LECTURE NO: 11

TOPIC: CIVIC SURVEY

1. INTRODUCTION:
There are variety of survey & mapping techniques to be learned by a civil engineer.
Though; some of these survey and mapping techniques are already known to a civil
engineer. However it is necessary to understand how different authors explained these
techniques, because the survey & mapping techniques are always subject to refinement
during the course of development & planning. Therefore let us look at different authors
how they perceived the issue of survey & mapping.
2. DESCRIPTION OF SURVEYS BY JOHN RATCLIFFE:
At first let us discuss what Mr. John RatCliffe, defined about survey preparation &
techniques of analysis in his book An Introduction to Town & country planning. He
says that; In order understand the society, for which planning is to be done, to identify
the nexus of needs & problems, to have comprehensive understanding of city elements &
their effect upon each other, to formulate policies & choose between them or adjust them
in practice; a town planner must be equipped with variety of tools & techniques. Because
the planning is based upon knowledge; the knowledge depends upon information &
information depends upon survey. Now the survey of many components from the built
and natural environment is the main concern in this respect. Here the big question is
that, what are those many components for which the survey is required? According to Mr.
RatCliffe; at first we survey about physical characteristics, then utilities, then population,
then employment, then housing, then shopping, then education, then leisure & recreation,
then movement & management, & finally for evaluation. In this way he defined eleven
types of surveys. Now the big question is that, what are the available sources of
information to carry out these surveys? Ideally the first hand information should be
collected by specifically designed survey forms related to specific problems in a precise
time. However due to ever existing constraints of time & money this is not always
possible.
So what do we do in such situation?
In that case the researchers, the student concerned with thesis or project work are usually
compelled to depend on existing sources of information. The existing sources of
information are mostly, published statistics by the government institutions. There are also
other information database such as individual researches & surveys carried out by some
non governmental institutions. Now the information sources are various, such as each
state department & ministry has the facts & figures. Then there is census of population,
housing statistics. The department of trade & industry will have census of distribution &
census of production.
Then there are different library sources, currently there is internet. Then there are
professional journals & researches, business & economic reviews. Then there are
different resource centers available such as Urban Resource Center (URC) in Karachi.

Finally there are some international institutions which keep the records and statistics of
major countries and their urban centers. These include United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), World Band for Development, Asian Development Bank & other
United Nation institutions.
2. DESCRIPTION OF SURVEYS, BY G.K. HIRASKAR:
Mr. G K Hiraskar defined in his book Town planning that; Survey means collection of
data & information through site visit & personal observations. Similarly there is a
principle developed by Sir Patrick Geddes (one of the pioneer of modern town planning)
that always survey before plan. The survey leads us to information or knowledge which
is used by all planners to prepare a mind map of the region before drawing a plan of
town. The collected data & information through survey is analyzed & presented in the
form maps, charts, tables & models. At present there emerged digital maps, aerial
photography & computerized models of surveys which have enhanced the understanding
of planners with accurate information of the site. However there are certain ground
realities which can only be understood through personal site visit by the planners. This
survey of site before planning is also known as diagnosis before the treatment or
diagnosis approach of planners that lead them to make correct decisions about the city.
Types of Survey:
Mr. G. K. Hiraskar also classified surveys in four broad types.
i) Towner city survey
ii) Regional survey
iii) National survey
iv) Civic survey
Town Surveys:
These surveys are conducted to prepare a base map for the Town planning scheme.
Basically these surveys are of three types; i.e.
i) Physical survey
ii) Social survey and
iii) Economic survey
Physical survey:
These are conducted in two ways i.e. through land survey and aerial survey. In physical
survey four types of information or data are collected.
i) Natural Features survey i.e. location in respect to existing towns & region, topography
& soil conditions, climatology etc.
ii) Land Use survey i.e. use of land for residential, commercial, or social purposes, public
& semi public spaces, open spaces, transportation networks, agriculture, water elements,
vacant lands & other uses.
iii) Building Conditions survey i.e. buildings are in very good, good, poor, or in bad
condition?
iv) Communications survey i.e. highways, roads and its network & railway junctions and
its network, availability of parking facilities in the city, origin & destination (O&D)
survey, accidents survey; and future trends of traffic surveys etc.

Social survey:
These are of three kinds, i.e. I) Population II) Housing and III) Community Facilities
i) Population: Trends in population growth for last 50 years, present population
characteristics, future population growth by considering survival, urban Migration &
development of new industries. Demographic survey i.e. classification of population &
town density.
ii) Housing: Housing stock, per annum need, current housing conditions, accommodation
density, building height, material use & tenancy status, rented or owned.
iii) Community facilities: Education, health & recreation
Economic survey:
Occupational conditions, survey of industries, survey of commerce, financial position of
local authorities, utility services.
Regional survey:
The larger scale surveys carried out in different town & villages to obtain general
information about their physical, economic & social conditions is termed as regional
survey. These regional investigations are carried out to develop whole region in a
coherent manner. These include regional transport, highways & regional water supply
system.
National survey:
This survey is conducted at national level which includes different regions. This survey is
conducted to obtain information about, natural resources, potential for locating industries,
fixing railways alignment, hydroelectric works etc.
Civic survey or Socio-Economic survey:
This is local level small scale survey conducted for redevelopment scheme, slum
improvement scheme and master plan development. The socio-economic survey is the
foundation stone of planning structure. Because it is the detailed house to house survey
which helps a town planner to diagnose the core problems & issues to develop its
remedies through planning. There are eleven types of aspect covered in socio-economic
survey.
i) Physical Features:
ii) Communication:
iii) Traffic Problems:
iv) Open Spaces:
v) Industrial Survey:
vi) Housing Survey:
vii) Population:
viii) Health Conditions:
ix) Landscape Survey:
x) Land-cultivation:
xi) Public Services:

The socioeconomic survey is the key survey and foundation stone of Town Planning, in
which a Town is divided into union councils or wards & blocks, and then each block
further subdivided into streets and each street has number of houses. This survey is
conducted through a survey Performa or questionnaire. The sample Performa for
socioeconomic survey is as follows:
THE SAMPLE PERFORMA FOR SOCIOECONOMIC SURVEY
i) Surveyors name: ____________
ii) Supervisors name:___________
iii) Ward number: _____________
iv) Block number: _____________
v) Street number: ____________
vi) Unit number: _____________
vii) Date of survey: ___________
There are five issues addressed in a socio-economic survey:
i) Housing condition:
House Number: _____________
Address: __________________
House Conditions:
Poor _________
Good _________
Very Good _____
Number of Floors: ___________
Age of house: _______________
Plot area: __________________
Tenancy Status:
Rented ______
Owned ______
Rent per month ________
ii) Family Structure:
Total family members: __ Male __ Female __
Literacy of Male & Female: _____________
Marital status: ______________________
School going children __________
College going children __________
Age groups:
5 & below____
5-10 _______
10-25 ______
25-50 ______
50 & above ___

iii) Economic characteristics:

Total number of Earning Members _____
Occupations _______________
Monthly Income_____________
Expenditure ________________
Savings ___________________
Mode of Transport ___________
iv) Community Facilities:
Nurseries ______
Primary Schools _______
Secondary Schools _______
College ______
Shopping Center _________
Park and Open Space _________
Club Theaters _________
Religious Building _________
Post Office _________
Police Station _________
Dispensary ___________
Clinic ___________
Hospital _________
Any Other _________
(In each category find out the Distance from Residence)
v) Utility Services:
Water Supply _____
Electricity _____
Gas _____
Telephone _____
Water Closet ______
(In each category find out the type of connection as Legal, Illegal, Private, Public etc)
Remarks: ____________________
___________________________
POSTED BY TOWN PLANNING AT 5:52 AM NO COMMENTS:
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 20, 2009
LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS
AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B)
By
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor

Department of Architecture and Planning

NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi
LECTURE NO. 10
TOPIC: LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Introduction:
In order to comprehend the legal and administrative problems in town planning at first it
is important to understand the terms Legal and Administrative. The term legal mean
established by or founded upon law or official or accepted rules[1]. Thus; legal
problems in town planning must be either related to law or official accepted rules of town
planning. Here the question arises that in what context the legal problems may be
addressed? Because legal problems in town planning; may vary in each context and urban
setting. Similarly the term administrative mean of or relating to or responsible for
administration[2]. Therefore; administrative problems in town planning must be related
to administration of a town. Now; in order to understand the legal and administrative
problems in town planning one must have a thorough understanding about the Law and
Administration of a town. On the other hand the knowledge about urban problems may
also be the way to learn legal and administrative problems in an urban context.
What is a Law?
Law is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics,
economics and society in numerous ways and serves as the foremost social mediator in
relations between people. Law governs a wide variety of social activities. All legal
systems deal with similar issues and behaviors, but each country categorizes and
identifies its legal standards and principals in different ways. A common distinction is
that between "public law" (a term related closely to the state, and including constitutional,
administrative and criminal law), and "private law" (which covers contract and property).
In civil law systems, contract fall under a general law of obligations, while trusts law is
dealt with international conventions. Law spreads far beyond the core subjects into
virtually every area of life. Three categories are of importance here i.e. Law and society,
Law and commerce, Law and regulation. Law and society include Labour law, Civil
rights and Human rights law, Immigration and nationality law, Social security law and
Family law. Law and commerce include Commercial law, Admiralty law and the Law of
the Sea, Company law and Intellectual property law. Law and regulation include Tax law,
Banking law, Competition law, Consumer law and Environmental law. Regulation deals
with the provision of public services and utilities. Especially since privatisation became
popular private companies doing the jobs previously controlled by government; energy,
gas telecomm and water are regulated industries.[3]
What is an Administration?
The term administration, as used in the context of government, differs according to
jurisdiction.[4] In business, administration consists of the performance or management of
business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions.

Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and

resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.[5]
What is Public Administration?
Public administration can be broadly described as the development, implementation and
study of branches of government policy. The pursuit of the public good by enhancing
civil society and social justice is the ultimate goal of the field.[6]
What are Urban Problems? [7]
Urban problems remain similar worldwide. The United Nations Development Programme
announced on 28 July 1997 that unemployment remains the world's number one urban
problem, according to a survey of mayors of cities from around the world.
The purposes of the survey was to identify issues and severity of urban problems, to
identify areas where cities are experiencing some successes, and to establish a baseline
for future more systematized surveys to help the United Nations better understand trends,
needs and opportunities.
More than half of the world's population now lives in cities and towns rather than in rural
areas. Urban problems and their solutions, therefore, now on top the world's agenda.
The UNDP survey of 14 categories of problems and the percentages of mayors
identifying them as "severe" are as follows:
Unemployment-----------------------------52.0%
Insufficient solid waste disposal -------------42.0%
Urban poverty------------------------------41.6%
Inadequate housing stock-------------------33.8%
Insufficient solid waste collection------------30.9%
Inadequate water/sanitation facilities-------28.4%
Inadequate public transportation------------26.2%
Traffic congestion----------------------------22.3%
Poor health services--------------------------21.5%
Insufficient civil society participation----------20.9%
Inadequate education services----------------18.9%
Air pollution----------------------------------17.4%
Urban violence/crime/personal safety--------13.5%
Discrimination (women. ethnic, poor)---------6.8%
Significantly, 70 percent of the responding mayors who rank unemployment a severe
problem also rank urban poverty as severe. All problems stem from poverty. Thus,
development programmes should be financed to lessen unemployment and hence to urge
people to work a bit harder. The education sector should be highlighted to make people
understand problems related to modernisation and everything related to illiteracy. Urban
problems stem from rural-to-urban migration. The best way to work with the large

number of new comers is to have them share the burden of leadership by taking part in
providing services.
United States:
Although, worldwide, urban violence/crime/personal safety is not ranked high among the
survey's 14 categories of problems, crime is ranked severe by mayors in the United
States. They say "Our biggest challenge is fighting the crime that has been caused as a
result of illegal drug trafficking. Our efforts to strengthen the police department and
involve neighborhoods and citizens in addressing their local problems have helped make
a real difference in safety levels and decision-making processes. Success in addressing
jobs, tax base growth, and road improvement and partnerships, has helped to improve the
economic future of community and the quality of life of each resident." On the other
hand, Canada's Mayer considers unemployment and air pollution as his city's severe
problems and describes "Urban success in the new millennium will hinge on providing
cities with the legislative and fiscal capacity to deal with the challenges they are facing.
Cities need to forge new partnerships with senior governments to address population
growth and employment, the provision of hard infrastructure and social services, and
appropriate governance structures." The diversity of major problems identified among
North American cities is further illustrated by the mayors of Mexico who rates traffic
congestion and inadequate housing as his city's most severe problems, attributable to
rural-to-urban migration, whereas insufficient solid waste disposal as that city's most
severe problem.
Latin America
Illustrative of the prominence of unemployment as a severe problem in Latin America is
the response of the mayor of Leon, Nicaragua. According to Leon's mayor, "Currently the
municipality is facing a truly economic crisis where more than 23% of the population is
experiencing extreme poverty and more than 70% of the economically active population
is unemployed -- implying a clear tendency for the deterioration of health and education
as well as an increase in illiteracy." Similarly, unemployment is reported to be the most
severe problem of Argentina's and Ecuador's cities. Besides unemployment, the most
serious problems reported for Cordoba, Argentina are traffic congestion and air pollution.
Europe
A few European mayors consider unemployment a severe problem. Traffic congestion is
also cited as a serious problem. Few European cities mark urban poverty as a problem.
However, Europe's cities appear to be experiencing problems related to modernization
and technology. They write: "We are transforming a typical fordist town into a modern,
European town. That is a slow and difficult long-term process that needs time and the
participation of the whole city system. The risk of such urban transformation is to forget
large parts of the population. We do not want that -- we are working to bring together
development and solidarity. Relating technological to environmental concerns, Cologne's
Mayor writes: "The success in establishing modern technology enterprises (e.g. media,
bio- and genetic technology, environmental technologies) shows that there is a possibility
for economic progress without interfering with environmental interests, for reconciling
economy and ecology."

