International Journal of Applied Earth Observation

and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

www.elsevier.com/locate/jag

A spectral index for land degradation mapping using ASTER data:

Application to a semi-arid Mediterranean catchment
Mohamed Chikhaoui a,*, Ferdinand Bonn a,
Amadou Idrissa Bokoye a, Abdelaziz Merzouk b
a

CARTEL (Centre dApplications et de Recherches en Teledetection), Universite de Sherbrooke,

2500 boul. de lUniversite. Sherbrooke, Que., Canada J1K 2R1
b
Departement Science du Sol IAV Hassan I, B.P. 6002, Rabat Institut, Rabat, Morocco
Received 28 November 2003; accepted 23 January 2005

Abstract
Flagrant soil erosion in Morocco is an alarming sign of soil degradation. Due to the considerable costs of detailed ground
surveys of this phenomenon, remote sensing is an appropriate alternative for analyzing and evaluating the risks of the expansion
of soil degradation. In this paper, we characterize the state of land degradation in a small Mediterranean watershed using
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data and ground-based spectroradiometric
measurements. The two visible, the near-infrared and six shortwave infrared bands of the above sensor were calibrated using
ground measurements of the spectral reflectance. Field measurements were carried out in the Saboun experimental basin located
in the marl soil region of the Moroccan western Rif. The study leads to the development and evaluation of a new spectral
approach to express land degradation. This index called Land degradation index (LDI) is based on the concept of the soil line
derived from spectroradiometric ground measurements. In this study, we compare LDI and the spectral angle mapping (SAM)
approaches to assess and map land degradation. Results show that LDI provides more accurate results for mapping land
degradation (Kappa = 0.79) when compared to the SAM method (Kappa = 0.61). Validation and evaluation of the results are
based on the thematic maps derived from the ground data (organic matter, clay, silt and sand) by kriging, DEM, slope gradient
and photointerpretation.
# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Land degradation; Land degradation index (LDI); ASTER; Spectral angle mapping (SAM); ASD and spectroradiometry;
Morocco; Erosion

1. Introduction

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 819 821 8000/2945;

fax: +1 819 821 7944.
E-mail address: m.chikhaoui@usherbrooke.ca (M. Chikhaoui).

Land degradation, defined as the loss or the

reduction of the potential utility or productivity of
the land (Lal, 1994), is a major environmental problem
in arid and semi-arid areas. In the north of Morocco,

0303-2434/$ see front matter # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jag.2005.01.002

M. Chikhaoui et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

land degradation is mainly caused by soil erosion,

ecosystem changes, landslides, deforestation and
human pressure through over-cultivation and mechanisation. Soil erosion, with annual soil losses varying
between 2000 and 6000 t/km2/year (MAMVA, 1993),
is a major environmental and economic problem that
threatens the sustainability of dam reservoirs and
agricultural lands in the Rif Mountains. Despite its
importance, the measurement of the spatial extent of
this phenomenon by conventional methods (USLE,
MUSLE and RUSLE) is not usually accurate (Bonn et
Escadafal, 1996; Bonn, 1998).
The land degradation process is generally divided
into three classes: (1) physical degradation, (2)
biological degradation, and (3) chemical degradation
(Barrow, 1991). The assessment of land degradation
requires the identification of indicators such as soil
vulnerability to erosion. Generally, the assessment of
the state of land degradation can be carried out using
the Global Assessment of Soil Deterioration (GLASOD) method (Oldeman et al., 1991). Hoosbeek et al.
(1997) recommended this qualitative method to
classify soil degradation using remote sensing data.
Degradation features can be detected directly or
indirectly by using image data. Previous studies
proposed spectral unmixing using a linear model to
study soil degradation (Hill et al., 1995; Van der
Meer, 1997; Metternicht and Fermont, 1998;
Haboudane, 1999). The analyses of the fraction
images yield the most information about soil
degradation (Hill et al., 1995). Other authors have
established a relationship between the vegetation
cover fraction and erodibility (Hudson, 1957, 1971;
Roose et al., 1993). The vegetation cover fraction can
be estimated approximately from remote sensing
images through vegetation indices (Cyr et al., 1995;
Biard and Baret, 1997; Hill et al., 1998; Arsenault
and Bonn, 2001). However, the relationships between
actual vegetation cover and the vegetation indices are
not easily applicable to all land cover types. Previous
research have proposed a color index, form index and
intensity index for mapping land degradation
(Escadafal et al., 1994; Mougenot and Cailleau,
1995; Escadafal and Bacha, 1995; Haboudane et al.,
2002). These indices were developed based on past
generation remote sensing sensors. However, the use
of data from new generation space remote sensing
sensors like advanced spaceborne thermal emission

