An Experimental Study On Turbulent Mixing of Visco-Elastic Fluids

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
ON TURBULENT MIXING
OF VISCO-ELASTIC FLUIDS
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PAUL
BARTELS
1988
ON TURBULENT MIXING
Cover:
the interaction between an elastic polyacrylamide molecule
and two turbulent vortices
ON TURBULENT MIXING
PROEFSCHRIFT
Ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor

aan de Technische Universiteit Delft,
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus,
prof.dr. J.M. Dirken, in het openbaar
te verdedigen ten overstaan van een
commissie aangewezen door het College
van Dekanen op dinsdag 23 februari 1988
te 14.00 uur
door
Paul Vincent Bartels,
geboren te Rotterdam,
landbouwkundig ingenieur.
TR diss
1611
Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor

professor J.M. Smith D.Sc. C.Eng.
S T E L L I N G E N
behorende bij het proefschrift
"An experimental study on
turbulent mixing of visco-elastlc fluids"
1 De axiale, de tangentile en de radiale uitstroomsnelheden van

een schuinbladige turblneroerder worden mede bepaald door de
vlsco-elasticiteit van de gebruikte vloeistof en deze vloeistof
kan daarbij ten opzichte van water in een tegengestelde
richting uitstromen.
Dit proefschrift
2 De "BlaslusvergeliJking" kan worden toegepast om de
stromingsweer8tand van polyacrylamlde-oplossingen in een pijp
te beschrijven, indien deze vergelijking uitgebreid wordt met
een term die afhankelijk is van de elasticiteit van de
oplossing.
Dit proefschrift
3 Relaties tussen het meng- of stromingsgedrag In geroerde vaten

en de zwichtspannlng van polymeeroplossingen, zoals deze
toegepast worden in de reologische modellen van Bingham, Casson
of Herschel-Bulkley, zijn afhankelijk van de technische
mogelijkheden van de gebruikte reometers en hebben daarom geen
werkelijke fysische betekenis.
dit proefschrift
Bij de interpretatie van de bepalingen van de rekviscosltelt
van een vlsco-elastische oplossing met behulp van de "buisloze
hevel methode" wordt ten onrechte niet vermeld dat
terugstroming van de vloeistof de meetmogellJkheden
aanmerkelijk beperkt.
L. Nicodemia, B. De Cindio en L. Nicolals;
Polymer Enging. and Sci. 1 (1975) 679-683
5 Indien een oplossing een vlsco-elastisch gedrag vertoont, zal
het vermogenskental voor turbulente menging met een radiaal
uitstromende turbine lager zijn dan het geval is met water. Dit
verschijnsel kan gebruikt worden om visco-elastische
oplossingen als zodanig te herkennen.
Dit proefschrift
6 Het gecombineerde gebruik van fluorides in drinkwater.

tabletten en tandpasta leidt bij de tandontwlkkeling van
kinderen in Nederland tot veel meer glazuurafwiJklngen dan tot
nu toe verondersteld wordt. Een matiging In de toediening van
fluoride aan zwangere vrouwen en kleine kinderen is daarom
gewenst.
W.M.D. Niewland; Klinisch onderzoek naar het voorkomen van
glazuurafwijkingen bij kinderen, met name fluorose, ACTA 1987
7 Het gedeelte van de genoten rente dat dient als dekking van
inflatie en risico vormt geen reel Inkomen en moet dan ook
niet als zodanig belast worden.
8 Gezien de hirarchische relatie tussen een hond en zijn baas

dient de eigenaar van de hond strafrechtelijk vervolgd te
worden voor mishandeling van derden door de hond, als ware
de hond een handwapen.
9 Ook als het water in de R U n in de toekomst schoner wordt,

blijft het onwaarschijnlijk dat de zalm zal terugkeren,
aangezien de geschikte paalplaatsen In de afgelopen eeuw
verdwenen zijn.
10 Voor de uitzendingen van de politieke partijen zouden de

code-regels van de Reclameraad van toepassing dienen te zijn.
P.V. Bartels
23 februari 1988
"Ars longa, vita brevis"

To Sophieke
A fluid, that's macromolecular

It's really quite weird - in particular
The abnormal stresses
The fluid possesses
Give rise to effects quite spectacular
R.B. Bird
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The enthusiasm and ideas of dr. ir. L.P.B.M. Janssen,

now professor at the University of Groningen, stimulated this
research at its start. Following his departure from the
Laboratory for Physical Technology my promotor prof. J. M.
Smith D. So. has supervised the project. Most of the research
described in this publication has been carried out in that
latter period.
Thanks are due to the many students who contributed
with their experimental work and interpretations of the
results. Especially students, who have carried out research
during their fourth or fifth year of the study, have made a
large contribution to this thesis. They are Gerard van
Lookeren (chapters 3 and H),
Arjen Markus (chapters 3 and 6)
Ruud van Beelen (chapters and 5 ) . Tjia Liem (chapters 3

and 5 ) , Henk Kalsbeek (chapters 6 and 7) and Ruud Hogervorst
(chapter 8 ) .
I am indebted to dr. ir. J. Kunen for his collaboration
in measuring the velocity profiles for polymer solutions in a
Ml mm diameter tube at Delft Hydraulics. I would like to thank
dr. ir. J. Blom (University of Twente, Enschede) and
dipl. lng. Z. Kolar (Interuniversity Nuclear Institute, Delft)
for the opportunities provided respectively to analyse the
dynamic viscosity of the experimental fluids and the diffusion
in polymer solutions.
Further I would like to express my gratitude to all
employees of the laboratory for Physical Technology for their
help in the realization of the experimental equipment and for
their assistance, while for the preparation of the graphics
and photographs in this publication I like to thank
Ab Schinkel.
Finally, I extend my appreciation to TJia Liem and Ivo
Bouwmans for the discussions and suggestions made, after
reading the concept of this thesis, and to Els Kolff for the
cover design.
Gerald Adang
Ruud van Beelen
Jo Bothmer
Max Colon
Gerben van der Graaf
Johan van Haastrecht
Frank den Hartoi
Paul Hendrikx
John Hermans
Ruud Hogervorst
Henk Kalsbeek
Arne Kool
Otto van der Lende
Tjla Llem
Gerard van Lookeren
Arjen Markus
Soerlw Peasar
Ineke van der Reijden - Stolk
Henk Schaap
Peter Schippers
Heroe Soedjak
Alle Tigchelhoff
Cees Versluijs
Quint van Voorst Vader
have made a contribution

to the research project
"Mixing of visco-elastic fluids"
as a part of their studies.
LIST OF CONTENTS
page
SAMENVATTING
13
SUMMARY
16
CHAPTER 1
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Scope
Objective
Thesis structure
References
19
19
20
21
22
CHAPTER 2
2
THE VISCO-ELASTIC FLUIDS
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Chemistry of the experimental fluids
2.3
Degradation
2.4
Defining the viscosity of the solutions
2.4.1
The viscosity of
polyacrylamide solutions
2.4.2
Estimation of elastic properties
2.4.3
Carboxymethylcellulose
2.5
Molecular diffusion
2.5-1
Introduction
2.5-2
Diffusion experiments
2.5-3
Conclusion
2.6
Conclusions
2.7
Symbols
2.8
References
23
23
23
25
26
26
28
34
34
34
35
38
38
39
40
CHAPTER 3
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.5
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
HYDRODYNAMICAL DESCRIPTION OF VISCO-ELASTIC

FLUIDS IN TURBULENT PIPE LINE FLOW
Introduction
Drag reduction in literature
Literature about velocity profiles
of polymer solutions
Experimental
The tube and the fluids
The laser Doppler anemometer
The measuring volume
Drag reduction and time scales
Velocity profiles
Results with the 44 mm tube
Results with the 16.4 mm tube
43
43
44
49
51
51
52
55
57
67
67
72
3 7
3 8
3 9
Conclusions
Symbols
References
75
76
78
CHAPTER <l
HOMOGENIZATION IN TURBULENT PIPE LINE FLOW

.1
Introduction
.2
Modelling turbulent mixing
.3
Measuring methods for the mixing experiments
.
The acid - ba3e reaction
1.5
The iodine - thlosulphate reaction
1.6
Definition of homogenlzation
1.7
Experimental
1.7.1
The fluids
4.7-2
The set-up
1.8
Conversion along the tube
1.9
Comparison of the neutralization reaction
with the redox reaction
1.10
Influence on the mixing length
by polymer additives
1.11
Energy dissipation
1.12
The mixing energy required
a.13
Conclusions
1.11
Symbols
1.15
References
83
83
83
85
86
87
90
93
93
93
91
97
98
102
111
112
113
115
CHAPTER 5
5
MOTIONLESS MIXERS IN TURBULENT PIPE LINE FLOW
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Commercially available motionless mixers used
5.3
The energy requirement of the elements
5.1
The turbulence downstream of a mixing element
5.5
Homogenlzation by the mixing elements
5.5.1
An example of the effect of mixing
elements on the homogenlzation
5.5.2
The different types of mixing elements
5.5.3
The Influence of polymers added
5.6
Conclusions
5.7
Symbols
5.8
References
LC
119
119
119
122
126
132
132
133
135
136
138
110
CHAPTER 6
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.3-1
6.3-2
6.3.3
6.
6..1
6..2
6.5
6.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.A
6.B
HYDRODYNAMICS IN A STIRRED VESSEL

Introduction
Influence of the visco-elasticlty
on the large scale flow
The experimental set-up
The tank reactor
The viscosity used for the
velocity measurements
The radial discharge of the impeller
The tangential Jet
Measurement of the tangential Jet
The pumping capacity
The trailing vortex
Literature
Experiments
Turbulence in the vicinity of the impeller
Turbulence in the bulk of the vessel
Conclusions
Symbols
References
Appendix: velocity distribution in the vessel
for water
Appendix: velocity distribution in the vessel
for a solution of 1000 ppm PAAm
11
11
12
15
15
16
18
19
19
153
159
161
16
168
170
17
17"
175
177
181
182
CHAPTER 7
7
7.1
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.
7.3
7.
7.5
7.5-1
7.5.2
7.5-3
7.5.
7.6
7.7
7.8
ELASTICITY AND POWER CONSUMPTION

IN STIRRED VESSELS
Introduction
Experimental
The tank reactor
Power consumption
Visualization
Experimental fluids
Influence of elasticity on the power number
for Rushton turbines
Power consumption and the tangential jet
Visco-elastic fluids and inclined
blade turbines
Inclined blade impellers
Power number of inclined blade impellers
with Newtonian fluids
Effect of the fluid elasticity on the
flow field for axial Impellers
Effect of the fluid elasticity on the
power consumption
Conclusions
Symbols
References
183
183
183
183
l&U
18
184
188
192
19
19"
195
197
199
202
202
20
11
CHAPTER 8
8
MIXING TIMES IN STIRRED TANK REACTORS
8.1
Introduction
8.2
Literature
8.3
The experimental fluids
8.
The measuring techniques used
8.U.1
Introduction
8..2
The light probe in the fluid
8..3
The light probe, measuring
over the full height
8.U.
The amylose indicator
8..5
The Injection system
8..6
Measuring procedure
8.5
Effect of the injection position
8.6
The homogenizatlon time for a Rushton turbine
8.7
Homogenizatlon and power consumption
8.8
Radially and axially discharging impellers
8.9
Conclusions
8.10
Symbols
8.11
References
207
207
207
210
211
211
212
213
215
216
217
217
219
225
226
230
231
232
CHAPTER 9
9
9.1
9.2
12
FINAL CONCLUSIONS
Pipe line reactors and stirred tank reactors
Scale-up
23
235
237
EEN EXPERIMENTEEL ONDERZOEK NAAR

DE TURBULENTE MENGING VAN VISCO-ELASTISCHE VLOEISTOFFEN
SAMENVATTING
De hoeveelheid literatuur over het turbulent mengen van
Newtonse vloeistoffen in geroerde vaten en in buisstromlngen
is zeer groot. Veel minder aandacht is er besteed aan de
betekenis van de visco-elasticlteit van vloeistoffen, zoals
oplossingen van polymeren in water, op de turbulente menging,
alhoewel vloeistoffen met dit soort reologisch gedrag vaak
toegepast worden in de industrie. Het verschijnsel van
weerstandsvermindering met visco-elastische vloeistoffen in
turbulente pijpstroming is echter veelvuldig beschreven. Deze
weerstandsvermindering wordt veroorzaakt door een
onderdrukking van de kleinste wervels, die de energie
disslperen. Turbulente pijpstroming vormt, vanwege de vele
literatuur, een goede basis, voor onderzoek naar de invloed die
polymeertoevoegingen uitoefenen op de menging vanwege de
verminderde energiedissipatie.
Doel van dit onderzoek is het leggen van een verband

tussen het visco-elastisch gedrag van een vloeistof en het
stromingsgedrag, de energiedissipatie en de menging in
turbulente buisstromlngen en geroerde vaten.
Het proefschrift begint met een karakterisering van de

reologische eigenschappen van de waterige polyacrylamldeoplossingen die als modelvloeistoffen gebruikt zijn.
Kenmerkend voor deze vloeistoffen is een karakteristieke tijd,
die bepaald wordt met behulp van het Bird-Carreau
viscoslteitsmodel. De viscositeit is niet alleen belangrijk
vanwege de visceuze krachten in de vloeistof, maar zal ook van
invloed zijn op alle stromings-schalen via de elastische
krachten, die gerelateerd zijn aan een elasticlteitsgetal.
13
Dit kental wordt bepaald door de karakteristieke

vloeistoftijd, de viscositeit en de afmeting van de menger.
Er kan een verdeling gemaakt worden tussen de
experimenten in pijpstromlngen. beschreven in hoofdstuk 3. "
en 5. en in geroerde vaten, die verwerkt zijn in hoofdstuk 6,
7 en 8. Voor de beide processen zijn onderwerpen
betreffende
de hydrodynamica, de energiedlssipatie en de menging

onderzocht. Voor de bepaling van de vloeistofsnelheid is een
"laser Doppler anemometer" gebruikt, terwijl de menging
gemeten is met behulp van de ontkleurings-reactIe tussen
natriumthiosulfaat en jood met amylose als indicator.
Voor beide mengsystemen is een duidelijke invloed van de
visco-elasticitelt op de hydrodynamica gevonden voor de
plaatsen met een hoge afschuifsnelheid, zoals in de grenslaag
bij pljpstroming en In de rolwervels achter de bladen van een
Rushtonturbine. Dit resulteert in een aanzienlijke
vermindering van de energiedlssipatIe bij een zeer geringe
toename van het elastlciteitsgetal. Bij de pljpstroming
bestaat er tevens een drempelwaarde voor het Reynoldsgetal
waarboven weerstandsvermindering optreedt voor een bepaalde
polymeeroplossing. De frictlefaktor blijkt tevens een functie
te zijn van het elastlciteitsgetal. Door de geringere
energieconsumptie verloopt het mengproces voor
polymeeroplossingen ook trager. De energie-dissipatle en
homogenisatie kunnen gerelateerd worden aan de karakteristieke
vloeistof tljd en aan het elastlciteitsgetal.
In de buis is er een gedwongen grootschalige stroming,

terwijl in een geroerd vat grootschalige
circulatiestromingen
bestaan, waarvan richting en groette kunnen veranderen. De

elasticiteit vormt de bron van extra krachten, die andere
stromingspatronen geven dan met water en stilstaande zones
kunnen veroorzaken.
Voor roerders met een radiale of axiale uitstroming zijn
de stromingspatronen bestudeerd. Bij schulnbladige roerders
blijkt er een overheersende radiale uitstroming te kunnen
ontstaan ten gevolge van de elastische krachten.
Met water wordt voor de schuinbladige roerders een lager

vermogenskental dan voor een Rushtonturblne gevonden. Omdat de
uitstroming meer radiaal gericht is, zal het vermogenskental
voor deze roerders met visco-elastische vloeistoffen dan ook
stijgen.
De radiale uitstrcming van een Rushtonturblne is met
behulp van een model voor een tangentile Jet
gekwantificeerd, en de samenhang met het vermogenskental is
aangetoond.
In turbulente bulsstromingen en in geroerde vaten zal
het mengrendement, gedefinieerd als de energie die nodig is om
een zekere mate van menging te krijgen, niet duidelijk
veranderen voor een zelfde (tip)snelheid en voor lage waarden
van het elasticiteitsgetal, hoewel er een minimum gevonden
wordt voor zeer verdunde polymeeroplossingen. Voor de
geconcentreerdere polyacrylamlde-oplosslngen zal de benodigde
mengenergie aanmerkelijk stijgen.
In de buis gemonteerde meng-elementen, zoals de Kenics

of Sulzer SMX en SMV statische mengers, zijn eveneens
bestudeerd wat betreft het mengen stromingsgedrag in en
achter de elementen. De drukval over de mengers wordt slechts
in geringe mate benvloed door de elasticiteit van
polymeeroplossingen, In tegenstelling tot de mengwerking, die
afneemt bij een toenemende karakteristieke tijd van de
oplossingen. De opgewekte turbulentie achter een element
blijkt dan nuttig te zijn om het energie-rendement bij het
mengen met vlsco-elastische vloeistoffen te verbeteren. Indien
de elementen op enige afstand van elkaar worden
gepositioneerd.
ic-
SUMMARY
Extensive literature is available concerning the
turbulent mixing of Newtonian liquids in stirred tank reactors
as well as in pipe line flow. Less attention has been paid to
the Influence exerted by the visco-elastlc fluid behaviour, of
aqueous polymer solutions for instance, on turbulent mixing,
though fluids with this rheologlcal behaviour are of frequent
occurence in industry. The drag reduction phenomenon of
elastic liquids in turbulent pipe line flow is however well
described. This drag reduction is caused by a damping of the
smallest energy dissipating eddies. Because It has been
studied extensively, turbulent pipe line flow presents a good
point of departure for research into the influence of polymer
additions on the homogenization due to
the diminished energy
dissipation.
The objective of this thesis is to relate the

visco-elastic behaviour of fluids to the hydrodynamics, energy
dissipation and homogenization for turbulent pipe line flow
and stirred tank reactors.
This study starts with the characterization of the

Theological behaviour of aqueous polyacrylamlde solutions.
which were used as model fluids. An essential feature of these
fluids Is a characteristic fluid time, determined by using the
Bird-Carreau model to describe the viscosity. Apart of the
viscous forces, the viscosity will have an Influence on all
flow scales as a result of the elastic forces, which can be
related to the elasticity number. This number is determined by
the characteristic fluid time, the viscosity and the dimension
of the mixer.
A division can be made between the experiments in tube
flow, described in chapters 3, and 5, and in stirred tank
reactors, dealt with in chapters 6, 7 and 8. For both the
processes topics of hydrodynamics, energy dissipation and
homogenization have been researched. A laser Doppler
anemometer has been used for the determination of the
16
velocity, while the homogenization has been measured by means

of the decoloration reaction of thiosulphate with iodine using
amylose as an indicator.
For both mixing systems a significant influence of

visco-elasticity on the hydrodynamics is found in locations
with a high shear rate, such as occur in the boundary layer of
pipe line flow and in the trailing vortices of the blade of a
Rushton turbine. This results in an dramatic drop of the
overall energy dissipation for very low values of elasticity
number. In tube flow there is a threshold for the drag
reduction phenomenon. The friction factor appears to be also a
function of the elasticity number. The homogenization process
of polymer solutions is also slower due to the lower energy
dissipation, causing less dispersion. The energy dissipation
and homogenization can be related to a characteristic fluid
time and the elasticity number.
In the tube an imposed large scale flow occurs as a

matter of course, while in a stirred tank large scale
circulation flows exist, which are subject to change. The
elasticity generates additional forces, giving different
patterns than in the case of water and giving rise to stagnant
zones.
For impellers with an axial or a radial discharge the
patterns have been studied. An inclined blade impeller may
show a dominant radial discharge due to visco-elastic forces.
For water, a power number lower than that for a Rushton
turbine has been established when inclined blade impellers are
being used. Because the discharge is more radially directed,
power consumption for visco-elastic fluids increases for this
type of Impeller.
The radial outflow of an Rushton turbine has been
quantified using a tangential jet model, and it has been
related to the power consumption.
In turbulent pipe line flow and in stirred tank reactors

the mixing efficiency, defined as the energy needed to obtain
17
a Bpeciflc rate of homogenlzation, will not change

significantly at a given (tip) velocity for low values of the
elasticity number, although a minimum has been found; however,
it increases considerably for concentrated solutions of
polyacrylamide.
The effect of inserted mixing elements, such as the

Kenics or Sulzer SMX and SMV static mixers, on turbulent pipe
flow has also been studied. The pressure drop of the mixers is
almost independent of the concentration of polyacrylamlde,
but mixing will be less when the characteristic time of the
solutions Increases. In that case the turbulence downstream of
an element appears to be useful for the Improvement of the
energy efficiency for homogenlzatlon in visco-elastic fluids,
if the elements are situated at some distance removed from one
another.
ia
C H A P T E R
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1
SCOPE
T h e m i x i n g of fluids is carried
the p r o c e s s
i n d u s t r i e s . Most
process
out in all p h a s e s of
fluids p o s s e s s
of complex rheologlcal behaviour, especially

found
qualities
t h o s e that
are
in the food- and b i o i n d u s t r i e s , p o l y m e r p r o c e s s i n g
coating o p e r a t i o n s . Some e x a m p l e s of p r o d u c t s
and
and
processes
are as f o l l o w s :
-fermentation: *xanthan
g u m s and o t h e r e x t r a
cellulair
polysaccharides,
used for e x a m p l e for e n h a n c e d
*fermentation
-paint
industry:
-manufacture
-emulsion
of g l u e s and
processes:
These
moulds
emulsions
polymerizations
-separation
b r o t h s of
oil-recovery
adhesives
(latex)
floceulation
fluids show c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n
m a n n e r of d e v i a t i o n
from i s o - v l s c o u s N e w t o n i a n
in
behaviour. A
n u m b e r of them display e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s . T h i s
rheologlcal behaviour, which
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d
s t o r a g e of e n e r g y , may be o b s e r v e d
solutions,
(Oolman et a l . \ 1 9 8 6 \ ) ,
(Riccius
and A r n e y
suspensions
as
oils
\1986\).
the e f f e c t s of
p e r f o r m a n c e in e i t h e r l a m i n a r
flow r e g i m e s .
research
temporary
but a l s o in g l y c e r i n e and o i l s such
Very l i t t l e is k n o w n c o n c e r n i n g
relevant
dependent
polymer
s i l i c o n e o i l , s o y b e a n oil or common
e l a s t i c i t y on m i x i n g
turbulent
time
by a
in p o l y m e r s ,
e m u l s i o n s , d i s p e r s i o n s and m i c r o b i a l
high m o l e c u l a r
their
For stirred
has been
carried
vessels most
of
out In c o n n e c t i o n
l a m i n a r m i x i n g , w h i l e t u r b u l e n t m i x i n g has been
fluid
or
the
with
researched
to
19
only a slight extent. In most cases elasticity is not

perceived as a fluid property which can give rise to
engineering problems in mixing. In a stirred reactor fluid
elasticity may have a significant effect on the pumping
capacity of the impeller, the turbulent energy dissipation and
its distribution throughout the vessel. As a result of this,
there is a direct Influence on the circulation capacity, mass
transfer and mixing performance. The elastic forces can also
cause different flow patterns and stagnant zones.
A tank reactor is not very suitable for mixing
concentrated polymer solution, because of the changes that
occur in the flow-field and in the turbulence. Pipe line
mixing can be better for homogenizatIon- and dispersion
processes, as the external pumping capacity gives more
adequate control of the flow field. However, it has been known
for forty years that even fluids which are practically nonelastic can cause a dramatic decrease in the pressure drop in
turbulent pipe line flow. This is called the Toms effect (Toms
\ 1 9 " 9 \ ) . It may be assumed that this decrease in energy
dissipation will also result in less efficient mixing. More
efficient mixing, at the expense of an additional pressure
drop, can be affected with motionless mixing elements. For
this purpose many different types of these elements which give
different types of small-scale mixing flows are commercially
available.
1.2
OBJECTIVE
In turbulent mixing operations the fluid viscosity is
of minor importance. However, elasticity can cause significant

changes in the flow when the related characteristic fluid
time is of the same order of magnitude as that of the flows in
the mixing process, whether on the macro or the micro scale.
The objective of the present work has been to observe
the influences of the elasticity on the hydrodynamics, the
power consumption and the turbulent diffusion of the
20
homogenization process, as compared to fluids with Newtonian

properties. To quantify the elastic behaviour, a useful
approach is necessarily based on a characteristic time and
viscosity of the fluid. Water, being a Newtonian fluid, may be
considered to have a very short characteristic time
-1
(water: 10
s) .
For this purpose well known mixing processes have been
selected: the tank reactor with a Rushton turbine and the pipe
line reactor. Extensive literature is available for both types
of mixers. Other mixer designs have also been studied in order
to illustrate the special effects caused by elastic forces.
1.3
THESIS STRUCTURE
Different chapters will cover distinct aspects of the
interaction between the mixing process and the rheology of the

fluid. Following an introducing chapter two main sections may
be distinguished: three chapters deal with the hydrodynamics,
energy dissipation and mixing in tube flow, and the same
topics will be discussed in connection with the stirred tank
reactor in the three subsequent chapters .
The properties of the model fluids used, such as
Theological behaviour, will be discussed in chapter two. In
the third chapter, the hydrodynamics of aqueous polymer
solutions in pipe line flow will be discussed. A great deal of
literature is available concerning the pressure drop and
related flow field for aqueous polymer solutions. The effects
of elasticity are remarkable. These effects will be used to
characterize the dilute polymer solutions. In subsequent
chapters, lesser known areas will be researched. The
homogenization of elastic fluids will be discussed in
chapter . In chapter 5. applications of industrial mixing
devices to the polymer solutions will be shown. In the three
subsequent chapters the influence of visco-elasticity on the
hydrodynamics in stirred vessels, especially in the vicinity
of the impeller, the related power consumption and
homogenizing will be discussed.
21
1.
REFERENCES
Oolman. T., E. Walitza and H. Chmiel

