Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .........................................................................................................ii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures............................................................................................................. iii
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................1
Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................6
2.1 Carbonation.........................................................................................................7
2.1.1 Effect of carbonation of concrete...............................................................8
2.1.2 Primary factors influencing carbonation..................................................9
2.2 Chloride Ingress................................................................................................11
2.2.1 Chloride penetration in concrete.............................................................11
2.2.2 Primary factors affecting the chloride ingress .......................................13
2.3 Corrosion...........................................................................................................16
2.3.1 Free Energy consideration .......................................................................18
2.3.2 Corrosion Kinetics ....................................................................................20
2.3.3 Primary factors affecting steel corrosion in concrete............................23
2.3.4 Corrosion diagnosis and measurement methods ...................................25
Open circuit potential (OCP) measurements: .................................................25
Concrete resistivity measurement:...................................................................26
Linear polarization resistance (LPR) measurement:.......................................28
Tafel Extrapolation:.........................................................................................30
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS): ............................................31
2.3.5 Damages due to corrosion ........................................................................33
Common damages in RC Structures:...............................................................33
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC): ....................................................................34
Hydrogen embrittlement (HE): ........................................................................35
2.3.6 Corrosion control techniques...................................................................36
Patch Repair: ...................................................................................................36
Cathodic Protection:........................................................................................37
Electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE) and Realkalization: ....................40
Inhibitor Application: ......................................................................................41
Coatings:..........................................................................................................41
Design Considerations: ...................................................................................42
ii
List of Tables
Table 2.2.1: Primary factors affecting chloride ingress...............................................14
Table 2.3.1: Electrode potentials for anodic and cathodic corrosion reactions ...........20
Table 2.3.2: Primary factors affecting steel corrosion in concrete ..............................25
Table 2.3.3: Corrosion condition related with HCP measurements [7].......................26
Table 2.3.4: Corrosion risk from resistivity.................................................................28
Table 2.3.5: Guidelines for rebar condition assessment using icorr ..............................31
Table 2.3.6: Relative volume ratios for various iron oxides in comparison to iron ....33
List of Figures
Fig. 2.3.1: Reinforced concrete performance against corrosion deterioration.............16
Fig. 2.3.2: Schematic presentation of corrosion process in reinforced concrete .........17
Fig. 2.3.3: Cathodic and anodic over potentials due to polarization [5]......................21
Fig. 2.3.4: Open circuit potential (OCP) measurement [6]..........................................26
Fig. 2.3.5: Circuit for electrical resistance measurements ...........................................27
Fig. 2.3.6: Guard ring test set-up .................................................................................29
Fig. 2.3.7: Schematic polarization curves showing Tafel extrapolation [14] ..............30
Fig. 2.3.8: Equivalent circuit diagram for simple corrosion system [18] ....................32
Fig. 2.3.9: Schematic Nyquist Plot ..............................................................................32
Fig. 2.3.10: Schematic application diagram for CP using impressed current..............38
Fig. 2.3.11: Schematic application diagram for CP using sacrificial anodes ..............40
Fig. 2.3.12: Schematic diagram for application of ECE ..............................................40
Fig. 2.4.1: Effect of AAR on concrete [2] ...................................................................47
Fig. 2.5.1: Effect of Acid Attack on concrete [3] ........................................................49
iii
iv
Chapter 1: Introduction
Concrete is the most versatile material used in the construction industry worldwide.
Benefits such as mould ability, robustness, fire resistance, readily availability and
durability along with allowed variations in mix design to obtain desirable physical
properties suitable to various applications have made concrete ideal for use in bridge
construction. Concrete in bridges is used mainly in the form of reinforced or
prestressed concrete, mainly using steel for reinforcement purposes. This steelconcrete system in general is highly durable and is used extensively.
But because of severe environment, exposure to harmful chemicals, unplanned higher
loads, inadequate materials selection and poor workmanship etc., Concretes ability to
perform well above its serviceability limits over planned design period i.e. durability
of concrete is adversely affected.
Under action of one or more of above mentioned detrimental factors, various
damaging mechanisms may occur in concrete bridges, of which the commonly
detected are:
Carbonation
Chloride Ingress
Corrosion of reinforcement/prestressing steel
Alkali aggregate reactions
Acid Attack
Sulphate attack
Freeze - Thaw damage
Shrinkage, Fatigue and Creep
Carbonation of concrete occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere
reacts with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in hydrated concrete in the presence of
moisture(H2O) and alkalis (Na+, K+ etc.) forming calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This
reaction causes reductions in the alkalinity of the concrete due to acidic nature of CO2
gas. Reduction in alkalinity impairs the natural passivating nature of concrete i.e.
capability of forming a protective oxide layer around steel reinforcement. Carbonation
starts on the surface and gradually penetrates the concrete, when carbonation front
water and in some situations expansion stresses sufficient to crack the concrete can be
developed in the concrete. The reaction is usually slow and it can take many years for
visual damage to develop under normal conditions.
Acid attack on concrete is promoted because of concretes alkaline nature and
reaction with acids may occur instantaneously at surface if concrete is exposed to acid
smoke, acid rain and aqueous solutions containing acids such as sulphuric, nitric,
hydrochloric and acetic acid, etc. This reaction mainly causes the dissolution of
Ca(OH)2 in presence of acids forming calcium salts. Therefore acid attack damages
concrete as components of the cement paste break down due to consumption of
Ca(OH)2 during contact with acids, leading to leaching and reduction in strength.
Presence of sulphuric acid is a highly damaging as it results in a combination of acid
attack as well as sulphate attack.
Sulphate attack on concrete can be defined as chemical reaction between the sulphate
(SO4-2) ions and hydrated calcium aluminates and/or the Ca(OH)2 components of
hardened concrete in the presence of water. The products resulting from these
reactions are calcium sulphoaluminate hydrate (Ettringite), and calcium sulphate
hydrate (Gypsum). These solids have a very high volume than the solid reactants and
as a consequence cause expansion, tensile stresses are produced that may result in
breakdown of the hardened paste and ultimately in breakdown of the concrete.
Freeze Thaw damage occurs in bridges when wet concrete is exposed to cycles of
freezing and thawing. The principle mechanism is a consequence of the expansiveness
of water as it freezes within the confined concrete pores. This is due to the significant
(around 9%) increase in volume as water turns to ice. This generates hydraulic
pressure in the pores, exposing the pore walls to stress that can cause severe
disruption to the concrete pore structure, ultimately leading to loss of durability due to
reduction in strength and development of cracks in concrete.
