Introduction

Some building classifications in building codes are

more likely and sometimes certain to accommodate
occupants which may be described as vulnerable.
Codes attempt to assign stringent requirements for
such occupancies.
Various other local fire regulations/guidelines may
specifically apply to occupancies housing vulnerable
occupants.

Using CFD to Examine the Smoke Reservoir Size Limitations

and Analyse the Parameters Affecting These Limitations
Mark McDaid
Olsson Fire & Risk, State Manager NSW
MSc (Fire), BSc (Fire), PGDip (Fire), Dip (Fire & Const), Cert (Const)
Chartered Engineer (CEng, MIEI), MAAC(NSW), MSFS, RPEQ(QLD), C10 BPB (NSW)

Overview of a Smoke Reservoir

History/Background of Smoke Reservoirs

Application of Smoke Reservoirs

Objectives of Smoke Reservoirs

Limitations of Smoke Reservoirs

International Guidelines

Previous Testing and Experimentation

Use of Zone/Field Modelling for Smoke Control Designs

Overview of Simulations examined

Validation of CFD Modelling Tools

Sensitivity Studies

Simulation Results

Conclusions

Used to contain and control smoke

in pre-determined space/volume.
Restrict smoke spread beyond
initial fire affected area
Means of Escape and Fire Fighting
Access
Property Damage Limitation

1963 Fire Research Technical Paper No. 7:

Investigations into the flow of hot gases in roof

venting

Small-scale experiments

Single-storey buildings

1964 Paper No. 10: Design of roof-venting systems

for single-storey buildings

Industrial applications being adopted into towncentre

developments and the studies in the 1970s
Heselden and Hinkley, Smoke Travel in Shopping
Malls Experiments (with Glasgow Fire Brigade) Fire
Research Note 832 BRE, 1970.

FPG 1 (1972): Fire prevention in towncentre

redevelopments, Fire Prevention Guide No. 1

BRE186 (1990): Design principles for smoke
ventilation in enclosed shopping centres
BRE258 (1993): Design approach for Smoke Control
in Atrium Buildings
CIBSE Guide E TM19 (1995): Relationships for smoke
control calculations
BRE368 (1999): smoke and heat exhaust Design
methodologies for ventilation

Reports/Publications

Theoretical analysis of
smoke movement
Examining the smoke
flow created by buoyancy
pressure differences

Parameters & Objectives

Many regulations are unduly restrictive in

that they are of a type that impose solutions
rather than objectives and are out of date in
relation to technological advances. There is a
danger that compliance takes precedence
over wider safety considerations
Cullen Report (Piper Alpha Disaster)

In the absence of experimental data, it is

suggested that cooling effects should be allowed
for using computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
where the area of the reservoir is greater than
2000m2, and/or the average layer temperature is
less than 10K above ambient when calculated by
neglecting cooling
.these limits need not apply to all buildings,
and detailed analysis may be undertaken to
demonstrate the actual limits for smoke cooling
CIBSE Guide E, TM19

Atria
Shopping Malls
Large Warehouses
Large Industrial Buildings
Terminals
Large Retail
Ceiling Heights >5m
Sprinklers?

Applicable?

Offices
Carparks(?)
Apartments
Hotels
Bars
Restaurants
Nightclubs

Ceiling Heights <5m

Not Applicable?

Terminal Buildings

Industrial Buildings

Atria
Warehouses
Shopping Malls

Statistics on deaths by building category or usage.

A fire in a large building is more likely to be discovered and
extinguished before involving the whole building, when
compared to a small (and predominantly cellularised) building.
The proportion of the building destroyed in a large building
would, therefore, be expected to be smaller than the proportion
destroyed in a small building.

In retail areas without sprinklers, approx. 60% of fires do not

grow beyond 1.0m2.

80% of reported fires confined to an area not exceeding 20m2 in

area.

PD 7974-7

Area

2000-2600m2
3000m2

Length

60m

Temperature
10-15deg C

Limitations

Prevent excessive Heat

Losses to surrounding
walls/ceiling

Psychological Effects on
Travel below smoke layer

Prevent loss of buoyancy

Tenability Criteria

Effects

200oC

2.5m

2.5kW/m2

2000-2600
(3000)

60m

30m

10-15oC

NFPA92 -a clear layer height of at least 1.85m above the highest walkway open to
the atrium for a period of 1.5 times the calculated egress time, or 20 minutes
whichever is greater.

NFPA88A -no point in a basement carpark should be more than 61m (200 ft.)
from a vent, i.e. separation distance of 122m apart.

The BCA certain compartments exceeding 2000m2, automatic smoke exhaust

systems shall be employed.

Tenable conditions at least 2m above the floor level and smoke reservoirs be limited in size
to 2000m2 and 60m in length (for walkways and malls).

The Singapore Fire Code -compartment exceeding 5000m2, with the same
buoyancy and hot layer tenability criteria.

TGD-B (Ireland) - large undivided and windowless spaces such as warehouses,

industrial buildings, or shops, exceeding 4,000m2 or volume exceeds 20,000m3.

IBC - Where ESFR sprinklers are employed to a Frozen Food Storage Warehouse,
there is no requirement for Draft curtains.

Glasgow Fire Brigade Tunnel Tests

VESDA Systems

Atria in Spain, China, etc

CFD Studies in Australia, Hong Kong.

Hot Smoke Tests in Hong Kong, Brussels, Australia, China.

