Kompedium Frosio

FROSIO-COURSE
TEXT BOOKLET
The National Institute

of Technology
Postal address:
P.O.Box 141 kern
NO-0509 Oslo
Visiting address:
Kabelgaten 2
NO-0580 Oslo
06/13
INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Inspectors duties and

behaviour
Teknologisk Institutt as
Materials Technology
www.teknologisk.no
Inspectors duties and behaviour 09/11

1

THE DUTIES AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE INSPECTOR
The coating inspector has a huge responsibility and is often a part of the quality assurance system.
The main objective is to assure that the corrosion protection provides the best possible result and is
according to the specification. By use of knowledge, instruments and experience a qualified
inspector will fulfil this very important task. Sometimes inspectors may be used as experts for
determining surface treated areas e.g. performing surveys, and in some cases used for evaluating
specifications.
Knowledge
To be able to perform the job as a paint inspector a lot of basic knowledge is required. Among
these:
Corrosion
Materials
Pre-treatment requirements
Paints and coatings
Application requirements
Health and safety issues
Specifications
Standards for surface preparation and inspections
Other corrosion preventing methods; hot dip galvanising, thermal spray, passive fire
protection
Often, as is the case with this course, the inspector must be certified. This involves a general course
on corrosion protection and an examination. There are different levels of paint inspectors often
based on relevant experience.
Duties
The inspector must be updated in standards, specifications and new developments in the field of
corrosion protection. A paint inspector has many duties and must be able to perform the following
tasks.
Specification
Be able to read and understand the specification and make sure that the correct specification
is used.
Be able to evaluate a specification with regards to suitability
Procedure
Is the procedure suitable, and according to the paint specification?
www.teknologisk.no

2

Standards
Must know and understand the relevant standards required by the specification
Use of normative references in standards (these are the additional standards required)
Equipment
Be able to have some basic knowledge of paint pumps, blast cleaning equipment, water
jetting equipment a swell as other equipment and to be able to determine if it is suitable
Confirm that the used equipment is according to the specification (e.g. brush for primer
coat)
Log and monitor the equipment used (e.g. type on nozzle and pressure during airless spray)
Pre-treatment
preparation of steel surfaces, e.g. rounding of sharp edges, grinding of surface defects,
removal of weld spatter etc. is in accordance with the specification
Using the standards to determine cleanliness, surface profile, any contaminations
Checking the climatic conditions
Logging results of inspection
Make sure that it is according to specification at the time the application starts.
Application
Are the correct products used

Checked shelf life?
Correct colour
Is suitable equipment used? Roller or brush? Airless spray?
Are the climatic conditions acceptable?
Are base materials, paints/coating, thinners being used are in accordance with the
specifications, and are being used correctly
Are recoat interval followed
Final inspection
Check final result for paint defects, film thickness, adhesion and so on according to
requirements in the specification
Calibration of instruments
Reporting
Make report from findings or from surveys

Make a non-conformance report
Make daily logs
Make progress reports
Make inspection plan
Surveys
Perform surveys to judge the overall corrosion protection

Performing measurements
www.teknologisk.no

3

Maintenance
Is the maintenance specification suitable

Is the pre-treatment suitable
Is the paint suitable for pre-treatment (e.g. for water jetted surfaces)
Are the edges feathered?
Health and safety
Know the local rules and regulations

Know if the personal protective equipment is suitable (if not the operator should be warned,
but the inspector usually does not have authority to demand)
Behaviour
How an inspector behaves is of utmost importance. It is an advantage to work together with the
operators and earn their respect. This respect can be earned by proving that you have the skills and
knowledge required. There will always be some difficulties during corrosion protection and we
have to make the best of it. This may involve some compromises, but an inspector should never
deviate from the specification. Earning trust from the operators will usually increase the quality, the
job is after all a joint effort by many parts who all want the best possible result.
The inspector should be frank and straightforward and try to establish good communication with
the people he/she will be working with. Presence when the work is being carried out will enable the
inspector to draw the correct conclusions, thus avoiding many delays.
The way an inspector behaves on site is another way to gain respect. Attend meetings and be
constructive, be organized and be polite. The inspector is often a lonesome wolf, and very often
on his/her own, and has few people within the company present to discuss things with.
As an inspector it is important at all times to take notes of ongoing events. Not necessarily when
present on the worksite - this can affect the working relationship with the operators. Everything
should be recorded in logs e.g. daily or weekly reports, progress reports.
It is also important that the inspector is capable of understanding what is actually possible to
achieve and what is not. During painting operations you will always measure variations in DFT
over a construction - the variations may be caused by several things, not only the operators. All
instruments we use have uncertainties - this should be kept in mind during inspection.
Common sense is a key word in inspection.
www.teknologisk.no

4
MATERIAL SELECTION
www.teknologisk.no
Material selection 09/11

1

MATERIAL SELECTION
Engineers in the construction of bridges, cars, pipelines, ships, power plants, process plant
equipment etc use a large variety of materials. To some extent the inspector should also have some
knowledge of the different materials.
Carbon steel and low alloyed steel
Pure iron is seldom used commercially. But iron alloyed with carbon and small amounts of other
elements such as manganese and silica is our most common construction material known as carbon
steel.( Iron has a density on 7,87 g/cm3.) In carbon steel and low alloyed steel the mechanical
properties are determined by the carbon content.
The carbon content in carbon steel is up to

The carbon content in cast iron can be as high as
0.2 %
2 4 %.
By alloying iron with small amounts of other elements such as chromium, nickel, phosphor,
molybdenum, and vanadium we will achieve a wide variety of steels, called low-alloyed steels. The
total percentage of other elements than iron in low-alloyed steel is seldom higher than a few percent
(2-3 %).
The corrosion resistance of carbon steels and low-alloyed steels are more or less the same.
The mechanical properties of carbon steels are good, but without protection they corrode under
atmospheric conditions when the relative humidity rises above approximately 60 70 %. The
corrosion rate of steel depends upon time of exposure in the atmosphere, humidity, pH-value and
air pollution.
During production of the steel in the hot rolling mill, the steel reaches high temperatures and mill
scale is created on the steel surface. The mill scale can be seen as a blue-black coloured metallic
coating on the steel surface. The mechanical properties are poor. It is very brittle and easily starts to
flake of. Another negative property with the mill scale is that it is nobler than the steel itself. If
there become cracks in the mill scale there can be problems with galvanic corrosion. Therefore it is
often removed, either with blast cleaning or during the cold rolling process. As long as it is intact
on the steel surface it protects the steel.
After the coarse rolling process, the steel can either be warm or cold rolled. Usually steel rolled at
temperatures above 600 oC is hot rolled (mill scale is formed) and those below 600 oC are cold
rolled. The cold rolling process provides the steel with greater hardness and strength as well as a
smooth surface, the mill scale is also removed. The thickness of the cold rolled steel are normally
below 4 mm thick, while the hot rolled steal plates are thicker then 4 mm.
www.teknologisk.no

2

Weathering steels
The weathering steels are special low-alloyed steels that during atmospheric exposure provide
better corrosion resistance than ordinary low-alloyed steels. The improvement is due to small
amounts, 2-3 %, of alloying elements of chromium (Cr), phosphor (P) and copper (Cu). The
weathering steels were developed in the USA in the 1930s.
When exposed in the atmosphere weathering steel will corrode at approximately the same rate as
low-alloyed steel for the first 1 to 4 years. During the exposure a dark brown / violet patina
(rust) is created, the rust being more dense, which slows down the corrosion rate considerably.
After about 4-5 years the corrosion rate reaches a stable state. And as the rust layer that has formed
during the first 4-5 years protect the steel; this corrosion rate is lover than for unalloyed steel. The
rust layer is left for decorative purposes and is not blast-cleaned or painted. Today there are a fairly
large number of weathering steels with different names; COR-TEN, Patinax 37, Corox, Atmofix
and Mayari R.
Stainless steels
Unlike the low alloyed steels, the amount of alloying elements in the stainless steels is high and
often in the range of 15 30 %. There are quite a variety of stainless steels. Sometimes you will
hear terms like;
ferritic stainless steel

austenitic stainless steels
martensitic stainless steels.
duplex stainless steels
These terms ferritic. austenitic and martensitic refer to the crystalline structure of the steels.
Duplex stainless steels have a combination of austenitic + ferritic crystalline structure with high
strength, toughness and corrosion resistance.
The main alloying element in stainless steels is chromium. When iron is alloyed with chromium a
very thin film of chromium oxide is created on the metals surface. In order to achieve this thin
protecting film the steel must have a chromium content of minimum 13 % and it is this passive
layer that makes the steel stainless. Therefore stainless steel is also referred to as a passive
material.
The corrosion protection of stainless steels is in addition to chromium very dependent on the
content of nickel and molybdenum. Stainless steels containing molybdenum are in some countries
referred to as acid proof stainless steels. Molybdenum makes it more sea water resistant.
www.teknologisk.no

3

Typical stainless steels that you might have experienced with are AISI 304 or AISI 316. (AISI is
the abbreviation for The American Iron and Steel Institute).
AISI 304 contains approximately;

AISI 316 contains approximately
18 % Chromium, 8 % Nickel
18 % Chromium, 8 % Nickel and 3 % Molybdenum
An increase in the molybdenum to 6 % betters the corrosion resistance dramatically.

Stainless steels will corrode in environments that are very corrosive, for example environments that
contains chlorides, e.g. seawater. High temperatures can also make different high alloyed steel
suffer from corrosion.
Copper and copper base-alloys
Copper is a quite noble, but soft metal. There are a large number of copper base-alloys available for
different areas of use. The best known ones are brass (copper + zinc), bronze (copper + tin),
copper-nickel (copper+nickel).
The corrosion rate of copper is low and seldom more than 0.5 2.5 m / year during atmospheric
exposures. This is because the green patina that forms on copper, the verdigris, is an oxide that to
some extent protects the copper material. Therefore copper has been used for many purposes as
roofing, statues, piping etc.
For freshwater piping normal copper can be used, but for seawater piping systems, the piping is
usually made from more corrosion resistant alloys of aluminium brass (copper + zinc+
aluminium) or copper-nickel. The main reason for this is that sea water is more corrosive than pure
water. In addition, the internal velocity of the seawater in pipes is often higher, and therefore
requires a stronger material. Plain copper alloys will suffer from turbulence corrosion (Erosion) at
velocities above approximately 1 m/s but copper-nickel alloys can be used up to a velocity of 4
m/s. As a comparison stainless steels can withstand above 20 m/s.
The tendency of fouling is less on copper-alloys than on other metals, which is one of the reasons to
the widely used copper-piping systems world-wide. This has to do with the anti-fouling properties
for the copper material.
Aluminium
As a construction metal aluminium is also widely used, especially in the atmospheric environments.
It is a light material with a density on 2,7 g/cm3.When aluminium is exposed in the atmosphere it
reacts with the oxygen in the air, and a passive oxide film is created. The oxide film is very thin,
only about 0.01 m thick, but it provides the metal with a very good protection against corrosion.
Aluminium is therefore also a passive material.
Due to the thin oxide film aluminium corrodes very slowly in the atmosphere. The average
corrosion rate in industrial atmosphere will seldom be higher than 1 m/year. In a severe marine
www.teknologisk.no

4

atmosphere, the maximum depth in pits has been measured to be 85 265 m after 20 years of
exposure. The pits are formed due to the salt environment. Chlorides destroy the passive film at
weak points, resulting in pitting corrosion. In other environments the corrosion rate is much lower.
Aluminium is considered to be an ignoble metal. In contact with noble metals such as steel or
copper it will sacrifice itself to protect the metal(s) in contact (galvanic corrosion). Due to this it is
important that metals in contact with each other are insulated from each other to avoid unnecessary
corrosion problems.
Zinc
Zinc is seldom used as a construction material, it has a density of 7.13 g/cm3. Instead it is used in
combination with iron and steel. Around 40 % of the total amount with zinc on earth is used this
way- as cathodic protection. Ether as hot dip galvanized steel or as sacrificial anodes on ship hulls
or submerged steel areas of offshore platforms etc. Both ways it is used for corrosion protection of
steel.
The application / hot dip galvanising process is usually done in plants where old paint, grease etc.
has been removed by alkaline cleaning, and rust and mill scale is removed by pickling. Several
water rinsing baths are available and the steel is also fluxed prior to dipping in the molten zinc
having a temperature of 460 470 oC.
The corrosion rate of zinc under atmospheric conditions is low and usually not more than 1 10
m/year. When zinc corrodes a white salt is formed as corrosion product. This is called white rust
or zinc salts.
The corrosion rate of zinc in submerged solutions is on the other hand high. This has to do
with the nobility of the material. Zinc is an ignoble metal (which is why we use it as sacrificial
anodes/cathodic protection) and in a solution or in coupling with other materials it will suffer from
corrosion.
Titanium
Titanium is the heaviest of the light metals that we have, and weigh 4.5 g/cm3. It is therefore much
lighter than iron and steel, and heavier then aluminium. From corrosion point of view titanium
reacts with the oxygen in the air, forming a fantastic passive layer. This layer protects the material
very well, making it a passive material with excellent corrosion properties. Titanium is therefore
an expensive material, but it is worth to consider, because of it excellent mechanical properties.
As its corrosion resistance is so good, it can among other things be used in those cases where
stainless steels are not sufficiently resistant to corrosion. Unalloyed titanium is very resistant to
corrosion in damp chlorine gas, chlorine compounds etc. In these medias titanium is superior to
most metals. In dry chlorine gas, however, titanium is severely attacked.
www.teknologisk.no

5

Concrete
The construction industry uses large quantities of steel reinforcement bars (re-bars) to strengthen
concrete structures. The alkaline environment that exists in the concrete protects the steel from
corrosion, by maintaining a passive film on the surface of the steel. This is the case if the pH in the
concrete is higher than 13. If the concrete over time becomes more acidic, the steel bars may
corrode. When this happens the re-bars must be pre treated, before it is painted. In some cases the
corrosion process has come so far that it must be reinforced before it is painted. When the steel is in
good repair, the damaged construction can be reinforced with more concrete.
The concrete is produced from:
cement
fine aggregate e.g. sand
coarse aggregate gravel or crushed rock
water
The cement is the binder in the concrete. The cement reacts with the water and a hydratisation
process occurs. The most common cement types are Portland cement and modified Portland
cement.
The water-cement ratio is connected to the mechanical strength of the concrete. Approximately 0.4
kg of water is needed to bind 1 kg of cement, but to get a workable, free flowing paste we must
higher w/c ratios, in the range of 0.5 or higher.
There are different kinds of concrete, depending on where the concrete is used. The curing time of
the concrete prior to painting is generally thought to be minimum 28 days.
www.teknologisk.no

6
CORROSION
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
1

INTRODUCTION
Corrosion comes from the Latin word corrode and means gnaw (eat) away. Whit knowledge of the
types of corrosion that can occur, and an understanding of what causes the corrosion and
degradation, it is possible to take measures to prevent them from occurring. For example, we may
change the nature of the environment, select a material that is relatively nonreactive, and/or protect
the material form deterioration with coatings.
As a motivation to why this chapter is important, we have to have a wider perspective. Corrosion
costs the society and is extremely expensive financially. It has been estimated that approximately
4% of an industrialized nations income is spent on corrosion prevention and maintenance. It is also
a wasteful way to handle our natural resources and on top of that, it can cause considerable
inconvenience to humans and sometimes loss of lives.
To many people the word corrosion is synonymous to the read-brown rust layer on old surfaces.
For others working with corrosion and corrosion protection, corrosion is a general deterioration
process, taking place on materials. In our case the material is normally a metal, but we can also
have corrosion on ceramic materials and polymers. All metals will form a type of oxide layer, or
corrosion product. This mainly occurs when metals react with oxygen in the environment. Rust is
the corrosion product that forms when iron or steel degrades. Other examples are the green patina
(verdigris) that forms on copper/copper alloys and the white products forming on zinc alloys. All
three are corrosion products, but only iron and steel rusts.
CORROSION THEORY OF METALS

Definition
In Metals Handbook, Volume 13, the definition of corrosion is the following:
Corrosion = The chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a
metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the metal and its properties.
Other sources might give other definitions like: Unintentional attack on a material through
reaction with the environment.
As the definition of corrosion states, corrosion is deterioration of metal because it reacts with the
environment. But why does this happen, and which factors must be present to get corrosion? We
know that most metals are not found in the nature as pure metals, with exception of the noble
metals as gold and platinum and others. The other metals are present as ores or oxides because this
is the most stable state. To get the pure metal, the ore is reduced in a process using a high
consumption of energy. When the ore is melted, the pure metal is separated from the slag, and
cooled down to metal as we know it. The stable state is no longer present, so the metal is
vulnerable. It wants to be stable again. This is the driving force in many corrosion processes. The
corrosion process is just a natural process, and under the right circumstances, the metal convert
back to its most stable state ore, which is very similar to the oxide. The process is also shown in the
figure below.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
2
Summing up, corrosion can be viewed as the process of returning metals to their natural state- the
ores from which they were originally obtained.
Metals will degrade under many different conditions, but we normally talk about aqueous
corrosion, which reduce the temperature range to below 100C. Under these circumstances there
are three things that must be present to get corrosion. This is metal, electrolyte and oxygen.
Electrolyte/
Humidity
Metal
Oxygen
An electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that make the substance electrically
conductive. The most typical electrolyte is a solution consisting of water and salts; here the salts
make the water conductive. Other examples of electrolytes are sea water, soil, polluted fresh water,
acids, alkalis. Pollution from the air can also dissolve in water and make it conductive. If the
presence of one of the three elements in the triangle can be eliminated the corrosion process stops.
This we will get back to in the chapter about avoiding corrosion.
Galvanic series / Electro chemical series

Metals have a tendency to release electrically charged atoms (ions) when it is in contact with
solutions. For noble metals (gold and platinum) this tendency is weak, while for ignoble metals
(Magnesium, Sink and Aluminum) it is strong. Consequently different metals will have different
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
3

corrosion resistance, and hence different ability to withstand corrosion in a given environment. In
all metals or alloys there is a certain amount of energy stored. This can be measured in volts using a
voltmeter and these measurements are usually referred to as potential measurements.
By using a voltmeter we can easily measure the potential difference between two metals in an
electrolyte. However if we want to determine the potential of a metal alone or in contact with
another metal, we must use a reference electrode. The reference electrode acts in a way as a zero
point. The Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is by definition defined as 0 volts, but the most
commonly used reference electrodes are the following:
Table 1 Potentials of different reference electrodes
Type of reference electrode

Zinc
Silver / silver chloride (SSC)
Copper / copper sulphate (CSE)
Calomel (SCE)
Electrolyte
Seawater
Seawater
Seawater
KCl
Potential [volts]
- 0.78
+ 0.25
+ 0.32
+ 0.245
As can be seen from the table above, the measured value must be corrected if the potential should
be compared with the literature.
An example of a widely used table from the literature is the Galvanic series in sea water. Here,
the potential of many kinds of metals and alloys have been measured and arranged in a table. As
can be seen from the table, the materials that are in the same potential range are grouped together.
These materials may be used together without significant risks of galvanic corrosion.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
4

Table 2 The galvanic series in seawater 1
Ignoble
- 1.6 V
- 1.0 V
- 0.6 0.7V
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium alloys
Mild steel, cast iron
Low alloy steels
Austenitic nickel cast iron
18Cr 8Ni stainless steel (active)
18Cr 8Ni 3Mo stainless steel (active)
Lead soldering
Lead
Tin
- 0.1 0.2V
Nickel (active)
Inconel (active)
Hastelloy B(60 Ni 30 Mo 6 Fe 1 Mn)
Chlorimet 2 (66 Ni 32 Mo 1 Fe
Admirality brass, aluminium brass
Copper
Manganese bronze
Cu-Ni alloys (60Cu 40Ni), (90Cu 10 Ni)
Monel (70Ni 30Cu)
Silver solder
Nickel (passive)
Inconel (80Ni 13Cr 7Fe)
18Cr 8Ni stainless steel (passive)
18Cr 8Ni 3Mo stainless steel (passive)
Hastelloy C(62Ni 17Cr 15 Mo)
Chlorimet 3 (62Ni 18Cr 18 Mo)
+ 0.1 V
+ 0.2-0.3 V
Silver
Titanium
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Noble
The corrosion process

As we have already stated, corrosion is a natural occurring process that will take place under certain
conditions on most of the metals that we know. Depending on the material and the environment,
some times the degree of degradation is small and almost unessential, but other times it can be
severe. Independent on this, the corrosion process is the same; it is just the corrosion rate that
differs. In order to explain the corrosion process, let us look at some examples.
If we place iron in contact with copper in an electrolyte, the iron will start to corrode and send of
energy to the copper. If you dont know which material that will corrode, you can use the galvanic
series above. Looking in the table, you can se that iron is placed above copper. This means that iron
1
Olsen, A: Korrosion 1 - Korrosjonsformer og, Universitetsforlaget, 1983
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
5

is the most ignoble material and copper is the noble material. The ignoble material will sacrifice it
self to protect the most noble material. This happens as the ignoble material (iron) degrades to its
oxide by sending electrons to the noble material (copper), forming rust on the iron surface. At the
same time another reaction that involves oxygen or water occurs at the cathode, making sure the
system is in balance.
When we talk about corrosion, we usually talk about the anode and the cathode instead of talking
about noble and ignoble metals. The metal that degrades is called an anode; here we have
corrosion, while the material that is protected/most noble is called the cathode. The anode is
negative and the cathode is positive, making the electrons released at the anode is attracted to the
cathode. As shown in the figure, a voltmeter can be placed between the two metals to measure the
potential difference (shown by a V in the figure). The anode degrades while the cathode is
unaffected. It may therefore look like there is nothing happening at the cathode, but this is not the
case. Parallel to the degradation happening at the anode, the solution around the cathode becomes
alkaline (OH-). Consequently two processes happen at the same time, one at the anode and one at
the cathode. The reaction occurring at the cathode contains oxygen:
Cathode:
O2 + H2O +4e- 4OH-
The reaction on the anode contains the metal that is degraded. (In this example we used iron, and
iron ions (Fe2+) are made):
Anode:
2Fe 2Fe2+ +4e-
When the iron ions react with the hydroxyl ions (OH-) rust is formed (Fe(OH)2:
Fe2+ + 2 OH- = Fe(OH)2
The reactions above are shown to explain what is happening, but is not important to remember.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
6