Cracking of concrete may also take place in bridges because of following factors:
known then effective monitoring and maintenance systems can be used in time to
avoid sudden need for repair. It will help in cutting down the high costs for unplanned
repairs and will cause fewer disruptions to proper functioning of bridge over their
design life.
But to model durability and hence serviceability analytically in a deterministic
manner is a difficult task as durability is affected by various mechanisms discussed.
Therefore it will not only require good knowledge and understanding of various
streams of science and engineering such as: Concrete engineering, corrosion
engineering, fracture mechanics, solid mechanics etc.; but also tools capable to
combine these effects reasonably accurately. Likewise it will not be reasonable if
experimental results alone as obtained in laboratory or at some site are taken as
standards because of temporal and spatial variations in various parameters involved
that will alter the degradation mechanisms significantly.
Therefore it is much necessitated that, a model that includes knowledge of experts
from various fields having significant exposure to problem of durability of bridges
combined with experimental investigation, be used to provide a better insight about
the serviceability status of a given bridge structure. For this purpose, diagnosis of
extent of degradations can be made possible with judicious combination of fuzzy
mathematics which can transform experts knowledge from qualitative to quantitative
and models for reinforced/prestressed concrete behavior from experimental data
obtained using non destructive tests (NDT) and/or semi destructive tests (SDT). And
furthermore modeling prognosis will allow us to estimate the remaining service life of
a bridge structure.
Once the extent of various degradations and remaining service life of a bridge are
known appropriate measures can be implemented to improve or sustain the health of
the structure and a maintenance methodology can be developed.
References
1. Virmani Y. P., Payer J.H. and Koch G.H. et.al., Corrosion costs and preventive
strategies in the United States, FHWA Publication, No. FHWA-RD-01-156,
(2002).
5
2.1 Carbonation
In concrete, under normal conditions, reinforcing steel does not corrode. As in the
highly alkaline environment of concrete, iron is oxidized to Fe2O3 / Fe3O4 / -FeOOH.
These oxides provide a tightly adhering passive oxide film (passive layer) on the
surface of the steel reinforcement, which limits the access of oxygen and moisture to
rebar and thus arrests corrosion. Drop in pH might cause depassivation of this film,
thus allowing corrosion to proceed [1, 2].
In moist environments, carbon dioxide CO2 present in the air, diffuses through pores
of concrete and forms an acid aqueous solution that can react with alkaline
constituents of concrete, mainly calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 formed during hydration
process of cement paste and tends to neutralize the alkalinity (Ca(OH)2 in the porewater of the concrete is the main reason for its alkalinity) of concrete, this
phenomenon commonly is termed as carbonation of concrete and is commonly
detected in concrete. The reactions in presence of alkalis and moisture, involved in
carbonation process in concrete can be written as [1, 3]:
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2
H2CO3
(2.1.1)
CaCO3 + 2H2O
(2.1.2)
H2O
NaOH
CaCO3 + H2O
(2.1.3)
In this process CO2 diffuses through the concrete pores and the rate of movement of
the carbonation front can be approximated reasonably using laws of diffusion, which
states that the rate of movement is inversely proportional to the distance from the
surface as presented in equation below [3]:
dx D0
=
dt
x
(2.1.4)
d = Kt
(2.1.5)
The carbonation reaction starts at the external surface and penetrates into the concrete
producing a low pH front. The measurement of the depth of carbonation is normally
carried out by spraying an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein on a freshly broken
face. The areas where pH is greater than 9 take on a pinkish color typical of
phenolphthalein in basic environment, while the color in carbonated areas remains
unchanged [3-5].
Factor
CO2 Concentration
in surrounding air
Permeability of
concrete
Degree of concrete
pore saturation
References
1. Bertolini L., Elsener B., Pedeferri P. and Polder R., Corrosion of Steel in
Concrete: Prevention, Diagnosis, Repair, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim Publication
(2004).
2. Montemor M.F., Simoes A.M.P. and Ferreira M.G.S. Chloride-induced corrosion
on reinforcing steel: from the fundamentals to the monitoring techniques Cement
663677 (2003).
6. Apostolopoulos C.A. and Papadakis V.G., Consequences of steel corrosion on
the ductility properties of reinforcement bar Construction and Building
10
Only in concrete completely and permanently saturated with water can chloride ions
penetrate by pure diffusion. In most situations, other transport mechanisms such as
permeation and convection due to difference in hydraulic pressure (moisture content)
and migration due to difference in electrical potential also contribute to chloride
penetration. For instance, when dry concrete comes into contact with salt water,
initially capillary suction of the chloride solution occurs. Furthermore, binding due to
adsorption or chemical reaction with constituents of the cement paste alters the
concentration of chloride ions in the pore solution [1]. Nevertheless Ficks second law
can be used for a good approximation, considering the total content of chlorides
usually, hence including bound chlorides and can be written as [4-6]:
C
2C
= DApp. 2
t
x
(2.2.1)
This is an initial value boundary problem which on integration under assumed initial
value and boundary conditions gives us:
C ( x, t ) = Cs 1 erf
2 DApp.t
(2.2.2)
Where C(x,t) = Total chloride content at time t at depth x from surface of the concrete
DApp. = Apparent diffusion coefficient for chloride (m2/s)
Cs = Surface chloride content (% by mass of cement or concrete
erf = Error Function: erf ( x) =
e t dt
The apparent diffusion coefficient and the surface chloride content are calculated by
fitting the experimental data to Eqn. (2.2.2) and are often used to describe chloride
profile measured on real structures. DApp. is often used as the parameter that describes
the resistance of concrete to chloride penetration, when performances of different
materials are compared. The lower DApp is, the higher the resistance to chloride
penetration is. It should, however, be observed that, while the diffusion coefficient
obtained from pure (steady-state) diffusion tests can be considered as a property of the
concrete, the apparent diffusion coefficient obtained from real structures also depends
on other factors (such as the exposure conditions or the time of exposure). Therefore,
results obtained under particular conditions, especially during short-term laboratory
tests, may not be applicable to other exposure conditions [1].
12
In principle, if DApp and Cs are known and can be assumed to be constant in time, it is
possible to evaluate the evolution with time of the chloride profile in the concrete and
then to estimate the time t at which chloride threshold will be reached and corrosion
will initiate. Though in general DApp and Cs, cannot be assumed as constants in the
case of real structures where binding as well as processes other than diffusion take
place.