Hanger Studies in Hawaii & Keflavik

NIST, UL & FM Studies on Draft Curtains & Sprinklers

+ 2 no. Validations Simulations

+ 9 no. Sensitivity Studies

Experimental Results

0.2m Grid Size Results

0.4m Grid Size Results

Positioning of devices

Grid size and device

location default

% Error including grid

dependant device locations

Scope

Graphical Results

> Effect of Grid Resolution

> Effect of Fire Size

> Size Geometry

Run 61, 1000m2, 2.5MW,

32m x 32m x 10m

Run 13, 1000m2, 1MW,

32m x 32m x 10m

Run 01, 4000m2, 10MW,

32m x 32m x 5m

Smoke Detection

Slice Files

Layer Height

To activate vents

At 2.5m above floor

Under ceiling
at mid-point between fire and
boundary walls (long and
short)
Centreline of domain
Along outer perimeters

Long and short

Approx 0.5-1m from wall

Thermocouples

Sited along centreline

Spaced at 10m intervals
At 2.5m and under ceiling

Numerical Input

Graphical Results

Temperatures at 2.5m level

Temperatures at under ceiling level
Average Temperatures between two points

Aspect Ratios

1:1, 1:2 and 1:4

Devices adjusted to
accommodate change in
domain shape
Temperatures along each
thermocouple interval shows
no appreciable effect with
change in aspect ratio

Fire Size
Ceiling Height

Fire Size
Ceiling Jet formation and energy
Ceiling Height
Entrainment
Location of Fire
At long or short side of domain
Type of Ventilation
No. of vents and effect of plugholing

180m

32m

Wide Spill Plume at Opening

Ceiling Jet Formation

Descent at outermost
boundary regions

Stabilisation of smoke layer

125m

15m

Initial disturbance of air in front of ceiling jet by incoming mechanical inlet ventilation.

Ceiling jet eventually overcomes inlet flows and forces smoke across upper region of ceiling and
mechanical inlet air to flow in the lower regions. Fires examined were very large (20MW and 60MW
with fast and ultrafast fire growth rates)

This pushing of the upper layer and resulting lower inlet air causes a more defined interface of
upper and lower layers, which could assist the buoyancy of the smoke layer in a reservoir

Concern would arise in smaller compartments, especially those with smaller fires with a slowmoderate fire growth rate.

Tilt in smoke plume

Cooler temperatures
below vents

Hotter temperatures
below ceiling with no
vents

No appreciable effect
on layer height

No appreciable effect
on reservoir

Normal SHEVs Calcs

Adjusted SHEVs Calcs

Heat Transfer Coefficients

Effect of Reservoir Area

(i.e. surface area in
contact with smoke layer)
Only marginal difference
in temperatures,
increasing slighting with
reservoir size

Majority of simulations resulted in smoke layer height lower than

SHEVs design

Effects of Aspect Ratio

Measurement of Smoke Layer Height in FDS

Temperatures
<200oC

Downward Radiation from Hot Upper Layer

2.5kW/m2

Visibility
10m

Thermocouple readings
At 2.5m and under ceiling
each 10m interval

15deg C above ambient

temperature of 15oC.
Does this actually mean
buoyancy?

Effect of Aspect Ratio

Effect of Fire Size

Impact of total Simulation

Time (Steady State
formation)

Final Reservoir Size dependant on full design

team and stakeholder agreement on elements
such as:
Availability of Inlet Air;
Possible extended smoke damage to fabric;
Possible smoke/fire damage to property over
extended area;
Requirements during MOE Phase (ASET/RSET) v FB
Access, Search & Rescue Phase (FBIM)
Type and Occupancy of Building
Actual Physical geometry (including possible
stagnant zones)

Notional Reservoirs?

Jet Fan design technology

Similar to carpark zoned smoke clearance systems
The impulse fans are carefully positioned to direct the air flow towards the

main extract fan intake pointsproviding smoke-free zones within the car
park.
Large car parks are likely to be separated into zones (usually not more
than 2000 m2), each fitted with at least two impulse fans. Activation of a
fire alarm within a specified zone will activate the fans, so that smoke is
directed in a controlled manner towards the extract pointshould allow
the Fire Service access to a point within 10m of the fire base and keep all
other zones clear of smoke.
CIBSE Guide E, BS 7346-7

Parameters that DO affect the formation,

development and stability of reservoir, or require
consideration in design of smoke control:
Fire Size

Growth Rate;
Perimeter;
Area;

Area (dependant on fire size);

Height (dependant on fire size and presence of spill plume);
Aspect Ratio (slightly, but ASET/RSET considerations);
Clear Layer Height (ground or upper floors);
Fire Location;
Wind??
Boundary Materials??

Thank You, Questions?

MARK MCDAID | STATE MANAGER NSW
mark@olssonfire.com.au | + 61 (0) 499 773 150 | www.olssonfire.com.au

Master of Science Degree (Fire)

Bachelor of Science Degree (Fire)
Post Graduate Diploma (Fire)
Diploma (Fire & Construction)
Certificate (Construction)

Chartered Engineer (CEng)

Member Institute of Engineers Ireland
Member of Association of Accredited Certifiers (NSW)
Member of the Society of Fire Safety
Registered Professional Engineer of Queensland (QLD)
Building Professionals Board Accredited Fire Safety Engineer C10 (NSW)