PROCESS CONTROL AND

INSTRUMENTATION
OF
BOILERS
Project Report
Submitted by

ADITYA KUMAR AGARWAL

121705
Under the guidance of
Mr. BIRBAL TANWAR
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled Project Report
on Boiler Process control and instrumentation is an
authentic record of my own work carried out at Alstom India
Limited, Sector-127, Noida as requirements of Five weeks
internship for the award of degree of B.Tech, Electronics
Engineering, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology,Pune, under the
guidance of Mr. Birbal Tanwar during May26th to June 30th, 2014.

ADITYA KUMAR AGARWAL

121705
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DATE: 30th June 2014

Certified that the above statement made by the student is
correct to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Mr. BIRBAL TANWAR

Head Electrical, C&I
Boiler Department
ALSTOM India Ltd, Noida

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure to take this opportunity to thank
ALSTOM India Limited, Noida along with Mr. ABHISHESH
SINGH (HR, Boiler Business) for giving me such a great
opportunity to do project in their esteemed organization. I consider
it my privilege to have carried out my project under this wellknown quality conscious organization. Being a renowned company
in India as well as abroad, I got a glimpse of corporate culture and
ethics along with the hard work carried out by the employees here
for successful completion of a project.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere
gratitude to my Project Head, Mr. BIRBAL SINGH TANWAR
(HEAD ELECTRICAL,C&I DEPARTMENT) for his constant guidance,
valuable suggestions and moral support.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and indebtness to my
mentor Mr. KUNAL KUMAR for his invaluable guidance and
enormous help and encouragement, which helped me to complete
my internship successfully. His way of working was a constant
motivation throughout my internship term. I would like to thank
him for answering my queries from time to time and for making
me understand the various parts of Boiler.
I acknowledge gratefully the help and suggestion of ALSTOM
employees and fellow trainees who were always help me with their
warm attitude and technical knowledge, inspite of their busy
schedule and huge workload.
Finally, no word will be enough to express my deepest reverence
to family and friends without whose enthusiasm and support ,I
wouldnt have been able to pursue my goals.


ADI
TYA KUMAR AGARWAL

Table of Contents
DECLARATION................................................................................1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................2
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................7
OUR VALUES................................................................................... 7
MY VIEWS:...................................................................................8
HISTORY......................................................................................... 8
BUSINESSESS...............................................................................11
RANKINE CYCLE............................................................................16
CARNOT CYCLE:............................................................................ 18
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RANKINE CYCLE AND CARNOT CYCLE....19
BOILER SECTION:.........................................................................20
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT:......................................................20
HR DEPARTMENT:.......................................................................21
FINANCE DEPARTMENT:..............................................................22
ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT:.................................................23
ONGOING PROJECTS:....................................................................24
CUSTOMERS:................................................................................ 24
ALSTOM IN INDIA.......................................................................... 24
FACTS AND FIGURES....................................................................25
BOILERS....................................................................................... 26
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:....................................................27
3

Fire tube boilers...............................................................27

Water tube boilers............................................................27

COMPONENTS OF BOILERS:.......................................................28

Feedwater system............................................................29
1. Feedwater heater..........................................................29
2. Deaerators....................................................................30
3. Economisers..................................................................30

Steam system..................................................................31
1. Steam and mud drums..................................................31
2. Boiler tubes...................................................................31
3. Superheaters.................................................................31
4. Attemperators...............................................................32
5. Condensate systems.....................................................33

Fuel system......................................................................34
1. Feed system for gaseous fuels......................................34
2. Feed system for solid fuels............................................35

PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID):........................36

PROCESS LEGEND:.....................................................................38
BASICS....................................................................................... 40
ABBREVIATION TABLE:...............................................................41
EQUIPMENT TABLE:....................................................................42
KKS TAGING PROCEDURE:..........................................................43

Purpose............................................................................ 43

Requirements to be met by the Identification System KKS

43

Structure and Application of the Power Plant Identification

System.................................................................................... 44
INSTRUMENTATION IN BOILERS:...................................................44
4


TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT..................................................45

Thermocouple..................................................................45

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)...........................46

Thermistor:......................................................................47

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:........................................................47

Bourdon tube-type detectors:..........................................48

Diaphragm.......................................................................49

Bellows............................................................................49
1. Rectangular section bellow.............................................49
2.Round section bellow:......................................................50
3. Profile bellow..................................................................50
4. Pipe joint bellow..............................................................51
5. Industrial rectangular section bellow..............................51

FLOW MEASUREMENT................................................................52

Turbine Meter...................................................................52

Magnetic Flow Meter........................................................52

Orifice Plate.....................................................................53

Venturi Meter...................................................................53

Dall tube:.........................................................................54

Pitot tube:........................................................................54

LEVEL MEASUREMENT:...............................................................55

Open Tank Level Measurement:.......................................55

Closed Tank Level Measurement:.....................................55

PROCESS CONTROL IN BOILERS:..................................................56

TYPES OF PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS........................................56

Feedback Control.............................................................57

Feedforward Control.........................................................58
5

Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control.................................59

Ratio Control....................................................................60

Cascade Control...............................................................61
1. Why cascade control?....................................................61
2. Requirements for cascade control:................................61

INSTRUMENT LIST........................................................................62
INPUT-OUTPUT LIST......................................................................65
PROJECT DETAILS.........................................................................67

INTRODUCTION
Alstom is
a
French
headquartered multinational
company which
holds
interests
in
the electricity
generation and rail transport markets.
Alstom is a global leader in the world of power generation,
power transmission and rail infrastructure and sets the
benchmark for innovative and environmentally friendly
technologies
It is also a major rail vehicle manufacturer, active in the fields
of passenger transportation, signalling and locomotives, with
products including the AGV, TGV, Eurostar, and Pendolino
high speed trains, in addition to suburban, regional and metro
trains, and Citadis trams.
Alstom's headquarters are located in LEVALLOIS-PERRET,
west of Paris. Its current CEO is PATRICK KRON.

OUR VALUES
TRUST:
It is built on the responsibility given to each
decision maker and the openness
of each individual to his
or her professional environment, ensuring transparency,
which is vital in the management of risk.
TEAM:
Alstoms business is based on delivering projects
whilst working in a team. This requires our collective
discipline and efforts to execute them successfully, and
networking to ensure we take full advantage of all the
competencies available.
ACTION: Alstom commits to delivering products and services
to its customers which meet their expectations in terms of
price, quality and delivery schedules. To meet our
commitments to our customers, action is a priority for all of
us. Action is built on strategic thinking, speed of execution to
7


differentiate us from our competitors and the ability to report
ensuring the achievement of our business objectives

MY VIEWS:
TRUST: Every employee has faith on others and is committed
to their work. The work environment is quite good and the
work is completed within the specified time.
TEAM: Team work is an essential part of any organisation and
is thoroughly followed in Alstom. Every department works as
a team and that helps in the overall growth of the
Organisation.
ACTION: Everyone is dedicated towards their work and action
is given the highest priority. The action is also strategically
thought so as to minimize the time and increase the
efficiency and productivity of an individual so as to prosper
the overall growth of the organisation.

