Aircraft Structures Notes 1

5/26/2009
ME4212
Aircraft Structures
(formerly Mechanics of Thin-Walled
Structures)
T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore
Why study thin-walled structures?
5/26/2009
5/26/2009
Aircraft
Structural
Analysis
Fracture Mechanics
Linear Elastic Fracture
Elasto-Plastic Fracture
Damage Tolerance
Fatigue
Delamination
Mechanics of ThinWalled Structures

Beams
Plates
Shells
Stringers and Panels
Multi-cell Torque Boxes
Tapered Structures
Buckling and Instability
Vibration
Mechanics of Composite
Materials
Stress-Strain Relations of FiberReinforced Composites
Laminate Design and Architecture
Hygrothermal Effects
Durability and Failure of
Composites
Course Overview:
Torsion
Bending
Idealized Beams
T.E. Tay
Professor
Room EA-7-17
6516-2887
6516 2887
mpetayte@nus.edu.sg
Multi-cell Sections & Tapered Beams

Circular & Rectangular Plates
Instability of Columns & Plates
S.L.
S L Toh
Associate Professor
Energy Methods in Instability
5/26/2009
Torsion
Non-Circular Shafts
Thin-Walled Open Sections
Thin-Walled Closed Sections
Warping of Unrestrained Sections
B di
Bending
Unsymmetric Bars
Thin-Walled Open Sections
Thin-Walled Closed Sections
The Shear Center
Idealized
dea ed Beams
ea s Bending
e d g & Torsion
oso
Multi-cell Sections Bending & Torsion
Tapered Beams & Beams with Varying Moments of Area
Books:
Mechanics of Materials, A.C. Ugural, McGraw-Hill,
1991
Ch 6.8,
6 8 6.9:
6 9: Torsion,
Torsion Torsion of Thin-Walled
Thin Walled Shafts
Ch 7: Bending of Beams
Ch 8.6, 8.8: Unsymmetric Bending, Shear Center
Mechanics of Materials, Roy R. Craig Jr., Wiley &

Sons, 1996
Ch 4,
4 4.7,
4 7 4.8:
4 8: Torsion,
Torsion Torsion of Noncircular Sections
Ch 6, 6.6, 6.8-6.10, 6.12: Bending, Unsymmetric Bending, Shear
Flow, Shear Center
5/26/2009
Books (advanced):
Mechanics of Elastic Structures, J.T. Oden and E.A.
Ripperger, McGraw-Hill, 1981
Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students, T.H.G.
Megson, Edward Arnold, 1990 (2nd Edition)
Analysis of Aircraft Structures, B.K. Donaldson,
McGraw-Hill, 1993
Aircraft Structures & Systems, R. Wilkinson,
Addison-Wesley Longman, 1996
Torsion
Torsion of Circular Sections

Bars of Circular Sections subjected to torsion
Radial lines on cross-section

remains straight. But square
elements are distorted.
The shear strain is

defined:
=
x
r
x
And the shear stress is
= G
= lim Gr
x 0
= Gr
d
dx
= Gr
where G is the shear modulus.
d
dx
is the rate of twist, and is a constant.
The twisting moment (i.e. torque) is
T =
r ( dA )
A
dF
=G
r
A
d
dx
= GJ
dA
d
dx
T = GJ
(1)
And the shear stress
= Gr
=
Tr
J
(2)
where A is the area of the cross-section, and

J is the polar second moment of area.
Torsion of Non-Circular Sections

Bars of Non-Circular Sections subjected to torsion


Consider a cross-section of arbitrary shape:

A is an arbitrary point.
It is displaced to A under torque.

z
Note: There is no
change in shape.
Hence
There is a point O, that has

no displacement when the
torque is applied, called the
centre of twist.
yz = 0
yz = 0
Lets place the

origin of our
coordinate
system at O.
In general, we write the

displacements:
v = xz
w = xy
Horizontal displacement of A.
(3a)
(3b)
v = z
where is the
rate of twist.
We further assume that
the axial displacements
are given in this form:
u = ( y , z )
Vertical displacement of A.
w = y
A
(3c)
where ( y , z ) is the
warping function, yet
to be determined.
Axial displacements depend on the warping function
( y, z )
z
Our objective is to
determine u, v and w,
the complete
displacement field.
Start with the strain-displacement

(compatibility) relations:
w
u
v
, y = , z =
,
z
x
y
u v
v w
u w
+
=
+ , yz = +
, xz =
y x
z y
z x
x =
xy
Substituting Eqns (3) into above,
x = y = z = yz = 0
(4a)
z
xy =
y
(4b)
+ y
(4c)
xz =
yz = 0 implies cross-section
does not distort in its own plane
(i.e. all points are simply rotated
as in rigid-body rotation).
The relevant force equilibrium equation
x xy xz
+
+
=0
x
y
z
with
xy = G xy , xz = G xz , x = 0
and Eqns (4) yields
2 2
+
=0
y 2 z 2
or
2 = 0
(5)
This is the Laplace Equation.

Clearly, the warping function
satisfies both compatibility and
equilibrium.
In order to obtain a solution, we need to
specify boundary conditions.
Consider a small element on the boundary,

which is usually traction free.
Force equilibrium in the axial direction
provides the equation of the boundary
condition.
dx
xy
dz
xy dzdx xz dydx = 0
z
(6)
dy
xz
xy dz = xz dy
x
In general, it may be
necessary to solve the
Laplace Equation
numerically.
Stress Functions for Torsion

Prandtl assumed a stress function which is twice differentiable,
and has the property:
xz =
y
xy =
(7a)
(7b)
Substituting (7) into (4b) and (4c), differentiating (4b) with respect
to z, and (4c) with respect to y,
= G
z z
z y
(8a)
+ y
= G
y y
y z
(8b)
Ludwig Prandtl
Father of Modern Fluid Mechanics
(1875-1953)
Subtracting (8b) from (8a) results in
2 2
+
= 2G
y 2 z 2
(9)
or
The solution to this equation satisfies

both compatibility and equilibrium.
In order to obtain a solution, we need to
specify boundary conditions.
2 = 2G
For the boundary condition, substituting (7) into (6), we obtain
dz
dy = 0
z
y
or
d = 0
(10)
This means that at the boundary,

is a constant. Since the value
of can be arbitrary, we shall
select = 0 for convenience.
z
The torque about the x-axis due to the
shear stresses is given by
xz dA
T = ( xz y xy z )dA
(11)
xy dA
Area dA
z
y
Introducing Eqn (7) , and noting that dA = dydz,

T =
y+
z dydz
z
y
=
ydydz
zdydz
y
z
(12)
z dz dy
y dy dz
=
A z
C y
(Integration by parts)
= ( B z B A z A ) dz dy ( D y D C yC ) dy dz
(13)
A B C D
are values at boundary points, which
we have chosen to set to zero. Hence
the equation reduces to
T = 2 dydz
(14)
A
If we retain the expression
T = GJ
(15)
where now we define the symbol J as the torsional constant,

then the formula for J is
J=
2
G
dydz
(16)
The product GJ is known as the torsional stiffness.

Only for the very special case
of the circular cross-section is
J equal to the second polar
moment of area.
10
The Membrane (Soap Bubble) Analogy

Good for visualizing .
Equilibrium equation for small deflection w of a
flat membrane subjected to internal pressure p
closely resembles the torsion equation.
2w 2w
p
+ 2 =
2
y
z
TM
(17)
Pressure p
Tension TM
w
z (into plane)
Comparing Eqns (9) and (17),
2 2
+
= 2G
y 2 z 2
(9)
2w 2w
p
+
=
y 2 z 2
TM
(17)
p
is analogous to 2G
TM
w is analogous to
Furthermore, according to Eqn (14), the volume
under the membrane is proportional to the torsion T.
T = 2 dydz
(14)
11
The slope of the membrane is

proportional to the shear stresses.
z
z
xz =
y
y
xy =
Local slope
w
y
w
z (into plane)
y
Similarly for
w
z
If the section is hollow,
d = 0 at both inner
and outer boundaries.
z
y
= constant
w
=0
y
=0
z (into plane)
12
Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections

Consider a narrow rectangular section:
z
z
y
x
Profile of w or
in x-z plane
= 0 over much of y
y
= 0
z
only at the
centerline of
the section
(at z = 0).
y
Profile of w or in x-y plane
= 0 , Eqn (9) reduces to

Since
y
2
= 2G
z 2
2 2
+
= 2G
y 2 z 2
(9)
(18)
Integrating twice with respect to z yields
= G z 2 + C1z + C 2
(19)
Applying the boundary condition that = 0 at z = + t/2 and t/2,

we obtain C 1 = 0 and C 2 = G t 2 / 4 .
t2
= G z 2
4
(20)
13
The stresses are therefore
= 2G z
z
=
=0
y
xy =
(21a)
xz
(21b)
Eqn (21a) shows that xy varies linearly with z and is zero at

the centerline of the section (at z =0).
From Eqn (16),
J =
2
G
dydz
b/2
b / 2
J =
t/2
t / 2
2 t2
2 z dzdy
2
bt 3
3
The torsional constant for a thin

rectangular section.
(22)
2T
z
J
(23)
The shear stress
xy = 2 G z =
has maximum values at z = + t/2 and t/2, i.e.
xy MAX =
Tt
J
(24)
14
Linear distribution of shear stress
xy
across thickness:
z
y
Now, consider the warping displacements:

From Eqns (4),
xy = G
z
y
(25a)
From Eqn (21a), xy = - 2G, so

Eqn (25a) becomes
2z =
z
y
+ y
z
xz = G
(25b)
From Eqn (21b), xz = 0, so

Eqn (25b) becomes
= y
z
= z
y
Upon integration,
= yz + C 1 ( y )
Upon integration,
= yz + C 2 ( z )
Clearly, C1(y) = C2(z) = 0 and
= yz
(26)
15
The warping displacement is therefore
u = yz
(27)
A hyperbolic-paraboloid surface
z
y
x
General Open Sections

In general,
s=0
J =
z
y
Bt 3
3
s=B
Linear distribution of
shear stress xy
across thickness
16
b2
t2
For a section
consisting of
n elements,
J =
b1
1 n
bi ti3
3 i =1
t1
b4
t3
t4
b3
(28)
Maximum shear stress is
iMAX =
Ti tiMAX
Ji
t5
(29)
where the proportion of

torque T acting on
element i is
J
Ti = i T
J
b5
(30)
b6
J =
t6
b1t13 b 2 t 23 b 3 t 33 b 4 t 43 b 5 t 53 b 6 t 63
+
+
+
+
+
3
3
3
3
3
3
Torsion of Thin-Walled Closed Sections

Consider a thin-walled
closed section:
z
y
Local slope
z (into plane)
w
almost constant
y
17
Closed Sections
z
y
Constant distribution of
shear stress xy
across thickness
Taking force equilibrium in the

axial direction,
1t1 = 2t2
(31)
1 t1 x 1
t1
t2
2t2 x
y
x
Convenient to define shear flow
q = t
(32)
q1 = q 2 = constant
18
The total moment then

equals the torque,
T = rqds = q rds
(33)
O
r
qds
s=0
Moment about an
arbitrary point O is
therefore qrds,
where r is the
perpendicular
distance.
Force due to
shear flow on
a small
element of
wall is qds.
Choose an arbitrary point

on the wall, at s = 0.
As we move from s = 0 to s = s1, the area traced is known as

the sectorial swept area, and is defined as
1
( s1 ) =
2
s = s1
rds
(34)
s =0
qds
r
s=0
19
As we move from s = 0 to s = s1, the area traced is known as

the sectorial swept area, and is defined as
1
( s1 ) =
2
s = s1
rds
s =0
s=0
The total area enclosed by the
centerline of the wall is
1
2
and the torque, from Eqn (33) is
rds
(35)
T = 2 q
(36)
The section does not distort under torsion. Points on the wall
experience a rotation = x about the center of twist.
x
Center
of twist O
is the tangential displacement

component in the s direction.
= r x
(37)
20
Consider a small element

of the wall
y
x
Displacement in the s
direction is
21
u
Displacement in the x
direction is u
Therefore, the shear

strain in the wall is
u
+
s x
u
=
+ r
s
xs =
(38)
22
Since xs = xs / G it follows that
u xs
=
r
s
G
(39)
Multiplying both sides by ds and integrating around the total periphery S of

the tube,
q ds
(40)
du = G t rds
The integral on the left-hand-side is zero, since u at s = 0 and u at s = S are
the same (i.e. same point), so that the difference is zero.
Substituting for from Eqn (35),
ds
2
t
q
ds
=
2 G t
0=
q
G
(41)
Substituting for q from Eqn (36),
T
4 2G
ds
t
(42)
Since T = GJ , the torsional constant J for a closed section is
J =
4 2
ds
t
(43)
If the thickness t is constant,
J =
4 2 t
S
(44)
23
Hybrid Sections
J=
4 2 1 n
+
bi ti3
ds 3
i =1
t
(45)
Example 1
The round tube shown has an average radius R and a wall thickness t. Compare the
torsional strength and rigidity of this tube with that of a similar tube which is slit
along its entire length. Assume R/t = 20.
R
t
Closed tube
Open section
24
Open section
Closed tube
4 2
ds
t
4 2 R 3t
=
= 2R 3t
2
bt 3
3
2Rt 3
=
3
J Closed =
Torsional constant
J Open =
J Closed
R
= 3
J Open
t
= 1200
For a given angle
of twist, the closed
section resists 1200
times the torsion of
the open section.
For a given torque,

the open section
twists through an
angle 1200 times as
great as the closed
section.
Open section
Closed tube
Maximum shear
stress
Tt
J
3T
=
2Rt 2
Open MAX =
T
2 t
T
=
2R 2 t
Closed =
Open
R
= 3
Closed
t
= 60
For a given torque,
the shear stress in
the open section is
60 times as high as
in the closed tube.
If the allowable
shear stresses are
equal, the closed
tube is 60 times as
strong as the open
section.
25
Example 2
A torque of T = 6000 Nmm is applied to the section shown. Determine the rate of
twist and maximum shear stress. Assume shear modulus G = 80 GPa.
15
2
19
1
2
1
Dimensions in mm
20
Total area enclosed:
= 20 19 = 380 mm 2
ds 20 19 20 19
=
+
+
+
= 58 .5
t
1
1
2
2
The torsional constant is
4 2 1 3
+ bt
ds 3
t
2
4(380 ) 1
3
=
+ (15 )(2 ) = 9.913 10 3 mm 4
58 .5
3
J =
Since T = GJ , the rate of twist is
6000
9 .913 10 3 80 10 3
)(
= 7 .57 10 6 rad/mm
26
The contributions to the torsional constant are
4 (380 )
= 9 .873 10 3 mm 4
58 .5
1
3
= (15 )(2 ) = 40 mm 4
3
2
J Closed Part =
J Fin
Compare !
The proportions of torque carried are
9 .873
6000 = 5976 Nmm
9 .913
40
=
6000 = 24 .2 Nmm
9913
TClosed Part =
TFin
The maximum stresses are
Closed Part MAX =

