Electrical Measurement

By Mr. Krittapad Poonsawad

Content

Electrical measurement
Static characteristics of instruments
Error in Measurement
Calibration
Voltmeter
Ampmeter
Ohmmeter
Megger
Wattmeter
Induction and Capacitance Measurements
Oscilloscope
Power factor meter
frequency meter
HIPOT Test
Partial discharge testing
Surge Testing
Insulation Resistance Test and Polarization Index Test

Electrical measurements

Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations used

to measure electrical quantities.
Measurement of electrical quantities may be done to measure electrical
parameters of a system.
Using transducers, physical properties such as temperature, pressure, flow,
force, and many others can be converted into electrical signals, which can
then be conveniently measured and recorded.
High-precision laboratory measurements of electrical quantities are used in
experiments to determine fundamental physical properties such as the
charge of the electron or the speed of light, and in the definition of the units
for electrical measurements, with precision in some cases on the order of a
few parts per million.
Less precise measurements are required every day in industrial practice.
Electrical measurements are a branch of the science of metrology.

Electrical measurements
Measurable independent and semi-independent electrical quantities
comprise:

Voltage
Electric current
Electrical resistance and electrical conductance
Electrical reactance and susceptance
Magnetic flux
Electrical charge by the means of electrometer
Magnetic field by the means of Hall sensor
Electric field
Electrical power by the means of electricity meter
S-matrix by the means of network analyzer (electrical)
Electrical power spectrum by the means of spectrum analyzer

Electrical measurements
Measurable dependent electrical quantities comprise:
Inductance
Capacitance
Electrical impedance defined as vector sum of electrical resistance and electrical
reactance
Electrical admittance, the reciprocal of electrical impedance
Phase between current and voltage and related power factor
Electrical spectral density
Electrical phase noise
Electrical amplitude noise
Transconductance
Transimpedance
Electrical power gain
Voltage gain
Current gain
Frequency

Static characteristics of instruments

Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)

Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
Tolerance
Range or span
Linearity
Sensitivity of measurement

Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)

Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
Precision is a term that describes an instruments degree of freedom
from random errors.
If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a
high precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be
very small.

Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings

when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and
observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained
throughout.

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings

for the same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions
of use and time of measurement.

Comparison of accuracy and precision

Tolerance

Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines

the maximum error that is to be expected in some value.
One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value
1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere
between 950W and 1050 W.

Range or span

The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and

maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.

Linearity

It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is

linearly proportional to the quantity being measured.

Sensitivity of measurement

The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in

instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:

Example Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument

in ohms/C.

For a change in temperature of 30C, the change in resistance is 7.

Hence the measurement sensitivity D 7/30 D 0.233 /C.

Resolution

When an instrument is showing a particular output reading, there is

a lower limit on the magnitude of the change in the input measured
quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument
output.
Using a car speedometer as an example again, this has
subdivisions of typically 20 km/h. This means that when the needle
is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate speed more
accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h. This figure of 5 km/h thus
represents the resolution of the instrument.

Error in Measurement

This "error" is not the same as a "mistake." It does not mean that
you got the wrong answer. The error in measurement is a
mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement. It is
the difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of what you were measuring.
Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of
error, or by a ratio comparing the error to the size of the
measurement.

Sources of systematic error

System disturbance due to measurement

Errors due to environmental inputs
Wear in instrument components
Connecting leads

Absolute Error

The absolute error is the difference between the measured value

and the actual value.
For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004
m is an absolute error.
Absolute error is positive.

Relative Error

Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement

to the accepted measurement.
The relative error expresses the "relative size of the error" of the
measurement in relation to the measurement itself.

Percent of Error

Error in measurement may also be expressed as a percent of

error. The percent of error is found by multiplying the relative error
by 100%.

Calibration

Instrument calibration is a very important consideration in

measurement systems.
All instruments suffer drift in their characteristics, and the rate at
which this happens depends on many factors, such as the
environmental conditions in which instruments are used and the
frequency of their use.
Thus, errors due to instruments being out of calibration can usually
be rectified by increasing the frequency of recalibration.
Calibration procedures that relate in any way to measurements that
are used for quality control functions are controlled by the
international standard ISO 9000

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential
difference between two points in an electric circuit.