Africa
Many African mayors note the interrelatedness of unemployment and poverty, rural-tourban migration, and the consequent negative impact on services. "The most serious
problems in our city are interrelated; urban unemployment causes poverty, and because of
such poverty, people are not capable of paying for services such as health and education."
Similarly, Mayor of Uganda cites "the collapse of industries" as causing "urban poverty
arising from unemployment." Also, the mayor of Zimbabwe laments the "low levels of
industrial development leading to unemployment and poverty." Mayor of Nairobi Kenya
comments: "Due to population influx into the city, adequate provision of services -- such
as housing, schools, medical, water, sewerage, roads, etc. -- is a nightmare." Some
African mayors link unemployment to problems related to idle youth. Thus, Mayor of
Bobo-Dioulasso writes: "Bobo-Dioulasso was a cleaner town in the past. Young men of
Bobo-Dioulasso spend most of their time drinking tea. They don't want to work." Mayor
of Banjuk Gambia adds: "Problems of drug use and rural-urban migration among our
youth have increased considerably as a result of the persistent drought and
unemployment, consequently causing enormous strain on the already stretched resources
of the city." The city of Dakar Senegal, is undertaking a program to employ youth to
improve the city. Thus, Mayor claims: "In the face of the distressing sight which is
sometimes found in the city, Operation 'Be clean and make clean' has enabled the
municipality to put to work all the young people, grouped in association to clean up the
city of Dakar. Other than the creation of employment, this experience has the benefit of:
developing a sense of citizenship, enabling participation in the management of the city,
and fighting against exclusion and poverty."
Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East
The mayors of both Damascus Syria and Nicosia Cyprus rank inadequate public
transportation as their most serious problem. Damascus Mayor cites "all kinds of
pollution" as a major problem. Nicosia's mayor adds that "Nicosia remains the only
divided city in the world." The mayor of Turkey's fifth largest city, Bursa comments that
its most serious problems (housing, infrastructure, employment, etc.) derive from
immigration from eastern Anatolia, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia, and Albania. The
mayors of both Rafah and Gaza in Palestine claim that the lack of infrastructure is their
most serious problem, especially inadequate water/sanitation facilities and sewage
systems. Gaza's mayor also emphasizes inadequate housing, whereas Rafah's mayor
emphasizes not enough paved roads, as other serious problems.
Asia and Pacific
The city of Wuhan China has given high priority to solid waste collection and disposal as
city's most severe problems. Same is the case of the cities of Baroda and Guntur in India,
Nagoya of Japan, Kathmandu of Nepal, and Suva of Fiji. Suva's Mayor explains: "The
Fiji land tenure system has made it very difficult for our finding an alternative site for our
solid waste disposal." Mayor of Kawasaki Japan cites an "aging society and declining
birth rate" as that city's most serious problem. "The sudden arrival of the aging society is
a serious problem facing the whole of Japan," he comments. "It is predicted that
Kawasaki's population over 65 years will double by the year 2010." Accordingly, "we

must concentrate on building facilities providing care for the elderly, and find sources of
workers." Likewise, Nagoya's Mayor Lists as City's number one problem as "Preparation
of a care system for a rapidly aging society." Mayor of Pusan Korea claims that traffic
congestion and clean water are his city's most serious problems. The mayor of
Kathmandu Nepal, also cite water supply as their most serious problems and explains:
"The demand for drinking water has been increasing due to the increased population and
rapid urban growth. At present, the total water supply per day from ground and surface
systems in the valley is limited to 60 million litres per day whereas the demand is 114
million litres per day."
KARACHI[8]
The Karachi Development Authority has categorized the critical problems of Karachi as:
Poor environmental conditions in slums and Katchi Abadis;
An abnormal increase in population leading to quick urbanization;
Health hazards owing to lack of proper water supply, sewerage, and storm water
drainage;
Pollution owing to industrial wastes;
A defective transport system and consequent vehicle-created air pollution;
The destruction of historical heritage and green areas;
A haphazard location of some industries;
A disparity in densities of different areas in the city;
Congestion of roads and the downtown area causing, noise and pollution;
A defective refuse collection and disposal system;
Pollution in coastal waters causing harm to marine life; and
Pollution caused by light and electronics.
Other issues may also be added, such as a disregard for architectural heritage, faceless
blocks of commercial and residential buildings, and the conversion of amenity plots into
speculative housing. Urban planning and development in Karachi suffer from many
problems, some of which are listed below.
A lack of evaluation of previous planning attemptsPlanning initiatives often start anew
without adequately evaluating possible merits of past plans.
The incapability of the planning authorities to execute the planPlanning in Karachi has
been under the auspices of Karachi Development Authority (KDA), which does not
possess any legal or administrative control on the nineteen other land development
agencies of the city. Thus the capacity of Karachi Development Authority to execute the
plans has been constrained.
The absence of political mandate for the planning processPlanning processes have
usually been under the direction of the donors or UN agencies, without enjoying the
political mandate necessary for keeping open the possibility of ad hoc adjustments.
Technical shortcomings in the planning processAssumptions used in planning have
often been drawn from inadequate sample surveys and obsolete physical data. Even
today, Karachi does not have a comprehensive mapping base usually required for all
kinds of planning and development exercises. Adding to the lack of information is the
fact that data gathered by the Defense institutions are not accessible by the public.

The planning authority is usually not the financing agency of the exercisethis fact has
made it nearly impossible for planning agencies to execute the various components
according to the outlined framework.
Conclusion:
Karachi is in chaos, but it is inhabited not only by the prophets of doom and the
merchants of gloom. There are those who care, who haveeven if only in their own
small wayachieved results that need appraisal, evaluation, and even propagation. Hope
for the future lies in these informal efforts. In this city globally known for continued strife
and turmoil, the informal sector has indeed managed to keep it alive and thriving. Even
with its ever-increasing population and heterogeneous mix, the city has shown great
resilience and strength to not only survive but to actually evolve its own alternate culture.
Without informal initiatives, this would have been impossible to achieve.
References:
[1] http://www.google.com.pk/search?hl=en&q=define%3A+legal&meta=
[2] http://www.google.com.pk/search?hl=en&q=define%3Aadministrative&meta=
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law (must read)
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(government)
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(business)
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_administration
[7] http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/icg97/SURVEY.HTM
[8] http://www.megacitiesproject.org/network_karachi.asp
POSTED BY TOWN PLANNING AT 5:42 AM NO COMMENTS:
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 13, 2009
ECONOMIC RESOURCES
AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B)
By
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi

LECTURE NO. 09
TOPIC: ECONOMIC RESOURCES
Introduction:
The phrase Economic Resources means the natural, human and capital resources that
are used to produce goods and services. It is also called factors of production.[1] In

economics, factors of production (or productive inputs) are the resources employed to
produce goods and services.[2] They are generally land, labor, and capital; the three
groups of resources that are used to make all goods and services.[3]
The definition of economic resources as mentioned above clearly spell out that the theme
economic resources is directly related to production of goods and services. In relation to
production three questions are very important. What to produce? How to produce? For
whom to produce? In addition it is also important to understand that why goods and
resources are related to town planning and how land labour and capital are the significant
elements of town planning? Whereas; it may need a further explanation regarding
economics as well as urban economics so as to understand the details about economic
resources, and its significance in Town Planning. Lets try to answer all these questions in
the following:
Natural, Human and Capital resources:
Materials or energy from the environment used for human needs are natural resources.[4]
Human resources; is a term with which many organizations describe the combination of
traditionally administrative personnel functions with performance, Employee Relations
and resource planning.[5] It is the collective capabilities, experiences, potential and
commitment of the organizations board, management team, staff, and volunteers.[6] The
objective of human resources is to maximize the return on investment from the
organization's human capital and minimize financial risk. Capital resources are the things
produced and used to produce other goods and services.[7]
Goods and Services:
In economics, economic output is divided into physical goods and intangible services.
Consumption of goods and services is assumed to produce utility. We satisfy our needs
and wants by buying goods and services. Goods are items you can see and touch, such as
a book, a pen, a folder etc. Services are provided for you by other people, such as; doctor,
dentist, haircut and eating out at restaurants.[8] Or in other words, things that are
produced by a country's economy examples of goods include food; clothing, machines,
and new roads, examples of services include those of doctors, teachers, merchants, tourist
agents, construction workers, and government officials.[9]
What is Economics?
Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption
of goods and services. Economics aims to explain how economies work and how
economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business
and finance but also in crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion, social
institutions, war, science and research. Microeconomics looks at interactions through
individual markets, given scarcity and government regulation. The theory considers
aggregates of quantity demanded by buyers and quantity supplied by sellers at each

