Lecture 1-Concepts of Life, Cell Theory and Scientific Method

Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell
Theory and Scientific Method
Biology is the study of life

Concepts of Life
The Chemistry of Life
Scientific Method
This handout is for lecture use only and not

for commercial reproduction and
distribution.
The Concept of Life
Characteristics of All Forms of Life
most contemporary biologists define life as a

particular set of processes that result from the
organization of matter
life resists a
simple, onesentence
definition, yet
we can
recognize life by
what living
things do
All forms of life share common

properties/characteristics
1. Organization and Orderthe highly ordered structure
that typifies life
Growth and development
Organization and
Order
Reproduction
Energy
processing
Response to the
environment
Metabolism/
Homeostasis
Evolutionary adaptation
5. Reproductionthe ability of organisms to

reproduce their own kind
2. Energy processingthe use of chemical energy to

power an organisms activities and chemical
reactions
6. Growth and developmentconsistent growth and

development controlled by inherited DNA
3. Metabolism/Homeostasisan ability to control an

organisms internal environment
7. Evolutionary adaptation variation, change and

adaptation
4. Response to the environment/Movementan

ability to respond to environmental stimuli

1. Organization and Order
living things have a complex organization

characteristics of
life emerge from
an organisms
organization
Biosphere
Regions of the Earths crust, water and

atmosphere inhabited by living things
Ecosystem
Community plus the physical environment
Community
Interacting populations in a particular area
Population
Organisms of the same species in a

particular area
Organism
Organ system
Tissue
Group of cells with common structure and

function
Structural and functional unit of living
things; consists of organelles
Specialized structure composed of complex
molecules within a living cell
Molecule
Atom
Madagascar
characteristics of
life emerge from
an organisms
organization
Community:
All organisms in
the forest
Population:
Group of ring-tailed
lemurs
Organism:
Ring-tailed lemur
Composed of several organs functioning

together
Group of tissues functioning together for a
specific task
Organelle
Ecosystem:
Forest in
Madagascar
Biosphere
Individual containing organ systems
Organ
Cell
Organisms
Organization and
Order
Union of two or more atoms of the same or

different element
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons and neutrons
Organ system:
Nervous system
Organ:
Brain
Spinal cord
Brain
Nerve
Tissue:
Nervous tissue
Cell:
Nerve cell
Atom
Nucleus
Organelle:
Nucleus
Molecule:
DNA

2. Metabolism and Homeostasis
2. Metabolism and Homeostasis
MetabolismThe chemical
processes
occurring within
a living cell or
organism that
are necessary
for the
maintenance of
life.
Homeostasisability or
tendency of an
organism or cell to
maintain internal
equilibrium by
adjusting its
physiological
processes.
3. Energy Processing
4. Reproduction
energy utilization
organisms produce their own kind
organisms take
in energy and
transform it to
do work
5. Growth and Development
5. Growth and Development
heritable programs (DNA) direct pattern of

growth and development

6. Irritability and movement
7. Variation, change, and evolution
capable of response to environmental stimulus
Irritability is a state of extreme sensitivity to stimulation of any kind.
African wild
dog
Coyote
Fox
Wolf
Jackal
Thousands to
millions of years
of natural selection
Ancestral canine

Organization and Order
Regulation/Homeostasis
Reproduction
Energy processing
Response to the environment
Growth and development
Evolutionary adaptation


Living organisms obey chemical and physical laws
Organisms are composed of matter
Matter is made up of elements
Compound is a substance consisting of two or more
different elements combined in a fixed ratio
Atom is the smallest unit of matter
25 of the 92 natural elements are known to be

essential to life.
carbon (C), oxygen (0), hydrogen(H), and nitrogen
(N)-make up 96% of living matter.
Phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), potassium
(K), and a few other elements account for most of the
remaining 4% of an organism's
weight.
Molecule is the union of two or more atoms.

