History Seminar I:

Western Architectural Theory from Antiquity to the Renaissance

14th, October, 2011

Menatallah M.A. Hamdy

Professor Alberto Perez Gomez

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On the Art of Building in Ten Books

Leon Battista Alberti
Translated by Joseph Rykwert, Neil Leach and Robert Tavernor

The origin of building came from the need to settle down to rest in a safe, suitable and agreeable place. Allocating
different places for different uses within the settlement, build roof as shelter from sun and rain, walls to support the
roof, make openings to allow entry for social gatherings and let in sunlight and breeze, while letting out unwanted
moisture and vapor.

Book I

Lineaments
The first book is concerned with the design and planning part that takes place before the building process.
The Art of Building is said to consist of six elements: 1) the locality, defined as the land surrounding the
prospective building, known today as the site; 2) the area, defined as any surface within the building on
which our feet may tread, including open and enclosed spaces; 3) compartition, which is dividing up the
area into smaller area for different uses, so that the building maybe considered as being made up of close
fitting smaller buildings; 4) the walls, includes all vertical structure that rises from the ground upwards in
order to support the weight of the roof, or which acts as screens to provide privacy for different parts
within the buildings; 5) the roof, the uppermost part of the building which fends off the rain, as well as
whatever is extended in length and breadth above our heads such as ceilings, vaults, arches; and finally
6) the openings, defined as anything within the building affording entry or exit to man or thing.
He proceeds to explain the main merits and vices of each of those elements, starting by the locality and
area. Alberti prefers those which are easily accessible all year round for provision, and which are of
moderate climate, and arguing that valleys and lowlands are the worst for fear of floods, violent winds
and unhealthy air. The next most convenient are the sunniest parts of snowy countries or the most moist
shady zones of arid sun burnt regions. Internal volumes (compartitions) of the building, he says, must
reflect the same degree of grace and beauty as that apparent from the outside, but must differ in shape and
size, variety is always the most pleasing spice and Just as in music where the deep voices answer high
ones, and intermediate ones are pitched between them, so they ring out in harmony, a wonderful sonorous

balance of proportion results, which increases the pleasure of the audience and captivates them; so it
happens in everything else that serves to enchant and move the mind. Of columns, he argues that we
must not feel obliged to follow the classical tradition but must strive to produce our own inventions, to
rival or if possible, to surpass the glory of theirs. Alberti believes that columns were first made to
support roofs, but thinks that it is remarkable that mortals, once they had developed a passion for nobler
things, grew concerned to construct buildings that would be permanent, and as far as possible immortal.,
hence the use of such tough stone as marble to build them. After that he argues that roofs or coverings are
the best way to protect and prolong the life of a building and therefore must be fabricated with meticulous
care, to ensure that rain water never finds its way through the roof buy constantly maintaining and
checking it, saying that nor have so many Buildings been destroyed by Fire, Sword, War, by Multitude of
Enemies, and all other Calamities put together, as have tumbled down for no other reason that of human
neglect.
The part about the stairs is rather interesting, because he considers stairs to be either a ramp or steps and,
unlike in the case of columns, he uses the classical ways as reference. In building ramps, he observed, the
ancients built them approximately one to six parts to maintain an easy and gentle climb; while of steps he
says that they always preferred an odd number in steps of temples, to ensure entry with the right foot
which was considered more religious. Resting places (landing) the best architects placed on the seventh or
ninth step, Alberti speculates that this represents the number of planets or the heavens. Their importance:
for the weary, the infirm to rest, and to give a place for those who happen to stumble on ascending to
check their fall, and to recover and gather themselves.

Book VI

On Ornament
Ornament may be defined, according to Alberti, as a form of auxiliary light and complement to
beauty; whereas beauty is fundamental or inherent while ornament is an addition or attached to that
beauty. Building, he says, enjoyed her first gush of youth in Asia, as the kings with no lack of resources
competed in building enormous works until the competition led them to the folly of building the
pyramids. This art flowered in Greece, who began their work by examining the works of the Assyrians
and the Egyptians, from which they realized that the artists skill attracted more praise than the kings
wealth. Eventually the art of building reached her glorious maturity in Italy.
Beauty and ornament in everything are attributed to the inventing intellect, the hands of the craftsman,
or from nature. Book VI is mainly a recount of different ways to move large stones from one place to
another or to great heights using pulleys, wheels and leavers; then he explains how revetments are made
by three layers of plaster and plaster and preferably fixed with wooden splints rather than the more
protruding brass nails. The roof is a prominent part of the building, is usually adorned at the gables
(pitched roof), eaves (attics) and corners; using spheres, garlands, statues, and so on.

