9691, 9693, 9694, 9697
Mallinckrodt: 21201, 2468
8.3.1 Composition/Information on Ingredients
Ingredient
Hazardous
--------------------------------Sulfuric Acid
Yes
Water
No
CAS No
Percent
-----------7664-93-9
7732-18-5
-------
52 - 100%
0 - 48%
SAFETY DATA(tm):
Ratings
(Provided
here
for
your
convenience)
Health
Rating:
4
Extreme
(Poison)
Flammability
Rating:
0
None
Reactivity
Rating:
2
Moderate
Contact
Rating:
4
Extreme
(Corrosive)
Lab Protective Equip: GOGGLES & SHIELD; LAB COAT & APRON; VENT HOOD;
PROPER
GLOVES
Storage Color Code: White (Corrosive)
use it for other purposes. When diluting, always add the acid to water; never
add water to the acid. When opening metal containers, use non-sparking tools
because of the possibility of hydrogen gas being present. Containers of this
material may be hazardous when empty since they retain product residues
(vapors, liquid); observe all warnings and precautions listed for the product.
and hydrides, metals (yields hydrogen gas), strong oxidizing and reducing
agents and many other reactive substances.
8.11.3 Conditions to Avoid:
Heat, moisture, incompatibles.
8.15 WARNING:
The burning of any hydrocarbon as a fuel in an area without adequate
ventilation may result in hazardous levels of combustion products, including
carbon monoxide, and inadequate oxygen levels, which may cause
unconsciousness, suffocation, and death.
8.15.1 Chronic Effects and Carcinogenicity
It Contains benzene, a regulated human carcinogen. Benzene has the potential
to cause anemia and other blood diseases, including leukemia, after repeated
and prolonged exposure. Exposure to light hydrocarbons in the same boiling
range as this product has been associated in animal studies with systemic
toxicity. See also Section 11 - Toxicological Information.
Handle as a flammable liquid. Keep away from heat, sparks, and open flame!
Electrical equipment should be approved for classified area. Bond and ground
containers during product transfer to reduce the possibility of static-initiated
fire or explosion.
Special slow load procedures for "switch loading" must be followed to avoid
the static ignition hazard that can exist when higher flash point material (such
as fuel oil) is loaded into tanks previously containing low flash point products
(such as this product) - see API Publication 2003, "Protection Against Ignitions
Arising Out Of Static, Lightning and Stray Currents.
8.19.2 Storage Precautions
Keep away from flame, sparks, excessive temperatures and open flame. Use
approved vented containers. Keep containers closed and clearly labeled.
Empty product containers or vessels may contain explosive vapors. Do not
pressurize, cut, heat, weld or expose such containers to sources of ignition.
Store in a well-ventilated area. This storage area should comply with NFPA 30
"Flammable and Combustible Liquid Code". Avoid storage near incompatible
materials. The cleaning of tanks previously containing this product should
follow API Recommended Practice (RP) 2013 "Cleaning Mobile Tanks In
Flammable and Combustible Liquid Service" and API RP 2015 "Cleaning
Petroleum Storage Tanks".
8.19.3 Work/Hygienic Practices
Emergency eye wash capability should be available in the near proximity to
operations presenting a potential splash exposure. Use good personal hygiene
practices. Avoid repeated and/or prolonged skin exposure. Wash hands before
eating, drinking, smoking, or using toilet facilities. Do not use as a cleaning
solvent on the skin. Do not use solvents or harsh abrasive skin cleaners for
washing this product from exposed skin areas. Waterless hand cleaners are
effective. Promptly remove contaminated clothing and launder before reuse.
Use care when laundering to prevent the formation of flammable vapors which
could ignite via washer or dryer. Consider the need to discard contaminated
leather shoes and gloves.
9 CHAPTER # 9:
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS
CONTROL
9.1 INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
Measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control. Either the
control can be affected automatically, semi automatically or manually. The
quality of control obtainable also bears a relationship to accuracy, re product
ability and reliability of measurement methods, which are employed.
a lesser extent variable area is used as are many types available as special
metering situation arise.
