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5, OCTOBER 2013
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I. INTRODUCTION
EAL-TIME condition monitoring of rotating machines
and structures such as turbines and tires is highly desirable to achieve improved safety and health monitoring. With
advancements in wireless technology, modern fault detection
mechanisms for rotary applications can be implemented by installing wireless sensors on the structure to transmit data to a
health and status monitoring unit. Wireless systems do not have
the drawback of rotating wired systems that require the use of
slip rings to transfer sensory data. However, wireless sensors
and their transmission units need batteries as power sources for
their operation [1].
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Fig. 1.
Fig. 2. Orientation of the beam and gravitational force in one cycle of rotation
and the material mode orientation.
2 w(, t)
4 w(, t)
+ AL4
=0
4
t2
(1)
KHAMENEIFAR et al.: PIEZOELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTER FOR ROTARY MOTION APPLICATIONS: DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTS
(2)
(w 2 + 2wx
)dm
+ Jh 2
T = Jb +
2
2 b eam
2
2
1
1
w(L,
t)
+ JL +
+ ML (2 w(L, t)2
2
x
2
2)
+ (w(L,
t) + L)
2
L
EI 2 w
dx + gA
U=
2
x2
0
L
w
+ (x w tan ) sin dx
cos
0
w| =1
+ (L w| =1 tan ) sin
+ ML g
cos
(3)
(4)
The elements of the matrices M and C are given by the following terms:
m11 = Jh + Jb + JL + ML L2 + ML (e )2
m12 = m21 = ML Le +
m22 =
mb 2e
ML 2e
JL e
JL e2
g11
= gA( sin )
d + ML g( sin )e
L2
cos + ML gL cos
2
1
= g cos A
d + ML e
+ gA
g21
(13)
(14)
where ML and JL are the load mass and inertia, and Jb and Jh
are beam and hub inertia, respectively. Let us define the vector
= [ ]T with the vector of
of generalized coordinates as q
= [ FP ]T , where is the
generalized force defined as F
angular displacement of the hub [16], is the applied torque
to the hub, and FP is the moment induced by the piezoceramic
layer. The dynamic equations of the flexible beam can then be
obtained by using the Lagrangian formulation as follows:
M (, t)
+ C(, , , , t)
+ G(, , t)
0
(t)
(5)
+
=
K(t)
FP (t)
follows:
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(7)
(16)
(17)
d + ML e g
(18)
0
2
B = (ML 2e + JL 2
e + mb e ).
(19)
C/B
(20)
(8)
(9)
c11 = ML 2e
(10)
c12 = c21 = ML 2e
(11)
c22 = 0
(12)
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Fig. 3. Electrical circuit symbolizing the resistive load connected to the single
piezoelectric layer.
v(t)
d31
(21)
where Rl is the load resistance; Cp = s33 bL/hp is the internal capacitance of piezoelectric layer; = Sd 3E1 hpn be is the
11
forward coupling term; s33 is the permittivity constant; b, L,
and hp are the width, length, and thickness of the piezoceramic
layer, respectively; hpn is the distance between the neutral axis
and the center of piezoceramic layer; d31 is the piezoelectric
E
is the elastic compliance at a constant electric
constant; and S11
field. The right-hand side of (21) represents ip (t). Referring to
Fig. 2(a), there are two operating modes, d31 and d33 , through
which the piezoelectric transducer can generate electricity. In
the d33 -mode, both the mechanical stress and output voltage act
along dimension 3. In the d31 -mode, the mechanical stress acts
along dimension 1, while the voltage acts along dimension 3. As
discussed in previous works (e.g., [19], [20]), a thin piezoelectric layer bonded to a substrate cantilever beam that operates
in the d31 -mode can produce larger strains with smaller input
forces.
2Rl (X + CP K) + 2B
C
B
(24)
|V |2
42 Rl 2 A2
.
=
Rl
(D12 + D22 )
TABLE I
GEOMETRIC AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF THE PVDF ENERGY HARVESTER
D2 = 2Rl CP (B + ML 2e )3
Fig. 4.
(25)
Differentiating (25) with respect to Rl (resistive load), an optimal load to maximize the amplitude of harvested power can be
obtained. An important issue that should be noted here is the effect of damping on the optimal resistive load. By differentiating
the expression for the optimal resistance in terms of the damping
ratio, it can be concluded that an increase in the damping term
will result in an increase in the value of the optimal resistance.
KHAMENEIFAR et al.: PIEZOELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTER FOR ROTARY MOTION APPLICATIONS: DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTS
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TABLE II
MATERIAL PARAMETERS OF THE PVDF ENERGY HARVESTER
Fig. 5. Output power versus resistive load for 48-g tip mass: PVDF experimental data (blue dotted line) and theoretical data (red line).
TABLE III
GEOMETRIC AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF THE PZT ENERGY HARVESTER
Fig. 6. Output power versus resistive load for 65-g tip mass for PVDF: experimental data (blue dotted line) and theoretical data (red line).
TABLE IV
MATERIAL PARAMETERS OF THE PZT ENERGY HARVESTER
Fig. 7. Output voltage for 48-g tip mass and R = 600 k: experimental data
(blue dotted line) and theoretical data (red line).
The mathematical model in (22) and (25) are used to calculate the output voltage, optimal resistive load, and maximum
power. The strain rate damping in those equations is obtained
experimentally using the exponential decay of the response of
the beam in an impact hammer test. The damping term due to air
flow was not considered in our simulations. The output voltage
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Fig. 8. Output voltage for 65-g tip mass and R = 600 k: experimental data
(blue dotted line) and theoretical data (red line).
Fig. 9. Output voltage of PZT for 105-g tip mass and R = 40 k: experimental
data (blue dotted line) and theoretical data (red line).
Fig. 10. Output power versus load resistance for PZT for a 105-g tip mass:
experimental data (blue dotted line) and theoretical data (red line).
KHAMENEIFAR et al.: PIEZOELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTER FOR ROTARY MOTION APPLICATIONS: DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTS
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REFERENCES
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[2] M. Bhardwaj, T. Garnett, and A. P. Chandrakasan, Upper bounds on the
lifetime of sensor networks, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun., vol. 3,
2001, pp. 785790.
[3] C. B. Williams and R. B. Yates, Analysis of a micro-electric generator
for microsystems, Sens. Actuators A, vol. 52, pp. 811, 1996.
[4] S. Roundy, P. Wright, and J. Rabaey, A study of low level vibrations as
a power source for wireless sensor nodes, Comput. Commun., vol. 26,
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[5] S. Priya, Advances in energy harvesting using low profile piezoelectric
transducers, J. Electro-Ceram., vol. 19, pp. 165182, 2007.
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