141

and reflection radiometer (ASTER) requires that

these indices be adapted.
The principal objective of this study is thus to
develop and evaluate a new spectral index for the study
of land degradation using ASTER by exploiting the
potential of its three VNIR (visible-near infrared) and
six SWIR (short wave infrared) bands. The potential
of ASTER data for mapping land degradation through
the application of this new proposed spectral index and
the spectral angle mapping (SAM) (Kruse et al., 1993)
approaches to a semi-arid area of northern Morocco is
also investigated. Comparison of the results obtained
by the two approaches should allow the evaluation of
the most appropriate one for land degradation
mapping.
Data collection is described in the next section.
Section 3 exposes the remote sensing methods
considered for land degradation mapping. Results
and the validation of retrieved soil degradation maps
are reported in Section 4. A general conclusion is
outlined in Section 5.

2. Study area and data acquisition

2.1. Study area
The study was carried out in the Saboun (720 ha)
experimental catchment located in the western Rif of
Morocco (Fig. 1) for which soil, hydrological and
erosion databases are available. The Saboun
watershed is composed mainly of the Tangiers
geological unit. It is characterized by predominantly
altered argillaceous, gray and yellow shale facies
dating from the Senonian. The soils of the basin have a
predominance of swelling clays (montmorillonite and
smectite). Oligo-Miocene deposits with shaley facies
and Quaternary deposits can also be found (Thauvin,
1971).
The soil map (Fig. 2) covering the study area was
established by the Direction provinciale de lagriculture de Te touan (INRA, 1983) and shows the
presence of four soil classes: vertisols (Typic
Chromoxerert), paravertisols (Vertic Palexeroll), calcimagnesic (Typic Calcixeroll) and poorly developed
(Vertic Xerothent).
The Saboun watershed is subject to intensive
agricultural activity. The climate in the region is

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on field observations, three soils degradation classes

were identified in our basin (Fig. 3):
- Slightly degraded soils: part of the surface soil is
removed and affected by overland and sheet runoff.
This class is occupied by olive orchards and
agricultural land is cultivated with cereals.
- Moderately degraded soils: large part of topsoil is
removed and also affected by rills, overland and
sheet runoff with sparse vegetation. This class is
dominated by pasture land.
- Highly degraded soils: all topsoil and part of
subsoil or substratum is removed. The surface is
affected by rills, gullies and bank undermining
forms of erosion. We noted a physical deterioration
caused by domestic animals (compaction). This
class is characterized by steep hillsides and mostly
ploughting in the slope direction.
Fig. 1. Study area: the Saboun basin in Morocco.

2.2. Field spectroradiometric data

Mediterranean. mean annual rainfall amounts to
743 mm with an interannual coefficient of variation
of 23% (Chikhaoui, 1998). Temperatures vary
between 7 8C (monthly minimum average) and
26 8C (monthly maximum average).
The Saboun basin presents interesting characteristics for our study with regards to the erosion
phenomena. It has the same lithology and it faces the
same soil degradation problem as most of the western
Rif region. This allows for a regional generalization of
the results. The lithological variability observed
within the watershed constitutes a unit that permits
the evaluation and validation of our approach. Based

Fig. 2. Soil map of the Saboun basin.