Voltmeter

Voltmeter

Voltmeter

Ac voltmeter

Voltmeter
How to use volt meter
1. Plug the probes into the meter. Red goes to the positive (+) and black to
2.

3.

4.
5.

6.

the negative (-).

Turn the selector dial or switch to the type of measurement you want. To
measure direct current - a battery, for example - use DCV. To measure
alternating current, such as a wall outlet, use ACV.
Choose the range setting. The dial may have options from 5 to 1000 on
the DCV side and 10 to 1000 on the ACV side. The setting should be the
top end of the voltage you are reading. Not all voltmeters have this
setting.
Turn the meter on.
Hold the probes by the insulated handles and touch the red probe to the
positive side of a DC circuit or either side of an AC circuit. Touch the other
side with the black probe.
Read the digital display or analog dial.

Ampmeter

An ampmeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current

in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A)

Ampmeter
How to Use an Amp Meter
1. Open the appliance to reveal the electrical wires; there should be
at least 2 wires, a positive (red) and a negative (black). There may
also be a ground wire, which is usually green.

Ampmeter
How to Use an Amp Meter
2. Switch the meter to either AC or DC depending on what you are
measuring.

3. Break the current connection (circuit) at the source by disconnecting the

wires from the circuit board. Make sure to note which is the positive terminal
and which is negative.

Ampmeter
How to Use an Amp Meter
4. Place your amp meter leads on the terminals at the source of the
current, being careful to again place the positive and negative leads
correctly if measuring a DC source.

5. Read the meter's current.

6.Lower the meter's range to get a good reading if the first reading is too
low.Use the lowest range necessary for a good reading to protect the meter.

Ampmeter
How to Use an Amp Meter
4. Place your amp meter leads on the terminals at the source of the
current, being careful to again place the positive and negative leads
correctly if measuring a DC source.

5. Read the meter's current.

6.Lower the meter's range to get a good reading if the first reading is too
low.Use the lowest range necessary for a good reading to protect the meter.

Ampmeter

Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring electrical resistance.
Unlike the ammeter or voltmeter, the ohmmeter circuit does not receive
the energy necessary for its operation from the circuit under test.
In the ohmmeter this energy is supplied by a self-contained source of
voltage, such as a battery.
An ohmmeter designed for measuring high values of resistance (i.e.
megohms) is called an insulation resistance tester (e.g. Megger).

Ohmmeter
How to use ohmmeter
1. Set your ohm meter to the lowest scale on the resistance setting.
Usually it will have (Greek letter omega) for resistance.
2. When testing a motor, touch the red ohm meter cable to the red motor
cable, and the black to the black. For complete instructions, see Motor
Electrical Test.
3. When testing a fuse, touch the end of each ohm meter cable to the
opposite ends of the fuse (Fig. 2).
4. When testing a straight-through controller cable (CC5, Fig. 3), touch
the red ohm meter cable to pin 1, the black to pin 1 at the other end,
then pin 2 to pin 2, etc.
5. The ohm meter LCD displays the reading.
6. A reading between 0 and 2 indicates continuitythe circuit is good.
7. If you read infinity () or OL (open line) the circuit is bad.

Megger
How to use megger
1. Switch off power to the circuits you are testing.
2. Prepare a table in which you can record the insulation values that
result from your tests.
3. Select 500 volts DC or 1000 volts DC as the test voltage on your
Megger, depending on the model you are using.
4. Place the positive and negative probes of the Megger on the two
conductors or terminals between which you are testing the
insulation resistance.
5. Energize the Megger for 1 minute. Read the value of the resistance
at the end of the minute test and note it in your table. Continue with
this testing procedure until you have values for all the spaces of your
table.
6. Examine the resistance values you have entered in your table. According to the
National Electrical Code, all values should be over 25 megohm. If one of the values
differs substantially from all the others, check your connections and repeat the tests. If
a value is below 25 megohm, check the circuit for the cause of the poor insulation
resistance value.

