Professional Documents
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Closed-Loop
Ground-Coupled
Heat Pump Systems
By Michel A. Bernier, Ph.D, Member ASHRAE
heat or recuperate building heat rejection that accumulated in the ground during
the cooling season. Furthermore, because of their relatively high coefficient of
performance (COP) in both heating and cooling they are, as noted by the U.S.
Department of Energy and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, among the
most energy-efficient and environment-friendly heating and cooling systems.
Finally, they emit less greenhouse gas than conventional HVAC systems given
the power generation mix found in most jurisdictions.
defined as the ratio of useful energy (either in cooling or heating) to the power input to the unit (used to run the compressor
and the fan). Note that the cooling COP is used here instead
of the usual EER values (cooling COP = EER/3.41) to make
a direct comparison between cooling and heating COP. Also,
note that pumping power usually is not included in the COP
values provided by manufacturers. Figure 2 presents values of
COP in heating and cooling for 10 commercially available 10.5
kW (3 ton) water-to-air extended range heat pumps. As shown
in Figure 2, heat pumps are not created equal and significant
differences exist among manufacturers. Also, some heat pumps
operate over a wider temperature range than others. It is also
important to note the strong dependency of the COP on the
inlet fluid temperature.
In cooling, the inlet fluid temperature should be as low as possible to reduce heat pump energy consumption. While in heating
mode the inlet fluid temperature should be as high as possible.
In other words, the temperature lift across the heat pump, i.e.,
the difference between the source and load temperatures (i.e.,
Tin,HP TLoad in Figure 1) should be minimized. One way to
minimize the lift is to increase the length of the ground heat
exchanger so that Tin,HP tends towards the undisturbed ground
temperature, Tg. However, oversized ground heat exchangers
are not economically feasible. So, the design engineer must
find the right compromise between the length of the ground
heat exchanger that will give an acceptable Tin,HP to reduce
heat pump energy consumption as much as possible. In some
cases, this may imply the use of a hybrid system to reduce peak
ground loads and the length of the ground heat exchanger.
Ground Heat Exchanger Length
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ASHRAE Journal
Tin,HP
To Other Boreholes
Grout
Borehole
Pipe
Tg
TW
AA
Tload
Optional
Supplementary
Heat Rejector (Hybrid
System)
Tout, HP
20F 40F
Cooling
COP
L=
COP
60F
80F
Heating
6
4
(TmTw) =
qhRb
L
a s h r a e . o r g
September 2006
10 000
100
4e + 5
150
2,000
4,000
6,000
Hour of the Year
8,000
North Dakota
20 000
2e + 5
d
b
Alberta
50
30 000
a
c
USA Avg.
Georgia
40 000
Qubec
Vermont
2e + 5
50
100
Canada Avg.
50 000
4e + 5
150
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Emissions, kg CO2 per MWh of Electricity Produced
be calculated with the worst conditions in cooling and in heating. The maximum of these two lengths is the required borehole
length. A number of commercially available software products
have implemented Equation 3 or an equivalent form. However,
Equation 3 has its limits, especially when hybrid systems are used.
September 2006
ASHRAE Journal
15
Ground Type
kground
Ground Thermal
Conductivity
W/mK
(Btu/hftF)
R20y
mK/W
(Ffth/Btu)
R1m
R6h
mK/W
mK/W
(Ffth/Btu) (Ffth/Btu)
Clay
1.2
0.36
0.287
0.14
(0.69)
(0.62)
(0.50)
(0.25)
Wet Shale
1.9
0.23
0.19
0.10
(1.1)
(0.40)
(0.32)
(0.18)
ASHRAE Journal
a s h r a e . o r g
September 2006
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Length Determination
Type of Heat Pump
(Low or High Efficiency)
Low
High
High
High
0.20 mK/W
0.20 mK/W
0.09 mK/W
0.09 mK/W
No
No
No
Yes1
147.5 kW
139.2 kW
139.2 kW
100.1 kW
21.4 kW
19.9 kW
19.9 kW
15.1 kW
Borefield Configuration
55
55
54
54
7.9 C
7.7 C
8.8 C
5.7 C
Temperature Difference
In Borehole (TmTw)
9.3 K
9.3 K
5.4 K
5.9 K
3165 m
2980 m
2280 m
1500 m
3.86
5.44
5.35
4.89
4.03
5.65
5.74
5.8
47 730 kWh
34 440 kWh
34 760 kWh
37 580 kWh
420 kWh
$103,812
$97,777
$82,190
$54,120
$36,000
$49,500
$49,500
$49,500
Heat Pumps
Fluid Cooler
Cost Analysis
Boreholes2
Heat
Pumps3
Fluid
Cooler4
TotalFirst Costs
First Year Energy Cost5
Present Value of 20 Years of
Operation6
$10,500
$139,812
$147,277
$131,690
$114,120
$3,820
$2,755
$2,780
$3,005
$50,904
$36,728
$37,068
$40,075
$190,716
$184,005
$168,758
$154,195
Table 3: Results for the example building for four design options.