The spectroradiometer used on the ground is a high

spectral resolution analytical spectral device (ASD). It
operates in the visible, the near infrared and the
shortwave infrared (3502500 nm). The radiometric
measurements were carried out with resolution
intervals of 10 nm between 350 and 1000 nm and
20 nm between 1000 and 2500 nm. The apparatus is
installed on a tripod at a height varying between 1.50
and 2 m from the ground. This position permits the
vertical viewing of a circular surface with a radius of
approximately 25 cm. A Spectralon board served as
reference before and after each measurement. This
permits the calculation of the target reflectance factor
according to the method described by Jackson et al.
(1980). The objective of this procedure is to minimize
errors due to variations in atmospheric conditions and
sun inclination. The bidirectional effects of the target
reflectance were accounted for by carrying out
measurements over very short and close time intervals
and by keeping the viewing angle constant and in a
vertical position.
The measurement campaign was conducted
between 18 and 26 October 2000. The choice of the
measurement sites is based on the soil, geological and
topographic maps and our knowledge of the study area
so as include most of the surface conditions or the
different levels of soil degradation. The present study

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143

Fig. 3. Soil degradation classes identified in our basin. (A) Highly degraded soils, (B) moderately degraded soils, and (C) slightly degraded soils.

focuses on the characterization of the state of soil

surface conditions and land degradation by water
erosion Wt (Loss of topsoil) and Wd (Terrain
deformation/mass movement) according to the global
assessment of soil deterioration (GLASOD) method
(Oldeman et al., 1991). Three classes of soil
degradation identified in Section 2.1 are found which
correspond to classes 13 of GLASOD.
The characterization of the spectral properties of
the different soil types was carried out based on the
technique of principal components analysis (PCA)
using the ground spectra (Chikhaoui et al., 2001). A Kmeans analysis was subsequently applied. This
permitted the discrimination of the different classes
corresponding to the level of degradation. To obtain
these results, the relative coordinates at the orthogonal
level (PC1 and PC2) of the 20 spectra were adopted.
This method is detailed in Leone and Sommer (2000)
and Chikhaoui et al. (2001). Simulation of the ASTER
bands was carried out by convolution of the values of
the spectral responses of the ASTER bands with
reflectance curves of samples under investigation.
This process was computed using the ENVI software
(ENVI, 2001).

2.3. ASTER data and preprocessing

ASTER is a multiband imaging radiometer
installed on the Terra platform in 1999. It is the
result of a collaborative effort between NASA and
the Japanese Ministry of Economy Trading and
Industry (METI), formerly known as the Ministry of
International Trade and Industry (MITI). The
ASTER sensor is equipped with a stereoscopic
acquisition mode permitting the extraction of digital
terrain models. It has 14 bands with a spectral
resolution varying from 0.52 to 11.65 mm. The
sensor itself is equipped with three separate radiometers (Abrams, 1997). They cover respectively the
three following portions of the spectral domain: the
visible and the near infrared (NIR), the shortwave
infrared (SWIR) and the thermal (Table 1). This
study covers only VNIR and SWIR spectral bands,
and the TIR spectral bands of ASTER were not
used.
The ASTER sensor is characterized by a repeat
cycle of 16 days and provides a scene of the order of
60 km
60 km. It follows the same orbit as Landsat 7
but 30 min later.

Table 1
ASTER sensor characteristics
VNIR (mm)

SWIR (mm)

TIR (mm)

B4:
B5:
B6:
B7:
B8:
B9:

B10:
B11:
B12:
B13:
B14:

Bands
B1: 0.5200.600 (Nadir)
B2: 0.6300.690 (Nadir)
B3N: 0.7600.860 (Nadir)
B3B: 0.7600.860 ( inclined by 248)
Spatial resolution (m)
15

30

1.6001.700
2.1452.185
2.1852.225
2.2352.285
2.2952.365
2.3602.430

90

8.1258.475
8.4758.825
8.9259.275
10.25010.950
10.95011.650

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M. Chikhaoui et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