Wattmeters
A wattmeter is an instrument for measuring electrical power in a circuit.
Figure shows typical connections of a wattmeter used for measuring
power supplied to a load.
The instrument has two coils:
(i) a current coil, which is connected in series with the load, like an
ammeter, and
(ii) a voltage coil, which is connected in parallel with the load, like a
voltmeter

Wattmeters
How to use wattmeters
1.Plug your wattmeter into an electrical outlet.
2.Plug the appliance that you wish to measure into the wattmeter.
3.Read the display to determine the power rating of your appliance.
Many wattmeters also display other units, such as volts, amps and hertz,
so select the correct unit according the your wattmeter's instructions.
4.Leave your appliance plugged into the wattmeter while in use and read
the kilowatt-hours display to discover the total amount of power
consumed during the normal duration of use of that appliance.

Q meter(RLC meter)
Q meter is an instrument for measuring the Q factor of a coil and for
measuring inductance, capacitance and resistance of an electric
circuit at radio frequency[range of around 3 kHz to 300 GHz]
Q meter measures the Q of the electric circuit by determining
the ratio of inductance to resistance.

Introduction to Q meter
We know that every inductor coil has a certain amount of resistance
and the coil should have lowest possible resistance.
The ratio of inductive reactance to effective resistance of the coil is
called the quality factor or Q-factor of the coil.

Construction
Q meter consist of the following major element:

Variable-calibrated capacitor
Variable- frequency ac voltage source
DUT(Device under test) to be tested or measured

Q meter operation
First of all the oscillator is set to the desired frequency
Vr is maintained constant and the electronic voltmeter can be
calibrated to indicate the Q-factor directly. If a variable capacitor C is
used and the oscillator is set to a given frequency, then C can be
adjusted to give resonance. In this way inductance L may be
calculated using

Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for
testing circuits because it allows you to see the signals at different
points in the circuit.

Oscilloscope Setting up

For the Hameg HM 203-6

1.
all push button switches are in the OUT position
all slide switches are in the UP position
all rotating controls are CENTRED
the central TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV and the HOLD OFF
controls are in the calibrated, or CAL position

Oscilloscope Setting up
2. Set both VOLTS/DIV controls to 1 V/DIV and the TIME/DIV
control to 0.2 s/DIV, its slowest setting

Oscilloscope Setting up
3. Switch ON, red button, top centre

4. Find the Y-POS 1 control and adjust the trace so that it runs
horizontally across the centre of the screen.
5. Now investigate the INTENSITY and FOCUS controls:

Oscilloscope Setting up
6. The TIME/DIV control determines the horizontal scale of the
graph which appears on the oscilloscope screen.

7. The VOLTS/DIV controls determine the vertical scale of the

graph drawn on the oscilloscope screen.

Oscilloscope Setting up
8. A connection to the input of channel 1, CH 1, of the oscilloscope
can be made using a special connector called a BNC plug, as shown
below:

Oscilloscope Setting up
9. Adjust VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV until you obtain a clear picture of
the 2 V signal, which should look like this:

10. Check on the effect of Y-POS 1 and X-POS:

Oscilloscope Setting up
11. Connect a function generator and push button controls for On/Off
switching and for selecting either sine, square, or triangular wave
shapes.

Thandar TG101

Oscilloscope Setting up
12. Most often the 600 output is used. This can be connected to the
CH 1 input of the oscilloscope using a BNC-BNC lead, as follows:

Oscilloscope Setting up
13. The rotating FREQUENCY control and the RANGE switch are used
together to determine the frequency of the output signal.

Power factor meter

Power factor meter is an instrument for measuring power factor.

3 phase

1 phase

Power factor meter

Scale

Electric Frequency measurement

A frequency meter is an electronic instrument that displays the frequency

of a periodic electrical signal.

Electric Frequency measurement

How to use multimeter for measuring frequency
1.Turn on the power to the electrical circuit of need of
testing.
2. Turn on the clamp multimeter. Rotate the
multimeter's measurement selection dial to the AC
voltage setting, denoted by a capital letter "V" with
a wavy line atop it.
3. Twist knob to the "Hertz" position on the multimeter
to display the frequency of the AC circuit.
4.Connect the positive (red) lead of the clamp meter
to the positive terminal of the battery that is
powering the circuit. Connect the negative (black)
lead of the clamp meter to the negative terminal of
the battery. The clamp meter automatically
determines the best frequency range to make the
measurement. This is called auto-ranging.