1986
Dynamic rheoloiical behavlor of mlcrobial suspensions
Food engineering and process applications; Vol. 1: Transport
phenomena. M. Le Maguer and P. Jelen (edt. )
Elsevier Appli. Scl. Publ., London. 81-90
Riccius, D.D.J. and M. Arney
1986
Shear-wave speeds and elastic moduli for different liquids
Part 2 Experiments
J. Fluid. Mech.. 171. 309-338
Toms, B.A.
19^9
Some Observations on the Flow of Linear Solutions through
Straight tubes at Large Reynolds Numbers
Proc. first Int. Rheol. Congr. Holland (1918)
Pt. II. 135 - 11
22
C H A P T E R
THE VISCO-ELASTIC
2.1
FLUIDS
INTRODUCTION
The influence of visco-elasticity on the mixing process
is difficult to measure. There are major problems in

controlling the behaviour of the polymer solutions during the
time of the experiments, and also technical limitations in
measuring the complex viscosity. This chapter will discuss the
preparation of the experimental solutions and the
characterization of the rheological behaviour of the fluids
used.
2.2
CHEMISTRY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL FLUIDS

In the experiments aqueous ionic solutions of
polyacrylamide (PAAm) have been used as a typical

vlsco-elastic fluid. For the measurements of turbulent mixing
concentrations up to 2000 weight ppm PAAm are used. These
concentrations are used in Industry for separation processes
such as, for example, floeculation and show the same
rheological behaviour as aome types of fermentation broth
(Oolman et al. \1986\). Relative to other polymers,
polyacrylamide (PAAm) has the best resistance against
degradation caused by light and shear or microbiological- and
chemical reaction. This resistance, in combination with a
relatively high elastic effect, has been the reason for
selecting this particular polymer. The polyacrylamide used in
the experiments is a technical product of Dow Chemical
Company; Separan AP-30. Extensive literature is available
concerning the behaviour of aqueous solutions of
23
-CH,-CHC=0
NH,
POLYMER
-CH, CH-
C =0
I
0' Na-
Figure 2.i
The chemical structure
of polyacrylamlde with
co-polymer.
CO-POLYMER
polyacrylamide, such as Sylvester and Tyler \1977\. Kuilcke et

al. \1982\, Maehtle \1982\. and Wagner \198\. Separan
AP-30 is a partially hydrolyzed linear polymer with an anlonlc
character and with a formula shown in figure 2.1. According to
the manufacturer, the molecular weight is approximately
10
0.26
kg/mol. with a broad molecular weight distribution.
Because it is an electrolyte, the viscosity and elasticity are

sensitive to counter ionic concentrations. In the experiments
initial high concentrations of salt (KI) are frequently used.
An example of a typical viscosity- concentration relationship
for these fluids is shown in figure 2.2. In this figure the
relative viscosity ti has been used. This viscosity is the
r
ratio of the solution viscosity u
to the solvent
app
viscosity u . The relative viscosity is measured, when
Separan AP-30 (anionic character)
0.5% solution
JUUU
mPa s "app
1000
500
-1 /
/
If.
200
4 0 0 . 1 0 - 6 k g / k g PAAm
100
50
in
'
5"C
25C
40-C
1 '
. pH
1 , 1 ,
10
Fig. 2.2
The relation between the zero shear viscosity,

denoted as the relative viscosity u , and the
concentration polyacrylamide (solutions also used
in figure 3-10).
Fig. 2.3
Influence of pH on the viscosity of a polymer

solution
(Dow Chemical).
24
Ubbelhode viscosimeters are used. The viscosity also depends

on the acidity (fisure 2.3)- A pH 8.0 gives a relatively high
viscosity. At approximate pH 8.0 the dependence of viscosity
on pH change is small.
2.3
DEGRADATION
A set of experimental measurements for one solution
takes about a week. Because the polymer solutions are subject

to some degree of degradation, precautions have been taken.
Separan AP-30 has been used because of its relatively
low molecular weight for a drag reducing polymer. In the first
moments of use. it is primarily the high molecular weight
constituents which are degraded. After about two days of shear
some stabilization occurs. The final degree of degradation
depends on the maximum stress present in the flow during the
experiments. For example, a 1000 ppm solution retained
stability for one month in a stirred vessel, in which the
impeller had a tip velocity of 1 m/s. Increasing this velocity
to 1.5 m/s led to additional degradation.
In technical grade PAAm the residual traces of the
initiator give an ageing effect, especially at lower polymer
concentrations. These residues are sequestered by addition of
2-propanol. Used in a 2% solution this inhibits ageing nearly
entirely (Haase \1972\), while the viscosity does not decrease
significantly. For reproducibility the solutions for a series
of measurements are dissolved from a master solution of
2 - 2.5X PAAm. This Initial solution is diluted with tap water
for most experiments. It remains very stable after a retention
time of 3 days, even though of diminished elasticity
potential, as a result of the shear history, effect of mixing,
and also due to the presence of chemicals, such as the salt
content of the tap water. The stability has been determined by
the measurement of the viscosity and the power consumption. In
figure 2. the decline of the drag reduction in turbulent pipe
flow is shown over several days of experiments. The drag
reducing effect is very sensitive to polymer degradation,
25
while
the molecular weight
and w i l l
degrade
T
fraction
gives
the g r e a t e s t
effect
first.
1
1 t
I I |
11r1-
Polyacrylamide solutions
25ppm 5 days old
7 days old
9 days old
300ppm 4 days old
6 days old
8 days old
01
O 05
andtl
Af
O 01
Virk
>Tty-
_i_L_X_L
5.10 J
XT
0001
Fig.
2. a
5K5'
IO-
Effect of the stress history on degradation of PAAm

solutions, shown by an decrease of drag reduction.
Prandtl: f - 0 - 5 = a.o log (Re f ' 5 ; - 0.
virk
f~" 5 = 19 log (Re f 0 , 5 )
- 32.5
2.
DEFINING THE VISCOSITY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SOLUTIONS
2..1
The viscosity of polyacryamide solutions

Viscosity determinations were conducted on a
Weissenberg Rheogonlometer R16, while for the low

concentrations of polyacrylamide a Contraves Low Shear
Rheometer, owned by the Rheology Group (Department of Applied
Physics, University of Twente) is used; in addition, a
Haake 500 and Ubbelhode viscosimeters were used. All solutions
show a shear thinning behaviour, in which the shear stress
can be described by means of a power law model for the
moderate shear rates j (figure 2.5). in scalar notation
according to:
26
zu
1
Fig.
10
20
50
100 s-1
The v i s c o s i t y p.
and the first n o r m a l s t r e s s
d i f f e r e n c e zn
- v n . p l o t t e d as p o w e r law functions
of the shear s t r e s s (0.9X PAAm s o l u t i o n ) .
2.5
(2.1)
(2.2)
*
app
i""
*
W h e r e k Is the c o n s i s t e n c y
and n the i n d e x , w i t h
v a l u e b e t w e e n 0 and 1 for shear t h i n n i n g
fluids.
At very low shear rates real f l u i d s tend to have a

relatively
constant viscosity.
A zero shear v i s c o s i t y p.
can
o
be d e f i n e d
as that which is a p p r o a c h e d
as y n e a r s zero.
very high shear rates the dilute solutions will

the solvent v i s c o s i t y p.
At
approximate
(figure 2 . 6 ) . The PAAm s o l u t i o n s
do
s
not p o s s e s s any yield
with
apparatus
fluids
yield
stress as d e t e r m i n e d
capable of m e a s u r i n g
(Van Vliet and H o o i j d o n k \ 1 9 8 U \ ) .

stress
the use of yield
stresses
\1982\
in
T h e e x i s t e n c e of
for p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s is d e b a t a b l e , as has
shown by B a r n e s and W a l t e r s \ 1 9 8 5 \ -
with
by Van Vliet
very l o w s t r e s s e s
It is to be expected
in r h e o l o g i c a l m o d e l s w i l l
the d e v e l o p m e n t of m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d
the
been
that
decrease
r h e o m e t e r s , and
w i t h the a c c e p t a n c e of the v i s c o - e l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r of f l u i d s .
27
2..2
Estimation of elastic properties

Reliable techniques for measuring elastic phenomena in
fluids are available to only a limited extent. For the

concentrated solutions of polyacrylamide the first r.ormai
stress difference can be measured with the Weissenberg
Rheogoniometer and can be described, for moderate shear rates,
according to a power law model
(figure 2.5):
(2.3)
'll ' ^22 =
Using the Maxwell model

(2.)
z
* A
= u if
d t
an estimation of the relaxation time A, a characteristic
elastic property, can be given for lower shear rates, using
the approach of White and Metzner \1965 and Cross \19V3\ by:
(2. 5)
r
!2
G *
*11
"
*22
*12 *
Where G represents an elastic shear modulus.

These equations hold valid for low shear rates. Sometimes a
factor 2 instead of 3 is used in the denominator
(Lodge \196\). This relation is useful in connection with
measurements with the Weissenberg Rheogoniometer.
A different approach is provided ty
quantifying the
elastic behaviour of the pseudo plastic polymer solutions from

the data of the rheogram by a time constant
(Cross \1973\)-
A model has been presented by Bird and Carreau (Bird et al.

\1977\, Carreau et. al. \1968\). which uses a characteristic
time, applicable Instead of the relaxation time A, as an
additional parameter to describe the apparent
viscosity JJ
, including elasticity (figure 2.6):
app
28
Fig. 2.6
The apparent viscosity u

of a shear thinning
solution as a function of the shear rate. The
parameters of the Bird Carreau model are shown in
the figure.
(2.6)
! i ^ L = (i*( V )V ( n - 1 1 / 2 1
In this equation t
is the characteristic time of the fluid,
ju0 the viscosity at zero shear rate and u
the viscosity at
oo
infinite shear rate.

The parameters for the solutions, according to
equation 2.6, have been estimated from data obtained with the
Contraves Low Shear Rheometer using the method of Box \1965\.
The use of the model is limited because measurements have only
been possible for up to moderate shear rates. For n
the
oo
solvent viscosity has been used as a first aproximatlon.

The first time constant t
can be estimated by the
interception of the line for constant viscosity at low shear

rates and the line for the power law relation, as shown In
figure 2.6. The slope of the power law line equals (n-1).
29
A third m e t h o d
model with isotropic
polymers
involves
the t h e o r e t i c a l
Brownian and h y d r o d y n a m l c
in s o l v e n t s by R o u s e \ 1 9 5 3 \ and
the applicated
concentrations
is limited
to the
forces
for
the
Most
of
be c o n s i d e r e d
to
Zlmm \ 1 9 5 6 \ .
of p o l y m e r m a y
give d i l u t e s o l u t i o n s a c c o r d i n g
bead-rod-sprlng
to R o u s e ' s
theory.
This
theory
range
(2.8)
1 < c
where
The
In)
< 20
c represents
the w e i g h t
intrinsic v i s c o s i t y
concentration.
[y] Is d e f i n e d
as
(2.9)
^
and
"
lim
to 0
the s p e c i f i c v i s c o s i t y
is d e n o t e d t>y
sp
(2.10)
8P
According
to R o u s e ' s
m o d e of v i b r a t i o n
T h e greatest
Zakin
[]
s M
ir
c RT
Is given
time
for s u c h a s o l u t i o n
can be e s t i m a t e d by
time for the p

by
(2
effective relaxation
(p = i) of
as d e t e r m i n e d
(Blom et a l . \ 1 9 8 6 \ .
-11)
the
by
Hershey
and
\1967\)i
A (
\ M
6 (M - M ) M
IT
30
the r e l a x a t i o n
of the p o l y m e r s
relaxation spectrum
Rouse,
theory
RT
(2.12)
1000
ir-r'iTTTi
ii
1i i M I
t [ trilt
Polyacrylamide solutions
( Oow Chemical, Separan AP-30 )
500
T = 25C
mPas
?
T
1000
2000
2000
500
ppm with salt

ppm d i s t i l l e d water
ppm with salt
ppm CMC solution
100 A
50 -
10 5
1 1 11 1 l i l
w^
o o
: MPP
-- *
*v
1
1 1 1 11 1 il
0 05 01
0.01
Fis.
2.7
0.5
1 1 l till
50
polyacrylamide
T h e t h e o r y of Z i m m , w h i c h
i-l
500
100 s-'
solutions.
takes into account
lnteractons, results
equation with a relaxation
10
R h e o g r a m s of d i l u t e d
hydrodynamlcal
1 . 1 11 I I I
the
in the same type of
time w h i c h
is about 1.5
times
smaller.
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
time t
found
the Bird C a r r e a u m o d e l can be a p p l i e d
in e q u a t i o n
In f i g u r e 2.7 e x a m p l e s are given

solutions
as a p a r a m e t e r
between d i s t i l l e d w a t e r s o l u t i o n s and
2.12.
for several
used. There is an e v i d e n t d i f f e r e n c e
in
tap w a t e r
can be c a l c u l a t e d
t
of 0.8
solutions
apply
for
the
time of 0.83
for t h e 1 0 0 0 ppm s o l u t i o n , w h i c h g i v e s
s according
\ 1 9 7 2 \ , as p r e s e n t e d
\1982\).
a characteristic
polymer
viscosity
c o n t a i n i n g s a l t s . Using a m o l a r v o l u m e of 26 m / m o l
Separan AP-30 polyacrylamide,
in
show a value
to its rheogram.
in f i g u r e 2.8
D a t a fom
Hill
(from G r e e n e et a l .
twice as h i g h . H o w e v e r , these
to fresh s o l u t i o n s .
values
For a fresh solution of 2 0 0 0
ppm
31
IU
/
- I,
0.5
0.1'
10
'-
I
50
'
100
I I . 11
Figure 2.8
The first time constant
t versus the
concentration PAAm,
according to the data
of Hill \1972\.
500 1000.10-6 kg/kg
PAAm in distilled water, a fluid not used for experiments, a

value of s for t
can be derived from figure 2.7. as well
as from figure 2.8 and from the application of equation 2.12.

Assuming that the volume occupied by the polymer molecules is
too large to permit the application of Rouse's theory
(eq. 2.12). the relaxation time will be 1.5 times smaller.
according to the theory of Zimm. This is true when c [M3 > 20.
With c = 2 10" 3 and
[M] in the order of 10 5 (figure 2.10),
this is the case. In spite of this difference, the example of

the 2000 PAAm ppm solution shows the possibilities of the
method to obtain a characteristic time for the fluid from an
graphical Interpolation of its rheogram.
In figure 2.9 the ratio of the specific viscosity to
the concentration PAAm is shown for solutions, used for mixing
experiments described in chapters 3 and d. The data for this
figure are Identical to those indicated in figure 2.2. Figure
2.9 gives an indication of the high concentration of counter
ions for the polymer used, while the hydrodynamical volume of
the polymers (related to u /c) does not Increase at low
o
concentrations, because of the high concentrations of salts
available to mask the polymer groups. The addition of salt3
will give a low viscosity
(figure 2.7). but the degradation In
time will also be less, due to the smaller hydrodynamical
3?
400.10-6 kg'kg
Fig. 2.9
T h e specific v i s c o s i t y
as a f u n c t i o n of
the
concentration PAAm (solutions as shown in fig. 2.2)
0.2
10 -
0.1 Msp
Figure 2.10
The specific
viscosity as a
function of the
cone. PAAm (c) for
several dilutions.
200
400.10- kg/kg
volume of the polymer. Figure 2.10 shows the same relation as

In figure 2.9 for one solution after dilutions with distilled
water. An Increase of c
/c with lower concentrations of

sp
PAAm may be noted. Fewer polymer groups are masked by the

salts, giving a larger hydrodynamical volume and a much longer
relaxation time than in the case of the solutions used for
figure 2.9, in accordance with equation 2.12.
33
The solutions used in the tube experiments have been

degraded to a great extent and. due to the added salts and
lso-propanol, can be aproximated by an overall lso-viscous
behaviour for the shear rates involved. Apart from the
apparent viscosity, with a value close to the zero shear
viscosity, drag reduction is the only elastic phenomenon for
these fluld6 that can be measured accurately.
2..3
Carboxymethylcellulose
In order to increase the viscosity, without creating a
significant elastic effect, a high viscosity sodiumcarboxymethylcellulose (CMC), has been used. Even though such
solutions are of a shear thinning and visco-elastic character
at the concentrations used, the fluids, nevertheless, behave in
an almost Newtonian manner (figure
2.5
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION
2.5-1
Introduction
2.7).
Molecular diffusion, within the smallest scale of

turbulence, is the final stage in the mixing of chemical
reactants (Harnby et al. \1985\) Though, generally, diffusion
depends on the viscosity of the fluid, it has been
demonstrated that the macroscopic viscosity of polymer
solutions does not dictate the molecular diffusion of ions
(Astarlta \1976\). A number of researchers, such as for
instance Dutta and Mashelkar \1985\. Belloni et al. \1981\ and
Yoshida \1978\, have conducted experiments in several systems.
Some enhancement in diffusion is even possible in shear rate
dependent systems in some situations, due to slip and micro
convection (Kllnger-Park and Hubbard \1985\)
2.5.2
Diffusion experiments
The intradiffussion of ions in polyacrylamide solutions

22
has been studied, using radioactive tracers. Labeled
Na
and
I have been used in an open capillary method.
developed from the set-up described by Brentel and Beronius

\1978\. This method is based on the diffusion of tracer out of
one end of a small capillary, filled with the polymer solution
with tracer, into a fast flowing solution (figure 2.11). This
solution is stirred in a buffer vessel and recycled through
the tube with the capillary, which has been mounted
perpendicular to the wall of this tube, in such a way that the
fluid flows along the open end, maintaining an almost zero
concentration. The concentration of the labeled ions in the
capillary Is measured with a scintillator. This experimental
work has been carried out at the I.R.I., the Interunlversity
Nuclear Institute in Delft. The solutions have been made of
polyacrylamide dissolved in distilled water. Results are shown
in table 2.1.
7ZZZZZZZZZZZZ/
1 tube with capillary
2 scintillator
3 single channel analyser
4 pump
5 vessel with
magnetic stirrer.
Fig. 2.11 Schematic for the molecular intra diffusion

measurements using radioactive tracers.
35
Table 2.1
tntradlffusion constants D in polyacrylamlde solutions for
different types of ions
cone. PAAm
labeled
accuracy
10 -9 in2 /s
lo" 9 m 2 /s
ion
Na*
1.30
10.03
0. 1
Na
1.00
tO. 07
0.5
Na
0. 80
0 . CU
0. 1
i~
0. 18
= 0. 06
0.5
i"
0. 12
0. 08
0. 1 **
i"
0.03
= 0. 0 3
0. 1 + *
I"
O.iU
= 0.02
2. 0
[Janssen
and
WarmoesKerken
** S o l u t i o n
c o n t a i n s 0.1
* S o l u t i o n
c o n t a i n s 0.005 M 1
In s t e a d y - s t a t e
measured,
using
the p e n e t r a t i o n
carbontetrachlorlde
NaCl
experiments
KI ~ in a q u e o u s p o l y a c r y l a m l d e
solution
s o l u t i o n w i t h a m y l o s e and
and
0.1
M Nal
the i n t e r d l f f u s s l o n
solutions
of I
has a l s o
from a
in an ionic
i o d i d e added.
concentration
not degraded
gradient
an a b s o r p t i o n m e t e r
results
are p r e s e n t e d
been
polymer
This type of
2.12).
The
in pipe
solution
line
changing
the tube has been m e a s u r e d
(chapter 1) d u r i n g
a g r e e s r e a s o n a b l y with
along
(figure
of
saturated
aqueous
has been used a l s o for the m i x i n g e x p e r i m e n t s

f l o w , although
M982\)
several days.
in table 2 . 2 . T h e
the d a t a reported
trend
with
The
ir. the d a t a
by M c C o n a g h y
and
tube : lenglh 0.5m

innerdiameter 16.4 mm
solution w i t i amylose
light absorption meter
coloured solution with
iodine and amylose
Figure 2.12
Schematic for the molecular
diffusion measurements
using colouration by iodine
and amylose.
saturated
carbontetrachlonde
iodine
Table 2.2
diffusion constants D of I
in polyacrylamide solution
with amylose (measuring accuracy 25 %)
% PAAm
2 -1
m s
m Pa s
lO"9
0
2. 0
o. 0625
2.6
0. 1 2 5
0 . 55
11
0 . 25
0 . 32
80
Hanratty \1977\. who used an electrochemical method. They

arrived at a value of 0.86 10
constant ID of Iodine (I
m /s for the diffusion
complex) in a 100 ppm PAAm
solution. Because it is practically impossible with this

method to avoid convection for the solutions of low viscosity,
the values for ID become more reliable at higher
concentrations. For the solution without polymer the value
of JD, as presented in table 2.1, is almost twice the value
37
reported in literature for a similar concentration. For the

solutions of about 0.1 X PAAm the diffusion constant ti is
nearly Identical for both methods, if I " s
used as a
tracer.
Both experiments show an effect on the diffusion of
ions by the dissolved polyacrylamide. However, the decrease is
not related to macroscopic fluid properties such as the
apparent viscosity. The change is small in comparison with the
changes in the fluid behaviour or polyacrylamide
concentration. For the mixing experiments the co-ion I
has
been used. This ion is subject to an extra resistance in the

polymer network caused by interaction of the electro negative
charges. This effect Is relatively small at the concentrations
I
used, if I
2.5-3
has been added.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that mixing times will not be
influenced to a large extent by changes in the diffusion

constant, contrary to what might be expected from the increase
in viscosity. In mixing experiments with concentrations up to
1000 ppm, the decrease of the diffusion rate at higher polymer
concentrations will be of limited importance. This decrease is
the result of a polymer network of greater density at a higher
concentration and from the interactions between the polymer
and the tracer Ion.
2.6
CONCLUSIONS
It is possible to characterize the polymer solutions by
a fluid time, which Is the longest relaxation time. This time

can be estimated from an Interpolation of the rheogram of the
experimental solution, using the Bird Carreau model.
The diffusion constant for the iodine complex in the
polymer solutions does not differ greatly from the values
found in water.
38
SYMBOLS
2.7
s t r e s s constant
stress index
concentration
shear
consistency
molar
(equation
(equation
of
modulus
kg k -1
ppm.
N m
s
3
,
m
mol -1
flow b e h a v i o u r
p m o d e of v i b r a t i o n
gas
t.
characteristic
index
of
polymer
J mol_1K
constant
absolute
s""1
N m"
volume
relaxation
N m"2
2.2)
polymer
Greek
2.2)
fluid
time
time
a
s
temperature
symbols:
s-1
shear
characteristic
[]
rate
intrinsic
dynamic
fluid
time
viscosity
viscosity
apparent
v i s c o s i t y of
Pa s
viscosity
Pa s
app
sp
Mo
specific
solvent
Pa s
viscosity
zero shear
viscosity
Pa s
v i s c o s i t y at i n f i n i t e
shear
kinematic
density
Pa s
2
-1
m
s
-3
kg m
stress
Special
viscosity
shear
stress
first
normal s t r e s s
difference
m~Z
-2
N m
-2
N m
coefficient
symbol:
molecular diffusion
-1
39
subscripts:
1
flow direction
direction of the velocity gradient
2.8
REFERENCES
Astarlta. G.,
1976
Heat and Mass Transfer in Non-Newtonian Fluids,
Eur. Congr, on Chem. Ending. Working Party on Non - Newtonian
Fluid Processing. Amsterdam, dune 30 - July 2 (1976). Dl-33
Barnes, H.A. and K. Walters
The yield stress myth
Rheologlca Acta. 2ft, 323-326
1985
Belloni, L.. M. Drifford and P. Turq

198
Counterion Diffusion in Polyelectrolyte Solutions
Chem. Phys. . SjJ, I7-15
Bird. R.B.. R.C. Armstrong and O. Hassager
1977
Dynamics of polymeric liquids: Vol. 1 Fluid mechanics
John Wiley 8. sons. New York
Blom. C., R.J.J. Jongschaap and J. Mellema
1986
(in Dutch)
Inleiding in de Reologie
Technische Hogeschool Twente, Kluwer technische boeken,
Deventer
Box, M.J.
1965
A new method of constrained optimization and a comparison with
other methods
Computer J., 8. 2-52
Brentel, I., and P. Beronlus
1978
A new version of the continuous capillary method for
determining tracer diffusion coefficients,
Radiochem Radioanal. Lett.. 3_3_, 7-12
Carreau, P.J.. I. Patterson and C.Y. Yap
1976
Mixing of Vlscoelastic Fluids with Helical-Ribbon Agitators
I _ Mixing Time and Flow Patterns
Can. J. Chem. Englng. , 5_, 135-IU2
Cross, M.M.
1979
Relation between vlsccelastlcity and shear-thinning behaviour
In liquids
Rheologlca Acta, .18. 5. 609-6I
Dutta, A. and R.A. Mashelkar
1985
Longitudinal Dispersion in Rectilinear Flow of Dilute
Polymeric Liquids: Likely Role of Stress-Induced Migration
Chem. Enging. Commun.. 3_2, 181-209
II0
Dutta. A. and R.A. Mashelkar