The ASTER scene used for the study was acquired

during the month of June 2001. It corresponds to level 2:
AST_07, which contains the surface reflectance. The
image was corrected atmospherically and radiometrically by the image provider. The geometric correction
was carried out using a polynomial approach. We
applied a correction to the image in relation to the
1:50,000 topographic map covering the study area. The
transfer equation is a first degree polynomial function
calculated from the control points. Resampling was
carried out using the nearest neighbor method so as not
to severely alter the pixel values. Using the least squares
method, the correction accuracy was determined by
calculating the residual errors between the value
obtained by the application of the function and the
true value. The corrected bands were then resampled to
the same spatial resolution to obtain the same pixel size
(15 m). Following these steps, the ASTER data were
orthorectified using the digital elevation model (DEM).
Previous work (Rowan and Mars, 2003; Iwasaki
et al., 2001) underlined a significant difference
between the measurements acquired on the ground
and the ASTER (AST_07) image data. Band 9 has a
higher reflectance value of the order of 1020% than
the value measured on the ground and the same occurs
with band 3. This difference can be explained by a
crosstalk instrument problem (Iwasaki et al., 2001).
This phenomenon is caused by light reflected from the
band 4 optical components leaking into other SWIR
band detectors particularly band 9.
To compensate for this problem, we calibrated the
image data by adopting the method of spectral
matching (Rowan and Mars, 2003). This consists in
a comparison of the image data with the simulated
ASTER data using the spectral measurements
acquired over the same site. We chose as target an
agricultural plot with bare soil which is characterized
by a slope almost equal to zero.
The image was calibrated by multiplying it by a
calculated normalizing factor F n (Eq. (1)). The
simulated value and the one extracted from the image
must be of the same site.

Fn

3. Land degradation mapping methods

Several methods were developed to map land
features from spatial remote sensing data. Here, we
consider the widely used spectral angle mapping
method and a new approach developed through the
present work (see Section 1).
3.1. Spectral angle mapper (SAM)
The SAM method developed by Kruse et al. (1993)
is a classification approach based on the similarity
between two spectra. The measurement of the angular
difference permits the allocation of each spectrum of
the image to a given class. It uses all the scene bands.
The method determines the similarity between the
reference spectrum and the image spectrum by the
calculation of the angle u (Fig. 4). The spectral angle is
calculated from the following equation:

~
t ~
r
u arccos
~
jjtjj  jj~
rjj


(2)

~
r is the reference spectrum vector (prototype) and~
t the
test spectrum vector (pixel).
The implementation of this approach requires
reference spectra. Among the spectra processed in the
preceding section, those likely to better represent field
reality were chosen. The selection of prototype spectra
is essentially based on the result of the statistical
analysis applied to the spectroradiometric data. We
used nine spectral signatures to obtain optimum

value of the simulated band

average value of target area taken from the image
(1)

Fig. 4. Spectral angle between the reference spectrum and the

image spectrum in a bidimensional space (Kruse et al., 1993).

M. Chikhaoui et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

ground modeling. We did our upmost to respect a

composition containing three spectral signatures
representing each stage of soil degradation.
The approach considers the pixel values as a
vector in a space with a size equal to the number of
bands. The method is rigorous and not sensitive to
albedo if one uses calibrated data. The attribution of
each scene pixel to a given class by the SAM
approach is based on the measurement of the angle
between the reference spectrum vector and each
image vector in the n-dimension space (Fig. 4) where
n is the number of bands. The implementation of the
SAM approach gives an image with an angle u for
each reference spectrum. Using the u angle images,
we carried out a thresholding to attribute the theme
that has the lowest u value to each pixel; the smaller
the angular difference, the higher is the similarity.
The selection of this approach in the present study is
justified by the fact that Margate and Shrestha (2001)
adopted the SAM approach for the study of soil
degradation and desertification in southern Spain
and obtained satisfactory results. Also, the adoption
of SAM in other similar studies has provided
satisfactory results (Sohn et al., 1999; Sohn
and Rebello, 2002; Yang et al., 1999; Zhang et al.,
2003). SAM is a method designed for a spectral
space of n-dimensions and available in the ENVI
image analysis software. The current application of
the SAM method remains original compared to the
above cases. In fact, ASTER data are used for the
first time with this method for mapping land
degradation.

145

3.2. A new approach: LDI

This approach is based on the soil line concept and
its use requires ground based data. The implementation of this method relies both on a slightly degraded
bare soil line and a highly degraded bare soil line. The
definition of these lines requires a collection of points
from the pixels of the image itself or derived from
ground spectral measurements. The use of ground
data necessitates the calibration of the image data in
order to produce a reflectance image corrected for
atmospheric and instrumental effects. The principle
behind our approach is simple. It is inspired by the
SAM classification approach and the CRIM index
(Crop Residue Index Multiband) (Biard and Baret,
1997). In a bidimensional space defined by two
spectral bands, any point P representing bare soil is
located between the highly degraded bare soil line and
that of the slightly degraded soil line (Fig. 5). The
calculation of the highly and slightly degraded soil
line is carried out after the classification and
processing of the spectroradiometric data. Our
method, which does not limit itself to the choice of
specific bands, is called the land degradation index
(LDI).
The ratio between the distance P over the highly
degraded soil line (DP) and the distance between the
highly and slightly degraded soil lines (DE) allows the
attribution of any point to a given class. The
calculation of the tangent of angles a and b (Fig. 5)
measures the distance DE and DP. Point I corresponds
to the interception point of the two lines. The LDI can

Fig. 5. Concept of the LDI approach in a bidimensional space.