HIPOT Test
Hipot Test is short name of high potential (high voltage) Test and it is
also known as Dielectric Withstand Test. A hipot test checks for good
isolation.
Hipot test makes surety of no current will flow from one point to
another point.
Importance of HIPOT Testing
The hipot test is a nondestructive and destructive test that determines
the adequacy of electrical insulation for the normally occurring over
voltage transient. This is a high-voltage test that is applied to all
devices for a specific time in order to ensure that the insulation is not
marginal.
As per IEC 60950, The Basic test Voltage for Hipot
test is the 2X (Operating Voltage) + 1000 V

Step for HIPOT Testing

1. Only electrically qualified workers may perform this testing.

2. Open circuit breakers or switches to isolate the circuit or Cable that will be
hi-pot tested.
3. Confirm that all equipment or Cable that is not to be tested is isolated from the
circuit under test.
4. The limited approach boundary for this hi-pot procedure at 1000 volts is 5 ft.
(1.53m) so place barriers around the terminations of cables and equipment
under test to prevent unqualified persons from crossing this boundary.
5. Connect the ground lead of the HIPOT Tester to a suitable building ground or
grounding electrode conductor. Attach the high voltage lead to one of the
isolated circuit phase conductors.
6. Switch on the HIPOT Tester. Set the meter to 1000 Volts or pre decide DC
Voltage.
7. Push the Test button on the meter and after one minute observe the
resistance reading.
8. Record the reading for reference.

Step for HIPOT Testing

9. At the end of the one minute test, switch the HIPOT Tester from the high
potential test mode to the voltage measuring mode to confirm that the circuit
phase conductor and voltage of HIPOT Tester are now reading zero volts.
10.Repeat this test procedure for all circuit phase conductors testing each phase
to ground and each phase to each phase.
11. When testing is completed disconnect the HIPOT Tester from the circuits under
test and confirm that the circuits are clear to be re-connected and
re-energized.
12. To PASS the unit or Cable under Test must be exposed to a minimum Stress of
pre decided Voltage for 1 minute without any Indication of Breakdown.
13. For Equipments with total area less than 0.1 m2, the insulation resistance shall
not be less than 400 M. For Equipment with total area larger than 0.1 m2 the
measured insulation resistance times the area of the module shall not be less
than 40 Mm2.

Time Duration for HIPOT Test

The test duration must be in accordance with the safety standard being used.
The test time for most standards, including products covered under IEC 60950,
is 1 minute.
A typical rule of thumb is 110 to 120% of 2U + 1000 V for 12 seconds.

Safety precautions during HIPOT Test

During a HIPOT Test, There may be at some risk so to minimize risk of injury from
electrical shock make sure HIPOT equipment follows these guidelines:
The total charge you can receive in a shock should not exceed 45 uC.
The total hipot energy should not exceed 350 mJ.
The total current should not exceed 5 mA peak (3.5 mA rms)
The fault current should not stay on longer than 10 mS.
If the tester doesnt meet these requirements then make sure it has a safety
interlock system that guarantees you cannot contact the cable while it is being
hipot tested.
For Cable:
Verify the correct operation of the safety circuits in the equipment every time
you calibrate it.
Dont touch the cable during hipot testing.
Allow the hipot testing to complete before removing the cable.
Wear insulating gloves.
Dont allow children to use the equipment.
If you have any electronic implants then dont use the equipment.

How often should the hipot tester be calibrated?

At least once a year, which is the minimum required by the regulatory agencies
such as UL. However, units that are in constant operation more than one shift per
day, five days per week should be calibrated every six months.
Note also
that ROD-L manufactures the ML11 and ML12 Test Load boxes for daily pre-shift
functional checks of the hipot and ground bond testers, as required by UL.

Hot Hipot Test

A Hot Hipot test is performed in the same fashion as a standard Hipot
test. The primary difference is the addition of 1 piece of equipment, an
isolation transformer
This transformer is used to isolate the input power to the DUT from
earth ground.
Without the use of this type of transformer, the chassis of the DUT,
which is usually grounded, would be directly connected to the return of
the Hipot tester (which is also referenced at or near ground potential).
The return of the Hipot tester usually sees current in the milliamp range;
however, without an isolation transformer the Hipot tester could be
exposed to several amps of line current flowing back through its return.
This could cause damage to the tester as well as create a possible
shock or fire hazard during a Hot Hipot test.

Hot Hipot Test Connection Diagram

Partial discharge testing

What is Partial Discharge (PD)?