HISTORY
YEAR

POINTS OF NOTE

1928

The beginning of Alsthom was from the merger of

the French heavy engineering interests of the
Thomson-Houston Electric Company (then General
Electric),
the
Compagnie
franaise
pour
l'exploitation des procds Thomson Houston, (or
Compagnie Franaise Thomson Houston, CFTH) and
Socit Alsacienne de Constructions Mcaniques
(SACM), with its first factory in Belfort.
Compagnie Gnrale d'Electricit (CGE) becomes
majority shareholder of Alsthom.
Alsthom constructs the first 1300MW generator set
for the Paluel power station which set a world record
with an output of 1500 MW.

1969
1977


1978

198889
1991
1994

1998
1999

2000

2003

2004

The first TGV is delivered to SNCF. The TGV went on

to break world rail speed records in 1981 (380 km/h)
and 1990 (515.3 km/h), and achieved the world
endurance record for high-speed train lines in 2001,
travelling from Calais to Marseille (1067.2 km) in 3
hours and 29 mins.
Alsthom acquires 100% of the rail transport
equipment division of ACEC as ACEC Transport.
Alstom's parent CGE is renamed Alcatel Alsthom
Compagnie Gnrale d'Electricit, or Alcatel Alsthom
Rail vehicle manufacturer Linke-Hofmann-Busch
(LHB), formerly part of Salzgitter AG group, is
acquired by GEC Alsthom
GEC
Alsthom
acquired
Cegelec
(electrical
contracting) as Alstom Power conversion.
Alstom and ABB merge their energy businesses in a
50-50 joint company known as ABB Alstom Power.
Alstom sells its heavy duty gas turbine business to
General electric.
Alstom acquires ABB's share in ABB Alstom Power.
Alstom acquires a 51% stake in Fiat Ferroviaria, the
Italian rail manufacturer and world leader in tilting
technology.
(April) Alstom sells its industrial turbine business
(small to medium gas turbines 3-50MW, and steam
turbines to 100MW) to Siemens for 1.1 billion.
In 2003 Alstom was undergoing a financial crisis due
to poor sales and debt liabilities. Alstom's share
price had dropped 90% over two years, and the
company had over $5 billion of debt. Subsequently
Alstom was required to sell several of its subsidiaries
including its shipbuilding and electrical transmission
assets as part of a 3.2 billion rescue plan involving
the French state.
January: Alstom sells its T&D activities to Areva.
9

2006

2007

2009
2010

Alstom sells Alstom Power Rentals to APR LLC later

becoming APR Energy LLC
Alstom
sells
the
diesel
locomotive
manufacturer Meinfesa (Valencia, Spain) to Vossloh
AG.
Alstom receives EU-approved French government
bailout worth 2.5 billion.
Alstom sells its Marine Division to the Norwegian
group AKER YARDS. Alstom commits itself to keeping
25% of the shares until 2010.
Alstom sells Alstom Power Conversion which
became Converteam Group in a leveraged buy-out
(LBO) deal funded by Barclays Private Equity France
SAS.
Following a new Graphic Chart, the Group name is
now written "alstom", with the exception of the legal
entities which are written with Alstom in capitals,
e.g., Alstom S.A.
April: on a test run in France, TGV Est set the world
speed record for rail vehicles of 574.8 km/h.
25 June: Acquired the Spanish wind turbine
manufacturer Ecotcnia, and was named Alstom
Ecotcnia until April 2010, when the Ecotcnia name
was dropped. The new entity legal name is Alstom
Wind.
Alstom acquired 25% +1 share of Russian
Transmashholding.
Alstom announces opening of a wind turbine
assembly facility in Amarillo, Texas.
Alstom
re-acquires
the Electric
power
transmission Division of Areva SA, which had
previously been sold to Areva in 2004. A new
division is created called Alstom Grid.
Alstom inaugurates new hydropower manufacturing
facility in China.
10


2011

2012

2013

2014

Alstom and the Iraqi government sign a

memorandum of understanding regarding the
construction of a new high-speed rail line between
Baghdad and Basra.
Alstom begins construction of factories at:
1.Sorel-Tracy, Quebec, Canada (passenger rail
vehicles)
2. Cherbourg (Turbine blades in association with LM
Power, wind turbine towers)
3. Ufa, Russia, joint venture with RusHydro.
November Alstom announced it planned to raise 1
to 2 billion through sale of some non-core assets,
plus the possible sale of a stake in Alstom Transport,
and also cut 1300 jobs.
1. (29 April) Reuters reports that the board of Alstom
accepts a 10billion
($13.82billion) bid from GE
for its energy operations, whilst remaining open to
alternative unsolicited bids.
2. (5 May) General Electric posts offers to buy 1/4 of
the shares in Alstom's Indian power and distribution
companies: Alstom T&D India Ltd. and Alstom India
Ltd. at 261.25 and 382.20 rupees a share (value
$278 million and $111 million respectively) subject
to its bid for Alstom SA being successful.

BUSINESSESS
1. POWER:RENEWABLE POWER
Hydroelectric Power:
#1 hydro motor generator installed base
Leader of the pumped-storage equipment market

11


Alstoms technology equips the worlds 5 highest
capacity hydro installations in operation, amongst other
record-breaking dams
Leading R&D capabilities: a one-of-a-kind worldwide
network of Global
Technologies Centers.
Wind Power:
Supply and installation of onshore wind turbines:
reaching new heights of efficiency and reliability
Supply and installation of offshore wind turbines:
designed
for
the
industrys
most
challenging
environmental conditions
Wind services: a full range of operation and
maintenance services
Technical assessment including wind farm design
Project authorisation including permit applications
Project financing

Solar Power:Alstom developed CSP (concentrated solar power),

because of its potential for large-scale, efficient power
generation. Requiring clear skies and strong sunlight, at
least 1900kWh/m2/y, CSP is the ideal fit for plants
located on the Sun Belt. It is also ideal for centralized on
grid or industrial applications with adequate tariff
structures. Thanks to the option of storage capacity that
it offers, CSP allows you to have power long after sunset
or on days with some cloud coverage.