1985
Longitudinal Dispersion in Rectilinear Flow of Dilute
Polymeric Liquids: Likely Role of Stress-Induced Migration
Chem. Englng. Commun.. 22, 181-209
Greene. H.L.. C. Carpenter and L. Casto
1982
Mixing characteristics of axial impellers with Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids
Proc. Fourth Eur. Conf. on Mixing, NoordwiJkerhout,
Netherlands. April 27-29, paper Dl, 109-126
Haase. H.C. and R.L. Mc Donald
1972
Dichotomies In the Viscosity Stability of Polyacrylamide
Solutions I
J. Polym. Sci. Letters. Ed.. 1J3. 61-U67
Harnby, N., M.F. Edwards and Alvln W. Nienow
(Edt.) 1985
Mixing in Process industries
(J.R. Bourne: Mixing in single-phase chemical reactors)
Butterworth, London
Hershey, H.C. and J.L. Zakin
1967
A molecular approach to predicting the onset of drag reduction
in the turbulent flow of dilute polymer solutions
Chem. Enging. Sci., 2, 18-7
Hill, C.T.
1972
Nearly Viscometric Flow of Viscoelastlc Fluids in the Disk and
Cylinder System. II: Experimental
Trans. Soc. Rheology, 1^6, 2, 213-25
Janssen, L.P.B.M. and M.M.C.G. Warmoeskerken
Fysisch technologisch bij-de-handboek
Delftse Uitgevers Maatschappij, Delft
1982 (in dutch)
Kulicke. W.M.. R. Knieswke and J. Klein

1982
Preparation, Characterization, Solution Properties and
Rheologlcal Behaviour of Polyacrylamide
Prog. Polym. Sci., 8, 373-168
Kllnger-Park. P.U. and
Diffusion in Non-Ionic
Shear Rate and Polymer
Chem. Enging. Commun. ,
D.W. Hubbard
1985
and Ionic Polymer Solutions: Effects of
Concentration
3.2. 171-201
Lodge, A.S.
196
Elastic Liquids
Academic Press, London
Machtle, W.
1982
Zur Alterung von wsserigen Polyacrylamid-Lsungen
Makromol. Chem., 183, 2515-2525
Oolman, T., E. Walitza and H. Chmiel
1986
Dynamic Theological behaviour of microblol suspensions
ttl
Bouse. P.E..
1953
A Theory of the Linear Viscolastic Properties of Dilute
Solutions of Colling Polymers
The Jrnl. of Chem. Phys. . 2_1, 7, 1272-1280
Sylvester , N.D. and J.S. Tyler
1970
Dilute Solution Properties of Drag-Reducing Polymers
Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev., 518-553
Vliet, T. van
1982
Private communication
Depart, of Food Science, Agricultural University, Wagenlngen
Wagner, P.J.
1981
Der Einfluss moleKularer Parameter auf das Verhalten
strmender Polymerlsungen
Dissertation der Universitat Essen
turbulent
White J.C. and A.8. Metzner

1963
Development of Constitutive Equations for Polymeric Melts and
Solu tions
J. Appl. Polymer Sci.. 7.. 1867-1889
Yoshida, N. 1978
Self-Diffusion of Small Ions in Polyelectrolyte Solutions
J. Chem. Phys.. 6_2. U867-871
Zimm. B.H.
1956
Dynamics of polymer molecules in dilute solutions:
Viscoelastlclty, flow bifrengence and dielectric loss
J. Chem. Phys., 2_a. 2, 269-278
(12
C H A P T E R
HYDRODYNAMICAL DESCRIPTION OF VISCO-ELASTIC FLUIDS

IN TURBULENT PIPE LINE FLOW
3.1
INTRODUCTION
The drag reducing effect in turbulent pipe line flow by
polymer solutions with a visco-elaBtlc behaviour has been well

known for over forty years. The effect is also called the Toms
phenomenon, after the first investigator who has reported
about it (Toms \19tt8\). Most of the subsequent papers deal
with the relation between the diminished pressure drop and the
type and concentration of the dissolved polymers. In this
chapter the effect of the polymers on the hydrodynamics will
be studied. In chapter k this effect will be related to the
mixing experiments. An extension for mixing devices will be
made in chapter 5- A correlation is proposed to characterize
the rheologlcal behaviour of the fluids by the drag reduction
data obtained.
In the last decade greater attention has been paid to
the modification in the turbulent structure of the flow field.
Especially after Introduction of Laser Doppler Anemometry
(L.D.A.) reliable data concerning the changes in the flow field
have been published. In this chapter laser Doppler velocity
measurements In pipe flow have been used to Investigate the
influence on the pressure drop and the turbulent flow field by
aqueous polyacrylamlde solutions, also used for mixing
experiments in following chapters. Special attention is given
to the velocity fluctuations which are important for the
mixing in pipe line flow and the energy dissipation.
3.2
DRAG REDUCTION IN LITERATURE

In his review about the drag reduction phenomenon
Hemming6 \1976\ gives more than a thousand references,

Indicating the vast Interest researchers have taken in this
subject. In the literature it has frequently been attempted to
couple the properties of the solutions to the drag reduction.
As shown in review papers by Hoyt \1972\ and Vlrk \1975\ this
has never been entirely succesful. One reason is the diversity
of the solutions, capable of interaction with the flow field,
probably in several ways. Elata and Tiro \1965\ give a review
concerning the different states of dissolution of the
polymers, with a changing effect on the Toms phenomenon. It is
not even necessary for the polymer to be present In the entire
flow field of the tube. Vleggaar \1973\ has shown the effect
for
concentrated polymer solutions, present in the centre of
the tube only. This experiment has been extended by Frings

\1985\ for polymer solutions, injected in the boundary layer.
These injections give rise to a dramatical decrease in the
pressure drop, provided that the diffusion of the polymers in
the water is not significant. These papers show that the
interaction between the additions to the solvent and the
turbulent flow field are not of a straightforward nature.
although it may be assumed that the related drag reduction is
always the result of an alteration of perhaps local, turbulent
structures.
The effect of geometries, other than the straight tube,
on the pressure drop with polymer solutions suggests that the
normal stress differences and the related elongational
viscosity of the vlsco-elastic polymer solutions are
Important. For Instance, Pisolkar \1970\ has shown that these
solutions cause an drag enhancement when flowing through
valves and fittings. In these cases there is a distortion of
the wall layer or a decrease of the tube diameter, causing an
elongation. Walters et al. \1971\ and Kelkar and Mashelkar
\1972\ have studied the flow of polymer solutions in curved
pipes. They showed an enhancement in drag reduction in the
transitional region but under turbulent conditions the
au
curvature of the tube had an adverse effect. This is caused by

secondary flows in the curved pipe, due to the normal
stresses.
For the turbulent flow of homogeneous polymer solutions
in straight tubes, most attempts to correlate the fluid
properties with the drag reduction data are based on the
Deborah number:
De =
characteristic fluid time

characteristic flow time
L/U
The characteristic fluid time A can be estimated by

determination of the stresses with a rheogonlometer, using
equation 2.5- For the diluted solutions, the model of Rouse,
as described in chapter 2, can be applied.
The estimation of the characteristic flow time depends
upon the postulated mechanism. Astarlta et al. \1965.1969\
postulate that the energy dissipating eddies are made
conservative by the vlsco-elastlc behaviour of the polymer
solutions, causing a resistance to stretching flows, as found
with vortices. Haas and Durst \ I Q 8 2 \ and Durst et al. \1982\
have given an extensive theory about this postulate, based on
the flow through porous beds. The resistance will arise when
the Deborah number on the scale of the energy dissipating
vortices is in the order of 1. For eddies In the turbulent
flow the characteristic flow time t
is inversely
proportional to the vortex frequency u. Following the

theoretical considerations of Tennekes and Lumley \1972\
( 1-5). the vortices of the Kolmogorov microscale, the
smallest energy dissipating eddies, may be characterized by:
(3-2)
t
* l/w = (D/U) R e
-0
'
50
D is the diameter of the tube, which equals the diameter of

the energy containing eddies, and U is a characteristic
velocity for the the macro scale vortices. Here, Tennekees and
Lumley use the friction velocity u. for the flow near the
45
boundary layer. Astarlta and Marruccl \197U, 7-5\ have

defined the Deborah number as
(3-3a)
De = A/t f
combination with equation
3.2
jclves
(3.3b)
De = (U/D) A R e "
The theory, presented by Astarlta and Marruccl. also

Includes an onset for the drag reduction at a certain Reynolds
number, as has been shown by most experiments. Vlrk and
Merrill \1969\ have established that this onset point is the
same Por different concentrations of a neutral polymer, for
instance such as polyethyleneoxlde. although for weak
polyelectrolytes, such as polyacrylamide, the drag reducing
behaviour in connection with the onset point depends on the
concentration used.
A group of theories is based on changes in the wall
shear layer. Kelkar and Mashelkar \1972\ have given a summary
of these theories. Some are based on the mean burst interval
period of the fluid elements from the wall, as used for
instance by Achla and Thompson \1977\ and Wagner \198"\However, this turbulent phenomenon Is difficult to quantify,
and most theories do not give an exact detection criterion
according to Kunen \198\ (see also Talmon et al. \19S6\).
Other theories are based on the friction velocity u, which is
an important parameter for the wall shear layer. Hershey and
Zakin \1967\ have taken the reciprocal of the shear layer as
the characteristic flow time.
It is Interesting to note that all these theories come
to the same formulation of the Deborah number:
(3.)
De (u. /v ) A
Provided that the Blaslus type of relation
(f = 0.316 Re"'
a6
) is valid, equations 3.3 and 3. can be
identified with one another (Kelkar and Mashelkar \1972\).

On the basis of the Deborah number, master curves have
been made in most cases for relations describing the drag
reduction.
A different approach, by Mizushlna and Usul \197U.
1977\. is based on the turbulent damping theory, giving good
theoretical correlation with the data, however, these
relations are complex and hard to calculate. Walsh \1967\
proposed that polymer molecules slightly alter the energy
balance of the turbulent fluctuations close to the wall and
allow energy absorption by the polymers of disturbances,
normally convected away from the wall. For very dilute
solutions of different types of polymers, he found a
correlation for the drag reduction with the concentration of
the polymer and the quadratic intrinsic viscosity of the
solution used.
The drag reduction is limited, virk \1970\ has given an

empirical correlation for the minimal friction factor at a
specific Reynolds number
(3- 5)
f"' 5
= 19 los(Re f 0 - 5 )
- 32.
This equation can be approximated for 10
< Re < 10
by
(3.6)
log(f) = -0.015 - 0.50 log(Re)
Drag reduction may also be limited by the dimensions of the
polymers, which cause a minimum scale for the energy
dissipating eddies (Walstra \197\). This will only happen for
very turbulent flows.
17
Figure 3-1
Dimenslonless vele Ltj
distributions in
pipe line flow for
polymer solutions:
Vith s
/
asymptote"--,'
o
A A , . '
^
i
10
Injection at the centre

line of a concentrated
Separan AP-30 solution
Cc 0.1X) in water.
Overall concentration:
c = 20 ppm
(Bewerdorf \l8\).
water * n h polymar
injection
- U
10'
10'
ma* red asymptote

( M i ' u s h i n a a n d UsuO
Virk's asymptote
u , . 11 7 in,,- 17 0
c(ppm)
40
Re
U.
0(waler)12500
20
11500
50
12400
100
13200
300
14400
10 38000
20
37400
50 34400
100 33800
2 95
2 22
t 86
' 90
3 22
5 62
5 36
* 83
4 21
rJt*
I'
b:
Homogeneous solutions of
polyethylene oxide
(D = 0.0253 m )
(Mizushlna and Usul
\1977\).
V.f.'s isymptot
..
./o
8
ae
1 1
- 17
U . ( m i )DB
9
76
! '1
too
190
6 23
214
6 17
'W
/ * '
/ . ' ' =
/-/O
40
11 7 I n , .
.,
sr*
<
4 '
5'
67
.Ft^^'
/ * > , <
/ . V 4"
/va*''
.,.*-
.-r
U,.2.5lny,-5 5
/ ' '
i
-i
c:
Centre line injection of
polyethylene oxide (Polvox
WSR 301) at Re = 3-5 10
x/D gives the downstream
distance to the injection
point.
NaCl concentration: 0.2X
Polymer concentration
injection fluid: 0.1 X
Overall concentration of
polymer: 50 t i
(McComb and Rabie
1982\)
3.3
LITERATURE ABOUT VELOCITY PROFILES OF POLYMER SOLUTIONS
In the studies of Seyer and Metzner \169\. Rudd

\1972\, Mizushina and Usui \1977\, Thielen \198l\, McComb and
Rabie \1982\ and Bewersdorff \198\ it has been shown that in
pipe line flow the boundary layer between the laminar sublayer
and the inertial layer is thickened and the maximum turbulence
intensity is located further from the wall with increasing
concentrations of polymer. Whilst the absolute maximum of
turbulence intensity is reduced, the intensity in the centre
is not significantly affected. There is also a relative shift
towards lower turbulence frequencies. The study of Bewersdorff
\198\ shows a different profile in the boundary layer than
the experiments of Mizushina and Usui \1977\ as visible
respectively in figures 3.1a and 3.1b. In these figures the
axial velocity and the radial position have been made
dimenslonless by the friction velocity u. and by u/u.
respectively. Bewersdorff has injected a concentrated solution
at the centre line of the tube. The cause for the differences
can be found in the use of respectively a square duct or a
Ultimate profile
U.= A m l n y . . B m
Newtonian wall law

Ut = Antny*B
*...= "
Fig. 3.2
Schematic of the mean velocity profile during drag

reduction according to the three layer model of
Virk \1975\. showing the elastic sublayer.
round tube and in the state of dissolution of the polymer

added. Polyacrylamide can be dissolved in a heterogeneous or a
homogeneous state (Elato and Tiro \1965\). In the latter case
the polymer molecules do not form clusters, like in the former
case, and the concentration on micro scale is the same in
every location. When the solution is heterogeneous the
elasticity Is higher for the same concentration, giving a
different modification of the flow field. Figure 3.1c
presents
the data of McComb and Rable \192\ for polymer injection, as

has been done by Bewersdorff. In this case the same type of
velocity distributions is found as by Mlzushlna and Usui. In
this figure an additional logarithmic profile is present
between the laminar layer and the core. This is called the
elastic sublayer. With increasing concentration polymer the
slope of the lines also increases up to an asymptote: the
ultimate velocity profile of Vlrk \1975\. In all cases the
data, measured for the maximum possible drag reduction, are in
reasonable agreement with this ultimate velocity profile of
Vlrk \1975\ which is formulated by (figure 3.2):
(3.7)
U^ = 26.9 lQ(yJ
- 17.0
According to the measurements of Vlrk this logarithmic velocity

profile will be followed for all polymer solutions. This three
layer model has been used by Vlrk to explain the exclstence of
the asymptote as given by equation 3.5. For the more
concentrated solutions only the thickness of this elastic
sublayer will increase.
The diversity of velocity distributions found, shows
that the relation between polymer additives and the turbulent
flow field has not been solved, but it is clear that an
elastic sublayer will develop, which will also cause a lower
energy dissipation.
ô
3.
3..1
EXPERIMENTAL
The tube and the fluids
The apparatus in which the laser Doppler experiments

were done consists basically of a precision bore glass tube,
9 m lone with an inner diameter of 16.39 0.05 mm. The
aqueous solutions are buffered in two 250 1 vessels as shown
in figure 3.3- Two vessels are necessary for the mixing
experiments with a redox reaction as will be shown In
chapter 5. The solution is pumped through the tube by two Mono
pumps with a variable rotational speed. Mixing in the two
reservoirs is possible by means of bypasses, which are also
used to control the exact flow velocity in the tube. In each
pump line a pressure vessel and a small settling chamber with
a contraction section at the beginning of the measuring pipe
have been inserted. This set-up garantees a constant flow with
a shear as small as possible. A collection vessel equiped with
a thermostat (accuracy 0.5 K) and an Impeller has been mounted
at ft m height. From this vessel the solution flows back to the
Fig. 3-3
Experimental set-up for measuring the mixing length

by a colour reaction and the flow field by laser
Doppler anemometry.
51
two 250 1 vessels. For the velocity measurements described in

this chapter, the flow circulates continuously.
The pressure drop has been meassured over 0.5 and 5.0 m
lengths of the tube with two Depex DP15 pressure difference
transducers. The average velocity was determined by a
electromagnetic induction flow meter.
The experimental fluids in this chapter are solutions
of polyacrylamide. as described in 2.3- In table 3-1 ( 3-5)
the fluid properties are presented, as determined by the
viscosity and drag reduction measurements. The same type of
solution has also been used for the experiments described in
the chapters and 5-
3..2

Several velocity probes are commercially available.
Visco-elastic liquids have special requirements because of the

velocity-dependent normal stresses and the related fluid time
scale. Therefore probes like the Pitot tube, the propeller and
the hot wire anemometer, which are in direct contact with the
fluid, are less suitable. Laser Doppler anemometry does not
give any interference with the fluid, while the method is very
direction sensitive, easy to use and to calibrate. The method
is based on the measurement of the Doppler frequency shift of
monochromatic light (in the present Investigation:
X = 632.8 n m ) , scattered by very small dust particles in the
fluid. By using two crossing monochromatic coherent beams of a
He-Ne laser, a measuring volume in the fluid can be created
(figure 3.). Only the scattered light of particles in this
small volume will be detected. Although in reality the
Interference occurs on the photodetector, the frequency shift
f_ in the scattered light can be calculated by assuming an
interference pattern in the measuring volume. The frequency
shift is proportional to the velocity component u.
perpendicular to this interference pattern, and inversely
proportional to the distance s between maximum light
intensities of the overall interference planes. This fringe
52
width of volume
length of volume
fringe distance
re 3. 1
measuring volume with
ges created by the
coherent
chromatic laser
s.
distance s depends on the angle e between the beams and the
light source wavelength >,. So it is possible to write:
u = f
s =
2 sin(e/2)
Limitations are given by the transparency of the fluid,

the dimensions of the measuring volume, the complex
electronics needed to process the signals with the hardware
limitations and the related high cost of the apparatus.
Beckwlth \1980\ summarizes the different types of anemometers
which can be used. Watraslewlcz and Rudd \1976\ and Durst et
al. \1976\ describe in detail the laser Doppler technique. For
instance, Revill \1982\ and Costes and Couderc
\198\ give an
experimental comparison of anemometers for the measurement of

the pumping capacity of turbine impellers, showing the
accuracy of the laser Doppler system.
Turbulence profiles across the tube with the inner

diameter of 16.tt mm have been measured with L.D.A. in all
three directions separately at 7 m from the entrance of the
tube described in the former paragraph. Measurements through
the 2 mm thick glass wall are not possible because of the
optical distortion. Therefore the method of Mishuzina and Usul
\1977\ and Kunen \198tt\ has been used. A short thin wall
section of tranparent plastic tube surrounded by a
rectangular chamber filled with the experimental fluid served
to minimize the optical distortion (figure 3.5). The plastic
wall is about 0.12 mm thick. The chamber was equiped with
optical glass windows. In this manner it was possible to
53
> ::"n O
H
-U-^tr'-j-IJlri
--""-'"-"-"--"-'
n: - - , M
3
CP
dewaterlng
(screw)
perspex housing
optical glass
window
glass tube
seallngs
de-aeration
(valve)
--'
TTT
overhead sheet
'sriei= 0.12 mm
Figure 3-5
The measuring
chamber with a thin
wall.
traverse close to the wall without significant optical

distortion.
A reference beam method with forward scatter has been
used with a TPD ttOO optical system, constructed by the
'Technisch Physische Dienst' at Delft, which is an institute
related to the university. The system possesses a rotating
grating for preshift and beam splitting (Oldengarm \1977\).
The Doppler frequency is voltage converted by TPD trackers
(Welling \1982\. Van der Molen and Van Maanen \1978\). A
schematic of the optical system has been drawn in figure 3-6,
while the electronical conversion of the diode signal is given
in figure 3.7. The preshift was adjustable, and normally the
choice was about 2 Mhz. High frequency trackers (TPD 1077)
have been used for the Doppler frequency conversion, because
of the very low mean velocity, theoretically zero, compared to
the large velocity fluctuations in the radial direction. A
further interpretation was accomplished by low and high pass
filters, an average value voltmeter for the mean velocity and
by HP 3721 A correlators. A HP 3720 A spectrum display was
connected to one of the correlators. These correlators are
capable of calculating the auto-correlation and the velocity
54
pholodiode 1
photodiode 2
Fig. 3-6
Schematic diagram of the set-up for the laser

Doppler velocity measurements.
distribution. From both it is possible to obtain a value for

the velocity fluctuations. Cross-correlation of the signals
from photo detectors in each of the two beams (fiure 3.6) has
been used for the measurement of the spectral density
functions to diminish the ambiguity noise from random phase
fluctuations (Van der Molen and Van Manen \1978\).
Complementary velocity field measurements have been
carried out in a mm diameter tube with measuring chamber in
collaboration with Kunen of the Laboratory for Aero- and
Hydro dynamics in Delft at Delft Hydraulics (Kunen \198tt\,
chapter 3 ) . Simultaneous measurements in the radial and axial
direction are possible, which have been analysed by computer.
The system is almost identical to the anemometer described
above. However, Bragg cells are used for the preshift and
prisms are placed in the optical system for beam splitting.
3.1.3
The measuring volume
The anemometer in front of the 16.1 mm tube has been

mounted on a table which can be traversed in the vertical
direction (0.1 m m ) . The front end lens can be traversed in
such a way that the laser Doppler measuring volume moves in a
radial direction in the tube. The traversing has been
calibrated by using the change in Doppler signal, when passing
the walls. Because the rotating grating device can be rotated
by 90 degrees, it was possible to measure in three directions.
as shown in figure 3.8. The measuring volume was about 60 /am
in width (b
in figure 3.1).
This is the width used for the
55
medium
freq.tracker
TPD 1077 2 MHz
supply
ST
photodiode
<2x)
high f r e q .
tracker(2x)
TPD 1077 10MHz
oscilloscope
filter (2x)
time average
Volt meter
band filters
amplifiers
Krohn-Hite3202
Philips PM51 171
correlator
HP3721 A
correlator
computer
interface
F(k) MCP HP2240A
/Vv
3
spectrum display
HP3720A
x - y recorder
HP-1000
computer
Fig. 3-7
The L.D.A. electronic signal processing.
axial and radial velocity measurements. For this reason it was

possible to take measurements in the tube up to minimum
distance of 0.5 mm from the wall. For the tangential velocity
measurements the length of 0.6 mm is used (b in figure
y
3.). The dimensions of the volume have been measured by
56
--.- vs.
_--
C^T^Vâ,j'^r'. \
u: axial component
v: radial component
w: tangential component
Figure 3.8
Measuring method and definition of
the velocity components in
the pipe line flow.
photographs and a light absorption meter, presuming a Gaussian

light distribution in the volume. This type of distribution is
found for most light beams. The dimensions have been baaed on
the volume given by an e
reduction of the maximum light
intensity. The dimensions of the volume determine the smallest

scale of turbulence which can be measured. The spectral
density function can be determined up to this scale.
It was not necessary to seed the water with particles,
when using polymers. Occasionally latex particles of 1 m have
been added to the water to obtain an optimum signal presence
of 70 % of the measuring time.
3.5
DRAG REDUCTION AND TIME SCALES

In spite of the extensive literature which has appeared
in the past years, there does not seem to be a convincing

explanation for the mechanism of drag reduction. Perhaps
several mechanisms are possible for different fluids, like
solvents with polymer, micels or particles of a particular
57
0.05
41 = 0.3164 B o -
/ //
' l i l
V./ f
* 30
Re V '
1 1 I * ' " 1
fis.
'
'
1' ' " |
'
| 1 1'II
" \
3-9 a
10'
solvent
polymei solution
;
_
50
0
5 10'
-_
10-
*
o
-L_
0.02
2.10'
<
'
20
s~-^
. |
"<
i- Re
-1
10-' '
10
10'
^
I
I I I I
I I I I I 11
10'
fig.
3-9 b
fig.
3-9 c
10*
- i 1 i l l
10-
1
i
X\
5 10-!(-
'
c(ppm)
o
A
10
20
30
50
100
N.
.\_
O(water)
10-'
5 10'
58
5 10'
10-'
half open symbols:

100 ppm PAAm
2 h - 20 h used
closed symbols:
after 2 h
0.01 X - 0.1 %
polyacrylamide
10-'
fiS. 3-9 d
2.10-'
X
O
water
Ptaeatoi 2850 c 50 ppm
Priastof 2850 c 100 ppm
i__
-
homoDoncout
"4t
64/Re
Fig. 3.9
fig.
" - *
V
- R .
1
10->
2
3-9
3*64^*'*
" - X -
f
fie.
5.10
3-9
* - .
s
10*
2 104
Drag reduction data from literature:

a: Wagner \198\, purified polyacrylamide solutions
b: Virk \1975\, polyethylene oxide solution
c: Mizushlna et al. \1971\. polyethylene oxide sol.
d: Ogawa and Kuroda \1986\. polyacrylamide solutions
e: Bewersdorf \198\. homogeneous and heterogeneous
polyacrylamide solutions
Overall concentration: 50 ppm Separan AP-30
(Concentrations of injection solutions are
given in per cent)
f: Gampert and Delgado \1985\, homogeneous
polyacrylamide solutions.
59
shape. For dissolved polymers there seems to be an agreement

that the phenomenon is a result of the interaction of the
turbulence and vlsco-elastlcity as presented In paragraph 3.2.
In figure 3.9 the drag reduction is shown as found by
several experimenters. In figure 3.9a the data are given for
experiments of Wagner \198\ with polyacrylamlde solutions
with a small molecular weight distribution. The onset for
different concentrations polyacrylamlde is noticeable, as well
as the parallel curves found for the relation between the
friction factor and the Reynolds number under drag reducing
conditions. The llneB for the friction factor of polymer
solutions in this figure with logarithmic axis have a slope of
approximately - 0.73. Also the measurements of Ogawa and
Kuroda \1986\ (figure 3-9d) for polyacrylamlde with a
correction of the viscosity for the pseudoplastic behaviour of
the fluid (equation 3-9. using n = 0.97 - 1.0 and
K = 1.3 - 1.8 for degraded 100 ppm PAAm solutions) give an
almost constant slope of approximately -0.73- Our own
experiments, presented in figure 3.10, show the same
behaviour. In this figure, the Reynolds number Is based on the
viscosity measured by Ubbelohde viscosimeters. For the
concentrations of less than 100 ppm no deviation is visible
for these straight lines. For higher concentrations, an
additional pseudo drag reduction occurs at high velocities
because of a Reynolds number that has been estimated too low.
The polymer solutions have a lower apparent viscosity due to
the pseudo plastic behaviour in that velocity region than has
been measured by the Ubbelohde vlscoslmeter at low shear
rates. For the same reason the 500 ppm solution gives a
smaller friction factor than predicted by "Vlrks Law". In
figure 3.11 the Reynolds number has been calculated for the 25
and 500 ppm PAAm solutions with an apparent viscosity based on
a power law index n of 0.9 and 0.8, using the Reynolds number
(Skelland: pp 16U-172 \1967\ and Dodge and Metzner \1959\)
60
010
Polyacrylamide
(Separan A P - 3 0 )
O ppm
o
A
V
0.05
25
100
200
300
500
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
Blasius
Virk
0.01
0.005
Flg. 3.10 Friction factor f versus the Reynolds number.
' M
0.5
I
1| i i -j
|
1 1|ini
. Prandll
: f - 0 . s = 4.0 log(Ref 5 ) - 0 . 4
. Virk's asympt.: ( - = 19 log(Re1 0 5 )-32.5
V \
0.1
V
*>
0.05
0.01 -
41
t
'\
500 ppm
' V ^ .
= l.0
09
vs
0 0 0 5 b- Re
3.00 i " ^ J_
10' 5 10'
25 ppm
1.0
1 I IJ103
5.10 3
10
'"Virk
1
5.10*
1 1
10'
Fis. 3.11 The influence of the power law index n, according to

equation 3.9 for a 25 ppm (actual index n < 1.00)
and a 500 ppm PAAm solution (actual n e 0.95).
61
Re
Re
_ g 2 -" D"
NN UQ 2 n " 3 (3 * l / n ) "
Obviously the use of a zero shear viscosity AI0 introduces an

uncertainty though for
practical reasons cannot be avoided.
Presuming a linear relationship for the drag reduction

with a slope of - 0.73. It should be possible to calculate the
rheogram of the fluid, using equation 3-9Straight parallel lines for the drag reduction are
often found. However, the slope can be different from the
results presented above. Mlzushlna and Usul \197.1977\ give a
theoretical basis to the drag reducing phenomenon showing a
slope of approximately - 1 , also found for laminar flow, as
shown in figure 3.9c. The theory used has been based on the
damping of the turbulence by the polymers. The results of
Gampert and Delgado \1985\ for the relation between the
friction factor and the Reynolds number for the turbulent flow
in a rectangular duct (figure 3-9f) are remarkable. They found
a slope of about - 0.25 for the same type of PAAm, which has
also been used by Wagner \19\. This effect can be related to
both the use of a rectangular duct with a large aspect ratio
for the measurements but perhaps mainly to a homogeneous state
of dissolution as given by Bewersdorff XigS^X (figure 3-9e.
discontinuous line), even though this state of dissolution has
been assumed also for the results shown In figures
3.9a,b,c,d.
On the other hand Darby \198\ has shown a decrease in the

slope for fresh solutions. This can also be due to
experimental reasons, such as degradation over the measuring
traject for higher Reynolds numbers.
Taking the relation with a slope of - 0.73. which is an
average for the results presented here for polyacrylamide
solutions, the Reynolds number for the onset Re
can be
determined. With an increasing concentration of polyacrylamide

the onset of drag reduction will occur at lower Reynolds
numbers. Kor the very low Reynolds numbers the Blasius
equation has been extrapolated. The effect of the geometry and
the polymer additives can be calculated. An equation for the
62
friction
factor v e r s u s the R e y n o l d s n u m b e r for the
f l u i d s can be d e r i v e d ,
equation when
larger
than
for U 1 0
postulating
a slope of
elastic
- 0.73
for
the Deborah n u m b e r on m i c r o scale would
1. At the onset p o i n t ,
the B l a s i u s e q u a t i o n
< Re < 10 ) , a g r e e s w i t h
the drag r e d u c i n g
the r e l a t i o n
this
become
used
(valid
for
fluids:
(3.10)
l o g ( U f ) = - 0.5
- 0.25
This g i v e s for the onset
log(Re
) = - B - 0.73
log(Re
constant B
(3.1D
B = - log(0.3l6 Re ' a
The
) = 0.5
- 0.U8
time scale of the d i s s i p a t i o n
the o v e r a l l
R e y n o l d s number by
log(Re
eddies
( 3 . 2 ; eq.
is related
to
3-2)
(3.12)
D/U R e " '
In p a r a g r a p h
3.2
= e D
_ 1
also a d e f i n i t i o n
Re
1 - 5
is g i v e n for the
Deborah
n u m b e r , w h i c h w i l l be 1 on m i c r o scale for the o n s e t
point
(3.13)
De = 1 a A/t
s A
(U/D) Re
T h e time scale of the fluid on m i c r o s c a l e in the

point t will e q u a l the s h o r t e s t e f f e c t i v e
o
time of the
relaxation
s p e c t r u m , and can be c a l c u l a t e d ,
3.10, 3-13
and the Blasius e q u a t i o n , a s s u m i n g
velocity
u. for the velocity
scale v o r t i c e s , according
using
the
fluid
equations
friction
s c a l e of the i n t e r a c t i n g
large
to
__ 5.0 e
onset
(3.1U)
Re-l-375
"o
This time is r e l a t e d to the largest
t , as defined
time
characteristic
by R o u s e , by the r e l a x a t i o n
fluid
spectrum.
The
i d e n t i f i e s a p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n , and m a y be used
that reason
(table 3 - 1 ) . In c h a p t e r 2 an e q u a t i o n
time
for
has been
63
given for the characteristic longest relaxation time t
of
the spectrum, which can be rewritten as
u.
u.
IT
c R T
sp
(3-15)
The time t . based on equation 3-l. is about a

D
factor 30 smaller than the relaxation time, which can be found

by extrapolating the data of Hill \1972\ for the PAAm
solutions (figure 2.8). Reasons for this difference are the
direct relation that has been assumed in equation 3-13t
but
most of all the different treatment of the solutions, giving

less elasticity for the solutions in this work. Using a molar
volume of 26 m /mol in equation 3-13 for t . a time of
0.03 s is found for the 300 ppm solution, while for t
a
D
value of 0.022 s has been extrapolated and calculated

(table 3-1). Because of degradation the molar volume will in
reality also be lower than that used above, especially for the
low concentrations PAAm. It can be expected therefore that
t forms an approximation of the characteristic fluid time
found according to the Bird Carreau model. In figure 3-12 a
direct relation between concentration PAAm and t_ can be
B
seen as well, although the value of t has only been
B
estimated. Because p.
/c is proportional to the
sp
concentration (figure 2.9). these relationships suggest that
t can be identified with t., according to equation 3.13.
B
1
T
l
1
i
S
0.04 -
m,/1^
"1
m^
'
0.02 -
""
1
200
6n
t B = 69.4c
400 10-6 kg/kg
Figure 3-12
The characteristic
time t versus the
concentration of
polyacrylamide.
Using equations 3-13. 3-1 and 3-15 a relation can be

given for the Reynolds number in terms of the onset point and
the fluid properties
Re
-1.5
"
sp
"o
T T R T
= El
e D
The last term in this equation is the elasticity number (El).

The number will also be used in chapter 6 and succeeding
chapters to quantify the influence of the elasticity on the
flow phenomena in stirred tank reactors.
Combination of equations 3-10 and 3-11 gives
(3.17)
log(Hf) - - 0.5 + 0.8 log(Re )
- 0.73 log(Re)
Taking equations 3.11. 3-16 and 3.17 together gives a relation

between the friction factor and the Reynolds number in the
region for drag reduction:
log(f) = - k
- 0.32 log(El) - 0.73
log(Re)
(3.18b)
M
SP
- k. - 0.32 log(
M
S
2
D
6 M
) - 0.73 log(Re)
2
ir e R T
The relation is valid for Reynolds numbers larger than the

onset Reynolds number and smaller than the Reynolds number at
the Intersection of the ultimate drag reduction asymptote of
Virk (equation 3-5) with the relation 3-18. The constant
in the equation 3-18 includes the interaction between the time

spectrum in the turbulent flow and the fluid relaxation time
spectrum. For the conditions used an estimation of k
is
0.08. The second group in equation 3.18a and 3.18b is for

practical signification. It gives the effect of the fluid
elasticity and tube dimension on the drag. The part 1/D
in
equation 3.18b shows the Influence of the diameter on the drag
65
10-*
10- 1
3.0
-20
1.0
- 1 0
0
12 (Pas)'
Fig. 3-13 The characteristic time t and the onset Reynolds

number Re versus the fluid dependent group of
equations 3.16 and 3.18. showing the Influence of
the elasticity on the drag reduction.
reduction. With an Increase of the tube diameter the drag
reducing effect will decrease. The second part of this group,
containing the fluid properties, depends on the concentration
of polymer and the zero shear viscosity. The zero shear
viscosity has been used as a approximation of the apparent
viscosity in the experiments. In figure 3-13 the
characteristic Reynolds number Re , determined by using
equation 3.10 in figure 3.10, has been related to the
concentration dependend group from equation 3-l8b. The value
of the viscosity group will never be less than 2. This limit
is set by the solution viscosity and the Intrinsic viscosity,
with a value of 2.0 (figure 2.9). For purpose of convenience a
straight line has been drawn, although an exponential
increase
can be seen. The experimental relation found according to

figure 3-13 makes it acceptable to identify the fluid
properties group with the elasticity number derived in
66
equation 3.18. The data for the drag reduction experiment are
tabulated in table 3.1.
Within limits, the data show that the flow behaviour
depends, in a simple way, on the polymer additives. For the
experiments it is important that the fluid can be
characterized by usins a characteristic fluid time and an
elasticity number, found by a phenomenal interpretation of
drag reduction in pipe line flow.
table 3.1
Effect of fluid properties on the dras reduction onset
concen tration
c
M oM spM s
R6
El
c
ie"6
10 _ 3 Pa s
(Pa s ) 2
103
IQ""
25
1.05
2. 1
17
0.002
c . o8
100
1.25
3. 1
5.6
0. 008
0. 37
200
1. 58
k.6
3-0
O.Oltt
0.82
300
1.95
6.2
1.9
0. 022
1. 60
500
2.99
12. 0
1. 0
0. 031
3-78
3-6
VELOCITY PROFILES
3-6.1
Results with the UU mm tube

The velocity measurements in the larger tube give a
good Impression of the effect of the visco-elastic fluids on

the turbulent flow field. The instantaneous velocity, for
instance , in the turbulent flow field can be split in a
time averaged mean velocity U and the fluctuation velocity
component u. The velocity fluctuations are characterized by
u', which is defined by the root mean square (rms) value of u:
u' = fu'
. The turbulence intensity is defined by u'/U.
67
table 3-2
Parameters of the velocity measurements in the Ml mm tube.
used for figures 3-1 to 3.17.
line
no.
cone.
PAAm
c
PH
10~ 3 Pa e
ppm
1
ô
1. 0
Re
DR
103
8
related
condition
DR
0. 0

*
Re
*
1.11
19. 7
18.8
0. 2
80
1.29
16.3
0.38
80
1.29
20.
0. 1X2
160
1.8
20. 7
0. 52
320
1. 9"
20.
0. 5
In table 3.2 the experiments with the Ml mm tube have

been summarized. In figure 3.11 it can be seen that the
influence of the polymers on the axial mean flow is small. The
velocity and the pipe radius can be made dlmenslonless by the
friction velocity u. = ( T /P)
w
) and by the friction
velocity and the kinematic velocity according to y, = y u. /u

respectively. Using these dlmenslonless variables the
Influence of the polyacrylamlde on the profiles is obvious
(figure 3.15). With an increasing drag reduction the boundary
layer becomes thicker and the logarithmic profile for the
inertial layer is found to start further from the wall. In
this tube the ultimate velocity profile for the boundary
layer, as found by Vlrk \1970\. has not been reached over the
full layer. The drag reduction is the parameter which
determines the profile as can be concluded from a comparison
of figure 3.15 with the values for the Reynolds number and the
drag reduction in table 3.2. In these experiments the three
layer model of Vlrk has not been confirmed. The velocity
distributions found are comparable with the results of
6ft
Re
19
18
16
20
20
20
04
/Umax
DR
0.811
O 823
0824
O.S25
0.796
0.787
O.O
O 24
038
0.42
0 52
0 54
700
800
300
400
700
400
y/R
i
02
Fig. 3-11
0.6
0.4
The dimensionless velocity

for the tt mm tube.
'
1.0
0.8
profiles
/ s
ss
//
^ -
*
1
U. * 2 6 9 ' u l o g y . l 7 0 /
f - S
'.
UXUma,
0 811
O 823
0 824
0825
20
70C
0 796
s
6 .':.. ' X O 787
1 19 700
9 IB80C
3 16 300
4 20 40C
'".
0048
0041
0038
0036
0O31
0O30
on
00
O 2*
0 38
042
052
0 54
I 11
Fig.
3-15 T h e velocity p r o f i l e s for t h e Ml mm t u b e u s i n g the

n o r m a l i z e d r a d i a l p o s i t i o n , s h o w i n g the b o u n d a r y
layer.
69
Mizushina and Usui \1977\ or McComb and Rabie \1982\, giving

an Increase in the slope of the logarithmic profiles in the
elastic sublayer for the more concentrated polymer solutions.
However, in our experiments, the axis of rotation for the
change in the slope of the profiles has not been located at
the intersection with the laminar profile, as found by these
researchers. For this reason the profiles are comparable with
the results of Bewersdorff \198U\ (figure 3.1a). although it
may also be caused by a very small error in the determination
of the wall location cr the viscosity of the fluid.
Related to the change in the velocity profiles
according to figure 3.11, is the increase of the boundary
layer thickness as shewn by the turbulent velocity
fluctuations u'. In the figures 3.16 and 3-17 the axial and
radial velocity fluctuations u; and v; , made dimensionless by
the friction velocity u. , are given as functions of the
dimensionless tube radius y/R and y, . Figure 3.17 shows the
relative increase of the dimensionless fluctuations, for an
Fig. 3.16 The radial and axial velocity fluctuations

in the mm tube.
70
''M
Re
ui
1
2
3
A
5
6
5-6
19700
188O0
163O0
20AOO
2 0 7O0
20400
;;-^-.__._
UM'Umax
00A6
00A1
0038
0.036
0.031
0.030
NV..\.
J
K>'
increase
T h e r a d i a l and axial v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s in
the Ml mm tube v e r s u s the n o r m a l i z e d r a d i u s , s h o w i n g
the b o u n d a r y layer.
in d r a g r e d u c t i o n , w h i l s t
f u r t h e r away from
the m a x i m u m
the w a l l . T h e p r o f i l e
Laufer \ 1 9 5 " \ .
T h e boundary
in t h e radial
higher concentrations
an i n c r e a s e can be found.
the d i m e n s i o n l e s 8 v e l o c i t y
For
In
isotrope
from
scaling
up
or,
axial
turbulent
f l u c t u a t i o n w i l l be a b o u t
in the c e n t r e of t h e tube (Laufer \ 1 9 5 \ ) .

drag r e d u c t i o n
the
direction
of p o l y a c r y l a m i d e ,
m o r e p r e c i s e l y , w i t h a h i g h e r drag r e d u c t i o n .
direction
located
the r e s u l t s
layer f u n c t i o n m a k e s
more complex. The fluctuations

decrease with
is
for w a t e r , w i t h
w a k e f u n c t i o n , is in close a g r e e m e n t w i t h
flow
i ' i '
K>3
10'
Fis.3-17
DR
00
0.2 A
O 38
0.42
052
0.5A
the a n i s o t r o p y i n c r e a s e s
With
(figure
0.8
increasing
3.16).
71
3-6.2
Results with the 16.U mm tube
The results In the smaller diameter tube are In

agreement with the results presented in the former paragraph,
as can be concluded by comparing the figures 3-18, 3-19 and
3.20 with 3.15 and 3.17 respectively. Also in this tube the
velocity distributions are not comparable with the theory of
Vlrk (figure 3.2), although the drag reduction gives the same
trend (figures 3-9-b and 3-10). In figure 3-21 the tangential
velocity fluctuations are shown. These fluctuations are
important for the mixing experiments, considering the inlet
configuration of the tube with two entries alongside one
another (figures 3-3 and . 5 ) . All measurements have been
carried out for Reynolds numbers of 2.0 and 3-5 10 . Both

series give almost the same trend, as shown in the figures.
Because of the smaller tube used in these series, the ultimate
profile of Vlrk has already been reached for the same Reynolds
number as used for the mm pipe (equation 3.18). For
solutions with a concentration above 200 ppm PAAm for a
K
A
V
48
He = 20 10 3
OR
water
25 ppm
100 ppm
200 ppm
300 ppm
500 ppm
0 0
0 15
0 54
0 60
0.73
0 74
Re = 35.10
o
o
A
V
DR
wale
2S ppm
200 ppm
300 ppm
1 Prandil
0 0
021
0 66
0 76
u , = 2 5 In y. . 5 5
2 Vir
u , = 1 1 ' In y . -17 0
. y
.
--
32
Ifl
- u,
A
U-.y*
'
**~^
Fig.
72
-]
'
'
*""
........I
10
y.
I , , , , 1
100
1000
3-18 The velocity profiles in the 16.U mm tube for two

Reynolds numbers (2.0 and 3-5 10 ).
-4j
o
A
V
.
Re
A
water
100 pprri PA Am
200ppm PA A m
300 ppm PA A m
oo
500 ppm PAAm

35 K)3
200 ppm PA A m
300 ppm PAAm
0.7*
054
0 60
073
066
0 76
. . . 1
-J
I I I I
Fig. 3.19 The axial velocity fluctuations in the 16.U mm tube

with an optimum for the 200 ppm solution (3) for the
same conditions as used in figure 3.18.
Re = 2 0 . 1 0 3
a
DR
waler
0.0
25 ppm
0.14
200 ppm
300 ppm
0.61
0.74
1.0 ~-aJ^
0
5f5&
-V_
-A
v
A
i//
Re = 35.103
water
0.75
300 ppm
^
0.2
DR
0.0
y/R
1
0.4
L.
0 8
Fig. 3.20 The radial velocity fluctuations in the 16.ttmm

tube using PAAm solutions.
73
Re = 3 5 . 1 0 3
DR
* 200 ppm
0.69
T 300 ppm
0.77
y/R
0
'
0 2
04
06
08
10
Fig. 3,21 The tangential velocity fluctuations in the I6.il mm

tube using PAAm solutions.
U
Reynolds number of 3-5 10 . the asymptote of Virk have been

reached, as is shown in figures 3-10 and 3.19. The literature
reports the use of larger tubes for the velocity measurements
to increase resolution. In these tubes the maximum drag
redutlon phenomenon is not observed. Therefore, this trend has
not been found earlier. The phenomenon gives a relative
decrease for the dimenslonless fluctuations, because the wall
shear stress has reached a maximum. The decrease, however, is
drastic, as shown in figure 3.22. Also for the same Reynolds
number, the absolute maximum in the axial fluctuations v;,
made dimenslonless by the superficial velocity, decreases for
the fluids with a concentration PAAm in excess of 200 ppm.
The relative fluctuations in the tangential direction w}
depend, in the same way, on the polymer addition as is the
case in the axial direction. In the radial direction there is
always a decrease in the turbulence intensity with Increasing
concentrations of polyacrylamide.
It can be concluded that the velocity fluctuations,
7k
Bs =20 10 3
o axial
u' x
A radial
v' x
V tangential w' x
. - C o n c e n t r a t i o n ol PAAm
Fig. 3.22 The maximum velocity fluctuations uj found for the

three velocity components versus the concentration
of polyacrylamlde.
necessary for homogenlzation. are not directly related to the
friction velocity or superficial velocity. Only at the center
line equal values for the normalized velocity fluctuations
have been found (figures 3-17 and 3-19)- The boundary layer
increases, giving higher normalized velocity fluctuations In
the axial direction for the polymer solutions. This layer
fills a substantial part of the tube {figure 3-1). In the
radial direction the normalized fluctuations decrease over the
entire diameter, giving also less isotropy (figure 3.20).
3-7
CONCLUSIONS
The addition of polyacrylamlde gives a drag reduction
for turbulent pipeline flow, which can be related for these

experiments to rheologlcal data of the solutions on the basis
of the relaxation time and flow time. The boundary layer
increases, because of a thickening of the elasic boundary
sub-layer. There is. however, no significant change in the
velocity profile of the core for these experiments. The
velocity fluctuations are decreasing in the 111 as well as in
75
the 16. mm tube. In the s m a l l e r
tube the the
f l u c t u a t i o n s in a x i a l d i r e c t i o n ,
normalized
velocity,
i n c r e a s e up to a c o n c e n t r a t i o n
by the
superficial
of p o l y m e r
m a x i m u m drag r e d u c t i o n has been o b t a i n e d ,

A n i s o t r o p y of t h e t u r b u l e n c e
maximum
g i v i n g an
for w h i c h
optimum.
Increases with addition
of
polyacrylamide.
3-8
SYMBOLS
onset
constant
concentration
diameter
DR
drag r e d u c t i o n
f
f
friction
friction
(eq.
3-8)
of p o l y m e r
ppm, kg kg
of the tube
factor
)/t
(f-f
w
w
factor
factor for w a t e r
Doppler
length
molair volume
refraction
d i s t a n c e to the c e n t r e of the
r a d i u s of
gas
fringe
characteristic
relaxation
frequency
-1
m
m
mol
index
the
tube
::;
m
tube
constant
. -l
mol
distance
flow
time
time
t h i c k n e s s of the t r a n s p a r e n t
absolute
temperature
u.
friction
velocity
m s-
longest
relaxation
fluctuating axial velocity

mean

superficial
f l u c t u a t i n g radial
mean radial
76
time
axial
sheet
t .
sheet
t
component
velocity
velocity
velocity
velocity
component
m s -1
-1
m
s -1
m s
s -1
m
m s
-1
fluctuating tangential velocity

component
m s
mean tangential velocity
m s
dimensionless radius (r/R)
Greek symbols:
2
energy dissipation per unit of mass

angle between the laser beams
Kolmogorov length scale
-3
s
light wave length
apparent shear viscosity
Pa s
ju
viscosity of solvent
Pa s
M sp
specific viscosity
MQ
zero shear viscosity
Pa e
2 -1
kinematic viscosity
density
kg m " 3
frequency of the eddies
s
, Hz
special symbols:
instantaneous value
time averaged
superscript:
the time averaged value of root mean square of
the fluctuations: /"uJ
subscripts:
B
in the onset point for drag reduction
max
maximum value found
normalized by superficial
normalized by u. o r v/u. (radius)
velocity
77
Dimensionless numbers:
De
Deborah number: eq. 3.1: A/(L/U)
El
Elasticity number; (t
Re
Reynolds number; (e D)/(,Uo'
Re f
Reynolds number in onset point
Re
Reynolds number for non-Newtonian fluids; eq. 3.9
NN
3.9
u0)/(e
D )
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1965
Possible interpretation of the mechanism of drag reduction In
viscoelastic liquids
Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundamentals, . 3. 35-356
Astarita, G., G. Greco and L. Nlcodemo 1969
A Phenomenological Interpretation and Correlation of Drag
Reduction
AIChE Journal, ljj, , 56-567
Astarita, G. and G. Marucci
197"
Principles of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics
Mc Graw Hill Book Co, London
Beckwlth, W.F.
1980
Flow meters
A.I.Ch.E. Modular Instruction Series, Cl.tt
Bewersdorff. H.-W.
198
Heterogene Wlderstandsverminderung bel turbulenten
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Rheol. Acta, 2_3_, 522-5"3
Costes, J. and J.P. Couderc
198U
Measurements of velocities and turbulence in the radial
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Proc. CHISA. 8th Int. Congress of Chem. Eng.,Chem. Equipment
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Darby, R.
198
The Influence of viscoelastic properties on turbulent drag
reduction in dilute polymer solutions
Proc. IX Int. Congress on Rheology, Acupulco, Mexico, Oct. 8-13
paper I.Fl.7. 2, 51-58
Dodge, D.W. and A.B. Metzner 1959
Turbulent Flow of Non-Newtonian Systems
AIChE Journal, 5_, 2. 189-20
78
Durst, F., R. Haas and W. Interthal

