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Title
EML 211
Figure (1)
Theory
When two resistors, R1 and R2 are connected in the series as shown in the figure (1) above,
the equivalent resistor, R12 in this circuit are:
R12 = R1 + R2
(1)
The current, i through ammeter can be define as, when voltage, V is read using a volt
meter (provided).
v
i=
Amp
(2)
R 1+ R 2
EML 211
Procedure
1.1 Section I
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
R1, R2 and V were chosen with suitable values and the value of R1 + R2 is estimated.
Resistor R1 and R2 are connect in series as shown in figure(1) above.
Current, i is calculated.
Battery is connected to the circuit.
Reading of both ammeter and voltmeter are recorded.
V
=
4.8 V
i
=
0.015A
Verified if the current read on ammeter is equivalent to the estimated current using
theory, ie,
voltmeter reading
i = ammeter reading =
R1 + R2
1.2 Section II
I.
II.
III.
2. Parallel Resistors
Figure (2)
Theory
When two resistors, R1 and R2 are connected in series as shown in the figure (2) above, the
equivalent resistor, R12 in this circuit are:
R12=
R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2
(3)
EML 211
V
R2
(4)
(5)
i=i 1+i 2
V
R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 )
(6)
Procedure
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Figure (3)
3.1 Measure the voltage across the load using a voltmeter.
I.
Voltmeter and resistor are connected as shown in figure (3).
II.
Reading on the voltmeter is taken and recorded.
III.
Step 1 and step 2 are repeated for three test resistors.
EML 211
Figure (4)
I.
II.
III.
A known resistor (100) is connected in series with the unknown load resistor as
shown in figure (4).
Voltage reading on the voltmeter across the known resistor (100) is taken for three
test resistive load.
Current through the loads are calculated.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Figure (5)
A voltmeter is connected across the unknown load as shown in figure (5).
Voltage reading, V1 is taken and recorded.
Voltmeter is then connected to the known resistor load (100).
Voltage reading, V2 is taken and recorded.
Power delivered to the load is calculated.
EML 211
Figure (6)
4.1 Measuring the current through the load with an ammeter.
I.
Connection is figure (6) is connected.
II.
Ammeter reading is taken.
III.
The ammeter reading indicates the current through the load.
4.2 Measure the voltage across the load with an ammeter.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Figure (7)
Connection in figure (7) is connected. Use the know resistor, R where the value is
100.
Ammeter reading is recorded.
Voltage across the load is estimated by using the formula
V =IR
(7)
EML 211
Figure (8)
I.
II.
III.
Connection in figure (8) is connected. Use the know resistor, R where the value is
100.
Current thru the unknown load is called A1 and the value of it is recorded. Use the
know resistor, R where the value is 100.
The connection as shown in figure (9) is connected.
Figure (9)
IV.
V.
Current pass thru the know resistor is called A2 and it is been recorded
Voltage across the load is calculated by using formula (8).
VR=A2R
VI.
(8)
I.
EML 211
Figure (10)
II.
V
R
Ohms
EML 211
R1 = 100
R2 = 220
V = 5V
R1 + R 2 =
320
[ii]
Current obtained from calculation, i
[iii]
Voltmeter reading, V =
4.8V
[iv] Ammeter reading, i =
14.25mA
[v] Theoretical ammeter reading, i, = 15.0mA
[vi] Theoretical Voltmeter reading, V, = 5V
= 15.6mA
1.2 Section II
I.
II.
III.
IV.
2.
Once the batterys polarity in reversed, the needle of multimeter was towards left
(backwards) of zero value.
There is current flow even the batterys polarity is changed. The ammeter and
voltmeter needle shows towards (backwards) zero is due to negative value of
current and voltage. This proved when we used the digital multimeter which
showed a negative value. To solve this, we changed the polarity of ammeter and
voltmeter which is similar to power supply.
Reading of ammeter and voltmeter were taken, there isnt any difference from
section (A), where the ammeter and voltmeter reading were 14.25mA and 4.8V
respectively.
What I could learn from this is, the polarity of power supply (battery or etc) must
be similar (positive to positive or negative to negative) to obtain a positive value
of current and voltage. By the reversing the polarity, we could obtain a negative
value which means the current flow in opposite directions.
Parallel Resistor
[i]
R1
=
100
R2
=
220
V
=
5V
[ii]
From calculation, i 1
[iii]
From calculation, i 2
[iv]
From ammeter reading,
i1
=
44mA
=
=
50mA
22.7mA
i2
=
i
=
i = i1+i2=
3.