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M. Chikhaoui et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

be estimated in a bidimensional space by the following

equation:
s
tan a cos b
1  cos2 a

LDI
(3)
tan b cos a
1  cos2 b
It can also be estimated in the following form:
LDI

DP tan a

DE tan b

(4)

LDI can be adapted to an n-dimension space, knowing

that n is the number of bands. In this case, the highly
degraded soil line and that of the slightly degraded
soils can be defined by using many spectral bands and
by selecting a single band as reference. In the present
study, it is useless to repeat the demonstration for
calculating the cosine of an angle defined by two lines
in an n-dimension space; this passage is largely developed by Biard and Baret (1997).
3.3. Validation procedure
The stereoscopic analysis serves to define and
delimit the geomorphologic indicator such as erosion
forms over the basin area. The results will be
integrated into a GIS for the validation of results
obtained from the satellite image processing. The
aerial photographs used in this study were acquired on
June 1996 at the scale of 1/20,000. The results derived
from the laboratory physico-chemical analysis of the
samples acquired on the ground focused on the content
in total calcium, organic matter and grain size.
Following that, the analysis of the spatial variability of
these data was carried out using geostatistical
processing provided by the GS+ (Robertson, 1998)
software. In this study, kriging was adopted as
interpolation method because it is a non-biased linear
method. After, we obtained thematic maps for each
variable measured. To reach our objective, we carried
out a systematic sampling following a standard grid
with 350 m
350 m spacing. Each soil sample was
acquired at the soil surface at a depth of 510 cm;
Fig. 6 shows the location of the 60 sampling points.
Factors responsible for spatial differences in land
degradation such as slope gradient, lithology and soil
proprieties were used to analyze the distribution of
land degradation classes in relation to these factors.
The DEM was generated using the topographic map

Fig. 6. Soil sampling points in the basin.

(1/50,000) with the Arc View software. Slope gradient

was computed from the DEM.
The thematic maps were resampled to the same
pixel size (15 m). A total of 120 points selected
randomly over the surface conditions map were used
with the thematic map to determine the accuracy
assessment. The error matrix served to calculate the
global accuracy and KHAT statistic (an estimate of the
KHAT statistic is another
kappa coefficient) (i.e., K).
measure of accuracy. It was calculated by Congalton
(1991) as
P
P
N ri1 xii  ri1 xi
xi
P
K
(5)
N 2  ri1 xi
xi
where r is the number of rows in the matrix, xii the
number of observations in row i and column i, xi+
and x+i are the marginal totals of row i and column i,
respectively, and N is the total number of observations.
The efficiency and accuracy of the two approaches
were evaluated using KHAT statistic K and its
variance (i.e., s2) as follows:

s 2 K

1 a1 1  a1
N 1  a2 2
21  a1 2a1 a2  v1

1  a2 3

1  a1 2 v2  4a22
1  a2 4

(6)

M. Chikhaoui et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

where
v1

r
X

xii xi xi ;

v2

i1

a1

r
X

r X
r
X
xi j x j x j ;
i1 i1

xii ;

i1

a2

r
X

xi xi ;

xi j

i1

xi xi
:
N

To test the significance of the differences between the

two approaches, the method described by Cohen
(1960) is used. The method uses the normal curve
deviate statistics Z given by
K 1  K 2
Z q
s 21 s 22

(7)

147

In other words, changes in soil surface conditions

modify the shape of the soil reflectance spectra.
Multivariate statistical analysis of these spectral data
enabled us to better discriminate between the different
levels of soil degradation (Chikhaoui et al., 2001).
Subsequently, we retained two data groups. One
represents slightly degraded soils and the second
represents highly degraded soils.
In a bidimensional scatter plot, Fig. 8 shows that the
soil-line concept is valid between any couple of the
ASTER spectral bands for all soils of every data
group. This concept is verified for both groups of soil
surface conditions. This confirms the result obtained
by Baret et al. (1993). Band 2 as reference provided a
better result for the different combinations (Fig. 8).
4.2. Accuracy assessment