However, in order for corrosion to take place, it is not necessary that dissimilar metals are joined in
the electrolyte. As you probably have seen, blast cleaned steel corrodes when you leave it outdoors
e.g. in rain. The reason is that steel (and other metals) is not microscopically uniform. It contains a
number of small grains with small differences in the potential. Or said in another way, some of the
grains are nobler and some are less noble. This result in some anodic- and some cathodic areas:
Therefore we will have corrosion in the exact same way as described above. As the material
corrodes, the grains potential varies, so a place that was cathodic can change and be anodic. We
will therefore see a uniform corrosion attack on the surface. The reason for the small potential
differences can be alloy particles, different carbon contain, mill scale or graphite material.
Corrosion rate
If two metals are submerged in a liquid that conducts electricity (an electrolyte), both metals will
corrode at a certain corrosion rate. If we connect these two metals with each other, the corrosion
rate will increase on the most ignoble metal and decrease on the most noble metal
The corrosion rate e.g. in air, fresh water and seawater will vary for the different metals. The
corrosion rate will amongst other things depend on the following:
Type of metal
Environment
Contact with other metals
Surface films on the metal
Temperature
Submerged in a liquid
Often the corrosion rate is measured in m/year. In the table below there is shown an example with
four metals: Steel, aluminium, copper and zinc. All materials were exposed at a test rig close to the
sea on the west coast of Sweden. The corrosion rate (in m/yr) was determined after 2, 5 and 10
years. As can be seen from the table, there is a great difference in the corrosion rates of the four
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
7

metals. Some of the materials with low corrosion rate offer good long-term protection due to the
protective oxide layer.
Table 3 Corrosion rates in m/year for different metals after exposure for 2, 5 and 10 years to marine atmosphere
on the West Coast of Sweden.
Material
Steel
Aluminium
Copper
Zinc
2 years
5 years
10 years
51.1 m
32.8 m
20.7 m
0.48 m
0.76 m
0.35 m
1.8 m
1.1 m
0.71 m
3.6 m
2.6 m
1.7 m
The differences in corrosion rate relates to the properties of the different materials. All the metals
will form oxide layers, but some will form a more protective layer then others in reaction with
oxygen / during the corrosion process. The oxides are the corrosion product in any case. Rust is the
oxide formed on iron, while white rust is the oxide on zinc. These oxides will not protect the
material, so it will continue degrading. On titanium, aluminum and stainless steel the oxide layers
are more protective. Thats because the oxide formed is a passive layer, much more protective
than rust or white rust. The materials that forms this passive layer is often called passive materials.
If it is damaged, the fresh surface will react with the oxygen in the air and reveal itself.
The corrosion rate is also influenced by the environment. The different types of environment or
corrosivity classes are listed in ISO 12944 Part 2; Classification of environments. This standard
will be discussed in a separate chapter. A short summary is that the environment are divided in two:
Atmospheric corrosivity categories
Submerged corrosivity categories
In both cases, there are definitions on different categories based on the corrosivity in the
environment. In general we can say that for the atmospheric categories the corrosivity increases as
the salt/humidity/contamination level increase. For the submerged categories, corrosivity will also
increase with the salt level. One material can behave differently in the two categories.
Corrosive environment and pH values

In dry places, areas with relative humidity less than 60 % and small amounts of contaminations like
sodium chloride and sulphur dioxide, there is little risk of corrosion occurring. This is due to the
fact that no continuous electrolyte is created on the surface. Outdoors the corrosion rate will be very
dependant on the surrounding environment. The higher the content of sulphur pollution and salts
(chlorides) in the air, the higher the corrosion rate is. Some of the gasses in the air will form either
alkaline or acidic solutions. In addition to this, the temperature influence must be considered.
Normally corrosion rate increase with the temperature.
Whether or not a solution is alkaline or acidic can be decided by measuring the pH value of the
solution. A pH value is determined on a scale from 0 to 14. On the pH scale, solutions with values
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
8

less than 7 are considered as acidic, a value of 7 is neutral and solutions above 7 are considered to
be alkaline.
Acidic
Neutral
Alkaline
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale, meaning that a decrease from e.g. 7 to 6, indicates that the
value is 10 times more acidic than at pH=7. If the value had increased from 7 to 9, the value will be
10 x 10 = 100 times more alkaline than at pH = 7.
Examples on acidic solutions
Hydrochloric acid (HCl),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Citric acid
Examples on alkaline solutions
Sodium hydroxide,
Caustic soda (NaOH)
Cement
Epoxy hardener
Corrosion attacks of some metals will be affected by the pH. In some cases the metal will corrode
in both an acidic and alkaline solutions (e.g. zinc and aluminium), whilst others metals (e.g. steel)
will corrode in acidic solution, but be passivated in alkaline solutions. This is why steel
reinforcement bars are used in concrete; it is passivated and will not corrode in the alkaline cement.
Two know if a material is passivated or not is dependent on the nature of it. This has been carefully
mapped bye a lot of experimental testing, and fortunately summarized in books.
Different types of corrosion

In this chapter we will talk about the following corrosion types:
General corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Pitting corrosion
Crevice corrosion
Erosion corrosion
Cavitation corrosion
Selective corrosion
Stress cracking corrosion
Microbiological
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
9

General corrosion
General corrosion is as the name says a general attack over large areas on a metal surface. This is
one of the most common types of corrosion, and can occur at all metals to some extent. It is
normally characterized by a chemical or electrochemical reaction, which proceeds uniformly over
the entire surface or over a large area; therefore it is also called uniform corrosion. As the metal
suffers from corrosion, it becomes thinner and thinner, ant finally it fails, but since the degradation
is predictable, it is easy to handle.
With this type of attack on a surface, both the anodic and the cathodic processes are evenly
distributed over the metal surface. The location of anodic and cathodic areas shifts from time to
time, as discussed in earlier chapters.
A general corrosion attack leads to a reduction of the materials thickness linear with time. The rate
of penetration can be calculated i.e. from corrosion data. This makes it easy to predict the lifetime
of a material, as long as you know the corrosion rate in the given environment. If you have a
specification that requires a lifetime of at least 15 years, you can calculate the extra thickness of the
material you need to add to the required construction thickness. This extra material is the corrosion
allowance for the construction. The extra material, the corrosion allowance is the material that can
be gone while the equipment is still capable of working as designed.
For example a corrosion rate of 0.13 mm/yr (5 m) would result in a metal loss of 1.52 mm
(0.060") in a twelve-year period. A corrosion allowance of 1.59 mm (1/16 ") is often adequate to
provide 12 years of service in process exposures, perhaps 25 years in storage tanks.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
10

On the other hand heat exchanger tubes with a wall thickness of 2.11 mm (0.083") can probably
tolerate no more than a 50 % loss of thickness (e.g. 1.02 mm (0.040 ") in 8 years at a rate of 0.13
mm/yr (5 mpy).
Original thickness
General corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:
Change of materials
Use of paints or coatings
Use of inhibitors (in systems with liquids)
Galvanic (bimetallic) corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when a metal or alloy is electrically coupled to another, or to a

conducting non-metal (e.g. carbon or mill scale), in the same corrosive environment (electrolyte).
The different metals are in metallic coupling with each other, and this will result in corrosion
problems.
The rate of attack of one metal or alloy is usually accelerated, while the corrosion rate of the other
decreases. I.e. the metal with the most negative corrosion potential (most ignoble) in the uncoupled
state (the active member of the couple) will show enhanced corrosion.
Cathode
Anode
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
11

To know the corrosion potential to the different metals, we need the galvanic series as shown
previous. If you go back and look in this table, you will see that the materials with the most
negative potential, is listed first. This is the ignoble metals. As the potential increase the metals
become more noble.
Generally the following factors will influence the galvanic corrosion process:
The difference between the corrosion potentials of the uncoupled metals or alloys
The surface areas of the cathodic and anodic zones
The distance between the cathode and the anode
The electrical resistance of the galvanic circuit (use of paint films)
One method of predicting galvanic corrosion is by immersion testing. The metals that is coupled to
each other, is tested in the environment of interest, to see which of them that corrodes. In most
cases however the galvanic corrosion is predicted by use of a galvanic series. In the galvanic series
metals and alloys are arranged according to their potentials, measured e.g. in seawater.
Factors like area, distance and geometric effects affect the galvanic corrosion behavior.
Influence from the difference in potential
As discussed previously under the galvanic series, different materials can be used together without
problems, as long as the potential difference between them are small enough. In the table that
shows the galvanic series materials that can be used together without problems are grouped. If
materials with very different potential are coupled, e.g. aluminum and stainless steel, the corrosion
rate is increased in the ignoble material, here aluminum. To avoid this problem, we must use
materials that are in one group, or we must insulate the different metals such that the galvanic
coupling does not exist.
Influence from the surface areas ratio
When the surface area of the more noble metal or alloy (the cathode) is large compared to the more
active member (the anode), an unfavorable ratio exists producing an accelerated galvanic effect on
the most active/ignoble material.
Steel
Copper
Copper
RAPID CORROSION OF THE STEEL
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
12

The opposite area ratio (large active member and a smaller noble member surface) produces only
slightly accelerated galvanic effects.
Copper
Steel
Steel
SLOW CORROSION OF THE STEEL
Serious problems have occurred on welded pipes where the welding electrodes used were more
ignoble than the pipes. In this case the welds are more anodic than the surrounding steel pipes
which results in a severe attack on the welds due to galvanic corrosion. The area effect accelerates
the galvanic effect.
Problems have also occurred on the Statue of Liberty in New York City that was erected in 1886.
The steel armature was originally insulated from the copper skin using shellac-impregnated
asbestos. This of course has broken down during more than 100 years of exposure, causing a
metallic coupling between the copper and the steel. The asbestos absorbed water and no longer
insulated the two metals caused great damage on the steel armature. During rehabilitation in 1981 1986 large amounts of the steel was changed with stainless steel and Teflon was used for insulating
the parts.
Galvanic corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:
Avoiding combinations of metals / alloys widely separated in the galvanic series

Change of the environment (inhibitors)
Use of paints or coatings such that the cathode area is reduced
Use of proper welding electrodes (more noble)
Design
Insulating metals from each other
Avoiding deposits from more noble metals on the less noble metal
CATHODIC PROTECTION
You may have asked yourself why this section is taken in to the corrosion chapter. The reason is that
cathodic protection and galvanic corrosion is more or less the same, from two different points of view.
We use the same theory here, as you learned about in the galvanic corrosion section. But this time it is
planned so, that the coupling of different materials result in protection of steel, and sacrifice of another
material.
Consequently, cathodic protection is a way of protecting steels by making the steel we wish to protect
the cathode in a galvanic cell. As we have seen previously in connection with the galvanic corrosion -
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
13

the cathode will not corrode. The attack takes place at the anode. This method of protection has been
known for more than 160 years and is widely used for protection of ship hulls, oilrigs, and pipelines.
How does this kind of protection work?

The corrosion rate is very dependent on both the metal itself and the surrounding electrolyte. As we
have seen all metals have a certain electrical potential when immersed in an electrolyte solution
e.g. seawater. The potential is measured against a reference electrode.
As you might be aware of - steel will corrode in acids, but not in alkali solutions. This tells us that
the corrosion of steel i.e. the energy level of the steel depends on the environment around it. A
Belgian, Mr. Poirbaix studied this carefully and was able to make potential / pH diagrams showing
where corrosion would occur. He also found that below a certain potential, corrosion could not
occur at all.
The purpose of cathodic protection is to place the steel (or another metal) in a
position where it will not be able to corrode in the given environment.
When steel is put into seawater the steel corrodes. When zinc is put into seawater, the zinc
corrodes. When the steel is electrically connected to zinc, zinc will corrode and send off energy.
The steel will consume this energy. Since steel is given energy at all times, it is impossible for the
steel to send off energy, hence the zinc protects the steel. In this case, zinc will be the anode and
steel the cathode.
Cathodic protection can be achieved in two ways:
Sacrificial anode systems

Impressed current systems
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
14

Sacrificial anode systems
In this system the protective current is supplied by external anodes of a metal which are ignoble
(i.e. more anodic) than the steel we want to protect. When the steel is in contact with the anode, the
anode will supply the steel with sufficient electric energy and protect the steel.
Protective
current
Steel
Zinc
Normally the sacrificial anodes are made of zinc- or aluminium alloys. Both of these can be used
for protection of steel in seawater.
Impressed current systems

In this system the protective current is supplied from the alternating current system of the ship or an
offshore structure and the current is transformed to direct current through a rectifier. The anodes
used are more or less chemically resistant, i.e. very noble materials. They can be made of platinized
titanium or graphite. They will not be attacked or consumed and are inert anodes.
- DC rectifier +
Seawater
Protective
current
Steel
Cathode
Platinized titanium
anode
Reference
electrode
When impressed current systems are used, automatic control is usually required. This control will
at all times check the potential of the steel against a reference electrode. When changes occur the
current will be altered.
The numbers of anodes are much fewer when using impressed current systems, because they are
designed for high current outputs. This will result in overprotection of areas close to the anodes and
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
15

cathodic disbonding (disbonding, loss of adhesion). To prevent damage/cathodic disbonding of
the coating in these areas, a thick coating (an anode shield) is applied around the anodes. The
thickness may be up to 1 to 1.5 mm. It is common to apply the shield in a diameter of 2 to 3 meters
around the anodes.
The impressed current systems can be used both on permanent constructions such as oil-rigs, or on
ships. The use of sacrificial anodes will result in an increased drag in the sea. However, using
impressed current systems, the anodes are usually flush mounted and drag is negligible.
Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a form of localized attack that results in holes in the metal. These holes may be
small or large in diameter, but in most cases they are relatively small. They may result in
perforation of a metal or alloy, which is very risky, because it is difficult to se the seriousness of the
corrosion attack without looking at the cross-section of the material. Pits are sometimes isolated or
so close together that they look like a rough surface. Generally a pit may be described as a cavity or
hole with the surface diameter about the same as, or less than, the depth. Pitting is one of the most
insidious forms of corrosion. It causes equipment to fail because of perforation with only a small
percent weight loss of the entire structure.
Seen from above
Seen from the side
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
16

Pitting corrosion occurs frequently at passive metals and alloys when these are exposed in an
environment that contains salts as chlorine, bromine (halogens) and sea water. High temperature
will also increase the risk of getting pitting corrosion. The theory of why pitting corrosion occurs is
not entirely understood. This makes it difficult to generalize. Mostly it is salt/halogens that destroys
the passive oxide film on places where this is weak. When the pit is initiated, the further growth is
the same as for crevice corrosion, and will be explained in the next chapter.
Pitting corrosion often occurs on stainless steel alloys, aluminium and may also occur on titanium
under special conditions. In addition to the salt concentration and the temperature, flow conditions
and pH may also influence the pitting mechanism.
Due to the fact that pitting looks like small holes, it can be confuses with galvanic-, crevice- ,
erosion- and cavitation corrosion. It is therefore important to evaluate the surroundings and the type
of material you have, to be sure that it is pitting. The other corrosion types are characterized by
other requirement, which pitting dont have, e.g. galvanic coupling to a more noble metal, high
velocity on liquids or gas bubbles.
Pitting corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:
Change of materials
Reduction in the temperature of the electrolyte (e.g. seawater)
Avoiding stagnant conditions in electrolytes
Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a type of intense localized corrosion frequently occurring within crevices and
other shielded areas on metal surfaces exposed to corrosive liquids. The type of attack is usually
associated with small volumes of stagnant solution caused by holes, gasket surfaces, lap joints,
and crevices under bolt and rivet heads. As a result, this form of corrosion is called crevice
corrosion or, sometimes, deposit corrosion.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
17

As for pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion occurs frequently at passive metals and alloys that are
exposed in a saline environment. The corrosion mechanism is also quite similar. For both types
the salt attacks the oxide layer and increases the corrosion.
For crevice corrosion to occur the crevice must be wide enough to permit entry of the solution, but
sufficiently narrow to maintain a stagnant zone of solution within the crevice, limiting the transport
processes of diffusion and migration of ions. Solutions containing chloride ions/salts are most
conductive to crevice corrosion.
Metal
Electrolyte with salts
High oxygen content
No corrosion
Acidic environment
Low oxygen content
Crevice corrosion
Mental
The corrosion starts in small crevices with stagnant water. Over time the oxygen level decrease
because it is used to maintain the oxide film. When there is no oxygen left, the oxide film can not
repair itself and therefore becomes vulnerable. The salt in the liquid starts to destroy the oxide film
and at the same time, the environment inside the crevice becomes acidic, so the environment gets
even more aggressive, hence the material corrodes.
It is not always necessary to have crevices - this type of corrosion attack may also occur on a metal
surface covered with sand, mud or dirt. This also results in low oxygen contents underneath the
sand, mud e.g.
Sand, mud etc.
Narrow gap
Metal surfaces
Crevice corrosion attack
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
18

Narrow gap
Crevice corrosion attack
Crevice corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:

Change of materials
Change of environment
Use of paints or coatings
Design
Welding instead of using flanges and bolting
Avoiding areas with stagnant water
Cathodic protection
Erosion corrosion
Erosion corrosion is a form of corrosion that occurs when a metal is attacked because of a relative
motion between an electrolyte and a metal surface. Metal is then constantly removed from the
surface or its corrosion products are removed by the electrolyte. Soft metals are particularly
vulnerable to this form of attack, for example copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead, but most
metals are susceptible to erosion corrosion in particular flow situations. If the corrosion products or
sand particles follow the flow further, the probability to get corrosion problems is larger, because of
the solids.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
19

Some factors, which are likely to cause this form of corrosion attack, are:
Sudden change in the bore diameter or direction of a pipe
A badly fitting gasket or joint which introduces a discontinuity in the otherwise smooth metal
surface
A crevice which allows liquid to flow outside the main body of fluid
The presence of a corrosion product or other deposits which may disturb the laminar flow
Erosion corrosion is characterized in appearance by grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes, often
in the same direction as the flow. Problems with erosion corrosion arise when the flow velocity is
too high for the given material. Different materials withstand different flow velocity, so here you
must look at the material certificate. Copper materials is normally soft and have a maximum flow
velocity below 1 m/s, its alloys some were below 3 m/s, while stainless steels can withstand
velocities as high as 20 m/s
Often a very specific pattern is created called horseshoe attack.
Seen from above

Original metal surface
Impingement corrosion pits
Corrosion film
Metal - tube wall

Seen from the side
Erosion or turbulence corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:
Change of materials
Change of environment (reduction in the water flow)
Avoiding angular bends
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
20

Cavitation corrosion
Cavitation is a particular form of erosion corrosion caused by the formation and collapse of vapor
bubbles on the surface. This type for corrosion is often encountered on parts being driven at high
velocity through a liquid, rather than in pipes or tanks where fluid flow occurs across stationary
metal surfaces.
The collapsing vapor bubbles produce shock waves at very high pressures, which in turn produce
deformation of many materials. The appearance may look very similar to erosion corrosion, but it is
possible to distinguish between them. The depression formed here is deep, have a small diameter.
The depressions are often close to each other which give the surface large roughness. The surface
may look like a sponge.
Water turbines, propellers, impellers and hydraulic turbine gear are the most common instances for
encountering corrosion by cavitation. Cavitation damages have been attributed to both corrosion
and mechanical effects.
Collapsing bubbles destroying the film.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
21

Dealloying corrosion / Selective corrosion
This kind of corrosion is also called selective leaching or parting. One element, generally the most
active one/most ignoble metal, is selectively removed from a solid alloy. As a result the
components of the alloy react in proportions, which differ from a solid alloy. When one component
of an alloy is removed the construction in this way, it may look intact, but it is important to
remember that the strength and properties are changed. To recognize this type of corrosion you
must look after a color change in the material.
Apart from the general term the process is often named after the removed element in the specific
cases, e.g. dezincification of brass, dealuminification of certain aluminium-bronzes. However not in
the case of graphitization of grey cast irons (here the removed element is iron).
A well-known example of dealloying is dezincification of brass. Dezincification is readily
recognized as the alloy assumes a red copper color, i.e. in contrast to the original yellow.
There are two general types of dezincification. One is uniform, or layer type, and the other is
localized, or plug-type dezincification.
No attack, yellow brass colour
Local attack, red spots on surface
Uniform attack on surface, red colour
Uniform attack over whole area, surface

becomes brittle and red
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
22

Selective corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:
Change of materials
Change of environment
Cathodic protection
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Stress corrosion cracking can be defined as crack formation/unexpected sudden failure of normally
ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress in a corrosive environment. It is especially vulnerable at
elevated temperature. The chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one
which is only mildly corrosive to the metal otherwise. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC can
appear bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks. This factor makes it common
for SCC to go undetected prior to failure. SCC often progresses rapidly, and is more common
among alloys than pure metals. The specific environment is of crucial importance, and only very
small concentrations of certain highly active chemicals are needed to produce catastrophic
cracking, often leading to devastating and unexpected failure.
Well-known materials, which may show susceptibility to SCC in chloride environments, are austenitic
stainless steels containing chromium and nickel (e.g. 316 SS) and a number of aluminium alloys.
Generally the susceptibility to SCC increases with increasing temperature. For a number of alloy /
environment combinations a safe temperature can be indicated, below which the susceptibility to SCC
is practically nil.
This corrosion type is recognized on the characteristic cracks that will appear on the surface:
Stress corrosion cracking
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
23

In the off-shore industry a lot of the hot stainless steels tubes are blast-cleaned with a fine non-metallic
abrasive and then applied an epoxy coating. This is done to minimize the tendency of SCC, especially
on insulated stainless steels with an operating temperature of 60 C or higher.
Elimination of tensile stresses, in order to reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking (SCC), can be
accomplished by stress relief annealing. The annealing conditions (temperature, time) should be such
that a satisfactory stress relief is obtained without substantially reducing the strength of the material.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) may be reduced / prevented by:
Correct operation temperature

Reduced tensile level
Change of materials
Use of barrier paints or coatings
Annealing to reduce stresses within the metal
Cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes
Microbiological (Bacteria) corrosion
Microbial corrosion, also called bacterial corrosion, bio-corrosion, microbiologically-influenced

corrosion, or microbially-induced corrosion (MIC), is corrosion caused or promoted by
microorganisms. It can apply to both metals and non-metallic materials.
Although in deaerated water steel does not corrode too much, the corrosion rate in some natural
environments is found to be abnormally high. The high corrosion rates have been due to presence
of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB). They thrive only under conditions of poor or no aeration in
water and soils and in the pH range of about 5.5 to 8.5.
The sulphate reducing bacteria easily reduce inorganic sulphates to sulphides in presence of
hydrogen or organic matter, and are aided in this process by the presence of an iron surface. The
anaerobic corrosion of iron and steel has been identified in bottom mud of rivers, lakes, marshes,
under marine fouling and in various offshore industrial environments.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
24

Microbiological (Bacteria) corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:
Use non-corrodible materials e.g. fiberglass, PVC, polyethylene, concrete
Create a non-aggressive environment around the steel by backfilling with gravel or clay free
sand or using biocides
Cathodic protection of 0.95 V versus Copper/copper sulphate
Using various barrier coatings, with biocides.
Corrosion under insulation 2
CUI is a particularly severe form of localized corrosion that has been plaguing chemical process
industries for many years. The key problem in CUI is the intruding of water. Therefore it is
particularly important during design not to promote corrosion by permitting water to enter the
system directly or indirectly by capillary action. Moisture may be external or may be present in the
insulation material itself. Corrosion may attack the jacketing, the insulation hardware, or the
underlying equipment.
For high temperature equipment, water entering an insulation material and diffusing inward will
eventually reach a region of dry out at the hot pipe or equipment wall. This will lead to a zone next
to the dry out area where pores of the insulation are filled with a saturated salt solution. When a
shutdown or process change occurs, and the metal-wall temperature falls, the zone of saturated salt
solution moves into the metal wall. When the temperature then rises again, stress-corrosion
cracking may begin. The drying/wetting cycles in CUI associated problems accelerates the
corrosion damage.
The most common and straightforward way to inspect for corrosion under insulation is to cut
plugs in the insulation that can be removed to allow for ultrasonic testing. However, many times
such plugs can be the source of moisture leakage. The main problem with this technique is that
corrosion under insulation tends to be localized and unless the inspection plug is positioned in the
right spot, the sites of corrosion can be missed. Other techniques that are available include special
eddy current techniques, x-ray, remote TV monitoring, and electro-magnetic devices.
CUI may be reduced / prevented by:
One of the best but most expensive options to prevent corrosion under insulation is the use
of protective coating systems. Special coating system must be utilized that have proven
2
Reference: http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms-crevice/CUI.htm
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
25
performance. NORSOK M-501 has recommendations on both pre-treatment and paint

systems for carbon- and stainless steel that is acknowledge.
Inhibitors
Water proofing
Drain holes
Careful selection of insulation materials to prevent those that contain high levels of
corrosive impurities such as chlorides is critical to reducing corrosion under insulation.
How to avoid corrosion?