EML 211
21mA
65mA
72.7mA
3.2.
=
=
=
5.0V
5.0V
5.0V
[ii]
The reading of voltmeter across the 100 resistors for the 3 resistance of load
tests:
V1
=
0.9V
V2
=
0.21V
V3
=
0.1V
[iii]
I1
I2
I3
3.3.
[i]
0.9
100 = 9.0mA
0.21
100 = 2.1mA
0.1
100 = 1.0mA
[ii]
EML 211
3.4.
= 4.9mW
[iii]
RL
V
V R ( 4.9)(100)
Voltage across load
1 1
4.9k
Current across load V2 / R V2
0 .1
4.
4.1
[i]
Ammeter reading
I = 45mA
Ammeter reading
I = 45mA
[iii]
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EML 211
A1 = 9.6mA
[ii]
[iii]
[iv]
RL =
A2 R
Ohm
A1
RL =
(5.6)(100)
9.6
RL = 58.3
5. Measurement of voltage, current, power & load resistance using a voltmeter &
ammeter.
[i]
V
Ohms =
A
4.8
48 ( 0.001 )
EML 211
= 100
Discussion
15.014.25
x 100 = 5% which is relatively
15.0
small.
72.765
x 100 = 10.59%
72.7
(ii)
EML 211
Conclusion
1.
In series arrangement,
[i]
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 is R1+R2
[ii]
Current pass through all resistors are the same.
[iii]
The value of voltage drop across the resistor is proportional to the resistance and
follow the voltage division rule.
2.
In parallel arrangement,
R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2
[i]
[ii]
[iii]
The current pass through the resistors follow the current division rule.
The voltage drop across the all resistors are the same.
References
1. EML 211/2 Engineering Laboratory Manual , Dr.Elmi Abu Bakar, Assoc.ProfDr.Roslan
Ahmad
2. Electric circuit analysis, by David E Johnson, 1999 year
3. Electric circuit theory, by R. Yorke, 1986 year
13
EML 211
2. Thevenin theorem
Thevenin theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source V TH in
series with a resistor RTH , where VTH is the open-circuit voltage source
at the terminals and RTH is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off. When applying
the Thevenin theorem, all independent voltage sources will be short
circuited and all independent current sources will be open circuited. By
replacing the whole circuit to a simple circuit with one voltage source
and one resistance, calculation on the load resistor will be easier.
3. Norton theorem
Norton theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit with an independent circuit source, I N
in parallel with a resistance, R N. IN is the current pass through the two
terminals and RN is the equivalent resistance at the terminal when the
independent source is turned off. The method of applying Norton
theorem is almost the same but only Thevenin theorem is used to
calculate voltage but Norton theorem is used to calculate current.
Objectives
1.
Introduce fundamental theorems commonly used to simplified a circuit for the
purpose of evaluating or designing
2.
Understand the methods or usage of this basic theorems in practice in a circuit
or network of direct current
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EML 211
Apparatus
1.
2.
3.
Introduction
To understand if the way of a circuit is r the purpose of designing or analyzing, and
commonly used technique to facilitate the circuit for an univalent circuit. The three
fundamental theorems usual used for the simplification of a circuit are:
[i]
Superposition Theorem
[ii]
Norton Theorem and
[iii]
Thevenin Theorem
1.0
Superposition Theorem
Objective
To learn the concept of superposition theorem in the network circuit fixed torrent.
Theory
Consider the circuit network shown in Figure(1).
Figure(1)
Remove the sources V1 and the network circuit above will be as shown in Figure(2).
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EML 211
Figure(2)
Since R1 and R2 are parallel
R1 R 2
Thus , R1||R2 = R12 =
R 1+ R 2
Therefore, the network circuit can be summarised as shown in Figure(3).
Thus,
Figure(3)
V3
I '3 =
R3 + R 12
Referring to Figure(2),
I '1 =
R2
I' ,
R1 + R2 3
R1
I' ,
R1 + R 2 3
Referring back to Figure(1), now removed only V3. The circuit to be is as shown in
Figure(4).
And
I '2 =
Figure(4)
Now, R2 and R3wil be parallel resistors.
R2 R3
Thus, R2||R3 = R23 =
R 2+ R 3
Therefore, the network circuit can be summarised as shown in figure(5).