Fin MAX =
TClosed Part
2 t MIN
5976
= 7 .86 MPa
2 (380 )(1)
TFin t (24 .2 )(2 )

=
= 1 .21 MPa
J Fin
40
If the section is slit longitudinally at A as shown, what are the rate of twist and
maximum shear stress?
15
2
A
19
1
2
1
Dimensions in mm
20
27
The torsional constant is
J =
1
(19 )(1)3 + (20 )(1)3 + (19 )(2 )3 + (35 )(2 )3 = 157 mm 4
3
and
(6000 )(2 ) = 76 .4 MPa

Tt MAX
=
J
157
T
6000
=
=
= 4 .78 10 4 rad/mm
GJ
80 10 3 (157 )
MAX =
Note the increase in stress and rate of twist.
Warping of Unrestrained Thin-Walled Sections
Recall from Eqn (39) that
u xs
=
r
s
G
Multiplying both sides by ds and integrating from s = 0 to
some other point on the wall,
u u0 =
1
xs ds rds
G
(46)
where u0 is the displacement of the point s = 0 in the x-direction.
28
Recall the sectorial swept area (Eqn (34)), defined as ( s ) =
1
2
1
(47)
u u 0 = xs ds 2 ( s )
G
where r is measured from an arbitrary point O (called the pole).
r ds
O
r
s=0
The equation, valid for both open
and closed sections, can be
rewritten as
1
G
u = u u0
u=
xs ds 2( s)
For closed sections, since xs = q / t , we have
u=
q ds
2
G t
(48)
Here, u is a function of s, and is zero when the

integration is completed around the closed tube.
u =0
s=0
29
For open sections, the contribution of the shearing strain xs to the

warping displacement u is negligible because the walls are very thin,
so that
xs
ds 0
(49)
Hence the equation reduces to
u = 2
(50)
Example 3
The closed box section shown is subjected to a torque T. Determine the warping
displacements.
tb
Rate of twist:
T
ds
2
4 G t
2
3
4
1
T ds
ds
ds
ds
= 2 2 + + +
4b h G 1 tb 2 th 3 tb 4 t h
T 2h 2b
= 2 2 +
4b h G th tb
=
th
T
th
tb
T h b
+
2b 2 h 2G t h tb
30
Select the pole at O the center of section, and starting point at I.

1
For closed sections, the relative warping displacement is
q ds
2
G t
u=
O
u1 =
q ds
2 I 1
G I t h
We find that q =
3
T
T
and
=
2 2bh
b h
2 2
Also, 2I 1 = =
Therefore, u1 =
bh
4
T h b

8bhG th tb
ds
t
I
h
2th
Interestingly, there
will be no warping if
h b
=
t h tb
bh bh
+
4 2
3bh
=
4
2I 2 =
Now,
1
and
O
u2 =
=
ds
ds
ds
=
+
t I th 1 tb
h b
+
2th tb
h b 3bh
T h
b
T
+ 2 2 +
2bhG 2t h tb 2b h G t h tb 4
T b h
+
8bhG tb t h
u 2 = u1
Similarly, u3 = u1 , u4 = u1
31
Due to symmetry, we know that the axial

displacement at I is zero. Since u1 = u1 u I ,
we have u1 = u1.
2
1
I
3
4
Example 4
What would the warping displacements be if the section is slit longitudinally along
its entire length at point I ?
1
Torsional constant: J =
Rate of twist: =
2 3
hth + btb3
3
T
3T
=
GJ 2G hth3 + btb3
For an open section, u = 2

3
32
From I to 1, u1 =
bh
3T
3bhT
=
4 2G hth3 + btb3
8G hth3 + btb3
From I to 2, u2 =
9bhT
= 3u1
8G hth3 + btb3
From I to 3, u3 = 5u1
5bh
2I 3 =
From I to 4, u4 = 7u1
7bh
2I 4 =
From I to I, uI ' = 8u1
8bh
2I 3 =
2
1
Longitudinal slit
I
3
4
33
Example 5
Let us return to the closed section. What will happen if we select
another point O as pole?
2
From I to 1, 2I 1 =
1
and
u1 =
bh
2
ds h
=
t 2th
h b bh
T h
T
2 2 +
2bhG 2t h 2b h G t h tb 2
T b

4bhG tb
From I to 2, 2I 2 = bh
2
and
2
ds h b
=
+
t 2th tb
h b
T h
b
T
+ bh
+
2bhG 2t h tb 2b 2 h 2G t h tb
T h

=
4bhG t h
u2 =
O
Similarly, we can show that
u3 = u2 , u4 = u1
Try it yourself !
34
For illustration purposes, let
T
h
b
= 1.0
= 30, = 10 and
2bhG
th
tb
Then u1 = 2.5, u2 = 7.5, u3 = 7.5, u4 = 2.5

Present Example 5:
From Example 3:
2
I
3
3
4
Hence changing the pole does not alter the problem (i.e.
the stresses are also unaffected), but merely changes the
reference plane from which the axial displacements are
measured.
In this example, the new reference plane is rotated about
the OI axis.
35
Bending
Bending of Bars
Bars of Non-Circular Sections subjected to pure bending
Bending
Moment
M
Pure bending occurs only when the force F acts through the
Shear Center E.
Built-in
end
When the force F acts through any other point, there is

combined bending and twisting.
x-y-z are the centroidal axes

Let the loads Vz and Vy act
through the shear centre E.
Hence pure bending.
Vz
Centroid O
Vy
Shear
Centre
x-y-z are the centroidal axes
Mz
z
The shear loads

give rise to the
applied moments
(positive right
hand screw rule)
My
Centroid O
Contribution of Vz
to bending moment
Hence
Vz
dM
Vz =
= V z dx
M y
x
(51a)
dx
z
+ dMy
E
x
y (into page)
Contribution of Vy
to bending moment
Hence
Vy
dM z + V y dx = 0
Vy =
M z
x
(51b)
dx
y
+ dMz
x
z (out of page)
Let x denote the normal stress due

to bending. Since there is no nett
axial load,
Area dA = t ds
dA = 0
(52a)
dx
y
x
ds

of the wall (in positive z)
The moment about the y-axis

contributes to the normal stress x
due to bending.
Consider applied
moment about
the y-axis
Area dA = t ds
dx
ds
My
x
z
Contribution of axial force dF due to x to the bending moment

Area dA = t ds
M y = x z dA
(52b)
(Tensile on positive z)
x
dx
z
+ dMy
x
y (into page)
The moment about the z-axis also

contributes to the normal stress x
due to bending.

of the wall (in positive y)
Consider applied
moment about the
z-axis
x
dx
ds
Mz
t
y
Contribution of axial force dF due to x to the bending moment

Area dA = t ds
M z = x y dA
(52c)
(Compressive on positive y)
x
dx
y
+ dMz
x
z (out of page)
Plane sections remain plane assumption implies that

the axial strain x (and axial stress x ) is a linear
function of y and z. The cross-section rotates about a
neutral axis whose orientation is dependent upon the
loading and geometry of the cross-section.
z
Cross-section
Side view along

the neutral axis
Let x = C1 + C 2 y + C 3 z
and substituting this into Eqns (52) and solving for
the constants C1, C2, C3, we have C1 = 0 and
M z I yy + M y I yz
M I + M z I yz
y + y zz
2
I I I2
yy zz
yz
I yy I zz I yz
x =
(53)
Eqn (53) can be rewritten in the form
x =
M z y M yz
+
I zz
I yy
M I
M z + y yz
I yy
Mz =
I2
1 yz
I yy I zz
M I
M y + z yz
I zz
My =
2
I
1 yz
I yy I zz
The neutral axis can be located by setting

x = 0 in Eqn (53), and find, for angle ,
z
y
tan =
z M z I yy + M y I yz
=
y M y I zz + M z I yz
(54)
General distribution of
normal bending stress x
Compression
z
Neutral axis
y
Tension
If the section is symmetric about either the y- and zaxes, Iyz = 0 and Eqn (53) reduces to
x =
M zy M yz
+
I zz
I yy
(55)
A word about sign convention for moments:
x =
z
M zy M yz
+
I zz
I yy
Applied Moment My
Positive into page
x
y (into page)
This causes tensile (+) stresses for

positive z
y
Applied Moment Mz
Positive out of page
x
z (out of page)
This causes compressive (-)

stresses for positive y
Note that Equation (53) for normal bending

stresses is valid for all general sections
(whether solid or thin-walled, open or closed
sections).
10
Example 6
The simply-supported beam has an unsymmetrical cross-section. Locate the
neutral axis and determine the largest tensile and compressive stresses in terms
of load Q and where they occur. (Assume Q acts through the shear center.)
Q
z
20
1000
1500
80
20
60
Cross-section
The maximum bending moment occurs at the point

of application of load Q and is given by
My = - (0.6Q)(1000) = -600 Q Nmm.
Mz = 0.
1000
1500
0.6 Q
0.4 Q
My
Free-body diagram:
1000
Positive into page
0.6 Q
11
First, locate the centroid C, as the equations are related to centroidal axes.
Q
The total cross-sectional area:

= (20)(100) + (60)(20) = 3200 mm2
Define the points A, B and D.
A
20
D
15
C
Therefore,
60
0
1
1
ydA
20
y
dy
100
=
+
20ydy = 5 mm
A
A 0
y=
80
measured from point B,
and
1
zdA = 15 mm
A
z=
60
20
measured from point D.
Section properties (second moments

of area):
( 20 )(100 ) 3
+ ( 2000 )(15 ) 2
12
( 60 )( 20 ) 3
+
+ (1200 )( 25 ) 2
12
= 2.907 10 6 mm 4
I yy =
20
15
C
y
80
I zz = 1 .627 10 6 mm 4
I yz = ( 2000 )( 15 )( 15 ) + (1200 )( 25 )( 25 )
20
60
= 1 .2 10 6 mm 4
12
Neutral axis:
tan =
z
Compression
A (-25,35)
=
36.4
C
Tension
B (-5,-65)
M y I yz + M z I yy
M y I zz + M z I yz
I yz
I zz
1 .2
1 . 627
since Mz = 0.
= 36 . 4
Points A and B are furthest from the neutral

axis, and therefore experience the greatest
stresses.
From Eqn (53), we find
( x )A
( x )B
= 0 . 0158 Q MPa
= 0 . 0182 Q MPa
There is also a shear stress distribution

due to bending.
We will now discuss shear stresses due
to bending in thin-walled members only.
13
Force equilibrium in x-direction:

Shear stress distribution
due to bending
x
q
dx tds qdx + q +
ds dx = 0
x tds + x +
x
s
q
x
= t
(56)
s
x
dx q
y
q+
x +
ds
q
ds
x s
x
dx
x
Recall that Eqn (53) holds for normal bending stresses.

Differentiating with respect to x,
x V y I yy V z I yz
=
I I I2
x
yz
yy zz
V I + V y I yz
y + z zz
I I I2
yz
yy zz
(57)
where the relations in Eqns (51) have been used.