During the chapters about the different corrosion types, some recommendations on how to reduce
or prevent them are made. In addition to this, we will make some general advises in this chapter.
Choice of material
First of all, it is important to do the correct choice of material in a given environment. Some
materials, like aluminum, zinc, steel and stainless steel will be attacked to some extent by acidic
gases and chlorides/sea water. Aluminum and zinc will also be affected by alkalis, while steel and
stainless steel will be passivated. Hence it is no problem to use this material as re-bars in cement. In
addition to the chemical environment, it is also important to remember the temperature aspect.
Some materials have temperature limitations, which make them unusable. E.g. 316 stainless steel
can not be used above 50-60 C.
Corrosion triangle
Another approach is to look at the corrosion process in water and the definition of corrosion. Here
there are three requirements that must be fulfilled to get corrosion: We need to have a metal in an
electrolyte that contains oxygen, and these three must react with each other. If one of these three is
removed, the corrosion process will stop.
Remove the electrolyte
To remove the humidity (electrolyte) there are different systems that can be used to dehumidify the
environment. If the relative humidity is kept below 40 % the corrosion will stop. This is a typical
way to protect the inside of bridges, pipes i.e. without painting it.
Remove the oxygen
In closed systems oxygen is eliminated. As long as the oxygen level is low the inside of the system
oxides can not form, hence there is no corrosion. If the system is opened and the
solution/electrolyte is changed, there will be corrosion until the oxygen level again decrease to a
minimum. This is the case in radiators. They are normally painted on the outside, while the inside is
unpainted.
Removing the metal
Removing the metal is not possible, but it is possible to make a barrier between the metal and the
environment. This is a common way to avoid corrosion, and can be done in several ways.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
26

Painting or surface treatment is another way to make a barrier between the environment and the
metal. This is may be the most common way to reduce corrosion problems and will be discussed in
separate chapters.
A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical compound that, when added to a liquid or gas, decreases the
corrosion rate of a metal or an alloy. The effectiveness, or corrosion inhibition efficiency, of a
corrosion inhibitor is a function of many factors, including (but not limited to) fluid composition,
quantity of water, and flow regime. If the correct inhibitor and quantity is selected then it is
possible to achieve high, 90-99%, efficiency. Some of the mechanisms of its effect are formation of
a passive layer. This is a thin film on the surface of the material that stops access of the corrosive
substance, either inhibiting the oxidation or reduction part of the corrosion system (anodic and
cathodic inhibitors).
Contact between different types of metals was described in the chapter galvanic corrosion. It can
not be clarified enough how important this subject is. The area relationship is of vital importance
and will affect the lifetime of a construction. Choosing wisely the materials that are coupled
together, the construction will not suffer form degradation. But if materials with very different
corrosion potential are coupled together in the same electrolyte, and the area between the anode
and the cathode is unfortunate, corrosion will occur. As long as the anode are large compared to
the cathode, the corrosion rate will below.
Cathodic protection is another common way to avoid corrosion. This will also be described in
another chapter.
Design is also of vital importance. This subject will also be described in other chapters, i.e. in ISO
12944. Generally constructions where design is handled leniently results in severe corrosion
problems. As we have seen during this chapter, surfaces that are kept wet constantly will suffer
from corrosion. Analogous is seen if a surface is covered with dirt and filth. These problems are
related to design, and can in many cases be changed.
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion 06/13
27
GALVANIC SERIES
SURFACE PREPARATION
and ABRASIVES
www.teknologisk.no
Surface preparation 06/13

1

STEEL PREPARATION
Prior to the actual surface preparation, steel surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned. This is important
because a poorly surface prepared substrate will reduce coating lifetime, in worst case it will flake
off.
Steel materials
For structures we usually use carbon steel and stainless steel. Many carbon steels as well as other
types of metals like Titanium, Copper, Aluminium and Nickel compounds may have satisfactory
corrosion protection without coating, but in many cases we also paint or coat these types.
Carbon steel will always corrode in uncontrolled environments and the mill scale from the hot
rolled steel will start to flake of when exposed to weathering. All carbon steel will degrade. The
ISO standard 8501-1 divides the steel into rust grades, depending on the amount of mill scale that
has been removed and or how much the steel has corroded. For newbuilding of ships / offshore
constructions a criteria listed in many specifications is the steel subject to surface preparation on
site shall as a minimum requirement be rust grade B in accordance with ISO 8501-1.
To protect the steel from degrading, a shop primer is often applied. Shop primers shall be regarded
as temporary corrosion protection and shall be removed unless approved by the company. Often
zinc ethyl silicate shop primers are approved for use below the specified system, somewhat
depending on where and what kind of system is used.
Pre-blasting preparations
In order to assure good quality of a coating all over, it is important that all sharp edges, fillets,
corners and welds are rounded or smoothened by grinding (minimum radius = 2 mm). Failure to
grind these areas will lead to failure and is one of the most common causes of defects.
Hard surface layers e.g. resulting from flame cutting shall be removed by grinding prior to blastcleaning.
Any oil and grease shall be removed prior to blasting operation, in accordance with SSPC SP-1.
Major surface defects, particularly surface laminations or scabs detrimental to the protective
coating system shall be removed by suitable dressing. Where such areas have been exposed during
blast-cleaning, and dressing has been performed, the dressed area shall be re-blasted to the
specified standard. All welds shall be inspected and if necessary be repaired prior to final blast
cleaning of the area. Surface pores, cavities etc. shall be removed by suitable dressing or weld
repair.
Steel design
Preferable openings, notches in structural steel should be so large in diameter that water and debris
traps are voided. The dominating issue of corrosion is the wetting time. The longer the wetting
time, the longer the time the corrosion process is talking place. Construction design should be
www.teknologisk.no

2

carried out in such a way that both possibilities of achieving the correct surface preparation initially
and for maintenance are possible.
Using the correct type of profiles is recommended. Using RHS and bulb profiles are preferred to Ibeams and angle iron.
Welds
All (especially hand) welds should treated prior to painting in order for the paint to provide the
appropriate protection. The welding work should be carried out in a proper way as to avoid porosity
in the welds, undercuts and cracks. If located, such defects should be repaired. Grind welds smooth
if uneven.
Coating failure is very common along welds. Is it the welder or the painters responsibility to make
sure that there is no weld spatter, porosity etc. present? This is not always obvious and problems are
likely to arise if workers are not from the same company or if this responsibility is not clearly
defined in the procedures.
The welders and painters have their own opinion of how a weld shall appear prior to painting, but
these views are not necessarily the same. Some welders will after welding leave behind both
welding flux and weld spatter. In order to paint weld spatter must be chipped off / grinded and the
area washed prior to painting.
There is a standard recommended practice provided by NACE fabrication details, surface finish
requirements and proper design considerations for tanks and vessels to be lined for immersion
service NACE Standard RP0178-91 visualising 5 different weld preparations (A -E) on butt
weld, fillet welded tee joint and lap weld. Provided with the NACE RP 0178-91 is also a visual
comparator, which illustrates the various degrees of surface.
www.teknologisk.no

3

SURFACE PREPARATION
The objective of designing a structure is to ensure that the structure is suitable for its function, has
the necessary stability, strength and durability after corrosion protection
As described earlier, sharp edges and corners should be rounded or smoothened by grinding
(minimum radius of 2 mm). Hard layers (e.g. resulting from flame cutting) should also be removed
by grinding prior blast-cleaning. Foreign matter on the surface like weld flux, residues, oil, grease
and salt shall be removed prior to surface preparation. Areas where these contaminations have not
been removed prior to painting will most likely be the first to suffer coating degradation and
eventually corrosion.
Surface wetting
Most people have seen how water pearls on a waxed or fatty surface. Water will make pearls on
waxed surfaces on polished cars or oil on surfaces. The purpose of wax / oil is to reduce/avoid
water accumulating on the surface. If we clean these surfaces well, i.e. we remove all wax and fat,
and then apply water we will see that the water makes a continuous film. This is due to the surface
tension and can be explained as follows: between all solids, liquids and gases in contact with each
other, there are pulling forces. These forces are also present when we apply water on a waxed
surface. However the forces between the molecules in the water are greater than between the water
and the waxed surface. The surface tension of the water pulls the water film apart and the water has
a higher surface tension than the waxed surface. In order to obtain good wetting, the surface tension
of the substrate must be higher than our paint coating. When the wax has been removed from the
surface the water wets the surface better. The surface tension of the substrate increases when we
clean surfaces. This implies that the lower surface tension we have on our paint/coating, the better
adhesion will be achieved for the coating. We want a clean surface so that our paint or coating
will flow smoothly over the entire surface and adhere, or in other words we want our
paint/coating to wet the surface.
www.teknologisk.no

4

Means of degreasing surfaces
General
A perfect clean surface is not always possible to achieve, especially under field conditions. During
manufacture, fabrication and service, surfaces become dirty, often covered with soil and oil. It is
often advisable that such objects are cleaned prior to surface preparation by blast-cleaning.
The types of degreasing/cleaning agents available are usually divided into categories:
Solvent cleaning
Emulsifying cleaning
Alkali cleaning
Water cleaning
Solvent cleaning
Surface preparation specification no. 1 from the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) in the
USA covers solvent cleaning. SSPC-SP 1 Solvent cleaning is a method for removing all visible
oil, grease, soil, drawing and cutting compounds, and other soluble contaminants from steel
surfaces. It is intended that solvent cleaning be used prior to the application of paint and in
conjunction with surface preparation methods specified for the removal of rust, mill scale or paint.
In workshops, during dry-docking etc. it is common practice to use rags saturated with solvents
used to wipe surfaces clean from oil and grease. If this is not done properly all you achieve is a
smearing of the oil and grease onto the surface and making it penetrate even more, thus, the new
paint system that might be applied has little or no adhesion to the steel or previous coat. It is very
important to use plenty of rags and changing them often when using this method.
Prior to solvent cleaning, foreign matter (other than grease and oil) should be removed by one or a
combination of the following; brush with stiff fibres or wire brushes, abrade, scrape, or clean with
solutions or appropriate cleaners, provided such cleaners are followed by a fresh water rinse. After
solvent cleaning, remove dirt, dust and other contaminants from the surface prior to application of
paint. Acceptable methods include brushing, blow off with clean, dry air or vacuum cleaning.
If there are heavy oil and grease on the surface remove these using a scraper. Then use one of the
following methods:
Wipe or scrub with rags or brushes wetted with solvent. Use clean solvent and clean rags or
brushes for the final wiping.
Spray the solvent onto the surface. Use clean solvent for the final spraying.
Due to environmental concern this method is often used only on small areas, e.g. spot repair.
www.teknologisk.no

5

Emulsifying solvents
There are alternative methods of degreasing a surface that does not involve solvent cleaning. The
most common one is to use emulsifying solvents - these are solvents that can be mixed with water.
Common emulsifiers often smell like paraffin or white spirit. After the emulsifiers have been left
on the surface for some minutes they must be removed using fresh water. The oil or grease has now
been dissolved in the solvent and washed away with water. Best results will be obtained using hot
water, or in combination with steam, but good results will also be achieved using cold fresh water.
Emulsion or alkaline cleaners may be used in place of the methods described previously.
After treatment, fresh water rinse or steam to remove residues.
Steam clean, using detergents or cleaners and followed by steam or fresh water wash to
remove residues.
Due to environmental concern alternative methods without the use of solvents are often used.
Chlorinated solvents
Chlorinated solvents are generally used in vapour degreasing units for smaller parts in workshops.
The items to be degreased are lowered into a specially designed cabinet with solvent. In the bottom
of the solvent cabinets or tanks heating coils are used to make the solvent boil. In the top are
cooling coils. When cold goods are lowered into the steam zone, the steam condenses on the
surface, and both the fat and the solvents will run off. The surface then dries and clean products
can after a while be removed from the cabinet.
Chlorinated products such as tri-chlorethylene, per- chlorethylene, also known under names such as
chlorotenes are used for vapour degreasing.
Vapour degreasing using stabilised chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Immerse completely in a tank of solvent.
Due to environmental concern alternative methods without the use of solvents are often used.
Alkaline cleaning
By far, this is the most commonly used method of degreasing today. Essentially it is strong
soap that dissolves the oil and grease followed by thorough water rinsing to remove it. This
method is water based and more environmentally friendly.
When using alkaline cleaning not only will oil and fat be removed from the surface, but also other
contamination like dirt on the steel surface. Water-soluble salts and some paints will also be
removed.
Alkaline cleaning can be carried out several ways:
Dipping in an alkaline bath
Washing with alkaline solutions
www.teknologisk.no

6

Dipping
The method is often used in factories where the steels are dipped into an alkaline bath. The most
common types of baths contain sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and are very alkaline with a pH
around 13-14. When a fatty surface is lowered into the bath, the fat reacts with the alkaline and
form soaps that dissolve in the water. The baths are often warm and agitated.
Washing
The alkaline degreasers are often chemical substances like hydroxides, phosphates and silicates
dissolved in water. These solutions of contain surface reactive substances as well as wetting agents
and emulsifiers. The primary task is to saponify the oil, fat and grease. These products react with
the alkali and create soluble soap, which dissolves in the warm water.
Water cleaning
Steam cleaning
Steam cleaning, using a high pressure of steam, with or without cleaning compound is used to clean
both painted and un-painted steel. Steam removes grease, oil and dirt by a utilizing hot water and
impact. Using this procedure a stream of steam is directed under pressure through a cleaning gun or
guns against the surface to be cleaned. The guns for cleaning may have changeable nozzles.
High pressure washing
High pressure washing will not be a guarantee that oil, grease and fat are removed. It is however a
very good method of removing the emulsifying or alkaline treated surfaces.
Mechanical surface preparation

After steel preparation and degreasing the next step is to prepare the steel for painting/coating. A lot
of us have to some extent been involved in removal of rust and oil paint by different means.
Equipment such as wire brushes, scrapers, needle pickers and rotating equipment are used. The
equipment is quite heavy, tiresome and boring after a while.
Hand tool and power tool cleaning are methods of preparing steel surfaces by the use of non-power
hand tools and power assisted hand tools. These methods remove all loose mill scale, loose rust,
loose paint, and other loose detrimental foreign matter. This process is not intended to remove
adherent mill scale, rust and paint. Mill scale, rust and paint are considered adherent if they
cannot be removed by lifting with a putty knife.
Using the steel wire brush will never remove all the rust, perhaps 10 % at the most. For larger work
pneumatic equipment may be required. All these types must be smeared with oil before use. Care
must be taken so that the surface is not contaminated during the cleaning operation.
There is a large range of equipment available; disk grinders, rotating wire brushes which will
normally not damage the surface. However using rotating wire brushes for too long time can polish
or burnish a surface so that it becomes too smooth for good paint adhesion due to loss of surface
profile. Today special pads which have abrasives baked into them can be used so that a certain
roughness can be achieved, for example using clean and strip wheels.
The cleaning rate when using hand or power tool operated equipment is lower than for blastcleaning.
www.teknologisk.no

7
Type
Tool
Chipping Hammers
Hand scrapers
Hand cleaning tools
Removes/prepares
Slag, laminated rust scale, old paint, rust
Hand wire brushes

Sandpaper
Plastic fleece with embedded abrasives
For final hand preparation including

feathering of the edges,
Rotary de-scalers
Chipping hammers
Rough and laminated scale
Needle guns
Prepares weld, recessed work and

fasteners
Sanding machines and discs

Rotary wire brushes
Abrasive coated paper wheels
Rust, rust scale and paint
Rotary finishing brushes with abrasives

Power grinders
Smoothens welds, edges to give final

finish
Power tools
Table 1. Cleaning tools
Rotary power tools are rapid cleaning equipment using different kinds of cleaning media for
removal of rust and paint. The most common types are wire brushes, non-woven and woven
abrasives.
Wire brushes
Wire brushes are available in different shapes, wheel types or cup types and are generally used on
equipment operated either by pneumatic or electric motors. Using wire brushes, old paint, rust
scale, weld slag and dirt deposits can be removed.
Non-woven abrasives
Non woven abrasives come in cup, wheel or disc form. Non-woven abrasives are advantageous in
removing coatings, because less tension is added compared to coated abrasives. Using the nonwoven abrasives, old paint, rust scale, weld slag and dirt deposits can be removed.
www.teknologisk.no

8

Coated abrasives
Coated abrasives are used as discs or flap wheels to remove loose mill-scale, old paint and can also
remove base metal.
Impact cleaning tools

Impact cleaning tools are those often referred to as chipping and scaling hammers. The chisel
(either for scraping/chipping) is operated by an internal piston, which strikes the surface. These
tools are useful when there are heavy deposits of rust-scale, welding slag or thick old paint.
A needle scaler or needle hammer operates as mentioned above, but with a bundle of steel needles
housed in front of the piston so that they work into the surface. Needle hammers are primarily used
on brittle and loose surface contaminations.
Cleaning surfaces by means of scaling and chipping hammers is very slow, but for areas with heavy
rust scale or paint formation it can still be the best and most economical method.
Flame cleaning
Some years back it was quite common in many countries to use flame-cleaning for cleaning of
steel. However the use of this process for cleaning steel has decreased and is rarely used today. This
is mainly due to the great amount of steel that is centrifugal blast-cleaned and shop primed in
plants.
Previously the method was quite useful for cleaning larger surface areas outdoors for ship hulls
made from un-primed steel. However the cleaning rate is quite low compared to blast-cleaning and
the blast-cleaned surface is much cleaner. So as time passed by the blast-cleaning process has taken
over most of the flame cleaning.
The flame cleaning process was a thermal process - the flame and the heating of the surface did the
cleaning of the surface. The method had the following advantages:
Remove most of the mill-scale and the rust
Burn off fat and oils from the surface
Dry the surface
Ability to paint on a heated surface
The thermal cleaning process was carried out using a burner operating at a certain speed over the
surface. During the process the mill-scale and the rust-scale expands more than the steel. The
tension that is created cracks the scale and loosens it to some extent. Also smaller amounts of water
trapped under the mill- and rust scale contribute to this when heated.
The heating process by it self will not be able to remove very much mill-scale or rust-scale and the
process always must be finished using power tool wire brushing. Thick layers of rust have to be
chipped away.
www.teknologisk.no

9

Blast-cleaning
Blast-cleaning is the common term for all the methods used where abrasives of different kinds are
propelled onto a surface. For new building, this is the most common method of surface
preparation.
The different methods of blast-cleaning are:
Compressed air abrasive blast-cleaning
Moisture-injection abrasive blast-cleaning
Wet abrasive blast-cleaning
Centrifugal abrasive blast-cleaning
Water blasting - water jetting
Compressed air abrasive blast-cleaning
By this method the abrasive is propelled by means of compressed air. Normally when this type of
blast-cleaning is done in the open air, abrasives which are not recycled is used.
Using more expensive abrasives such as aluminium-oxide or steel grit / shot, the abrasives will be
re-used. They are recycled in a system where dust and contamination is removed. The abrasive may
be injected into the air stream from a pressurised container or may be drawn into the air stream by
suction from an un-pressurised container.
Normal pressures when blast-cleaning is in the range from 7 to 10 bars. The pressure at the nozzle
is off course dependant on the compressor size and the hose length. In order to check the blastcleaning air pressure a hypodermic needle on a pressure gage can be inserted through the blast hose
just before the nozzle and the pressure read from the dial.
Moisture-injection abrasive blast-cleaning
This method is similar to compressed-air abrasive blast-cleaning, but with addition of a very small
amount of liquid (usually clean fresh water) to the air/abrasive stream before the nozzle, resulting
less dust. The water consumption can be controlled and is usually 15 liter/hour to 25 liter/hour.
Using this method may make the abrasive stick onto the steel, making it difficult to remove. The
remedy is to remove by fresh water cleaning.
The use of water, to reduce the dust, will create flash-rusting of the surface. This might be accepted
for certain types of paints. To decrease flash rust, a suitable rust-inhibitor may be added to the
water provided this is approved by the paint supplier.
Wet abrasive blast-cleaning
The method is similar to compressed air abrasive blast-cleaning, but with the addition of a liquid
(generally clean fresh water) before or after the nozzle to produce a stream comprising air, water
and abrasive. This method will create flash rusting of the surface. If this is not acceptable, a suitable
rust-inhibitor may be added to the water.
www.teknologisk.no