Threshold chloride
content
binding capacity of concrete, as chlorides form tricalciumchloro-aluminate (Fridels salt) on reaction with C3A
13
cycles
14
15
2.3 Corrosion
Deterioration
Serviceability Limit
Initiation
Time
Failure
Propagation
Time
Time
16
(2.3.1)
O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e - 4 OH -
(2.3.2)
Fe++ + 2 OH - Fe(OH)2
(2.3.3)
(2.3.4)
In this process oxidation of metal [Eqn. 2.3.1] occurs at anode (Negative pole) while
reduction [Eqn. 2.3.2] takes place at cathode. Electrons flow from anode to cathode in
metal and thus current flows from cathode to anode in metal. Negative OH- ions flow
from cathode to anode in concrete pore water (electrolyte) and so current flows from
anodic area to cathodic area in concrete. Similarly positive metal ions diffuse from
metal to concrete at anode while electron flows from metal to concrete at cathode.
Concrete with pore Cl & CO2
water as electrolyte
Anode
O2 2 H2O
Cathode
4e
Passive layer
4 OH
Fe Fe++ + 2 e
Iron dissolution
after depassivation
High Voluminous
Red Rust - Fe(OH)3
Rebar
17
Free energy change (G) of any reaction is a measure of driving force for a reaction
and is represented by difference in free energies of formation of products and
reactants i.e.
G = Gproducts - Greactants
(2.3.5)
For electrochemical (cell) reactions change in free energy can be related with the
electrode (cell) potential in following manner [3-5]:
G = - nFE0
(2.3.6)
(2.3.7)
Also we can write for anodic and cathodic half cells that:
Anode Half Cell Potential = Ea = Esta - Econa
(2.3.8)
(2.3.9)
18
Values for these half cell potentials are available in literature and are equal to 1.229
volts and -0.440 volts respectively for cathodic and anodic cells at 25 oC with respect
to Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) [3]. It explains that standard cell potential is
positive for corrosion cell. Therefore corrosion reactions will occur under conducive
environment i.e. after depassivation of protective oxide layer under standard
conditions, because corrosion cell potential E0 is positive and hence value of G is
negative, leading to a spontaneous reaction. Another tool for predicting the corrosion
reactions is the Pourbaix diagram, which deals with the thermodynamic equilibrium
of reactions involved and demonstrates a qualitative picture of what can happen at a
given pH and potential. The Pourbaix diagram illustrate the relations of the potential
established between a pure metal (electrode) and its ions in solution (electrolyte), and
the pH of the electrolyte; indicating which pH-potential conditions might lead to
corrosion. In reinforced concrete, water acts as electrolyte while iron rebars serve as
electrode [4].
Cell (Electrode) Potentials for various reactions involved in corrosion process can be
obtained using Nernst equation [3, 5]. It represents variation of cell potential from
standard potential values depending on absolute temperature and rate of electrode
reactions involved and can be written as:
E = E0 +
RT Qoxid
ln
zF Qred
(2.3.10)
19
represented using molar concentration of dissolved species in mol/l and for solid
matter and pure liquids varies very little and can be taken as unity [5]. Using these
concepts electrode potentials for reactions [2.3.1 2.3.2] can be obtained as presented
in table 2.3.1.
Reaction
E0(Volts)
Fe Fe++ + 2e -
- 0.440
E0 + (RT/2F)*ln([Fe++] / [Fe])
O2 + 2H2O + 4e - 4OH -
1.229
E0 + (RT/4F)*ln([O2][H2O]2 / [OH-])
Table 2.3.1: Electrode potentials for anodic and cathodic corrosion reactions
Rebar corrosion in concrete once initiated is then propagated, in process deteriorating
the RC structure. Question on what controls the rate of corrosion reaction can be
answered with the help of theory of kinetics, which explains rate of reactions.
potential for half cell reactions shifts away from equilibrium, as a result of the net cell
reaction occurring, i.e. a net electric current flowing through the interface between
metal and electrolyte, and retards reactions at electrode [5].
The deviation from equilibrium is called polarization, and we say that the electrode is
polarized. A simple measure of polarization is the overvoltage (), i.e. the difference
between the equilibrium electrode potential and the cell potential. When corrosion
process takes place on a surface, the electrode potential adopts the cell potential value,
which is somewhere between the equilibrium potential of the cathodic and anodic
reactions leading to polarization, which slows down the reaction at electrode. The
polarization can briefly be categorized as following, based on the source of origin:
20
Fig. 2.3.3: Cathodic and anodic over potentials due to polarization [5]
There exists an energy barrier that the species involved in a reaction (atoms/ ions)
have to overcome to be transferred to a new state. The rate-determining step may be
ion or electron transfer across the interface or some kind of conversion of a species
involved in the reaction. Activation polarization is caused by the resistance against
these reactions itself at the metalelectrolyte interface. For activation polarization the
relationship between current density, i and overvoltage, is given by the Tafel
equation, which states that in absence of concentration and ohmic polarization, the
activation polarization is proportional to logarithm of current density [5]. Tafels
equation for activation over potential is given as:
i
RT
* ln
zF
icorr
= 2.303*
(2.3.11)
21
In cases, where activation polarization dominates the mass or charge transfer across
the interface is rate determining. On the other hand, the mass transport within the
solution may be rate determining, due to dominance of concentration polarization.
This implies either there is a shortage of reactants at the electrode surface or that an
accumulation of reaction products occurs. Effect on over potential due to
concentration polarization can be obtained using the Nernst equation, which takes in
to account the effect of concentration of participating species in potential calculation.
This can be explained using the effect of oxygen availability during corrosion process,
which is a major rate determining factor as will be discussed later. Where cathode
over potential due to change in concentration of oxygen (conc.) can be calculated as
mentioned below [5]:
RT
zF
conc. =
Cf
*ln
Ci
(2.3.12)
(2.3.13)
Now rate of any reaction can be defined as rate of consumption of involved reactant
species or production rate of end products. Which for electrochemical (ionic)
reactions involved in corrosion process can be obtained using Faradays law which
gives us:
r = I / (z*F)
(2.3.14)
22
current is a direct and simple measure for two main deteriorating effects of corrosion
i.e.; Amount of iron consumed in the corrosion reaction and corresponding amount of
rust produced. Commonly the rate is expressed in corrosion current per unit area i.e.
current density. Higher the rate is more damaging it will be to reinforced concrete
structures as it will cause more damage to reinforcement by consuming more iron in
even smaller time. But due to various controlling parameters the overall process rate
is not as simple to model as it looks. Some parameters that have significant influence
on corrosion rate are briefly discussed in following section along with their influence
on overall corrosion process.