Chemistry of life is special
based on carbon compounds (organic chemistry)
70% water
depends largely on chemical reactions in aqueous solution
enormously complex
Small carbon-containing molecules, most of the carbon atoms in cells are incorporated
into enormous polymeric molecules.
Macromolecules enable cells and organisms to grow and reproduce as well as to do all
the other things that are characteristic of life.
Atom
The smallest unit of an element, consisting of at least one proton and

(for all elements except hydrogen) one or more neutrons in a dense
central nucleus, surrounded by one or more shells of electrons.
In electrically neutral atoms, the number of protons equals the number
of electrons.
Atoms remain intact in chemical reactions except for the removal,
transfer, or exchange of certain electrons.

Covalent and Noncovalent Chemical Bonds

STRENGTH (kcal/mole)
BOND TYPE
LENGTH (nm)
IN VACUUM
IN WATER
Covalent
0.15
90
90
ionic
0.25
80
hydrogen
0.30
0.1
0.1
Noncovalent:
van der Waals 0.35

attraction
(per atom)
Hydrogen bond- a chemical bond formed between an electropositive atom (typically

hydrogen) and a strongly electronegative atom, such as oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen
bonds are responsible for the bonding of water molecules in liquid and solid states, and
are weaker than covalent and ionic bonds.
Comparison of covalent and ionic bonds. Atoms can attain a

more stable arrangement of electrons in their outermost
shell by interacting with one another. An ionic bond is
formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to
the other. A covalent bond is formed when electrons are
shared between atoms
Molecule: cluster of atoms held together by covalent bonds
van der Waals force-a weak force of attraction between electrically neutral
molecules that collide with or pass very close to each other. The attraction is much
weaker than a chemical bond.
Molecule
Making and breaking of covalent bonds are violent events and in
living cells they are catalyzed by enzymes.
Noncovalent bonds as a rule are much weaker; important in
situations where molecules have to associate and dissociate
readily to carry out their functions.
Polar covalent bonds are extremely important in biology because
they create permanent dipoles that allow molecules to interact
through electrical forces.
-a group of two or more atoms linked

together by sharing electrons in a
chemical bond.
-molecules are the fundamental
components of chemical compounds and
are the smallest part of a compound that
can participate in a chemical reaction.
Covalent
Noncovalent:
ionic
hydrogen
van der Waals
attraction
(per atom)
Four emergent properties of water

contribute to Earths fitness for life
Cohesion
Ability to moderate temperature
Expansion upon freezing
Versatility as a solvent
Hydrogen bond
-a chemical bond formed between an
electropositive atom (typically hydrogen)
and a strongly electronegative atom,
such as oxygen or nitrogen.
-are responsible for the bonding of water
molecules in liquid and solid states, and
are weaker than covalent and ionic
bonds.
Cohesion -the force of attraction that

holds molecules of a given substance
together.


Cohesion

Cohesion
Organic Molecules
The four main families of small organic

molecules in cells.
These small molecules form the monomeric
building blocks, or subunits, for most of the
macromolecules and other assemblies of the
cell. Some, like the sugars and the fatty acids,
are also energy sources.
Fatty acid
-is composed of a hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain to which is attached a hydrophilic
carboxylic acid group.
-Palmitic acid is shown here. Different fatty acids have different hydrocarbon tails. (A)
Structural formula. The carboxylic acid group is shown in its ionized form. (B) Ball-and-stick
model. (C) Space-filling model.
The reaction of two monosaccharides to form a disaccharide.

This reaction belongs to a general category of reactions termed
condensation reactions, in which two molecules join together as a result of
the loss of a water molecule. The reverse reaction (in which water is
added) is termed hydrolysis.
This common type of covalent bond between two sugar molecules is
known as a glycosidic bond
Phospholipid structure and the orientation of phospholipids in

membranes.
In an aqueous environment, the hydrophobic tails of
phospholipids pack together to exclude water. Here they have
formed a bilayer with the hydrophilic head of each
phospholipid facing the water.
Lipid bilayers are the basis for cell membranes.