conditions. The tower fan and pump require 3.38 kW (4.5 hp). As
shown in Table 4, the use of the fluid cooler reduces both the peak
ground load (down to 100.1 kW [3.4 105 Btu/h]) and the annual
thermal imbalance (down to 15.1 kW [5.2 104 Btu/h]).
Annual Energy Consumption
17
other three cases. Cases 2 and 3 have similar energy consumption while the hybrid system consumes about 10% more energy
than Cases 2 and 3. The fluid cooler of the hybrid system operates an average of 125 hours per year with an average annual
energy consumption of 420 kWh.
ASHRAE Journal
a s h r a e . o r g
September 2006
September 2006
References
1. Cane, et al. 1998. Operating Experiences with Commercial Ground-Source Heat
Pump Systems, Atlanta: ASHRAE.
2. Cane, D., Garnet, J.M. 2000. Update
on maintenance and service costs of commercial building ground-source heat pump
systems. ASHRAE Transactions 106(1):
399407.
3. Martin, M,A., Madgett, M.G., Hughes,
P.J. 2000. Comparing maintenance costs of
geothermal heat pump systems with other
HVAC systems: preventive maintenance actions and total maintenance costs. ASHRAE
Transactions 106(1):408423.
4. 2003 ASHRAE HandbookApplications, Chap. 32.
5. Kavanaugh, S.P., Rafferty, K. 1997.
Ground-Source Heat PumpsDesign of
Geothermal System for Commercial and
Institutional Buildings. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
6. Bernier, M. 2002. Uncertainty in the
design length calculation for vertical ground
heat exchangers. ASHRAE Transactions.
108(1):939944.
7. 1999. Impact of conductivity error
on design results. Outside the Loop: A
Newsletter for Geothermal Heat Pump Designers and Installers. 2(3). http://geoheat.
oit.edu/otl/otl02-03.pdf.
8. TESS. 2005 TESS Libraries Version
2.02, Reference Manuals (13 Volumes).
Thermal Energy Systems Specialists. http://
tess-inc.com.
9. SEL. 2005. TRNSYS 16A Transient
System Simulation Program Documentation Set (9 Volumes). Version 16.00.0038.
Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Madison, Wis.
http://sel.
me.wisc.edu/trnsys.
10. 2000. Grout thermal conductiv i t y b i g g e r i s n o t a lway s b e t t e r.
Outside the Loop: A Newsletter for Geothermal Heat Pump Designers and Installers. 3(2). http://geoheat.oit.edu/otl/
otl03-02.pdf.
11. Yavuzturk, C., Spitler, J.D. 2000.
Comparative study of operating and control strategies for hybrid ground-source
heat pump systems using a short time step
simulation model. ASHRAE Transactions
106(2):192209.
12. EIA. 2006. Annual Energy Outlook
2006 with Projection to 2030. http://www.
eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/economic.html.
13. Sand, J.R., Fischer, S.K., Baxter
V.D. 1999. Comparison of TEWI for
fluorocarbon alternative refrigerants and
technologies in residential heat pumps and
air-conditioners. ASHRAE Transactions
105(1):12091218.
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