1982
Laminar and Turbulent Flows of Dilute Polymer Solutions: A
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Rheol. Acts. 21^, 572-577
Durst. F.. A. Melling and J.H. Whitelaw
1976
Principles and Practise of Laser-Doppler Anemometry
Academic Press. London
Elata. C. and J. Tiro
1965
Frictional Drag Reduction
Israel Journal of Technology, 3_. *
1-
Frings, B.
1985
Annular Injection Of Concentrated Polymer Solutions into th
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Proceedings IUTAM Symposium, Essen, June 26-28, 1981
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Gampert, B. and A. Delgado
1985
Laser-Doppler-anemometer measurements In turbulent flow of
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Proceedings Int. Symp. on Laser Anemometry, ASME FED 33.
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Haas. R.. Durst F. 1982
Die Charakterisierung viskoelastischer Fluide mit Hilfe
ihrer Stromungselgenschaften In Kugelschuttungen
Rheol. Acta, 2_1, 150-166
Hemmings. J.A.G. 1976
Drag Reduction by Additives
Biography BHRA fluid engineering, Cranfleld
Hershey, H.C. and J.L. Zakin 1967
A molecular approach to predicting the onset of drag
reduction in the turbulent flow of dilute polymer solutions
Chem. Enging. Sci.. 2_2, 18-7
Hill, C.T.
1972
Nearly Viscometrlc Flow of Viscoelastic Fluids in the Disk
and Cylinder System. II: Experimental
Trans. Soc. Rheology, 1,6. 2, 213-25
Hinch. E.J. and C. Elata
1979
Heterogenity of dilute polymer solutions
J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics. , 11-425
Hoyt. J.W.
1972
The effect of additives on fluid friction
Transactions of the ASME 258-285
Kelkar. J.V. and R.A. Mashelkar
1972
Drag reduction in dilute polymer solutions
Journal of Appl. Polymer Science, 16, 30-7
Kunen. J.M.G.
198
On the d e t e c t i o n of coherent s t r u c t u r e s in t u r b u l e n t flows
D i s s e r t a t i o n .University of D e l f t , Delft U n i v e r s i t y Press
L a u f e r , J.
195
The s t r u c t u r e of t u r b u l e n c e in fully d e v e l o p e d
NACA report 1 1 7 "
pipe
flow
M i z u s h i n a , T..H. Usui and T. Y o s h i d a

197
T u r b u l e n t p i p e flow of d i l u t e p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s
J r n l . of C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g of J a p a n . 7_. 3. 1 6 1 - 1 6 7
M i z u s h i n a . T. and H. Usui
1977
R e d u c t i o n of eddy d i f f u s i o n for m o m e n t u m and heat
v i s c o e l a s t i c fluid flow in a c i r c u l a r tube
T h e P h y s i c s of F l u i d s . Z0_, 10. Pt. I I . S 1 0 0 - S 1 0 8
M c C o m b . W.R. and L.H. Sable
1982
Local Drag R e d u c t i o n Due to I n j e c t i o n of P o l y m e r
Into T u r b u l e n t Flow in a Pipe (two p a r t s )
A I C h E J o u r n a l . 2 8 . . 5"7-565
M o l e n , K. van d e r . and H.R.E. van M a a n e n
1978
L a s e r - D o p p l e r m e a s u r e m e n t s of the t u r b u l e n t flow
v e s s e l s to e s t a b l i s h scaling r u l e s
Chem. Enging. S c l . . 3_3_. I I 6 1 - I I 6 8
in
Solutions
in
stirred
O g a w a , Kohei and C h i a k i K u r o d a
1986
E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on Effect of E l a s t i c i t y on Drag R e d u c t i o n
and T u r b u l e n t F l u c t u a t i o n s in L a m i n a r - T u r b u l e n t T r a n s i t i o n
R e g i o n in Pipe Flow of D i l u t e P o l y m e r S o l u t i o n s
T h e C a n a d i a n J. of Chem. E n g i n g , 6*1, 1 9 7 - 5 0 0
O l d e n g a r m , J.
1977
D e v e l o p m e n t of r o t a t i n g d i f f r a c t i o n
in laser a n e m o m e t r y
O p t . and Laser T e e h n . , 9_, 69-71
P l s o l k a r . V.G.
1970
E f f e c t of Drag R e d u c i n g A d d i t i v e s on
Transitions
Nature. 225. 936-937
gratings
and
P r e s s u r e Loss
P o h o r e c k i , R. and J. B a l d y g a
1983
N e w M o d e l of M i c r o m i x i n g in C h e m i c a l R e a c t o r s . 1.
D e v e l o p m e n t and A p p l i c a t i o n to a T u b u l a r R e a c t o r
Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. . g2_, . 3 9 2 - 3 9 7
R e i s c h m a n n , M.M. and W.G. T l e d e r m a n n
1975
D o p p l e r A n e m o m e t e r M e a s u r e m e n t s in Drag R e d u c i n g
J r n l . Fluid M e c h . , 7_0, part 2, 3 6 9 - 3 9 2
R e v l l l . B.K.
1982
Pumping c a p a c i t y of disc t u r b i n e a g i t a t o r s
p r o c e e d i n g s th E u r o p e a n Conf. on M i x i n g , BHRA,
N o o r d w i j k e r h o u t . 1 9 8 2 , p a p e r B I . 11-21
80
their
use
across
General
Channel
Flows
Rouse, P.E.
1953
A T h e o r y of the Linear V i s c o e l a s t i c P r o p e r t i e s of
S o l u t i o n s of C o l l i n g P o l y m e r s
J r n l . Chem. P h y s . , 2 1 , 7. 1 2 7 2 - 1 2 8 0
Dilute
Rudd. M.R.
1971
Laser D o p p l e r m e t e r and p o l y m e r d r a g r e d u c t i o n
Chem. Englng. Prog. S y m p o s i u m S e r i e s . 6_7_. no. 1 1 1 .
21-26
Rudd. M.J.
1972
V e l o c i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e w i t h a l a s e r D o p p l e r m e t e r on
t u r b u l e n t p i p e flow of a d i l u t e p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n
J r n l . of Fluid M e c h . , 5_l, a. 6 7 3 - 6 8 5
the
S e y e r , F.A. and M e t z n e r , A.B.

1969
T u r b u l e n c e P h e n o m e n a in Drag R e d u c i n g S y s t e m s
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Skelland. A.H.P.
1967
N o n - N e w t o n i a n Flow and Heat T r a n s f e r
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T h i e l e n . W.
1981
T u r b u l e n z s t r u k t u r in der R o h r s t r m u n g v i s k o e l a s t i s c h e r
FlUsslgkeiten
D i s s e r t a t i o n der T e c h n i s c h e n H o c h s c h u l e A a c h e n . A a c h e n
T o m s , B.A.,
1919
S o m e o b s e r v a t i o n s on the flow of l i n e a r s o l u t i o n s through
straight tubes at large R e y n o l d s n u m b e r s ,
Proc. first Int. R h e o l . C o n g r . H o l l a n d (19/18) Pt. I I , 1 3 5 - 1 1
Vlrk P.S. and E.W. M e r r i l l
1969
The Onset of d i l u t e Polymer S o l u t i o n P h e n o m e n a
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Vlrk. P.S.. H.S. M i c k l e y and K.A. Smith
1970
T h e U l t i m a t e A s y m p t o t e and M e a n Flow S t r u c t u r e
Phenomenon
T r a n s a c t i o n s of t h e ASME , J u n e . 8 8 - 9 3
in
Toms'
Virk. P.S.
1975
Drag r e d u c t i o n f u n d a m e n t a l s
A I C h E J o u r n a l , 2 1 , k, 6 2 5 - 6 5 6
V l e g g a a r . J. and J.M. T e l l s
1973
Drag r e d u c t i o n by p o l y m e r t h r e a d s
Chem. Eng. S c i . . 2 8 . 9 6 5 - 9 6 8
81
W a l s h . M.
1967
T h e o r y of d r a s r e d u c t i o n in d i l u t e h i g h - p o l y m e r
I n t e r n . S h i p b u i l d i n g Progr.. 1 4 , 1 3 1 - 1 3 9
flows
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198
Der E i n f l u s s m o l e k u l a r e r P a r a m e t e r auf das V e r h a l t e n
strmender Polymerlsungen
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1971
T u r b u l e n c e d e p r e s s i o n by p o l y m e r s and
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1971
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W e l l i n g , W.A.
1982
(in D u t c h )
De L a s e r - D o p p l e r - m e t h o d e
PT W e r k t u i g b o u w . 3J7_. no 1 2 . 7 2 - 7 5
62
1976
on
Turbulent
disruption
C H A
JPTER
HOMOGENIZATION IN TURBULENT PIPE LINE FLOW
.1
INTRODUCTION
In chapter three the Influence of the vlsco-elastic
behaviour of the polymer solutions on the flow field has been

shown. In this chapter a fast chemical reaction will be
applied to quantify the turbulent homoeenlzatlon In pipe line
flow in connection with the visco-elasticity for the same
fluids as used in the previous chapter.
.2
MODELLING TURBULENT MIXING

For the homogenlzatlon In turbulent Newtonian flow
Baldyga and Bourne \l8\ have developed a model, based on the

work of Ottino \1980,lQ8l\ and coworkers \1979\ and Corrsin
\196\, using the spectral density function for the turbulence
(figure U.l). Macromixing with turbulent diffusion
^
subranges:
ICS inertial - connective

VCS viscous - convective
VDS viscous - diffusive
-5
wave numbers:
k|s : largest scale
kK
: Kolmogorov
(c/v
k B : Batchelor
(c/vB
)"
2
)"
Figure .1
Concentration
spectrum for
liquid mixtures
(Scl) .
109 F (k)
ti
r
i
1
ICS
1
1
1
\
-1
1
-4-
V
vcs \
VDS
-logk
In the ICS range

(isotroplc
turbulence):
F(k) oc
2 /
e
5 / 3
83
(dispersion) due to the lnertial forces, will be significant

In the lnertial - convective subrange with wave numbers
smaller than k
The wave number k relates to the

K
Kolmogorov scale of turbulence. This scale is determined by
K
U . 1)
.-<..>
and the wave number k by
(4.2)
k = 2 ir f/
while f is the frequency of vortices.

At higher wave numbers, especially in the viscous - diffusive
subrange, the micromixing by molecular diffusion predominates.
In the intermediate range between the molecular transport by
lnertial forces and by molecular diffusion, convective
transport by viscous forces is of importance. Vortices,
originating from the lnertial - convective subrange, which
incorporate the reagents have an Initial diameter of
approximately 12 A. Deformation of the fluid element,
containing the reagents, by rolling and stretching the laminae
of the vortex gives a further mixing, while the distance for
molecular diffusion decreases, also by forming new vortices.
For a scale nearly equal to the Kolmogorov scale, the
vortlcity is lost, but the fluid will be part of fresh laminae
together with environmental fluid elements, when rotation
occurs due to a new burst of vortlcity. The distance
S0
between the reagents, such as iodine and thiosulphate, within

the smallest eddy will be in the order of 0.5 * . giving a
dimenslonless reaction time T of
(. 3)
T -LI
- * t ,0.5M-1.5e1.5
So'
Apart from the changes in the turbulent flow field, as

shown in chapter 3, the effect of polymer additives takes
8a
place on the scale of energy dissipating vortices. These

vortices will be larger because of the increased complex
viscosity resulting from the elongational flow between and in
the vortices. The complex viscosity is a combination of the
elongatioanal viscosity and the shear viscosity. Also
configuration changes of the laminae will be delayed t>y the
increased elongational velocity, while the molecular diffusion
decreases dust slightly because of the addition of polymer
(chapter 2 ) . If mass transfer of a larger scale than the micro
scale is not significant, this may result In a longer reaction
time t. while the laminae become thicker. The dimensionless
mixing time T may be constant for that situation, if
conversion is the same.
U.3
MEASURING METHODS FOR THE MIXING EXPERIMENTS

Many methods exist for determining the homogenizatlon.
Due to complex rheological behaviour of the fluid, a

measuring method which makes it possible to use the same
fluid several times is preferable. The same rheological
behaviour can be maintained longer during a series of
experiments with one solution than with solutions that are
freshly prepared each time, although some precautions have to
be taken. As a whole, repeated use renders the measurements
more reliable, with less labour and material needed. A
restriction In the use of polymer and chemicals has been
necessary for the sake of price and environment. The method of
recycling makes the use of tracers, like a dye or salt
injections, less suitable (Ford et al. \1972\). In addition
these techniques give less information about micro mixing,
because the resulting response with these non-reactive tracers
is not a direct result of the homogenizatlon on micro scale,
but depends on the scale of the probe. Apart from this, an
electrolyte method involves the use of probes in the fluid or
in the wall, which makes the experiments less reliable, due to
the interaction with the flow field, or makes the experiments
less flexible. A colour reaction is attractive, while it is
85
easy and safe

transparant
discussed
of c o l o u r d e n s i t y
the t e c h n i q u e s
following
the acid
such as V a s s i l a t o s
\196\,
have used this m e t h o d .
consecutive diazo coupling

and his c o w o r k e r s \ 1 9 8 2 \ .
iodine - thiosulphate
- base reaction
A sophisticated
of
two
r e a c t i o n s , which
Kappel
redox
in a
for
Lee and
method
Therefore
Bourne
the
Indicator
g i v e s an I n t e n s e l y
special a m y l o s e s , w h i l e it is safe
the low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s used.
Brodkey
competetive,
\ 1 9 7 6 \ has applied
in a hall o p e n to public
Many
involves
is used by
reaction without
T h e last r e a c t i o n
large o p e n system
bas
homogenization
and T o o r \ 1 9 6 5 \ and
blue
to use in a
access, because
this r e a c t i o n
has
the w e l l
has a l s o been
U.tl
known acid
base r e a c t i o n w i t h
of
been
for the e x p e r i m e n t s . For p u r p o s e s of c o m p a r i s o n w i t h
literature,
and
m e a n s , to
Also Hlby \ 1 9 7 9 \
m e a s u r i n g of the product d i s t r i b u t i o n
colouring with
decoloration
the i d e a s of D a n c k w e r t s \ 1 9 5 3 . 1 9 5 7 V
others,
succesfully.
\ 1 9 7 9 \ nas
by p h o t o - e l e c t r i c
for m e a s u r i n g
r e v i e w and has h i m s e l f used
used
from the o u t s i d e o f a
Involving chemical
the d e g r e e of h o m o g e n e i t y .
summarized
instance,
be o b s e r v e d
tube by the c o l o u r c h a n g e . Kappel
several methods.
measurement
determine
to use and can
the
indicator
used.
T H E A C I D - BASE
REACTION
In our e x p e r i m e n t s
the acid
i n d i c a t o r has been applied
- base r e a c t i o n w i t h
according
an
to
(.)
H30*
and
an
* O H " C l " * N a * a 2H O * C l ~ * N a *
indicator
reaction
(. 5)
In" * -a* ** 2 *
HIn
The indicator bromothymolblue

p o s s e s s e s a pH trajectory
blue
is s u i t a b l e , b e c a u s e
between
in the basic region and
6 and
7-6.
light y e l l o w ,
b e l o w 6. T h e c o l o u r change may be assumed
86
it
The colour
if the pH
to be
is
is
Instantaneous
if the indicator concentration is suffiently high- The water

equilibrium is not important for the reactions as long as the
concentrations of acid and base are not too low. For the
mixing experiments Hiby \1970\ has used a H o *
3
3
concentration between 20 mol/m
and 0.02 mol/m . These
concentrations are high enough to avoid Interference with the

water equilibrium. At the concentration of 0.02 mol/m . the
indicator is Just visible.
When the chemical reaction rate becomes the limiting
factor during the conversion, instead of the homogenization
rate, a relation for the concentration change can be found
according to
(ft.6)
ln(x n/x) = (x - 1) R n t
with x = [ H o ]/[OH~], x
1
the acid -base ratio during
the neutralisation and k
the reaction constant for the this

n
first order neutralisation rectlon.
.5
THE IODINE - THIOSULPHATE REACTION

Instead of the neutralization reaction as suggested by
Danckwerts, the iodine - thlosulphate reaction may be applied.

provided some precautions are taken. As an indicator a
specially prepared amylose has been used. This amylose can be
dissolved completely in cold water. Amylose is not branched
and will give a deep blue colour with I . The Iodine forms a
complex with 6 helix rotations of the glucose polymer. This
will cause the deep blue colour. Shorter sections will cause a
shift to red. An example of the formation of an iodine polysaccharide complex is shown in figure U.2. At low and high
concentrations the equilibrium between free and bound Iodine
is not linearly related. Banks \1975\ reports a minimum
concentration of 10
mol/m
to notice colouring. Due
to aging and microbiological effects, shorter chains will
87
0.5 mol/m 3
1.0
F i g u r e tt.2
The relation between
bound iodine and free
iodine for a
polysaccharide
solution.
exist, which cause the red shift. If the same fluid with
indicator is used for a period of less than a week, no change
is found.
The overall redox reaction can be formulated by
(.7)
(I 2 * amylose) * 2 s o
o 2 i'
2-
/l6
amylose
This reaction would be too complex to be fast. In reality the

reactions are consecutive, according to Dodd and Griffith
\199\:
68
U.8)
Il
(I
+ ( I ) + amylose) + 1
= V * S232_ - 2 I_ +
3 1
+ amylose
W"
3: s 2 o 3 i- s 2 o 3 2 " - s o 6 2 " I"

Step
1 Is very fast as reported
d e t e r m i n e s the overall
by Banks \ 1 9 7 5 \ -
rate of the reaction
For the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
Step 3
o
(K *s 10 ) .
c h a n g e of i o d i n e in the time a
second
o r d e r reaction m a y be a s s u m e d , as long as the

2
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of S.o,
and I
are not too low. In
U
this w a y
the r e d o x and
the n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e a c t i o n
have
the
same k i n e t i c s .
T h e r e a r e however i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
base r e a c t i o n . T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
very
low. T h e starting
of the redox r e a c t i o n
concentrations
the m i x i n g
length e x p e r i m e n t s and a times
kg/m
added
for the c o n v e r s i o n
a m y l o s e and an e x c e s s
noticeable. The
important
o x i d a t i o n s of i" and S O
daylight
aerated
(x=2) for
lower
experiments.
concentration
to the two r e s e r v o i r s , w h i l e
dilution. These concentrations
Further,
of KI are
tap w a t e r is used
for
a r e low and side e f f e c t s
unwanted
r e a c t i o n s are
the
, which
are c a t a l y s e d
by
(Vogel \ 1 9 5 5 \ and K o l t h o f f \ 1 9 5 6 \ ) .
and
Kappel
the OH
\1976\ reports
some r e a c t i o n s w i t h
concentration
are
quickly
the
g r o u p s . H o w e v e r , the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
these groups are low in o u r e x p e r i m e n t s . The
are
The solutions
as l i t t l e as p o s s i b l e . A l s o the s o l u t i o n s are
prepared.
H o
mol/m3
are
approximately:
mol/m3,
0.2
[S232~J = 0 . 8
are
[I2] = 0 . 2
concentration
from the acid -
of
starting
of iodine is m e a s u r e d
in the tube at the
of the light aborption m e a s u r e m e n t s
to obtain a p r o p e r
start
reference.
As shown
In figure
. 2 , the type of c o m p l e x
iodine w i t h a m y l o s e d e p e n d s on the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of
formed
by
free
89
O.KJXJ
light
absorption
t
3.00
.'"
cone. I ,
J
0.2
L
0.4
0.6
1
0.8 mol/m3
Figure a.3
Output of the
spectrophotometer as a
function of the iodine
concentration.
iodine. This effect is also noticeable in the calibration of

the absorption meter. In figure .3 the relation between the
total concentration of iodine and the colour absorption in
Volts output of the meter is shown. A linear relation may be
assumed from a concentration of approximately 0.03 mol/m
down to a concentration of approximately 0.01 mol/m . This
trajectory is used for the determination of the conversion of
iodine along the tube.
.6
DEFINITION OF HOMOGENIZATION
Danckwerts \1953,1957\ has suggested the acid - base
reaction, which has been further developed by many researchers

in different configurations. Hlby \1970\ has applied the
method in tube flow and it has been used in these experiments
for comparison, because the configurations are similar.
For an experiment two solutions are brought together in
the tube reactor. The solutions are identical, apart from the
concentration of acid or base (or thiosulphate or iodine) each
of the flows possesses. The ratio of the normalities x, which
is always taken larger than 1, is defined by
90
(ft.9a)
normality of acid
x =
normality of thiosulphate
or
normality of base
n
x =
n
normality of iodine
(.9b)
a
In a volume element the basic fraction equals

volume flow of base
(.10)
a =
total volume flow
When an indicator is used, giving a colouring in a basic
environment and being colourless in an acid, then a volume
element will be Just decoloured and neutral at
U.ll)
a n. = (1-a) n
b
a
(.12)
a = (1-a) x = x / U + x) ( = ) x
If a < X the element will be acidic. At the beginning a has a
initial value. At the end all the base has reacted and x
approaches oo and a becomes 1.
The homogenlzation can be characterized in analogy with
the turbulence theories by the scale of segregation R(l) and
the intensity of segregation S
(.13)
(a -a) (a -a)
R(l> =
_
I
(aî) 2
R(l) gives the correlation coefficient at a distance 1 of the
elements 1 and 2.
91
(tt.1)
s=
(a - a ) 2
(1 - a)
(.15)
S = 8 f
O
* FCx) d* - 1
These previous equations assume a = 0.5. This means equal

volume flows at the beginning (Hartung \1971\).
Hlby \1970\ has given a relation between the intensity
of segregation S and the normalized distance L /D to the
entrance of the tube, where mixing started
- (m
S = 10
(figure U.U):
(.16)
L /D)
s
The gradient m g determines the mixing for a certain Reynolds

number.
1r
S = lO-msL/D
if
.Be = 17000 r
\ s V \ R e = 3000 -
Figure .U
Degree of segregation as a
function of the relative
tube length (Hlby \1971\).
150
92
.7
EXPERIMENTAL
.7.1
The Fluids
The experimental fluids are the same as those used In
chapters 3 and 5, with concentrations of polyacrylamide up to

a maximum of 500 ppm. Runs with the same concentration of PAAm
may possess a different rheologlcal behaviour, because of a
difference In treatment or chemical composition.
U.7.2
The set-up
The apparatus for the reaction experiments is again the
16.U precision bore tube described in paragraph 3.U.I. The

aqueous solutions are prepared in two tanks of 250 1 each.
These solutions are pumped through the tube In equal
volumetric flows, controlled by maintaining zero pressure
difference between the entrances, which are reflected images
of one another. Initially, the two flows are separated by a
partition, 0.2 m long, in the tube. This configuration is
almost identical to the configuration used by Hiby \1970\.
A movable light absorption detector 1 B mounted along
the tube. Red light of about 650 nm from a Light Emitting
Diode (L.E.D.) travels across the tube and falls on a
photodetector (figure . 5 ) . The light frequency has been
chosen because of the blue indicators used, amylose for the
iodine - thiosulphate reaction and bromothymolblue for the
acid neutralization. An optical system creates a beam of
approximately 3 mm in diameter, passing through the centre of
the tube. The sensor system has been constructed in such a way
that the output is insensitive to small vertical
displacements. The absorption meter gives, in this set-up, a
space averaged signal over the pipe diameter. The signal
detected by the photodlode is almost continuously compensated
for light, which does not originate from the L.E.D. This
compensation is archleved by switching the L.E.D. on and off
with a frequency of 50 Hz. using the difference between the
93
<P: = 16.4 mm
Fig.
.5
S c h e m a t i c set-up for the m i x i n g e x p e r i m e n t s with the

light a b s o r p t i o n m e t e r . T h e p o s i t i o n of a p a i r of
helical m i x i n g e l e m e n t s is also shown (chapter 5 ) .
s i g n a l s . The compensated
by a H P - 1 0 0 0 c o m p u t e r ,
m e t e r and p r e s s u r e
output
of
the p h o t o m e t e r i s
together w i t h
transducers. Samples are
f r e q u e n c y of 33 H z . and e v e r y m e a s u r e m e n t
of
100 s a m p l e s .
It Is also p o s s i b l e
processed
the s i g n a l s of the
taken w i t h
is the time
to c a l c u l a t e
the
d e c r e a s e of
the
flow
a
average
standard
deviation.
.8
CONVERSION
ALONG THE
In figure .6
normalized
TUBE
the l o g a r i t h m i c
concentration
against
the m e a n e l a p s e d
time of a fluid e l e m e n t In the pipe

c l o s e r look at the first part of
f i g u r e .6
91
Is s h o w n .
the c o n v e r s i o n
is g i v e n . A d i s t i n c t i o n
residence
In f i g u r e
in the
may be m a d e b e t w e e n
a.7
tube
a
of
several
10
~-**-u. 8
1
lm/s)
o
X
132
1 35
0 75
0 76
"
norm.colour a b s .
0 001 -
d...
i s t a n c e ,t 3 p a r t i t i o n
1
0 30
oo
Fig. .6
060
090
!
1 20 m
Normalized decoloration along the tube for the

lodlne-thiosulphate reaction with amylose indicator.
to
n o r m cone
iodine-thiosulphate reaction
075
[ l 3 ~ ] = 0.05 m o l / m 3
TT*--.
-"--
0 5O
025
x = 0 7 5 m/s x = 1 32
o=0 76 m/s X ! 1 35
fluid residence Lime

0
%
025
Fig. .7
05O s
Normalized concentration of iodine along the tube

downstream of the partition.
1 entrance
partition ] r e g i o n : 0 . 1 m
Fig. .8
Schematic representation of the decoloration along

the tube with the initial segregation and the final
decolouration in the central line of the tube.
95
mixing regions. Following the two entry flows, a decrease in

the normalized concentration may be observed in the first few
centimeters. The region is about 10 cm long, and In this
trajectory the two potential cores come to full interaction
with one another (figure . 8 ) . The region is not covered by
the absorption meter for technical reasons. When the two flows
reach the opposite wall, the second region can be
distinguished, where in a logarithmic decrease of the colour
is noticeable. The last decoloration can be observed on the
centre line of the tube. For the iodine - thiosulfate reaction
a faster decrease in the signal is found If the concentration
of Iodine becomes lower than 1 mmol/m
(figure U . 6 ) , because
the complex between iodine and the amylose changes. This

effect is reproducible. The results for the conversion in two
almost identical runs on different days, shown in figure a.6.
are similar. For very low concentrations of the reagents, both
reactions are determined by the chemical reaction and not by
the homogenization (eq. .6 for instance).
The conversion rate for turbulent pipe line flow can be
given by the slope of the line in the second region of
figure U.S.
(.17)
c
ln(
ln(C )
n
- c
t
- C
o
o
<J.