possible price per unit. It weaves these together to describe how the market may reach
equilibrium as to price and quantity or respond to market changes over time. This is
broadly termed demand-and-supply analysis. In microeconomics, production is the
conversion of inputs into outputs. It is an economic process that uses resources to create a
commodity that is suitable for exchange. Some economists define production broadly as
all economic activity other than consumption. Public finance is the field of economics
that deals with budgeting the revenues and expenditures of a public sector entity, usually
government.[10] Thus; the field of economics mainly determines every policy that a
government makes for development or town planning.
What is Urban Economics?[11]
Urban Economics is broadly the economic study of urban areas. As such, it involves
using the tools of economics to analyze urban issues such as crime, education, public
transit, housing, and local government finance. More narrowly, it is a branch of
microeconomics that studies urban spatial structure and the location of households and
firms. Urban economics focuses on these spatial relationships to understand the economic
motivations underlying the formation, functioning, and development of cities. Urban
economics is rooted in the location theories [12] that began the process of spatial
economic analysis. Economics is the study of the allocation of scarce resources, and as all
economic phenomena take place within a geographical space, urban economics focuses
of the allocation of resources across space in relation to urban areas.[13]
Other branches of economics ignore the spatial aspects of decision making but urban
economics focuses not only on the location decisions of firms, but also of cities
themselves as cities themselves represent centers of economic activity.[14] Many spatial
economic topics can be analyzed within either an urban or regional economics framework
as some economic phenomena primarily affect localized urban areas while others are felt
over much larger regional areas.[15]
Urban economics is divided into six related themes:
Market forces in the development of cities,
Land use within cities,
Urban transportation,
Urban problems and public policy,
Housing and public policy, and
Local government expenditures and taxes.[16]
Market Forces in the Development of Cities
Market forces in the development of cities relates to how the location decision of firms
and households causes the development of cities. The nature and behavior of markets
depends somewhat on their locations therefore market performance partly depends on
geography.[17] If a firm locates in a geographically isolated region, their market
performance will be different than a firm located in a concentrated region. The location
decisions of both firms and households create cities that differ in size and economic
structure. When industries cluster, like in the Silicon Valley in California, they create
urban areas with dominant firms and distinct economies. By looking at location decisions

of firms and households, the urban economist is able to address why cities develop where
they do, why some cities are large and others small, what causes economic growth and
decline, and how local governments affect urban growth.[18] Because urban economics is
concerned with asking questions about the nature and workings of the economy of a city,
models and techniques developed within the field are primarily designed to analyze
phenomena that are confined within the limits of a single city.[19]
Land Use within Metropolitan Areas
Looking at land use within metropolitan areas, the urban economist seeks to analyze the
spatial organization of activities within cities. In attempts to explain observed patterns of
land use, the urban economist examines the intra-city location choices of firms and
households. Considering the spatial organization of activities within cities, urban
economics addresses questions in terms of what determines the price of land and why
those prices vary across space, the economic forces that caused the spread of employment
from the central core of cities outward, identifying land-use controls, such as zoning, and
interpreting how such controls affect the urban economy.[20]
Economic Policy in Urban Areas
Economic policy is often implemented at the urban level thus economic policy is often
tied to urban policy.[21] Urban problems and public policy tie into urban economics as
the theme relates urban problems, such as poverty or crime, to economics by seeking to
answer questions with economic guidance. For example, does the tendency for the poor
to live close to one another make them even poorer?[22]
Urban Transportation and Urban Economics
Urban transportation is a theme of urban economics because it affects land-use patterns as
transportation affects the relative accessibility of different sites. Issues that tie urban
transportation to urban economics include the deficit that most transit authorities have,
and efficiency questions about proposed transportation developments such as light-rail.
[23]
Housing and Public Policy
Housing and public policy relate to urban economics as housing is a unique type of
commodity. Because housing is immobile, when a household chooses a dwelling, it is
also choosing a location. Urban economists analyze the location choices of households in
conjunction with the market effects of housing policies.[24]
Government Expenditures and Taxes in Urban Economics
The final theme of local government expenditures and taxes relates to urban economics
as it analyzes the efficiency of the fragmented local governments presiding in
metropolitan areas.[25]

Conclusion:
Conclusively for any town planning three questions as mentions above are very
important. What to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce? The answer to
these questions is the key factor to understand the whole dynamics of economic resources
in town planning. Because the answer clearly lead us to appropriate use of economic
resources.
References:
[1] http://www.google.com.pk/url?
sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://www.thinkport.org/cff247fc-95fb-4f15-9d143194417d16de.asset&usg=AFQjCNHx7NIsNid6DGbHTVcAulxDdr1e7Q
[2] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477991/theory-of-production
[3] Sullivan Arthur, Steven M. Sheffrin (2003) Economics: Principles in action. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 4 ISBN 0-13-063085-3
http://www.pearsonschool.com/index.cfm?
locator=PSZ3R9&PMDbSiteId=2781&PMDbSolutionId=6724&PMDbCategoryId=&P
MDbProgramId=12881&level=4
[4] http://www.google.com.pk/url?
sa=X&start=4&oi=define&q=http://www.deq.state.va.us/kids/library/wstmanvo.html&us
g=AFQjCNG2lwacryszDZ5-VbwuhKRiJ_VeYQ
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resources
[6] http://www.google.com.pk/url?
sa=X&start=5&oi=define&q=http://www.vodium.com/vs_data/dlfbi/definitions.doc&usg
=AFQjCNF3x1pNIuJiJ8ZplbqZLRg2uFCbcg
[7] http://www.google.com.pk/url?
sa=X&start=2&oi=define&q=http://www.auburn.edu/~owensse/PowerPoint_Definitions.
htm&usg=AFQjCNG8tAND3rL3_w-A7VwZOcwxqkBuwA
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goods_and_services
[9]www.unesco.org/education/tlsf/TLSF/theme_c/mod13/www.worldbank.org/depweb/en
glish/modules/glossary.htm
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics
[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_economics
[12] Roberta Capello and Peter Nijkamp, Ed (2004) Urban Dynamics and Growth:
Advances in Urban Economics. Elsvier Inc.
[13] Richard J. Arnott and Daniel P. McMillan, Ed (2006) A Companion to Urban
Economics Blackwell Publishing ISBN 1405106298
[14] O'Sullivan, Arthur (2003) Urban Economics Boston, Mass: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
ISBN 0-07-248784-4
[15] McCann, Philip (2001) Urban and Regional Economics Oxford University Press
[16] O'Sullivan, Arthur (2003) Urban Economics Boston, Mass: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
ISBN 0-07-248784-4
[17] McCann, Philip (2001) Urban and Regional Economics Oxford University Press