10

Equipment
The common equipment for blast cleaning is:
Compressor of suitable size
Pressure tank or pot (contains the abrasive)
Air hoses
Abrasive hoses / nozzles
Moisture and oil separators
Dead-mans handle
Pressure pot
In many cases the pressure tank or pot is portable. Prior to blast-cleaning the operator must be
equipped with suitable safety equipment. When he closes the dead-mans valve the pressure builds
up inside the tank causing the pop-up valve to close. The pressure in the tank and in the abrasive
hose is equalised. The abrasive falls down into the abrasive valve and is transported through the
hose to the nozzle. In the nozzle, the abrasive-air mixture is accelerated and propelled onto the steel
surface.
The pressure tanks or pots can be of various sizes from approximately 50 litres up to 200 litres. In
order to use the equipment a sufficiently large compressor is needed. The size of the compressor
will depend on several factors such as the required pressure during the operation and how many
outlets will be used at the same time.
The abrasive valve
There are different types of abrasive valves available, but the most common one used is the Miser
valve. Here two plates fitted with holes lie on top of each other and the opening can be regulated as
required. Often, but not always, an assistant will assist the operator during the blasting i.e. adjusting
the abrasive valve and filling of the abrasive.
Hoses and connections
The transportation of the abrasive / air mixture from the abrasive valve to the nozzle takes place
through the blasting hose. On its way there is a certain pressure loss - increasing with the length of
the hose. How large the pressure loss is can be measured by injecting a small needle manometer
into the abrasive hose when the abrasive valve is closed.
The hoses are normally made from rubber tubing with -inch thick walls rubber tube with carbon
black compounding to earth the static electricity generated by the abrasive flow in the hose. The
hoses are also equipped with additional grounding wire between the rubber and the outside ply.
The hoses will often be of a length of 30 m, and therefore couplings must be used in order to
achieve longer lengths. The couplings used nowadays are always of the exterior type and secured
with screws to the hose.
Nozzles
The nozzles are continually exposed to abrasives. They are often made from tungsten or boron
carbide with a life of around 200 - 300 hours. The carbides are very brittle, and in order to absorb
some of the shock, the nozzle is fitted with a lead lining and then covered with plastic.
www.teknologisk.no

11

Today mainly venturi nozzles are used. They are conical inside and this increases the speed of the
abrasive out of the nozzle from approximately 300 to 700 km/hour at a pressure of 7 bars. Nozzles
are available in various sizes, lengths and shapes depending on the objects that are to be cleaned.
The blasting pattern from venturi nozzles covers a larger area with a more even pattern than a
straight bore nozzle of the same size.
Venturi nozzle:
Straight nozzle:
Dead mans handle or valve

This handle will ensure the operator that he at all times has control of immediately stopping the
blasting operation if something unexpected should happen. By releasing the dead mans handle, the
pressure in the tank decreases to zero. The response time can by quite long depending on whether
the mechanisms used are pneumatic or electro-pneumatic.
Centrifugal abrasive blast-cleaning
Centrifugal abrasive blast-cleaning is carried out in factories where the abrasive is fed to rotating
wheels or impellers positioned to throw the abrasive evenly and at high velocity on to the surfaces
to be cleaned. The kinetic energy gives the desired effect. Most centrifugal abrasive blast-cleaning
units are stationary and the abrasive is circulated in a closed system. The abrasive is most often
shot. Some equipment models may be delivered mobile, and therefore useful for cleaning large
uninterrupted surfaces, such as ship hulls and oil storage tanks.
The method is suitable for continuous operation on structures with accessible surfaces, such as
plates, plate girders, castings or rolling-mill products. Centrifugal blast cleaning can be used for all
rust grades.
Ultra high pressure water (UHP WJ)
Using water at very high pressure is a common way of pre-treatment for maintenance. The water
has sufficiently high pressure so that no abrasive is necessary. ISO 8501-4 defines the following
pressures:
www.teknologisk.no

12
Low-pressure water cleaning (LP WC)
Cleaning performed at pressures less than

34 MPa (340 bar) or 5000 psi
High-pressure water cleaning (HP WC)
Cleaning performed at pressures from 34 to 70

MPa (340 700 bar) or 5000 - 10000 psi
High-pressure water jetting (HP WJ)
Cleaning performed at pressures from 70 to

200 MPa (700 2000 bar) or 10000 50000 psi
Ultrahigh-pressure water jetting (UHP WJ) Cleaning performed at pressures above 200
MPa (2000 bar) or 25000 psi
Low-pressure and high-pressure water cleaning at pressures less than 70 MPa removes loose rust,
debris and material in depressions and pits, but black oxide (magnetite) remains.
High-pressure water jetting at pressures of 70 MPa (10000 Psi) will produce a uniform matte finish
which will quickly flash rust unless inhibitors or environmental control is carried out. Black oxides
(magnetite) are slowly removed.
At pressures of 140 MPa (20000 Psi), a uniform matte finish is obtained that will flash rust quickly
unless inhibitors or environmental control is carried out. Black oxides (magnetite), paint,
elastomeric coatings, enamel, red oxide and polypropylene sheet lining are removed. Generally
chemical contaminants will be removed with varying degrees of effectiveness.
At pressures of 235 to 250 MPa (34000 to 36000 Psi), a uniform matte finish is obtained that will
flash rust quickly unless inhibitors or environmental control is carried out. Surface material,
including most mill scale, is removed from the base metal. Extremely well bonded mill scale may
require additional time spent in localised jetting. When an operator carries out this process the
amounts of water must be quite low. Otherwise the recoil will be too high for the operator to
withstand over a longer period of time.
Flash rust can be a problem for paints/coatings and special surface tolerant coatings have been used
e.g. surface tolerant epoxy.
The process will not result in any additional roughness in the steel i.e. the steel must have the
desired roughness in advance (have at some time been blast cleaned), and so far the process has
been in use more or less only in connection with maintenance painting.
This results in a minimum of problems in connection with the job, due to the fact that no dust is
created. At high pressures very small amounts of water are used, maybe only up to 15 -20 litres pr.
minute. However the cleanliness of the steel is very good. The water removes all salts and the
energy created using water, provides a temperature rise of the steel so that dries it quickly.
The operating distance from the object using ultra-high pressure water jetting is small, preferably
the nozzle is held 6 - 13 mm from the surface. At distances further apart the cleaning rate will be
www.teknologisk.no

13

much lower. The cleaning rate pr. hour is dependent on the original condition of the coating.
Special nozzles that circulate are used.
www.teknologisk.no

14

ABRASIVES
A wide variety of both natural and synthetic solid materials and in some cases fluids are used for
abrasive blast cleaning.
The most common abrasives used in connection with abrasive blast cleaning are divided into two
main groups, metallic and non-metallic (mineral) abrasives.
The abrasives have three different shapes.
Grit
Shot
Cylindrical
- angular, irregular
- round
- sharp edged
(G)
(S)
(C)
When selecting an abrasive consider the following abrasive characteristics.

Particle size
Size will influence both the surface profile and productivity. Using as small an abrasive as
possible is a good start, but small abrasives may not be able to remove scale and heavy
coatings. Coarser abrasives will do this job, but usually leave a less uniform and deeper
surface profile. The influence of a particular size on the resulting surface profile is normally
greater for metallic abrasives than for non-metallic abrasives. This is because the shatter
characteristics differ and because differences in density affect the kinetic energy of the
abrasive particles.
A balanced mixture of particle sizes may produce the optimum level of cleanliness, cleaning
rate and surface profile.
Hardness
As mentioned, hard abrasives (metallic) may shatter on impact and can create a lot of dust.
By choosing a softer abrasive, more energy will be transmitted on the surface. Very soft
abrasives like sodium bicarbonate, walnut shells, corn cobs, dry ice can be used for surfaces
freshening up brick or removing coatings on such surfaces.
Shape
The most effective abrasives are usually angular (grit) and they will create a surface profile
that is not as uniform, but which will provide a nice anchor pattern for coating adhesion.
Using rounded (shot) is more common for removing mill scale or rust, but can also be used
to remove coating (e.g. automatic blast cleaning machines like Blastrac).
Density
Higher density will as a rule be more effective and give the best production rate. The high
density will transfer more energy to the surface.
In blast cleaning plants where the abrasive is recycled, it is necessary to remove dust and
contaminants before the abrasive is re-used and to make up for the abrasive which is lost by wear
and adherence to the steel. This is done by adding new abrasive so that the abrasive mixture is
maintained within prescribed particle size limits or particle size distribution.
www.teknologisk.no

15

Metallic abrasives
These abrasives have a long service life because their particles can resist a large number of impacts
before their size is reduced and the abrasive must be discarded. These abrasives are expensive and
are more or less used only in installations where they can be re-circulated.
Metallic abrasives generally clean more effectively than non-metallic abrasives, particularly on new
steel covered by hard, tight mill scale. There are several kinds of metallic abrasives available the
most common ones are listed in table 1.
Chilled iron grit is the hardest, but also breaks down faster, due to its own brittleness. Steel shot or
grit is the most common types. There is limited use of wire cut.
Non-metallic (mineral) abrasives

In general, non-metallic abrasives are commonly used for open air-blast cleaning of steel. Most of
these abrasives are inexpensive. Their shape is angular with some exceptions (e.g. glass beads).
Most of them have a short life i.e. they are usually only used once.
Due to health hazards laws in many countries forbids because of the risk of silicosis, the use of
silica containing abrasives (especially quartz sand). There are alternatives to quartz sand, e.g.
olivine.
As shown in Table 1, currently 9 different non-metallic abrasives are standardised in the
International Standard ISO 11126.
Many abrasives used are slag from metal production e.g. nickel refinery slag, copper refinery slag,
iron furnace slag and coal furnace slag. There must be no free metal particles in the slag that can act
as sources for corrosion on the blast-cleaned surface and should not contain heavy metals. Even
though the name implies that the slag is metallic, they are not, rather oxides from by-products of
metal production.
Also in certain cases where removal of oxides from aluminium or stainless steels, or where little or
no roughness is recommended prior to painting, other types of abrasives than sand or slag may be
used, such as crushed nut shells, glass beads, plastics, sodium bicarbonate. For blast cleaning of
these metals or hot dip galvanised surfaces only non-metallic abrasives should be used.
Non metallic abrasives
Silica sand
Silica sand is a hard and low cost abrasive, which is available more or less everywhere in the world.
It might not be available in a wide range of particle sizes and there is also a health risk for workers.
Silicosis is a chronic lung disease caused by breathing silica dust, which is created upon using the
sand for blast-cleaning.
In many countries world-wide the use of silica sand is prohibited due to the health reasons
mentioned. The use of water will reduce the amounts of dust created, but not below the maximum
exposure limit set by the authorities in many countries. The Mohs hardness is approximately 5-6,
and it creates light coloured dust upon impact.
www.teknologisk.no

16

Olivine
Olivine sand is natural occurring abrasive. Olivine sand is a pale green, silica free abrasive. It is a
silicate of iron and magnesium. It has a Mohs hardness of approximately 7, creating a light
coloured dust upon impact.
Staurolite
Staurolite is a common substitute in the North American market for silica sand. Its a silicate of
iron and aluminium. It has a Mohs hardness of approximately 7.5. Staurolite is a dark coloured
mineral; the free silica content is lower than the limit set by the authorities.
Garnet
Garnet is a hard silicate mineral found several places; Australia, India, USA and South Africa and
is used extensively around the world. The abrasive has high cleaning efficiency, which results in
less use of abrasive. Garnet can also be recycled several times, and is a less expensive alternative to
aluminium oxide. The mineral has a Mohs hardness of 7-8 and can be used both for ferrous and
non-ferrous substrates.
Iron furnace slag
Iron furnace slag is a by-product of iron melting. Finer grades of this slag leave the substrate with a
light colour.
Copper refinery slag
This abrasive is also referred to as iron-silicate and is a widely used synthetic abrasive. Copper
refinery slag is available in many countries as a by-product from melting of copper. The abrasive is
available as a dark coloured slag, more or less black in colour. Upon blast-cleaning the abrasive
leaves the substrate with a dark colour. There should be little or no free copper in the abrasive.
Nickel refinery slag
This abrasive is also an iron-silicate and is a widely used synthetic abrasive. The abrasive is more
or less black in colour. After use the substrate has a dark colour.
Coal furnace slag
This abrasive is often referred to as aluminium silicate, which is a by-product of coal burning
power stations. The colour of the abrasive is fairly light brown and the abrasive is widely used on
steel.
Fused aluminium oxide
There are several types available, ranging from brown to pink or white in colour. Aluminium oxide
is a very common abrasive used for blast cleaning. The abrasive can be expensive and is often
recycled and used in small cabinets. The abrasive is very hard with a Mohs hardness of 9.0 - 9.2.
The blasting pressure may be lowered to 3 - 4 Kp/cm2 when using this abrasive.
www.teknologisk.no

17
Type
Metallic
blast-cleaning
abrasives
Cast iron
Chilled
Cast iron
High-carbon
Low-carbon
Cut steel
wire
Natural
Silica sand
Olivine sand
Staurolite
Garnet
Non-metallic
blast-cleaning
abrasives
Initial
particle
shape
Compar
ator 1)
G2)
S or G
S2)
S
S
Iron furnace slag
2)
S
G
G
G
Remarks
Mainly for compressed air
blast-cleaning
Mainly for centrifugal blastcleaning

blast-cleaning
(Calcium silicate
slag)
Copper refinery

slag
(Ferrous silicate
G
G
blast-cleaning
Synthetic
Nickel re-finery slag)
slag
(Aluminium
Coal furnace slag
silicate slag)
Fused aluminium oxide
G
G
1)
Comparator to be used when assessing the resultant surface profile. The method for evaluating the surface profile by
comparator is described in ISO 8503-2.
2)
Main shapes
G
angular
S rounded
C
cylindrical
Special hardness of the steel can be ordered prolonging the usability. As the abrasives are re-used they will be rounded and
become more spherical, the appearance of the surface profile changes and becomes closer to that of the "shot" comparator.
Table 2 - Commonly used blast-cleaning abrasives for steel substrate preparation
Checking for contaminated air or abrasive

To obtain the best possible surface treatment result the pre-treatment must be done correctly. It is
also very important to check that the abrasive or compressed air is not contaminated. If the
compressed air or the abrasive is contaminated with oil or grease there is a risk of surface
contamination. A thin film of oil or grease will be imbedded in the steel profile, and will likely
impair coating adhesion.
Salt on a steel surface may lead to osmotic blistering, and checking the abrasives for salts is
important.
Checking abrasives and compressed air for oil or grease
Abrasives
Fill a jar with abrasive, shake well and let stand for 30 minutes. If oil or grease is present it will
float to the surface and you will visually be able to see this shiny liquid.
Compressed air
Let the compressed air run through a white rag and observe any deposits. It is important that there
is no humidity in the air, and this can be checked in the same manner at the same time.
www.teknologisk.no

18

Checking abrasives and compressed air for salts (chlorides)
Mix equal amount of water and abrasives in a jar. Shake well and let stand for 1 hour. Filter off the
water and measure conductivity. High conductivity indicates salt contamination.
www.teknologisk.no

19
IMPORTANT STANDARDS FOR

SURFACE TREATMENT
www.teknologisk.no
Important standards for surface treatment 6/13
Surface cleanliness
ISO 8501-1:2007 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints
and related products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 1 Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel substrates after
overall removal of previous coatings.
The standard has four levels of mill scale and rust (designated as "rust grades") that are commonly found
on surfaces of uncoated steel. It also identifies degrees of cleanliness (designated as "preparation
grades") after surface preparation of uncoated steel surfaces and steel surfaces after overall removal of
any previous coating. The various grades are defined, and together with photographs the rust and
preparation grade is found. 8501-1is applicable to hot-rolled steel surfaces for painting by methods such
as blast-cleaning, hand and power tool cleaning, and flame cleaning.
Rustgrades
A
Preparation grades
Blast-cleaning
A Sa 2
B Sa 1
B Sa 2
C Sa 1
C Sa 2
D Sa 1
D Sa 2
A Sa 3
B Sa 2
B Sa 3
C Sa 2
C Sa 3
D Sa 2
D Sa 3
Hand tool and power tool cleaning

B St 2
C St 2
D St 2
B St 3
C St 3
D St 3
Flame cleaning
A Fl
C Fl
B Fl
D Fl
www.teknologisk.no

Representative photographic examples of the change of appearance imparted to steel when
blast cleaned with different abrasives.
The last picture in the standard (or supplement 1 of earlier versions) provides representative
photographic examples of the colour changes imparted to rust grade C steel that is dry blast-cleaned to
preparation grade Sa 3 with different metallic and non-metallic abrasives.
Original steel plate, rust grade C
High carbon cast-steel shot,
Grade S 100,
Vickers hardness 390 HV to 530
HV
Steel grit,
Grade G 070,
HV
Steel grit,
Grade G 070,
HV
Chilled-iron grit,
Grade G 070
Copper refinery slag
Coal furnace slag
ISO 8501-2 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related
products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 2 Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localised removal of previous
coatings
This standard specifies a series of preparation grades for steel surfaces after local removal of previous
coatings (spot repairs). The various preparation grades are defined by written descriptions and before
and after photographs. Photographs showing examples of preparation grades P Sa 2 and P Ma are
given. The standard is applicable to surfaces prepared by methods such as blast-cleaning, hand-and
power tool cleaning, and machine abrading.
www.teknologisk.no

products Visual assessment for surface cleanliness
Part 3Preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas with surface imperfections
This part describes preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas, with steel surfaces with
imperfections. Such imperfections can become visible before and/or after an abrasive blast-cleaning
process.
Three preparation grades for making steel surfaces with visible imperfections suitable for the application
of paints and related products are as follows:
P1
Light preparation;
No preparation or only minimum preparation carried out before
application of paints
P2
Thorough preparation;
Most imperfections are removed
P3
Very thorough preparation; Surface is free of significant visual imperfections
products Visual assessment for surface cleanliness
Part 4 Initial surface conditions, preparation grades and flash rust grades in connection with
high-pressure water jetting
This part of ISO 8501 specifies a series of preparation grades of steel surfaces after removal of watersoluble contaminants, rust and paint coatings and foreign matter by high-pressure water jetting.
The various grades are defined by written descriptions together with photographs that are representative
examples within the tolerance within each grade as described in words.
5 initial conditions are described:
DC A, DC B, DC C, DP I, DP Z.
There are 3 cleaning grades designated:
Wa1, Wa2, Wa 2 .
The last picture gives flash rust grades:
Low, medium and high.
www.teknologisk.no

Surface contaminants
ISO 8502
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related

products - Tests for assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive tape method)
This part of ISO 8502 describes a procedure for the assessment, using a pressure-sensitive tape method,
of the quantity and the particle-size of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting.
Part 4 Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint application
The standard gives guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation on a surface to be
painted. It may be used to establish whether conditions at the job site area are suitable for painting or
not. Use either electric or sling psychrometer and determine RH and dew point. Steel should be at least 3
C above the dew point.
Part 6 Sampling of soluble impurities on surfaces to be painted - The Bresle method

The standard describes a method of extracting, for analysis, soluble contaminants from a surface by use
of flexible cells in the form of adhesive patches which will adhere to any surface, regardless of its shape
(flat or curved) or if it is horizontal or vertical. The method is suitable for use in the field to determine
the presence of soluble salt contaminants before painting, pre-treatment or other treatment.
Part 9 Field method for the conductometric determination of water-soluble salts

This standard describes a field method for the assessment of the total surface density of various watersoluble salts (chlorides) on steel surfaces before and/or after surface preparation by measuring
conductivity.
www.teknologisk.no

Surface roughness
ISO 8503

products - Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel
substrates
Part 1 Specifications and definitions for ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment of
abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces
This part of the ISO 8503 specifies requirements for ISO surface profile comparators which are intended
for visual and tactile comparison of steel surfaces that have been blast-cleaned with either shot or grit
abrasives. ISO surface profile comparators are for use in assessing, on site, the roughness of surfaces
before the application of paints and related products or other protective treatments.
Part 2 Method for the grading of surface profile of blast-cleaned steel - Comparator procedure
This part of the ISO 8503 describes a visual and tactile method for assessing the grade of the profile that
has been produced by one of the abrasive blast-cleaning procedures described in ISO 8504-2. The
method uses ISO surface profile comparators for assessment, on site, the roughness of surfaces before
the application of paint or other protective treatments.
Part 3 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of
surface profile - Focusing microscope method
The standard specifies the focusing microscope and describes the procedure for calibrating ISO surface
profile comparators complying with the requirements of ISO 8503-1.
Part 4 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of
surface profile - Stylus instrument method
The standard specifies the stylus instrument and describes the procedure for calibrating ISO surface
profile comparators complying with the requirements of ISO 8503-1.
www.teknologisk.no