10
11 CHAPTER # 10
COST ESTIMATION
11.1.1.1
Item
Reactor
De-isobutanizer
De-propanizer
Compressor
De-isobutanizer
Compressor
Quantity
Cost in Mid 2004
1
1
1
1
1
Cost($)
287391.28
99864
47857
9169.48
2689.92
287391.28
99864
47857
9169.48
2689.92
De-propanizer
Condenser
Deisobutanizer
reboiler
Deisobutanizer
reboiler
Pumps
Total cost
9760
9760
7647.12
7647.12
11700
11700
4
12
10123.5
486199.3
40494
516570
In order to find the cost escalation (INFLATION) we take purchased cost of any
one of the equipment and proceed.
A = Index in 2004 = 111
B = Index in 2000 = 100
Purchased Cost in 2004 = $ 7647.12
So,
Cost in year 2000 =
Cost in 2000 = $ 6889.30
Therefore, Escalation is 2.75 %
Following this we have,
A = Index in 2004 = 111
B = Index in 2000 = 100
Purchased Cost in 2004 = $ 7647.12
So,
Cost in year 2000
=Cost in 2000 = $ 6889.30
1 year
1 day
1 hour
1 bbl.
1 year
330 days
24 hour
416.66 bbl.
159 liter
159 liter
10,000 bbl.
330 days
1 liter
1 bbl
day
1 year
12 APPENDIX
12.1 APPENDIX A-1
12.1.1.1.1 Fig 12.1 (Coluson & Richadson - Chemical
engineering design Vol 6)
12.2
12.3 APPENDIX A-2
12.3.1.1.1 Fig 12.19 (Coluson & Richadson - Chemical
engineering design Vol 6)
12.10
APPENDIX B-2
12.10.1.1.1
Fig 11.28 (Coluson & Richadson - Chemical
engineering design Vol 6)
12.11
APPENDIX B-3
12.11.1.1.1
Fig 11.29 (Coluson & Richadson - Chemical
engineering design Vol 6)
12.12
APPENDIX B-4
12.12.1.1.1
Fig 11.30 (Coluson & Richadson - Chemical
engineering design Vol 6)
12.13
APPENDIX B-5
12.13.1.1.1
Fig 11.34 (Coluson & Richadson - Chemical
engineering design Vol 6)
12.14
Appendix B-6
12.14.1.1.1
Fig 11.42 Coluson & Richadson Chemical
Engineering Vol 2
12.15
APPENDIX C-1
12.15.1.1.1
Fig 10.9 Couper_ Penney_ Fair_ Walas - 2005 2nd ed. Chemical process equipment - Selection and
design
REFERENCES
1.
12. Ray Sinnot, Gavin Towler. Chemical Engineering Design. Burlington : Elsevier Ltd.,
2009. ISBN: 978-0-7506-8551-1.
13. Levenspiel, Octave. Chemical Reaction Engineering. s.l. : Hamilton Printing Company, 1999. ISBN
0-471-25424-X.
14. Sinnott, R. K. Chemical Engineering Design. s.l. : Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005. ISBN 0
7506 6538 6.
15. KERN, DONALD Q. PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER. NEW YORK : McGRAW-HILL,
1950.
16. Macdonald, Dave. Practical Industrial Safety, Risk Assessment and Shutdown Systems.
s.l. : Elsevier, 2004. ISBN: 0750658045.
17. Crowl, Daniel A. Chemical Process Safety. s.l. : Prentice Hall, Inc., 2002. ISBN: 0-13018176-5.
18. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Ghulam Yasin, Tariq Mahmood Ansari, Syed
Muhammad Sibtain Raza Naqvi. Multan : s.n., 2008, Vol. 9. ISSN-1996-918X.
19. Aslam, Faisal. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN PAKISTAN -OVERVIEW,
IMPLEMENTATION AND EFFEC TIVNESS. 2006. ISSN 1651-064X.
20. World Energy council. World Energy Resources. England and Wales : World Energy Council ,
2013. ISBN: 978 0 946121 29 8.
21. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. World Oil Outlook. Obere Donaustrasse 93A1020 Vienna, Austria : s.n., 2007. ISBN 978-3-200-00965-3.
22. US Patent 4128597, 2435029 ,420965,3162694,2320199,2429205,2666019,2829181,
3415899
23. Yaws, C.L., Handbook of Vapor Pressure Vol.1, Gulf Publishing Company .