Journal of Indonesia Coral Reefs 1(2) (2011) 91-98

Printed ISSN : 2089-8231

Assessing Ecological Resilience of Eastern Indonesian

Coral Reefs
Imam Bachtiar 1*, Ario Damar 2, Suharsono 3, Neviaty P. Zamani 2
Center for Coastal and Marine Studies, Universitas Mataram, Indonesia
Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia.
3
Research Center of Oceanography, LIPI, Jakarta, Indonesia
1

Abstrak
Resiliensi ekologis merupakan komponen ekosistem alami yang perlu diketahui dalam pengelolaan
terumbu karang. Terumbu karang di Indonesia timur merupakan bagian terbesar dati kawasan CTI,
sehingga pemahaman resiliensi ekologisnya sangat penting dalam pengelolaan kawasan tersebut.
Resiliensi terumbu karang dinilai berdasarkan indeks resiliensi yang dikembangkan oleh peneliti dan
dipublikasikan di media lain. Penelitian ini dilakukan pada 7 kabupaten di Indonesia timur: Pangkep,
Selayar, Buton, Wakatobi, Sikka, Raja Ampat, dan Biak. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terumbu
karang di Wakatobi memiliki rata-rata indeks resiliensi paling tinggi, sedangkan Sikka mempunyai
indeks yang paling rendah. Tingginya indeks resiliensi di Wakatobi berkaitan dengan tingginya jumlah
kelompok fungsional karang (life-forms) dan tutupan karang. Raja ampat memiliki terumbu karang
dengan indeks resiliensi sedang, yang tidak banyak berbeda dari terumbu karang di Pangkep dan
Selayar.
Kata kunci: Resiliensi, Indeks, Terumbu Karang, Indonesia, Pengelolaan.

Abstract
Eastern Indonesian reefs are located on the CTI region, that understanding their ecological resiliencies
are therefore very important for management of the region. Coral reef resilience was assessed using a
resilience index on the 2009 Coremap data. Resilience index used in the assessment was developed
by the author but published elsewhere. The study included 7 districts in eastern Indonesia: Pangkep
(Pangkajene Kepulauan), Selayar, Buton, Wakatobi, Sikka, Raja Ampat and Biak. The results showed
that coral reefs at Wakatobi had the highest average resilience indices, while Sikka had the lowest one.
High resilience index at Wakatobi coincided with high number of coral functional groups (life forms) and
coral cover. Low average resilience index at Sikka coincided with high algae and other fauna covers.
Raja Ampat had coral reefs with a fair resilience index which is similar to coral reefs at Pangkep and
Selayar.
Keywords: Resilience Index, Coral Reef, Indonesia, Management.

*Corresponding Authors: bachtiar.coral@gmail.com

Assessing Ecological Resilience of Coral Reefs

Introduction
Knowing ecosystem state is the first
step in ecosystem-based management.
Global climate change has been predicted
to expose coral reef ecosystem not only
to disturbances but also to surprises
(Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg
et al. 2007), i.e. disturbances which are
beyond ecosystem experience in magnitude,
intensity, and frequency. Annual mass coral
bleaching has been predicted to occur
in Phuket and the Great Barrier Reef in
2030 (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999), if carbon
emission proceeds as usual. Threat of
ocean acidification is waiting for surviving
corals in the annual bleaching events
(Kleypas et al. 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg et
al. 2007). Disturbances have been part
of the external factors establishing the
present coral reef ecosystem (Connell
1997), but human presence in the last two
centuries has changed natural capability
of coral reef ecosystem to recover from
disturbances (Jackson 1997; Jackson et
al. 2001). Ecosystem resilience is therefore
increasingly important factor in planning an
ecosystem-based management on coral
reefs (Nystrom et al. 2008).
Assessment of ecosystem resilience
should be used as an important tool in coral

reef management. At present, many studies

conducted resilience assessment after
disturbance (Berumen & Pratchett 2006;
Ledlie et al. 2007; Smith et al. 2008). Such
assessment method might not be very
useful in management planning. Resilience
assessment should be carried out before
disturbance that managers can prioritize
efforts to save more valuable and more
resilience coral reefs. Method for assessing
coral reef resilience before disturbance
is under development. Therefore, there
is no single study yet to assess coral reef
resilience before disturbance.
Recently, there are three available
methods for assessing pre-disturbance
coral reef resilience, i.e. Obura and
Grimsditch 2009, Maynard et al. 2010, and
Bachtiar et al. 2011. The last method, coral
reef resilience index, is calculated using
line intercept transect (LIT) data. Since LIT
is the most popular coral reef monitoring
method, resilience assessment can be
used directly on readily available collected
data. This method still needs, however,
to be verified, that its usefulness will be
validated in coral reef management. The
index should be applicable to carry out a
general assessment on coral reef resilience
in order to make management priority in the
whole Indonesian country.