Substituting Eqn (57) into Eqn (56) and integrating with respect to
dA (= t ds), we have
xs =
where
(V y I yy V z I yz )Q z + (V z I zz V y I yz )Q y
q
=
t
I yy I zz I yz2 t
Q z = y dA = Ay
(59a)
Q y = z dA = Az
(59b)
(58)
( y and z are
coordinates of
the centroid)
14
V yQz VzQ y
q =
+
I
I yy
zz
V I
V y z yz
I yy
Vy =
I2
1 yz
I yy I zz
V I
V z y yz
I zz
Vz =
I2
1 yz
I yy I zz
If the section is symmetric about either the y- and zaxes, Iyz = 0 and Eqn (58) reduces to
V yQz VzQ y
+
q =
I
I yy
zz
(60)
15
Bending of open sections
bending shear flow q
for open sections
q is a function
of s and may
even change
direction,
depending
upon loading
q=0
y
x
q=0
q
= t x
We already know that s
x . This gives the
same solution for the shear flow distribution as in
the open section case. But qm is not zero because
the section is closed. However, qm can be found by
equating to zero the sum of moments about x-axis,
since no torque is applied.
Bending of closed sections
Vz
Centroid O
Vy
qm
q
qm + ds
s
Select an arbitrary point
m on the wall for s = 0
m s
x +
x
dx
x
16
Example 7
Determine the shear flow distribution in the z-section of uniform thickness t,
due to a shear load Vz applied through the shear center of the section.
h/2
z
First thing to note is that due to

anti-symmetry, the centroid and
the shear center are the same
point O. This is a special case.
h/2
Vz
O
y
t
h/2
th 3 th 3
ht h
=
I yy = 2 +
12
3
2 2
3
th 3
t h
I zz = 2 =
12
3 2
3
ht
h
h
ht h h th
I yz = + =
8
2 2 4 2 2 4
h/2
Hence
V z I yz

I zz
Vy =
= 0 . 86 V z
I yz2
1
I yy I zz
Vz =
Vz
I yz2
1
I yy I zz
= 2 . 28 V z
The shear flow due to bending:

s
Vy s
Vz
q =
ytds
ztds
+
I
I yy 0
zz 0
s
0 . 86 s
2 . 28
ytds
ztds
= V z 3
th / 3 0
th / 12 0
s
s
V
= 3z 10 . 3 yds 6 . 85 zds
h
0
0
17
For the bottom flange, define a coordinate

s1 such that z = - h/2 and y = - h/2 + s1,
where 0 s1 h / 2
q 12 =
h/2
h/2
h/2
s1
s1
10 . 3 s1 h ds 1 6 . 85 h ds 1
0 2
0 2
Vz
5 . 15 s12 1 . 72 hs 1 + c
h3
Boundary condition: At s1 = 0, q12 = 0;

hence c = 0
s1
Vz
h3
q 12 =
Vz
5 . 15 s12 1 . 72 hs 1
h3
2
h/2
q 12 =
At 2, s1 = h/2, q12 = 0.43 Vz/h.
Vz
5 . 15 s12 1 . 72 hs 1
h3
Shear flow distribution is parabolic, with a

change in sign at s1 = 0.334h.
For values of s1 < 0.334h, q12 is negative
and therefore in opposite direction to s1.
s1
1
The shear flow distribution on the

top flange is similar.
0.334h
18
Along the vertical web 2-3,

z = s2 h/2, y = 0, and 0 s2 h
q 23 =
s2
1
Vz
h3
s2
(3 . 43 h 6 . 85 s )ds
2
+ q2
where q2 is the shear flow at point 2,

i.e. q2 = 0.43 Vz/h.
q 23 =
Vz
0 . 43 h 2 + 3 . 43 hs 2 3 . 43 s 22
h3
This shear flow distribution is also parabolic,

with a maximum at s2 = 0.5h.
The Shear Center

There is a point where the resultant force must pass through in order
that no twisting moments (torque) are developed. This point is called
the shear center.
Why do we wish to find the shear center?
So that we will know, for a given load, how to proportion the
stresses (and deformations) due to bending and torsion.
How do we find the shear center ?
We make use of its definition. A general procedure:
1.
Find the centroid.
2.
Find section properties.
3.
Apply Vz or Vy, in turn.
4.
The moment due to shear flows is due to application of

the shear force through the shear center. The position of
the shear center with respect to a convenient point can
thus be obtained.
19
Example 8
Determine the position of the
shear center of the section.
b
Assume the shear center E exists and is located

distance ye from vertical web, as shown.
h/2
tf
O
Vz
Apply a shear load Vz through the shear center.

E
ye
h/2
First thing to note is that since the section

is symmetric, the positions of the centroid
and the shear center must lie somewhere
on the horizontal axis of symmetry.
Section properties:
tw
2
2
twh3
t h 3 t f bh
h
+ 2bt f = w +
12
12
2
2
=0
because section is symmetric.
I yy =
I yz
tf
Izz is not relevant.
Vy = 0
q =
Vz
tz ds
I yy 0
At the top flange, z = h/2, y = b s1,

where s1 defined.
z
tf
O
h/2
Vz = Vz ,
s
s1
h/2
Hence
Vz
y
ye
q s1 =
tw
=
tf
Vz
tf
I yy
Vz t f h
2 I yy
s1
2 ds
s1
At s1 = 0, q s1 = 0. (free edge).
20
Take moments about the point A,

b
V z y e = h q s1 ds1
s1
q s1 ds1
s2
=
Vz 1
2 I yy 2 0
h/2
tf
O
Vz
ye
h/2
h 2t f
ye =
tw
A
tf
b 2 h 2t f
4 I yy
Vz
b 2 h 2t f
4 I yy
(ht
3b 2 t f
w
+ 6bt f
Therefore, the shear center is to the

left of the section.
Example 9
shear center of the semi-circular
section.

z
r
Vz
y
ye
The section is symmetric, the positions of

the centroid and the shear center must lie
somewhere on the horizontal axis of
symmetry.
Apply a shear load Vz through the shear center.

E
Section properties:
I yy =
r 3 t
I yz = 0
2
21
Define coordinate s.
s
q=
Vz
ye
=
=
Vz
tz ds
I yy 0
Vz t 2
r cos d
I yy 0
where
z = r cos , ds = rd.
V z tr
sin
I yy
Take moments about the point O,

S
V z y e = r q ds
0
= r 2 q d
z
r
Vz
y
ye
ye =
t
V z tr 4
[ cos ]0
I yy
4r
Vz
4r
= 1.27 r
The shear center is to the left
of the section.
22
Example 10
shear center of the closed
section and the distribution of
shear flow.
150
t1
Apply a shear load Vz = 1 106 N through the

shear center.
t1
Vz
250
ye
Section properties:
I yy = 25 .78 10 6 mm 4
I yz = 0
t1 = 3 mm , t 2 = 6 mm .
t2
t1
Define coordinates and points

as follows.
s4
A
s1
D
t1
t1
y
s3
t2
t1
s2
From A to B,
s1 = z + 125
From B to C,
z = 125
From C to D,
s3 = z + 125
From D to A,
z = 125
Let the shear flow at A be qm, an unknown

quantity to be determined.
23
q AB = q m
qm
A
s1
s4
D
t1
t1
zt ds
1
(10 6 )(3)
(125 s1 ) ds1
25 .78 10 6
= q m 0.116 125 s1 0.5 s12
= qm
At B, qAB = qm
y
s3
t1
q BC = q m
Vz
I yy
zt ds
1
= q m 0.116 ( 125 ) ds 2
t2
B
Vz
I yy
= q m + 14 .5 s 2
s2
At C, qBC = 2175 + qm
qCD = q m
qm
A
s1
s4
D
t1
t1
zt ds
2
(10 6 )( 6)
(s3 125 ) ds3
25 .78 10 6
= q m 0.233 0.5 s32 125 s3 + 2175
= qm
At D, qCD = qm + 2175
y
s3
t1
s2
q DA = q m
Vz
I yy
zt ds
1
= q m 0.116 (125 ) ds 4
t2
B
Vz
I yy
= q m 14 .5 s4 + 2175
24
Rate of twist = 0, since load acts

through shear center.
1 q
d
=
ds = 0
dx 2 G t
q
q
q
q
AB ds1 + BC ds 2 + CD ds 3 + DA ds 4 = 0
t
t
t
t
AB 1
BC 1
AB 2
AB 1
which simplifies to
675 q m + 598125 = 0
q m = 886 .1
qm = - 886.1
A
q = 1288.9
D
Therefore,
q AB = 886 .1 14 .5 s1 + 0.058 s12

q BC = 886 .1 + 14 .5 s 2
qCD = 1289 0.116 s32 + 29 s3
q DA = 1289 14 .5 s 4
B
qm = - 886.1
C
q = 1288.9
25
Take moments about point O to obtain shear center.
150
250 q BC ds 2 + 150 qCD ds 3 = V z y e

B
150
V z y e = 250 ( 886 .1 + 14 .5 s 2 ) ds 2
Vz
O
ye
250
250
+ 150
(1288 .9 0.116 s
2
3
+ 29 s3 ds 3
= 75525 + 93646250
y e = 93 .7 mm
Combined
Bending and
Torsion
26
P
General Case: Superposition of
Bending and Torsion
+
Pure Bending through shear center
Pure Torsion T = Pd
P
d
Pure Torsion of Open Sections
Linear distribution of
shear stress xy
across thickness
27
Pure Torsion of Closed Sections
Constant distribution of
shear stress xs
across the thickness
Shear flow q is
constant anywhere in
the section, but shear
stress xs is NOT
constant because of
varying wall thickness
Pure Bending of Open Sections
E
Distribution of shear flow q in
walls due to bending such that
nett contribution of q must be due
to P, applied force.
Bending stress x
exists in walls
28
Pure Bending of Closed Sections
Distribution of shear flow q in

walls is similar to that of an open
section, except for a constant q0
superimposed.
Bending stress x
exists in walls
29
Idealized Beams
The section is made up of concentrated stringers

of area An, joined by thin sheets of thickness tn.
Let the loads Vz and Vy act
through the shear centre E.
Hence pure bending.
y
Centroid O
Vz
x
tn
Shear
Centre
An
Vy zn
yn
The nth stringer is located at

positions yn and zn away from
the origin at the centroid.
Taking moments as before

(see Eqns (51)), we have
Vz =
M y
x
M y = Vz x
(61a)
M z
x
M z = V y x
(61b)
and
Vy =
Let n denote the normal stress due to bending in the nth

stringer. Since there is no nett axial load,
N
n =1
An = 0
(62a)
where N is the total

number of stringers.
An
y
Centroid O
The moment about the y-axis

contributes to the normal stress n
due to bending.
My =
=
n =1
N
n =1
M
n
yn
An z n
(62b)
An
y
Centroid O
zn
Myn
yn
Contribution of axial force dF due to n to the bending moment

Area An
M yn = n An zn
(Tensile on positive z)
n
dx
z
zn
+ Myn
x
y (into page)
The moment about the z-axis

contributes to the normal stress n
due to bending.
Mz =
M
n =1
zn
= n An y n
n =1
(62c)
An
y
Centroid O
zn
Mzn
yn
Contribution of axial force dF due to n to the bending moment

Area An
M zn = n An yn
(Compressive on positive y)
n
dx
y
yn
dMzn
x
z (out of page)
Invoke again the assumption that plane sections remain

plane, which implies that the axial strain (and axial stress )
is a linear function of y and z.
Let n = C1 + C 2 y n + C 3 z n
and substituting this into Eqns (62) and solving for
the constants C1, C2, C3, we have C1 = 0 and
M z I yy + M y I yz
M I + M z I yz
y n + y zz
2
I I I2
yy zz
yz
I yy I zz I yz
n =
zn
(63)
Note the similarity with Eqn (53).