Surface preparation methods
ISO 8504

products - Surface preparation methods
Part 1 General principles

This part of ISO 8504 describes the general principles for the selection of methods for the preparation of
steel surfaces before coating with paints and related products. It also contains information on features
that must be taken into account before certain surface preparation methods and preparation grades are
selected and specified.
Part 2 Abrasive blast-cleaning
The standard describes abrasive blast-cleaning methods. It also contains information on the effectiveness
of the individual methods and their fields of application.
Part 3 Hand- and power tool cleaning
The standard describes methods for hand-tool and power-tool cleaning of steel substrates. It applies both
to new steelwork and to steel surfaces that have been coated previously and that show areas of
breakdown requiring maintenance painting. It describes the equipment to be used and the procedure to
be followed.
Film thickness
ISO 2808
Paints and varnishes - Determination of film thickness
The standard reviews and specifies a number of methods that are applicable to the measurement of the
thickness of organic coatings. The standard covers both measurement of wet and dry film thickness.
ISO 19840:2004 Paints and varnishes - Corrosion protection of steel structures by

protective paint systems -- Measurement of, and acceptance
criteria for, the thickness of dry films on rough surfaces
The standard explains requirements for dry film measurements including correction factor and sampling
plan. Also acceptance criteria for measurements below specified dry film thickness. To account for
surface roughness a correction value is subtracted, depending on the surface roughness (according to
ISO 8503)
www.teknologisk.no
Adhesion
ISO 2409 Paints and varnishes - Cross cut test
The standard specifies a test method for assessing resistance of paint coatings to separation from
substrates when a right-angle lattice pattern is cut into the coating penetrating to the substrate. The test
mat be carried out on finished objects and / on specially prepared test specimen.
ISO 16276-2:2007 Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint

systems Assessment of, and acceptance criteria for, the
adhesion/cohesion (fracture strength) of a coating -- Part 2:
Cross-cut testing and X-cut testing
The standard contains pictorial references for assessing the adhesion, gives sampling plan and
acceptance criteria. Explains both x-cut and cross-cut adhesion.
ISO 4624
Paints and varnishes - Pull off test for adhesion
This standard specifies methods for carrying out a pull-off test on a single coating or multi-coat system
of paint, varnish or related product. The test result is the minimum tensile stress necessary to break the
weakest interface (adhesive failure) or the weakest component (cohesive failure) of the test assembly.
Mixed adhesive/cohesive failures may also occur.
ISO 16276-2:2007 Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint

systems Assessment of, and acceptance criteria for, the
adhesion/cohesion (fracture strength) of a coating -- Part 1: Pulloff testing
The standard contains pictorial references for assessing the adhesion, gives sampling plan and
acceptance criteria.
www.teknologisk.no

Holiday detection
ASTM D 5162
Standard recommended practice - Discontinuity (Holiday) testing

of non-conductive protective coating on metallic substrates
This standard covers procedures for determining pores and discontinuities using two types of test
equipment.
Test method A - Low voltage wet sponge (up to 500 m)
Test method B - High voltage spark tester (above 500 m).
NACE RP 0188 Standard recommended practice - Discontinuity (Holiday) testing

of protective coatings
Similar to ASTM D 5162.
MEK tests of inorganic zinc-rich paints

ASTM D 4752
Standard test method for: Measuring MEK resistance of ethyl

silicate (inorganic) zinc-rich primers by solvent rub
This test method describes a solvent rub technique for assessing if ethyl silicate (inorganic) zinc-rich
primers have cured. The technique can be used in the laboratory, field or in the fabricating shop.
www.teknologisk.no

Evaluation of degradation of paint coatings
ISO 4628
Paints and varnishes - Evaluation of degradation of paint coatingsdesignation of intensity, quantity and size of common type of defects
Part 1 General principles and rating schemes

This part of the standard is intended to establish a general system for designating the intensity, quantity
and size of common types of defects of paint coatings and outlines the basic principles of the system in
respect of designation of the intensity, quantity and size of defects, in particular the defects caused by
ageing and weathering.
Part 2 Designation of degree of blistering
This part of ISO 4628 provides pictorial standards for designating the degree of blistering of paint
coatings by use of pictorial references.
Part 3 Designation of degree of rusting
This part of ISO 4628 provides pictorial standards for designating the degree of rusting of paint coatings
by use of pictorial references.
Part 4 Designation of degree of cracking
This part of ISO 4628 provides pictorial standards for designating the degree of cracking of paint
Part 5 Designation of degree of flaking
This part of ISO 4628 provides pictorial standards for designating the degree of flaking of paint coatings
by use of pictorial references.
Part 6 Designation of degree of chalking
This part of ISO 4628 provides pictorial standards for designating the degree of chalking of paint
www.teknologisk.no
Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint

systems
ISO 12944 Paints and varnishes - Corrosion protection of steel structures by
protective paint systems
Part 1 General introduction
Part 2 Classification of environments
Part 3 Design considerations
Part 4 Types of surface and surface preparation
Part 5 Protective paint systems (examples)
Part 6 Laboratory performance test methods
Part 7 Execution and supervision of paint work
Part 8 Development of specifications for new work and maintenance
www.teknologisk.no
PAINT AND PAINT SYSTEMS
www.teknologisk.no
Paints and paint systems 6/13

1

PAINTS AND PAINT SYSTEMS
Paint composition
Paint is composed of several components (raw materials). The main components of paint are:
Binder(s)
Pigment(s)
Filler/Extender(s)
Solvent(s)
Additive(s)
Many paints can have a combination and several of the main components, typically 7-15 raw
materials. Often 1 binder, 1-3 pigments, 1-3 fillers, 2-3 solvents and 2-5 additives. Most paints are
mixed in a high speed dissolver. Some pigment requires special mills to decrease the particle size to
less than 10 m.
Binder
The binder is the most important component in paints. It provides the main properties,
including strength, curing/drying properties, adhesion, weathering properties etc. It binds
pigments and filler together to provide a uniform film. The binders can be organic, inorganic or a
combination, but does not necessarily have to be the largest component.
The term generic paint refers to the type of binder. Examples of binders are:
Acrylic
Vinyl
Epoxy
Polyurethane
Polysiloxane
Latex
Chlorinated rubber
Silicate
Pigments
We can divide pigments into two categories:
1. Decorative
The decorative pigments give the desired colour and opacity. The opacity is often referred
to as the hiding power, the paints ability to reflect light and give a uniform colour.
www.teknologisk.no

2

Some pigments are better than other with regards to UV radiation and fading
(discolouration). Pigments are an expensive raw material, specially the bright organic
colours.
Examples of decorative pigments are:
Titanium dioxide
- white
Iron oxides
- red, yellow, black
Organic
- bright colours of red, yellow, green, blue (often
Phthalocyanines)
2. Anti-corrosion
Anti-corrosion pigments are used to increase the paints corrosion resistance properties.
The pigments can also give colour and opacity, depending on the type e.g. aluminium and
zinc.
We often use metal pigments that are less noble than steel for corrosion protection. These
types of pigments are used as primers because they require metal contact. They will work in
a similar matter as an anode (it will sacrifice itself and protect the steel), but the metal is
spread on the surface as paint. Example of this type of pigment is:
Zinc
Laminar pigments are used in paints to make them more impermeable. When paint is
impermeable it is very dense (watertight) and it is difficult for water, oxygen and corrosive
ions to penetrate through it.
After application of the paint, the pigments will orient themselves parallel to the surface and
overlap, similar to bricks:
Examples of laminar pigments are:
Micaceous Iron Oxides (MIO)

Aluminium flakes
Glass flakes
www.teknologisk.no

3

Corrosion inhibiting pigments provide corrosion protection by inhibiting the steel. These
pigments are usually permeable and when humidity enters the film a reaction occurs
between the pigment and steel surface to create a passive layer on the steel. Red lead and
zinc chromate type pigments were used for many years and gave excellent corrosion
protection, but due to environmental concerns they are rarely used today. Even though they
are not used today, we often refurbish structures with the types of systems which require
special waste management
Today we use more environmental friendly inhibiting pigments, e.g.:
Zinc phosphate
Other synthetic types
These pigments have no opacity, even though they usually look white.
Fillers/Extenders
Fillers or extenders are usually minerals used as finely grained powders in the paint. They provide
the paint with more body (consistency) without breaking down the properties of the paint; they
are cheap and keep the price of the paint down. The powders are often white or grey, but will
usually not provide any hiding power (opacity). Sometimes this component is liquid and we then
usually call them extenders. Typically these are tar modification or tar replacement modification
(hydrocarbon resins) type products
Primers usually have a high amount of fillers and are matt (the surface becomes uneven). Glossy
paint on the other hand have little fillers and have high gloss (the surface is smooth).
Examples of fillers
Oxides, mainly silicas

Calcium carbonates (chalk)
Aluminium silicates (china clay, mica)
Magnesium silicates (talcum)
Calcium magnesium carbonate
Barium sulphate (very inert and used for chemical resistance, but expensive)
Solvents
The main reason for solvents in paint is to dissolve the binder. If the binder is solid or has high
viscosity a solvent is necessary to reduce the viscosity so that we are able to apply the paint. This is
more effective if the solvent gives better solvability of the binder.
For environmental purposes we like the solvent content as low as possible. Globally we have VOC
regulations (volatile organic compounds) and solvents are the main contributor to emissions in
paint.
www.teknologisk.no

4

Examples of solvents:
white spirit
xylene
toluene
methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK)
butyl acetate
Propylene Glycol Methyl Ether
(water in some cases)
The paint manufacturer chooses the solvents for production, and some solvent are more soluble in
the binder than others. When we apply the paint, we reduce the viscosity with a thinner. A thinner
can be the same as the solvent or a blend of one or several solvents. A thinner usually, but does not
have to, dissolve the binder. The blend of thinners can also be a combination of quick and slow
evaporating solvents which is important depending on the application temperature. If the
temperature is low, we prefer quick evaporating thinners, and if the temperature is high we prefer
slow evaporating thinners. The solvents and thinners should evaporate at a rate giving the paint
time to flow to an even film, but avoiding any retained solvent. The solvent/thinners must
evaporate out of the paint film. A paint film with trapped solvents will become porous and full of
voids, thus, the corrosion preventing properties will be reduced.
Solvents can be aliphatic (e.g. white spirit) or aromatic (e.g. xylene). This has to do with their
chemical structure, aliphatic is linear and aromatic contains a benzene ring.
Definitions according to ISO 4618; Vocabulary - Part 1: General terms
solvent
diluent
thinner
A liquid, single or blended, volatile under normal drying

conditions, and in which the binder is completely soluble
A volatile liquid, single or blended, which, while not a solvent
for the non-volatile constituents of a paint or varnish, may be
used in conjunction with the solvent without causing any
deleterious effects
A volatile liquid, single or blended, added to a product to lower the
viscosity
Additives
Additives are different chemicals used to provide or improve a certain property. Most paint use
additives to give improved properties, and typically there is between 2 and 5 additives in paint. The
dosage is usually small, e.g. between 0-1 %. The additives may improve or provide the following
properties, among others:
air release
pigment wetting
surface wetting
anti sag
thickening
www.teknologisk.no
catalyst
driers
surface flow
adhesion promotion
viscosity reduction

5

HOW DOES A PAINT PROTECT THE SURFACE
Corrosion preventing paints will protect steel by three basic principles:
Barrier protection - reduce ability of water and oxygen to reach the surface
Inhibitive protection - passivate the steel surface
Cathodic protection - sacrifice themselves to protect the steel
Barrier systems use paints that are as impermeable (watertight) as possible. This method tries to
prevent oxygen, salt, humidity, ions from passing through the film and reaching the substrate. Even
though we want it as impermeable as possible, no paint is completely impermeable and humidity
will move in and out of the paint film. Barrier protection is improved by the use of laminar
pigments, e.g. MIO, aluminium or glass flakes.
Inhibitive system contains pigments that react with the surface of the steel and passivates or inhibits
the steel by building up a corrosion protective film.
Cathodic protective systems rely on metallic pigments that are less noble than steel. The pigments
are in the primer and when the system is damaged and bare steel exposed, the cathodic protective
paint will send energy to the steel to protect it. As long as there is enough pigment no corrosion will
occur, but when the pigment has been used, corrosion will start.
The principles can be used by themselves or in a combination. Typically they are combined, e.g.:
Primer
Midcoat
Topcoat
zinc epoxy which gives cathodic protection

epoxy mastic with laminar pigment which gives barrier protection
polyurethane which gives barrier protection.
www.teknologisk.no

6

MISSION OF EACH COAT IN A SYSTEM
A paint system is typically based on 3 coats, primer, intermediate or midcoat and topcoat.
Primer
The primer for the steel must provide good adhesion to the substrate. In addition it often has anticorrosive pigments. It must form a good basis for the intermediate coat. Different binder may give
different adhesion properties and require different surface preparation. Today, epoxy primers are
widely used, e.g. zinc epoxy which gives excellent adhesion and excellent corrosion protection.
Typical film thickness is 50-75 m.
Intermediate coat
For a paint system to perform well we need minimum film thickness. The film thickness is built up
in the mid- or intermediate coat. In this coat we will increase impermeability and often laminar
pigments are used. The easiest way of building thickness is with a high solids paint (this will
require fewer coats to obtain the same thickness compared with a paint with low solids). Epoxy
systems are widely used as an intermediate paint in a heavy duty paint system. A film thickness of
150-200 m is normal.
Topcoat
The top coat or the finish coat provides the paint system with the desired colour and gloss. This
coat should withstand radiation from the sun, rain and chemicals. The most widely used topcoat is
polyurethane for heavy duty corrosion protection. These products have proven performance over
many years and gives good stability against weather, sun radiation and chemicals. Due to their
content of isocyanates they are considered hazardous in many parts of the world and special care
must be taken. Alternatives to polyurethanes are acrylics and polysiloxanes. Topcoat are usually the
most expensive coats and typically only 50-75 m are applied.
www.teknologisk.no

7

PAINTS
Paints can be divided into three groups according to their drying or curing mechanism;
physical drying paints

oxidative drying paints
chemical curing paints.
Physical drying paints

The drying process of this type of paint consists exclusively of the evaporation of solvents and
thinners. Many of the solvents are very volatile making the drying process quick. The evaporation
is quick at high temperatures, and consequently, slower at low temperatures.
Typical for the solvent based physical drying paints is that the dry coat will re-dissolve in similar
solvents as the original. When applying the second coat the first coat will soften and to some extent
dissolve and the two coats will be mixed to give excellent adhesion. A second coat applied too
thick can cause sagging. Due to this re-dissolving phenomena, it is difficult, if not impossible, to
measure the wet film thickness of the second coat.
Physical drying paints can be applied at low temperatures, even below zero. The substrate must be
dry and free from ice. At lower temperatures the evaporation of the solvents will proceed at a
slower rate.

Evaporation of solvents
One-component water based systems are usually physical drying, but they will neither dissolve
the binder nor be applicable below zero degrees.
www.teknologisk.no

8

Oxidative drying paints
Oxidative paints are one component but require oxygen to dry. After application and when the
solvent has evaporated the binder starts to react with oxygen which is found in the surrounding air.
Steel
Oxygen
When oxidative drying paints have dried the original solvent will not dissolve them, but stronger
solvents can cause problems such as lifting. Both new and old oxidative drying paints e.g. alkyds
may lift when physical drying or chemical curing paints with strong solvents are applied. The
underlying coat will not be dissolved, rather destroyed and adhesion to the substrate or previous
coats will be lost. As a consequence, removal of the damaged coat(s) must be performed before
application of a new coat.
The drying process of oxidative drying paints will proceed at a slower rate at lower temperatures.
Typically they can be applied and will dry down to +5 C.
Chemical curing paints

The drying of these paints involves a chemical reaction between the binder (base) and a hardener
(curing agent). Before use, the base and the curing agent must be mixed thoroughly to achieve the
chemical reaction (cross-linking).
It is of great importance that the two components are mixed in the correct ratio supplied by the
manufacturer. The mixing of the components should take place shortly before application starts.
The curing of the paint involves first evaporation of the solvent and then a chemical reaction
between the components. After mixing the components the reaction will start, and it cannot be
stopped. It is what we call an irreversible reaction.
www.teknologisk.no

9

Crosslinking
After mixing the paint is usable only for a certain period of time (from 20 minutes until a few
hours) which we call the pot-life. After this time period the chemical reaction has reached a point
where the paint becomes very viscous or hard, thus we cannot apply it. Do not add thinner to
dilute the paint further. When the temperature increases the pot-life decreases and vice versa.
Typical for the chemical curing paints are that they are two component (2-pack) paints (even three
pack). When these paints have cured they form a network (cross-linking) so dense that they will not
be dissolved by the original solvent. This gives a very strong and chemical resistant film compared
to the other types.
The drying process of chemical curing paints will proceed at a slower rate at lower temperatures,
consequently quicker at higher temperatures (then pot-life is reduced). Generally chemical curing
paints require minimum + 10 C, but there are cold curing types. Epoxy can cure down to - 5 C
and polyurethane even lower.
TYPES OF PAINT
There are many different paints which have varying properties. The paint manufactures can
customise paints for many uses. We will categorize them as follows:
Prefabrication primers (shop-primers)

Zinc primers
Primers
Topcoats
Special paints and coatings
www.teknologisk.no

10

Prefabrication primers (shop primer)
When buying steel, the manufacturer will often blast clean it and apply a thin coat of paint
(prefabrication primer or shop primer) to prevent it from corrosion. Not only does this look better,
it is also an advantage to the company applying the paint, since they do not have to blast clean
themselves. The prefabrication primers are intended to provide the steel with sufficient protection
outdoors and depending on the environment they last for approximately 6-12 months before rust
appears.
The prefabrication primer is applied to protect the steel against corrosion during the assembly of the
structure. After cutting and welding these areas are blast cleaned and paint system is applied. This
is a common practice, but some companies may require removing all the prefabrication primer prior
to painting.
The prefabrication primers are applied in an automatic production line and immediately after
heating and blast-cleaning of the surface. The thickness of these coatings must be low, preferably
between 10 -20 m. The thickness is important so as not to reduce the speed of cutting and
welding during production, as well as the health aspects associated with hot work on coating or
zinc.
Iron oxide shop primers
The most common types of iron-oxide shop primers are based on polyvinylbutyral (PVB) or epoxy.
The colours are often red.
Areas of use
General used shop primer for onshore application. The PVB based type must not be used
submerged in water.
Zinc-rich shop primers
The zinc-rich shop primers are based on epoxy- or ethyl silicate binders. The colour of these types
of paint is greyish (zinc coloured).
Due to health hazards related to the vapours from welding on zinc (zinc fever) these paints are
applied in low film thicknesses e.g. 10-20 m.
Areas of use
These types of shop primers are preferred to iron-oxide primers because they last longer and
tolerate greater mechanical strength. For offshore application, zinc ethyl silicate types are preferred.
Zinc Primers
Primers are very important for a paint system. It will give adhesion to the steel, but some will also
give increased anti corrosion properties.
www.teknologisk.no

11

Zinc rich primers
Using zinc in the primer will give cathodic protection if the coating is damaged. As long as there is
zinc present, it will send energy to the steel to protect it from corrosion. It is essential that the zinc
has particle contact with the steel.
Zinc primer can be supplied in many binders, e.g. epoxy, silicate, polyurethanes, acrylics, but for
heavy duty we will focus on epoxy and silicates. Zinc is an alkaline substance and it is important to
avoid oil based coatings due to the risk of saponification (which eventually will lead to flaking).
Organic zinc rich primers (Epoxy)
Epoxy is one of the most common binders used today. The epoxy paint is filled with between
65-90 % pure zinc dust. The zinc content must be high enough to achieve cathodic protection and
there must be particle to particle zinc contact, in addition to contact with the steel. If there is not
enough zinc the epoxy will isolate the particles and you will end up with barrier coating that does
not give any cathodic properties.
Curing of zinc epoxy is very easy. As long as the components are mixed and the recommended
minimum temperature requirements are met they will cure. Curing is temperature dependant, but
typically it takes 7 days. Recoating the zinc epoxy primer before full cure is obtained is no problem
as long as all the solvents have evaporated.
Inorganic zinc rich primers (Zinc Ethyl Silicate)
The zinc ethyl silicate primers are inorganic two-component paints. Zinc ethyl silicate comprise
most often of a base (binder) with pure zinc dust as the other component. Unlike the zinc epoxy
paints, the binder (ethyl silicate) is conductive and the paint will provide the steel with sufficient
cathodic protection even without particle to particle contact providing that there is enough zinc dust
in the paint. The zinc content can be up to 90 %.
The zinc ethyl silicate paints give excellent cathodic protection and has additional advantages like
high heat resistance (400 C), good abrasion resistance and excellent chemical resistance. These
paints may be used alone in tanks e.g. in chemical tankers and are resistant to a wide variety of
chemicals. The producers have chemical resistance lists.
Zinc ethyl silicate paints have a special curing mechanism. To be able to cure the silicate binder
requires hydroxyl groups (-OH) which are easily found in humid air. For this reason the relative
humidity of the air must be high when curing these paints, preferably above 85 %. Higher
temperatures will in addition accelerate cure. The humidity should be introduced within a few hours
after application. If possible, steam will provide excellent curing.
Due to this curing mechanism, final cure is not very predictable for these paints. In correct climatic
conditions they cure within a few hours, but if not favourable, several days. Care must be taken to
not apply the next coat before the zinc ethyl silicate has cured, this may lead to flaking of the
paint system. The common way to asses curing is by the use the standardised ASTM D 4752 - the
MEK solvent test. This test method will be thoroughly described later on, but uses the solvent
methyl ethyl ketone to determine the degree of cure of the paint.
Other problem associated with these paint are mudcracking and the necessity of a tie-coat or mistcoat.
www.teknologisk.no

12

Mudcracking occurs when the coating is applied above recommended thicknesses and the results
looks similar to dry mud. If this occurs re-blasting is required. Modern zinc ethyl silicates have
been improved and are less sensitive to mudcracking than before.
Zinc ethyl silicate paints are very porous and contain a lot of entrapped air. If a thick coat of paint is
applied directly on top a lot of holes appear (pin-holes or popping). To avoid this problem, the use
of a tie-coat or mist coat is required (thin coat of approximately 30 m to drive out the air and seal
the film).
Primers
There are many other primers available, and they can be based on alkyd, acrylics, epoxies,
polyurethane or other binders. For heavy duty corrosion protection, the epoxy based primers are
very frequently used. For water based systems the acrylic types are more common.
Etching primers (or wash primers)
Etching primers are used to achieve adhesion on problem substrates or substrates where it is
difficult to achieve adhesion, e.g. aluminium, stainless steel, hot dip galvanized surfaces.
Etching primers are two pack primers. The base contains the binder polyvinyl-butyral (PVB) and
the curing-agent is an alcohol solution with phosphoric acid. The maximum dry film thickness
(DFT) is very low and should not exceed 10 m, which is impossible to measure on site. If the DFT
is above 10 m, the phosphoric acid may be trapped inside, eventually leading to adhesion
problems. This is due to the fact that ingress of water vapour through the coating dissolves the
excess of the water soluble phosphoric acid.
Since these primers contain a lot of acid and is a rather messy job, their use is very limited. Health
and safety issue have made them rarely used. Today these problem substrates are lightly blast
cleaned (or thoroughly degreased) followed by an epoxy polyamide primer to achieve excellent
adhesion.
Epoxy primers
Epoxy primers are characterized by their excellent adhesion and barrier properties. They are twocomponents. The epoxy polyamide cured products provide the best adhesion properties, but other
types of hardener will also give adhesion way above the requirements (provided correct surface
treatment).
Areas of use
Epoxy primers are all-purpose primers for corrosion resistant paint systems. Seldom used alone,
depending on the exposure. Some of the primers are used as a tie-coat on porous surfaces and can
also be used as a holding primer (primer protecting the surface for a limited amount of time).
Acrylic primer
Many onecomponent primers are based on acrylic binders. These primers give good adhesion and
have shown excellent performance. The solvent is water and this can cause challenges in colder
climates, especially during winter since they must not freeze.
www.teknologisk.no

13

Areas for use
General primer used for most applications in general industry.

