DELHI PRIVATE SCHOOL,SHARJAH

Unit- Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation

Electron Emission and Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal is called electron
emission.

Work function A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an

electron to pull it out from the surface of the metal. This minimum energy required by an
electron to escape from the metal surface is called the work function of the metal.
The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal surface can be
supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following physical processes:

Work Functions for Photoelectric Effect

Element
Cesium
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Uranium
Magnesium
Cadmium
Aluminum
Lead
Niobium

Work Function(eV)
2.1
2.28
2.3
2.9
3.6
3.68
4.07
4.08
4.14
4.3

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Zinc
Iron
Mercury
Copper
Silver
Carbon
Beryllium
Cobalt
Nickel
Gold
Selenium
Platinum

4.3
4.5
4.5
4.7
4.73
4.81
5
5
5.01
5.1
5.11
6.35

Thermionic emission By suitable heating, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to

the free electrons to enable them to come out of the metal.
Field emission By applying a very strong electric field to a metal, electrons can be
pulled out of the metal.
Photoelectric emission: is the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface
when light of suitable frequency is incident on it.
The electrons emitted are called photoelectrons and the current produced in the circuit is
called photoelectric current .

Experimental setup to explain photoelectric emission

[Lenards observations]:- Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed
to fall on the emitter plate P of an evacuated tube enclosing two electrodes (metal
plates), current flows in the circuit. As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped,
the current flow also stopped.

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The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube, which encloses a

photosensitive plate C and a metal plate A. The window W will allow the light of a
particular frequency to pass through it.When a monochromatic radiation of suitable
frequency obtained from source S falls on the photosensitive plate C, the photoelectrons
are emitted from C, which get accelerated towards the plate A (kept at positive potential).
These electrons flow in the outer circuit, resulting in the photoelectric current. Due to
this, the microammeter shows a deflection.
Factors affecting photoelectric current:
a) Effect of intensity of incident radiation on photoelectric current
By keeping frequency of incident radiation constant and plate A at a positive
potential, when the intensity of incident radiation increases, number of photoelectrons
emitted also increases .
The number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the
intensity ofincident
radiation.

b)Effect of potential on photoelectric current

Keep plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect to plate C and
illuminate plate C with light of fixed frequency and fixed intensity I1.

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It is found that photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating potential.

At some stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons are
collected by plate A and the photoelectric current becomes maximum or saturates.
This maximum value of photoelectric current is called saturation current.

When intensity of light is increased, I2>I1 and frequency kept constant, the saturation
current is greater, but the stopping potential remains the same.
Stopping potential
The minimum negative potential V0 given to plate A with respect to plate C at which the
photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential or cut off potential.
If
e
is
the
charge
on
the
photoelectron,
then
...Work done by the stopping potential = Maximum KE of electrons
i.e. eV0 = mVmax2 = KEmax
As charge of as electron is constant
V0 is a measure of maximum KE of photoelectrons
c)Effect of frequency of the incident radiation
Taking radiations of different frequencies but of same intensity, the variation
between photoelectric current and potential of plate A is obtained and shown in graph
given below.

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From the graph, we note that

(i) The value of stopping potential is different for radiation of different frequency.
(ii) The value of stopping potential is more negative for radiation of higher incident
frequency.
(iii) The value of saturation current depends on the intensity of incident radiation, but is
independent of the frequency of the incident radiation.
Graph between stopping potential and the frequency of the incident radiation:

From the graph, we note:

1)
2)

Stopping potential is proportional to frequency.

At 0, stopping potential if zero and photoelectric current is zero.

Threshold frequency 0 is the minimum cut-off frequency of incident radiation for a

given metal surface below which no photoelectrons are emitted.(stopping potential is
zero)
Current with frequency at constant intensity

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Photoelectric current

V0

frequency

Maximum KE is independent of incident light (graph a) and depends only upon its
frequency (graph b).

0
frequency
graph b

Laws of Photoelectric emission

1.

For a given metal surface and frequency of incident radiation, photoelectric

current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
2.
For a given metal, there exits a curtain minimum frequency of incident radiation
below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called threshold
frequency.

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3.

Above the threshold frequency, maximum KE of photoelectrons emitted is

independent of the intensity of incident light, but depends only upon the frequency of
incident light.
4.
Photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
Particle nature of light
Photon theory of radiations
According to Max Planck, radiations are emitted as packets of energy called photons. The
energy of each photon is directly proportional to the frequency of radiations.
i.e. E v

or E = h v

Photons: are packets of energy emitted by a source of electromagnetic radiation.

Properties of photons:
1.

They travel in straight lines with the speed of light.

2.

Energy of each photon:

E = h = h c/
Where h = 6.62 x 10-34 Js

3.

Photon has zero rest mass

m = m0/(1 v2/C2)1/2
When velocity of photon v=c, m0 = 0. i.e photon cannot exist in rest.
m = E/c2 = h/c2

4.

A Photon of energy E possesses mass

5.

Momentum of each photon = mc = E/c = h/c=h/

6.

All photons of light have the same frequency, energy and momentum,
independent of the intensity of radiation. By increasing the intensity of light of
given wavelength, there is only an increase in the number of photons per second
crossing a given area, with each photon having the same energy.

7.

Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.

8.