Fig. 1. Map
of location of the study, on 7 districts in eastern Indonesia region.
Figure 1. Map of location of the study, on 7 districts in eastern Indonesia region.

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Indonesia has the largest coral reef area

in the world (Tomascik et al. 1997), and the
eFigenter of coral reef biodiversity (Veron
2002), that general assessment is a very
important step in planning national coral
reef management. Its complex geological
history provides the archipelago with very
diverse marine habitats, flora, and fauna
(Tomascik et al. 1997). The aims of this
study were to determine resilience level of
Eastern Indonesian coral reefs and to look
at spatial distribution of coral reef resilience
among districts (kabupaten).

CHQ= coral habitat quality, square-root of

Acroporiid coral cover times massive and
sub-massive corals. CSN= coral small-size
number, number of coral colonies 10 cm
transect length. COC= coral cover. USS=
unsuitable settlement substrate, sum of
sand and silt covers. AOF= algae and other
fauna cover, sum of total algal cover and
other fauna cover.
Classification of the resilience index into
five categories was based on the mean and
standard deviation of a normal distribution,
as described in Bachtiar et al. 2011.

Methods

Data Analisis

Data collection

Comparison of resilience indices was

carried out using ANOVA (analysis of
variances). A Tukey test, =0.05, was applied
when significant differences were detected
on ANOVA.

Data used in the present study were

collected-data from P2O-LIPI (Research
Center for Oceanography, Indonesian
Institute of Sciences) on the COREMAP
(Coral Reef Rehabilitation and management
Program) in 2009. The data were collected
from permanent transect, 10 m length, on
7 districts of Eastern Indonesia region (Fig.
1). which included: Biak and Raja Ampat
(Papua Barat), Sikka (Nusa Tenggara
Timur), Pangkep and Selayar (Sulawesi
Selatan), Buton and Wakatobi (Sulawesi
Tenggara). Overall, there were 284 data
used in the assessment. Data collection was
not designed for spatial comparison, rather
than temporal comparison, that number of
stations was different among districts.
Assessment of coral reef resilience
Assessment of coral reef resilience
was carried out using method developed in
Bachtiar et al. (2011). The resilience index
was calculated using the following formula:

RI= resilience index. CFG= coral

functional group, the number of coral life
form as described in English et al. 1994).

Results
In general, coral reefs of eastern Indonesian
waters had a fair resilience index in 2009.
The mean (SE) of resilience indices was
0.5770.010. The average of resilience
indices were significantly different among
districts (F=13.391, P<0.01). Sikka had the
lowest average of resilience index, while
Wakatobi and Buton had the highest one
(Fig. 2). Raja Ampat which is well-known
for its high reef fish diversity had lower
average coral reef resilience index than
Wakatobi. It has been a debate on which
coral reefs is better between Raja Ampat
and Wakatobi districts. Both districts are
located in Marine National Park (MNP), and
its spatial jurisdiction is exactly the same
as the size of the MNP. This study showed
the superiority of Wakatobi to Raja Ampat.
Results of Tukey test showed that coral
reefs of Raja Ampat had about the same
average of resilience indices as those of
Selayar, Pangkep, and Biak.
Comparisons of index category also
confirmed that coral reef at Wakatobi and
Buton had a higher level of resilience
index (Fig. 4). Proportion of transects with
excellent resilience category were 14.2815.56% in Wakatobi and Buton, but this

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Assessing Ecological Resilience of Coral Reefs

Fig. 2. Comparison of resilience indices (mean1SE) among 7 districts in Eastern Indonesia.

category was absence in Raja Ampat

and Biak. Pangkep and Selayar had even
better resilience category than Raja Ampat
and Biak. These results are apparently
not supported by previous publications
regarding the superiority of coral reef at
Raja Ampat (McKenna et al. 2002a) and its
surrounding areas, including Biak.
Analysis of similarity (Anosim) on the 6
variables constituting index showed that
index variables of Wakatobi and Sikka
were separated from the others (Global R =
0.315, P < 0.01). There are 4 groups derived
from Anosim: Sikka; Raja Ampat, Selayar,
and Pangkep; Pangkep, Biak, and Buton;
Wakatobi. Sikka had the lowest values of
most resilience variables, while Wakatobi
had the highest one.
High coral reef resilience levels coincided
with high number of coral functional group
(CFG) and coral cover (COC) in Wakatobi,
and coincided with high number of small
colony size (CSN) in Button (Fig. 4). In
contrast, low coral reef resilience level
coincided with high algal and other fauna
cover (AOF), but low values in CFG, COC,
and CSN variables. This pattern is clearly
shown in eastern Indonesian reefs.