Apertures (openings) are also considered an ornament, since they lend dignity and gracefulness to the
appearance of the work. However, false apertures are often used for decorative and strengthening
purposes. There are two kinds of false openings, the engaged: which stands as part of the wall where it
appears as if half of it is concealed behind the wall; and the detached, which stands completely separate
from the wall like those of a portico. The column however is the principal and most prominent form of
ornament, its vertical grace and dignity makes it a beauty to look upon even if standing alone.

Book IX

Ornament to Private Buildings

Frugality and parsimony should be adopted when decorating buildings, a subject that Alberti feels
strongly about, he thinks vigorous laws should be made for people who over decorate their buildings, that
they ought to be punishable by court, and all extravagance on part of the citizen ought to be prevented and
checked.
Plato, in his Leges, praised those responsible for such laws; in his opinion, no one should produce a
picture more splendid than was kept by his ancestors in their temples. It was also forbidden for the temple
to be adorned with more than one picture which one painter might take one day to complete.
Demosthenes cried up the Manners of the ancient Athenians, much beyond those of his
Cotemporaries; for he tells us, they left an infinite Number of public Edifices, and especially of Temples,
so magnificent and richly adorned that nothing could exceed them; but they were so modest in their
private Buildings, that the Houses of the very noblest Citizens differed very little from those of the
meanest; by which means they effected, what is very rarely known among Men, to overcome Envy by
Glory.
Spartans believed that glory was deserved by those who have adorned their city not by buildings but
by valor (which is the active involvement of men in their society through work and wisdom, and that
which is similar to vertu, which shapes directs and conditions their actions once acquired through a well
rounded education) to a point that roofs were built with only an axe and doors with only a saw. Agesilaus
wondered at square rafters in the houses he found in Asia, he laughed and asked the People, why if the
trees had grown naturally round do they square them? Germans were careful not to finish their buildings
for fear of envy of their possessions by the less fortunate, which might cause unnecessary quarrels.
Valerious had a house in Rome high up on an Esquiline, but to avoid envy he tore it down and rebuilt it
on the plain. While Octavian was so upset by over extravagance that he demolished a villa for being too
lavish, the villa is believed to be of his own granddaughters.
Everything is best when it is tempered to its own importance states Alberti. The more public parts of
a building, those which receive guests, like the faade and the vestibule, must be more decorated and
adorned, but not overly so. He believes those who spend slightly more on decoration are better than others
who spend so much on the bulk of the building that they cannot afford to decorate it, which can only
mean they spend too much and built too big a building than needed.

Thucydides said we build great works, so as to appear great in the eyes of our descendants
Alberti concludes that one should not spark envy in others by building extravagant and ostentatious
buildings, yet he acknowledges ones natural desire for praise of judgment and the skill with which ones
building was made by workmen. Ornament therefore must be realized in its principal and primary form,
which is lineaments, consequently drawing much praise to the internal divisions and compartitions of the
building which the guest experiences upon visiting.
The palace of the king or the house of the senate is what should be made most handsome; the vestibule
in particular should be dignified and splendid, to the owners status and importance, with a well-lit portico
with many magnificent open spaces. However the architect should be cautious that a private building
must never be mistook for a public one; otherwise he would have failed his duty: The temporal ought to
concede to the sacred in dignity as far as reasonable. In a private house modest materials should be used
elegantly and elegant materials modestly; precious materials should be used sparingly in most dignified
places like jewels on a crown. Sacred building must be so designed that nothing could be added to
enhance its majesty or cause greater admiration, while private one should be so treated that it is not
possible to remove anything from it because everything has been put together with great care and dignity,
while profane public buildings must be somewhere midway the previous two.
Stairways, he felt, disrupt the quietness of the house, noted that the ancients always avoided these
obstacles, as he called them, and strived towards horizontal distribution of space
Suburban herotus (literally meaning garden) combines the delight of a villa and the dignity of a city
house, close enough to the city for business matters, yet far enough for healthier environment and purer
air.
Upon entering the building, Alberti says, visitors should feel the place welcoming and greeting them,
and let the inside of the building so eloquently designed that the visitors hesitate before leaving one part
that arouses delight and joy, unable to decide whether they should leave this one behind to venture
further, for a possibility of an even more beautiful part. The ancients, he says, used to create patterns of
labyrinths in their portico floors on which children would play. On the short side of the wall it was
customary to have only one window, while on the long side the ancient preferred three windows, but this
number can be increased as needed as long as it is odd. The main door was usually adorned with Ionic
columns, windows with Corinthian and the rest with Doric.
Extravagance I detest! But I am delighted by anything combining ingenuity with wit and grace
It is surely most appropriate for a portico or a dining hall to be painted or sculpted with, portraits and
events worthy of recollection, however he disapproves all of these being put together in a crowded and
overwhelming manner, explaining that gems and pearls when stacked together lose their preciousness and
become rather dull and overwhelming. He recommends creating separate frames in appropriate and noble
situations along the wall, but again not too many, for paintings or sculpture. This kind of ornament should
not be made by the moderately skilled as in the previous case; highly skilled artists and craftsmen should
be sought out for this task. Of the different types of subject matter for painting, he says that Wherever
man and wife come together, only portraits of handsome dignified men should be hanged, it was believed
that this has great effect on the mothers fertility as well as the appearance of future offspring; while
paintings of springs and streams maybe of considerable benefit to the feverish.
Gardens are the most delightful part of the building, made to enjoy the sun and the shade, and should
always be festive with little streams placed in unexpected places. The ancient gardeners apparently
flattered their masters by spelling out their names in fragrant herbs and shrubs.