The expression for the neutral axis remains the same as Eqn (54).
However, the section properties are now

N
I yy = An z n2
(64a)
n =1
N
I zz = An y n2
(64b)
n =1
N
I yz = An y n z n
(64c)
n =1
They are easier to evaluate than integrals!
Eqn (63) can, of course, be rewritten in terms

of equivalent moments:
n =
M z yn M y zn
+
I zz
I yy
M I
M z + y yz
I yy
Mz =
I2
1 yz
I yy I zz
M I
M y + z yz
I zz
My =
2
I
1 yz
I yy I zz
normal bending stress n
z
Tension
y
Neutral axis
Compression
Now, consider the shear

flows in the sheets or webs.
Select a small length dx of a typical

nth stringer with two adjacent nth
and (n + 1)th sheets.
An n
qn
y
dx
x
qn+1
An n + n dx
x
Force equilibrium in x-direction:
n An + n + n dx An qndx+ qn+1dx = 0
x
qn+1 = n An + qn
(65)
x
Substituting Eqn (63) into Eqn (65) and using Eqns (61),
(V y I yy Vz I yz )yn + (Vz I zz V y I yz )zn

An + qn
qn +1 =
2
I
I
I
yy
zz
yz
(66)
This equation relates the shear flow of the (n + 1)th sheet to the
shear flow of the adjacent nth sheet.
If the section is open, starting from one free edge, the shear flows
in successive sheets may be easily found.
Note that the shear flow does not vary with s within each sheet or
web.
V y yn Vz zn
q n +1 =
+
I zz
I yy
An + q n
V z I yz
V y
I yy
Vy =
I yz2
1
I yy I zz
V y I yz
Vz
I zz
Vz =
I yz2
1
I yy I zz
If the section is closed, we first

analyze the problem as if one of
the sheets (pick one arbitrarily)
is missing.
q5 + q0
q0
q4 + q0
Replace the missing sheet

with the unknown shear flow.
The unknown shear flow is then
superposed onto the problem and
solved by taking moments of the
combined shear flows about a
convenient point.
q1
+ q0
q3 + q0
q2 + q0
10
Example 11
Determine the shear flow distribution in the idealized channel section
produced by a vertical load of 48 kN acting through its shear center. Assume
the skin is effective only in resisting shear stresses, while the stringers, each of
area 300 mm2, resist all the direct stresses.
2
1
z
48 kN
2000
4
I yy = Ai zi2 = 4(300)(2000)2 = 4.8109 mm4
i =1
2000
3
4
2000
Dimensions in mm
q12 =
2
6 N/mm
2000
q 23
48000
( 300 )( 2000 ) 6 = 12 N/mm
4 . 8 10 9
V
= z A3 z 3 + q 23
I yy
=
y
2000
6 N/mm
3
48000
( 300 )( 2000 ) = 6 N/mm
4 . 8 10 9
V
= z A2 z 2 + q12
I yy
=
z
12 N/mm
Vz
A1 z1 + 0
I yy
q 34
48000
( 300 )( 2000 ) 12 = 6 N/mm
4 . 8 10 9
2000
Dimensions in mm
Note that we can check vertical and

horizontal force equilibrium and show
that the resultants are 48 kN and zero,
respectively.
11
Example 12
Find the shear flows in the webs of the unsymmetrical closed beam section.
300 mm2
A
B 100 mm
z V
z
y
D
100 mm2
200 mm
Vy
100 mm
C
300 mm2
Vy = 4 kN
Vz = 10 kN
I yy = Ai z i2 = 2(300 )(50 ) 2 + 2 (100 )(50 ) 2 = 2 .0 10 6 mm 4

i =1
4
I zz = Ai yi2 = 2(300 )(100 ) 2 + 2(100 )(100 ) 2 = 8.0 10 6 mm 4

i =1
4
I yz = Ai y i z i = (300 )( 100 )(50 ) + (300 )(100 )( 50 )

i =1
+ (100 )(50 )(100 ) + (100 )( 50 )( 100 ) = 2 .0 10 6 mm 4

2.0
4 00 0 10 0 00
2 .0 = 1 .86 67 1 0 4
Vy =
2
( 2 .0 )
1
( 2 .0 )(8 .0 )
2 .0
10 0 00 4 00 0
8 .0 = 1.4 66 7 10 4
Vz =
( 2.0 ) 2
1
( 2 .0)(8 .0 )
12
V y yn Vz zn
q n +1 =
+
An + q n
I zz
I yy
1.8667 y n 1.4667 z n
An + q n
=
+
2
2.0 10 2
8.0 10
= ( 2.33 y n 7.33 z n ) 10 3 An + q n
Let qAD be the unknown shear flow,

i.e. qAD = q0.
Consider stringer D:
B
q0
D(-100,-50)
100 mm2
C
60 + q0
q DC = ( 2 .33 ( 100 ) 7 .33 ( 50 ) ) 10 3 (100 ) + q 0

= 60 + q 0
13
Consider stringer C:
B
q0
100 + q0
C(100,-50)
60 + q0
300 mm2
q CB = ( 2 .33 (100 ) 7 . 33 ( 50 ) ) 10 3 (300 ) + q DC

= 100 + q 0
Consider stringer B:
40 + q0
A
100 mm2
B(100,50)
q0
100 + q0
C
60 + q0
q BA = ( 2 .33 (100 ) 7 . 33 (50 ) ) 10 3 (100 ) + q CB

= 40 + q 0
14
Let us now take moments

about, say O:
q AD (100 )(100 ) + q BA ( 200 )( 50 ) + q CB (100 )( 100 ) + q DC ( 200 )( 50 ) = 0

4 q 0 = 200
q 0 = 50 N/mm
40 + q0
q0
100 + q0
60 + q0
qAD = - 50 N/mm
qDC = 10 N/mm
qCB = 50 N/mm
qBA = - 10 N/mm
Example 13
I yy = Ai z i2 = 2 Ar 2
Find the shear center.
i =1
q=
z
Vz
y
ye
V z z n An
V
= z
I yy
2r
Taking moments about O,

E
V z y e = r q ds
0
= r 2 q d
Area of each stringer = A mm2
= r 2 q
rV z
=
2
ye =
r
2
15
Example 14
Find the shear center.
120
B (80,40)
C (-40,40)
120 mm2
45
40
F
z
O
60
y
60 mm2
D (-40,-50)
120 mm2
All dimensions in mm
60 mm2
40
A (80,-20)
First, remember to locate the centroid!
y=
1 4
2(60)(120)
Ai yi = 360 = 40
A i =1
z=
1 4
(60)(60) + (120)(90)
Ai zi =
= 40
A i =1
360
measured from C
measured from C
Section properties:
4
I yy = Ai z i2 = (60 + 120 )( 40 ) 2 + (60 )( 20 ) 2 + (120 )( 50 ) 2 = 0.612 10 6 mm 4

i =1
4
I zz = Ai yi2 = 2(60 )(80 ) 2 + 2(120 )( 40 ) 2 = 1.152 10 6 mm 4

i =1
4
I yz = Ai y i z i = ( 60 )(80 )( 20 ) + (60 )(80 )( 40 ) + (120 )( 40 )( 40 )

i =1
+ (120 )( 40 )( 50 ) = 0.144 10 6 mm 4
16
Let us first find the z-coordinate position of shear center E.

Vy
E
C
ze
z
Assume an arbitrary
shear force Vy applied
to the shear center.
A
Hence
Vy
I zz
= 0.894 106 Vy
Vz
= 0.210 106 Vy
I yy
qBC
z
qCD
qAB
y
A
Vy y A Vz z A
+
q AB =
AA + 0
I zz
I yy
= ( 0.894(80) 0.210(20) ) 60 106 Vy

= 4.543 103Vy
Vy yB Vz zB
qBC =
+
AB + q AB
I zz
I yy
= ( 0.894(80) 0.210(40) ) 60 106 Vy 4.543 103Vy

= 8.33 103Vy
qCD = 5.68 103Vy
17
Vy
qBC
C
ze
qCD
z
qAB
D
Taking moments about a convenient point F,
V y ( z e + 5) = [ (45) 2 ( 5.68) + ( 4.543)(60)(120) + ( 8.330)(120)(45)] 10 3 V y

= 113.83V y
z e = 108.8 mm
measured from O.
Let us now find the y-coordinate position of shear center E.

Vz
E
z
O
Assume an arbitrary
shear force Vz applied
to the shear center.
y
ye
A
Now,
Vy
I zz
= 0.2110 6 V y
Vz
= 1.68 10 6 V y
I yy
18
Vz
E
q AB = 3.024 10 3Vz
z
qCD
qAB
qBC = 0
qCD = 7.056 10 3Vz
ye
A
40
D
Taking moments about F,
V z ( y e + 40 ) = [ ( 45 ) 2 ( 7 . 056 ) + ( 3 .024 )( 60 )(120 )] 10 3 V z

= 66 . 7V z
y e = 26 .7 mm measured from O.
Example 15
The idealized tube is loaded by a vertical shear force of 10 kN acting in
the plane of the section. Assuming the direct stresses are carried by the
stringers while the webs are effective only in carrying the shear stresses,
calculate the distribution of shear flow around the section.
10 kN
2
3
z
A1 = A8 = 200 mm2
A2 = A7 = 250 mm2
A3 = A6 = 400 mm2
A4 = A5 = 100 mm2
1
4
200 100
y
5
60
6
120
7
240
240
19
Section properties:
I yy = Ai zi2 = 2 ( 200 )(30 ) 2 + ( 250 )(100 ) 2 + ( 400 )(100 ) 2 + (100 )(50 ) 2
i =1
= 13 .86 10 6 mm 4
I yz = 0
because the section is symmetric about the horizontal axis.
Izz does not enter into calculation because Vy = 0.
Select the shear flow in web 2-3 to be the unknown shear flow, q23.
V z
q34 = z 3 A3 + q23
I
yy
(10 103 )(100)
=
(400) + q23
13.86 106
= 28.9 + q23
10 kN
3
q23 28.9
z
q23
A1 = A8 = 200 mm2
A2 = A7 = 250 mm2
A3 = A6 = 400 mm2
A4 = A5 = 100 mm2
1
4
200 100
y
5
60
6
120
7
240
240
20
V z
q45 = z 4 A4 + q34
I
yy
(10 103 )(50)
=
(100) 28.9 + q23
13.86 106
= 32.5 + q23
Due to symmetry,
q56 = q34 = 28.9 + q23

q67 = q23
10 kN
q23 28.9
z
200 100
q23
A1 = A8 = 200 mm2
A2 = A7 = 250 mm2
A3 = A6 = 400 mm2
A4 = A5 = 100 mm2
1
4
q23 32.5
y
5
60
6
q23 28.9
q23
240
120
7
240
(10 103 )(100)

(250) + q23
13.86 106
= 18.1 + q23
q78 =
(10 103 )(30)

(200) + 18.1 + q23
q81 =
13.86 106
= 22.4 + q23
Due to symmetry,
q12 = q 78 = 18 .1 + q 23
A1 = A8 = 200 mm2
A2 = A7 = 250 mm2
A3 = A6 = 400 mm2
A4 = A5 = 100 mm2
10 kN
q23 28.9
z
200 100
q23
q23 + 18.1
1
4
q23 32.5
y
5
60
6
q23 28.9
120
7
q23
240
q23 + 22.4
q23 + 18.1
240
21
Take moments about the point of intersection of the line of action of the
shear load and the horizontal axis of symmetry.
10 kN
z
200 100
4
q45
O
q23
q34
q12
1
60
120
q81
240
240
(50 q 45 )(120 ) + (120 q34 + 240 q 23 + 240 q12 )(100 )

+ ( 70 q12 )( 240 ) + (30 q81 )( 480 ) = 0
70q12
10 kN
120q34
z
200 100
4
50q45
O
240q23
60
6
120
30q81
1
240q12
50q34
y
7
240
240
22
Substituting for q23 and solving, we obtain
q23 = 5.4 N/mm

q34 = 34.3 N/mm
q45 = 37.9 N/mm
q56 = 34.3 N/mm
q67 = 5.4 N/mm
q78 = 12.7 N/mm
q81 = 17.0 N/mm
10 kN
34.3
5.4
q12 = 12.7 N/mm

12.7
1
4
37.9
17.0
5
7
12.7
34.3
5.4
Question to ponder:
How do we determine the separate proportions of
these shear flows due to bending and torsion?
10 kN
34.3
5.4
12.7
1
4
37.9
17.0
5
34.3
7
12.7
5.4
23
Example 15
Determine the position of the shear center.
(Let the thickness of each web = 1 mm.)
3
z
A1 = A8 = 200 mm2
A2 = A7 = 250 mm2
A3 = A6 = 400 mm2
A4 = A5 = 100 mm2
1
4
200 100
y
5
60
6
120
240
240
(50q45 )(120) + (120q34 + 240q23 + 240q12 )(100)

+ (70q12 )(240) + (30q81 )(480) = (10 103 ) ye
70q12
120q34
z
200 100
4
50q45
O
240q23
50q34
y
A
6
120
30q81
1
240q12
10 kN
ye
60
8
7
240
240
24
Substituting for the unknown shear flow,
6000(q23 32.5) + 12000q23 + 24000q23 + 24000q23

+ 16800q23 + 304080 346800 + 434400 + 14400q23
+ 322560 = (10 103 ) ye
97.2q23 + 519.24 = ye
The additional equation is supplied by the rate of twist
equation.

d
1 q
ds = 0
=
dx 2G t
q
q
q
q
q
2 12 ds12 + 2 23 ds 23 + 2 34 ds34 + 45 ds 45 + 81 ds81 = 0
t
t
t
t
t
1 2 12
2 3 23
3 4 34
4 5 45
8 1 81
3
4
O
y
5
A
6
25

2 (18 .1 + q23 ) ds12 + 2 q 23 ds 23 + 2 ( q 23 28 .9) ds34

1 2
(q
2 3
23
32 .5) ds 45 +
4 5
(22.4 + q
3 4
23
) ds81 = 0
8 1
2(18 .1 + q 23 )( 250 ) + 2 q 23 ( 240 ) + 2( q 23 28 .9)(130 )

+ ( q 23 32 .5)(100 ) + ( 22 .4 + q 23 )(60 ) = 0
1400 q 23 = 370
q 23 = 0.264
Substituting this into the moment equation, we have
ye = 544.9 mm
26
5/26/2009
Multicell Thin-walled Sections