Cover Thickness
Permeability of concrete
Resistivity of concrete
Oxygen availability
23
decrease in resistivity
Corrosion can occur only in partially saturated
pH of concrete pore
water
Carbonation
Stray currents
24
25
Probability
of
Reinforcement
w.r.t. SCE
w.r.t. CSE
Corrosion
structural area without many disruptions to the functioning of the structure, which
can be used to establish structure potential map
OCP measurement is useful in finding out the anodic and cathodic sites in
compared to concrete with low resistivity in which the current can easily pass through
concrete between anodic and cathodic areas.
Two different techniques, namely AC and DC measurements are used for
determination of electrical resistivity. In these measurements both surface and
embedded probes are applied. Applying a constant electric field between the two
embedded electrodes and measuring the resulting current as a voltage drop over a
small resistance accomplish the DC measurements.
The AC measurements can be conducted both by means of two and four-pin methods.
The most common surface mounted probe is known as the Wenner array, which uses
four probes. An alternating current (AC) is passed between the outer electrodes and
the potential between the inner electrodes is measured. Concrete resistivity is usually
measured by using the Wenner four probe method [6]. Schematic setup for the
resistivity measurement is shown in Fig 2.3.5.
R = V/I
= 2aR
Probes
Sponges
Concrete
Rebar
(2.3.15)
27
Negligible
10,000 - 20,000
Low
5,000 - 10,000
High
0 < 5,000
Very high
(2.3.16)
From which the corrosion rate Icorr, can then be calculated using
Icorr = B / Rp
(2.3.17)
28
a c
2.303( a + c )
(2.3.18)
In order to determine the corrosion current density, icorr, the surface area A, of
polarized steel needs to be accurately known and then:
icorr =Icorr / A
(2.3.19)
Sensor electrodes
Guard ring
electrode
Working
electrode
29
Tafel Extrapolation:
The Tafel extrapolation technique (TP) is another electrochemical method for
calculating corrosion rate based on the intensity of the corrosion current (Icorr) and the
Tafel slopes. Tafel slopes also could be used to calculate corrosion rate with LPR as
mentioned earlier. This technique is also based upon application of either steady fixed
levels of current, followed by monitoring of the potential (galvanostatic) or
application of specific potential followed by monitoring of the current (potentiostatic).
The main difference between these two methods is that the change in potential must
be kept within Stern- Geary range i.e. less than 30 mV for the LPR technique, while
the change of potential can go up to 250 mV for the Tafel extrapolation technique.
30
(2.3.20)
The corrosion current density can then be obtained by using the exposed surface area
(A) of steel, using Eq. 2.3.19 as mentioned earlier. Main disadvantage of using Tafels
extrapolation technique is that it is an electrochemically destructive technique, as
application of external activation (voltage or current) may alter the electrochemical
behavior of the system significantly.
Rebar condition can be interpreted on the basis of corrosion current density, and
following guidelines have been suggested and are widely accepted for the rebar
condition assessment [15, 16].
Corrosion Current Density (icorr)
A/cm2
icorr < 0.1
Negligible
31
Z eq. = Rs +
Rp
(2.3.21)
1 + CR p
Z"=
Rp
1 + (CR p )
(2.3.22)
CR p 2
1 + (CR p )
(2.3.23)
Rs
Rp
Simple Corrosion System
32
At the highest point on the semicircle the frequency can be found by interpolation
and then double-layer capacitance value is then given by Eq. 2.3.24 as following:
C=
(2.3.24)
max R p
VOxide / VIron
FeO
1.7 - 1.8
Fe3O4
2.0 - 2.2
Fe2O3
2.1 - 2.2
Fe(OH)2
3.6 - 3.8
Fe(OH)3
4.0 - 4.2
Fe(OH)33H2O
6.2 - 6.4
Table 2.3.6: Relative volume ratios for various iron oxides in comparison to iron
Common damages in RC Structures:
The rust produced initially occupies the pore space surrounding the rebar, once all the
pore space available is used then; concrete is subjected to tensile stresses due to
33
excess volume of remaining rust. This ultimately causes cracks in concrete which is a
poor material in tension. This will lead to spalling of cover concrete in area
surrounding the corroding rebar and hence is a major concern as it will affect the
serviceability of the structure significantly by making it accident prone. In general
following deteriorating consequences of corrosion are common in RC structures:
Rust stains on concrete surface due to leaching of corrosion products, this
longitudinal wire splits, wire seams created by overused/faulty drawing dies, and pits
in wire from atmospheric corrosion created during storage and prior to grouting, are
known to have provided crack initiation sites. Other locations susceptible to the
phenomenon include locations where moisture penetrates to the steel in areas where
steel is not passivated, e.g., with carbonated concrete, or steel not in direct contact
with concrete or grout.
Hydrogen embrittlement (HE):
Hydrogen embrittlement is a related phenomenon, which causes liberated atomic
hydrogen molecules to penetrate (through absorption) the steel lattice and
consequently leads to reduction in ductility of strands. This process can be termed as
Cathodic corrosion under tensile stress and will lead to brittle cracking of
prestressing strands due to embrittlement of hydrogen. As hydrogen can be created by
the electrochemical cathodic corrosion process itself if not available otherwise, for
example at a pit, or corrosion at manufacturing and wire drawing flaws, and from
cathodic protection systems which produce excessive electrical currents. Rupture is
sudden and brittle [5, 23-25]. Hydrogen embrittlement can also take place even in
absence of applied tensile stresses [25].
In case of SCC or HE the failure process develops such that initially, one or several
micro cracks are generated at the surface of the steel and then, these cracks grow and
propagate very quickly until they reach a certain depth, leading to the unexpected
brittle failure of the strand wire.
Main concern with SCC or HE is that, they cant be noticed by means of measuring
the corrosion rate, as the loss of metal is negligible and the corrosion potential
measured at the concrete surface may not indicate the development of the process.
Therefore, this type of corrosion cannot be electrochemically measured during its
occurrence. Only the risk of its appearance may be approached by the traditional
electrochemical techniques.