4. Results
4.1. Analysis and classification of the
spectroradiometric data
Fig. 7 shows the soil spectra collected over the
Saboun basin. The bare soil spectra are characterized by
a progressive increase in reflectance as the wavelength
increases (Fig. 7). Slightly degraded soils can be
distinguished by low reflectance with a pronounced
absorption band corresponding to clays at 2.20 mm.
Highly degraded soil spectra are characterized by
relatively high reflectance with a higher spectral slope
between VIS-NIR than for slightly degraded soils. The
highly degraded soil spectra are characterized by
spectral absorption around 2.35 mm due to carbonates.

4.2.1. Land degradation mapping using the SAM

approach
The selection of prototype spectra is based
essentially on the results of the statistical analysis
applied to the spectroradiometric data. A u angle
image is produced for each reference spectral
signature. From these images, we produced first a
thematic map of the soils by attributing to each pixel
the theme having a low u value. The value of 0.20 rad
is defined as a threshold value for the maximum angle
between the image vector and the reference vector
spectrum. With this value, it is possible to obtain many
different thematic classes. Secondly, we studied the
state of soil degradation using the spectral signatures
associated with the different levels of soil degradation.
The regrouping of the thematic classes into one single

Fig. 7. Soil spectra from the Saboun watershed. Slightly degraded soils in green, moderately degraded soils in blue and highly degraded soils in
green.

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Fig. 8. (1) Highly degraded bare soil line. (2) Slightly degraded bare soil line.

class expressing the state of soil degradation according

to the spectroradiometric data classification provided
the basis for the thematic map presented in Fig. 9.
Classification accuracy results from the SAM method
are shown in Table 2 with an overall accuracy of 0.73
and includes the error matrix. According to this data,
the highly degraded soils were mapped with high
producers accuracy (omission error) (>0.87).
The analysis of the results of the SAM approach
shows that the moderately degraded soils dominate
with 41%. The value of 0.20 rad made it possible to
obtain satisfactory classification results and variations
of this value generate significant changes in the
classification results. Values above this threshold
produced a large number of nonclassified pixels and
less thematic classes. The water class (dam reservoir)
is identified as unclassified pixels by the SAM method.

This result can be explained by the absence of spectral

signatures representing this class.
4.2.2. Land degradation mapping using the LDI
approach
ASTER Band 2 (0.630.69 mm) was used as
reference band and provided satisfactory results.
The choice of this band is based on the principle
that for any spectral band combination, the concept of
the soil line is verified and that pixels should be
located between the two lines in a multidimensional
spectral space. In other words, the LDI index should
have a value between 0 and 1 (Fig. 10.1). The
implementation of the LDI algorithm uses all the
bands of the spectral domain in the visible, NIR and
SWIR.
Fig. 10.1 shows the results obtained with the LDI
index. We observe that the highly degraded soils have
a high LDI index value with 0.60 and we note that the
slightly degraded soils have a quite small LDI value
with 0.20. The application of a thresholding to the
Table 2
Accuracy assessment result of the SAM classification method

Fig. 9. Soil surface conditions map obtained with the SAM

approach.

Class

Producers
accuracy

Users
accuracy

Slightly degraded soils

Moderately degraded soils
Highly degraded soils
Overall accuracy
KHAT statistic and variance

0.65
0.68
0.87

0.70
0.76
0.74
0.73
K 0:61 and
s2 = 0.0024

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149

Fig. 10. Surface conditions map determined by the LDI.

histogram of the LDI index provided well defined

classes. Subsequently, we applied a median filter with
a 3
3 window to obtain homogeneous classes and to
reduce the presence of isolated pixels. Fig. 10.2 shows
the results of this post-processing. Classification
accuracy results for the LDI approach are shown in
Table 3. The LDI method seems to provide more
accurate results for mapping land degradation when
compared to the SAM method with an overall
accuracy of 0.85. According to the error matrix, the
highly degraded soils were mapped with high users
(commission error) and producers accuracy (>0.92).
Moreover, we observe that the pixels of the dam
reservoir have small values between 0.20 and 0.35.
These values can be explained by the low water level
behind the dam. The dam is characterized by a
Table 3
Accuracy assessment result of the LDI approach
Class