Traditional physical drying paints have a high content of solvents (60-70 %). Not only does this
give low film thicknesses (must apply paint in many coats to build up) but it is not accepted with
regards to environmental issues. They will not fulfil the VOC (volatile organic content)
requirements since they emit a high amount of solvents into the atmosphere, thus they are seldom
used. Water based physical drying paint e.g. acrylics will fulfil these requirements.
Even though the paints are seldom used, we often recoat them and it is important to know of some
of their characteristics. Many physical drying paints can be formulated as a primer, mid-coat or
topcoat.
Chlorinated rubber
Chlorinated rubber is a whitish powder produced either synthetically, or as a reaction between
natural rubber and chlorine. Chlorinated rubbers are used as binders in paints and are dissolved in
aromatic hydrocarbons such as ketones and chlorinated hydrocarbons. The chlorinated rubbers dry
by evaporation of the solvents and no chemical reactions take place during the drying process. The
paint re-dissolves when a new coat is applied giving excellent inter-coat adhesion.
The gloss retention is poor and they have a tendency to yellow in sunlight. To improve the outdoor
durability they final coat will often be vinyl-acrylic.
Areas of use
Chlorinated rubber paints were widely used in chemical, marine and other environments. The paints
resistance toward solvents is poor, so is its resistance to vegetable and animal oils, while its
resistance to acids and alkalis is better. The chlorinated rubber paints thermoplastics, i.e. they
become soft at higher temperatures and get harder at lower temperatures. The paints will withstand
temperature up to approximately + 60 C, at higher temperatures there is a risk that the paint will
decompose and create hydrochloric acid.
Vinyls
The vinyl paints are similar to chlorinated rubber paints in that they dry only by evaporation of the
solvents. The binder is produced synthetically and is dissolved in aromatic hydrocarbons such as
ketones. The vinyl paints will re-dissolve and are somewhat more resistant towards solvents than
chlorinated rubber paints, but will be attacked by stronger solvents such as xylene and ketones. The
percentage of solids in these paints is low and commonly not higher than 30 - 35 %.
The gloss retention is low and they have a tendency to yellow in sunlight. To improve the outdoor
durability they final coat will often be modified with acrylics.
The paints high contents of solvents can cause problems in windy weather, the result of this may be
solvent retention and pinholes in the paint.
www.teknologisk.no

14

Areas of use
The vinyl paints were widely used for many industrial operations. Their resistance towards organic
acids and alkalis is good. They also have good resistance towards water oil, alcohol etc. Previously
the vinyls were much in use on the offshore platforms over zinc silicate primers, but nowadays
epoxy / polyurethane have replaced them.
For use under water, vinyl paints modified with tar (vinyl tar) below the antifouling provides
excellent protection. The addition of the tar to the vinyl paints will increase the water resistance and
the paint becomes more surface tolerant.
Acrylics (solvent based)
The acrylic paints are closely related to the previous mentioned physical drying paints. The binder
is produced synthetically and is dissolved in organic solvents such as ketones. Similar to the vinyl
and chlorinated rubber paints, they are high in VOC.
Acrylics are easy to top coat and repair and have good gloss retention. They have a low film
thickness, and must be applied in multiple coats.
Areas of use
The acrylic paints were widely used for many industrial operations. The durable films have good
water and general chemical resistance (especially to acids and alkalis). However being
thermoplastic, the paint has poor solvent and heat resistance.
Acrylics (water based)
Due to the low solid content of the solvent based, many physical drying paints have been replaced
by water based acrylics which are VOC compliant (water is the main ingredient that evaporates).
These coatings give excellent corrosion protection and are used for industrial atmosphere. Usually
it comprises of a primer (with anti-corrosion properties) and a topcoat with good weathering
properties.
During application, the RH should be preferably below 70 %. In enclosed areas the paint may not
dry if RH is too high since the water has nowhere to evaporate in air that is water saturated. If the
RH is very low the water evaporation will be very quick and the paint may not have time to flow.
Areas of use
Used for general industry applications like bridges, transmission towers, containers. The chemical
resistance is weaker than for the solvent based, but sufficient for normal exposure. The solid
content is still low so to build up film thickness, multiple coats are required.
Bitumen paints
Bitumen paints dry solely by evaporation of solvents. Due to the bitumen content in these paints the
colour becomes black or dark brown and is therefore used for underwater application. The paints
are not very suitable for outdoor exposure. Due to health hazards associated with bitumen and tar
products they have limited use in many parts of the world.
www.teknologisk.no

15

Areas of use
Bitumen paints are well known paints for submerged structures due to the increased water resistant
properties obtained from the bitumen. These products have been extensively used in ballast tanks
for many years, but due to health hazards and the dark colour they have been phased out. Today the
requirements in ballast tanks are paints of light colour.
These paints remain relatively soft and when recoating by harder paints we typically use today,
there is a risk of cracking.

Oxidative drying paints are for the most part oil based. Used as an all-purpose type paint for
industrial applications, but seldom for heavy duty corrosion protection. The products are onecomponent and easy to apply by brush, roller or spray.
Alkyds
Alkyds are made by a reaction between an acid and an alcohol. The alkyds are often divided into
groups according to their oil-length. The oil-length is an expression for the amount of oil related
to other raw materials used in the process. You may have heard the expression short, medium and
long alkyds.
Alkyds can be modified, i.e. other types of binders are added to produce special properties. Most
commonly used are binders such as silicone or urethane to give weather resistance (gloss retention
and discolouring).
Using alkyds on alkaline substrates like galvanised steel or steel applied with zinc-rich coatings
may result in saponification and the result will be flaking.
Previously linseed oil, red lead and alkyd red lead paints were extensively used on steel structures.
The red lead paints used 30 - 40 years ago still protect these structures, but the use of these lead
products are banned in many countries to health related issues (heavy metals). Problems are also
related to the removal of these types of paints, because they are hazardous to the environment.
Areas of use
Alkyds show good durability in environments that are not too aggressive. The weather resistance is
fair, but it is not very chemical resistant. Since they tend to soften in water they are not
recommended submerged.
Epoxy esters
This type of paint must not be mixed up with epoxy paints. The epoxy esters are related to the
alkyds and dry by a reaction with the oxygen in the air.
Areas of use
They are quick drying paints and somewhat harder than alkyds. The application can be done using
airless spraying, roller or brush. Their use is limited today.
www.teknologisk.no

16

The most widely used products today for heavy-duty corrosion protection are chemical curing
types, e.g. epoxy, polyurethane, polysiloxane.
Epoxy paints
A wide range of epoxy paints exist and the suppliers can formulate these products for most
applications like chemical resistance, barrier properties, strength and adhesion. Epoxy paints create
a very hard and tough paint film, and these paints are resistant to many environments. They are
two-component and must be mixed thoroughly prior to application.
Not recommended for outdoor exposure due to chalking and fading. For this reason a more weather
resistant topcoat is used e.g. aliphatic polyurethane.
The paint is usually applied either by airless spraying, roller or brush. It is important that the paints
pot-life is kept in mind if more than one coat is to be applied (there is a maximum recoating
interval). If the recoating interval is exceeded the surface needs to be lightly abraded prior to
application of the next coat to ensure adhesion.
When the paint is applied by airless spraying it is very important that all equipment is cleaned
before the work is finished. Failure to clean will result in destroyed hoses and pump equipment du
to cured epoxy inside.
Areas of use
Epoxy paints are widely used offshore, onshore, on ships, bridges and at chemical plants giving
excellent corrosion protection in aggressive environments for a long time. They meet the highest
requirements in most standards e.g. ISO 12944 corrosivity class C5. Epoxy paints will withstand
most solvents, acids and alkalis and many other chemicals. Special formulations increase the
chemical and temperature resistance (epoxy phenolic).
Epoxy resin
Epoxy resins are described according to the molecular weight, low medium and high. Higher
molecular weight epoxies have long molecular chain length. Low molecular weight resin has a
molecular weight (MW) <700 and above this it is categorized as high. Low molecular weight resin
is liquid and with modern curing agents high solid or solvent free paints can be made. The
disadvantage is that there is a health risk from low MW resin, namely allergic reactions. Using high
MW resin avoids the allergic risks, but since they are solid they need more solvent and then the
risks associated with them must be taken into account.
Hardeners
Various hardeners are used and each will give unique properties. They can also be modified with
others or blended. The most common are:
Polyamides
Polyamines or polyamine adducts
Isocyanate
www.teknologisk.no

17

Polyamides are the first generation hardeners and are easier to work with than the polyamines.
They have longer pot-life and not as critical mixing ratio requirement. The manufacturer can vary
the mix ratio to obtain the desired property. Often the base and the curing agent need some
induction time prior to use. Induction time is a pre-reaction time after mixing before start of
application (usually about 20 minutes). The polyamides have higher viscosity which requires more
solvent.
Another feature of the polyamides is their excellent adhesion properties on many substrates.
Polyamide epoxy can experience amine sweating. This phenomenon is a sticky or tacky substance
that can occur on the surface. It is the result of the hardener migrating to the surface. Curing at high
relative humidity and low temperature may increase the problem. This sticky layer must be
removed prior to coating to avoid flaking. It is easily removed with water (warm if possible).
Polyamines will give the coating a hard and tough film with high acid and alkali resistance. They
are more volatile and reactive i.e. they have a short pot life and cure time. Polyamines have low
viscosity and light colour and can be used for formulating high solid paints in bright colours. Even
though this is possible, epoxies are not recommended for topcoats outdoors due to chalking. Epoxy
is not resistant to the suns UV rays and will fade and loose colour, this phenomenon we call
chalking. In addition epoxy tends to become yellow from weather exposure. It will still give
excellent corrosion protection, but not look as nice as other more weather resistant topcoats like
polyurethane.
Polyamines react with carbon dioxide and moisture in the air to form amine carbamate, commonly
referred to as amine blushing. These whitish products must be removed before recoating, if
possible by water but often solvent is necessary. Failure to remove can result in flaking. Low
temperature and high humidity increases the risk of amine blushing.
Isocyanates can be used to cure epoxy to obtain a cold curing product. They react quickly,
resulting in a short pot life and fast curing. The cured film has good flexibility and barrier
protection properties. Their use is limited since many polyamines will cure down to 5 C.
Pure epoxy paint
Epoxy chemistry has been known for many decades and the first paint to arise were the pure epoxy
types. They had a solvent content around 50 %, cured with polyamide, gave excellent adhesion and
strength. The disadvantage was that they needed blast cleaning, were slow to cure (at low
temperatures), had fair chemical resistance and not always possible in very light colours. Today
these properties have been improved, but this original technology is still in use, especially for
primer requiring excellent adhesion.
Modified epoxy (epoxy mastic) paints
Manufacturers wanted to improve the characteristics of the pure epoxy product and this was the
emergence of epoxy mastic technology. These products were higher in solid content (75-90 %),
were surface tolerant (no blast cleaning necessary), more flexible and the curing agents were lighter
in colour. They can be delivered in many colours (white, grey, green) with regular pigments, but
often they are modified with aluminium flakes, glass flakes or micaceous iron oxide (MIO) to
improve the barrier effect. As mentioned earlier the flake formed pigments orient themselves like
www.teknologisk.no

18

bricks for more impermeability. The hardeners used are polyamines, polyamine adducts or a
combination of polyamines and polyamides.
Areas of use
Epoxy mastic is most likely the most used product for heavy duty corrosion protection. The epoxy
mastics are surface tolerant paints, indicating that these paints do not require removal of all rust
and other foreign matters. It should however be noted that mastics should not be applied onto
surfaces with thick rust layers or grease, oil and fat. The paints will give the best performance over
steel that to some extend have been cleaned and are free form water soluble contaminants such as
chlorides. Best result will always be obtained when the surfaces have been blast cleaned, but the
surface tolerant epoxies are used on water jetted surfaces also.
Epoxy isocyanate cured paints
Some epoxy types can be cured using isocyanate (curing agent for polyurethane). The reason for
this is to obtain curing at lower temperatures (down to -10 C) not obtainable with regular epoxy
curing agents.
Coal tar epoxy coatings
Coal tar epoxy (epoxy tar) paints are two pack paints modified with coal tar. The use of tar gives
the paint:
better flexibility
excellent water resistance
Resistance against chemicals and solvents is still maintained. The epoxy coal tar paints do not
contain any corrosion preventing pigments and will protect the steel only by barrier protection.
Application is usually done using airless spraying. There is a maximum recoating interval.
Recoating should be done within the time limit given in the data sheets. If the recoating interval is
exceeded the surface should be abraded before recoating.
Areas of use
Coal tar epoxy paints are often used on submerged areas and for the protection of ballast tanks. The
paints are highly resistant to both acids and alkalis. Coal tar epoxy paints are sensible to sunlight,
will chalk and become brittle. The most common colours are brown and black although certain
bleached types are available in lighter colours. Recoating coal tar epoxy paints with lighter colours
will cause bleeding. The tar component in the paint will diffuse into the next coats and cause
discolouration (yellowing), especially noticeable in light colours.
Coal tar has to be labelled as toxic in many parts of the world, and the use has become limited. In
addition, requirements for ballast tanks and many submerged areas require light colour. These
requirements cannot be met by traditional coal tar epoxy.
Today coal tar epoxy has been replaced by modified epoxy where the coal tar has been replaced by
other light coloured and non-hazardous hydrocarbon resins. The performance is similar to coal tar
epoxy.
www.teknologisk.no

19

Glass flake epoxy
Epoxy paint can be modified with glass to give better barrier protection. The glass will like
aluminium and MIO orient themselves like bricks. They have increased abrasion resistance
compared to standard epoxy. It is a high solids paint that can be applied with normal airless spray
and is supplied in many colours.
Areas of use
Used in aggressive areas like splash zones, decks, tanks requiring increased protection, often
applied in higher film thickness than standard epoxy, typically 500-600 m.
Solvent free epoxy paint
Solvent free (less) epoxy paint are formulated with little or no solvent, thus they are VOC
compliant. This makes them an alternative to water based for VOC compliance. They are
formulated with low MW resin and modern hardeners so there is a risk of allergy. They can be
applied in high dry film thicknesses. The pot-life is usually very short and the recoat intervals may
be shorter.
Areas of use
The solvent free epoxy paints can be used for many applications, often recommended for drinking
water tanks, and in some cases for chemical resistant tank coatings. In general they contain little or
no flammable solvents, thus reducing the fire and health hazards.
Topcoats (chemical curing)

The topcoat must protect the structure, but most of all it must be resistant to weather exposure (if
outside). Depending on their chemistry, they may loose gloss, yellow, and fade in colour over time.
Even though they may not look as nice upon ageing, they may still give corrosion protection.
Polyurethane
Aliphatic polyurethane paints are one of the most proven topcoats with an excellent track record
over many years. They have good gloss and colour retention and life expectancy is very long. They
can be formulated glossy, semi glossy or matt. To obtain these properties the binder must be
aliphatic (linear) as opposed to aromatic (benzene ring) which will yellow.
The hardener for polyurethane is isocyanates which have health hazards associated with them. In
fire or during hot work they can decompose into dangerous chemicals, among them, cyanide. For
this reason they are banned in the North Sea.
Areas of use
As a topcoat in corrosion protective paint systems giving excellent weathering properties.
Polyurethane will have long life expectancy and perform without fading, loosing gloss or yellowing
for many years. Used on bridges on- and offshore application, ships, refinery, towers, buildings.
Epoxy acrylic
These epoxy paints are modified with acrylics to improve the weathering properties of epoxy. They
are much better than epoxy, but not as good as polyurethane.
www.teknologisk.no

20

Areas of use
Weather resistant topcoat for heavy duty corrosion protection paint systems. Used on bridges onand offshore application, ships, refinery, towers, buildings.
Polysiloxane
Polysiloxane topcoats have been in the market for many years (since 1990s) but still do not have
the same track record as polyurethane. Due to brittleness there has been experience in flaking of
this topcoat in offshore application. They are much more expensive than polyurethanes, but have
longer life expectancy. The product gives even better weathering properties than polyurethane. The
chemistry is silicone based. The products have high solids and are VOC compliant.
Areas of use
Topcoat in a coating system used to protect structures from weather and chemical exposure.
Properties are better than for polyurethane, but they are more expensive. Used on bridges on- and
offshore application, ships, refinery, towers, buildings. Today the initial problems seem to be
solved and sales are going up at a high rate.
Special paints and coatings

Some paints are made for special purposes, but they have similar build up as traditional paints.
Polyester glass flake paints
Unsaturated polyester will dissolve in strong solvents like styrene. When an accelerator is added
(peroxide) the coating cures quickly. These types of paints or coatings are often reinforced using
glass flakes.
These types of coatings have smaller amounts of wax added. The wax floats to the surface to
protect the binder from oxygen ingress since this may stop cure. For this reason the recoat interval
is short. If it is exceeded the surface must be washed with solvent to remove the wax (within the
time limit the second coat will be able to dissolve the wax).
The protection offered by polyesters reinforced with glass flakes is purely barrier protection.
Application is done by airless spray often with large nozzle (size 0.040 -0.050 inches).
Areas of use
The use of reinforced polyesters is often connected with the production of smaller vessels. But in
connection to corrosion protection these coatings are often used under very tough conditions
requiring high abrasion resistance. Typical areas are splash zone and decks, and in special cases
chemical resistant tank linings.
Waterborne coatings
There are many generic types of water based paints, but for corrosion resistance epoxy,
polyurethane and acrylics are most common. The epoxy is used mainly as a primer and top coated
with solvent borne. The polyurethane dispersion is often a topcoat. Acrylics have the complete
system of primer and topcoat (usually 2 coat system, but may be 3).
The binders are often dispersions, meaning that small droplets or spheres are finely dispersed in
water by high speed agitation (in the factory). The spheres are usually smaller than 1 m. After
www.teknologisk.no

21

application, and as the water evaporates, the particles come closer together and melt together to
form a uniform paint film.
Due to VOC requirement for solvent emission waterborne coatings will continue to increase its
market share. Waterborne coatings are not completely faultless. There are still some solvents in
many of these paints, during spraying a lot of dust will be created and the need for protection is still
present. Some the waterborne coatings are based on epoxy resins and will still cause eczema and
allergy.
Areas of use
On blast-cleaned steel these kinds of paints can be used with a good result both indoors and
outdoors in mild to aggressive environment in the atmosphere. These paints are not recommended
for use in submerged areas or in areas with a high risk of condensation.
The paint will normally be applied with a primer containing corrosion preventing pigments and one
or more topcoats. The final coat can be acrylic depending on areas of use.
The relative humidity is important when working with waterborne coatings. At high relative
humidity the evaporation rate of the solvent (water) will be reduced, in worst case trapped inside.
Water on steel can cause flash rusting, which will lead to staining of the paint. Small red or brown
spots appear in the film. Due to the fact that the solvent is water there is also a lower temperature
limit for application, but usually not less than +5 C.
Coating concrete
Although concrete may be a strong and hard substrate, it will also deteriorate. This occurs due to
the porous substrate. Chemicals and water can penetrate through the pores and attack the concrete.
Water can freeze and will expand when the temperature drops, causing detachment of the concrete.
Often it is recommended to paint the concrete. When coated the concrete will be protected from
carbonation and chemicals, and the paint will also improve its appearance and ease maintenance.
Unlike the paints used on steel, protective coatings for concrete do not in most cases contain
inhibitive or sacrificial pigments to provide protection. Typically coatings with barrier protection
are used, but at the same time these paints must be open for diffusion. Such a system will let
humidity (water vapour) breathe out through the paint, but not let moisture in from the outside.
Concrete or cementicious substrates breathe all the time, meaning that they are not dense (they
are very permeable).
Paints for concrete should have a high barrier effect against permeation of carbon dioxide, other
acidic gases and against chlorides. Since the concrete contains bonded water some of this is also
released. If the water is trapped between the paint and the concrete it will form blisters. Therefore it
is often recommended to use a semi-permeable type coating. As a general rule, concrete should
cure for at least 28 days at 20 C before painting.
When painting concrete, always be aware of the laitance and humidity inside the concrete. Laitance
is a layer of fine particles on the surface. This layer is very weak and should be removed (grinding,
acid etching or blast cleaning) prior to paint application. If the concrete has a lot of humidity inside
and it is covered with a very impermeable coating, the result will likely be blisters.
www.teknologisk.no

22

Typical paints for concrete are epoxy, acrylic, polyurethane, and silicate types.
Antifouling
To prevent marine growth an antifouling paint is used. Growth will increase weight on structures
and on ships they will increase drag requiring more fuel to transport the ship. By using an
antifouling the surface will remain smooth and the ship will move faster with less fuel
consumption.
Basically antifouling paint is formulated as normal paint that contains biocide, often cuprous
oxide and other synthetic types. Earlier tin was used, but it has been banned by the International
Maritime Organization since 2008. In the future there may be restrictions on copper as well.
There are several types:
conventional where the binder dissolves in water

long-life is the conventional type modified with non dissolving binders to extend lifetime
self-polishing types which slowly wears off by friction.
Today almost all commercial ships use a self polishing tin free antifouling. There is still cuprous
oxide and various other biocides. As long as these are on the surface no growth will occur. As the
ship is moving the paint is slowly degraded by friction, always leaving fresh biocides at the surface.
Lifetime of such a SPC (self polishing copolymer) is 5 years when applied in approximately
300 m.
Non-slip or foul-release coatings may be the future for fouling prevention. They contain no biocide;
rather a very smooth and slippery surface prevents growth. The growth will fall of as the ship is in
motion. If the ship is not in motion growth can occur, but is easily removed. Special precautions
must be taken during application due to silicone content. These coatings have lower abrasion
resistance than traditional SPC and are more expensive. Even though more expensive than the selfpolishing, many suppliers claim that these expenses may be saved due to low friction, hence, less
fuel consumption.
www.teknologisk.no