L
I E the distance downstream of the partition, reached by
the fluid at time t.
The assumption of first order kinetics is reasonably supported

by the result shown in the figure U.7.
96
1.0
NaOH-HCI reaction
with bromothymol blue
075
= O 98 m/s
x = 1 25
[OH"] = 002N
0 50
norm.( blue colour)

0 25-
fluid residence lime

0.15,
o'
00
Fig. .9
.Q
ll
i_
05
15
10
Normalized decoloration for the acid - base

reaction with indicator.
COMPARISON OF THE NEUTRALIZATION REACTION WITH THE

REDOX REACTION
The neutralization reaction and the redox reaction have
to eive the same results, because the decoloration is limited

by the turbulent diffusion. In the figures tt.7 and .9 the
conversion is given, using each of the reactions with almost
the same ratio between the reagents. Due to the less intensive
colouring of the bromothymolblue indicator, the ratio between
the signal and the noise, including the absorption of the
glass wall, is much smaller than is the case for the amylose
Indicator (more than 20 times). Assuming that the colouring is
proportional to the concentration of OH
or I , the
conversion rate m must be equal. For the neutralization

reaction m equals
0.0165 s " for the relation shown, and
for the redox reaction m = 0.0160 s

Hlby \1970\ m
. According to
= O.035 (x = 1.25. Re = 2 10 , figure tt.tt).
s
This value is an average over the entire first part of the
tube, measured on three positions downstream of the entries.

Taking an average rate over the tube, m yields O.Ottl s
According to Toor \1962\ the intensity of segregation equals
the conversion rate for x = 1. for an increasing ratio x the
97
Figure tt.10
Fractional conversion
versus the
segregation S
(Toor \1962\).
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
10
conversion Increases relatively more than the intensity of

segregation
(figure .10). While the intensity of segregation
S has a constant value, the conversion for x = 2 is about 25 X

greater than the case is for x = l (S > 0.). Taking the
results of Toor into account there is a good agreement between
between the method of Hlby and the redox reaction used here.
.10
INFLUENCE ON THE MIXING LENGTH BY POLYMER ADDITIVES

The mixing length L . defined as the pipe length
m
necessary to obtain a certain reduction in the concentration

of iodine, is associated with the conversion rate m, according
to equation .17. The presence of polyacrylamlde has a
significant effect on the mixing (figure U.ll). Instead of a
mixing length of about 1 m, a length of up to 9 m is necessary
with a 300 ppm solution. Conversion rates are reduced because
of a decrease in radial transport, as shown in chapter 3. and
by the polymer effects on micro scale, mentioned in
paragraph
U.3.
The influence of the important parameter for the mixing
96
10
"I
m i x i n g length L m
'
-o 3O0ppm
e-
6 -
_ - A
.A--
,A-
A'
200 p p m
- A " * " "
2 -
25 p p m
I
water
1
5 10*
Fig. 4.11
T e r m i n a l mixing length as a function of the R e y n o l d s

n u m b e r for p o l y a c r y l a m i d e s o l u t i o n s , using the
iodine - thlosulphate reaction.
length, the t h l o s u l p h a t e / i o d i n e
r a t i o , Is shown
in f i g u r e (1.12
for w a t e r as a function of the R e y n o l d s n u m b e r .

the relation
length
between
is given
this r a t i o and t h e d e t e r m i n e d
for three c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
Reynolds numbers. Using a smaller

mixing
In f i g u r e
length. T h i s relation m a y
mixing
of p o l y m e r
and
ratio will g i v e a
be a p p r o x i m a t e d
.13
two
longer
by
(.18)
L
m
[log(x>]-1
B e c a u s e of the m o l e c u l a r d i f f u s i o n
effect
this r e l a t i o n
h e r e to i n t e r p o l a t e
is an e s t i m a t i o n .
numbers,
already
concentration
b e c a u s e of the
Equation
.18
the d a t a to the same r a t i o if
In f i g u r e .1
on the m i x i n g l e n g t h
and
the effect
of
L
is p r e s e n t e d
m
the p o l y m e r
For the
used
necessary.
Reynolds
highest
of p o l y m e r the s u p e r f i c i a l v e l o c i t y
at the high
R e y n o l d s n u m b e r is the same as for w a t e r at the low

number.
is
concentration
for the two
shown in f i g u r e . 1 3 .
entrance
Reynolds
So the two lines in this f i g u r e g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n
the i n f l u e n c e of the zero shear v i s c o s i t y of these

on the e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s , caused
Reynolds number. A logarithmic

the m i x i n g
by
the c a l c u l a t i o n
r e l a t i o n m a y be a s s u m e d
length and the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of
of
solutions
of
the
between
PAAm.
99
30
r~
'
'
water
m .
2.0 --
- $_
yS"
. A
_ ^ A
-A
A-
Lm
1,
'
o 135"
x 15
A 1 6
2 0
Re
0
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5 0 10'
Fis. . 12 T h e m i x i n g length as a f u n c t i o n of the R e y n o l d s

n u m b e r for several
ratios
x.
o PAAm
A A PAAm
0 PAAm
A Re
o A Re
Fig.
U.13 The m i x i n g length In r e l a t i o n to the r a t i o x for

w a t e r and p o l y a c r y l a m i d e s o l u t i o n s for two R e y n o l d s
numbers.
The concentration
to t
0 ppm
200 ppm
300 ppm
10 104
3 2 104
(figure
of
3.13.
polyacrylamide
Is almost
linearly
related
table 3 - 1 ) . so
(.19)
log(L
100
) a
c o n e . PAAm t t_
B
Re : 10 000
Re : 31 600
Figure .l
Mixing length as a
function of the
polyacrylamide
concentration.
concentration of PAAm
j
200
r^
I
2.0
'
400 ppm
-r
600
1.6
O
1 2
Re
Re
2
10000
3 1 600
- I
I
0.8
f**"^
0.4, f*'
El
1 . _i_
Figure .15
Mixing time versus
the elasticity
number of the
polyacrylamide
solutions.
1.6 .10-*
101
B e c a u s e t h e zero s h e a r v i s c o s i t y no
exponentially with
possible
the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
correlates
(figure 2 . 2 ) . it is
to w r i t e
(ft.20)
t
a (El - c o n s t a n t )
ID
In figure ft. 15 t h e mixing

the e l a s t i c i t y
ft. 11
ENERGY
energy
the g r a d i e n t m
number.
logarithmic
can
is d e t e r m i n e d
dissipation
determines
by the t u r b u l e n c e and
in the tube. In e q u a t i o n .16
the m i x i n g
for a c e r t a i n
A l s o L e e and Brodkey \lQ6ft\ have
segregation.
where
as a f u n c t i o n of
3.li
DISSIPATION
The m i x i n g length
the related
time is p r e s e n t e d
n u m b e r El (table
relation
between
the elapsed
reported a
time and t h e
For t h e core of t h e tube at the c e n t r e
t h e final d e c o l o u r a t i o n
be a s s u m e d ,
Reynolds
o c c u r s and i s o t r o p l c
line,
turbulence
they give for w a t e r as the m e d i u m
(ft.21)
ln(S) = -t/v = -6 t u/\
with t = L / and v = 0.563 D/2u;
Lee and Brodkey have used this equation for a relatively low
Schmidt number.
Combination of equations .16 and .21 gives a more

hydrodynamic basis to the gradient m
s
m =
2 u;
1.52 u'
_
ot
2.302 . 0.568 
u. 
<
Because different inlet configurations are assumed in the

equations .16 and . 21,
102
some care is necessary for the
-22)
application of equation .22.

Corrsin \196<i\ obtained an similar formulation for the
decay of intensity of segregation:
(.23)
ln(S) = - t /%
in
(U.2tt)
with
0.5[3(0.3ttl)R/u' * ( v / e ) 0 ' 5 in Sc]
The specific energy dissipation e is estimated

by Brodkey \1975\ for isotropic turbulence, according to
(U.25)
e = (3.68 .. .) u ' 3 / R
Instead of using u' the friction velocity u. can be

used. Robertson et al. \1968\ found for u' at the centre line
of the pipe line flow for water
(.26)
u' = 0.78 u. = 0.156 R e "
0-125
The first part is in good agreement with the data, reported in

chapter three, figure 3.17. Also polymer solutions show this
relation at the centre line for high Reynolds numbers.
In the experimental results of Lawn \1971\ and Laufer

\1953\ for high Reynolds numbers the specific energy
dissipation has been determined by velocity anemometers as a
function of u.. They reported respectively for the centre line
(U.27)
= 2.3 - - 2.1 u. 3 /R
The relations a.21 and .2,
but also equation .22,
are related to one another by equation 1.26, while u' and u.
103
i
S-'
c (ppm)
0.05
0.01
0
300
'
'
x
1.1
log m = - 0 . 2 6 log - 1 . 7
1.3 log m = - 0 . 4 4 log - 1 8

1.7 log m = - 0 . 3 8 log - 1 . 8
F i t u r e U.16
R e l a t i o n between t h e
conversion r a t e for
i o d i n e and t h e
superficial velocity.
m
0.005

3.001 L y \
2.0
1.0
at the c e n t r e
that case
line depend on
the s e g r e g a t i o n
3.0 m/s
the s u p e r f i c i a l
ratio m
velocity
in e q u a t i o n
.22
.
In
is only
s
determined
by the . In figure .16
determined
experimentally
for the
m. This ratio is p r o p o r t i o n a l
this r e l a t i o n
has
been
iodine conversion with
to m
in the first
ratio
part of
the
s
conversion
( . 9 ) . It may be a s s u m e d ,
r a t i o d e p e n d s on a power function of
W i t h an
for
increasing
the p o l y m e r
redox r a t i o ,
solution
on
the index
the t u r b u l e n t
is a p p r o x i m a t e l y
described
in p a r a g r a p h
with a central
of
Pohoreckl
micromixing.
concentration
10
dissipating
showing
injection
reactors,
a neutralization
of b a s i s fluid,
terminal m i x i n g
of
the m i c r o m i x i n g
is found
and B a l d y g a \ 1 9 8 3 \ . They applied

The
the s a m e .
the effect
zone of c h e m i c a l
. 2 , and
velocity.
However.
dispersion.
An e x a m p l e of the c o m b i n a t i o n of
in the m o l e c u l a r
conversion
the i n d e x d e c r e a s e s .
in spite of a h i g h e r ratio of 1.7.

polymer addition
that the
time,
in
a model
by
as
reaction,
in d e p e n d e n c e
of the r e a g e n t s , is f o r m u l a t e d
model
the w o r k
for
to
the
the
AO
AO
,
.
= (1 + x) = e
,
-k
md
(t - r )
o
(.28)
+ C
BO
With A: acid, B: base, O: at the besinning of the tube

k
: micromixlng parameter and t : elapsed time
md
o
with complete segregation of the entrance flows.
It is assumed that there is an excess of acid. The micromixing

parameter can be expressed as
(.29)
k . = 0.162 U/i>)' 5 [ln(Sc) - 1.27]" 1
md
With this model they calculated for the constant in equation
1.27
the value of 1.59 for Re = 2 10 .

The mixing can thus be expressed by an exponential
decay with a parameter which depends on the energy

dissipation, which Is a function of u. /R. The constant
reported varies, but a value between 1 and can be assumed
for mixing at the centre line.
Because the addition of polymers causes a drag
reduction, it will also influence the mixing according to the
equations .2 to .29.
A more general- and overall estimation for e is based

on the pressure drop over the tube
(ft.30)
e t = dP /e
= f 3 /R
For the mixing experiments this type of specific energy

dissipation
forms a parameter for the convectlve mass
transport in the fluid with the laminar and turbulent energy

dissipation.
105
10-"
T*8^
m 3 /s 2
10-
o.
F(k)
^
^
10-6
m/s
10-'
1.2
3.0
Re
slope
2 10" -2.1
5 104 -1.6
. \
\N
\
" o
^\-1.6
\
.^J m
^ \ . -2 1
10- B 1 0 '
...
"*
102
103
1/m
*
10"
Fig. .17 Spectral density function of water F(k) in tube flow

for two Reynolds numbers, showing the isotropy at
the centre line for the higher Reynolds numbers
(slope = - 5 / 3 ) .
The smallest scale at which the inertial forces
contribute to the mixing is on the Kolmogorov scale * K ,
which is smaller than 0.1 mm for the experiments in this tube.
The Kolmogorov length scale depends on the specific energy
dissipation. The dissipation rate is determined by the radial
position in the tube. In the centre of the tube the local
energy dissipation will be much less than In the boundary
layer. Therefore, the mixing process in the tube will be
limited by the energy dissipation at the centre line of the
tube. In the terminal mixing experiments the final
decoloration has always been found In the centre of the tube.
This effect is the result of the relatively smaller velocity
fluctuations In the centre of the tube.
The influence of the Reynolds number is also Important
for the energy dissipation in the cascade of vortices. In
figure .17 the spectral density function is presented, as
measured by L.D.A. using cross correlation to minimize noise
in the signal. This figure can be compared with figure tt.1.
The slope of the line for Re = 5 10
in the power density
function of figurett.17Is almost -5/3. as may be expected for

an isotropic turbulent flow field (figure U . l ) . but for a
lower Reynolds number (2 10 ) it equals almost - 2 . Also for
that reason, most models are only applicable with some care.
The addition of polymers gives the same effect as a lower
106
10- 4
m 3 /s 2
10-
+ +
j.+
F( k )
i
10- (-
C (ppm)
10-' -
Re
2.0 10"
50
600
2.0 10
6.8 1 0 3
e
8
88 -
+
k
10-
102
101
10 =
1/m
Fig. il. 18 The effect of polymer additives on the spectral

density function F(k) for similar Reynolds numbers.
10-"
m 3 /s 2
F( k)
10-5
e
+
c (ppm) m / s
10- I10
*.
: -
Re
1.2
2.0 1 0 "
2.0
3.3 1 0 4
300
2.0
2.0 1 0 4
* * * k
10-8
101
102
1/m
10 3
Fig. .19 Effect of polymer additives on the spectral

density function F(k) for the same superficial
velocity of 2.0 m/s or the same Reynolds number.
Reynolds number, as shown in figure .18. The slope will be
steeper. For higher concentrations it also possible that the
energy density increases for the very low wave numbers (figure
.19). showing the shift to larger eddies for the polymer
solutions.
The effect of the energy dissipation on the terminal

mixing time is shown in table .l for a constant Reynolds
number of about 3.7 10
and for a constant velocity of about
107
2.7 m / s . In the t a b l e the e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n

according
to e q u a t i o n
For a constant
observed
.30
(et)
To e s t i m a t e
dimensionless
equation
a.3
velocity
(e ) .
dissipation
A strong d e c r e a s e
is found w h e n
polymers
is kept
mixing
time T is also c a l c u l a t e d
are
the
according
to
( U . 2 ) . using these two types of e q u a t i o n s
respectively),
(eq.
assuming
is
for
constant.
the i n f l u e n c e of m i c r o m i x i n g ,
the s p e c i f i c e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n
and T
.27
Reynolds number a minimum energy
the s p e c i f i c e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n
equation
a n d
using a 25 ppm PAAm s o l u t i o n .
added, w h i l e
is given
. 30 and eq.
a diffusion
.27,
for
giving
coefficient
-9
of 10
m / s , not c o r r e c t i n g
e n t r a n c e region and
polymer solutions
the e f f e c t of
the e f f e c t s
In
viscosity.
a dimensionless
using a correction
z e r o s h e a r v i s c o s i t y u0
of
turbulence
on the centre
decoloration
the
estimate
also
in e q u a t i o n
.3 for
the p o l y m e r
solutions.
that of the s o l u t i o n
If h o m o g e n i z a t i o n
To
time T' has
real s h e a r v i s c o s i t y will h a v e a v a l u e b e t w e e n
zero v i s c o s i t y and
the
a s s u m i n g a local s h e a r v i s c o s i t y of
equal to the solvent
the v i s c o s i t y ,
been c a l c u l a t e d ,
changing
for
is d o m i n a t e d
that of
the
The
the
viscosity.
by the v e l o c i t y
line of the t u b e , w h e r e
is o b s e r v e d , and not by t h e w h o l e
the
and
the
terminal
turbulent
v e l o c i t y field, o n e would e x p e c t a d i f f e r e n t tendency for T

and T
using the p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s for a c o n s t a n t R e y n o l d s
c
n u m b e r and a c o n s t a n t velocity r e s p e c t i v e l y . H o w e v e r , in both
c a s e s the trend
in the d i m e n s i o n l e s s
s i m i l a r b e h a v i o u r , when a d d i n g
a constant velocity
v a l u e s of T'
assumed
that
time T
(or T'
which
the m i c r o m i x i n g
25 PPm PAAm.
that c a s e It may
values
the v i s c o - e l a s t i c i t y
time is found
for the diluted
w h i c h do not g i v e a m a x i m u m drag r e d u c t i o n .
changing
108
flow field
be
( 3.6) a reason
for
on
for a
polymer
Apart
for
the
for the cases
time is still p r e s e n t . A tendency
although
between
have b e e n used, e s p e c i a l l y
T h e i n f l u e n c e of
homogenization
dimensionless
differences
is not d o m i n a n t , b e c a u s e
) has too d i f f e r e n t
the p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s
time T s h o w s
PAAm to the w a t e r ,
the smallest
are v i s i b l e . A l s o In
mixing
the
In
using
the
shorter
solutions
from
the
the longer time T
Table a.1
Effect of the energy dissipation on the mixing time
for =* 2.7 m/s or Re % 3. 8 10 .

PAAm
ppm
0
25
200
300
Re
If
t
m
T '
rp
T '
10 ~ 2 10
m/s
w/kg
W/kg
2.39
3-8
2.1
0.11
10.0
1.71
1.3
0.5
1.3
0-51
2.65
1.2
2.3"
0.38
13-3
2.23
1.4
0.6
1.1
0.56
2.UU
3-7
1.73
0.12
7.7
1.11
1.2
0.1
1.1
0.11
2.77
1.2
1.62
0.38
10.5
1.17
1.2
0.5
1.1
0.12
3.77
3-8
0.618
1.36
10.1
0.87
1.3
1.3
2.2
0.61
2.11
2.5
0.872
1.15
3.8
0.10
2.9
0.9
1.1
0.16
3.11
3-2
0.705
1.31
6.7
0.62
3.1
1.1
1.7
0.53
1.01
3.3
0.562
2.11
11.3
0.93
7.1
2.0
2.6
0.75
5.01
1.1
0.519
1.71
19.9
1.58
7.8
2.2
2.9
0.80
2.66
2.2
0.631
2.85
3.6
0.32
5-1
1-6
2.0
0.59
2.77
2.2
0.703
2.71
1.6
0.12
5-8
1.8
2.1
0.65
with the concentrated polymer solutions (200 or 300 ppm PAAm)

is formed by the different spectral density functions for the
polymer solutions which show a less significant presence of
the smaller vortices in favour of very large ones (figures
1.17 and 1.18).
Incorporation of lower values of the diffusion
coefficients of the reagents in the diluted polymer solutions
will only increase the differences with respect to water.
However. Vassilatos and Toor \1976\ and Mao and Toor \1971\
observed negligible effects of the molecular diffusivity in
similar mixing configurations.
109
It may be c o n c l u d e d
large scale d o m i n a t e s
set-up, while
that
the d i s p e r s i o n
the h o m o g e n l z a t i o n
on a
in this
the flow field c h a n g e s w i t h
relatively
experimental
the a d d i t i o n
of
polymers.
m2/s2
,'3O0ppm
' ,200 ppm
3020-
5321-
050302 -

01
0.1
02
Fig.
05
03
08 10
20
i n
s'
,. '
20
*
i
** --*
^ ^ -"" r **
|
i
103'
Fig.
110
- ' *
0?
n 1
*'"'
-''s^''
'
'
100 ppm
,.'
/S^V"
25 ppm
^'Jtz^\ waler
0 3
s'
0.5
300 ppm
S* 200 ppm
^ '
BOm/s
.20 T h e m i x i n g energy required for the p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s

as a f u n c t i o n of the s u p e r f i c i a l v e l o c i t y ( x = 2 ) .
m'
10
_i L
O 5 0
30
' '
1*
<t<
**
^ _
I I
10*
to
Da
_|
105
.21 The m i x i n g energy, used for the p o l y a c r y l a m l d e

s o l u t i o n s as a f u n c t i o n of the R e y n o l d s number
(x=2).
tt.12
THE MIXING ENERGY REQUIRED
An important aspect is the energy necessary to obtain a

certain mixing. This mixing energy E is formed by the specific
energy e necessary during the mixing, B O it is possible to
write
(ft.3D
E - e. .t
t m
The mixing energy forms a measure of the efficiency of the
homogenization process for certain conditions, such as the
volume rate.
As a result of the addition of polyacrylamide it takes
more time to homogenize the fluid down to the intensity of
segregation wanted. Also the pressure drop is reduced.
Combination of these two factors is presented for several
solutions in the figures .20 and .21 with, respectively, the
superficial velocity and the Reynolds number as the variable.
The influence of the polymers is especially noticeable in the
region with high shear near the wall, giving drag reduction,
and where the mixing is restricted by the turbulence In the
core. For this reason it is possible that mixing with polymers
requires less energy (figure .22) for the same velocity. The
mixing of a 150 PPm PAAm solution has the same energy
efficiency as the mixing of water. This optimum in efficiency
correlates with the maximum possible drag reduction. ThiB
trend has also been found in a.11 (table . 1 ) . Because of
the influence of the viscosity, the effect of the polymers is
less evident using the Reynolds number instead of the
superficial velocity. The relations given for the segregation
coefficient and the energy dissipation ( ft.11; for Instance
eq. .2) are not valid for the vlsco-elastic fluids because
of the changes in the flow field, which dominate the
homogenization.
Ill
F i g u r e .22
T h e e f f e c t of the p o l y m e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n (c) on the
mixing energy E (x=2).
_L
0
25
.13
100
CONCLUSIONS
The
mixing
200 ppm
terminal m i x i n g method
used
for m e a s u r i n g
the
in tube flow is u s e f u l .
The d e c a y
In the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of
iodine,
in
the
p r e s e n c e of an e x c e s s of t h l o s u l p h a t e . may be d e s c r i b e d
mixing coefficient
and
is related
intensity of s e g r e g a t i o n .
to the d e c a y
The m i x i n g
c e r t a i n decay
in
the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
exponentially
on
the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
characteristic
mixing
time
time
for the onset
is p r o p o r t i o n a l
It is p o s s i b l e that
certain
112
iodine
to a
depends
of p o l y m e r and on
point
the e n e r g y
by a
the
length r e l a t e d
the
of drag r e d u c t i o n .
to the e l a s t i c i t y
rate of homoger.ization
in
needed
for p o l y m e r
number.
to o b t a i n
solutions
is
The
slightly less than for turbulent flow of water, but for

concentrated solutions this energy requirement will increase
rapidly.
The diffusion Is dominated by the dispersion processes
on a larger scale than the micro scale for molecular
diffusion.
.1
SYMBOLS
relative volume of base (eq. tt.10)
concentration
normalized concentration
concentration at time t
dP
pressure gradient
Pa m~
tube diameter
of polymer
ppm, kg kg
(eq..17)
2
E
mixing energy per unit of mass (J/kg)
friction factor
frequency of vortices
s~
-a
spectral density function
wave number
micromlxing parameter
reaction constant
reaction constant
terminal mixing length
s
m
mixing length for a certain segregation

mixing rate
distance downstream at time t
segregation gradient for mixing
F(k)
k
n
K
L
m
L
ms
L
m
_2
s
-1
-1
m
normality of reagent
mol m
radius of the tube
R(l)
scale of segregation
Intensity of segregation
(mixing) time
t
m
terminal mixing time
elapsed time downstream of partition

with full segregation
113
tg
characteristic
dimensionless
reaction
T'
dim.
time, corrected
reaction
zero s h e a r
fluid
time
(eq.
time
3-1&)
(eq.
.3)
for
the
viscosity
axial velocity
component
m s
u.
friction
m e a n axial velocity
m s

s u p e r f i c i a l velocity
m s
r a t i o of a c i d - b a s e or
ratio d u r l n c
velocity /"(r /Q)
(at the b e g i n n i n g of
the
s~
oxidator-reductor
the
tube)
neutralization
n
Greek
symbols:
S0
diffusion
energy dissipation
per unit of
energy dissipating
length
distance
in
g
>
K
A
/j.
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c fluid
shear viscosity
zero shear
Kolmogorov
length
kinematic
density
dispersion
mixing
local r e l a t i v e
JD
[
2 s
scale
scale
time
Pa s
Pa s
viscosity
m2
kg
ID
time
time p a r a m e t e r
(equation
a.21)
acidity
symbols:
molecular
]
mass
viscosity
special
vortices
diffusion
coefficient
concentration
time averaged
mol 1
value
superscript:
the time averaged
v a l u e of
1
of the f l u c t u a t i o n s : /"u
11
the T O O L
mean
square
subscripts:
reagent
reagent: acid
reagent
reagent: base
at the centre line
over the tube diameter
normalized by u. or u/u. (radius)
at the beginning of the tube
oo
at infinity or end
Dimensionless numbers:
De
Deborah number; eq. 3.1: A/(l/U)
Re
Reynolds number; (e D)/(/Jo)
El
Elasticity number (t
Sc
Schmidt number;
>x0)/(.e
D2 )
v/D
Abbreviations:
L.D.A.
laser Doppler anemometry
L.E.D.
light emitting diode
P.D.
photo diode
.15
REFERENCES
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198
A fluid mechanical approach to turbulent mixing and chemical
reaction (three parts)
Chem. Eng. Commun.. 28. 231-211. 23-258 and 259-281
Banks, W. and C.T. Greenwood
1975
Starch and its Components
Chapter 3: The reaction of Starch and its Components with
Iodine
University Press Edinborough, Edinborough
115
B o l z e r n . O.. J.R. Bourne and G. T o v s t l g a