[18] O'Sullivan, Arthur (2003) Urban Economics Boston, Mass: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

ISBN 0-07-248784-4
[19] McCann, Philip (2001) Urban and Regional Economics Oxford University Press
[20] O'Sullivan, Arthur (2003) Urban Economics Boston, Mass: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
ISBN 0-07-248784-4
[21] McCann, Philip (2001) Urban and Regional Economics Oxford University Press
[22] O'Sullivan, Arthur (2003) Urban Economics Boston, Mass: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
ISBN 0-07-248784-4
[23] Ibid
[24] Ibid
[25] Ibid
POSTED BY TOWN PLANNING AT 7:55 AM NO COMMENTS:
ASSIGNMENT: MY STREET MY NEIGHBOURHOOD
AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B)
By
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: ASSIGNMENT: MY STREET MY NEIGHBOURHOOD
1. Introduction:
A Street is a public thoroughfare in the built environment. It is a public parcel of land
adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact,
and move about. A neighbourhood or neighborhood is a geographically localised
community within a larger city, town or union council. Neighbourhoods are often social
communities with considerable face-to-face interaction among members.
2. Objective:
The objective of this assignment is to document the physical, social and economic
characteristics and activities of the streets and neighbourhoods of our urban context of
Karachi.
3. Reason for this assignment:
Some of the students in class are left alone and not a part of any group. They wanted to
do an individual assignment instead of doing group work and feel that they can not
clearly spell out their abilities and intellect in the group assignment. Therefore for those
students who are not working with any group this individual assignment is designed so as
they may individually do it in their own personal capacity.
4. Methodology:

The assignment "My Street My Neighbourhood" is very simple where a student will
document the physical, social and economic conditions of his own neighbourhood. The
methodology of this assignment is very easy for anyone who can draw a plan i.e. a base
map and make its overlays showing physical social and economic activities in his street
and neighbourhood through photographs and comments.
Step # 1: At first one has to locate his/her neighbourhood through free online available
Google earth map and then save its picture and identify the boundary of his/her
neighbourhood.
Step # 2: Draw or trace a base map of your neighbourhood showing all four streets
around your house or appartment as well as other buildings surrounding your house.
Mark or highlight your house / appartment in Red and all other buildings in light brown
colour.
Step # 3: Visit all the four streets and take pictures of your neighbourhood showing the
streets and buildings from any corner so as maximum view can be established. The
pictures may also be taken to show the physical conditions of streets and problems in it
such as water and sewerage overflow, garbage disposal, electricity, telephone, and cable
wires etc Similarly document social and economic conditions such as people sitting and
interacting in your street or the commercial enterprises shops in the neighbourhood, Fruit
and Vegetable carts, beggars, eunuchs etc Thus; a whole day activity may be
photographed.
Step # 4: Make maps overlays i.e. first a base map showing the boundary of the
neighbourhood and your house / appartment in red highlight with name of streets and
neighbourhood. Second map overlay showing the physical conditions and your observed
problems with highlighting their location with different colours and legends. Third map
overlay showing the social activities in your street with their identified space/location
highlighted with different colours and legends. Fourth map overlay showing the
economic activities in your street with their identified space/location highlighted with
different colours and legends. Map overlay showing the Master Plan of proposed
improvements in your neighbourhood.
Step # 5: Make report writing about an Introduction of your neighbourhood; its Location
with map, observed Problems and identified issues with pictures on A-4 size paper,
Reasons for those problems as observed or discussed with any elder of the
neighbourhood, and proposed Recommendations for Improvements with a Master Plan.
Complete the report with a Title page on A-4 Size paper and Maps maximum on A-3 Size
paper. Ring bind the report and submit.
5. Submission and Deadlines:
The deadlines for each step are as follows:
Step 1: 27th February 2010

Step 2: 6th March 2010

Step 3: 20th March 2010
Step 4: 17th April 2010
Step 5: 1st May 2010
POSTED BY TOWN PLANNING AT 12:08 AM NO COMMENTS:
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 12, 2009
NATURAL RESOURCES
AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B)
By:
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi
LECTURE NO. 08
TOPIC: NATURAL RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION:
The theme of current lecture is Natural Resources. In the following a detailed description
about natural resources is given for the understanding of students learning town planning.
WHAT IS MEANT BY NATURAL RESOURCES?
Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their
relatively unmodified (natural) form. A commodity is generally considered a natural
resource when the primary activities associated with it are extraction and purification, as
opposed to creation. Thus, mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, and forestry are
generally considered natural-resource industries, while agriculture is not.
The term was introduced to a broad audience by E.F. Schumacher in his 1970s book
Small Is Beautiful.[1] Afterwards; different authors used this phrase for different
purposes and interpreted it in their own manner. For instance in United States natural
resources are described as:
Land, fish, wildlife, biota, air, water, groundwater, drinking water supplies, and other
such resources (including the resources of the exclusive economic zone) belonging to,
managed by, held in trust by, appertaining to, or otherwise controlled by, the United
States, any state or local government or Indian tribe, or any foreign government.[2]
Similarly other defintions are:
Assets that are physically consumed or waste away, such as oil, minerals, gravel, and
timber can be said as natural resources.[3]

A material source of wealth, such as timber, fresh water, or a mineral deposit, that occurs
in a natural state and has economic value.[4]
Materials found in the natural state, such as water, soil, sunshine, minerals, that are used
by humans.[5]
Any part of the environment that species depend on for their survival can be termed as
natural resources.[6]
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:
Natural resources are often classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. The
renewable resources may be further categorized as unconditionally renewable (e.g., solar,
tidal or wind energy) and conditionally renewable (e.g., fish, forest products).
Conditionally renewable resources will last indefinitely if not over-exploited because that
part of the resource that is used can be replaced through natural processes.[7]
Furthermore; renewable resources are generally living resources such as fish, coffee, and
forests etc. which can restock (renew) themselves if they are not over harvested.
Renewable resources can be used indefinitely if they are used sustainably or if not over
harvested. Once renewable resources are consumed at a rate that exceeds their natural
rate of replacement, the standing stock will diminish and eventually run out. The rate of
sustainable use of a renewable resource is determined by the replacement rate and
amount of standing stock of that particular resource. Non-living renewable natural
resources include soil, as well as water, wind, tides and solar radiation.[8]
NATURAL RESOURCES AND TOWN PLANNING:
In case of town planning the understanding of natural resources is very important.
Because; the end product of any town planning exercise is the construction of new built
up structures on a virgin land or in other words change of natural environment into built
environment as per future needs. The other outcome of town planning is the
reconstruction of the existing old built up structures or in other words transforming the
built environment to suit the needs of present time. In both cases there emerge major
changes and transformations in the physical appearance and character of the existing
context. These changes and transformations may occur in the form of large movements of
soil (sand and stones) from one place to another to be used as building material. Grubbing
of natural vegetation and trees from a virgin land in a given context to be use inside
buildings. Thus; these changes and transformations may cause various impacts such as
change in ground water pattern, bearing capacity of soils etc.
Furthermore; the towns, cities and urban areas attracts large number of population that
live and work there and consume lots of natural resources such as oil and gas. Large high
rise buildings also exist in urban context that requires a lot of building material and
natural resources and also become cause of urban heat islands.
Additionally in town planning many mega construction projects are made that require
major changes in the ecology of land, terrains, soils, vegetation, rivers, storm water