Geothermal Power:Alstom pioneered the commercial exploitation of

geothermal power in New Zealand in the 1950s. Today,
were at the cutting edge of geothermal innovation, with
an extensive portfolio of proven technologies, plus the
12


ability to create custom-made solutions for the most
challenging geothermal applications.
Biomass Power:Alstoms wide range of experience includes burning all
types of fuels in boilers, including biomass. We receive,
handle, store and process biomass materials, ready for
direct injection into boilers. Alstom has been retrofitting
biomass co-firing systems for nearly two decades. Youll
benefit from greatly reduced CO2 emissions with our
biomass-fired steam power plants.
Ocean Energy:- Ocean energy is a major growth area in
renewable power. Alstom is the only company that offers
proven products for both the tidal and offshore wind
markets.
Tidal Energy: - Tidal power offers an inexhaustible
supply of energy, free of greenhouse gas emissions
once installed. It also has the advantage of being
totally predictable, as tidal currents result from
perfectly known astronomical phenomena. Alstom is
at forefront of developing tidal stream turbine
technology in order to take advantage of the
significant energy potential in our tides, and in 2013
Alstom acquired the significant technology and
expertise of Tidal Generation Ltd (TGL).
Offshore Wind Power: - Alstom has installed the
worlds largest offshore wind turbine off the Belgian
coast, the Haliade 150-6MW.This is the largest
offshore wind turbine ever installed in sea waters.
Thanks to its 150-metre diameter rotor (with blades
stretching 73.50 metre), the turbine is more efficient
since its yield is 15% better than existing offshore
turbines, enabling it to supply power to the
equivalent of about 5,000 households.
13


NON RENEWABLE POWER:

Coal and Oil Power:Alstom provides an extensive product portfolio with

cutting edge technologies with reduces carbon emission
by upto 35%.
Coal and oil power plants: Improve fuel flexibility, plant
efficiency and reduce emissions from fossil fuels with a
coal and oil power plant from Alstom
Steam turbines: leading the way in efficiency and
reliability
Turbogenerators: The
highest
standards
of
performance at a cost-effective price
Boilers: Reliable, clean fossil fuel combustion
Air quality control systems: Reducing emissions from
combustion processes
Carbon capture and storage (CCS): To provide optimum
efficiency as well as environmental and commercial
benefits to power plant operators worldwide, the next
generation of Alstoms steam power plant will be available with
technology capable of capturing up to 90% of the CO2
emissions.

Gas Power:Alstom has been helping the operators of gas-fired

power plants to balance fluctuating fuel prices and
availability with environmental concerns for more than
75 years.
Gas power plants
Gas services
Gas turbines
HSRGs(Heat recovery steam generators)
Nuclear Power:Alstom equips 30% of the worlds nuclear power plants
with its reliable turbine generator sets. Our equipment is
currently in 40% of todays nuclear plants. Teams at
14


Alstom work at maximizing the power output delivered
by all the reactors by increasing the efficiency of the
power conversion systems.
Turbine Islands
Steam Turbines
Services
Turbogenerators
2. TRANSPORT:-

Trains: Metro Metropolis

Tram way Citadis
Tram way Citadis compact
Tram trains Citadis Dualis and Regio Citadis
Regional train Coradia
Suburban train XTrapolis
Locomotive prim a II
Very high speed train duplex
Very high speed AGV
Services: Maintenance
Modernization
Parts and repair
Support services
Systems: Infrastructures
Integrated Solutions
Signaling: Urban control system
Atlas signaling solution
Iconis integrated control Centre
Smart lock interlocking
Passenger information and entertainment
15


Security

3. GRID:-

Smart solution: Smart grid

HVDC super grid
Facts
Renewable
Network management: Generation
Transmission
Distribution
Demand response
Telecommunication
Oil and gas
Consulting and system integration
High voltage products : Turnkey substation
Gas in capsulated substation
Air insulated switchgears
Power transformers

16

RANKINE CYCLE

The Rankine cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all power

plants where an operating fluid is continuously evaporated and
condensed. The selection of operating fluid depends mainly on the
available temperature range. Figure 1 shows the idealized
Rankine cycle.
The pressure-enthalpy (p-h) and temperature-entropy (T-s)
diagrams of this cycle are given in Figure 2. The Rankine cycle
operates in the following steps:

1-2-3 Isobaric Heat Transfer. High pressure liquid enters

the boiler from the feed pump (1) and is heated to the
saturation temperature (2). Further addition of energy causes
evaporation of the liquid until it is fully converted to
saturated steam (3).
17

3-4 Isentropic Expansion. The vapor is expanded in the

turbine, thus producing work which may be converted to
electricity. In practice, the expansion is limited by the
temperature of the cooling medium and by the erosion of the
turbine blades by liquid entrainment in the vapor stream as
the process moves further into the two-phase region. Exit
vapor qualities should be greater than 90%.

4-5 Isobaric Heat Rejection. The vapor-liquid mixture

leaving the turbine (4) is condensed at low pressure, usually
in a surface condenser using cooling water. In well designed
and maintained condensers, the pressure of the vapor is well
below atmospheric pressure, approaching the saturation
pressure of the operating fluid at the cooling water
temperature.

5-1 Isentropic Compression. The pressure of the

condensate is raised in the feed pump. Because of the low
specific volume of liquids, the pump work is relatively small
and often neglected in thermodynamic calculations.

The efficiency of power cycles is defined as

18

19

CARNOT CYCLE:
The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed
by Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded by Benoit
Paul mile Clapeyron in the 1830s and 40s. It can be shown that it
is the most efficient cycle for converting a given amount of
thermal energy into work, or conversely, creating a temperature
difference (e.g. refrigeration) by doing a given amount of work.

Stages of the Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the
following steps:
1. Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas at the "hot"
temperature, TH (isothermal heat addition or absorption). During
this step the expanding gas makes the piston work on the
20


surroundings. The gas expansion is propelled by absorption of
quantity Q1 of heat from the high temperature reservoir.
2. Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion of the gas
(isentropic work output). For this step the piston and cylinder are
assumed to be thermally insulated, thus they neither gain nor lose
heat. The gas continues to expand, working on the surroundings.
The gas expansion causes it to cool to the "cold" temperature, TC.
3. Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the "cold"
temperature, TC (Isothermal heat rejection). Now the surroundings
do work on the gas, causing quantity Q2 of heat to flow out of the
gas to the low temperature reservoir.
4. Isentropic compression of the gas (isentropic work input)
Once again the piston and cylinder are assumed to be thermally
insulated. During this step, the surroundings do work on the gas,
compressing it and causing the temperature to rise to TH. At this
point the gas is in the same state as at the start of step 1.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RANKINE CYCLE AND

CARNOT CYCLE
The main difference between that Rankine Cycle and the Carnot
Cycle is that heat transfer across the system boundary of Carnot
Cycle is isothermal (constant temperature), and heat transfer
across the system boundary in a Rankine cycle is isobaric
(constant pressure). The Rankine cycle is a better model for most
real systems because a constant pressure heat exchanger is a
better approximation for how heat transfer is accomplished in
most real systems than heat transfer to/from constant
temperature "heat reservoirs."
21

BOILER SECTION:
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT:

1. ELECTRICAL,
CONTROL
AND
INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING:Role of C&I Department is to:
Design P&I (PROCESS &INSTRUMENTATION) DIAGRAM
Create I/O List
Create Instrument list
Create Electrical load list
Create Technical Specification chart & Datasheet
Create Single Line Diagram(SLDs)
Create Lighting Scheme
Create Lightning scheme(ILLUMINATION)
Create Logics(OLCD,CLSC,BMD)
2. PRESSURE PART:
Various pressure parts like SH, RH, Valves and pipes are
designed.
3. GA(General Arrangement) Group:
The 2d and 3D models and layouts of boilers are
designed in this section.
4. STRUCTURE:
Boiler specifications and structure are done in this
section.
5. FIELD OPERATION:
The field support i.e. erection and commissioning is done
in this section.
6.

SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT:

Supply chain management is a cross-functional approach
that includes managing the movement of raw materials
22


into an organization, certain aspects of the internal
processing of materials into finished goods, and the
movement of finished goods out of the organization and
toward the end consumer. The purpose of supply chain
management is to improve trust and collaboration among
supply chain partners, thus improving inventory visibility
and the velocity of inventory movement.
Main function of supply chain management is as follows:

Inventory Management
Distribution Management
Channel Management
Payment Management
Financial Management
Supplier Management
7. PROCESS/EQUIPMENT:
Under this section Boiler processes and Equipment like
fan, pump and APH are
designed.

HR DEPARTMENT:
This department manages the companys most valuable
resource i.e. its employees. It performs various functions like
Recruitment, safety, employee relations, training and
development etc. Following are its some of the most
important functionalities: MANPOWER PLANNING: It involves the planning for the
future and finding out how many employees will be needed
in the future by the business and what types of skills
should they possess.
JOB ANALYSIS AND JOB DESCRIPTION: It involves process to
collect
correct
information
about
the
duties,
responsibilities, necessary skills and work environment of a
particular job.
RECRUITMENT WAGES AND SALARIES:
It involves
recruitment of best people in an organisation as
organisations success depends on quality of workforce.
23


PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL: It includes reviewing of the
performance of the employees recruited on a regular basis.
The main focus is to measure and improve the actual
performance of the employee.
LABOUR MANAGEMENT RELATIONS: It ensures that the
labour management relations are cordial and in case of
any conflict, it will play an important role in resolving the
issue by bringing them to negotiation table.
DISMISSAL AND REDUNDANCY: It takes firm actions against
employees who are not following organizational code of
conduct, rules and regulations. This can result in the
dismissal of the employee.

FINANCE DEPARTMENT:
The finance department is responsible for management of
the organizations cash flow. It prepares the companies cash
account, pays the salary etc. Following are its some of the
most important functionalities:

BOOK KEEPING PROCEDURES: Keeping records of the

purchases and sales made by a business as well as capital
spending.
PREPARING FINAL ACCOUNTS: Profit and loss account and
Balance Sheets
PROVIDING
MANAGEMENT
INFORMATION:
Managers
require ongoing financial information to enable them to
make better decisions.
MANAGEMENT OF WAGES: The wages section of
finance department will be responsible for calculating
wages and salaries of employees and organising
collection of income tax and national insurance for
Inland Revenue.

the
the
the
the

24

RAISING FINANCE : The finance department will also be

responsible for the technical details of how a business
raises finance e.g. through loans, and the repayment of
interest on that finance. In addition it will supervise the
payment of dividends to shareholders.

25

ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT:
The administrative department covers a wide range of
functions such as departmental support in HR, finance, IT
support and general running of an organisation. The main
functions of an administration department of an organization
are:

To process paperwork for external suppliers.

To process paperwork and information for internal
people. This could be anything from looking after the
basic bills to the internal post.
Looking after the internal communications so that all
members of the organization are aware of what is going
on within the organization.
Organizing any deliveries or suppliers coming into the
offices for the day for any reason.
Arranging company extras such as company cars and
any hotels for business trips that may be needed.
Sending out any mail on behalf of the company. This
could be for different stakeholders, customers or even for
staff.

26

ONGOING PROJECTS
NTPC Barh II Supercritical Boilers 2 x 660 MW - under
execution*
APGENCO Krishnapatnam - Supercritical Boilers 2 x 800
MW - under execution*
Jay Pee - Bara - Supercritical Boilers 3 x 660 MW - under
execution*
NTPC Mouda - Supercritical Boilers 2 x 660 MW - under
execution*
NTPC Nabinagar Supercritical Steam Turbine Islands and
Boilers* 3 X 660 MW - under
execution
BHEL Gadarwara Super Thermal Power Plant* - 2 X 800
MW under execution

CUSTOMERS

National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC).

Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited.
Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Ltd.
NSL Orissa Power and Infratech Private Ltd.
Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited.

ALSTOM IN INDIA
Alstom has been associated with Indias progress for a
century and has a long-standing reputation for providing
highly innovative and sustainable solutions for meeting the
countrys energy and transport requirements.
Since its inception in the year 1911, the company has been
at the forefront of leading-edge technology at every level.
The company works with a number of strategic partners in
India to offer a wide range of solutions for every sector
Power, Transport & Grid.
27


ALSTOM India statistics:
Around 9,000 employees in India .Three R&D Centers in
Bengaluru (Power and Transport), Vadodara (Power) and
Hosur (Grid). Two engineering centers at Noida and Kolkata.

FACTS AND FIGURES

93002 employees at end of March 2014

21.5 billion orders in 2013-14
20.3 billion sales in 2013-14
Present in more than 100 countries
28

Sales 2013-2014 : 20.3 billion

BOILERS
A Boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is
heated. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in
various processes or heating applications.
Instrumentation and controls in a boiler plant encompass an
enormous range of equipment from simple industrial plant to
the complex in the large utility station.
The boiler control system is the means by which the balance of

energy & mass into and out of the boiler are achieved. Inputs
are fuel, combustion air, atomizing air or steam &feed water. Of
these, fuel is the major energy input. Combustion air is the
major mass input. Outputs are steam, flue gas, blow down,
radiation & soot blowing.

29

30

CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:

Fire tube boilers :

In fire tube boilers hot gases are passed through the tubes and
water surrounds these tubes. These are simple, compact and
rugged in construction. Depending on whether the tubes are
vertical or horizontal these are further classified as vertical and
horizontal tube boilers. Due to large quantity of water in the
drain it requires more time for steam raising. The steam
attained is generally wet, economical for low pressures .The
output of the boiler is also limited.

Water tube boilers:

In these boilers water is inside the tubes and hot gases are
outside the tubes. Feed water enters the boiler to one drum.
This water circulates through the tubes connected external to
drums. Hot gases which surround these tubes will convert the
water in tubes in to steam. This steam is passed through tubes
and collected at the top of the drum since it is of light weight.
The entire steam is collected in one drum and it is taken out
from there. As the movement of water in the water tubes is
high, so rate of heat transfer also becomes high resulting in
greater efficiency. They produce high pressure, easily
31


accessible

and

can

respond.