Even after the failure the identification of the nature of the failure is not an easy task.
It can only be detected by microscopic observation of the fractured surface when it is
fresh, and not corroded or contaminated. SHE or HE shall not to be mistaken with the
35
Corrosion is the most prominent among the factors that govern the performance of a
concrete structure during the service life of the structure. Therefore it is mandatory to
control the corrosion process in existing as well as in new structures if required, to
maintain the minimum required performance levels over the service life period of the
structure. In present scenario corrosion process can be controlled by various
techniques, which have established their application in field over the period of time.
The commonly utilized techniques and materials for corrosion control are:
Patch Repair
Cathodic protection (CP) using impressed current
Cathodic protection using sacrificial anode
Electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE)
Realkalization
Inhibitor application
Coatings
Use of corrosion resistant rebars
Design considerations
Patch Repair:
Patch repair is a traditional approach used for repair of corroded concrete structures;
where spalling has taken place or cracks appear on the concrete surface or structure
show signs of rebar corrosion over an area. And therefore areas having rebar
corrosion is usually identified by means of visual inspection, though sometimes
electrochemical methods may also be used. In this method basically the contaminated
concrete is replaced with fresh mortar.
In this method the concrete placed over the corroded rebars is removed completely by
breaking out the concrete behind the steel reinforcement. At all locations, the steel
must then be at very least wire brushed to remove all loose deposits or preferably grit
blasted or water jetted back to bright metal. Once the area to be repaired has been cut
36
out and cleaned thoroughly of all debris and dust, the repair can begin. Usually
designed repair mortars usually contain one or more of acrylic or other polymers,
shrinkage compensating additives, silica fume etc. to improve workability,
permeability, or ease of application. Mortar for repairs is then usually hand placed
packing the mortar on in layers. The repair must then be cured in properly. Once
finished and cured, there may be surface irregularities and will almost certainly be
color variation between the patch and the surrounding parent concrete. It is usual
therefore to apply a thin skim coat of a proprietary material, usually known as a
"fairing coat" to fill in any surface blemishes and to mask the patches themselves.
This may then be followed by the application of a final coating of anti-carbonation
paint which has the dual purpose of stopping further carbonation in unrepaired areas
and providing a pleasing and even color finish [10].
Patch repair is very handful in case of global corrosion where corrosion takes place
over a large area, that is in case of carbonated induced corrosion. But the patch repair
of chloride-induced corrosion damage presents problems because of the localized
nature of the corrosion. Active corrosion sites provide a form of electrochemical
protection (Cathodic protection due to incipient anode effect) for adjacent passive
steel that may also be exposed to chloride-contaminated concrete. The traditional
patch repair of corroding areas therefore triggers corrosion initiation in these passive
areas as the local protection is removed. Thus, when conventional patch repairs are
used to inhibit chloride-induced corrosion deterioration, all contaminated concrete
should be removed if further deterioration is to be avoided. One method of
overcoming this problem is to provide a sacrificial anode in the area of the patch
repair to continue the provision of local electrochemical protection. Placing small
sacrificial anodes such as Zinc covered with an appropriate mortar in the patch are
used commonly [10, 26-27].
Cathodic Protection:
Cathodic protection (CP) is a widely used and effective method of corrosion control.
Cathodic protection suppresses the corrosion current that causes damage in a
corrosion cell and forces the current to flow to the metal that is to be protected. The
basic fundamental is that cathodic areas in an electrochemical cell do not corrode.
Therefore if all the anode sites on rebar were forced to function as cathodes, then the
37
rebar would be a cathode and corrosion would be eliminated. To achieve this potential
of the rebar is artificially shifted so that it acts as cathode and hence becomes either
immune or passive. This phenomenon is appreciably used by converting active anodic
area of rebar in concrete to the cathodic ones, by the means of either an impressed
direct current (DC), or by connecting it to a sacrificial or galvanic anode [26-29].
Cathodic protection using impressed current:
In this technique the steel is connected to the negative terminal of an external
electrical power supply forcing it to undergo cathodic reaction as it receives current.
The anode, connected to the positive terminal of the power supply, is usually chosen
to be a relatively non-reactive conductor such as carbon or titanium so that its
corrosion rate is low. Fig. 2.3.10 provides the schematic application diagram for CP
using impressed current.
External
power source
Less reactive anode
__
Protection currents
(AC) to direct current and provides required current to the CP system and
must be capable of providing either constant current or constant voltage to the
anode system.
Relatively inert anode material: It is used to distribute protective current to the
reinforcing steel and provides locations for anodic reactions to take place in
38
purposes.
Though used extensively this technique has certain limitations that need to be taken
care of for an efficient protection system. Some of the limitations of this technique are
as followed:
Requires skilled labor and routine monitoring and maintenance of voltage,
of cathodic reaction at steel atomic hydrogen may be produced and that may
lead to brittle failure due to hydrogen embrittlement
Cathodic protection using sacrificial (galvanic) anode:
Sacrificial anode systems for CP are based on the principle of dissimilar metal
corrosion and the relative position of different metals in the galvanic series. In this
procedure a sacrificial anode is connected with the rebars. and hence a galvanic cell is
set up by connecting the steel to a more reactive metal, usually zinc. The zinc then
undergoes the anodic reaction and corrodes whilst the steel is rendered entirely
inactive because the whole surface undergoes the cathodic reaction and the iron no
longer dissolves. This may also be thought of as the anodic sites on the steel being
shifted to the sacrificial anode material.The direct current is generated by the potential
difference between the sacrificial anode and reinforcing steel when connected and
thus doesnt require external power source. The sacrificial anode will corrode during
the process and is consumed. Current will flow from the anode, through the concrete,
to the corroding rebar. Because current is to travel through concrete therefore this
method is not very effective in high resistance concretes, which impedes the flow of
current [26-29]. Fig. 2.3.11 represents schematic application diagram for CP using
sacrificial anodes.
39
Connection
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Protection currents
40
__
Passing large amounts of electricity through concrete can have effects upon its
chemistry and therefore its physical condition, therefore an expert system is required.
ECE on the other hand may also accelerate alkali aggregate reactivity due to the
cathodic reaction that generates excess alkali at the steel surface. The main benefit of
this techniques are that structures is repassivated and the instrumentation need not be
installed permanently like CP and can be removed as soon as the goals are achieved.