Concinnitas, that ambiguous entity; present in all laws of beauty; the main object of the art of
building, and the source of her dignity, charm, authority and worth. Whether extracted or drawn from the
number and nature of all parts, or imparted to each by sure and constant method, brings together all parts
and elements into a single body, according to true and consistent agreement and sympathy. Therefore this
entity, concinnitas, must share some part of all its composing elements, while its absence appears in the
form of conflict and disunity between the different parts of the body. It flourishes most in nature, one
might call it the spouse of the soul and of reason. Its natural form produces absolute perfection, and
without it the critical sympathy and consonance between the parts of the body would be lost and beauty
becomes unattainable. This sympathy and consonance is achieved through number, position and outline
dictated by concinnitas.
The ancients looked to nature for concinnitas, they noticed that numbers were even or odd, so they
used both in different places: the bones (structure) of a building were never odd, because they observed
that all creation had an even number of limbs or feet so that weight could be distributed evenly; while
openings they always made odd in number, for nature gave us two ears, two eyes, two nostrils and a
single mouth in the middle.
Odd numbers: The number five, divine and found in many forms not least of which is the human hand;
the number seven, obviously favored by the creator, being the number of the planets; whereas the number
nine, is that of the orbs nature set in the sky.
Even numbers: some philosophers maintain that the number four was consecrated to divinity, and that
most solemn oaths should be based on it; the number six was considered perfect among few others
because 1+2+3=6; and Aristotle thought the number ten, the all perfect decade, was the most perfect
because 13+23+33+43=102. Architects have used these numbers extensively, especially in temples, but they
were careful not to exceed the even number ten or the odd number nine
The work ought to be constructed naked, and then clothed later; let the ornament come last; only then
will you have the occasion and opportunity to do it later without any form of hindrance. Ornaments, he
explains, should be made by many hands of moderate skills; I suppose to ensure the work load is better
carried out, with consistent but attainable quality and unity. While dressing the building the artist should
be careful not to appear as if he were trying to cheat the building from its own concinnitas.

An architect must ponder upon his work thoroughly and beforehand, consider the size and importance
of the work and the impression he wants to convey, and consider if ill managed how obvious, patent and
lasting a testimony of his folly he will leave his fellow men. A great matter is architecture, nor can
everyone take It and he who wants to call himself an architect must be of great ability, passion, high
educated, wide experience, and most importantly serious, and of sound judgment and council.
The best of architecture is that which is appropriate to the necessity and utility; that which is admired
by the elite for its innate beauty, concinnitas, yet not condemned by the poor for its ostentatious
ornament. A sensible balance only a true architect can achieve. He must never stop studying, be it from
the wisdom of old masters or from the highly praised examples of the ancients that can still be found, he
must also apply himself in the skilled crafts, as well as those arts which are vital to architecture: painting
and mathematics.