The multicell tube in pure torsion is a statically indeterminate problem. The condition of consistent
twist must be used for each cell of the tube in order to obtain the solution.
Consider the n-celled tube of general shape subjected to a torque T. Clearly, the shear flow in the web
between cell i and cell j is qj-qi. Similarly, in the web between cell j and cell k, the shear flow is qj-qk.
H
Hence,
th
the rate
t off twist
t i t off cell
ll j becomes
b
1
d
=
j
dx
2
G
j
where j is the area enclosed by cell j.
q ds q ds q ds
i
k
j s t
t
t
s ji
s jk
j
(1)
j
1
qi
qj
qk
k
i
The first integral is evaluated over the entire cell parameter sj, the second integral over the web
between cell i and cell j (i.e. sji), and the third integral over the web between cell j and cell k (i.e. sjk).
1
T.E.Tay,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering, NationalUniversityofSingapore
Although cross-sections warp, they do not distort in their own plane. This means that
the entire cross-section and each cell rotate at the same rate of twist d . Thus
dx
d d d
d
d
= = = ... = = ... =
dx dx 1 dx 2
dx j
dx n
(2)
Therefore, for a general case where cell j is bounded by m cells,
d
1
ds m
ds
q j qr
=
dx 2G j s j t r =1
t
s jr
(3)
For n cells, there are n such equations.
5/26/2009
However, the number of unknowns involved is (n+1), i.e. q1, q2, q3, , qj, , qn
and d . The additional equation required is the moment equilibrium equation, i.e.
dx
n
T = 2 qi i
(4)
i =1
where qi is the shear flow in the
ith
cell.
The foregoing procedure can also be used for multicell thin-walled tubes loaded by
ttransverse
a sve se forces,
o ces, in w
which
c case tthee moments
o e ts induced
duced by the
t e transverse
t a sve se forces
o ces
should be taken into account in the moment equilibrium equation, and the shear
flow expressions for bending should be used.
Example 1:
The section shown has constant thickness t throughout. It is subjected to a constant
torque T. Determine the rate of twist.
2a
a
q1
q2
Consider cell 1:
Consider cell 2:
4a
a
d
1
ds1
ds
=
q2 12
q
2 1
dx 2Ga 0 t
t
0
1
(4q1 q2 )
=
2tGa
d
1
=
dx 4Ga 2
(1)
a
6 a ds
d 2
d
ds
q1 12
q2
t
t
0
0
1
(6q2 q1 )
4tGa
(2)
5/26/2009
Moment equilibrium:
2
T = 2 qi i
i =1
= 2q11 + 2q2 2
= 2a 2 (q1 + 2q2 )
(3)
From (1) and (2) we have:
q1 =
Substituting these into (3),
16
d
aGt
23
dx
T=
andd
q2 =
d 23 T
=
dx 104 Gta 3
18
d
aGt
23
dx
104 3 d
a Gt
23
dx
Example 2. Calculate the shear stress distribution in the walls of the three-cell wing
section shown when it is subjected to an anticlockwise torque of 11.3kNm.
G (N/mm2)
Thickness (mm)
Cell Area (mm2)
Wall
Length (mm)
12o
1650
1.22
24200
AI = 258000
12i
508
2 03
2.03
27600
AII = 355000
AIII = 161000
13, 24
775
1.22
24200
34
380
1.63
27600
35, 46
508
0.92
20700
56
254
0.92
20700
Note: The superscript symbols o and i are used to distinguish between outer and inner walls connecting the same
points.
11300Nm
3
III
II
I
2
5/26/2009
Let Gref = 27.6 GPa and t =
G
t
Gref
Hence
24.2
1.22 = 1.07
27.6
t13 = t24
= 1.07
t12 o =
ds12o
ds12i
12 o
12
t35
= t46
= t56
= 0.69
12 o
t12 i
=
=
1650
= 1542
1.07
508
= 250
2.03
ds13
ds
= 24 = 725
t
t
13 13
24 24
ds34
= 233
t
34 34
ds35
ds
= 46 = 736
t
t
46 46
35 35
ds56
= 368
t
56 56
For cell I,
ds12o
ds i
ds i
1
d
qI
=
+ qI 12 qII 12
dx 2Gref (258000 ) 12o t12 o
i t i
i t i
12 12
12 12
=
1
(qI (1542 + 250) 250qII )
2Gref (258000 )
For cell II,
d
1
=
( 250qI + (250 + 725 + 233 + 725)qII 233qIII )
dx 2Gref (355000 )
For cell III,
d
1
=
( 233qII + (736 + 736 + 233 + 368)qIII )
dx 2Gref (161000 )
II
qI
qII
III
4
qIII
5/26/2009
From the moment equilibrium equation
2(258000q I + 355000q II + 161000q III ) = 11.3 10 6

These equations are solved to give
qI = 7.1 N/mm
q II = 8.9 N/mm
qIII = 4.2 N/mm
8.9
1
7.1
4.2
1.8
4.7
2
8.9
4.2
6
4.2
The Method of Successive Approximations for Pure Torque

Consider a two-cells section free to warp and subjected to torque T.
II
qI
qII
If the cells were separated, we see that d d and this violates the constant
dx I dx II
rate of twist condition.
II
I
qI
qII
10
5/26/2009
d
d
= G = 1, then
dx I
dx II
If we arbitrarily let G
For cell I,
For cell II,
q ds
d
G = II = 1
dx II 2 II t II
qII II
=1
2 II
2
q ds
d
G = I = 1
dx I 2 I t I
qI I
=1
2 I
2
11
Considering the separated cell I, we see that at the wall shared with cell II, the shear
flow must be corrected for the shear flow due to cell II.
qII
qI
12
5/26/2009
The contribution of qII to the rate of twist is represented by an equivalent shear flow qI
over the perimeter of cell I.
ds
ds
qI = qII
t I
t I , II
qII
qI
13
Or,
qI = qII
where
I , II
I
I , II =
ds
for the wall common to cells I and II
t
The correction carry-over factor is then defined as
C II , I =
I , II
I
qI = qII C II , I
qI
I
qI
14
5/26/2009
Since the correction carry-over factor is less than unity, if the procedure is repeated,
the correction become successively smaller until they are finally negligible. The
number of iterations depends on the accuracy required.
(qI )Final = qI + qI + qI + qI + K
where
qI = qII C II , I
qI = qII C II , I
15
Similarly for cell II,
C I , II =
I , II
II
qI
II
qII
qII = qI C I , II
qII
II
qII
16
5/26/2009
Example 3:
Let us solve the problem of the previous
example using the method of successive
approximations.
ds
t
ds12o
I =
=
12
12
ds12i
t12 i
II = 250 + 725 + 233 + 725
= 1933
III
II
t12 o
= 1542 + 250
= 1792
11300Nm
1
III = 736 + 233 + 736 + 368
= 2073
I , II = 250
II , III = 233
17
The carry-over factors are:
I , II 250
=
= 0.129
II 1933
250
= I , II =
= 0.140
I 1792
C I , II =
C II , I
233
= 0.112
2073
233
=
= 0.121
1933
The initial assumed values of shear flows:
qI =
qII =
qIII =
2 II
2 III
II
III
2(258000)
= 287.9
1792
2 I
III
II
C II , III =
C II , III
2(355000)
= 367.3
1933
2(161000 )
= 155.3
2073
18
5/26/2009
Cell I
Cell II
CI,II = 0.129
CII,I = 0.140
Cell III
CII,III = 0.112
CIII,II = 0.121
A
Assumed
dq
287 9
287.9
367 3
367.3
155 3
155.3
(0.140)(367.3)=51.4
(0.129)(287.9)=37.14
(0.121)(155.3)=18.8
(0.112)(367.3)=41.1
(0.140)(37.14)=5.2
(0.129)(51.4)=6.63
(0.121)(41.1)=4.97
(0.112)(18.8)=2.10
0.93
0.67
0.25
0.56
0.09
0.12
0.07
0.03
Final q
345 5
345.5
435 9
435.9
199 1
199.1
19
We still need the torque equilibrium equation to arrive at the correct solution.
From the torque equilibrium equation,
T = 2qI I + 2qII II + 2qIII III
= 2(345.5)(258000) + 2(435.9 )(355000) + 2(199.1)(161000)

= 5.52 108
But the actual applied torque is 0.113x108

So the values of q must be scaled down by a factor of 0.113/5.52=0.0205
Cell I
Cell II
Cell III
Final q
345.5
435.9
199.1
Scaled q
7.07
8.92
4.1
20
10
5/26/2009
Bending Shear Stresses in Multi-cell Beams

Consider a three-cells section carrying a shear load through the shear centre
(no twist):
VZ
II
III
21
If each cell were cut, the open-section shear flow would be given by
qb =
=
(I
yz
Qz I zz Q y ) Vz
I yy I zz I yz2
(I yt ds I zt ds ) V
yz
zz
I yy I zz I
2
yz
Distribution of qb:
II
III
22
11
5/26/2009
If we now close the cells, the constant shear flows qI, qII and qIII must be superposed
onto the shear flow qb in the respective cells:
qb
qI
qII
qIII
23
Considering each cell separately, we now have to correct for the shear flows in the
shared walls. Consider, for example, cell II, where qI acts on the left wall, and qIII on the
right wall:
qII
qI
qIII
qb
24
12
5/26/2009
Since the twist is zero,

1 ds
d
G =
q = 0
t II
dx II 2 II
ds
q = 0
t II
or
From the figure, taking positive torque anti-clockwise,

ds
ds
ds
ds
=0
qb + q II q I q III
t II
t II
t I , II
t II , III
The other two cells have similar equations, i.e.:

ds
ds
ds
ds
=0
qb + qI qII qIII
t I
t I
t II , I
t I , III
and
ds
ds
ds
ds
qI
=0
qb + q III qII
t III
t III
t II , III
t I , III
These three equations can be solved to obtain

qI , qII and qIII
The above equations are also applicable to idealized multicell beams.
25
The Method of Successive Approximations for Bending Shear Flows

Since the twist is zero,
If shear force acts through shear centre
1 ds
d
G =
q = 0
t II
dx II 2 II
or
d
ds
q = 0
t II
Hence, from the figure, taking positive torque anti-clockwise, for cell II,
ds
ds
ds
ds
=0
qb + q II q I q III
t II
t II
t I , II
t II , III
qb
ds
qb + q II II q I I , II q III II , III = 0
t II
Rearranging,
qII =
ds
qb
t II
II
+ q I I , II + qIII II , III
II
II
qI
qII
qIII
= qII + C I , II q I + C III , II qIII

26
13
5/26/2009
To begin, we first neglect the contribution of qI and qIII, so that
q II = qII =
ds
qb
t II
II
q I = qI
q III = qIII
Subsequently,
q II = qII + C I , II qI + C III , II qIII
= qII + qII
etc.
27
Example 4. Determine the shear flow distribution in the single symmetrical three-cell
wing section below when it carries a shear load of 100 kN applied through its shear centre
and hence find the distance of the shear centre from the spar web 34. Assume all direct
stresses are resisted by the stringers while the skin is effective only in shear. The shear
modulus G is constant throughout.
Stringer areas: B1 = B6 = 2500 mm2, B2 = B5 = 3800 mm2, B3 = B4 = 3200 mm2
C ll areas: AI = 265000 mm2, AII = 580000 mm2, AIII = 410000 mm2
Cell
Wall
12, 56
23, 45
34o
16
25
34i
Length (mm)
1025
1275
2200
330
450
400
Thickness (mm)
1.25
1.65
2.25
1.65
2.65
2.65
100kN
s
1270mm
II
III
6
1020mm
28
14
5/26/2009
The carry-over factors:
I = 1128.7
II = 1870.0
III = 2013.6
I , II 150.9
=
= 0.081
1870
II
150.9
= I , II =
= 0.134
I 1128.7
C I , II =
C II , I
I , II = 150.9
C II , III = 0.086
II , III = 173.6
C III , II = 0.093
29
For an open idealized section symmetric about the horizontal axis,
qbi =
Vz
Ai zi
I yy
100 103
(3200)( 200) = 80.6 N/mm
7.94 108
0
= 110.1 N/mm
qb 43 =
qb 52
qb 61 = 52.0 N/mm
Also,
80.6
52.0
110.1
(80.6)(400) = 12166.0 N/mm

ds
q =
t I
2.65
(110.1)(460) 12166.0 = 6945.7 N/mm

ds
q =
t II
2.65
0 1
ds
q = 6218.9 N/mm
t III
30
15
5/26/2009
4.4
11.4
The solution proceeds in the tabulated

form shown.
Taking moments about the centre of
spar web 34,
2.7
54.7
III
II
103.0
73.6
4.4
2.7
100 103 s = 2 I qI + 2 II qII + 2 III q III + (110.1)(460)(1270) + (52)(330)(2290)
s = 946.8 mm
Cell I
Cell II
Cell III
1128.7
1870.0
2013.6
-12166.0
-6945.7
6218.9
qb ds
t
CI,II=0.08
q ds
q = b
t
q
CII,I=0.134
-10.78
10.78
CII,III=0.086
CIII,II=0.093
-3.71
3.71
(0.134)(-3.71) =-0.50
3.09
(0.08)(-10.78)=-0.86
(0.093)(3.09)=0.29
(0.086)(-3.71)=-0.32
(0.134)(-0.86)=-0.115
(0.08)(-0.50)=-0.04
(0.093)(0.32)=-0.03
(0.086)(0.29)=0.02
(0.134)(-0.04)=-0.005
(0.08)(-0.115)=-0.01
(0.093)(0.02)=0
(0.086)(-0.03)=0
Final q
-11.4
-4.36
2.7
31
Tapered Beams
Beams in aerospace vehicle structures are often tapered in order to achieve maximum
structural efficiency with minimum weight.
The simple beam shown consists of two stringers of equal areas, joined by a vertical web
that does not carry bending stresses.
x
x0
h1
h0
h2
Vz
32
16
5/26/2009
Consider forces acting on a section of