A small part of a protein molecule.
*peptide bonds,
*N-terminus, terminates in an amino group, and the other, the C-terminus, in a
carboxyl group.
The 20 amino acids found in proteins. Both

three-letter and one-letter abbreviations are
listed. As shown, there are equal numbers of
polar and nonpolar side chains.
The regular conformation of the polypeptide backbone

observed in the helix and the sheet
The NH of every peptide bond is hydrogen-bonded to the
C=O of a neighboring peptide bond located four peptide
bonds away in the same chain
Three types of noncovalent bonds that help

proteins fold. Although a single one of these
bonds is quite weak, many of them often form
together to create a strong bonding
arrangement, as in the example shown. As in
the previous figure, R is used as a general
designation for an amino acid side chain.
A protein formed as a symmetric assembly of two different

subunits.
Hemoglobin is an abundant protein in red blood cells that
contains two copies of globin and two copies of globin.
Each of these four polypeptide chains contains a heme molecule
(red), which is the site where oxygen (O2) is bound. Thus, each
molecule of hemoglobin in the blood carries four molecules of
oxygen.
A small part of one chain of a

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule.

Three families of macromolecules. Each is a

polymer formed from small molecules (called
monomers, or subunits) linked together by
covalent bonds.
Figure 2-65. The synthesis of polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic

acids. Synthesis of each kind of biological polymer involves the loss of
water in a condensation reaction. Not shown is the consumption of
high-energy nucleoside triphosphates that is required to activate each
monomer prior to its addition. In contrast, the reverse reactionthe
breakdown of all three types of polymersoccurs by the simple
addition of water (hydrolysis).
Unifying Themes in Biology
1. THE CELL
1. THE CELL
2. HERITABLE INFORMATION
3. EMERGENT PROPERTIES
4. REGULATION
5. INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
6. ENERGY AND LIFE
7. UNITY AND DIVERSITY
8. EVOLUTION
9. STRUCTURE/FUNCTION
10. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
11. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
1. THE CELL
1. THE CELL

THE CELL THEORY

all organisms are composed of similar units of organization,
called cells
formally articulated in 1839 by Matthias Schleiden &
Theodor Schwann and has remained as the foundation of
modern biology
predates other great paradigms of biology including
Darwin's theory of evolution (1859), Mendel's laws of
inheritance (1865), and the establishment of comparative
biochemistry (1940)
The Cell Theory is to Biology as Atomic Theory is to Physics
THE MODERN TENETS OF CELL THEORY
FORMULATION OF THE CELL THEORY

In 1839, Theodor Schwann published his book on animal
and plant cells
He summarized his observations into three conclusions
about cells:
1) The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living
things.
2) The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in
the construction of organisms.
3) Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals
(spontaneous generation)
The correct interpretation of cell formation by division was

finally promoted by others and formally enunciated in
Rudolph Virchow's powerful dictum, "Omnis cellula e
cellula"... "All cells only arise from pre-existing cells".
1. All known living things are made up of cells.

2.The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
(Spontaneous Generation does not occur).
4. Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from
cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs
within cells.
Emergent property is a property which a collection or complex system has, but which the individual members do not have. For
example, the taste of saltiness is a property of salt, but that does not mean that it is also a property of sodium and chlorine, the two
elements which make up salt.
10

4. REGULATION
5. INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
6. ENERGY AND LIFE
11

Most classification schemes group organisms

into three domains:
Domain Eukarya
Domain Bacteria
Domain Archaea
Grouping Species: The Basic Idea

Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and
classifies species into a hierarchical order
Kingdoms and domains are the broadest units of
classification
Species Genus Family

Ursus
americanus
(American
black bear)
Ursus
Order
Class
Phylum Kingdom Domain
Ursidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
12