drains, coastal belt etc. This change and transformation may be carefully analyzed
through Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA), Social Impact Assessment (SIA), Visual Impact Assessment (VIA); Landscape and
Visual Impact Assessment (LVSIA) etc. So as the town planning may be sustainable.
Initial Environmental Examination (IEE):
IEE is a preliminary attempt to evaluate environmental impacts in order to determine
whether a full-scale environmental impact assessment is needed. It is also called as Initial
Environmental Investigation (IEI), partial EIA or "Preliminary EIA".[9]
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
A process by which, the consequences of planned development projects are evaluated as
an integral part of planning the project. The EIA can be defined as the analysis of
biological, physical, social and economic factors to determine the environmental and
social consequences of a proposed development action. The goal of the EIA is to provide
policy makers with the best available information in order to minimize economic costs
and maximize benefits associated with a proposed development.[10]
Social Impact Assessment (SIA):
It is the component of EIA concerned with changes in the structure and functioning of
social orderings. In particular the changes that a development would create in: social
relationships; community (population, structure, stability etc); peoples quality and way
of life; language; ritual; political/economic processes; attitudes/value. Can sometimes
include health impacts.[11] "Social impact assessment includes the processes of
analysing, monitoring and managing the intended and unintended social consequences,
both positive and negative, of planned interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects)
and any social change processes invoked by those interventions. Its primary purpose is to
bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment."[12]
This technique is a form of direct impact analysis used to assess how the costs and
benefits of reforms are distributed among different stakeholders and over time. SIA is
based on stakeholder analysis, and is particularly useful for disaggregating data on assets
(physical, financial) and capabilities (human, organizational) into meaningful social
categories. When reasonable national survey data exists, SIA uses a range of qualitative
data collection tools (focus groups, semi-structured key informant interviews,
ethnographic field research, stakeholder workshops to determine impacts, stakeholder
preferences and priorities, and constraints on implementation. In the absence of adequate
quantitative data, SIA supplements qualitative, sociological impact analysis with
purposive surveys that capture direct impacts and behavioral responses to reform, or
specific dimensions (e.g. time-use patterns) that affect reform outcomes.[13]
Visual impact assessment:[14]
It is an evaluation of the visual impact of resource development proposals on forest
landscape.
Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment:[15]

Landscape and visual impacts are two separate but closely related elements. Landscape
refers to the appearance of the land, including its, shape, texture and colours. It also
reflects the way these components combine to create specific patterns and pictures that
are distinctive to certain areas. Landscape is not just a visual, phenomenon it relies on a
number of other features/influences that will have shaped its character. For example
topography, geology, ecology, land management and architecture all play a part in the
formation of a landscape.
TOWN PLANNING IN THE 1900S IN UNITED KINGDOM (UK):[16]
The significance of resources in town planning can be further understood through a brief
historical background of Town Planning in the 1900s in United Kingdom. At the turn of
the century, legislation continued to improve conditions for the industrial work force.
This included
Town Planning Act 1909, which forbade the building of back-to-back housing, symbolic
of the poverty of the industrial cities, and allowed local authorities to prepare schemes of
town planning
Housing Act 1919, which gave the Ministry of Health authority to approve the design of
houses
Housing Act 1930, which required all slum housing to be cleared in designated
improvement areas
Around this time, the Garden Cities movement was formed under the influence of Sir
Ebenezer Howard, a visionary who took public health reform further by planning to build
green cities on the principle that: 'by so laying out a Garden City that, as it grows, the free
gifts of 'Nature fresh air, sunlight, breathing room and playing room shall be still retained
in all needed abundance.' This eventually led to the New Towns movement and the New
Towns Act 1946 although, by the time new towns were being built, the rise of the
privately owned motor car had made much of Howard's vision unattainable.
Pressure on the countryside:
With all the new housing, the rise of the motorcar and continued industrial development,
the countryside came under increasing pressure. For example, between 1919 and 1939
over four million new homes were built, the majority on green fields, and advertising
hoardings sprung up unregulated across the landscape. In response to this threat, the need
for planning controls to be extended to cover the countryside as well as towns was
recognised and in 1926 the Council for the Preservation of Rural England was formed
later renamed the Campaign to Protect Rural England. As pressure was put on the
Government to take action, two important acts of Parliament were passed:
Town and Country Planning Act 1932, which was the first legislation to accept the
desirability of countrywide rural planning

Restriction of Ribbon Development Act 1935, which was designed to prevent the sprawl
of towns and cities across the countryside. 'Ribbon development' is linear development of
long rows of buildings built along main roads leading out of towns
Town and country planning comes of age:
The end of the Second World War brought consensus over the need for comprehensive
planning to rebuild bombed out towns and cities and to help reorganise industry. The
Town and Country Planning Act 1947 introduced the basis of the system that we have
today. It introduced two significant changes i.e. Local authorities now had to complete a
local plan, setting out detailed policies and specific proposals for the development and
use of land in a district. Land use would be controlled and planning permission would be
required for development.
However some sectors, such as agriculture, were granted significant exemptions from
planning controls, called permitted development rights, which still exist today. After the
1947 Act, the system continued to evolve. Important events include
1955: The national Green Belt system is put in place to prevent urban sprawl (the first
Green Belts were designated around London before the Second World War
1968: County structure plans are introduced to co-ordinate and guide local plans
1988: Regional planning guidance is introduced to act as a strategic guide for county
structure plans
1990: The Town and Country Planning Act 1990. The act divides planning into forward
planning and development control. Forward planning is about setting out the authority's
strategy for the future - through a development plan - and development control is about
controlling the development that happens
1991: The Planning and Compensation Act 1991 amends the Town and Country Planning
Act and introduces the plan-led system, affirming that planning applications should be
decided in line with the development plan
Conclusion:
Finally it is clearly spelled out that the understanding about natural resources is quite
significant in any town planning exercise.
References:
[1] http://www.cheathouse.com/essay/essay_view.php?p_essay_id=77556
[2] http://www.epa.gov/Region6/6sf/sfsites/oil/acryglos.htm
[3] http://www.berenson.com/n.html
[4] http://www.mms.gov/offshore/alternativeenergy/definitions.htm
[5]
http://www.arrowheadkidscamp.com/images/GLOSSARY_OF_SCIENCE_TERMS.doc
[6] http://www.pc.gc.ca/apprendre-learn/prof/sub/eco/itm7/index_e.asp