the beam at a distance b from the free
end. The shear force in the web is
Vw = qh
(1)
The total shear force in the stringers is

equal to the sum of the vertical forces in
the stringers:
P tan1
V f = P (tan 1 + tan 2 )
h h
= P 1 + 2
x x
Ph
=
x
P
q
VW
(2)
P tan2
P
33
Now, the presence of P is caused by the

bending moment due to the external load
Vz , so that
th t
Ph = VZ b
Vf =
Vz b
x
(3)
from (2)
Vz
(4)
h
P
b
34
17
5/26/2009
Also, considering vertical forces,
Vz = V f + Vw
(5)
Vw = Vz (1 b x ) = Vz x0 x
from (3)
(6)
From similar triangles,

x0 x = h0 h
(7)
so that
Vw = Vz h0 h
(8)
and
V f = Vz (h h0 ) h
(9)
35
Hence the shear flow in the web at a section of depth h is

q=
=
Vw
I yy
Az
i i
Vw
(Ah 2)
2
*Note that we have used Vw instead of Vz
Ah
2
= Vw h
(10)
h0
h2
(11)
q = Vz
in terms of applied shear load Vz and geometry.
36
18
5/26/2009
Let us now seek a more general analysis of the bending and twisting of tapered
idealized beams. Consider the section of an idealized tapered multicell tube subjected to
shear loads Vy and Vz , acting through an arbitrary point. The reference axis passes
through the centroid of the section. Pn is the force in the nth stringer, and is in general
composed
p
of three components
p
in the x,, y and z directions. Let these components
p
be
denoted Pxn, Pyn and Pzn, respectively.
Pn
z
Vz
Vy
37
The axial component is given by
Pxn = xn An
where xn is calculated by the flexure formula and

An is the cross-sectional area of the nth stringer.
Pxn
We see that
Pxn x
=
Pzn z n
z
Pzn = n Pxn
x
Pyn
Pzn
Pzn
(13)
Pyn
zn
yn
z n
y
y
Pyn = n Pzn = n Pxn
z n
x
zn
x
L t us isolate
i l t stringer
ti
id forces
f
i the
th yz
Let
n andd consider
in
and xz planes.
Also,
Pzn
(12)
y n
(14)
y
38
19
5/26/2009
Now consider moment equilibrium about some convenient point C. Let the horizontal
and vertical distances from stringer n to the point C be n and n, respectively. Also let
the corresponding distances of the point of application of the shear loads Vy and Vz to
the point C be 0 and 0. The total number of stringers is N and the total number of
sheets is M.
Pzn
Pyn
Vz
Vy
39
Taking moments about C,

N
n =1
n =1
Vz 0 V y 0 = Pzn n Pyn n + ri qi
Due to forces in stringers
i =1 i
ds
ti
(15)
Due to shear flow in webs
Vertical and horizontal equilibrium of forces yield

N
V y = Pyn + V yw
(16)
n =1
and
Vz = Pzn + Vzw
(17)
n =1
Here Vyw and Vzw are resultants of the shear forces carried by the webs.
webs These values
should be used in the calculation of shear flows in the webs. The solution procedure is
similar to that for multicell boxes, except that the modified moment equilibrium
equation (i.e. Eqn 15) should be used.
40
20
5/26/2009
Example 1: A tapered two-cell tube with symmetrical cross-sections 1.2m apart has the
dimensions shown. The tube supports load which produce a bending moment My =-1.65
kNm and a shear force Vz =10 kN in the plane of the internal spar web at the larger
cross-section. The shear modulus G is constant throughout. Determine the forces in the
stringers and the shear flow distribution at this cross-section.
Stringer areas: A1 = A3 = A4 = A6 = 600 mm2 , A2 = A5 = 900 mm2
Vz =10 kN
150mm
100mm
0.8mm
0.8mm
I
1.0mm
1.0mm
II
0.8mm
80
mm 180mm
1.0mm
0.8mm
200mm
400mm
41
At the larger cross-section,

I yy = 4(600)(90) + 2(900)(90) = 34 106 mm 4
2
The direct stresses are given by xn =

M y zn
Hence
Pxn =
e.g.
Px1 =
I yy
M y zn
I yy
An
(1600)(90)(600)(103 ) = 2620 N
34 10 6
The forces in the other stringers are similarly calculated.

Note that x = 1200mm.
e.g. For stringer 1, as x increases, z decreases;
z = 50 mm
and
z
= 0.042
x
42
21
5/26/2009
n and n are measured from the midpoint of the internal web 2-5.
Stringer
Pxn
zn/x
Pzn
y n / x
Pyn
Pznn
Pynn
1
2
3
4
5
6
-2620
-3930
-2620
2620
3930
2620
-0.042
-0.042
-0.042
0.042
0 042
0.042
0.042
110
165
110
110
165
110
0
0.083
0.125
0.125
0 083
0.083
0
0
-326
-328
328
326
0
44000
0
-22000
-22000
0
44000
0
29340
29520
29520
29340
0
Note:
Pzn =
z n
Pxn
x
Therefore,
P
n =1
zn n
yn n
zn
P
n =1
Hence, the shear forces carried by the webs are

V yw = V y Pyn = 0
= 117720 Nmm
n =1
6
n =1
= 44000 Nmm
y n
Pxn
x
n =1
Pyn =
and
yn
Vzw = Vz Pzn = 10000 770 = 9230 N
= 770 N
n =1
=0
43
Now let shear flows q12 and q23 be unknowns.

1
II
Force equilibrium of stringers:

Stringer 2,
Stringer 1,
V z A
q25 + q23 = zw 2 2 + q12
I yy
= 22 + q12
V zA
q12 = zw 1 1 + q61
I yy
= 14.7 + q61
Stringer 3,
q34 =
Vzw z3 A3
+ q23
I yy
= 14.7 + q23
Also, q45 = q23 and q56 = q12
44
22
5/26/2009
Rate of twist,
Consider cell I:
Consider cell II:
1
d
2(200 )q23 180q23 (14.7 )(180 ) 180q25
=
+
1.0
1.0
dx 2G (200 )(180 ) 0.8
1
(860q23 180q12 + 1314)
=
72000G
d
1
( 180q23 + 1360q12 1314)
=
dx 72000G
(1)
(2)
Taking moments about the midpoint of web 2-5, we have

(1.47)(180)(400) (14.7)(180)(200) + 72000q23 + 144000q12 + 44000 + 117720 = 0
(3)
E
Equating
i (1) andd (2),
(2) andd solving
l i with
i h (3),
(3) one obtains
b i
q23 = -4.4 N/mm
and
q12 = -2.6 N/mm
45
Effect of Varying Moments of Area

The box beam shown is subjected to a pure bending moment about the y axis. The
stringer areas change from section A to section B over a distance d along the beam. The
cross-sections of the beam are symmetric about the y axis.
z
Pi
d
y
Pi+Pi x
Section A
Section B
46
23
5/26/2009
Let us consider equilibrium of forces in the axial direction.

Pi + (qi +1 qi )d = 0
qi +1 = Pi d + qi
(18)
Now, the direction of Pi shown here produces a positive moment My. Thus Pi
produces a change in the bending moment from sections A to B.
Pi
Pi =
M y zi Ai
qi +1 =
qi+1
(19)
I yy
qi
M y zi Ai
I yy d
+ qi
(20)
Pi+Pi
47
Example 2: The single cell box beam is loaded by a transverse force of 1.0 kN.
Between points B and C, the beam has constant stringer section as shown in section
B-B. Between points B and D, two stringers taper uniformly, with the stringer areas at
point A as indicated in section A-A. Calculate the shear flow at section A-A.
Area of stringers: A1=100 mm2
A2=300 mm2
1.0 kN
A2
A1
A1
100
Section A-A
B
D
A2
A1
50
C
A1
50
A1
A1
A1
100
*All dimension in mm.
Section B-B
A1
A1
50
50
A1
48
24
5/26/2009
Consider section B-B:

3B
2B
1B
Consider section A-A:

3A
I yy = An z n2
2A
1A
I yy = An z n2
= 6(100)(50 )
= 4(100 )(50 ) + 2(300 )(50 )
= 1.5 106 mm 4
4B
5B
= 2.5 106 mm 4
6B
4A
Stress in stringers due to bending

b =
5A
6A
Stress in stringers due to bending
M yz
b =
I yy
(300)(1000)(50)
=
M yz
I yy
(500)(1000)(50)
=
2.5 106
= 10 MPa
1.5 106
= 10 MPa
Axial force in each stringer = (100)(10)

= 1000 N
Axial force in each corner stringer =

1000 N, and axial force in each of
stringers 2A and 5A is = 3000 N
49
P 1 = P 3 = P 6 = P 6 = 0 N
but P2 = P5 = 2000 N
3
2
1
2000 N
A-A
5
2000 N
B-B
50
25
5/26/2009
Assume q61 unknown.

Then q61 = q12.
Vertical equilibrium of forces gives
2q61 (100) = 1000
q61 = 5 N/mm
and
q12 = 5 N/mm
Check for the middle stringer,

q12 =
5 N/mm
P2
2000
+ q23 =
+ q23
d
200
5 N/mm
q23 = 5 10 = 5 N/mm
5 N/mm
which is correct, because q23 = -q12 due to symmetry.
Note that if we had used qi +1 =
Vz zi Ai
+ qi we would have obtained,
I yy
for section B-B,
q61 =
51
for section A-A,
(1000)(50)(100) + q
1.5 10 6
= 3.33 + q12
12
q12 = 8.33 N/mm
q61 =
(1000)(50)(100) + q
2.5 10 6
= 3.33 + q12
12
q12 = 7 N/mm
These results would have been wrong.
52
26
5/26/2009
53
27
THE GREEK ALPHABET

A
Bfl
r r
A 8
E C
z?
6
K K
A h
Mr
z
e long, as in scene
th as in thin
MU
ET
v
P P
Z ~,fimI
s
T T
Yu
*+
Zeta
Nu
Nu
8
0
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Htl
Q 0
1
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
X X ./
P #
Q W
Xi
Omicron
Pi
Rho
. Sigma
Tau
Uhilon
P~
Chi
Psi
Omega
b
g hard, as in begin'
d
e short, as in met
k
1
m
a
X
o shmt, as in lot
r
se
t
U
ph
ch hard, as in lock
PS
o long, as in throne
Except that before a, x or another y it is nasal-ng, as in anchor.

Sharp as in this, but flat before or p, as in asbestos, dismal.
ME4212 Mechanics of Thin-Walled Structures

Tutorial Sheet - Torsion of Thin-Walled Members
1. A hollow aluminium tube of rectangular cross section as shown in Fig. 1 is subjected to a
torque 56.6 kNm along its longitudinal axis. Determine the shear stresses and the rate of
twist. Assume G = 28 GPa.
500
250
6
10
12
6
Fig. 1
Ans: 1 = 18.9 MPa; 2 = 37.7 MPa; 3 = 22.6 MPa; = 0.00687 rad/m

2. The aluminium shafts (G = 28 GPa) of cross-sections shown in Figs. 2(a) to 2(c) are each
subjected to a torque of 2 kNm. Neglecting the effect of stress concentrations, calculate
(i) the maximum shear stress and (ii) the angle of twist in a 2-m length.
A
3
4
A
R100
B
R75
6
60o
B
3
2
D
2
C
R100
150
4
C
(a)
(b)
B
3
2
60o
A
(c)
Ans:
C
120
Fig. 2
(a) AC = 10.04 MPa, AB = 6.70 MPa; 0.31 (using exact dimensions)
T.E.Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NUS
1
(b) AB = BC = 8.05 MPa, AC = 5.37 MPa; 0.31 (using exact dimensions)

(c) AC = 80.18 MPa, AB = 40.09 MPa, BC = 53.46 MPa; 6.84
3. The thin-walled closed section beam shown in Fig.3 is subjected to a torque of 4500 Nm.
The section is constrained to twist about O, the centre of the semi-circular arc 512. For
the curved wall 512, the thickness is 2 mm and the shear modulus is 22 GPa. For the
plane walls 23, 34 and 45, the thickness is 1.6 mm and the shear modulus is 27.5 GPa.
Determine the warping displacements of points 2, 3, 4 and 5.
1.6 mm
5
1.6 mm
100 mm
R 50 mm
2.0 mm
3
1.6 mm
200 mm
Fig. 3
Ans: u 2 = u 5 = 0.053 mm, u 3 = u 4 = 0.187 mm.
4. a) The closed cross-section of a thin-walled tube shown in Fig. 4 is subjected to a torque

of 6000 Nmm. Determine the magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress
experienced by the tube, and the torsional constant. (All dimensions in mm.)
2
b) If a longitudinal slit is cut through the wall of the section at Point A, determine the
magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress when a torque of 6000 Nmm is
applied.
Ans: 2.89 MPa, 77412 mm4, 11.96 MPa.
10
2
3
30o
30o
60o
60o
5
20
6
20
30
Fig. 4