COMPONENTS OF BOILERS:
The main components in a boiler system are Economiser,
Evaporator, Superheater, Reheator, Attemperator . In addition,
there are sets of controls to monitor water and steam flow, fuel
flow, airflow and chemical treatment additions.
More broadly speaking, the boiler system comprises of a
feedwater system, steam system and fuels system. The feedwater
system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically
to meet the steam demand. Various valves provide access for
maintenance and repair.
The stem system collects and controls the steam produced in the
boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of
use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using
valves and checked with steam pressure gauges.
The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to
generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel
system depends on the type of fuel used in the system.
32

Feedwater system
The water supplied to the boiler, which is converted into
steam, is called feedwater. The two sources of feedwater are
condensate or condensed steam returned from the process
and makeup water (treated raw water) which must come
from outside the boiler room and plant processes .
1. Feedwater heater
Boiler efficiency is improved by the extraction of waste heat
from spent steam to preheat the boiler feedwater. Heaters
are shell and tube heat exchangers with the feedwater on the
tube side (inside) and steam on the shell side (outside). The
heater closest to the boiler receives the hottest steam. The
condensed steam is recovered in the heater drains and
pumped forward to the heater immediately upstream, where
its heat value is combined with that of the steam for that
33


heater. Ultimately the condensate is returned
condensate storage tank or condenser hot well .

to

the

2. Deaerators
Feedwater often has oxygen dissolved in it at objectionable
levels, which comes from air in-leakage from the condenser,
pump seals, or from the condensate itself. The oxygen is
mechanically removed in a deaerator. Deaerators function on
the principle that oxygen is decreasingly soluble as the
temperature is raised. This is done by passing a stream of
steam through the feedwater. Deaerators are generally a
combination of spray and tray type. One problem with the
control of deaerators is ensuring sufficient temperature
difference between the incoming water temperature and the
stripping steam. If the temperature is too close, not enough
steam will be available to strip the oxygen from the make-up
water.
3. Economisers
Economisers are the last stage of the feedwater system. They
are designed to extract heat value from exhaust gases to
heat the steam still further and improve the efficiency of the
boiler. They are simple finned tube heat exchangers. Not all
boilers have economizers. Usually they are found only on
water tube boilers using fossil fuel as an energy conservation
measure.
A feedwater economiser reduces steam boiler fuel
requirements by transferring heat from the flue gas to
incoming feedwater. By recovering waste heat, an
economiser can often reduce fuel requirements by 5 per cent
to 10 per cent and pay for itself in less than two years.
A feedwater economiser is appropriate when insufficient heat
transfer surface exists within the boiler to remove
combustion heat. Boilers that exceed 100 boiler hp, operating
at pressures exceeding 75 psi or above, and those that are
34


significantly loaded all year long are excellent candidates for
economiser retrofit.

Steam system
1. Steam and mud drums
A boiler system consists of a steam drum and a mud drum.
The steam drum is the upper drum of a water tube boiler
where the separation of water and steam occurs. Feedwater
enters the boiler steam drum from the economizers or from
the feedwater heater train if there is no economiser. The
colder feedwater helps create the circulation in the boiler.
The steam outlet line normally takes off from this drum to a
lower drum by a set of riser and downcomer tubes. The lower
drum, called the mud drum, is a tank at the bottom of the
boiler that equalizes distribution of water to the generating
tubes and collects solids such as salts formed from hardness
and silica or corrosion products carried into the boiler.
In the circulation process, the colder water, which is outside
the heat transfer area, sinks and enters the mud drum. The
water is heated in the heat transfer tubes to form steam. The
steam-water mixture is less dense than water and rises in the
riser tubes to the steam drum. The steam drum contains
internal elements for feedwater entry, chemical injection,
blowdown removal, level control, and steam-water
separation. The steam bubbles disengage from the boiler
water in the riser tubes and steam flows out from the top of
the drum through steam separators.
2. Boiler tubes
Boiler tubes are usually fabricated from high-strength carbon
steel. The tubes are welded to form a continuous sheet or
wall of tubes. Often more than one bank of tubes is used,
35


with the bank closest to the heat sources providing the
greatest share of heat transfer. They will also tend to be the
most susceptible to failure due to flow problems or corrosion/
deposition problems.
3. Superheaters
The purpose of the superheater is to remove all moisture
content from the steam by raising the temperature of the
steam above its saturation point. The steam leaving the
boiler is saturated, that is, it is in equilibrium with liquid water
at the boiler pressure (temperature).
The superheater adds energy to the exit steam of the boiler.
It can be a single bank or multiple banks or tubes either in a
horizontal or vertical arrangement that is suspended in the
convective or radiation zone of the boiler. The added energy
raises the temperature and heat content of the steam above
saturation point. In the case of turbines, excessive moisture
in the steam above saturation point. In the case of turbines,
excessive moisture in the steam can adversely affect the
efficiency and integrity of the turbine. Superheated steam
has a larger specific volume as the amount of superheat
increases. This necessitates larger diameter pipelines to carry
the same amount of steam. Due to temperatures, higher
alloy steel is used. It is important that the steam is of high
purity and low moisture content so that non-volatile
substances do not build up in the superheater.
4. Attemperators
Attemperation is the primary means for controlling the
degree of superheat in a superheated boiler. Attemperation is
the process of partially de-superheating steam by the
controlled injection of water into the superheated steam flow.
The degree of superheat will depend on the steam load and
the heat available, given the design of the superheater. The
degree of superheat of the final exiting steam is generally not
36


subject to wide variation because of the design of the
downstream processes. In order to achieve the proper control
of superheat temperature an attemperator is used.
A direct contact attemperator injects a stream of high purity
water into the superheated steam. It is usually located at the
exit of the superheater, but may be placed in an intermediate
position. Usually, boiler feedwater is sued for attemperation.
The water must be free of non-volatile solids to prevent
objectionable buildup of solids in the main steam tubes and
on turbine blades.
Since in attemperator water comes from the boiler feedwater,
provision for it has to be made in calculating flows. The
calculation is based on heat balance. The total enthalpy (heat
content) of the final superheat steam must be the mass
weighted sum of the enthalpies of the initial superheat steam
and the attemperation water.
5. Condensate systems
Although not a part of the boiler, condensate is usually
returned to the boiler as part of the feedwater. Accordingly,
one must take into account the amount and quality of the
condensate when calculating boiler treatment parameters. In
a complex steam distribution system there will be several
components. These will include heat exchangers, process
equipment, flash tanks, and storage tanks.
Heat exchangers are the places in the system where steam is
used to heat a process or air by indirect contact. Shell and
tube exchangers are the usual design, with steam usually on
the shell side. The steam enters as superheated or saturated
and may leave as superheated, saturated, or as liquid water,
depending on the initial steam conditions and the design load
of the exchanger.
Process equipment includes turbines whether used for HVAC
equipment, air compressors, or turbine pumps. Condensate
tanks and pumps are major points for oxygen to enter the
37


condensate system and cause corrosion. These points should
be monitored closely for pH and oxygen ingress and proper
condensate treatment applied.