[7] http://www.oceansatlas.org/unatlas/uses/uneptextsph/infoph/gsglossary.html
[8] http://www.cheathouse.com/essay/essay_view.php?p_essay_id=77556
[9] http://www.fao.org/docrep/V8350E/v8350e0f.htm
[10] http://www.oceansatlas.org/unatlas/uses/uneptextsph/infoph/gsglossary.html
[11] http://eia.unu.edu/course/?page_id=177
[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_assessment
[13]
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPSIA/0,,
contentMDK:20433436~menuPK:2453409~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:4
90130,00.html [14] http://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/datamanagement/glossary/V.HTM
[15] http://www.shetland.gov.uk/developmentplans/documents/Landscape.pdf
[16] http://www.planninghelp.org.uk/planning-system/history-of-planning-system/townplanning-in-1900s
POSTED BY TOWN PLANNING AT 2:32 AM NO COMMENTS:
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 6, 2009
MAPS
AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B)
By
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi
LECTURE NO. 07
TOPIC: MAPS
Introduction:
The theme of current lecture is Maps. In the following a detailed description about maps
is given for the understanding of students learning town planning.
What is a map?[1]
A map is a visual representation of an area or a symbolic depiction highlighting
relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and themes. Many
maps are static two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representations of threedimensional space, while others are dynamic or interactive, even three-dimensional.
Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real
or imagined, without regard to context or scale.
Map Making or Cartography:[2]
Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of making representations of the
Earth on a flat surface. Cartography combines science, aesthetics, and technical ability to

create a balanced and readable representation that is capable of communicating

information effectively and quickly.
History of Map Making:[3]
The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the definition of "map"
is not sharp and because some artifacts speculated to be maps might actually be
something else. A wall painting which may depict the ancient Anatolian city of
atalhyk (previously known as Catal Huyuk or atal Hyk) has been dated to the late
7th millennium BCE.[4]/[5] The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps beginning at
latest in the 6th century BC. As early as the 700s, Arab scholars were translating the
works of the Greek geographers into Arabic. In ancient China, geographical literature
spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of
Qin, dated back to the 4th century BC during the Warring States era. Early forms of
cartography of India included legendary paintings; maps of locations described in Indian
epic poetry, for example the Ramayana. Indian cartographic traditions also covered the
locations of the Pole star, and other constellations of use. The Arab geographer,
Muhammad al-Idrisi, produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154. He
incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East gathered by
Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical
geographers to create the most accurate map of the world up until his time.
It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.[6] In the Age of
Exploration from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both
copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their
own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the
magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin
Behaim, a German cartographer, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.[7] In 1507,
Martin Waldseemller produced a globular world map bearing the first use of the name
"America". Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers
frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original
cartographer. By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by
printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work.[8]
In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new
generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with
brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution.
The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage
devices allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and
manipulate them digitally. In the late 20th century and early 21st century advances in
electronic technology led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically, computer
hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and
document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial
analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of
maps.
Map types:[9]

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general
categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves
those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of
features. Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented
toward specific audiences. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last
century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret
spatial, cultural and social data. An orienteering map combines both general and thematic
cartography, designed for a very specific user community. A topographic map is primarily
concerned with the topographic description of a place, including the use of contour lines
showing elevation, Terrain or relief. A topological map is a very general type of map. It
often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route
or relational information. A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic
representation of cultural and natural features on the ground. Topographic maps have
multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic planning or large-scale
architecture; earth sciences and many other geographic disciplines which use highly
detailed maps in its standard requirements.
Maps for planning and development of urban areas:
Town Planning and allied professions have always been demanding suitable base maps as
a prerequisite to any planning.[10] Maps are not new to town planners and engineers.
However, preparation and use of large-scale maps, especially for urban areas, is not as
good as in developed and other developing countries.
Maps are required by every Department/agency of the Provincial and Federal
Governments having stake in development of urban area. Local authorities, public
undertakings, service organizations require maps. However, the requirement of maps in
terms of contents, quality and accuracy vary from organization to organization. Also,
some organizations use maps every day while some use maps occasionally yet some
others use maps once in a way. It is important to note that all the agencies aforementioned
and others do not need comprehensive map, i.e. all the information in map. In the myriad
of agencies involved in planning and development of towns and cities it is the agencies
responsible for planning for physical development, which need maps most. Municipal
authorities rank second in use of maps - comprehensive maps are required for planning
and execution of works by engineering department, maps of buildings/plots for taxation
and election purposes.
The institutions like urban development authorities, Local authorities - Engineering and
Health Departments, Power Transmission and distribution agencies, Agencies for Urban
Water Supply and Drainage system, Survey, Settlement and Land Records (City Survey)
Department, Agencies for city transport system, Fire Force, Police Department - Traffic
& Law and Order and Postal Department requires the maps on daily basis. Whereas;
other institutions like Public Works Departments, National Highways Authority,
Railways, Housing boards, Education Department, Health Department, Census
Department and Election Commission requires the maps occasionally. Similarly the maps

are required for different purposes. Full topographic maps at different scales are required
by Urban Development Authorities for preparation/ revision of Comprehensive
Development Plans, Zonal Plans (Sectoral Plans), Neighbourhood Plans, Sub-division
Plans, Town Planning Schemes, etc. in the local planning area.[11]
The Scale of Maps:[12]
The scale of a map is the ratio of a single unit of distance on the map, to the equivalent
distance on the ground.[13] Maps are sometimes referred to by relative descriptions of
large scale or small scale. A large scale map displays objects so they appear relatively
large. For example, an island displayed on a 1:10,000 map will appear larger than if
displayed on a 1:100,000 map. Thus, the former is large scale. Maps with a ratio of
1:50,000 or larger (for example, 1:25,000 would be larger) are considered large scale.
Maps with a ratio of 1:50,000 to 1:250,000 are considered medium scale. Any maps with
a smaller scale (for example 1:500,000) are considered small scale.[14]
The scale of map to be used for a particular purpose in a project is determined as to what
topographical features and what plan elements (details) are required to be shown with a
certain degree of clarity on one or more sheets. Thus, to show a concept for circulation
system and layout of plots in a sub-division plan (layout), in any urban area, a 1:2,000
scale map may be adequate. But, if details on plot numbers, entrance to plots, plot
dimensions, centre line of roads, chamfers, asphalt, alignment of services like water,
electricity and telephone, planting of trees, etc. are to be shown, maps at scale 1:1,000
would be needed. If the width of plot and roads is less than 10 m then a 1:500 scale map
would be required to show all the afore cited details.
Process in planning - Best Practice:
Requirement of maps in terms of content, accuracy, scale, etc. in planning and
development of urban areas can be appreciated well when the process involved in
planning for physical development and implementation is known. Planning urban areas,
especially metropolitan areas and cities, may have three stages, although they can vary:
Outline Development Plan (ODP) now re-christened as Perspective Plan, at macro
(city/town) level;
Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) also at macro level. This can also be called
Master Plan;
Zonal Plans for part of city/town to elaborate the details; and
Town Planning Schemes at micro (local) level to implement the plan.
These levels are basically to perceive, conceptualize and see details from city/ town level
to part of city/town and local level. These levels naturally require maps at different scales
with different content with one or fewer maps to see the area under consideration.
For instance for planning a metro rail system or a bypass for rail or road, entire
metropolitan area or city as the case may be has to be on only one or two sheets for all to
see the alignment at metropolitan or city level. To fine tune the alignment, to avoid
insurmountable obstacles, more and more details will be needed for which maps have to