Producers
accuracy

Users
accuracy

Slightly degraded soils

Moderately degraded soils
Highly degraded soils
Overall accuracy
KHAT statistic and variance

0.83
0.83
0.92

0.79
0.85
0.95
0.85
K 0:79 and
s2 = 0.0015

relatively high rate of silting reaching 2% of its storage

capacity per year according to the last bathymetric
campaign (UR AMBRE, 2002). It represents a
sedimentation site for the fertile elements of the lands
upstream which were transported by water. Moreover,
we can observe that the thematic map produced by the
application of the LDI index shows a dominance of
poorly developed soils of the order of 39%.
4.3. Validation and discussion of results
Comparison of the results obtained by the two
approaches reveals that LDI produced a much higher
accuracy than SAM with KHAT statistic = 0.79.
According to Montserud and Leamans (1992) this
value indicates that the method shows very good to
excellent classification performance. We observe that
the results obtained with the two approaches are
similar overall and clearly show the degraded soil
class. This can be explained by the fact that the
spectral response of these soils types is invariant. In
fact, we can observe a strong contribution from the
substratum in the spectral signature of this soil class.
In other words, this can be explained by the large areas
of bare soil and the high reflectance of the ground
substrate. Moreover, we note that the SAM method has
a tendency sometimes to agglomerate the slightly and

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the moderately degraded soils into one single class.

This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, the SAM
approach is based on the spectral similarity approach
(Cro`sta et al., 1998) and, on the other hand, it must be
stressed that the adoption of only one angular
threshold (0.20 rad) for the different classes sometimes introduces this confusion. The latter can be
explained by the heterogeneity of the surface state:
roughness, moisture and the presence of some crop
residues. Also, it must be noted that the acquisition of
the ground spectroradiometric data and the image data
was not carried out simultaneously. Since the image
and radiometric spectra were not acquired during the
same year and because of the small time difference
between the acquisition dates (summer for the image
and fall for the spectra), it is self-evident that this
could induce a certain confusion when using the SAM
method. This is the case for the soil cover rate and
roughness. The seasonal difference is accompanied by
a variation in the ground cover rate (higher in summer
than in the fall: presence of thatch), and this also has an
effect on the results. Also, the fall season during which
the spectra were collected on the ground corresponds
to the tilling period. Our approach based on the use of
LDI enabled us to get more detailed quantitative
results for every pixel. In addition, it helped in limiting
the confusion that exists in the SAM method. As such,
it is very sensitive to the u angle and produced no
satisfactory results because with values above this we
obtained a thematic map with one or two classes or a
large number of non-classified pixels.
Tables 2 and 3 show the KHAT statistic used for the
accuracy evaluation. The difference between the two
approaches shows the interest and the contribution of
LDI in the study of land degradation. We found that Z
is 2.88. This value exceeds Zt = 1.96 with a 95%
confidence level, and hence the difference between the
LDI and SAM methods is significant, and shows the
interest and the contribution of the LDI index in the
study of land degradation. However, it must be noted
that although the LDI index remains sensitive to the

vegetation cover rate, it is interesting for applications

in arid to semi-arid environments where soils are
nearly void of any vegetation cover outside the
growing season. The main cause of this limitation is
the abundance of vegetation because more than 50%
of the soil signal is masked (Bannari et al., 1996).
The use of the photo-interpretation results, DEM,
slope gradient and the thematic maps (organic matter,
clay, silt, sand) derived from the interpolation by
kriging served as an additional tool for the validation
of our results.
The analysis of the photo-interpretation result
shows that our study area is entirely affected by water
erosion. The following erosion forms were found:
overland flow, gullies, rills, and bank undermining
(Table 4). Overlay of the map of surface conditions
with the soil map, DEM and slope gradient showed that
highly degraded soils are associated with the Typic
Calcixeroll soil class. It is characterized by a soil
erodibility factor k = 0.44 measured in the laboratory
(Chikhaoui, 1998) indicating a high susceptibility to
erosion (Manrique, 1988). An examination of Table 4
shows good correlation between higher elevation, slope
gradient and the highly degraded soil class.
Also, the validation of the results obtained with the
LDI index was carried out by using a total of 20 points
located by global positioning system (GPS) in the field.
Each point had a descriptive record and a physicochemical analysis of one soil sample (Table 5). The
analysis of this table shows that the result derived from
the LDI approach is better than with SAM. It appears
that the map of surface conditions also depends on the
physico-chemical characteristics of the different
classes. It can clearly be seen that the slightly degraded
soil class is characterized by a low percentage of
limestone, silt and slightly more organic matter. The
highly degraded soil class is characterized by a high
percentage of silt and relatively high pH. Based on these
results, the LDI appears interesting for evaluating soil
surface conditions and opens new perspectives for
future studies in similar landscapes.