23
ISO 12944-parts1-8
Corrosion Protection of steel
structures by protective paint systems
www.teknologisk.no
ISO 12944
6/11
1

Standards and guidelines
ISO 12944
The International Standard, ISO 12944 - Corrosion Protection of steel structures by protective paint
systems consists of 8 parts:
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6
Part 7
Part 8
General introduction
Classification of environments
Design considerations
Types of surface and surface preparations
Protective paint systems
Laboratory performance test methods
Executive and supervision of paint work
Development of specifications for new work and maintenance
ISO 12944 Part 1; General Information

Unprotected steel in the atmosphere, in water and in soil is subject to corrosion that may lead to
damage. Therefore, to avoid corrosion damage, steel structures are normally protected to withstand
the corrosion stresses during the service life required of the structure.
There are different ways of protecting steel structures from corrosion. ISO 12944 deals with
protection by paint systems and covers all features that are important in achieving adequate
corrosion protection.
In order to ensure effective corrosion protection of steel structures, it is necessary for owners of
such structures, planners, consultants, companies carrying out corrosion protection work, inspectors
of protective coatings and manufacturers of coating materials to have at their disposal state-of-the art information in concise form on corrosion protection by paint systems. The standard ISO 12944
is intended to give this information in the form of a series of instructions.
ISO 12944 Part 2; Classification of environments
ISO 12944-2 describes the corrosion stresses produced by the atmosphere, by different types of
water and by soil. It defines atmospheric-corrosivity categories and indicates the corrosion stresses
to be expected in situations where steel structures are immersed in water or buried in soil. The
corrosion stresses to which a steel structure is exposed represent one essential parameter governing
the selection of appropriate protective paint systems in accordance with ISO 12944-5.
www.teknologisk.no
ISO 12944
6/11
2

Table 1
Corrosivity
category
Atmospheric-corrosivity categories and examples of typical

environments
Mass loss per unit surface thickness loss
(after first year of exposure)
Low-carbon steel
Zinc
Mass loss
Thickness
Mass loss
Thickness
loss
loss
g/m2
m
g/m2
m
C1
Very low
10
1.3
0.7
0.1
C2
Low
> 10 to 200
> 1.3 to 25
> 0.7 to 5
> 0.1 to 0.7
C3
Medium
>200 to 400
>25 to 50
> 5 to 15
> 0.7 to 2.1
C4
High
>400 to 650
>50 to 80
> 15 to 30
> 2.1 to 4.2
C 5-I
Very high
(industrial)
>650 to 1500
>80 to 200
> 30 to 60
> 4.2 to 8.4
C 5-M
Very high
(marine)
>650 to 1500
> 80 to 200
> 30 to 60
> 4.2 to 8.4
Table 2
Examples of typical environments in a

temperate climate (informative only)
Exterior
Interior
Heated buildings with

clean atmospheres, e.g.
offices, shops, schools,
hotels
Unheated buildings
Atmospheres with low
where condensation may
level of pollution.
occur, e.g. depots, sports
Mostly rural areas.
halls
Production rooms with
Urban and industrial
high humidity and some
atmospheres, moderate
air pollution, e.g. food
sulphur dioxide
processing plants,
pollution. Coastal areas
laundries, breweries,
with low salinity.
dairies
Industrial areas and
Chemical plants,
coastal areas with
swimming pools, coastal
moderate salinity.
ship- and boatyards
Buildings or areas with
Industrial areas with
almost permanent
high humidity and
condensation and with
aggressive atmosphere
high pollution
Buildings or areas with
Coastal and offshore
almost permanent
areas with high
condensation and with
salinity.
high pollution
Categories for water and soil immersion
Category
Im1
Im2
Environment
Fresh water
Sea or brackish water
Im3
Soil
Examples of environments and structures

River installations, hydro electric power plants
Harbour areas with structures like sluice gates, locks, jetties; offshore
structures
Buried tanks, steel piles, steel pipes
www.teknologisk.no
ISO 12944
6/11
3

ISO 12944 Part 3; Design considerations
ISO 12944-3 gives information on basic design criteria for steel structures for the purpose of
improving their resistance to corrosion. It gives examples of suitable and unsuitable designs,
indicating, with the help of diagrams, which structural elements and combinations of elements are
likely to cause accessibility problems during surface preparation work and when applying,
inspecting and maintaining paint systems. In addition, design features, which facilitate the handling
and transport of steel structures, are discussed.
In general the overall design shall be planned to facilitate surface preparation, painting, inspection
and maintenance. All surfaces of the structure which have to be coated should be visible and within
reach of the operator by a safe method. Narrow spaces between elements and gaps should be
avoided whenever possible or sealed. Components, which are at, risk to corrosion and inaccessible
after erection should either be made of corrosion resistant material or have a protective coating
system that shall be effective throughout the service life of the structure. Alternatively, an
allowance for corrosion (thicker steel) should be considered
ISO 12944 Part 4; Types of surface and surface protection
ISO 12944-4 describes different types of surface to be protected and gives information on
mechanical, chemical and thermal surface preparation methods. It deals with surface preparation
grades, surface profile (roughness), assessment of prepared surfaces, temporary protection of
prepared surfaces, preparation of temporarily protected surfaces for further coatings, preparation of
existing metal coatings, and environmental aspects. Reference is made to existing International
Standards on the surface preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related
products. ISO 12944-4 is intended to be read in conjunction with ISO 12944-5 and ISO 12944-7.
ISO 12944 Part 5; Protective paint systems
ISO 12944-5 describes different generic types of paint on the basis of their chemical composition
and the type of film formation process. It gives examples of various protective paint systems that
have proved suitable for structures exposed to corrosive stresses and corrosivity categories
described in ISO 12944-2, reflecting current knowledge on the world-wide scale. ISO 12944-5 is
intended to be read in conjunction with ISO 12944-6.
The durability of a protective paint system depends on several parameters such as;
type of paint system

the design of the structure
the condition of the substrate before preparation
the effectiveness of the surface preparation
the standard of the application work
the conditions during application
the exposure conditions after application
www.teknologisk.no
ISO 12944
6/11
4

The conditions of the paint system applied can be assessed by means of ISO 4628 1-6. It has been
assumed in compiling with the tables in the annex A of this standard, that the first major
maintenance painting would normally need to be carried out for reasons of corrosion protection
once the coating has reached the level Ri 3 as defined in ISO 4628-3.
Based on this precondition, durability has been indicated in this part of ISO 12944 in terms of three
ranges:
Low (L)
Medium (M)
High (H)
2 to 5 years
5 to 15 years
more than 15 years
This part of ISO 12944 has annexes where examples of paint systems for the corrosivity categories
C 1 to C 5 are listed.
ISO 12944 Part 6; Laboratory performance test methods
ISO 12944-6 specifies laboratory test methods that are to be used when the performance of
protective paint systems is to be assessed. It is particularly intended for paint systems for which
sufficient practical experience is not yet available and covers testing of paint systems designed for
application to steel prepared by blast-cleaning, to hot-dip galvanised steel and to thermally sprayed
metallic coatings. Atmospheric environments and immersion in water (fresh, brackish or sea-water)
are also covered.
ISO 12944 Part 7; Execution and supervision of paint work
ISO 12944-7 describes how paintwork is to be carried out in the workshop or on site. It describes
methods for the application of coating materials. Handling and storage of coating materials before
application, inspection of the work and follow-up of the resulting paint system, as well as reference
areas, are also covered. It does not cover surface preparation work (See ISO 12944-4).
ISO 12944 Part 8; Development of specifications for new work and maintenance
ISO 12944- 8 gives guidance for developing specifications for corrosion protection work,
describing everything that has to be taken into account when a steel structure is to be protected
against corrosion. For the convenience of the used, ISO 12944-8 distinguishes between project
specification, paint system specification, paint work specification, and inspection and testing
specification. Various annexes deal with particular aspects such as planning of the work, reference
and inspection, and offer models of forms intended to facilitate the work.
www.teknologisk.no
ISO 12944
6/11
5
Application of paint
www.teknologisk.no
Paint application 06/13

1

APPLICATION OF PAINTS
Paints are commonly delivered in drums or tins from the paint manufacturer and can be regarded as
half-fabricates. The paint has to be applied by some method onto the substrate. To achieve this
several ways of application are possible:
Paint glove or paint mitt

Brush
Roller
Spray
Paint glove /-mitt

The use of paint gloves or paint mitts is sometimes necessary, but should be used only in areas with
very difficult access such as handrails and other round objects. The paint glove is ofte made of
lambskin and is then dipped in the paint and applied on to the surface.
Brush application
The use of brushes for application of paint is often considered to be good practice when the
application is to be done on areas that are difficult or impossible to reach by other means of
application. It is generally used for stripe coating along edges, corners, welds, rat holes etc.
Brushing will also give good penetration into pits, crevices and pores.
The best paint and varnish brushes are generally made from hog bristles. The outer ends of the
bristles are split into two or more fine branches, which results in finer brush marks and greater paint
holding ability.
The size and shapes of brushes vary. Flat brushes are the most commonly employed types of
brushes for work on flat surfaces, their width may be up to 100 - 120 mm. The round and oval types
are preferred for work on rough surfaces, painting rivet heads or for constricted areas.
The use of brushes for application of paint is very time-consuming and therefore expensive. The
paint layers obtained by the use of brushing will vary greatly in thickness depending on the painter
and the accessibility. The normal thickness achieved by the use of brush will be in the order of 40 50 m. Some of the corrosion protective paints can be applied by the use of brush, but some are
very viscous and rapid drying making the application difficult and uneven.
In general brushing may be used for all kinds of paints. For physical drying paints, such as
chlorinated rubber and vinyl, the solvent evaporation the paint will make it very viscous making the
brush marks quite visible. When a second coat is applied onto the primer coat, the fresh coat will
soften or dissolve it and the coats will mix or melt together.
www.teknologisk.no

2

Roller application
The use of roller is particularly suitable for painting large flat surfaces that are impossible to spray.
The use of roller does not require he same skill as for spray application. Using the roller enables the
operator to work faster and cover larger areas compared to the use of a brush.
The hand roller consists basically of a handle with a metal roller core and removable roller cover.
The roller covers are made from lambs' wool, mohair or synthetic fabric wound on plastic or
fibreboard cylinders.
The appearance of the paint after it has been applied using a roller, will differ and depend upon the
type of the roller and the length of the hair. There surface tends to become more structured, and
small air bubbles into the paint film can occur.
In general, rollers are not recommended for the application of primers on steel structures. This is
due to entrapment of air and solvents within the primer. There is also a tendency to "roll out" the
paint, meaning that the paint may be applied too thin due to excessive rolling operations.
Highly viscous coating may make rolling difficult.
Typically, application by roller will leave no more than approximately 60 m dry film.
Spray application
The most effective way of paint application is spraying, and there are two common ways:
Conventional spraying (low pressure air spray)

Airless spraying
When spraying, it is important to keep correct distance (approximately 30 cm) to avoid dry spary,
and always holding the gun perpendicular to get an even paint film.
Conventional spraying
When the paint is applied by the conventional method, compressed air is used to atomize and
transfer the paint onto the steel substrate. This method is gives the best appearance and is used
when the surface finish requirements are high e.g automobiles or other general industry objects.
The appearance is superior to airless spray.
The paint is forced from a small container (cup on top or under the gun) by compressed air. As the
paint passes through the nozzle, the paint is mixed with the air and atomized at pressures of about 2
- 5 kg/cm2 (0.2 - 0.5 MPa). The low pressure requires that the paint has low viscosity, and the paint
must be thinned considerably to be able to atomize in the gun. Modern high build paints will most
likely have to be thinned more than recommended to be able to apply by this method.
www.teknologisk.no

3

The normal working distance will be 40 - 60 cm from and perpendicular to the surface to be coated.
When spraying conventional a 50 % overlap is used. During the application it is important that the
operator measures the wet film thickness and adjusts his speed accordingly.
Although quicker than brush or roller this method is time consuming compared to airless spray.
Airless spraying
In airless spraying the paint is forced through the nozzle at high pressure and atomized. This is
done with a compressor and a pump. The pumps are usually air driven, but can also be electrically
driven. There is no air involved with the atomization and most of the paint will reach the substrate.
This makes this method very effective and is the preferred method for application of corrosion
protective coatings. The high pressures involve makes it possible to spray paint with high viscosity
e.g. modern paints that have high solids.
Two factors to be considered when selecting an airless pump is the fluid pressure required and the
volume to be pumped. Adjusting the air pressure on the pump varies the pressure required for
airless atomization. The maximum pressure obtained again depends upon the size of the air motor
and the air pressure used to operate the pump.
www.teknologisk.no

4

The lower part of the pump has ball valves, this will give double action e.g. suction occurs when
the piston is going both up and down. The valve enters the pump and the pressure increases and
only paint (no air) comes out of the outlet. This hose has much smaller diameter than a typical air
hose. The paint comes through the hose and is forced through the small nozzle and is atomized. The
pressure is very high 18-30 MPa (180-300 bar) and care must be taken to avoid injury.
The pumps pressure ratio gives an indication of how powerful the pump is. This ratio is the area
difference between the air and paint piston. The air piston is much larger than the paint piston. A
larger ratio indicates a more powerful pump. Common pumps are from 30:1 up to 70:1, very often
50:1.
Theoretically, a pump that is 70:1 and has an inlet pressure of 5 bar, gives theoretical pressure of
350 bar at the nozzle (5x70=350).
Generally a pump with high ratio will be more effective and will able the operator to apply high
viscosity paints. Friction and length of hoses will reduce the output pressure.
It is not always necessary to have high pressure to form a uniform spray pattern as long as the
atomization of the paint is satisfactory. If too much paint comes out of the nozzle there is a risk of
excessive thicknesses, sag and uneven surface. Insufficient pressure causes uneven paint thickness,
stripes and fingering.
The nozzles will wear and need to be changed. Lifetime depends on type of paint used, e.g. zinc
containing paint will wear the nozzle quicker. The nozzles usually have an oval shape and come in
different angles and sizes. The angle decides the spray fan e.g. it may be between 5 and 90
degrees. For small parts or detailed areas a small angle is preferred to avoid high loss and a lot of
dry spray e.g. an angle of 20. For huge areas like a ship hull an angle of 85 may be preferred.
Often a standard angle is 60 degrees. The size is usually found in the technical data sheet of the
paint and depends on among others on the viscosity and type of paint. Common nozzles (or tips)
are from 0,015 to 0,021 inches.
www.teknologisk.no

5

Application by airless spray requires skilled operators. Information found in the technical data
sheets of the paint supplier gives information regarding, nozzle size, atomization pressure, and the
amount of thinner allowed.
To achieve proper atomization, the operator must change the nozzle, change the pressure, thin the
paint or possibly heat the paint (lower viscosity). If heating is chosen, it is important to note that the
pot-life of two pack paints will be shorter.
Some paints (primarily those with heavy pigments like zinc that may settle in the bottom of the tin)
require agitation (usually automatic) during application. The speed of agitation is important and
must not cause entrapment of air in the paint. Incorrect agitation speed can cause porosity in the
film.
Using airless spray does not only involve chemicals (paint) but also high pressure. Read the safety
data sheet carefully and avoid injury.
www.teknologisk.no

6
INSTRUCTIONS
STANDARDS AND INSTRUMENTS
www.teknologisk.no
Instructions-standards and instruments 06/13

1
PRACTICAL USE OF STANDARDS AND INSPECTION EQUIPMENT

Pre-preparation surface condition
Condition after preparation
Condition after localised removal of previous coatings
Surface defects
Water jetting
(ISO 8501-1)
(ISO 8501-1)
(ISO 8501-2)
(ISO 8501-3)
(ISO 8501-4)
Detection of salts and dust

Weather conditions
Sampling of impurities - The Bresle method
(ISO 8502: 2-3)

(ISO 8502-4)
(ISO 8502-6)
Surface roughness
(ISO 8503)
Wet and dry film thickness
(ISO 2808)
Film thickness by destructive means
(ASTM D 4138)
Adhesion - Cross cut test

Adhesion - Pull-Off test
(ISO 2409)
(ISO 4624)
Holiday detection
(ASTM D5162)
Curing of zinc ethyl silicate
(ASTM D 4752)
www.teknologisk.no

2

ISO 8501-1
Visual cleanliness of the steel before and after

surface preparation
Rust grades:
A
Steel surface largely covered with adhering mill scale but little, if any, rust.
Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which the mill scale has begun to
flake.
Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it can be
scraped, but with slight pitting visible under normal vision.
Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away and on which general pitting
is visible under normal vision.
Blast-cleaning, Sa
Sa 1
Light blast-cleaning
The surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering mill
scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter (water-soluble salts and welding debris). See
photographs B Sa 1, C Sa 1 and D Sa 1
Sa 2
Thorough blast-cleaning
The surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and from most of the mill scale,
rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any residual contamination shall be firmly
adhering. See photographs B Sa 2, C Sa 2 and D Sa 2
Sa 2 Very thorough blast-cleaning

The surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and from mill scale, rust, paint
coatings and foreign matter. Any remaining traces of contamination shall show only as
slight stains in the form of spots or stripes. See photographs A Sa 2, B Sa 2, C 2 and
D Sa 2
Sa 3
Blast-cleaning to visually clean steel

The surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and shall be free from mill scale,
rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. It shall have a uniform metallic color. See
photographs A Sa 3, B Sa 3, C Sa 3 and D Sa 3
Hand tool and power tool cleaning, St

St 2
Thorough hand and power tool cleaning
The surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering mill
scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter (water soluble salts and welding debris). See
photographs B St 2, C St 2 and D St 2
www.teknologisk.no

3

St 3
Very thorough hand and power tool cleaning

As for St 2, but the surface shall be treated much more thoroughly to give a metallic sheen
arising from the metallic substrate. See photographs B St 3, C St 3 and D St 3
Flame cleaning, Fl
The surface shall be free from mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any
residues shall show only as discoloration of the surface (shades of different colors). See
photographs A Fl, B Fl, C Fl and D Fl
ISO 8501-1
Equipment:
Determination of rust grades and preparation

grades
The standard ISO 8501-1
Powerful flashlight
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4
Either in good diffuse daylight or in equivalent artificial illumination, examine the steel
surface and compare it with each of the photographs using normal vision.
Place the appropriate photograph close to, and in the plane of, the steel surface to be
assessed.
For rust grades, record the assessment as the worst grade that is evident.
For preparation grades, record the assessment as that grade nearest in appearance to that of
the steel surface.
NOTE
.
In addition to the type of cleaning method used, for example dry blast-cleaning using a
particular type of abrasive, the following factors can influence the result of the visual
assessment:
a)
initial state of the steel surface other than any of the standard rust grades A, B, C
or D
b)
colour of the steel itself
c)
regions of differing roughness, resulting from differential corrosion attack or
uneven removal of material
d)
surface irregularities such as dents
e)
marks from tools
f)
uneven lightning
g)
shadowing of the surface profile caused by angled projection of abrasive
h)
embedded abrasives
Note:
The basis of the appendix is that many different abrasives are used for blastcleaning. Since some of the abrasives are impacted on a blast-cleaned surface, the
colour of the abrasives affects the appearance of the surface.
www.teknologisk.no

4

ISO 8501-2
Equipment:
Preparation grades of previously coated

substrates after localised removal of previous
coatings
Powerful flashlight
Procedure:
1. In the standard a number of preparation grades, indicating the method of surface preparation and
degree of cleaning, are specified.
Localised blast-cleaning of previously coated surfaces, P Sa
Localised hand - and power-tool cleaning of previously coated surfaces, P St (not
machine abrading)
Localised machine abrading of previously coated surfaces, P Ma
2. The surface is compared with pictures in the standard that show examples within some of the
preparation grades.
3. The photographs show examples from blast-cleaning (P Sa 2 ) and machine abrading (P Ma)
ISO 8501-3
Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Visual
assessment for surface cleanliness
Procedure:
By comparing surface with photographs, determine the preparation as follows
P1
Light preparation;
No preparation or only minimum preparation carried

out before application of paints
P2
Thorough preparation;
Most imperfections are removed
P3
Very thorough preparation;
Surface is free of significant visual imperfections
Describes preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas, with steel surfaces with
imperfections. Such imperfections can become visible before and/or after an abrasive blast-cleaning
process.
www.teknologisk.no

5

ISO 8501-4
Preparation of steel substrates before

application of paints and related products
Visual assessment for surface cleanliness
Part 4
Initial surface conditions, preparation

grades and flash rust grades in
connection with high-pressure water
jetting
Procedure:
In a similar fashion to ISO 8501-1, find the initial condition and compare to the appropriate
photograph in the standard.
5 initial conditions are described:
DC A, DC B, DC C, DP I, DP Z.
There are 3 cleaning grades designated:
Wa1, Wa2, Wa 2 .
The last picture gives flash rust grades:
Low, medium and high.
www.teknologisk.no

6

ISO 8502-2
Equipment:
Laboratory determination of chloride on cleaned

surfaces
Ruler and essentially chloride-free chalk
Absorbent cotton pads
Metal spatula or knife
Gloves of plastic
Beakers, of capacity 250 ml
Small glass rod
Funnel
Filter paper
Measuring cylinder, of capacity 50 ml
Volumetric flasks, of capacity of 50, 100 and 1000 ml
Volumetric pipettes, of capacity of 1 and 20 ml
Device for titration
Procedure:
1. Carry out a blank titration each time on water, retaining the titrated solution for comparison of
end points. See the standard.
2. Mark out a test area measuring approximately 25000 mm2 (e.g. 250 mm x 100 mm) using a
ruler and chalk.
3. Mark two beakers A and B. Pour 45 ml of water into beaker A (corresponding to grade 3 purity
in accordance with ISO 3696).
4. Soak an absorbent cotton pad with the water in the first container and then thoroughly swab the
test area with the soaked pad. Remove the water from the surface with the absorbent cotton pad
and squeeze the washings into beaker B.
5. Repeat the swabbing procedure with several portions of water, and if the pad is worn out, use a
fresh one. Continue the swabbing procedure until all the water has been used up.
6. Filter the washings, using the filter paper and the funnel and collect the filtrate in the volumetric
flasks of capacity 50 ml. Wash the absorbent cotton pads with water and squeeze the water into
the flasks and make to the mark with water.
7. Shake the volumetric flask and using a pipette, transfer 20 ml of the wash water into a clean
beaker. Determine the chloride content by following the procedure given in the standard.
8. Express the chloride content in milligrams per square meter in nearest 10 mg/m2
www.teknologisk.no

7

ISO 8502-3
Equipment:
Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared

for painting (pressure-sensitive tape method)
Colourless, transparent pressure-sensitive tape of width 25 mm, having an peel
adhesion peel strength of at least 190 N per metre measured in accordance with
IEC 454-2
Display board e.g. of glass, cards or paper
Spring loaded roller
Hand lens, capable of magnification x 10
Procedure:
1. Discard the first three turns of tape from the roll and then remove a piece about 200 mm long.
2. Press about 150 mm of the freshly exposed tape on to the surface under test.
3. Place the thumb across one end of the tape and move the thumb, while maintaining a firm
pressure three times in each direction.
4. Remove the tape from the test surface, place it on an appropriate display board and cause it to
adhere to the board by rubbing with the thumb.
5. Assess the quantity of dust on the tape by comparing it visually to an area of the tape with
equivalent areas of the pictorial references shown in the standard. Record the rating
corresponding to the reference that is closest match.
6. Assess the predominating dust particle size on the adhesive tape by reference to table 1 in the
standard which defines six dust particle size classes, designated 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Report any
overall discoloration as size class 1.
www.teknologisk.no

8

ISO 8502-4
Equipment:
Guidance on the estimation of the probability of

condensation prior to paint application
Sling psychrometer
Steel thermometer magnetic or digital
Dew point calculators
Procedure:
1.
Check the thermometers prior to wetting the wick on the wet bulb thermometer.
2.
Saturate wick with water.
3.
Hold the sling psychrometer a little away from your body and whirl it for about 30 seconds
with a rotation of approx. 2 m/s.
4.
Observe and make notes of the wet bulb temperature and then the dry bulb temperature.
5.
Whirl the psychrometer for another 30 seconds.