Partial discharges are small electrical sparks that occur within the
insulation of medium and high voltage electrical assets. Each discrete
partial discharge is the result of an electrical breakdown of an air pocket
within the insulation. These discharges erode insulation and eventually
result in insulation failure.
Integrated Partial Discharge Solutions
Online Partial Discharge Testing
Permanently Mounted Sensors
Periodic Partial Discharge Testing
Continuous Online Monitoring
Ultrasonics
Offline Partial Discharge Testing
Tan-Delta
Very Low Frequency Testing (VLF)

Partial discharge testing

Surge Testing
The Surge Comparison tester checks the strength of ground insulation
that consists of enameled insulation.
It detects the insulation failures such as turn-to-turn shorts, layer-tolayer shorts, coil-to-coil shorts, winding-to-winding shorts, and phase-tophase shorts. Open circuit and ground detection are other benefits of
surge testing.
The Surge tester works as a capacitive-discharge system. A capacitor is
charged with high voltage and then discharged into the winding,
through a solid state assembly. This sequence is repeated thus
stressing the insulation of the winding with high voltage pulses.
The resulting voltage decay pattern of two winding is then displayed on
the CRT.

Surge Testing
The waveform pattern will be perfectly superimposed for good windings
but in case of a defective winding a double wave pattern will appear on
the screen as one wave pattern from the good winding plus the erratic
pattern from the faulty winding.
SURGE VOLTAGE = 2 (2E + 1000)
where E is the operating voltage

Insulation Resistance Test and Polarization Index Test

Insulation Resistance Test (IR Value Test) and Polarization Index

Test(PI Value Test) are conducted on HV machine to determine service
condition of the insulation. In HV machines and winding are likely to be
affected by moisture and contamination. IP test is conducted specially
to determine the dryness and cleanliness of winding insulation.
This test is generally done by means of megger.
when we take megger value of an insulator for 1 minute, the results
reflects, the IR value which is free from effect of capacitive component
of leakage current. Again when we take megger value of an insulator for
10 minutes, the megger result shows the 12 value, free from affects of
both capacitive component and polarization component of leakage
current.

Insulation Resistance Test and Polarization Index Test

Let I is the total initial current during polarization index test or PI test.
IC is the capacitive current.
IR is resistive or conductive current.
IS is surface leakage current.
IP is polarization current of the insulator.

IR value test, i.e. value megger reading just after 1 minute of the test, is-

Megger value of 10 minute test, is

Therefore, result of polarization index test, is

For good insulator resistive leakage current IL is very tiny.

It is always desired to have polarization index of an electrical insulator more than 2.
It is hazardous to have polarization index less than 1.5.

Insulation Resistance Test and Polarization Index Test

Let I is the total initial current during polarization index test or PI test.
IC is the capacitive current.
IR is resistive or conductive current.
IS is surface leakage current.
IP is polarization current of the insulator.

IR value test, i.e. value megger reading just after 1 minute of the test, is-

Megger value of 10 minute test, is

Therefore, result of polarization index test, is

For good insulator resistive leakage current IL is very tiny.

It is always desired to have polarization index of an electrical insulator more than 2.
It is hazardous to have polarization index less than 1.5.

Tan Delta Testing

For good insulator, this resistive component of leakage electric current is
quite low.
For good insulator ratio of tan would be quite low.

Method of Tan Delta Testing

The cable, winding, current transformer, potential transformer, transformer
bushing, on which tan delta test or dissipation factor test to be conducted,
is first isolated from the system. A very low frequency test voltage is
applied across the equipment whose insulation to be tested.
First the normal voltage is applied. If the value of tan delta appears good
enough, the applied voltage is raised to 1.5 to 2 times of normal voltage, of
the equipment. The tan delta controller unit takes measurement of tan
delta values. A loss angle analyser is connected with tan delta measuring
unit to compare the tan delta values at normal voltage and higher voltages,
and analyse the results.
During test it is essential to apply test voltage at very low frequency.

How to predict the Result of Tan Delta Testing

From the graph it is clear that, the tan&delta number non linearly increases
with increasing test very low frequency voltage. The increasing tan&delta,
means, high resistive electric current component, in the insulation. These
results can be compared with the results of previously tested insulators, to
take proper decision whether the equipment would be replaced or not.

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