Discussion
It has been a number of publications
showed the superiority of Raja Ampat
on reef coral and fish diversity (Allen and
Erdman 2009; Veron 2002). Many of them
suggested that Raja Ampat is at the center
of coral reef biodiversity. High coral reef fish
diversity found by Allen and Erdman at Raja
Ampat was some part based on cumulative
data from early publications, down to 1920s.
Since coral reef publications are spatially
very patchy in Indonesia, comparisons
among districts or locations are not in
balance. Coral cover of Raja Ampat coral
reefs was also low, with a range of 5.353.3% and 10% transects had coral cover
50% (McKenna et al. 2002b). Since coral
cover has large contribution to resilience
index, it is not surprising that Raja Ampat
had considerably low index than expected.
Several other studies also showed that
Raja Ampat superiority in reef fish diversity
was not linearly followed by reef coral
diversity. Suharsono (2008) produced a map
of coral generic diversity of Indonesia that
showed Raja Ampat had a lower number
of coral genera compared to Wakatobi,

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Fig. 3. Comparison of resilience index categories among 7 districts in Eastern Indonesia.

Buton, and Pangkep. Reef formation on

Raja Ampat are about the same time as
Wakatobi and Buton that are located at
southeast of Sulawesi. It could be inferred
therefore that coral reef at Wakatobi had a
better condition than that of Raja Ampat;
regardless both reefs have about the same
geological ages.
Among 6 variables constituting the
resilience index, CFG and COC are the most
important variables to support resilience
level. Improving both two variables will
resulted in improvement on resilience
level. In contrast, AOF is the most reducing
variable to resilience level in eastern
Indonesian reefs. Coral reef management
should therefore address these three
variables in maintaining and improving
coral reef resilience. Reducing AOF could
be carried out by enhancing herbivory
(Hughes et al. 2007) and cleaning up soft
coral cover (Fox et al. 2000).
In 2009, the most dominant component of
AOF was dead coral algae (DCA) on Sikka
reefs. Among 15 stations, 14 of them had
DCA cover between 35-97% (Manuputty &
Salatalohi 2009). Only one station had DCA
cover less than 20%, station MMRL27. The

DCA covers increased sharply since 2007

monitoring. High cover of DCA indicated that
the reef just experienced mass mortality. It
was not reported the cause of the mortality
in Manuputy and Salatalohi report. DCA
covers are usually temporarily which are
followed by increase macroalgae covers
when nutrient is high or turf algae covers
when nutrient is low in the water.
In the present study, assessment of
resilience level was carried out at general
issues. Resilience assessment should be
described specifically to particular disturbance,
resilience of what to what (Carpenter et al.
2001). An ecosystem may be resilience
to disturbance A but not resilience to
disturbance B. Resilience index on this
study is a general assessment of resilience
level on coral reefs. The value of the index
was then available for further interpretation
regarding specific disturbances. At present,
the interpretation is not yet available.
Lack of index interpretation method is
not the monopoly of this resilience index.
Other coral reef resilience assessments
developed by Obura and Grimsditch 2009
and Maynard et al. 2010 also do not provide
ecological interpretation of the index.
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Assessing Ecological Resilience of Coral Reefs

Fig. 4. Comparison of 6 variables composing coral reef resilience index among 7 districts.

Further studies are required for interpreting

the index and comparing quality of the three
indices. Index with more variables does not
necessarily provide a better quality since
not all theoretically important variables have
significant contribution to total variances.

Conclusion
Coral reefs in eastern Indonesian region
have a fair resilience level. Among the 7
districts studied, coral reefs at Wakatobi

had the highest average resilience indices,

while Sikka had the lowest one. High
resilience index at Wakatobi coincided with
high number of coral functional groups (life
forms) and coral cover.
Comparing resilience indices on the scale
of hundreds or thousands kilometers needs
very careful interpretation. Magnitude,
intensity, and frequency of disturbances are
very likely to be different among regions and
districts. Interpretation of resilience index
should be done with regard to history of

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the reefs, disturbances that had happened

and is happening on the coral reefs. All
disturbances may have impacted coral
reefs and reduce its resilience index.
Acknowledgement
This study was done as part of a PhD
dissertation of the first author. This study received
financial supports from the BPPS scholarship,
DGHE of the Ministry of National Education, and
a dissertation scholarship from the Coremap II,
DGMCSI of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and
Fisheries.
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