8. EVOLUTION
The evolutionary
view of life came
into focus in
1859 when
Charles Darwin
published The
Origin of Species
Natural Selection
Darwin was struck by the diversity of animals on the
Galpagos Islands
The Origin of Species articulated two

main points:
Descent with modification (the
view that contemporary species
arose from a succession of
ancestors)
Natural selection (a proposed
mechanism for descent with
modification)
Some examples of descent with
modification are unity and diversity in
the orchid family
Natural selection can

edit a populations
heritable variations
Population with varied inherited traits
He thought of adaptation to the environment and the

origin of new species as closely related processes
As populations separated by a geographic barrier
adapted to local environments, they became separate
species
Elimination of individuals with certain traits
Reproduction of survivors
Increasing frequency of traits that enhance

survival and reproductive success
Example of artificial selection in animals: dog

breeding
German shepherd
when humans choose organisms with specific characteristics as

breeding stock, they are performing the role of the environment
Artificial Selection
Yorkshire terrier
English springer
spaniel
Mini-dachshund
Golden retriever
Hundreds to
thousands of years
of breeding
(artificial selection)
Ancestral dog
13

9. STRUCTURE/FUNCTION
10. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
11. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
The goal of science is to understand natural

phenomena
Technology applies scientific knowledge for some
specific purpose
The Nature of Science

Deductive Reasoning
Scientific Method
The Nature of Science

Inductive Reasoning
Examining individual cases by applying accepted

general principles.
Discovering general principles through

examination of specific cases.
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Copyright McGraw-Hill Companies Permission
required for reproduction or display
14

Scientific Process
Observation - Careful observation of a process
or phenomenon
Hypothesis - Guess concerning the
observation
May generate multiple hypotheses.
Prediction - Expected consequences of a

correct hypothesis
Experiment - Test of a hypothesis
Theory and Certainty

Theory - set of hypotheses that have been
thoroughly tested over time, and generally
accepted by the scientific community
acceptance is always provisional
to the general public a theory is synonymous with a
guess due to lack of knowledge
Scientific Process
Experiment - Test of a hypothesis
Controlled Experiment - All factors influencing the
experiment (controls) must be kept constant.
Conclusion - Draw a conclusion from the

results
Reject or fail to reject hypothesis
Limitations of Science
Scientific study is limited to area that can be
observed and measured.
Cannot be used to address all questions.
Bound by practical limits
Temporal and spatial considerations
15

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Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell

Theory and Scientific Method

Biology is the study of life

This handout is for lecture use only and not

The Concept of Life

Characteristics of All Forms of Life

most contemporary biologists define life as a

All forms of life share common

Growth and development

5. Reproductionthe ability of organisms to

2. Energy processingthe use of chemical energy to

6. Growth and developmentconsistent growth and

3. Metabolism/Homeostasisan ability to control an

7. Evolutionary adaptation variation, change and

4. Response to the environment/Movementan

Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell

1. Organization and Order

1. Organization and Order

living things have a complex organization

1. Organization and Order

Regions of the Earths crust, water and

Community plus the physical environment

Interacting populations in a particular area

Organisms of the same species in a

Group of cells with common structure and

Composed of several organs functioning

Individual containing organ systems

Union of two or more atoms of the same or

Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell

2. Metabolism and Homeostasis

2. Metabolism and Homeostasis

organisms produce their own kind

5. Growth and Development

5. Growth and Development

heritable programs (DNA) direct pattern of

Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell

6. Irritability and movement

7. Variation, change, and evolution

capable of response to environmental stimulus

Irritability is a state of extreme sensitivity to stimulation of any kind.

7. Variation, change, and evolution

6. Variation, change, and evolution

6. Variation, change, and evolution

Response to the environment

Growth and development

Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell

The Chemistry of Life

The Chemistry of Life

25 of the 92 natural elements are known to be

Molecule is the union of two or more atoms.

The Chemistry of Life

The smallest unit of an element, consisting of at least one proton and

Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell

Covalent and Noncovalent Chemical Bonds

van der Waals 0.35

Hydrogen bond- a chemical bond formed between an electropositive atom (typically

Comparison of covalent and ionic bonds. Atoms can attain a

Molecule: cluster of atoms held together by covalent bonds

-a group of two or more atoms linked

Four emergent properties of water

Cohesion -the force of attraction that

Biology 11- Lecture 1- Concepts of Life, Cell

Four emergent properties of water

Four emergent properties of water