be at larger and larger scales. Only important features are shown on maps at small scale.
All the features would be required at detail planning. What features in base map and what
elements in plan proposal need to be shown on map user (planners, public and decision
makers) determine the scale(s) for maps at a particular level.
Preparation of Master Plan:
Preparation of Master Plan at Metro/city level is highly complex and needs multidisciplinary team of experts. However, the experts who steer the work on planning are the
physical planners. Before embarking on making projections for demographic aspects to
estimate the land required to meet the growth during the plan horizon, several studies are
carried out by physical planners apart from other discipline. Most important planning
survey is the use of building and parcels of lands, not only in the existing developed area
but also in the vicinity, what is called Local Planning Area.
Planning studies:
Statutes on Town and Country Planning in all the States require preparation of Existing
Land Use of every plot/property. Land uses are classified broadly in to 8 main groups.
Not only that, a register showing the land use of every property need to be prepared and
maintained along with the existing land use map. Hard copies of maps must be as large as
1:1,000 to mark the land use in field and to prepare fair maps in office; A GIS in deed,
but in hard copy form.
Another planning survey for physical aspect is structural condition survey. This survey
assumes importance in old areas due for redevelopment and/or rejuvenation. Structural
conditions of buildings are classified in to 4 or 5 classes: very good, good, moderate, poor
and obsolete. This survey is for structures for which each and every structure must clearly
be available on maps to mark the appropriate condition in the field and to prepare fair
maps in office. For this purpose also maps must be at least 1:1,000 if not at 1:500. This is
yet another GIS earlier to electronic era.
All these maps need to be documented for reference and record, lest they are called for in
courts of law. Large-scale maps show limited area on a sheet. They need to be
generalized to prepare smaller scale maps: 1:5,000, 1:10,000, 1:20,000 to depict parts of
urban area or the whole urban area on one or two sheets. The principle of Part to whole
be applied which is similar to preparation of smaller scale maps from survey data at
larger scale. Planning studies other than Land Use and Structural Condition are for:
Density of population/house holds;
House hold survey for social, economic conditions which is a sample survey;
Traffic and transportation survey;
Problems in physical condition like congested areas, narrow roads, bottlenecks, bad
junctions, low lying areas, pollution from industry, etc.
All these surveys are not aimed at each and every property and maps at small scales, say
1:5,000, 1:10,000 and 1:20,000 may suffice. Analysis of the physical aspect - Land Use
and Structural Condition - and socio-economic aspects, problems in physical form,

function, need to be made and results shown on small scale maps: 1:5,000, 1:10,000 and
1:20,000. After the land requirement for future growth is established, land availability has
to be analyzed for suitability for development. To show the results of the analysis as
thematic maps also smaller scale maps, say 1:5,000, 1:10,000 and 1:20,000, area
required. Result of each of the study on separate maps (transparencies) at smaller scale
(all at same scale) will be compared with one above the other (sounds like GIS in place!)
to synthesis the studies and draw inference. The maps showing the results of planning
studies at small scales, on one or two sheets, are the basis on which alternative plans at
macro level are conceptualized.
Concept plans:
Concept plans are free hand sketches on the base of accurate maps, at smaller scale
(1:10,000 or 1:20,000 depending on the planning area) on one or two sheets, to show the
boundaries of land areas for different uses, arterial and lower order road system, railway
system, density of population/ house holds, etc. However, boundaries of proposed land
uses and road system will not have any definite geometry.
Master Plan:
After a concept or combination of two or three is accepted, Master Plan (CDP) is
prepared on accurate map at larger scales, say 1:20,000 or 1:10,000 (for Metros and large
cities), and 1:5,000 for others.
Format of maps for Master Plan/Planning Drawings:[15]
Town planners, Architects and Engineers convert topographical maps in to working
drawings to work on. They use the ISO A Series sheet formats for their drawings.
Ammonia prints of drawings on A0 to A3 have to be folded to A4 size to have title block
on top to go into files, storage, used in field and sent across by mail. Planning drawings
must be in Landscape format. Planning drawings at any scale for any coverage must
always be on base of scientifically prepared topographical map. Planning drawings will
have legend and title block column at the right hand side of sheet from top to bottom.
Column width can be 100 to 175 mm. Title block must be at bottom-right corner.
The drawings of Master Plan approved by Government are statutory and need to be
preserved for long time. Album form is best to the purpose. Further, drawings must be
compact and handy to go in to album without folding. For this purpose, A1 size (841 x
594 mm) is best both in album and handling on desk and in field. All the drawings in the
Master Plan may be to A1 size in modular form. Topographical maps at scale 1:5,000
with an 800 x 400 mm format covering 4 x 2 km (8 sq km) fits within A1size with
sufficient margin at bottom for full length for legend and title block and fit in a handy
album.
Preparation of Zonal Plans:

The phase of Zonal Plan is between Master Plan and detail plan. Zonal plans are
enlargement of Master Plan for part of city or town or for a particular land use zone.
Zonal Plan include plan document to supplement the plan (drawing). Zonal plans may
show even the minor roads but may not show individual properties which are very small.
Maps for Zonal Plan must be at 1:2,000 to show all the details; but neither dimensions
nor all properties. Town planners role does not end on preparation and approval of
Master Plan and Zonal Plan at small scale to remain as wall maps for adoration. His role
includes translating Master Plan/Zonal Plan in to Action Area Plans.
Preparation of Area Plan:
Area plans are action plans to implement the proposals in Master Plan. It may be for
extension of city/town or rejuvenation or redevelopment of old and blighted areas. Master
Plan is the basis for Area Planning. Maps for Area Plan start at the scale of Master Plan
(1:5,000) to delineate the area for planning. Site plan at scale 1:1,000 will be required
with additional survey data - cadastral boundary and topography and service cadastre.
Maps may be in modular form. But, to see the concept (Master Plan content) for the
whole area on one sheet site plan has to be at smaller scale. The Master Plan may be fine
tuned on the accurate site plan.
Draft details plan, keeping the Master Plan concept as it is or with modifications, is
prepared on a large scale, say 1:2,000, to show all the details in the plan - plots with
numbers, roads, road elements like carriage way, centre line, junction details, plot
dimensions, even entrance to plots, etc. Details plans may be in modular form. After the
Draft Plan is approved detailed plan is finalized on maps at scale 1:1,000 to show all
details and dimensions. Dimensions are also indicated to help setting-out and to prepare
engineering designs. But, Plan is not fit for allotment of plots and for development.
Physical planners responsibilities do not end after preparation of Master Plan at small
scale. Physical planner must co-ordinate development as well not only organizing and
overseeing setting-out of his plan on ground but also there after.
Conclusion:
Finally it is quite clearly spelled out that the understanding about maps is very significant
and a prerequisite for the person involved in any town planning exercise.
References:
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_making
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps
[4] Robert Kunzig (1999). "A Tale of two obsessed archeologists, one ancient city, and
nagging doubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past" Discover
Magazine, May 1999. From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps

[5] Stephanie Meece (2006). "A birds eye view - of a leopards spots The atalhyk
map and the development of cartographic representation in prehistory" Anatolian
Studies, 56:1-16 From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps
[6] S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire, pp. 461-2 From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps
[7] http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmillgtm.html
[8] http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/forgery/002035-300-e.html?
PHPSESSID=el7bd0vpd8cto0amsqqq5kaj22
[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographic_map
[10] Prabhakar Misra (2001) The Changing Frame of Town Planning From
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/magazine/gisdev/2001/apr/perspective.shtml
[11] L. R. Rudraiah (2003) Maps for planning and development of urban areas
published in proceedings Map India Conference 2003 From:
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/overview/mi03243.htm
[12] http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/overview/mi03243a.htm
[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(map)
[14] http://geography.about.com/cs/maps/a/mapscale.htm
[15] http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/overview/mi03243b.htm
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