3

Tutorial Sheet - Bending of Thin-Walled Members
1.
A beam 250 mm wide by 300 mm deep by 4.2 m long is used as a simply-supported beam on
a span of 4 m. It is subjected to a concentrated load P at the midsection of the span. The
plane of the loads makes an angle = - 4/9 with the horizontal y-axis. The beam is made of
material with a yield stress 25.0 MPa. If the beam has been designed with a factor of safety
2.50 against initiation of yielding, determine the magnitude of P and orientation of the neutral
axis.
Ans:
2.
31.4 kN, 14.25o
In Fig. 1 let b = 300 mm, h = 300 mm, t = 25.0 mm, L = 2.50 m, and P = 16.0 kN. Calculate
the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the beam, and determine the orientation of
the neural axis.
Ans:
89.81 MPa, - 66.83 MPa, 30.71
60 mm
10 mm
10 mm
10 mm
30 mm
t
70 mm
P
10 mm
70 mm
t
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
3.
An extruded bar of aluminium alloy has the cross section shown in Fig. 2. A 2.10 m length
of this bar is used as a simple beam on a span of 2.00 m. A concentrated load P = 5.0 kN is
applied at mid-length of the span and makes an angle of = 4.54 rad with the y-axis.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the beam.
Ans: 80.93 MPa, - 75.3 MPa

T.E. Tay, Dept of Mechanical Engineering, NUS
4.
A cantilever beam 1.6 m long has the section shown in Fig. 3. It carries a load P = 2.5 kN in
the z direction at the free end. Find the magnitude and location of the maximum tensile
flexural stress. (All dimensions in mm.)
Ans: 184.1 MPa, at y = 55, z = 70
z
10
70
y
10
70
100
10
D
55
C
42
55
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
5. A column has the I-section shown in Fig. 4. A compressive force P parallel to the axis of the
column is applied at the corner A. Find the axial stresses in terms of P at the remaining three
corners B, C and D. (All dimensions in mm.)
I yy = 1.105 10 6 mm 4
I zz = 4.94 10 4 mm 4
A = 680 mm 2
Ans: 0.005195P, 0.009715P and -0.008135P
6. A uniform thin-walled beam has the open cross-section shown in Fig. 5. The wall thickness is
constant. Determine the position of the neutral axis and the maximum direct stress for a
bending moment of My = 3.5 kNmm. Take r = 5 mm and t = 0.64 mm.
Ans: -51.67, 100 MPa
t
z
r
y
Fig. 5
2

7. The cross-section of a beam is shown in Fig. 6. The beam is subjected to a bending moment
about the y-axis of 6000 Nmm. Determine the bending stresses at A, B, C and D. All
dimensions in mm. (All dimensions in mm.)
Ans: 0.206 MPa, -0.411 MPa, 0.411 MPa, -0.206 MPa.
z
50
D
C
5
50
y
5
50
5
A
B
50
Fig. 6
8. The closed two-cell cross-section of a fuselage shown in Fig. 7 is subjected to a bending
moment My = 5000 kNm.
a) Derive an expression for the position of the centroid in terms of r, tw and tf.
b) Hence determine the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses in the crosssection, if r = 1500 mm, tw = 5 mm and tf = 8 mm.
Ans:
rt f
9 19
10 10t w + 9t f
from O, 143.7 MPa, - 109.1 MPa.
tw
r
O
tf
9r/5
Fig. 7
3


Tutorial Sheet The Shear Center
1. Fig.1 shows the cross-section of an open thin-walled beam of uniform thickness t.
a) Determine the position of the shear center.
b) Derive expressions for the torsional constants of the open cross-section, and the
cross section if it were closed at point A. If the allowable shear stress is 30 MPa, a
= 25 mm and t = 2 mm, determine the maximum torques that can be applied to the
open and closed sections.
B
a
t
D
C
a
Fig. 1
Ans: (a)
a
4 2
from C. (b) 4 Nm, 75 Nm.
2. Find the shear centers of the following open thin-walled beam sections (Fig.2):
z
z
t
y
r
Fig. 2 (a)
Fig. 2 (b)
z
z
60
y
2c
y h
60
t
b
Fig. 2 (d)
Fig. 2 (c)
Ans: (a) -2r (b) -2r (c) -0.577c (d) 3b2/(h+3b)

1
3. Find the shear center if the thickness of the web tw is small compared with the
thickness of the flanges tf (Fig. 3).
z
c
y
O
tf
tw
b
Fig. 3
Ans: - b/2
4. A thin-walled beam has the cross-section shown in Fig. 4. The thickness of each
flange varies linearly from t1 at the tip to t2 at the junction with the web. The web
itself has a constant thickness t3. Calculate the position of the shear center from the
web.
t2
t1
h
t3
Fig. 4
Ans:
(2t1 + t 2 )d 2
3d (t1 + t 2 ) + ht 3
5. The thin-walled open tube (Fig. 5) of constant thickness t has a narrow longitudinal
slit at the corner 1-5. Calculate and sketch the shear flow distribution due to a vertical
shear force V acting through the shear center E, and note the values at points 2, 3 and
l
4. Hence show that the distance ye is
.
2(1 + a / b )
4
ye
5
h
E
1
a
b
2
l
Fig. 5
2
6. Determine the positions of the shear centers of the following thin-walled sections:
t
20
20
t
t
t
50 mm
Fig. 6 (b)
Fig. 6 (a)
45 45 r
t
O
t
Fig. 6 (d)
Fig. 6 (c)
Ans: (a) 1.47r (b) 37.3 mm (c) 1.35r (d) 0.53r

3

Tutorial Sheet Idealized Beams
1. Find the shear centers of the following idealized thin-walled beam sections (Fig.1)
(All dimensions in mm):
A
E
1.5
10
40
1.5
40
20
1.5
40
F
D
10
70
Fig. 1 (a)
1.5
1.5
Areas of stringers A, B, C and D are 120 mm2 each,

Areas of stringers E and F are 60 mm2 each.
Thickness of each sheet is 2 mm.
E
F
20
Area of each stringer is 25 mm2.
Fig. 1 (b)
B
z
60
2
y
E
60
2
D
C
60
80
Areas of stringers A, B, C and D are 120 mm2 each,

Area of stringer E is 80 mm2.
Fig. 1 (c)
Ans: (a) -21.7 to the left of BC (b) 3.33 to the right of CD (c) 40 to the left of E.

1
2. The idealized symmetrical cross-section of an aircraft fuselage (Fig. 2) is subjected to

a bending moment of 100 kNm about the horizontal axis. If all the direct (normal)
stresses are carried by the stringers, determine the average stress in each stringer. The
stringer areas are: A1 = 640 mm2, A2 = 600 mm2, A3 = 600 mm2, A4 = 600 mm2, A5 =
620 mm2, A6 = 640 mm2, A7 = 640 mm2, A8 = 850 mm2, A9 = 640 mm2. Suppose the
bending moment arises from the application of a shear force Vz = -100 kN, determine
the shear flows in the webs.
1
2
4
5
1200
1140
5
960
768
565
336
144
8
8
9
38
All dimensions in mm.
Fig. 2
Ans (selected): x1 = 35.6 MPa, x2 = 32.3 MPa, x6 = -11.0 MPa, x8 = -27.0 MPa,
q21 = -11.82 N/mm, q32 = -31.24 N/mm, q54 = -52.21 N/mm, q76 = -46.01 N/mm.
3. Find the stresses in the stringers and the shear flow in the webs of the 1.2 m-long
beam shown in Fig. 3. The area of each stringer is A mm2.
1.4 kN
t
t
100 mm
45
30
t
Fig. 3
Ans: 12246/A, 21286/A, -33522.5/A, 0 N/mm, -10.28 N/mm, 17.81 N/mm.

2
4. The single cell cross-section of a thin-walled tube (Fig. 4) is symmetric about the
horizontal axis. The normal stresses are carried by the stringers 1 to 4, while the webs
are effective only in carrying shear stresses. Calculate the shear stresses in each web.
Cell area = 135000 mm2.
Stringer areas: A1 = A4 = 450 mm2; A2 = A3 = 550 mm2.
Web
Length (mm)
Thickness (mm)
12, 34
23
500
580
0.8
1.0
41
200
1.2
1.0 kN
1
100
100
500
Fig. 4
Ans: 12 = 2.16 MPa, 23 = -1.02 MPa, 34 = 2.16 MPa, 41 = 3.32 MPa.

3
ME4212 Aircraft Structures

Tutorial Sheet Multicell Sections
1. The cross-section of an idealized three-cell torque box is shown in Figure 1. The

thickness of each web is t and the cross sectional area of each stringer is As. The shear
modulus of the web material is G and the Youngs modulus of the stringer material is
E. If the section is subjected to a constant torque T and allowed to warp freely,
determine the rate of twist and the maximum shear flow.
A
2a
D a
a
2a
a
3a
Figure 1
Ans:
0.0867
2. The two cell thin-walled section is fres to warp, and is subjected to a load of 10 kN as
shown in Figure 2. Determine the rate of twist.
R = 50 mm
z
t1 = 2 mm
t2 = 2 mm
t1
G = 20 GPa
Vz=10 kN
R
y
2R
t2
t1
t1
2R
Figure 2
Ans:
3.86
10 rad/mm
1
3. Use the method of successive approximations to find the position of the shear centre
of the idealized thin-walled section shown in Figure 3. Each stringer has an area A and
each web has a thickness t. Assume all direct bending loads are carried by the
stringers and the webs carry only shear loads.
5
a
a
3
a
Figure 3
Ans: ye = 0.025a =
to the right of 15
4. The cross-section of a three-cell torque box is shown in Figure 4.

It is constructed of seven stringer of area 400 mm2 each and nine webs. Aa vertical
force of 13.5 kN is applied to stringer 2. Assume that the webs carry only shear
stresses and that the section is free to warp. Determine the shear flow distributions in
the webs.
Shear modulus of the web material G = 60 GPa.
Youngs modulus of the stringer material E = 200 GPa.
13.5 kN
(All dimension in mm)

0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
6
0.5
100
150
5
0.5
200
200
Figure 4
Ans: q23=+43.56 N/mm, q34=+34.135 N/mm, q12=+42.59 N/mm, q72=+30.96 N/mm,
q63=+20.58 N/mm, q45=+4.14 N/mm.

2

Tutorial Sheet Tapered Beams & Varying Moments of Area
1. A uniformly tapered thin-walled beam consisting of four sheets and four stringers is
shown in Figure 1. The thickness of each sheet is 2 mm and the area of each stringer
is 200 mm2. The distance between the larger and smaller corss-sections is 800 mm. A
vertical load of 2 kN us applied at stringer 2 in the plane of the smaller cross-section.
Calculate the forces in the stringers and shear flow distribution at the larger crosssection.
2 kN
2
120
100
4
100
180
Figure 1
Ans: q31=4.63 N/mm, q12=-2.31 N/mm, q43=-2.31 N/mm, q24=-9.26 N/mm.
2. Figure 2 shows a uniformly tapered thin-walled beam consisting of four sheets and
four stringers. The thickness of each sheet is 2 mm and the cross-sectional area of
each stringer is 200 mm2. The distance between the larger and smaller cross-sections
is 800 mm. A vertical load of 3 kN is applied to stringer 4 in the plane of the smaller
cross-section. Assuming that the sheets carry only shear stresses and the stringers
carry only normal stresses, determine the shear flow distributions in the sheets at the
larger cross-section.

1
120
30
40
1 z
100
60
40
3 kN
Figure 2
Ans: q31=3.5 N/mm, q12=12.5 N/mm, q43=12.5 N/mm, q24=21.5 N/mm.
3. The tapered thin-walled beam shown in Figure 3 has the cross-section 600 mm apart
and is made of six stringers and six webs. The webs have a thickness of 2 mm each. A
vertical load of 2 kN is applied to stringer 1 in the plane of the smaller cross section.
Assuming that the webs carry only sehar stresses and the stringers carry normal
stresses, determine the shear flow distributions in the webs ant the larger crosssection.
Shear modulus of the web material G = 40 GPa.
The areas of the stringers:
A1 = A3 = A4 = A6 = 500 mm2
A2 = A5 = 300 mm2
2 kN
3
2
2
y
200
100
100
5
150
100
150
Figure 3
Ans: q12= q54=3.91 N/mm, q23= q65=2.756 N/mm, q36=0.8333 N/mm, q41=5.83 N/mm.

2
4. The cantilever box beam of length 2000 mm shown in Figure 4 consists of six sheets
and six stringers. It is built-in at one end and loaded by a vertical force of 800 N at the
other end. Stringers 2 and 5 have constant cross-sectional areas throughout the length
of the beam. Stringers 1, 3, 4 and 6 have uniformly varying cross-sectional areas.
Determine the shear flows in the sheets at a distance 600 mm away from the loaded
end. Assume that the sheets carry only shear and the stringers carry only normal
stresses.
800 N
B
B
600
2000
Figure 4
1
800 N
120
4
120
5
120
120
Section B-B
Loaded end
Areas of stringers:
A1 = A3 = A4 = A6 = 150 mm2
A2 = A5 = 50 mm2
Areas of stringers:
A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A5 = A6 =
50 mm2
Ans: q41= q63=3.33 N/mm, q12= 0.473 N/mm, q65=-0.473 N/mm.