M i c r o m i x i n g and fast reaction in the core of
flow
Chem. Eng. C o m m u n . , 3_. 1 _ 8
B o u r n e , J.R.
1982
The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of m i c r o m i x i n g
reactions
Chem. Englng. C o m m u n . , ^6_. 79-90
using
1985
turbulent
fast
pipe
multiple
B r o d k e y , R.S
1975
T u r b u l e n c e in M i x i n g O p e r a t i o n s
A c a d e m i c P r e s s , New York
C o r r s i n , S.
The Isotropic
Number
A . I . C h . E . J..
196
Turbulent Mixer:
Part
II. A b i t r a r y
Schmidt
1JD, 8 7 0 - 8 7 7
D a n k w e r t s . P.V.
1953
T h e D e f i n i t i o n and M e a s u r e m e n t of S o m e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
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A p p l . S c i . R e s . , Sect. A, 3, 2 7 9 - 2 9 6
D a n k w e r t s . P.V.
1957
M e a s u r e m e n t of m o l e c u l a r h o m o g e n e i t y
Chem. Eng. S c i . , . 116-117
of
in a m i x t u r e
Dodd G. and R . 0 . G r i f f i t h
19"9
Induced r e a c t i o n s of the h a l o g e n s in a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n
Part II. R e a c t i o n s in the s y s t e m s I 2 ~ S O ~~-N ~
and ip-S.O ~~-N "
T r a n s , of the Ffiraday S o c i e t y , . 5 6 - 5 6 3
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1972
M l x i n g t l m e 8 In N e w t o n i a n and n o n - N e w t o n i a n f l u i d s
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1971
A m e t h o d for the e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i n t e n s i t y of
Chem. Englng. S c i . . 26., 8 8 - 8 9
segregation
H i b y , J u l i u s W.
1970
M l s c h u n g in t u r b u l e n t e r R o h r s t r m u n g
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1979
D e f i n i t i o n und M e s s u n g d e r M i s c h g U t t e
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Chem. Ing. Tech. . 53. 7 0 - 7 0 9
in
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K a p p e l . M.
1976
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der
Kappel. M.
1979
Development and application of a method for measuring the
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1956
Quantitative Chem. Analyses, 8-85
Mc Graw Hill, New York
Laufer, J.
1951
The structure of turbulence in fully developed pipe flow
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Lawn. C J .
1971
The determination of the rate of dissipation in turbulent pipe
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J. Fluid Mech.. J5. "77-505
Lee, Jon, and Robert S. Brodkey
196
Turbulent Motion And Mixing in a Pipe
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1971
Second-order chemical reactions with turbulent mixing
Ind. Enging. Chem. Fundam. , 1J3, 192-197
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1979
A lamellar mixing model for analysis of liquid-liquid mixing
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1980
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1981
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1983
New Model of Micromixing in Chemical Reactors 1. General
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1962
Mass Transfer in Dilute Turbulent and Non-turbulent Systems
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117
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1965
Second-Order Chemical Reactions in a Nonhomogeneous Turbulent
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1955
Quantitative Inorganic Analyses. Part III. 3"3-351
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118
C H A P T E R
MOTIONLESS MIXERS IN TURBULENT PIPE LINE FLOW
5.1
INTRODUCTION
In chapters 3 and the suppression of the dispersion
by polymer additives, which increase the characteristic fluid

time, has been shown. In this chapter the possibility of an
enhancement of the mixing by the use of motionless mixing
elements will be discussed. Homogenization by these mixers is
obtained by the generated turbulence in the elements and
downstream of the mixer. Especially the latter type of
homogenization has been studied, by determination of the
velocity field and the turbulence spectrum. The experiments
reported in this this chapter were all carried out in the
16. mm diameter precision bore tube used in the former
chapters.
5.2
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE MOTIONLESS MIXERS USED

Motionless mixers, also called static or stationary
mixers, are mixing devices which are fixed Inside a tube.

Mixing is achieved by redistribution of fluid elements of the
flow through the tube and by creating swirls or (grid)
turbulence. These in-line mixers give radial mixing with
little axial dispersion. The type of motionless mixer and the
number of elements depend on the mixing rate needed and the
pressure drop available for a certain pipe length.
In the experiments three types of motionless mixers

have been applied: the SMV-2 and SMX mixing elements of Sulzer
Brothers and a helical type of mixer, similar to the elements
manufactured by Kenics Co.. Photographs of the experimental
119
Figure 5.1
The commercially available
motionless mixers used.
a: SMV-2 (Sulzer Bros.)
L = 15. 1 mm.
D = 2.1 mm.
V = 0.76.
Ne = a.5.
t>: SMX (Sulzer Bros. )

L = 19-7 mm,
V S = 0.85-
c: Helical (Kenics-type)
mixing elements
L = U7.9 mm
for 2 elements.
0. 93.
Right - hand element
120
Left - hand element
elements are presented in figure 5.1. The essential data, such

as the axial length L
and the void fraction <p, are also
presented here. According to the manufacturer, the SMV mixing

elements are suitable for turbulent homogen 1 zat ion and
dispersion. The other two types of in-line mixers are mainly
used for mixing in the laminar region.
The SMV element consists of a stack of corrugated
plates. The orientation of the channels of each layer, formed
by the corrugation, is alternated by 5* to the left and 15*
to the right with respect to the axis of the tube. For
turbulent mixing the opposite channel direction of
neighbouring channels produces interfering substreams Inside
the mixer. Homogenization is obtained by this transverse
displacement in the channels and by shearing off parts of the
substreams into the intersecting channel at the cross over
points. The distribution is in one plane. Therefore elements
are stacked alternated by 90' for better radial mixing. In the
mixing experiments one element has been placed 90" rotated in
respect to the partition at the beginning of the tube.
The SMX mixing elements are built from crossed grids,
in such a way that the rods have an X configuration. The rods
generate strong secondary flows. For laminar flow each rod
creates two new flows and each successive grid produces new
divisions. The inclination of the rods is essential for the
flow produced. In the turbulent region secondary flows,
together with vortices, will be produced. Although transverse
mixing is not limited to one plane, as it does with SMV
elements, the SMX mixing elements have been positioned in the
same way as the SMV mixing elements.
One of the most elementary in-line mixing elements is
formed by the helical type of mixer, as marketed by the Kenice
Corporation. This type imparts a helical motion to the fluid.
The resulting secondary flows, together with the distortion,
caused by forcing the fluid into an opposite direction within
the next element, and the dividing of the flow with each
element give the desired mixing. For turbulent mixing the
division with recombination will be less important, because
turbulent flows already subdivide without being split. Apart
121
from the generated turbulence, the improvement comes from the

large scale radial motion.
A Left hand element is almost always followed by a
right hand element. The next element is rotated by 90" to
obtain the flow division. For the experiments also the first
element in the tube has been turned by 90' in respect to the
partition.
The helical type of mixing element has been
manufactured in the workshop of the laboratory. The Sulzer
mixing elements have been donated by Sulzer Brothers. The
diameter of these elements has been diminished from 17.3 mm to
16.39 mm by grinding the circumference.
5-3
THE ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF THE ELEMENTS

One of the design criteria will be the pressure drop
over the mixer. It is not only important for the design of

the pumps, but homogenlzation and dispersion are directly
related to the turbulent energy dissipation (Davles \1985\).
For instance. Kubie and Gardner \1977\ give a relationship
between the mean diameter d of dispersed droplets and the
turbulent energy dissipation in pipeline flow, also based on
equation U.1. The relation may be written as:
(5.1)
0.6
0.6
0.a
K % O.36 according to Balrd \1979\ for

the Sauter mean diameter d
e
: density of the continuous phase
For polymers added. Walstra \197\ reports a reduction in

the disruption of emulsion droplets in pipe line flow, showing
the effect of polymers according to equation 5.1Most manufacturers give a relationship between the
pressure drop and the Reynolds number based on
122
(5-2)
AP ft f H>e 0 . 5 e v 2
Le/DHe
Streiff \1979\ and also the manufacturer Sulzer \198l\ Sive,

for the pressure drop over a SMV mixer element, the relation
16
AP =
Ne e Q
2
f e v L
H. e
e
Le
=
2
5
Tf DJ
( 5
'3)
2
2 V> D u
n
The SMV elements, used in the experiments, yield a

Newton number (Ne) of .5. according to the manufacturer. The
value of this number is constant in the turbulent region. For
the ratio K between f
and the friction factor for pipe line
flow f, a value of 3 at a Reynolds number of 20000 can be

found for the experimental conditions used. Because the SMX is
not intended for use in turbulent flow, Sulzer does not give
any relationship for this region. The relatively open
structure will give rise to a lower pressure drop than for the
SMV elements, although it is not possible to look through the
mixer in the flow direction. Streiff \1979\ presents in his
paper a graph of f as a function of the Reynolds number for
the SMX and SMV elements. In that paper a tie,,
for the SMV
H, e
is reported with a value of 9-5-
This value is about 10 times
higher than the value reported for the SMV mixer in the same
paper. The pictures of the elements in this paper show however
a much more open structure for the SMV elements than for those
used in this study and the calculations are based on the use
of a hydraulic diameter for the SMV mixing elements.
Not much literature is available concerning the
pressure drop of helical elements for turbulent flow. Lecdaks
et al. \198\ give a K factor of 10 to 60. for an element with
an aspect ratio of 1.5- The latter K factor is based on data
of the Kenics Corporation.
Pahl and Muschelknautz \1982\ have reviewed the
literature about several static mixers. They give for the
values of f for the SMV. SMX and Kenics-mlxer respectively
123
+
m
10
* '0e
SWV
a*
O
o,
*A*
5
o oo
SMX
"
o oG
' " D nG
Helicai
elements ( L - R )
<>
0 1-
\a
P"^
x-xa
AN
+
X
V
0 01
-
vS:
0 05 -
-c
*\
- S G "~o> r -_^_Prandtl
A?
water
water,
2 elements used
\
50 ppm
3 0 0 ppm
400 ppm no elements
400 ppm Helical el
500 ppm SMX.SMV
V
x
* \
N. X
x\.
^ \
XN.
41
Virk s
asympr
*
0 005
Re
i
10
Fig- 5-2
12
. . .
50 10 3
Friction factor Uf versus the Reynolds number, uslne

the zero shear viscosity and superficial velocity,
for one or two mixing elements and for pipe
line flow, using several polymer solutions.
Il
6-12. 12 and 3 (K = 230-160.60 and 115 for Re = 2 10 ). The
values are based on publications of the manufacturers, such as
Streiff \1979\ for the SMX. However, the data presented gives
much higher values for the friction than those mentioned
before.
In the experiments the friction factor of the elements.

including the entrance and exit effects, has been calculated,
based on the the superficial velocity of the fluid. The
hydraulic diameter has not been used. For the SMX type of
in-line mixer this diameter is hard to calculate. Although
from a hydrodynamical point of view the use of the hydraulic
diameter is correct, for mixing it is the comparison with a
tube with a given available volume which is interesting. In
figure 5-2 the data for the friction factor lit
of water and
several polymer solutions are shown as a function of the

Reynolds number. For a Reynolds number of 2 10
the K values
for the three mixing elements yield
Sulzer SMV-2
: 30
Sulzer SMX
: 170
Helical mixer :
70
The K value found for the helical elements is in

reasonable agreement with the factor reported by Lecjaks et
al. \198\. The magnitude of K for the SMV mixing elements is
much higher than expected from the manufacturers data-sheet,
but the order of magnitude is In agreement with the data of
Pahl and Muschelknautz \1982\. In these experiments the SMX
elements give a lower pressure drop than the SMV elements.
Because Streiff \1979\ uses a hydraulic diameter, of which the
value is not mentioned in the paper, a comparison is difficult
to make.
The increasing slope in figure 5.2 for the SMX and SMV
mixers at low Reynolds numbers is an indication of the
existence of laminar flow inside the elements. Here the use of
the hydraulic diameter, which is one eight of the tube
diameter for SMV mixing elements, gives a more accurate
125
description of the flow. However, if the mixers are considered

as black box reactors, a comparison becomes more difficult,
demanding additional specific hydrodynamical parameters
besides the superficial velocity. The entry- and exit effects
do not result in an additional pressure drop, as can be
concluded from the small difference between the overall
friction factor of one and two combined elements, as shown in
figure 5 2.
Because the elements are always very short, no
developed turbulent flow field with drag reduction will occur
inside the elements. In figure 5-2 only for the 500 ppm
solution in the helical mixer drag reduction is noticeable.
The relaxation times of the more concentrated solutions t
D
equal the flow time through the mixers. An increase in

pressure drop has not been found, in spite of an Increased
overall complex viscosity (De > 0.5). Also the complex
geometry of the elements does not result in an enhancement of
the pressure drop ( 3.2).It can be concluded that the
elasticity of the fluid has almost no effect on the overall
pressure drop or energy dissipation of the Inserted mixing
elements.
5."
THE TURBULENCE DOWNSTREAM OF A MIXING ELEMENT

Although the mixing Inside the elements is essential,
the effect downstream of the mixers, due to the generated

turbulence, may also be Important and useful. In the figures
5.3 and 5. the radial velocity fluctuations and the spectral
density function Just downstream of the elements are shown for
the same Reynolds number. The measurements have been carried
out in a plane, perpendicular to the partition plates
(helical-type and SMV) or parallel to the rods (SMX). In these
directions the velocity field is expected to vary most. For
the helical mixer it was necessary to place the measuring
volume mm out of the centre of the tube for the registration
of the spectral density function, due to the Karman vortices
generated. The Irregular formed profiles for the Sulzer
126
Figure 5.3
Radial distribution of the
velocity fluctuations.
0.01 m downstream of the
mixing elements in water,
at Reynolds 2 10 .
8mm
10-5
ft
lO-"
5
10-
10- 6
10-'
F ( h )
*
X
8
4
"l
pip e line How

10 mm downstream of helica el
4 mm oul of centre
11 mm downstream ol SMV
*!??
00
* + X
9 mm downstream o' SMX

k
10-
103
Fig. 5-1
Spectral density functions F(k) downstream of the

mixing elements and in pipe line flow for water at
Reynolds 2 10 . Cross correlation of the
L.D.A. signals has been used to reduce noise.
elements are caused by the smaller scale dets and coherent

structures, formed by these mixers, which are sometimes
measured. Notable are the high values for the helical mixer in
spite of the relatively low pressure drop. Here the large
scale secondary flows with a coherent structure, like a swirl
round the centre of the tube, and a Karman vortex street form
the base for a periodical pseudo turbulence. The Sulzer mixers
127
give less radial fluctuations because of the small scale Jets

at the exit of the channels. The boundary layers of the Jets
are not yet developed at this short a distance. The three
functions for the spectral density downstream of the elements
in figure 5-^ give a similar tendency, although the resulting
values are different. The slope of these spectral density
functions suggests isotropic turbulence (slope a= -5/3). The
density is about ten times higher than for the turbulence in
the core for pipe line flow. Also in this figure the helical
mixer gives the highest maximum value, followed by the SMX
mixer. This sequence is the opposite found for the pressure
drop and is caused by the large contribution of the periodical
components with a small wave number In the turbulence.
From the moment the fluid passes the the element, which
acts like a grid, It will take some time before the created
velocity fluctuations will be damped to the level normal for
turbulent tube flow. In figure 5-5 a and 5-5 b this phenomenon
Is shown for a water flow downstream of a SMX mixer element
for a constant Reynolds number. The value of the velocity
fluctuations will decrease with the Inverse distance to the
element, which works like a grid, as shown in the figures 5-5b
and 5.6. This effect can be used to improve the mixing
efficiency, because the energy dissipation Is relatively small
in comparison to the generated mixing effect. A inserted
distance between the mixing elements in the order of the
length of an element may be suitable for instance. To improve
the heat transfer through the wall, Van der Meer and
Hogendoorn \1978\ have applied a similar set-up with success.
All types of mixers, used in the experiments, give the same
result. In figure 5.6 the axial as well as the radial
turbulent velocity fluctuations at the centre line downstream
of SMX, SMV and helical elements are shown, as a function of
the inverse distance, as often used for grid turbulence. At a
short distance downstream of the helical mixer a clear
difference between the values for the two directions Indicates
that isotropy Is not yet developed. At that moment the flow
consists of Jets and secondary flows, with a coherent
structure, like the Karman vortices. The coherent structures
128
downstream distance
10 mm
o 30 mm
A 50 mm
* no elements
o-
^-o
o--^
XX^
N
A*^
^-A
A-
downstream distance
distance to wall
0 10
Fig.
5-5
a: A x i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the v e l o c i t y fluctuations
d o w n s t r e a m of a SMX m i x i n g e l e m e n t in w a t e r at
R e y n o l d s 2 10 . u, = 0.069m/s.
b: T h e d e c r e a s e of the a v e r a g e a x i a l v e l o c i t y
f l u c t u a t i o n s d o w n s t r e a m of the SMX e l e m e n t .
'
'
-i
'
1
A
0 4 --
0.3 -
u
v'
_l
A
A
^_
1
o
A'
0.2 -
/
-
/
/
0.1
SMX
SMV
Helical el
ft
'
50 mm
LD"
u'
v'
_+
0.5
Figure 5.6
T h e radial and a x i a l
v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s at the
c e n t r e line d o w n s t r e a m o f
the m i x i n g e l e m e n t s ,
p r e s e n t e d as a f u n c t i o n of
the i n v e r s e d i s t a n c e , as
used to s h o w g r i d - t u r b u l e n c e
(Re = 2. 10 ) .
1.0 mm- '
129
5 -
W r
1
'
1
downsfeam distance
-o
50 mm
3 0 mm
10 mm
no elements
-0'
~-a
- '<T
__-
x-^
""
2 -
x
X
"
1-
downstream distance
dislance to wall
i
Fie. 5.7
AJ
fnm
10
30
50 mm
Axial distribution of the velocity fluctuations.

downstream of a SMX mixing element in a 600 ppm
polyacrylamide solution at Reynolds 2 10
(u. - 0.010m/s).
The decrease of the average axial velocity
fluctuations downstream of the SMX element.
are the reason for- the high fluctuations in the velocity for
the helical mixer, especially in the radial direction because
of the swirl, giving a periodic pseudo-turbulence. At a larger
distance from the mixer lsotroplc turbulence Is present.
Figure 5.7 shows a different tendency than figure 5-5The addition of polyacrylamide will increase the lifetime of
the core of the Jets and also the damping of the turbulent
vortices will be slower. It may be assumed that mixing inside
the elements will be less using vlsco-elastlc fluids, because
of the lower turbulence intensity. The Reynolds number,
based on the hydraulic diameter, can be so small
that a laminar flow may be assumed. For the characteristic
time of the fluid t
the value of 0.01 s has been found,
while the characteristic flow time in the mixer yields

maxlmumly 0.007 s. These values are cf the same order. For
that reason it may be anticipated, that the elastic effects
are dominant (De > 0.5).
130
-i
m/s
0.6

'B
lm) (m/s)
water
0
12
300 ppm 0.4 2 0
600 ppm 10
2 7
0
A
10mm
Fig. 5-8
Radial distribution of the velocity fluctuations,

0.01 m downstream of a SMX mixing element for
several fluids at Reynolds 2 10 .
10-3
m 3 /s 2
..
o
O
10-"
c (ppm)
10-sf10-6
"FOO
-
Re
2.0 10"
300
2.0 10"
600
1 5 10"
+ o
+
8.
+
+
00
++
10-' -
ft
10-B
10'
1
102
Fig. 5.9
r -
103
1/m
104
Spectral density functions F(k), 0.01 m downstream

of a SMX mixing element, at Reynolds 2 10 for
several solutions (figure 5.8). Cross correlation of
the L.D.A. signals has been applied.
This influence of the relaxation time is also

noticeable in the radial velocity fluctuations and the energy
spectrum downstream of a SMX element for a constant Reynolds
number (figures 5-8 and 5-9). The largest radial fluctuations
and the highest energy dissipation are found for the 300 ppm
solution (t
= 0.003 s) instead of the 600 ppm solution. For

D
this 300 ppm solution, we may still expect that the Influence
131
of the elasticity will occur on a smaller scale of the eddies.