Realkalization is a similar process in which instead of any metal anode an alkali
material such as Lithium (Li) is used, which undergoes the anodic reaction and
produces alkali ions (Li+) , which being positively charged are attracted by cathodic
steel thus increasing the alkalinity in surrounding of rebar.
Inhibitor Application:
Some chemical species inhibit corrosion. Chromates, silicates, and organic amines are
common inhibitors. The mechanisms of inhibition can be quite complex. In the case
of the organic amines, the inhibitor is adsorbed on anodic and cathodic sites and
impairs the corrosion current. Other inhibitors specifically affect either the anodic or
cathodic process. Still others promote the formation of protective films on the metal
surface. The use of inhibitors is favored in closed systems where the necessary
concentration of inhibitor is more readily maintained. Inhibitors can be incorporated
in a protective coating or in a primer for the coating. At a defect in the coating, the
inhibitor leaches from the coating and controls the corrosion [29].
Coatings:
Coatings can be applied to concrete structure at whole or to the rebars with the intent
that the corrosive substances are isolated from the rebar. And mainly are of following
three types [29]:
Metallic Coatings: The concept of applying a more noble metal coating on an active
metal takes advantage of the greater corrosive resistance of the noble metal. An
example of this application is tin-plated steel. Alternatively, a more active metal can
be applied, and in this case the coating corrodes preferentially, or sacrificially, to the
substrate. An example of this system is galvanized steel, where the sacrificial zinc
41
coating corrodes preferentially and protects the steel, and is commonly called as
anode coating.
Organic Coatings: The primary function of organic coatings in corrosion protection
is to isolate the metal from the corrosive environment. In addition to forming a barrier
layer to prohibit further corrosion, these coatings can contain corrosion inhibitors.
Inorganic coatings: Include porcelain enamels, chemical-setting silicate cement
linings, glass coatings and linings, and other corrosion resistant ceramics. These
coatings serve as barrier coatings.
Design Considerations:
The application of rational design principles can eliminate many corrosion problems
significantly. Some guidelines that shall be followed are:
Eliminate the dead spaces or crevices as corrosion often occurs there3
Storage of water shall be avoided at joints
Accurate concrete cover depth shall be provided
Limit the inherent chlorides in structures by using appropriate aggregates
If possible limit the crack width at tensile face of concrete surface, which is
42
References
1. Indian Road Congress (IRC), An approach document for assessment of
remaining life of concrete structures, IRC: SP 60, New Delhi, India (2002).
2. ACI 222R Corrosion of Metals in Concrete, ACI Committee 222 Report,
American Concrete Institute, (1985).
3. Bazant Z. P., Physical model for steel corrosion in concrete sea structures Theory, Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 105(6), pp. 1137-1153
(1979).
4. O'Brien Thomas F., Bommaraju Tilak V. and Hine Fumio Corrosion: Handbook
of chlor-alkali technology, Volume - V , Chemistry and material sciences,
Springer US (2005).
5. Einar Bardal, Corrosion and Protection, Engineering Materials and Processes,
Springer London (2004).
6. Ha-Won Song and Velu Saraswathy, Corrosion Monitoring of Reinforced
Concrete Structures A Review, International Journal of Electrochemical
Science, Vol. 2, pp. 1- 28 (2007).
7. ASTM: C876, Standard test method for half-cell potentials of uncoated
reinforcing steel in concrete, ASTM Standards, Vol. 03(02), (1991).
8. Gannon E.J., Cady P.D., Condition evaluation of concrete bridges relative to
reinforcement corrosion, Volume 1: state of the art of existing methods Strategic
Highway Research Program, Report: SHRP-S/FR-92-103, National Research
Council, Washington, DC, (1992).
9. Mehta P.K. and Monteiro P. J. M. Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and
Materials Third edition. McGraw-Hill, pp. 415. (2006).
10. Grantham M. G. and Gray M. J., Diagnosis, Inspection, Testing and Repair of
Reinforced Concrete Structures M.G. Associates, Herts, (2000).
11. Ahmad S. and Bhattacharjee B., "A simple arrangement and procedure for in-situ
measurement of corrosion rate of rebar embedded in concrete, Corrosion
Science, Vol. 37(5), pp.781-791, (1995).
12. Daly A. F, Modelling of deterioration in bridges, Transport Research
Laboratory (TRL), BRIME Report: PL97-2220, (1999).
13. Broomfield John P., Corrosion of Steel in Concrete: Understanding, Investigation
and Repair, E&FN Spon. London (1997).
43
45
Alkali Aggregate Reactions (AAR) also known as Alkali Silica Reactions (ASR) are
chemical reactions where alkali sodium and potassium ions in pore water solution
react with certain types of concrete aggregates, reaction is generally agreed to be a
dissolution reaction. This occurs as a result of the increased solubility of amorphous,
disordered or poorly-crystallized forms of silica minerals in high pH solutions. The
reaction forms a hygroscopic alkali-silica gel which absorbs water and swells. The
swelling forces generated may be sufficient to disrupt aggregate particles and the
surrounding concrete, causing expansion, cracking, and associated deterioration [1-4].
Aside from the environmental conditions (such as temperature and humidity) and the
alkali content etc., the development of AAR depends on the type of reactive rock
types in the aggregate and the aggregate grading (size). Some rock types are rapidly
reactive such as chert, and some rock types containing microcrystalline quartz are
slowly reactive as for instance the Norwegian rhyolite. The rapid reactions can
develop within a few years, while the slow reactions may develop for as much as 20
years before visual signs occur. Slow reaction could be the case if the content of
reactive rock types in the aggregate is very low, or the concrete contains no free
Ca(OH)2. Therefore if designed as par guidelines i.e. choosing aggregate constituents
on basis of their typical reactivity in AAR can ensure safety and durability of concrete
against AAR. The most reactive forms of aggregate are strained quartz, amorphous
silica, cryptocrystalline quartz, chalcedony, and chert. In general, aggregates
containing crystalline silica are stable and those with amorphous or very fine-grained
silica are reactive.
But if this is avoided, then AAR can cause significant damages in concrete. As it will
lead to cracking or unacceptable expansion of the concrete, which then disrupt the
microstructure of concrete. In field structures in many cases the cracking does not
lead to severe deterioration of the structure by itself, but it opens up for dangerous
side effects such as corrosion from CO2 and chloride intrusion, freeze thaw
mechanism etc.. This may lead to spalling of the concrete cover. This is an area of
concern which adversely affects the durability of concrete and therefore of bridges.