38

Fuel system
Fuel feed systems play a critical role in the performance of
boilers. Their primary functions include transferring the fuel
into the boiler and distributing the fuel within the boiler to
promote uniform and complete combustion. The type of fuel
influences the operational features of a fuel system
The fuel feed system forms the most significant component
of the boiler system.
1. Feed system for gaseous fuels
Gaseous fuels are relatively easy to transport and handle.
Any pressure difference will cause gas to flow, and most
gaseous fuels mix easily with air. Because on-site storage of
gaseous fuel is typically not feasible, boilers must be
connected to a fuel source such as a natural gas pipeline.
Flow of gaseous fuels to a boiler can be precisely controlled
using a variety of control systems. These systems generally
include automatic valves that meter gas flow through a
burner and into the boiler based on steam or hot water
demand.
The purpose of the burner is to increase the stability of the
flame over a wide range of flow rates by creating a
favourable condition for fuel ignition and establishing
aerodynamic conditions that ensure good mixing between the
primary combustion air and the fuel. Burners are the central
elements of an effective combustion system.
Other elements of their design and application include
equipment for fuel preparation and air-fuel distribution as
well as a comprehensive system of combustion controls. Like
gaseous fuels, liquid fuels are also relatively easy to transport
and handle by using pumps and piping networks that link the
boiler to a fuel supply such as a fuel oil storage tank. To
promote complete combustion, liquid fuels must be atomized
to allow through mixing with combustion air. Atomisation by
39


air, steam, or pressure produces tiny droplets that burn more
like gas than liquid. Control of boilers that burns liquid fuels
can also be accomplished using a variety of control systems
that meter fuel flow.
2. Feed system for solid fuels
Solid fuels are much more difficult to handle than gaseous
and liquid fuels. Preparing the fuel for combustion is
generally necessary and may involve techniques such as
crushing or shredding. Before combustion can occur, the
individual fuels particles must be transported from a storage
area to the boiler. Mechanical devices such as conveyors,
augers, hoppers, slide gates, vibrators, and blowers are often
used for this purpose. The method selected depends
primarily on the size of the individual fuels particles and the
properties and characteristics of the fuel.
Stokers are commonly used to feed solid fuel particles such
as crushed coal, TDF, MSW, wood chips, and other forms of
biomass into boilers. Mechanical stokers evolved from the
hand-fired boiler era and now include sophisticated
electromechanical components that respond rapidly to
changes in steam demand. The design of these components
provides good turndown and fuel-handling capability. In this
context, turndown is defined as the ratio of maximum fuel
flow to minimum fuel flow.
In the case of pulverized coal boilers, which burn very fine
particles of coal, the stoker is not used. Coal in this form can
be transported along with the primary combustion air
through pipes that are connected to specially designed
burners.
A burner is defined as a devices or group of devices for the
introduction of fuel and air into a furnace at the required
velocities, turbulence, and concentration to maintain ignition
and combustion of fuel with in the furnace. Burners for
gaseous fuels are less complex than those for liquid or solid
40


fuels because mixing of gas and combustion air is relatively
simple compared to atomizing liquid fuels or dispersing solid
fuel particles.
The ability of a burner to mix combustion air with fuel is a
measure of its performance. A good burner mixes well and
liberates a maximum amount of heat from the fuel. The best
burners are engineered to liberate the maximum amount of
heat from the fuel and limit the amount of pollutants such as
CO, NOx, and PM that are released. Burners with these
capabilities are now used routinely in boilers that must
comply with mandated emission limitations.

PIPING
AND
INSTRUMENTATION
DIAGRAM (P&ID):
A piping and instrumentation diagram/drawing (P&ID) is a
diagram in the process industry which shows the piping of
the process flow together with the installed equipment
and instrumentation.
The purpose of P&IDs is to provide an initial design basis
for the boiler. The P&IDs provides the engineering
requirements to identify the measurements and functions
that are to be controlled. It may be used to define the
number of inputs, outputs and list of all the instruments
and functions.
SAMPLE
P&ID OF LOW PRESSURE
SYSTEMS (For reference only)

STARTUP

41

42

PROCESS LEGEND:
The process legend provides the information needed to
interpret and read the P&ID. Process legends are found at
the front of the P&ID. The legend includes information
about piping, instrument and equipment symbols,
abbreviations, unit name, drawing number, revision
number, approvals, and company prefixes. Because
symbol and diagram standardization is not complete,
many companies use their own symbols in unit drawings.
Unique and unusual equipment will also requires
a
modified symbol value.

43

44

BASICS

45

ABBREVIATION TABLE:
FC

Flow Controller

LCV

FI
FS
FIC
FCV
FRC

Flow
Flow
Flow
Flow
Flow

LRC
LG
Level
LR
LT
LS
LIC

PC
PG
PI
PR
PS
PIC
PCV
PRC
PDI
PDR
PDS
PDT
PT
PTD

Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure

Indicator
Switch
Indicating Controller
Control Valve
Recording Controller

Controller
Gauge
TC
Indicator
Recorder
Switch
TI
Indicating Controller TR
Control Valve
TS
Recording Controller
Differential Indicator
Differential Recorder
Differential Switch
Differential Transmitter
Transmitter
Transducer

Level Control Valve

Level Recording Controller
Gauge
Level Recorder
Level Transmitter
Level Switch
Level Indicating Controller

Temperature Controller
TT
Temperature Transmitter
TE
Temperature Element
Temperature Indicator
Temperature Recorder
Temperature Switch

46

EQUIPMENT TABLE:

47

KKS TAGING PROCEDURE:

To planning, setting-up and operating power plants it is absolutely
necessary to use a standardized identification system.
The KRAFTWERK-KENNZEICHEN-SYSTEM(KKS)
system.

is

such

The engineering of power plants with modern human-enginecommunication needs a common language in all sectors of
engineering today, like applications in civil, mechanical, electrical
and control and instrumentation engineering. Reliability and
operational efficiency make more and more higher conditions to
the planning, setting-up and operating of power plants.
Increasing plant-power and a higher degree of automation
presuppose a powerful increase of technical data and information.

IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM FOR POWER PLANTS

Purpose
The power plant identification system is applied to clearly
identify plants, systems, parts and components to their
purpose, type and location. The contents are based on the
Identification Systems for Power Plant (KKS) published by
VGB- Technical Association of Large Power Plant Operators.

Requirements
System KKS

to be

met by

the Identification

In order to perform the set tasks the identification system must

be capable of satisfying the following requirements:
Determination of all installations and sub-systems,
An adequate number of reserve codes must be available for
future developments in power plant engineering.
The classification of installations and sub-systems must be
generally applicable to all types of power plant; all
48


individual circuits and arrangements must, however, be
clearly identifiable.
Clear identification of all sub-systems.
An identification used in a power plant must be nonrecurring,
Subdivision with graded details and a fixed meaning for the
data characters.
various areas of application,
Independent identification of various systems must be
possible
Ease of recognition ensured by clarity and an acceptable
length for the identification. Plausibility check facility,
especially for data processing,
Existing standards, guidelines and recommendations must
be taken into account

Structure and Application of the Power Plant

Identification System
The KKS consists of three types of identification:
The process-related identification identifies installations
and equipment according to their assigned task in the
power plant process,
The point of installation identification identifies the
points of installation within an installation unit (e.g. cubicles,
consoles, panels),
The location identification identifies the rooms and floors,
or other installation sites, for installations and equipment in
building structures.
49

INSTRUMENTATION IN BOILERS:
A device, such as a photoelectric cell, that receives and responds
to a signal or stimulus. A device which detects a variable
quantity ,measures and converts the measurement into a signal to
be recorded elsewhere. A sensor is a device that measures a
physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read
by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury
thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion
and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass
tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage
which can be read by a voltmeter.
For accuracy, all
known standards.

sensors

need

to

be calibrated against

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Attempts of standardized temperature measurement have been
reported as early as 170 AD by Claudius Galenus. The modern
scientific field has its origins in the works by Florentine scientists
in the 17th century. Early devices to measure temperature were
called thermo scopes. The first sealed thermometer was
constructed in 1641 by the Grand Duke of Toscani, Ferdinand II.
The development of today's thermometers and temperature scales
began in the early 18th century, when Gabriel Fahrenheit adapted
a thermometer using mercury and a scale both developed by Ole
Christensen Rmer. Fahrenheit's scale is still in use, alongside the
Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale.

Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that
produces a voltage related to a temperature difference.
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor
and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.
50

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD), as the name
implies, are sensors used to measure temperature by
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire
wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually
quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to
protect it. The RTD element is made from a pure material
whose resistance at various temperatures has been
documented. The material has a predictable change in
resistance as the temperature changes; it is this predictable
change that is used to determine temperature.

51

Thermistor:
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies
significantly with temperature, more so than in standard
resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor.
Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters,
52


temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and
self-regulating heating elements.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic
or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature
response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger
temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a
higher precision within a limited temperature range, typically
90 C to 130 C.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of
pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are
called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. Pressure gauge was
discovered by Otto Von Guericke.
A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum
which is further divided into two subcategories, high and low
vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable
pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure
vacuums has an overlap. Hence, by combining several different
types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure
continuously from 10 mbar down to 1011 mbar.
53


The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per
square meter. This special name for the unit was added in 1971;
before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units such as N/m 2.

Bourdon tube-type detectors:

The majority of pressure gauges in use have a Bourdon-tube as
a measuring element. (The gauge is named for its inventor,
Eugene Bourdon, a French engineer.) The Bourdon tube is a
device that senses pressure and converts the pressure to
displacement. Since the Bourdon-tube displacement is a
function of the pressure applied, it may be mechanically
amplified and indicated by a pointer. Thus, the pointer position
indirectly indicates pressure. The Bourdon-tube gauge is
available in various tube shapes: curved or C-shaped, helical,
and spiral. The size, shape, and material of the tube depend on
the pressure range and the type of gauge desired. Low-pressure
Bourdon tubes (pressures up to 2000 psi) are often made of
phosphor bronze. High-pressure Bourdon tubes (pressures
above 2000 psi) are made of stainless steel or other highstrength materials. High- pressure Bourdon tubes tend to have
more circular cross sections than their lower-range
counterparts, which tend to have oval cross sections. The
Bourdon tube most commonly used is the C-shaped metal tube
that is sealed at one end and open at the other.

54

Diaphragm
Diaphragm valves are used on shut-off and throttling service
for liquids, slurries and vacuum/gas. The seal is achieved by a
flexible membrane, usually elastomer, and possibly reinforced
with a metal part. The membrane is tensed by the effect of a
stem/compressor with linear movement until contact is made
against the seal of the body. The operating parts of the
diaphragm valve are isolated from the flow. This makes this
valve suitable for viscous flows and also hazardous, abrasive
and corrosive flows as its sealing system avoids any
contamination towards or from the environment. Diaphragm
valves are available in a wide variety of metals, solid plastics,
plastic, rubber and glass linings. They are well suited to the
handling of multiple chemical applications both clear fluids as
well as slurries. The diaphragm valve has an extended use for
applications at low pressures and slurry fluid where most other
kinds of valves corrode or become obstructed. It is a quick
opening valve.
There are two types of diaphragm valves:
Straightway: named also Straight-Thru is only used for on/off
services .
Weir: The Weir Diaphragm valve can be used for either off/on
or throttling services.

Bellows
A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized air in a
controlled quantity to a controlled location.
Types of industrial bellows:
55


1. Rectangular section bellow: They are utilized specifically
in the electrical and automobile industry.

2.Round section bellow: The round section bellow are used

for covering heavily stressed and movable round machine parts
such as shafts, spindles and lead screws pistons.

3. Profile bellow: Profile bellow is lightweight, accurate and

durable that can be used in a wide range of electrical industries.

56

4.
Pipe
joint
bellow: The pipeline bellow is used in numerous industries that
require movement of water at high pressure in a controlled
manner.

5. Industrial rectangular section bellow: Industrial bellows

find use in the protection of gear rods from dirt and dust in all
kinds of automobiles. They are normally used as covers on
parts which are critical and need protection from dust.

57

FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement.
Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. Positive-displacement
flow meters accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then count the
number of times the volume is filled to measure flow. Other flow
measurement methods rely on forces produced by the flowing
stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly
calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity
of fluid over a known area. Both gas and liquid flow can be
measured in volumetric or mass flow rates, such as liters per
second or kilograms per second.

Turbine Meter
In a turbine, the basic concept is that a meter is manufactured
with a known cross sectional area. A rotor is then installed
inside the meter with its blades axial to the product flow. When
the product passes the rotor blades, they impart an angular
velocity to the blades and therefore to the rotor. This angular
velocity is directly proportional to the total volumetric flow rate.
Turbine meters are best suited to large, sustained flows as they
are susceptible to start/stop errors as well as errors caused by
unsteady flow states.

Magnetic Flow Meter

Measurement of slurries and of corrosive or abrasive or other
difficult fluids is easily made. There is no obstruction to fluid
flow and pressure drop is minimal. The meters are unaffected
by viscosity, density, temperature, pressure and fluid
turbulence. Magnetic flow meters utilize the principle of
Faradays Law of Induction; similar principle of an electrical
58


generator. When an electrical conductor moves at right angle
to a magnetic field, a voltage is induced.

Orifice Plate
An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in the
flow; it constricts the flow and measuring the pressure
differential across the constriction gives the flow rate. It is
basically a crude form of Venturi meter, but with higher energy
losses. There are three type of orifice: concentric, eccentric,
and segmental.

Venturi Meter
A Venturi meter constricts the flow in some fashion, and
pressure sensors measure the differential pressure before and
within the constriction. This method is widely used to measure
flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines, and has
been used since Roman Empire times. The coefficient of
discharge of Venturi meter ranges from 0.93 to 0.97.

59

Dall tube:
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a
lower pressure drop than an orifice plate. As with these flow
meters the flow rate in a Dall tube is determined by measuring
the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The
pressure differential is typically measured using diaphragm
pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters
have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice
meters, Dall tubes are widely used for measuring the flow rate
of
large
pipeworks.

Pitot tube:
A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to
measure fluid flow velocity by determining the stagnation
pressure. Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the dynamic
pressure and hence fluid velocity. Also see Air flow meter.