If the wet bulb and dry bulb temperature differ from your last reading, continue to whirl
until they no longer do. If they do not differ from your last reading, you have determined the
dry bulb and wet bulb temperature.
6.
Set the wet bulb temperature opposite the dry bulb temperature and determine the relative
humidity at the arrow.
7.
When you know the ambient temperature, the wet bulb temperature and the relative
humidity you can determine the dew point temperature by the use of dew point calculators.
www.teknologisk.no

9

ISO 8502-6
Equipment:
Sampling of soluble impurities on surfaces to be

painted - The Bresle method
Adhesive patches (Patch size; A-0155, A-0310, A-0625, A-1250, A2500)
Reusable syringe (max. volume: 8 ml, max. needle diameter: 1 mm, max. length
50 mm)
Solvent (for water soluble impurities - distilled water)
Contact thermometer
Procedure:
1.
Take an adhesive patch of appropriate size. Remove the protective paper and the punched
out material.
2.
Press the patch with the adhesive side on to the test surface, in such a way that the minimum
amount of air is trapped in the sampling compartment.
3.
Fill the syringe with solvent - the volume of solvent is proportional to the sampling
compartment area and normally amounts to 2.6 x 10-3 ml / mm2.
4.
Insert the needle at an angle near the outer edge of the patch, through the elastomer film and
the body of the patch into the sampling compartment between the elastomer film and the
test surface. If the patch is so positioned that access to the sampling compartment is
difficult, bend the syringe needle.
5.
Inject the solvent, allowing it to wet and rinse all parts of the test surface.
If necessary to avoid any trace of entrapped air in the sampling compartment, carry out the
injection in two steps as follows:
Inject half of the solvent. Evacuate the air through the needle by reverse operation of the
syringe. Remove the syringe needle from the patch. Holding the syringe with the needle up,
expel the air. Re-insert the syringe needle into the sampling compartment, and inject the
remainder of the solvent.
6.
After a suitable period of time to be agreed between the interested parties, suck the solvent
back into the syringe cylinder
7.
Without removing the syringe needle from the patch, re-inject the solvent into the sampling
compartment, and then suck the solvent back into the syringe cylinder. Repeat until at least
four cycles of injection and sucking back have been completed.
8.
At the end of the last cycle, retrieve and transfer as much as possible of the solvent from the
sampling compartment to a suitable vessel for analysis.
www.teknologisk.no

10

9.
10.
It is essential that no solvent is lost from the patch or the syringe, due for instance to
inferior-quality materials or improper handling of the materials. If any solvent is lost, the
sample obtained shall be rejected.
Conduct the necessary analysis e.g. conductivity analysis.
ISO 8502-9
Part 9
Field method for the conductometric
determination of water-soluble salts
Procedure:
Use device to measure conductivity, reference water and injected water.
Usually the initial value is subtracted from the value after injection. The given value in S/cm must
be multiplied by 6 to obtain mg/m2.
www.teknologisk.no

11
ISO 8503-2
Equipment:
Method for the grading of surface profile of

abrasive blast-cleaned steel Comparator
procedure
The standard ISO 8503-1 and ISO 8503-2
The comparators ISO 8503-1 for Grit and Shot
Hand lens, magnification not exceeding x 7
Procedure:
1.
Remove all loose dust and debris from the test surface.
2.
Select the appropriate surface profile comparator (either ISO 8503-1 G or S depending on
the kind of abrasive used)
3.
Place the comparator against the area of the surface.
4.
Compare, in turn, the test surface with the four segments of the comparator, using the hand
lens is necessary.
Assess the profiles on the comparator that are nearest to the profile of the test surface and,
from these, determine its grade
Fine
Medium
Coarse
Profiles equal to segment 1 and up to but excluding segment 2

Notes:
When a mixture of shot and grit is used to blast-clean a substrate, the grit-abrasive reference
comparator G should be used.
If visual assessment proves difficult, tactile assessment may provide a useful guide (back of
a fingernail)
In case of dispute, a representative sample of the surface shall be provided and measured as
described in ISO 8503-3 or ISO 8503-4.
www.teknologisk.no

12

Testing of abrasives
Equipment:
The standard ASTM D 4940 or ISO 11127- 6 and 7

Glass equipment, Erlenmeyer flask of 250 ml
Distilled water
Conductivity meter
Procedure:
1. Weigh a test portion of 100 g of the abrasive into a 250 ml flask.
2. Add 100 ml of distilled water.
3. Shake for 5 minutes and allow to settle.
4. Let it stand 1 hour.
5. Shake again for 5 minutes and allow to settle. If the liquid is no completely clear, filter by a
suitable method.
6. Determine the conductivity using a conductivity meter
ASTM D 4285 Detecting oil or water in the compressed air

Equipment:
A white absorbent material, cloth or filter paper
Procedure:
1. Secure in place the white absorbent material at a distance of 60 cm from the nozzle and in the
centre of the air steam.
2. Allow the air stream to flow onto the material for at least one-minute.
3. Visually examine the material for the presence of oil or moisture. Any indication of either is
sufficient cause for not using the compressed air.
www.teknologisk.no

13

Determining the blast-cleaning air pressure
Equipment:
Hypodermic needle pressure gauge (manometer)
Procedure:
1. Start up the blast equipment without the sand.

2. Insert the needle at a 45o angle through the blast-cleaning hose as close as possible to the nozzle
into the air stream.
3. Read the blast-cleaning air pressure
Determining the presence of non-visible grease or oil

contamination
Equipment:
Water
Ultraviolet lamp
Chalk
Procedure:
Water break test:
Apply a fine mist of atomised water onto the test surface.
If the water gathers into droplets within minute, the surface is likely to be contaminated with
grease, oil or other water-insoluble matters.
Ultraviolet light test:
Try to avoid to much light onto the surface when doing the test.
Shine an ultraviolet lamp onto the surface.
Observe for fluorescence. If you see a bright yellow or green fluorescence this indicates
contamination of grease or oil.
Chalk test:
Draw a line with a piece of chalk through an area that you suspect to be a clean area onto an
unclean area. If the line through the suspected area gets thinner, this indicates that the surface is
contaminated with oil or grease.
www.teknologisk.no

14

ISO 2808 Determination of film thickness
Comb gauge and wheel gauge
Equipment:
The standard ISO 2808

Comb gauge or wheel gauge
Procedure:
Comb gauge
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Immediately after the application of the paint, place the comb gauge firmly onto the
substrate in such a way that the teeth are normal to the plane of the surface and the gauge
does not slip.
Remove the gauge, and examine the teeth to determine which is the shortest one to touch
the wet paint film.
Record the film thickness as lying between the last "touching" tooth and the first "nontouching" tooth as shown on the tooth calibrations marked on the gauge.
Take at least two further readings in different places in a similar manner to obtain
representative results over the painted area.
If none of the teeth or all the teeth are wetted on the comb gauge, either turn the comb or
use another comb with a different scale.
Wheel gauge
1.
2.
3.
Immediately after the application of the paint, place the wheel gauge into the paint film so
that the two outer rims are in contact with the substrate at the point of maximum gap.
Roll the wheel through at least 180 in one direction along the surface and then in the other
direction, and take the mean of the two readings, at the lower scale division, as one reading.
Repeat the procedure at least twice in different places in a similar manner to obtain
representative results over the painted area.
Magnetic pull-off principle

Equipment:

Film thickness instrument based on the magnetic pull-off principle
Calibration standards - for example chromium plated steel
Procedure:
Place the instrument on the calibration standard (chromium plated steel of a known thickness)
preferably with a thickness about the same to be measured.
1.
Using the thumb turn the wheel on the pull-off instrument away from you until the magnet
stays in contact with the metal.
www.teknologisk.no

15

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Hold the instrument to the substrate and carefully turn the wheel against you until you either
see or hear the magnet detaches from the painted surface.
Repeat step 1 and 2 a few times
If the thickness registered on the instrument does not correspond to the actual thickness of
the chromium plated steel, step 5-6 must be carried out.
If the instrument shows too high or too low thickness according to the standard:
Hold the instrument onto the surface of the chromium plated steel. Carefully turn the scale,
the direction depends on whether the value is too high or too low compared to the
chromium plated steel.
Repeat step 1 - 2. If the instrument still does not show the correct value, repeat step 5.
Magnetic flux principle

Equipment:

Magnetic flux principle - electromagnetic instrument
Unpainted smooth steel for calibration
Non-magnetic shims
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mount the probe to the instrument and turn on the instrument.

Place the probe onto the unpainted smooth steel and hold it there.
(The instrument shall display 0 m. If the instrument displays other values than 0, the
instrument must be adjusted. Do this while you hold the probe onto the steel)
Take a non-magnetic shim with a defined thickness e.g. 200 m and place it onto the
smooth steel surface. Place the probe onto the shim and hold it there.
(The instrument shall display 200 m. If the instrument displays other values than 200, the
instrument must be adjusted. Do this while you hold the probe onto the steel)
You have now adjusted the instrument for measurements in the area of 0 - 200 m. But for
your own sake check that you actually get 0 m on smooth steel and 200 m on the shim. If
you still do not have the correct values displayed repeat step 2 and 3 again until you do.
www.teknologisk.no

16

ASTM D 4138 Determination of film thickness by destructive
means
Equipment:
Paint Inspection Gauge

Sberg Thickness Drill
Marker pen - red, blue or black
Procedure:
Paint Inspection Gauge
1.
A test area is marked with a marker pen. Use a marker with a different colour than that of
the topcoat.
2.
Choose the appropriate angled cutting tool for the paint film (depending on the film
thickness).
3.
Place the cutting tool a little above the mark and make a cut across the mark and through all
coats down to the steel.
4.
If there is paint left in the cut, remove them by blowing or with a fine brush.
5.
Turn the instrument, place the instrument above and perpendicular to the cut (marked area).
Use the microscope with illumination to examine the cut.
6.
The width of the cut is examined through the graticule scale in the microscope, and each
coat can then be determined.
7.
The distance between the lines on the graticule scale is the same - it does not make any
difference where on the scale you start your measurements.
8.
Make notes of the number of lines on the graticule scale.
The thickness of each coat depends on which of the cutting tools you have used.
Cutting tool 1 Multiply the number of lines with 20 for correct DFT in m
Cutting tool 2 Multiply the number of lines with 10 for correct DFT in m.
Cutting tool 3 Multiply the number of lines with 2 for correct DFT in m.
Sberg Thickness Drill

1.
2.
A small hole is drilled into the coating using the cutter.

Remove the cutter and examine the width of the cut film through the graticule microscope
to determine the thickness of each coat.
www.teknologisk.no

17

ISO 2409 Cross cut test
Equipment:
The standard IS0 2409

Multi-blade cutting tool
Single-blade cutting tool
Instrument with a series of spacing edges
Soft brush
Transparent pressure-sensitive adhesive tape
Viewing lens, magnification of x 2 or x 3
The spacing of the cuts in the coating depends on the thickness of the coating. The spacing of the
cuts in each direction shall be equal and depends on the substrate. For hard substrates (steel) the
spacing is as follows:
0 m to 60 m
61 m to 120 m
121 m to 250 m
1 mm spacing
2 mm spacing
3 mm spacing
(The multi-blade tool is not suitable for thick (> 120 m) or hard coatings)
Coatings with a total thickness of over 250 m may be tested by means of a single cross-cut.
Procedure:
1.
Check the film thickness on the panel to be tested and choose the correct spacing of the
knives.
2.
Hold the cutting tool with the blade normal to the test panel surface. With uniform pressure
on the cutting tool and using the appropriate spacing guide, make the agreed number of cuts
in the coating at a uniform cutting rate. All the cuts shall penetrate to the substrate surface.
3.
Repeat this operation, making further parallel cuts of equal number, crossing the original
cuts at 90 to them so that a lattice is formed.
4.
Brush the panel lightly with the soft brush. For hard substrates only apply additionally
adhesive tape. Remove an additional length at a steady state and cut a piece approximately
75 mm long.
5.
Place the centre of the tape over the lattice in direction parallel to one of the cuts and
smooth the tape over the area of the lattice and for a distance of at least 20 mm beyond with
a finger. Rub firmly with a fingertip.
6.
Remove the tape by grasping the free end and pulling it off steadily in 0.5 - 1.0 s at an angle
which is as close as possible to 60. Retain the tape for reference purposes. Examine the cut
area and classify the test area according to table 1.
www.teknologisk.no

18

ISO 4624 Pull-off test
Equipment:

Pull-off test instrument
Test cylinders (dollies)
Glue / 2 pack solvent free epoxy or cyanoacrylate
Tape
Cutting device
Procedure:
1. Degrease the dollies and dry them before use.
2. Lightly abrade the dollies using a sandpaper grade 240 400 and dry them in dry tissue paper
3. Lightly abrade the painted surface with a sandpaper grade 240 - 400.
4. Remove the abraded paint dust from the surface using a clean paper tissue
5. Mix the 2 pack solvent free epoxy glue in the correct ratio before applying it to the dollies.
6. Press the dollies to the surface, with a pressure so that most of the glue is squeezed out.
7. Use either tape or magnets to hold the dollies to the substrate.
8. The 2 pack solvent free epoxy glue must cure for 24 h at room temperature. Cyanoacrylate glue
must be used according to the instructions.
9. Before the pull-off test are accomplished cut through the cured adhesive and the paint coating to
the substrate, round the circumference of the test cylinder using a cutting device.
10. Record both the breaking strength, in megapascal (MPa) and the nature of failure for each pulloff test. Express the results as the percentage area and site of fracture in the system under test in
terms of adhesive, cohesive or adhesive/cohesive failure. Also list the type of instrument used
for the test.
11. For convenience, the following scheme may be used to describe the results observed.
A
A/B
B
B/C
-/Y
Y
Y/Z
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Cohesive failure of substrate

Adhesive failure between substrate and first coat
Cohesive failure of first coat
Adhesive failure between first and second coats
Adhesive failure between final coat and adhesive
Cohesive failure of adhesive
Adhesive failure between adhesive and test cylinder
www.teknologisk.no

19

ASTM D 5162 Discontinuity (holiday) testing of non-conductive
protective coatings on metallic substrates - Low
voltage -wet sponge testing
Equipment:
The recommended practice ASTM D 5162

Low voltage holiday detector
Film thickness instrument
Water
Marker
Procedure:
1.
Measure the DFT of the paint system using a non-destructive dry film thickness gauge. If
the DFT is lower than 500 m you can use the low voltage holiday detector, if it exceeds
this value use a high voltage holiday detector.
2.
Saturate the sponge with water. Hold the sponge and squeeze it, as to avoid dripping.
3.
Attach the ground wire from the instrument ground output terminal to the conductive
substrate and ensure positive electrical contact.
4.
Contact a bare spot on the conductive substrate to verify that the instrument is properly
grounded.
5.
Move the sponge over the surface of the coating at a moderate rate approximately 1 ft/s
(30 cm/s), perhaps only 5 - 10 cm /s.
6.
If there are discontinuities in the coating, an audible signal will be heard, and the exact spot
shall be identified with a marker.
7.
To prevent telegraphing (current travelling through a moisture path to a discontinuity,

giving an erroneously indication), care should be taken to ensure that the solution is wiped
dry from a previously detected discontinuity before continuing the test.
www.teknologisk.no

20

ASTM D 5162 Discontinuity (holiday) testing of non-conductive
protective coating on metallic substrates - High
voltage spark testing
Equipment:
The recommended practice ASTM D 5162

High voltage holiday detector
Film thickness instrument
Marker
Procedure:
1.
Measure the DFT of the paint system using a non-destructive dry film thickness gauge. If
the DFT is higher than 500 m you can use the high voltage holiday detector, if it below
this value use a low voltage holiday detector.
Adjust the test instrument to the proper voltage for the coating thickness being tested.
Excessive voltage may produce a holiday in the coating film.
3.
Attach the exploring electrode to the test instrument.
4.
Attach the ground wire from the instrument ground output terminal to the conductive
substrate and ensure positive electrical contact.
4.
Contact a bare spot on the conductive substrate to verify that the instrument is properly
grounded.
5.
Move the exploring electrode over the surface of the dry coating at a rate of approximately
1 ft/s (30 cm/s), perhaps only 5 - 10 cm /s.
7.
Discontinuities that require repair shall be identified with a marker that is compatible with
the repair coating or one that is easily removed.
8.
Suggested voltages are found in the standard
www.teknologisk.no

21

ASTM D 4752 Measuring MEK resistance of ethyl silicate
(inorganic) zinc-rich primers by solvent rub
Equipment:
The standard ASTM D 4752

Test area with inorganic zinc-rich primer
Water
Cotton cheesecloth
Metyl Ethyl Ketone (also called Butanone)
Procedure:
1.
Measure the dry film thickness of the primer in the selected areas.
2.
Clean the surface with a dry tissue, if necessary slightly soaked with fresh water to remove
loose material.
3.
Immediately fold cheesecloth into a pad containing four thicknesses of the cloth. Saturate
the cloth to a dripping wet condition with the methyl ethyl ketone (MEK).
4.
Rub the test area with the saturated cloth, exerting a moderate stroke pressure with the
thumb, using a 2-in. (50 mm) long stroke that encompasses the test area.
5.
Continue rubbing the surface with the MEK saturated pad, wetting the pad as necessary
without lifting it from the surface, until either the metal substrate is exposed or 50 double
rubs have been completed. Record the number of rubs when the substrate is exposed.
6.
Select an adjacent area to be used as a control. Repeat 1 -5 except use a dry cheesecloth to
establish the effect of burnishing without the influence of MEK
7.
Inspect the test area and the cheesecloth. Rate the results in accordance with table 1.
Table 1
Resistance rating
5
4
3
2
1
0
Scale for resistance rating
MEK Test
Description
No effect on surface; no zinc on cloth after 50 double rubs
Burnished appearance in rubbed area; slight amount of zinc on cloth after 50
double rubs
Some marring and apparent depression of the film after 50 double rubs
Heavy marring; obvious depression in the film after 50 double rubs
Heavy depression in the film but no actual penetration to the substrate after
50 double rubs
Penetration to the substrate in 50 double rubs or less
www.teknologisk.no

22
Determining coatings hardness by pencil testing

Equipment:
A series of pencils
Sanding paper
Procedure:
1.
Sharpen the pencils lightly.
2.
Flatten the tip of the pencil on a sand paper placed on a flat surface.
3.
Hold the pencil at an angle of 45 degrees to the paint and push it downward into the
coating.
4.
Repeat the test with the next softer pencil until you find the pencil that no longer
scratches the coating.
Testing for solvent resistance

Equipment:
Cloth
Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK)
Procedure:
1.
Saturate the cloth with MEK.
2.
Rub a small area with 50 double rubs.
3.
Visually examine the cloth. If paint from thermo-setting coatings is on the cloth after test,
then the coating is not fully cured.
www.teknologisk.no

23

Kompedium Frosio

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Kompedium Frosio

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FROSIO-COURSE

The National Institute

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Inspectors duties and

Inspectors duties and behaviour 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Is the procedure suitable, and according to the paint specification?

Inspectors duties and behaviour 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Are the correct products used

Make report from findings or from surveys

Perform surveys to judge the overall corrosion protection

Inspectors duties and behaviour 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Is the maintenance specification suitable

Health and safety

Know the local rules and regulations

Common sense is a key word in inspection.

Inspectors duties and behaviour 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Material selection 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

The carbon content in carbon steel is up to

Material selection 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

ferritic stainless steel

Material selection 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

AISI 304 contains approximately;

An increase in the molybdenum to 6 % betters the corrosion resistance dramatically.

Material selection 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Material selection 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Material selection 09/11

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

CORROSION THEORY OF METALS

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Galvanic series / Electro chemical series

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Type of reference electrode

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

The corrosion process

Olsen, A: Korrosion 1 - Korrosjonsformer og, Universitetsforlaget, 1983

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

O2 + H2O +4e- 4OH-

2Fe 2Fe2+ +4e-

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Corrosive environment and pH values

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Different types of corrosion

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

General corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:

Galvanic (bimetallic) corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when a metal or alloy is electrically coupled to another, or to a

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

RAPID CORROSION OF THE STEEL

INSPECTION OF CORROSION PROTECTIVE COATINGS

SLOW CORROSION OF THE STEEL

Avoiding combinations of metals / alloys widely separated in the galvanic series