46
Two different theories are used as explanation for the mechanism causing the
expansion and ultimately the cracking of the concrete:
The silicious gel, which is a reaction product of the AAR, causes the
expansion of the concrete.
An expansion of several adjacent aggregate particles close to each other will lead to
tensile forces and will generate tensile stresses in surrounding concrete and if the
tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the concrete, cracking occurs. It has also
been observed that AAR causes a reduction in bond strength and a significant
reduction in the fatigue life. Prestress developed by the AAR expansion can enhance
the shear strength and stiffness of beams. Fig. 2.4.1 shows effect of aggressive AAR
reaction on concrete.
47
References
1. Wigum B.J., Pedersen L.T., Grelk B. and Lindgard J. State-of-the art report: Key
parameters influencing the alkali aggregate reaction Report No. SBF52A06018,
SINTEF Building and Infrastructure Publication, (2006).
2. Naus D.J., Primer on Durability of Nuclear Power Plant Reinforced Concrete
Structures - A Review of Pertinent Factors, Report: NUREG/CR-6927, U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C., (2007).
3. Basheer P. A. M., Chidiac S. E., and Long A. E., Predictive models for
deterioration of concrete structures, Construction and Building Materials, Vol.
10(1), pp. 27-37, (1996).
4. Grantham M. G. and Gray M. J., Diagnosis, Inspection, Testing and Repair of
Reinforced Concrete Structures M.G. Associates, Herts, (2000).
48
Concrete having alkaline nature does not exhibit good resistance to acids in general
and has a natural tendency to neutralize the acids. In damp conditions, sulphur dioxide
(SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as some other fumes present in the
atmosphere, form acids which attack concrete and combine with the calcium
compounds in the hydrated cement paste (i.e., calcium hydroxide, calcium silicate
hydrate, and calcium aluminate hydrate) to form soluble materials due to dissolution
of Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H, that then are readily leached away by aqueous solution from
the concrete[1-3].
Acid attack therefore cause dissolution and removal of hydrated cement paste in
concrete and leave a soft and very weak mass with high porosity and permeability.
Therefore it will allow other harmful species such as CO2 and Cl- to reach the rebar
through pores in the concrete, which can lead to rebar corrosion which will in turn
cause cracking and spalling of the concrete.
Acid Attack can therefore be typified by leaching, exposed aggregates and
disintegration in extreme cases. Therefore concrete undergoing acid attack will show
disintegration of the concrete in the form of loss of cement paste and aggregate from
the matrix. Fig. 2.5.1 presents effect of acid attack on concrete. It can sometimes be
difficult to diagnose since the acid is neutralized by the cement paste and may be
washed away. The common sources are spillage from acid tanks, acidic groundwater
and oxidation of sewage effluents, industrial plants, acid rains etc. [2 -3].
49
50
51
The extent and form of sulphate attack depends on its concentration, the permeability
of the concrete, i.e. on the ease with which sulphate can travel through the pore
system and surrounding environment.
It is interesting to notice that, gypsum is added to the cement clinker in order to
prevent rapid set by the hydration of the C3A. Gypsum quickly reacts with C3A to
produce ettringite which is harmless because, at this stage, the concrete is still in a
semi-plastic state so that expansion can be accommodated. A similar reaction takes
place when hardened concrete is exposed to sulphates from external sources.
The effects of sulphate attacks in concrete can be controlled by following ways:
Reducing the C3A in the binders used in concrete
Reducing the Ca(OH)2 in concrete by addition of pozzolana
Reducing the permeability of the concrete; requires a low w/c ratio with good
52
salt concentrations. Osmotic pressure may also develop due to freezing alone. As
when the temperature drops, there is an initial period of super-cooling after which ice
crystals start to form in the large capillaries leaving alkalis in remaining unfrozen
solution. The result is an increase in the alkalinity of the unfrozen water in these areas
causing local increase in solute concentration. This creates an osmotic potential that
causes unfrozen water in neighboring capillaries to diffuse towards the site of
freezing. This in turn dilutes the high alkali water allowing more ice crystals to form
[5-6].
Damage to concrete due to freeze-thaw attack can take several forms such as [1-5]; a
schematic diagram of various damages is presented in Fig 2.7.1:
Internal damage: These damages are confined primarily to the mortar and are
due to application of de-icing salts or salts from sea which causes the temperature
of the concrete surface to change rapidly leading to thermal stresses. The surface
layer may become detached if the stresses occurring exceed the tensile or bond
strength holding the layer to the substrate causing eventual loss of sand and
aggregate particles and the concrete surface is gradually eroded. This affects the
strength of the member as well as the appearance and durability. Surface scaling is
a progressive problem. Scaling can be assumed to be linear with time so that the
loss of concrete cover can be estimated.
Pop- out: A pop-out is a small volume of concrete that has separated from the
body of the concrete to leave a roughly conical depression. The most common
cause of pop-outs is stress resulting from freeze-thaw action within the coarse
aggregate particle that causes cracking of the particle and simultaneous fracture of
the concrete between the particle and nearest concrete face.
D- cracks: Systems of vertical cracks visible on the surface and closely spaced at
joints and edges are called D-cracking and are commonly observed in pavements
54
since the concrete is most likely to be water saturated. When the surface shows Dcracking, the underlying concrete may likely be severely deteriorated. D-cracks
generally initiate within the non-durable aggregate [2].
path to the nearest place for the water to escape, properly air-entrained concrete
with sufficient strength demonstrates good resistance to freeze-thaw
Water-cement ratio & curing: Controls permeability and strength, low w/c cement
damages in general
Degree of capillary saturation: Only highly saturated (80-90 % saturation level)
concrete is subjected to frost damage and this saturation level is called critical
saturation point
Aggregate materials: Durable and less porous aggregates reduce the damage
Temperature: Minimum temperature and rate of change affects freeze-thaw cycles
place and gel pores doesnt even at very low temperatures as they are very small
Number of freeze-thaw cycles: It is an progressive damage mechanism in general
Chemical constituents of concrete: Resistance can be increased by lowering C3A
56
Fatigue, shrinkage and creep are damage mechanisms which arise under the action of
loads and dont involve chemical reactions with external agents. And stresses may be
generated due to applied loads, hydration process or environmental changes (thermal)
etc. and will cause progressive damages to concrete structures.