60

LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
Open Tank Level Measurement:
The simplest application is the fluid level in an open tank. If the
tank is open atmosphere, the high-pressure side of the level
side will be vented to atmosphere. In this manner, the level
transmitter acts as a simple
pressure transmitter .The level
transmitter can be calibrated to output 4 mA when the tank is
at 0% level and 20 mA when the tank is at 100% level.

Closed Tank Level Measurement:

Should the tank be closed and a gas or vapour exists on top of
the liquid, the gas pressure must be compensated for. A change
in the gas pressure will cause a change in transmitter output.
Moreover, the pressure exerted by the gas phase may be so
high that the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column
61


becomes insignificant. For example, the measured hydrostatic
head in a CANDU boiler may be only three meters (30 kPa) or
so, whereas the steam pressure is typically 5 MPa.
Compensation can be achieved by applying the gas pressure to
both the high and low-pressure sides of the level transmitter.
This cover gas pressure is thus used as a back pressure or
reference pressure on the LP side of the DP cell. One can also
immediately see the need for the three-valve manifold to
protect the DP cell against these pressures. The different
arrangement of the sensing lines to the DP cell is indicated a
typical closed tank application. The effect of the gas pressure is
cancelled and only the pressure due to the hydrostatic head of
the liquid is sensed. When the low-pressure impulse line is
connected directly to the gas phase above the liquid level, it is
called a dry leg.

PROCESS CONTROL IN BOILERS:

Instrumentation and controls in a boiler plant encompass an
enormous range of equipment from simple industrial plant to the
complex in the large utility station.
The boiler control system is the means by which the balance of
energy & mass into and out of the boiler are achieved. Inputs are
62


fuel, combustion air, atomizing air or steam &feed water. Of these,
fuel is the major energy input. Combustion air is the major mass
input, outputs are steam, flue gas, blow down, radiation & soot
blowing.

TYPES OF PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

Feedback Control
Feed forward Control
Feed forward-plus-Feedback Control
Ratio Control
Split Range Control
Cascade Control

Feedback Control
One of the simplest process control schemes.
A feedback loop measures a process variable and sends
the measurement to a controller for comparison to set
point. If the process variable is not at set point, control
action is taken to return the process variable to set point.
The advantage of this control scheme is that it is simple
using single transmitter.
NOTE: This control scheme does not take into consideration
any of the other variables in the process.

63

Feedback loop are commonly used in the process control

industry.

The advantage of a feedback loop is that directly controls

the desired process variable.

The disadvantage of feedback loops is that the process

variable must leave set point for action to be taken.

Feedforward Control
Feedforward loop is a control system that anticipates load
disturbances and controls them before they can impact the
process variable.
For feedforward control to work, the user must have a
mathematical understanding of how the manipulated
variables will impact the process variable.

64

An advantage of feedforward control is that error is

prevented, rather than corrected.
However, it is difficult to account for all possible load
disturbances in a system through feedforward control.
In general, feedforward system should be used in case where
the controlled variable has the potential of being a major
load disturbance on the process variable ultimately being
controlled.

Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control
Because of the difficulty of accounting for every possible load
disturbance in a feed forward system, this system are often
combined with feedback systems.

65


Controller with summing functions are used in these
combined systems to total the input from both the feed
forward loop and the feedback loop, and send a unified signal
to the final control element

Ratio Control
Ratio control is used to ensure that two or more flows are
kept at
the same ratio even if the flows are changing

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Application:
Blending two or more flows to produce a mixture with
specified composition.

Blending two or more flows to produce a mixture with

specified physical properties

Maintaining correct air and fuel mixture to combustion

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Cascade Control
Cascade Control uses the output of the primary controller to
manipulate the set point of the secondary controller as if it
were the final control element.

1. Why cascade control?

Allow faster secondary controller to handle disturbances
in the secondary loop.
Allow secondary controller to handle non-linear valve and
other final control element problems.
Allow operator to directly control secondary loop during
certain modes of operation (such as startup).
2. Requirements for cascade control:
Secondary loop process dynamics must be at least four
times as fast as primary loop process dynamics.
Secondary loop must have influence over the primary
loop.
Secondary loop must be measured and controllable.
68

INSTRUMENT LIST
It is theoretically possible to operate a boiler with manual control.
Time is needed for the boiler to respond to a correction and this
lead to over correction with further upset to the boiler. An
automatic controller once properly tuned will make the proper
adjustment quickly to minimise upsets and will control the system
more accurately and reliably. Instrumentation systems are
provided for the boiler to achieve the following:
1. To measure the actual values of different parameters for
which the boiler is designed.
2.
Safe working range of the different parameters are
maintained.
3. To monitor one or more variables at a time and provide input
for automatic control.
4.

In case of operator failure to take remedial action for an

upset condition, it protects the boiler by alarms and
trippings.

5. To provide data on operating conditions before failure of the

equipment for analysing the failure.

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WATER AND STEAM LEVEL INDICATOR

PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS
6.

Instrument list consists of all the instruments like

Transmitters, Switches, Gauges/Indicators used at power
plant site.
70


7. This list contains the various information of instruments i.e.
Tag no., service, type, set points, ranges, make, model no.,
scope etc. of all instruments.
8.
An instrument is device/sensor which is used for
measurement.

TYPICAL FORMAT USED FOR INSTRUMENT LIST

INSTRUMENT LIST (For reference only):

71

72

INPUT-OUTPUT LIST
1. The input-output list of boiler contains the list of instruments
and equipments which are interfaced/ controlled from DCS.
2. This list is used for DCS sizing.
3. Two type of signals- Digital and Analog.
4.

Isolation valves are on-off valves and two command signals

from DCS and two feedback signals to DCS.

5. Control valves are analog valves and one command signal and
one Position feedback signal.
6. Switches send one digital signal to DCS.
7. Transmitters send one analog signal.

73

INPUT/OUTPUT LIST (For reference only):

74

PROJECT DETAILS
Student Details
Student
Name
Registration
Number
Email
Address

ADITYA KUMAR AGARWAL

121705
adiagrawal1994@gmail.co
m

Section /
Roll No
Phone No
(M)

ELEX/ I-04
+918796024891

Project Details
Project Title BOILER PROCESS CONTROL AND
INSTRUMENTATION
Project
5 WEEKS
Date of
Duration
reporting
Organisation Details

26/05/2014

Organisatio ALSTOM INDIA LIMITED

n Name
Full postal
Engineering Department, 3rd Floor, IHDP Building,
address with Plot#7,
Sector 127, Noida 201301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
pin code
Website
http://www.alstom.com/india
address
Supervisor Details
Supervisor
Mr. KUNAL KUMAR
Name
Designation
Lead Engineer
Full contact
Engineering Department, 3rd Floor, IHDP Building,
address with Plot#7,
Sector 127, Noida 201301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
pin code
Email
kunal.kumar@power.alsto Phone No
+91address
m.com
(M)
9990237510
75