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EML 211
Figure(5)
Therefore,
''
1
''
2
I =I + I
''
3
V1
R1 + R23
Also,
I '2' =
R3
I ''1
R2 + R 3
R2
I ''1
R2 + R 3
Thus, when both V1 and V2 areconnected as shown in Figure(5) above, t current
through the resistor R1 are defined as
I 1 =I '1 + I ''1
The current though resistor R2 are define as
I 2 =I '2 + I '2'
The current though resistor R3 are defined as
I 3 =I '3 + I '3'
And
If
2.0
I '3 > I '3' , the current flow direction will follow the
Objective
1.
2.
2.1
I '3' =
Thevenin Theorem
Procedure
1.
Thevenin equivalent circuit and its equivalent values for the circuit network
given in Figure(6) is connected. The equivalent circuit is drawing the space
provided.
Figure (6)
17
EML 211
2.
Power supply is connected to the circuit above but do not connect R L. Voltage across
the terminal XY is measured and recorded. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH.
EOC=ETH
3.
Power supply is removed and the resistance across x-y is measured. Value of
resistance is recorded. This is the Thevenin equivalent resistance RTH.
RSC=RNO =RTH
4.
Voltage drop across the RL load is calculated after it is connected, the following
formula is used.
E R
V RL = TH L
R TH +R L
5.
6.
Power supply s connected with the RL load in the network. The voltage drop across
the load resistor is measured and recorded.
Step 1 to Step 5 are repeated for the circuit in Figure(7) by using Thevenin s
theorem.
Figure(7)
2.2
Norton Theorem
1.
2.
Power supply is connected to the circuit. Load resistor is replaced with an ammeter(010)mA. Ensure the meter is connected to the correct polarization. Current is recorded
as ISC. This current is the Norton current.
ISC=IN=
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EML 211
Voltage drop across the RL from the Norton equivalent circuit is calculated
byusingthe following formulas
I R R
V RL = SC N L
RN+RL
4.
RL load is connected and voltage drop is measured.
5.
Step 1 to Step 5 are repeated for the circuit in Figure(7) by using Nortons s theorem.
3.0
Exercise
For the circuit shown below,
Figure(8)
Get a Thevenin equivalent Circuit.
1.
RTh
RTh
R1
V Th
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EML 211
E 1=
R1
V
R 1+ R 2
15 (103)
3
3
15 ( 10 ) +30 (10 )
x 10
3.33V
R1
( I)
R1 + R2
3
E2=0.67 x 15 E TH =3.33+10
30(10 )
1
45(103 )
10V
13.33V
0.67 mA
4.
Now, by removing the power supply and closing circuit at AB, calculate the
equivalent resistor, RTH.
RTH =
1 1
+
30 15
10 k
A1
( mA )
A2
( mA )
A3
( mA )
20
1.60
-1.00
2.50
2.50
0.60
1.90
EML 211
0.90
1.60
0.60
Table 1
Theoretical value (referring to figure 2):
R2 R3 =R 23=
I '1' =
V1
6
=
=2.8 1 mA
3
R1+ R23 1 ( 10 ) +1.14 (103)
R3
4.7 ( 103 )
''
I =
I 3=
( 2.81 ) ( 103 )=2.1 3 mA
3
3
R2 + R 3
1.5 ( 10 ) +4.7 ( 10 )
R2
1.5 ( 103 )
''
''
I3 =
I 3=
( 2.81 ) ( 103 )=0.68 mA
3
3
R2 + R 3
1.5 ( 10 ) +4.7 ( 10 )
''
2
Thevenin Theorem
For Figure(6)
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EML 211
1.
2.
3.
Norton Theorem
V RL =
11.
V RL =
14.
Discussion
22
EML 211
1. Based on the experimental, the experimental results obtained were almost the same compared
to theoretical values with a difference in range of 0.1 to 0.5.
The measured value is different from calculation value because there are some error:
The resistance value of the resistor is not exactly the same as shown by the body
colour of the resistor, there are some deviation. So, the resistance we using in
the
calculation is possible to be higher or lower than actual.
The apparatus used (ammeter and voltmeter) may consists calibration error.
Conclusion
23
EML 211
References
1. EML 211/2 Engineering Laboratory Manual , Dr.Elmi Abu Bakar, Assoc.Prof Dr.Roslan
Ahmad
2. http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonsHTML/Source/Source2.html
3. http://www.accesscomms.com.au/reference/polarity.htm
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