2.8.1 Fatigue
Fatigue is the result of applied repeated mechanical loadings, repeated reversal and
variation of stresses and strains or induced vibrations, and generally causes loss of
bond between the constituents of concrete, causing localized damage. For extreme
conditions, the resistance of the reinforced systems may be reduced or failures may
occur at applied stress levels less than yield [1-3].
In general concrete structures exhibit good resistance to fatigue and are designed for
influence of repetitive loads as par the design codes, so fatigue failure is unusual.
However, as structures age, there may be instances of local fatigue damage (due to
stress intensification, material flaws etc.) at locations where reciprocating equipments
cause repetitive loading, or at supports for pipes that exhibit flow induced vibrations.
Fluctuations in loading, temperature, or moisture content (that are not large enough to
cause failure in a single static application) lead to damage by fatigue in concrete
structures.
Fatigue damage initiates as microcracks in the cement paste, proximate to the large
aggregate particles and rebar. On continued or reversed load application, microcracks
may propagate to form structurally significant cracks that can expose the concrete and
reinforcing steel to severe environments or produce increased deflections. Ultimate
failure of a concrete structure in fatigue will occur as a result of excessive cracking,
excessive deflections, or brittle fracture. Therefore fatigue failure may be attributed to
the progressive deterioration of the bond between the coarse aggregate and the matrix
(typically starting along the interfacial zone between an aggregate and the paste). Also
fatigue failure may arise due to the coalescence of pre-existing micro-cracks in the
matrix, resulting in a single localized macro- crack under action of repetitive loads.
As cyclic loading proceeds, stresses are redistributed and the macro-crack width
decreases but never closes completely. Also Repeated cyclic loading causes
57
incremental bond slip and formation of sub microscopic cracks, which lead to stress
concentration due to notch effect [1-3].
The fatigue behavior of concrete structures is in general a function of the magnitude
of applied loads, strength and fracture energy of concrete. Fatigue resistance is also
affected by stress range, loading frequency and load history. In reinforced or
prestressed concrete, properties of the steel tend to control structural performance
since the steel carries the tensile loads [1-4].
2.8.2 Shrinkage
58
concrete paste. They phenomenon is termed as drying shrinkage of the concrete and
can cause a random crack pattern [5].
Cracks caused by plastic shrinkage can be quite wide (2-3 mm) on the surface of
concrete. It is also possible that the subsequent events including drying shrinkage and
loading can cause the plastic shrinkage cracks to propagate inside the concrete. These
cracks will make concrete more prone to damages as they will allow rapid access to
harmful material such as acids, chlorides and CO2 etc. and will also promote frost
attack, which might further damage the structures leading to the loss of durability.
The amount of shrinkage that occurs is directly related to the loss of water from the
concrete matrix, evaporation rate etc., greater evaporation leads to greater shrinkage.
Shrinkage cracking is also dependent on various factors such as the shrinkage rate and
magnitude, time dependent material property development, stress relaxation (creep),
strength, structural geometry, and the degree of structural restraint.
Shrinkage is a major problem for concrete structures specially for large flat structures
such as such as bridge decks and pavements, in which the exposed surface area is high
relative to the volume of the placed concrete [2, 5].
2.8.3 Creep
The phenomenon of a gradual increase in strain with time under a given level of
sustained stress is called creep. When a hydrated cement paste is subjected to a
sustained stress, depending on the magnitude and duration of applied stress, the C-SH will lose a large amount of the physically adsorbed water and may cause
rearrangement of bonds between the surfaces of the individual crystallites, and the
paste will show a creep strain. This can be of the same order of magnitude as drying
shrinkage and wmay cause significant deflections [6-7].
If a sustained load is removed, the strain decreases immediately by an amount equal
to the elastic strain at the given age; this is generally lower than the elastic strain on
loading since the elastic modulus has increased in the intervening period. This
instantaneous recovery is followed by a gradual decrease in strain, called creep
59
recovery. This recovery is not complete because creep is not simply a reversible
phenomenon.
Creep behavior of concrete is influenced significantly by various factors such that:
Concrete that exhibits high shrinkage generally also shows a high creep
When hydrated cement is completely dried, little or no creep occurs
Concrete with the lower relative humidity, shows higher creep
Strength of concrete has a considerable influence on creep and within a wide
realized and therefore concretes made with different aggregates exhibit creep of
varying magnitudes.
The rate of creep decreases continuously, and it is generally assumed that creep tends
to a limiting value. It has been estimated that 75 per cent of 20-year creep occurs
during the first year.
Creep of plain concrete does not by itself affect strength, although under very high
stresses creep hastens the approach of the limiting strain at which failure takes place.
The influence of creep on the ultimate strength of a simply supported, reinforced
concrete beam subjected to a sustained load is insignificant, but deflection increases
considerably and may in many cases be a critical consideration in design.
Another instance of the adverse effects of creep is its influence on the stability of the
structure through increase in deformation and consequent transfer of load to other
components. Thus, even when creep does not affect the ultimate strength of the
component in which it takes place, its effect may be extremely serious as far as the
performance of the structure as a whole is concerned. The loss of prestress due to
creep is well known and accounted for the failure of all early attempts at prestressing.
The effects of creep may thus be harmful. On the whole, however, creep is beneficial
in relieving stress concentrations and has contributed to the success of concrete as a
structural material.
60
Reference
1. Naus D.J., Primer on Durability of Nuclear Power Plant Reinforced Concrete
Structures - A Review of Pertinent Factors, Report: NUREG/CR-6927, U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C., (2007).
2. Transportation Research Circular, E-C107 Control of Cracking in Concrete:
State of the Art, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., (2006).
3. Gupta R.K., Residual Life Assessment of Steel Bridges, In: Proceedings of
National Conference on Advances in Bridge Engineering, Department of Civil
Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, (2006).
4. Sain T. and Chandra Kishen J. M., Damage and residual life assessment of
structures using fracture mechanics, 16th ASCE Engineering Mechanics
Conference, University of Washington, Seattle, (2003).
5. Grantham M. G. and Gray M. J., Diagnosis, Inspection, Testing and Repair of
Reinforced Concrete Structures M.G. Associates, Herts, (2000).
6. Mehta P.K. and Monteiro P. J. M. Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and
Materials Third edition. McGraw-Hill, pp. 415. (2006).
7. Feldman R.F., Volume Change and Creep of Concrete, Canadian Building
Digest, CBD -119, (1969).
61