In a photon particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision.
The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

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Einsteins Photoelectric Equation

When a photon of light of frequency is incident on a photosensitive metal surface, the
energy of the incident photon h is spent in
a)
overcoming the surface barrier equal to the work function 0 of the metal and
b)
the rest in imparting KE to the emitted photoelectrons
h = 0 + mv2
(1)
Work function 0 or threshold energy is the minimum energy that must be supplied to the
electron so that it ejects from the metal surface.
0 = h 0
where 0 is the threshold frequency
Therefore (1) becomes
h = h 0 + mvmax2
mvmax2 = h h0
Verification of photoelectric emission
1. a) KE cannot be negative implies that
h = h0 + mvmax2
. . . h > h0
photoelectric emission takes place if > 0
if < 0 , no photoelectric emission takes place.
2. One photon can emit only one electron from the metal surface, so the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
light which depends upon number of protons present in the incident light.
3. It is clear that kinetic energy, 1/2mv2 frequency, v because Plancks constant, h
and cut off frequency, v0 are constant for a given photo emitter. This shows that K.E.
of photoelectron is directly proportional to the frequency of the in the incident light.
4. Photoelectric emission is due to elastic collision between a photon and an electron in
the substance. As such there can not be any significant time lag between incidence of
photons and emission of photoelectron. Thus, the process of electric emission
instantantaneous.

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Significance of V0 graph.
To find the value of h

According to Einsteins photoelectric equation.

h = h0 + mvmax2
mvmax2 = h - h0
eV0 = h - h0
V0 = (h/e) (h/e0)

(1)

(2)

Equation (2) is of the form

y = mx + c
(3)
comparing (2) and (3)
slope of V0 graph. = h/e
. . . Value of h = e x slope
The value of h calculated from the graph if in agreement with the theoretical value.
Millikan performed experiment on photoelectric effect and plotted graph between
different stopping potentials and the corresponding frequencies as given beside. The
value of h determined from the graph using the equation (1) is found to be the same
as its theoretical value.
This verifies the Einsteins photoelectric equation.

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Photocell is an arrangement which converts light into electrical energy.

Construction
It consists of a thin glass enclosed in a highly evacuated glass bulb. The cathode C is a
parabolic metal surface made of photosensitive metal such as Cesium and anode A
series as a collector of photoelectrons.
Uses: - In an automatic controlling of street light, reproduction of audio in motion
pictures, burglar alarms for detecting minor flaws or holes in metal sheets etc.
Working
When light of frequency > 0 falls of the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These
electrons are attracted to the anode and measured.

de-Broglie hypothesis
According to de Broglie, a wave is associated with every moving particle. These waves
are called de-Broglie waves or matter waves.
Wave nature of matter de-Broglie relation)
Nature itself exists in two forms matter and radiation. Radiation possesses dual nature.
Hence de- Broglie argued that matter also should possess dual nature. i.e. particle and
wave.
Further, he determined the wavelength associated with a particle of mass m moving
with a velocity v, using Einsteins mass-energy relation and Plancks quantum
theory as follows:
According to quantum theory of radiation, energy of a photon of frequency ,
E =hv [Plancks relation].
(1)

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If m is the mass of the photon considered as a particle, according to Einsteins mass

energy relation
E = mc2 =pc ----(2) [Einsteins relation]
From (1) and (2)
pc = h
p = h/c = h/
de-Broglie wavelength
= h/p
This relation connects momentum which is characteristic of the particle and wavelength
which is characteristic of the wave.
If m is the mass of the particle moving with velocity v
= h/mv
Conclusions :
1.
Lighter the particle, greater is the de Broglie wavelength .
2.
Faster the particle, smaller is the de Broglie wavelength.
3.
de Broglie wavelength is independent of nature or charge of the particle.
4.
Matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature.
de-Broglie wavelength of electron
Consider an electron of mass m and charge e accelerated through a potential
difference V. If E is the energy acquired by the particle
E = eV -(1)
If v is the velocity of the particle, E = mv2 -(2)
From (1) and (2)
mv2 = eV
v = 2E/m
de-Broglie wavelength of electron, = h/mv =
= h/2mE
or
= h/2meV
Knowing m, e of electron,
= 12.27/V
Davisson and Germer experiment
To demonstrate wave nature of electrons.
It is the first experimental set up to establish the wave nature of matter and hence to
verify de-Broglies relation.
It based on the principle of diffraction of electron when scattered by crystals.
The experiment arrangement as shown below:

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A beam of electrons from hot tungsten cathode accelerated by a potential difference V is

made to strike the nickel crystal. The electrons are scattered in all directions by the
atoms in the crystal. The intensity of scattered beam for different values of angles of
scattering is detected by the moving detector and measured. The experiment is
repeated using different accelerating voltages, from 44V to 68V..
From the graph between intensity of scattered beam of electrons at different angles of
scattering and at different accelerated voltages, it was found that maximum intensity
of scattered beam was at a potential difference of 54V.
The appearance of the peak in the graph is due to the constructive interference of
electrons scattered from the different layers of the crystal.
According to Braggs law for 1st order diffraction maximum
2d sin = n
n = 1, = 65 0, = 50 0,d = 0.91 , = 1.66
de-Broglie wavelength of electron at V = 54V is =12.27/V = 1.65
The two results were in close agreement between the theoretical value and the
experiment value. hence the experiment could establish the existence of matter
waves and wave nature of electron.
Note: - The wave properties of electrons have been utilized in the design of electron
microscope which is a great improvement, with higher resolution, over the optical
microscope.

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