Table 4
Severity of the land degradation in our area study
Severity

Erosion form

Symbol

Erodibility factor k

Elevation (m)

Slope gradient (%)

Slight
Moderate
High

Overland flow Sheet

Overland flow - Rills
Rillsgulliesbank undermining

Wt
Wt
Wd

<0.3
0.3 < K <0.4
>0.44

2040
5080
80120

Flat (<5)
1020
>25

OM: organic matter; CEC: cation exchange capacity; S.E.: standard error; CV: coefficient of variation. The number of points used for this statistical processing is 120 (OM, sand, clay,
silt) and 20 (CaCO3, pH, CEC).

0.28 15.17
0.31 18.89
0.35 24.18
28.70 10.30 35.88 1.84
32.04 11.30 35.62 1.68
32.96 12.34 37.43 1.45
0.17 2.17
0.19 2.33
0.18 2.18
Slightly degraded soils
24.52 5.47 22.30 43.92 2.41 5.49 45.07 4.74 10.52 10.86 2.62 24.15 7.80
Moderately degraded soils 17.67 4.05 22.92 38.93 5.53 14.21 49.70 2.36 4.76 12.62 6.78 53.70 8.15
Highly degraded soils
13.12 4.17 31.78 35.58 2.51 7.05 49.61 4.91 9.91 17.73 7.17 40.43 8.13

OM (%)
CEC
pH
CaCO3 (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Sand (%)

Mean S.E. CV% Mean S.E. CV% Mean S.E. CV% Mean S.E. CV% Mean S.E. CV% Mean S.E.

Table 5
Descriptive statistics of the physico-chemical characteristics of the different classes

CV% Mean S.E. CV%

M. Chikhaoui et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

151

5. Conclusion
Land degradation is a major environmental
problem in the Mediterranean area. The present study
has provided the opportunity for studying and
characterizing the state of soil degradation using a
new index called the LDI. It was able to recognize
three out of the four GLASOD land degradation
classes. ASTER data and field spectroradiometric
measurements were used for this purpose. Our results
show that both the SAM and LDI approaches have the
ability to map land degradation, although the result
provided by the LDI is more accurate with KHAT
statistic = 0.79 and that the difference between the two
methods is significant. The validation and evaluation
of the LDI are based on ground data and photointerpretation. Globally, the results represent ground
reality with sufficient accuracy to help the decision
makers in their soil conservation planning process.
The LDI algorithm is conceptually and methodologically simple and is a useful tool for land
degradation mapping using remotely sensed data.
The advent of new superspectral and hyperspectral
sensors will allow even more extensive applications of
this spectral approach. Extrapolation of this approach
to other regions is feasible if there is a contrast
between slightly and highly degraded soils. Moreover,
the extension of the LDI approach is possible by
integrating other data sources such as geomorphological indices (Hengl and Rossiter, 2003; Haboudane
et al., 2002). Research is currently in progress to
validate and evaluate the approach with other types of
sensors such as Landsat 7 ETM+.

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank NATO, the Canada
Research Chair on Earth Observation (Universite de
Sherbrooke), as well as the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (Grant
#OGP 6043 awarded to Dr. Bonn) for their multifaceted financial support during the different phases of
this study. We would also like to thank P. Cliche,
engineer at CARTEL for his technical support during
the field campaigns as well as P. Gagnon for his
linguistic support. We also thank the journal reviewers

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M. Chikhaoui et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 (2005) 140153

for valuable suggestions and criticisms on the earlier

version of this manuscript.

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