3
5. The box beam shown in Figure 5 is loaded by a vertical force of 800 N. Stringers 1, 3
and 5 have uniformly tapered areas, while stringers 2, 4 and 6 have constant areas
along the span of the beam. Determine the shear stresses in the webs at section A-A, a
distance of 540 mm from the loaded end.
800 N
A
540
2000
Figure 5
100
1
90
3
4
800 N
100
90
Section A-A
Loaded end
Areas of stringers:
A1 = A3 = A5 = 120 mm2
A2 = A4 = A6 = 80 mm2
Areas of stringers:
A1 = A2 = A3 = 80 mm2
A4 = A5 = A6 = 80 mm2
Ans: q41= q63=4.444 N/mm, q12= 1.111 N/mm, q65=-1.905 N/mm.

4

Solutions to Tutorials
Torsion of Thin-Walled Sections
z, = 4
Hence
226400
tI
18.87 MPa
0.0 12
z2 = 226400 = 37.73 MPa
0.006
Z3
226400
0.01
22.64 MPa
To calculate rate of mist. use
6.87~10-' radlm.
j-
4 ds
2 G 6 =R t
Using
.r
2nt
~ B I I
ZA(
2000
2 x 4 9 . 7 8 3 ~lo-' x 2 x lo-'
10.04 MPa
AH
TC,/I
2000
2 x 49.783 x lo-' x 3 x 1 o
6.696 MPa
Angle of twist,
-~
T L
4n2G
= ---
0.005376391 rad
tan 30'
= 97/x
168
97
sin 30' = -3 AB = 194
AB
rB(.
r~~
Z~~
~ U I=
Angle of twist,
2000
= 8.05 MPa
2 x 3 1 . 0 6 8 ~ 1 0 -x~4 x 1 0 - ~
2000
= 5.36 MPa
2 x 3 1 . 0 6 8 ~lo-; x 6 x 1 0 - ~
2 x lo-; 2
4 x 28x lo9 x ( 3 1 . 0 6 8 ~ 1 0 - ~ ) ~
+ --4
1
(120) (103.92) = 6.235 x lo-; m2
2
T
From
r = 2Qt
2000
' , 4 ~
=
= 40.09 MPa
2xRx4x10-~
Q
Z,K
2000
2 x R~ 2 x lo-'
rB(,
2000
= 53.46 MPa
2 x a x3 10-3
Angle of twist,
'=
80.19 MPa
4
=
2
A
120
2000 x 2
4~28xl0~~(6.235~10~)~
120 cos 30
103.92 mm
Fr&,Locate
A
m A =
0
'
rads
2 80.2'
I n 9 0
Mere
(I- )
I
-- 06+60l
=
as173
119
cirtulw
,
- IYY, +
6
c~*r&)6205*55)~
= 5.5X~dowm+
3T
as2m s ,ts
%at3
tb* Jop-l3b t 3 = 3
OP
p
uLb
c & _-&
7r
t-r
w
'dosed
'-
'
ia~t
.a.
-'.
Iy45
-- + x b
N&
12
Tyy= fLz[a
5 +b) .
f4w
8 d
s.tavte8
e ws
%
,, ly
ibt
Lr*=O.
-tb web
walyci+i
%$H. Tf
lroea d 1 2 ,%,>
be m'Geu6bGseie
%--&~3,
I = rcor (608)
= r(cosw0ctm + ~ i ~ r tsine)
50
srCoSC3
ds, = rde
sa=z+r
r't

Tutorial Solutions Multicell Sections
Question 1.
A
a
a
2a
q1
q2
D a
2a
q3
3a
Thickness of all webs = t

Area of all stringers = As
Shear modulus of web = G
Determine the rate of twist.
Cell ABED:
1
2
1
2
1
2
Cell BCFE:
1
2 2
1
4
1
4
6
6
2
2

1
Cell DEFHG:
1
3
2
1
Moment equilibrium:
From 1 4
1a
From 2
2a
From 3
3a
2a
1a
3a
2a
5a
9
10
23
8
4a
18
10
15.8
1.253
19.8
1.202
4a
5a
6a
1.11
Substitute into
4 ,
2
1.11
2 1.253
14.44
3 1.202
0.0692
0.0867

2
Question 2.
Define the coordinates and points as shown. q1T and q2T are constant shear flows due
to torsion, to be superposed with the shear flow due to bending.
s1
q2T
q1T
E
s3
A
s2
cos
sin
27.62 sin
1
2
0.017
1
2
2
50
55.2
onAB
0.55
cos onDEA
0.552
onBC
AtB,
onCDandatC,
55.2
3
1
2
1
2
0.011
50
Rate of twist for the ith cell:

1
2
For cell ADE,

2
2
2
2
3
2
2
4
3
For cell ABCD,

1
4
2
4
Substituting values into

1 and
2 , we have
2
0.03273
0.005
0.01273
0.01833
0.2345and
0.4604
Solving for q1T and q2T,

115.84
140.708
2.921
25.914
Here,
2
14
3
2
3
1
3
1.81
10 mm

4
Consider now moment equilibrium about O:

2
which reduces to
8
4
3
10
On substitution for the values, the equation becomes

20000
7853.98
828729.3
Substituting for q1T and q2T into the above, we have

7.72
3.86
10
10 rad/mm

5
Question 3.
2 2
0.3927
3
2 2
3
4
0.433
2
4
3
2.571
Carry over factors:

1
1
3
2
1
1
4
0.389
Let open section:

5
0
0
2
2
2
2
6
Cell I
Cell II
4
2.571
1
4
0.389
0.195
2
1
3
1
4
0.167
0.0487
0.042
0.019
0.014
0.005
0.214
Final q
2
C
Cell III
0.0035
0.1
0
0.181
Check for vertical equilibrium:

0.214
0.386
0.581
0.181
0.1
0.214
0.181
0.581
0.386
0.181
0.1

7
Take moments about midpoint of 15,

0.214
0.1 2
0.181 2
2
cos 60
0.581
0.181 2
sin 60
0.025
40
totherightof15.

8
Question 4.
13.5 kN
0.5
0.5
0.5
200 mm
200 mm
4
z
0.4
0.5
1
I
0.5
II
150 mm
III
0.4
125 mm
7
0.5
0.5
But
0
400 75
13.5
2
10 mm
13500 75 400
13.5 10
30
30
30
By symmetry, q56= q34 , q67= q23

6
30
30
30
30
Assume unknowns q12, q23 and q34.

1
2

9
For cell I,
1
50 150
1
7500
1
7500
125
0.5
500
375
875
375
150
0.4
30
11250 _____ i
For cell II,

1
150
0.4
150 200
1
30000
200
0.5
375
30
375
150
0.4
800
30
1
375
30000
1550
375
_____ ii
For cell III,

1
150 200
1
30000
1
30000
800
200
0.5
150
0.5
300
30
1475
2250
375
150
0.4
375
30
_____ iii
Taking moments about the point 1,

150 100
13500 100
200 75
2
13500
13500
150
150
150
200 75
750
4500
300
600
150
450
22500
54000
150 300
450
300
600
150 500
0
300
300
450
13500
750
0_____ iv
Combining (ii) & (iii),

375
1550
375
375
1925
1850
1475
2250
2250
375
0_____ v
Combining (i) & (ii),

300
75
875
375
11250
375
1550
375
3500
1500
45000
375
1550
3875
3050
375
45000
0_____ vi
375

10
From iv ,
360
Substituteinto v ,137250
Substituteinto vi ,
From vii ,
4
3425
1350000
9.786
350
18550
0_____ vii
15875
0_____ viii
392.143
Substitute into (viii),

1350000
173902.75
18550
15875 9.786
392.143
7575270.125
43.56N/mm
34.135N/mm
42.59N/mm
30.96N/mm
20.58N/mm
4.14N/mm
(Check vertical equilibrium)

11

Tutorial Solutions Tapered Beams & Varying Moments of Area
Question 1.
Atthelargercrosssection,
4 200 60
2.88
2000 800 60
2.88 10
Bendingstresses
200
800mm
10 mm
33.33
33.33MPa
6.67kN
Stringer no.
Pz
Py
Px
-20
+80
+166.75
-667.0
-6670
-20
+166.75
-6670
+80
+667.0
+6670
+6670
333.5
6.67
800
10
Shear force carried by webs:
2000
333.5
1666.5N

1
2
z
6.94
120 mm
180 mm
3
6.94
13.89
Take moments about 2:

180 120
180 180 120
166.75
120
666.7
180
166.75 180
667 120
0
2.315
4.63N/mm
2.31N/mm
2.31N/mm
9.26N/mm
Check vertical equilibrium:

120
1666.8N

2
Question 2.
4 200 50
Atlargercrosssection,
2
10 mm
10 mm
3000 800 50
2.88 10
Bendingstresses
60MPa
12000N
800mm
and
Stringer no.
Pz
Py
-30
+40
-450
+600
-30
-40
-450
-600
+10
+40
-150
-600
+10
-40
-150
+600
1200 N
Shear force carried by webs:

3000
1
1200
1800
18
Take moments about 4:

100 120
120 100
600 100
450 120
600 100
150 120
3000 40
16
2
3.5N/mm
12.5N/mm
12.5N/mm
21.5N/mm
3
Question 3.
Atlargercrosssection,
26
2000 600 100

26 10
Bendingstresses
10 mm
4.615MPa
Pzn
Pxn
x
x
Pzn
Pyn
z
y
Stringer no.
Pxn
Pzn
Pyn
-2307.5
-50
100
192.3
-384.58
-1384.5
-50
50
115.375
-115.375
-2307.5
-50
192.3
2307.5
50
100
192.3
384.58
1384.5
50
50
115.375
115.375
2307.5
50
192.3
Pzn=1000
Pyn=0
Shear forces carried by webs:

0
1000N

4
1.154
1.154
3.077
1.154
_23
moments about 4 = 0
150 200
150 200
200 300
115.375 200
115.375 150
115.375 150
192.3 300
384.58 200
192.3 300
0
8.332
Substitute for q23 & q36 and solving for q12,

2
1.154
2 3.077
4
8.332
15.64
3.91N/mm
2.756N/mm
0.833N/mm
5.83N/mm

5
Question 4.
AtsectionBB:
4 150 60
Forcesinstreingers:
600 800 60
2.52 10
1714.3N
571.43N
26
10 mm
Topbendingstress
2 50 60
11.43MPa
1714.3N
571.43N
3
Vertical equilibrium:
2
120
800N
1
3 N/mm
3
1714.3
3.33
600
1714.3
3.33
600
0.473 N/mm
0.473N/mm
0.473N/mm
0.473 N/mm
3.33 N/mm
3.33 N/mm
4
0.473 N/mm
5 0.473 N/mm

6
Question 5.
At section A-A:
3 80
120
600mm
2
1
90 80
600
+
C
1.21
48
42 mm
42
240
80
48
120
160
10 mm
1.2096
10 mm
Forcesinstringers:
800 540 42
1.2096 10
Top,
1800
1371.44
2
17.143
2057.16
3
15
1800
1200
800 540 48
1.2096 10
Bottom,
120
3
42
80
1371.44
Vertical equilibrium:
2
90
800
4.444
5
1800
540
1.111 N/mm
4.444
1.111 N/mm
1.111N/mm
1371.44
540
4.444 N/mm
4.444
4.444 N/mm
1.905N/mm
4
1.905 N/mm 5
1.905 N/mm

7

Aircraft Structures Notes 1

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5/26/2009

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Why study thin-walled structures?

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Why study thin-walled structures?

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Why study thin-walled structures?

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Mechanics of ThinWalled Structures

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Multi-cell Sections & Tapered Beams

Energy Methods in Instability

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Mechanics of Materials, Roy R. Craig Jr., Wiley &

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Torsion of Circular Sections

Radial lines on cross-section

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

The shear strain is

And the shear stress is

where G is the shear modulus.

is the rate of twist, and is a constant.

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

The twisting moment (i.e. torque) is

And the shear stress

where A is the area of the cross-section, and

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Torsion of Non-Circular Sections

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Torsion of Non-Circular Sections

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Torsion of Non-Circular Sections

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Consider a cross-section of arbitrary shape:

It is displaced to A under torque.

There is a point O, that has

Lets place the

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

In general, we write the

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Axial displacements depend on the warping function

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Start with the strain-displacement

Substituting Eqns (3) into above,

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

The relevant force equilibrium equation

This is the Laplace Equation.

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Consider a small element on the boundary,

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Stress Functions for Torsion

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Subtracting (8b) from (8a) results in

The solution to this equation satisfies

For the boundary condition, substituting (7) into (6), we obtain

This means that at the boundary,

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

Introducing Eqn (7) , and noting that dA = dydz,

T. E. Tay, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore

If we retain the expression