Taking into account the superficial velocity, water gives the
highest radial dispersion. In the spectral density function
(figure 5-9) It can be seen that for water a slope is found
which would be normal for lsotropic turbulence, while for the
polymer solutions, especially for the 600 ppm solution, there
is a shift to larger eddies.
5. 5
HOMOGENIZATION BY THE MIXING ELEMENTS
5-5-1
An example of the effect of mixing elements on

homogen1 zation
The use of turbulence promotors gives a decrease in the
mixing length. In figure 5-10 the use of two and three helical
elements for the mixing of a 500 ppm PAAm solution (1600 ppm
amylose, n0
= .0 m Pa s) is shown. The elements have been
fixed close to the entrance of the tube. A decrease in mixing

length of 6.5 times has been observed for a velocity of
1.5 m/s. In these experiments the mixing length is defined by
5.00
"
o
*
500 ppm PAAm
0 elements
with 800
ppm Amylose .
2 elements
3 elements
1.00 1
-A~
A -
A
A~A
-A
"
.V
0.5
-V
<
4 10'
Fig. 5.10 The terminal mixing length, visually observed,

versus the Reynolds number for a 500 ppm PAAm
solution with 1600 ppm amylose using
0, 2 or 3 elements at the beginning op the tube.
Lines are drawn for convenience of the reader.
132
the length needed to obtain complete decoloration by visual

observation. As stated before a part of the mixing occurs in
the elements, additional mixing is the result of the
turbulence generated downstream of the mixing elements, but
homogenization is completed by normal tube flow. The
combination of two mixing elements decreases the mixing length
with 2.5 m to 0.81 m (Re = 1 0
). A third element gives an
additional shortening of 0.27 m. It may be assumed that the

generated turbulence downstream of the elements is the same
for both combinations. In that case the turbulence downstream
of the mixers gives a decrease in the mixing length of almost
2 m or 60 % of the original length required without any
Inserts, while each Inserted element diminishes the mixing
length with approximately 0.25 m.
5.5.2
The different types of mixing elements

Using the decoloration technique, the mixing of water
by means of the Sulzer elements fixed in the tube gives a

complete conversion inside the elements. In the previous
paragraphs 5.3 and 5.5-1 the importance of the downstream
mixing for polymer solutions has been shown. Therefore, the
effect of the inserts in relation to on another and the
elasticity of the fluid has been studied by using a moderately
visco-elastic solution. To define the downstream
homogenization effect, the conversion rate m
downstream of
the elements has been determined as discussed in paragraph

.8. The change in the conversion rate m
has been
calculated for a 300 ppm PAAm solution at a superficial

velocity of 1. m/s and close to the element. The values are
presented relative to the mixing in a tube without in-line
mixers:
Sulzer SMV
6.1
Sulzer SMX
1. 3
Helical mixer:
2.8
133
Figure 5-11
The relative change of
the mixing gradient in
front of and
downstream of a
helical mixing element
(m and m
respectively),
compared to pipe line
flow (such as
figure .6 ) , as a
function of the
velocity for several
solutions (x =s 1.2).
Lines have been drawn
for the convlnience of
the reader.
As may be expected from the pressure drop experiments, the SMV

elements give the fastest homogenlzation. The SMX element
shows relatively more homogenlzation Inside the mixer than the
helical element (figures 5-13 and 5.1"). Due to energy
containing swirl, i.e. the large scale vortex generated by the
helical mixer, it is possible that the downstream
turbulence
for this mixer is more persistent and therefore gives a faster

conversion downstream of the insert. In the figures 5-15 a and
5.15 b the radial and axial velocity fluctuations are given,
showing the difference between the energy dissipation
downstream of the helical and SMX elements.
13"
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000
norm, colour abs.
X
+
- distance to partition
0.1
Fig.
5-5.3
 m/s

0.75
1.15
0.2
0.3 m
0.4
5.12 The iodine conversion in front of and downstream of

a helical mixing element, located at 0.27 m from the
partition, in water (see also figure .5).
The influence of the polymers added
The damping of the smallest eddies by the polymers has

been discussed already. Figure 5-11 gives the relative
conversion rate m /m
downstream of a helical mixer (left
with right hand element) for various concentrations of

polyacrylamide. The relative conversion rate m /m
is
defined as the ratio of the slope in front of and downstream

of the elements (figure 5.12). Due to the non-linearity
between the intensity of the colour and the concentration of
iodine the slope can only be interpreted relative to other
experiments. The ratio m /m
decreases with an increased
addition of polymer. Because the pressure drop Is almost

constant, this means that the efficiency of the mixing
( .12) also decreases. By comparing the figures 5.13 and
5.1 with figure 5-12, it Is also noticeable that the mixing
inside the element Is relatively small for concentrated
polymer solutions.
For the polymer solutions with a long relaxation time,
such as a 500 ppm solution with a characteristic time
t
= 0.013 s, it even occurs that almost no effect may be
observed (figure 5.13). The flow time in each element Is less

than 0.02 s. Because the Deborah number is about 1, a strong
resistance against the flow through the helical element can be
expected. Combined with the damping of the smaller eddies this
135
will r e s u l t
in less h o m o g e n i z a t l o n
(figure 5.15a;
600 ppra. d a s h e d
different mixing
still
concept,
line).
(figure 5-1", 5 . 1 5 b ) ,
temporarily stored
the
elements
in the e l e m e n t s
t u r b u l e n c e may be e v e n
d u e to the r e l e a s e
energy, o b t a i n e d
is
more
of
by the e l a s t i c
the e l e m e n t . This t u r b u l e n c e c o n s i s t s of
1.0
of
For a SMX m i x e r , w i t h
homogenizatlon
present, while downstream
intense
downstream
fluid
in
larger v o r t i c e s .
ISI.
0.5
*x
0.1 jiorm. colour aDs.
F
 m/s

x
1.16
2.09
0.05
downstream distance to partition
I
0.01
0.3
Fig.
5.13 T h e i o d i n e c o n v e r s i o n u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m of
a helical mixing e l e m e n t , located at 0.12 m from the
e n t r a n c e , in pipe line flow w i t h a 500 ppm PAAm
solution.
1 .U
0.5
0.4 m
'.XX
X
'_
x
.
o
(m/s)
0 44
1.12
1.51
i .,
o
X
S
o
Fig.
136
>
5.1
distance to partition
rt i
"
norm colour abs.

0.1
0.1
02
03
0.4
0 5m
The i o d i n e c o n v e r s i o n in front of and d o w n s t r e a m of

a SMX m i x i n g e l e m e n t at 0.1 m w i t h a 500 ppm PAAm
solution.
m2/s2
Helical mixer = 1.2 m/s
: :
u'2
a
A
0.2
v ' 2 c (ppm) l e ( m s )
x
300
600
SMX
u'2
0
0 4
10

v'2
=1.2 m/8
C (ppm)
300
600
u'
v'
u '
A
A
A
////y//Ar
"*-////////,
4C mm
60
ft
X
*
1
20
40 mm
Fig. 5.15 The distribution of the radial and axial velocity

fluctuations at the centre line, downstream of
mixing elements, for polymer solutions:
a:
helical elements.
b:
SMX elements.
5.6
CONCLUSIONS
The pressure drop over the mixing elements, including
the downstream effects, is not influenced by the elasticity of

the fluids. No significant difference is found for one or two
elements, showing the relatively small pressure drop caused by
entrance- and exit effects. The value of d'Arcy's friction
factor (Hf) at very high Reynolds numbers can be estimated to
be 10, 5 and 2 for the SMV-2. SMX and helical mixing elements
respectively.
The downstream turbulence from in-line mixing elements
may form an important part of the overall mixing. The decay of
the turbulent energy dissipation downstream of the elements
137
m a y be slower for elastic s o l u t i o n s .

it may
t h e r e f o r e be f a v o u r a b l e
distance
with
from e a c h other.
a relaxation
element,
to insert
For a h i g h l y
t i m e longer than
efficiency
the e l e m e n t s
concentrated
the flow time
no s i g n i f i c a n t m i x i n g e f f e c t of
e l e m e n t s has been
5.7
For the m i x i n g
at a
solution
through
the inserted
found.
SYMBOLS
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p o l y m e r
ppm.
S a u t e r m e a n droplet d i a m e t e r
tube d i a m e t e r
friction
factor
density
F(k)
spectral
wave number
friction
function
factor
ratio
downstream
length of a m i x i n g
Fu
distance
to the
partition
element
m
m
mixing
length
mixing
rate
s 1
pressure
distance
r a d i u s of the
characteristic
fluid
characteristic
flow
longest
Pa
from the c e n t r e of the
tube
relaxation
axial velocity
u.
friction
mean

superficial
radial velocity
mean radial
time
time
time
m s 1
component
m s -1
velocity
axial
m
m
tube
m s -1
velocity
m s
velocity
component
-1
-1
m s -1
velocity
oxldator
- reductor
ratio
distance downstream
of an
13a
the
helical
element
Kg kg
Greek
symDols:
2
e
A
"H
s
e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n p e r unit of mess
K o l m o g o r o v length s c a l e
m
m
A
H
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c fluid
zero shear v i s c o s i t y
kinematic viscosity
s
Pa s
m 2 a -1
density
kg m
o-
interfaclal
void
special
time
tension
N m~
fraction
symbol:
difference
superscript:
the time averaged

the velocity
value of
the root m e a n square
fluctuations
of
/~u "
subscripts:
mixing
based
in front of m i x i n g
downstream
n o r m a l i z e d by s u p e r f i c i a l
normalized
Dimensionless
De
element
on hydraulic
diameter
element
of m i x i n g
element
by u. or u/\x.
velocity
(radius)
numbers:
Deborah
n u m b e r ; t /t
El
Elasticity
Ne
Newton number;
Re
Reynolds
Wo)/(e 0 )
2 D
i.)
n,e
n
(g D ) / ( M < J > = <e U D ) / ( 0
number;
(f
number;
(t
D)/2 u
f)
139
Abbreviation:
L.D.A.
5.8
laser Doppler anemometry
REFERENCES
Balrd. M.H.I.
1979
Droplet diameters In agitated liquid liquid systems
Chem. Ensing. Sci., 3JL- 1362
Davies J.T.
1985
Drop sizes of emulsions related to turbulent energy
dissipation rates
Chem. Enging. Sci.. .00. 839-82
Hartung K.H. and J.W. Hiby
1972
Beschleunigung der turbulenten Mischung in Rohren
Chem. Ing. Techn.. U, 18. 1051-1056
Lecdaks. Z. . I. Machac. and 3. Sir
198
Druckverlust bei der Strmung einer Flusslgkeit durch eln
Rohr mlt Schraubeneinbauten
Chem. Eng. Process. IJJ. 67-72
Meer. Th. van der and C.J. Hoogendoorn
Heat Transfer coefficients for viscous fluids in a static
mixer
Chemical Enging. Sci.. 3.. 1277-1282
Pahl. M.H. and E. Muschelknautz
1982
Static mixers and their applications
Int. Chem. Eng.. , 2. 197-205
Strelff. F.A.
1979
Adapted motionless mixer design
Proc. Third Eur. Conf. on Mixing. April -6, paper C2. 171-188
Sulzer
1981
Static Mixing
Prospect of Sulzer Brothers. Swiss, 1-16. with data sheets
Walstra P.
197
Turbulence depression by polymers and its effect on disruption
of emulsion droplets
Chem. Enging. Sci.. 29_. 882-885
iao
C H A P T E R
HYDRODYNAMICS IN A STIRRED VESSEL
6.1
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the hydrodynamics of the turbulent

mixing process in a stirred tank reactor are described for
fluids with a Newtonian or a visco-elastic behaviour. Process
fluids are distilled water, carboxymethylcellulose solutions
and aqueous polyacrylamide solutions.
To understand the mixing and dispersion phenomena in the
vessel, understanding is required of:
- the pumping capacity of the Impeller, causing the
circulation, and therefore large scale mixing, in the
vessel.
- the turbulence in the vessel, important for micro mixing.
- the trailing vortices behind the Impeller blade and the
related turbulence in the vicinity of the impeller, giving
the principal dispersion.
A laser Doppler anemometer has been used to measure two
velocity components simultaneously between the blades of a
Rushton turbine, in the vicinity of the blades, and also In
the main areas of the vessel. The two velocity components
are measured in the radial direction and in the tangential
direction. These two directions are the most Important
components to describe the discharge flow and to determine the
energy consumption in the vicinity of the impeller. The axial
velocity component is needed to describe the circulation In
the vessel in its entirety.
In recent times, much has been published concerning the
hydrodynamics in stirred vessels for Newtonian fluids. Laser
Doppler velocity measurements have been carried out, for
instance, by Reed \1977\. LaufhUtte \1986\. Costes and
Couderc \198tt\, and Poplolek \1984\. Poplolek has also
measured the hydrodynamics of the two trailing roll vortices,
1U1
Fis. 6.1
Schematic view of the two trailing vertices behind

a blade of a Rushton turbine.
generated behind the upper and lower edges of each impeller

blade of a Rushton turbine (figure 6.1). Measurements about
this subject have also been carried out by Van 't Riet \1975\.
Recently Placek and Tavlarides \1985\ have extended the model
of Van 't Riet. to describe the trailing vortices.
The flow in the vessel is generated by the pumping
action of the Impeller. The resulting tangential discharge Jet
of a Rushton turbine has been modeled by Desouza and Pike
\1972\ and Kolar et al. \19\.
Results, reported in literature, are compared with
those from our own experiments. Finally the models have been
used to compare the hydrodynamics of the Newtonian fluids with
the polyacrylamlde solutions with an elastic behaviour.
6.2
INFLUENCE OF THE VISCO-ELASTICITY ON THE LARGE SCALE

FLOW
In a stirred vessel containing an elastic fluid several
macroscopic effects can be distinguished, due to the presence

of elastic forces in addition to the classical Newtonian
inertlal and viscous forces (figure 6.2). Secondary flows
develop which appear to be related to the Weissenberg shaft
climbing effect (figure 6.3). However, the flows are caused by
the first normal stress differences in a direction
IU.2
VISCOUS
forces
(
^"app)
elastic
forces
<T-T22)
inertial
forces
(pN 2 D2)
Figure 6.2
Forces and characteristic
flows with a highly
vlsco-elaatlc fluid in a
stirred tanK reactor.
Figure 6.3
Three-dimensional sketch of
the flow pattern for
visco-elasic fluids, showing
the Weissenberg effect.
13
perpendicular
impeller.
to the v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s
The e l a s t i c
the i n e r t l a l
forces act in an d i r e c t i o n
forces and cause a d e c r e a s e
In an e x t r e m e case of very
elastic
in the flow around
solution
in p u m p i n g
low r o t a t i o n a l
this results
speed
in an inward
measurements
action can
modulus,
according
pumping
to equation
action
this zero
to the r a t i o of the e l a s t i c i t y
2.5. and
(Bartels and Van der Reyden \ 1 9 8 k \ ) .

decrease
capacity.
and a highly
tank r e a c t o r , o u r own
in the laminar region show that
be related
to
flow to the
I m p e l l e r and a total break down of the normal

(figure 6 . U ) . For t h e stirred
opposite
the
In the pumping capacity
the tip
A second
can be found
pumping
shear
velocity
reason
in
for a
the
Increasing extenslonal viscosity
induced
by the d e f o r m a t i o n in.
tangential
Various
a u t h o r s , for
and r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n .
T h o m a s and W a l t e r s \ 1 9 6 2 \ .
Ide and W h i t e \ 1 9 7 \ . Elson et a l .
\ 1 9 8 2 \ , and G r e e n e et al. \ 1 9 8 2 \ .
associated
instance
characterize
w i t h t h e flow of v l s c o - e l a s t i c
the ratio of the W e l s s e n b e r g -number w i t h
the
phenomena.
f l u i d s , by
the R e y n o l d s
taking
number
a c c o r d i n g to:
m/s
0 24|-
016-
0O8-
Fig.
1UU
6.U
T h e time averaged mean radial v e l o c i t y at d i s c

height at a fixed d i s t a n c e of 0.032 m from
the R u s h t o n turbine for N e w t o n i a n and
v i s c o - e l a s t i c fluids (T = 3D = 0.192 m ) .
(6.1)
Wl
elastic forces
zu
- za
Re
lnertial forces
-2
p v ,
tip
Ay
2
p N
2
D
In the literature this number, also denoted by the elasticity

number El, is often formulated, for a stirred vessel, by
H A
(6.2)
El =
Both the zero shear and the apparent viscosity have been used
for n in the literature. The first time constant of the Bird
Carreau model (equation 2.6) is useful for characterizing the
fluid time A.
For a Couette flow the Weissenberg shaft climbing
effect can be succesfully described with the elasticity number
by working out the equations of Cauchy (Elson et al. \1982\).
In figure 6.3 a third circulation loop is visible near
the surface, related :o the shaft climbing effect.
Instabilities in this upper loop give a strong oscillation in
the vessel. A much smaller similar loop exists near the
bottom. Because of these loops the volume of the main
circulation loops will be less for concentrated PAAm
solutions, with a stationary circulation point, the "eye",
positioned closer to the level of the impeller.
6.3
THE EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
6.3-1
The tank reactor

The tank reactors used in most of the experiments are
vessels with a flat bottom and four baffles. The diameter T of

the vessels Is 0.29 m. All vessels are transparent. A standard
Rushton turbine has been used, as shown in figure 6.5, with a
diameter D of 0.4 T. This geometry is often used for gas
dispersion (Warmoeskerken \1986\).
15
t
h=U
|
0.25 D
D,= 0.115m
top view Rushton turbine
s i d e v i e w of a b l a d e
T = 0.29 m
W=0.1T
H =T
Q-
a-
'1.2
t
C , = 0.4T
C , = 0.33 T
side view v e s s e l
Fig. 6.5
top view
Layout of the Rushton turbine and vessel.
6.3.2 The laser Doppler anemometer
For the velocity measurements an arrangement with a two

velocity component laser Doppler anemometer, fully controlled
by computer, has been constructed. The principle of the laser
Doppler system is similar to the one described in 3.3.1. The
hardware is based on frequency trackers with photo detectors
and on a radial concentric rotating grating for beam splitting
and preshlft. Since the fluid distance traversed by the laser
light gives rise to much more light scattering, in comparison
with the system used in chapter 3, a 0 mW laser has been
used. Another reason is that the rotating grating generates
more beams. Only three of these beams are used, reducing the
light efficiency for the beams used. This laser Doppler system
can measure in two directions simultaneously through the
bottom of the vessel In any radial position and over an axial
1U6
2-lraversion
-T
l
r-1
-1
r-traversion
LD A
(luid
vetocity i
system
rotational
speed
turbine
HP 2 2 4 0
measurement
and control
processor
correlator
triggering
on impeller shaft
DROP IN
signal
I l I S E O FOR
rotational speed
.v.u-v
av
energy spectrum
..
spectrum
analyser
HPtOOO
computer
Fig. 6.6
Measuring and control diagram for the laser Doppler

velocity measurements.
<P
r,z
traversion
radial
concentric
rotating
Fig. 6.7
grating
Schematic set-up for the laser Doppler measurements.
17
displacement of 0.2 m. while in the rotational direction a

position between two baffles has been selected. Data reduction
and acquisition have been performed by computer (figure 6.6).
The three laser beams give a measuring volume with a diameter
of 0.08 mm in the horizontal plane and of 2.15 mm in the
vertical, axial, direction. The anemometer has been mounted in
a fixed position, while the vessel, with a diameter of 0.29 m,
including the impeller drive is mobile. The arrangement is
shown in figure 6.7. To obtain identical trajectories for the
three laser beams in every position, the surface of the fluid
has been covered by a glass plate. Also the flat bottom of the
vessel and the wall have been made of glass. The vessel has
been enclosed by a square tank with glass walls, to allow
measurements in other directions.
Traversing has been achieved by a stepplng-motor,
controlled directly by computer, or by a direct-current motor
by way of a feedback system (figure 6.6). It is also possible
to measure between two impeller blades. This is obtained by an
optical triggering on the shaft, giving the position of a
specific blade to the computer. Velocity data have been
processed after passage of this particular blade within an
given window with an accuracy of 0.5*. The moment of
selective data acceptance has been calculated by the computer,
using the direct trigger pulse and the calculated rotational
speed from this trigger pulse.
6.3-3
The viscosity used for the velocity measurements

The rheograms of the polymer solutions are shown in
figure 6.8. The data are summarized in table 6.1. The

carboxymethylcellulose solution is almost lso-viscous
Newtonian In Its behaviour with a viscosity of 3- 3 m Pa s. The
average shear rate in the vessel is about 0 s " for the
experiments, according to the generalized theory based on the
work of Metzner and Otto \1957.160\:
(6. 3)
*
= k N
'av
s
with k s 11.5 for a Rushton turbine
148
The apparent viscosity for this shear rate has been used to
calculate the Reynolds number for the experiments,
the data of which are shown in table 6.1.
Table 6.1
Rheologlcal parameters for the experimental fluids.
Temperature has been 25' C during; the measurements.

Calculated parameters are based on a temperature of 20' C.
A v.
of l.O and 1.5 m/s corresponds to a rotational speed

-1
of 2.77 and 1.15 B . giving a y
of 29 and s 1 .
Fluids
Water
CMC
500 ppm
103
lO" 3
m Pa s
m Pa s
1. 0
0.9
0. 9
1. 0
3-3
3.3
9. 9
3-3
1.8
1. 5
3.3
ppm
1. 0
"test
series"
1. 5
PAAm
500 ppm
1. 0
app
12
7
36
3-2
.9
105
16
2.9
2. 0
IS
0.3
3.6
1. 0
160
31
1. 2
1. 0
1.5
1. 5
76
23
0. a
2. 1
4.7
1.5
ppm
El
m/s
500
PAAm 1000
Re
tip
PAAm
"rheogram"
^0
6.
THE RADIAL DISCHARGE FLOW OF THE IMPELLER
6..1
The tangential Jet
23
0. U
An easy-to-use model for the discharge flow of the

impeller has been given by Desouza and Pike \1972\. It is
based on a tangential Jet and gives results for the radial
velocity profile. Obeld et al. \1983\ have used the tangential
19
1000
mPa 3 .
Rheograms for solu tons
used for L D A
K
500 Dpm PAAm 1 0 m / s
500
A 1000
v 1000
500
100 -
.
.
CMC
1 SWi
1 0
1 5m/s
Kl
10
1
0.01
-II
Fie. 6.8
I I 11 I I I
01
10
100 S-'
Rheograms of the solutions used.
(r)
Figure 6.9
The tangential Jet model
150
jet model to compare open and closed turbines. To arrive at a

solution for the flow equations, it is necessary to define a
stress tensor, using Prandtl's second hypothesis. Therefore it
is assumed that there are dust one time scale and one length
scale in the turbulent field. Desouza and Pike have coupled
the diameter of the discharge Jet (5) to the radial distance
by a similarity constant >?, according to
(6.a>
S
In reality this dimensional similarity of the discharge Jet is

not radially directed, but tangential. A more extensive model
for the tangential Jet, as shown in figure 6.9, has been given
by Kolar et al. \198\. It uses also the second hypothesis of
Prandtl. The resulting velocity q(r.z) is described by:
(6.5)
1
q(r.z) (
16 k n e
In this equation M
) ' 5 . (r 2 - R 2 )
-5
.(l-tanh 2 r?(r.z))
is the momentum flux of the Jet, R is
the radius of the source of the Jet and k is a constant. In

this chapter and in the succeeding chapters the velocity
component q is the (calculated time averaged) velocity, q
is the time averaged measured velocity and q' is the measured
rms value or standard deviation of the velocity fluctuations.
The similarity function p}(r>,z) in equation 6.5 is modelled by
n(r.z) = _ L
2k
2
2 .5
~ e )
.(z - z > - r,
2
2
R
O
r - R
(6
"6a)
(r
(6.6b)
Z
"
In this function the axial displacement of the source of the

Jet is assumed to be zero because of symmetry of the impeller
geometry in this direction. The definitions of e and R are
151
(6.7a.b)
e = c
and
R = c
r
The velocity in the radial direction is given by
(6.8)
u(r,z) = if
L_!
q(r.z)
and in the tangential direction by

(6.9)
e
w(r,z) =
. q(r,z)
This model can be interpreted as a tangential swirling Jet

with a source in the form of a ring with radius R and with an
arbitrary discharge angle fl between the Jet and the blade
(figure 6.9):
2
R = U
2
* e
(6
0.5
-10)
0 = arctan(e/l)
The conservation of momentum and angular momentum gives:
(6.12)
+oo
M
1=
+oo
2 - n r u . Q q
<iz = Uirf
dz
oo
(6.13)
+oo
N = f 2 n r
e r w d z
oo
r
r
t 2
(r -
+oo
T r j % < ? r u w d z
V-5
)
( 6
l M
The ratio between momentum flux and angular momentum flux

denotes the swirl parameter
(6.15)
e =
M
152
Kolar, Fillp and Curev \1984\ reformulate equation 6.5 for the
outflow velocity:
(6.16)
q(r.z) = <C N 2 D 5 / k e ) " 5 (r 2 - e 2 )"" 5 ( 1 - t a n h 2 < n<- *. z ) ) )
d
In this e q u a t i o n . C
i s a drag c o e f f i c i e n t , w h i c h
determines
the maximum velocity.

6..2
Measurement of the tangential Jet

The radial and tangential velocity fields have been
measured for the tip-speeds of 1.0 and 1.5 m/s. In figure 6.10
and 6.11
examples are given of the time averaged radial
velocities at a radial distance, somewhat greater than

Impeller radius, for a 500 ppm CMC and a 500 ppm PAAm solution
respectively. The x-axis in these figures gives the axial
position of the measuring volume. The zero of z is positioned
at the height of the disc of the Rushton turbine. A negative z
means a displacement to the bottom of the vessel. Half the
height of an impeller blade Is 11.5 mm and the tip of the
impeller is positioned at a radial distance of 57-5 mm. It is
possible to describe the radial discharge profile for every
radial position by
u(z) = A x
(1- tanh 2 (A 2 (z-A 3 ))
A IA.IA.:
constants
(6.17)
This equation forms a simplification of equation 6.5- The

radial discharge profiles are all fitted as shown in figures
6.10 and 6.11. The resulting plot of the best fits for the
measured points at different radial distances is shown for
water in figure 6.12. For the experiments with the same
impeller but with ar. clearance from the bottom of 0.33 T the
axial displacement cf the Jet was twice as large (table 6.1;
n ) These results are in agreement with those reported in
the literature (Costes and Couderc \198\,
Laufhlltte \19S6\) ar.d will be caused by the relatively
153
0.8
u(z> = 7 2 5 ( l - ( l a o h ( I 6 8 ( z - 18. IC
*)))')
CMC 500 ppm
m/s
n o : 1.0 m/s
0.4
: 57.5 mm
o |>
20 10- 3 m
-20
Fig. 6.10
T h e radial d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y as a function of the

axial p o s i t i o n for a CMC s o l u t i o n w i t h a N e w t o n i a n
behaviour approximately.
1
I
m/s
1.2
u(z)= 986(i-(lann(.i90x(z-.737xiD-') 2 )
PAAm 500 ppm
v,, D : 1.5 m/s

r
-~
: 65 mm
'\
'
-
,0
0.8
/ " -
.11
\\
\\
0.4
./
n
1 0
-10
-20
Fig.
/
o ^**
6.11
_a
20
The r a d i a l velocity as a function of the axial

p o s i t i o n for a 500 ppm PAAm p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n .
l a r g e r v o l u m e of the upper c i r c u l a t i o n
loop.
6.13
the r a d i a l
Jet
and 6.1
are given
the velocity
p r o f i l e s of
for a 500 and
In these figures
dimensionless
by half
displacement
for w a t e r
A further modelling
151
of the b l a d e .
in the fitted
f i g u r e s such as 6.15.
(figure
according
figures
discharge
solution
has b e e n
made
The
curves shows
discharge, while the maximum
jet is l o w e r than
in
the z - p o s i t i o n
the height
of the m a x i m u m
directed
In the
1 0 0 0 ppm p o l y a c r y l a m i d e
respectively.
upward
10 .10-3 m
velocity
an
in
the
6.12).
to e q u a t i o n
In this plot
6.5
the real det
results
velocity
.
0.8 ^^ fifi 0
72.5
87.5
110.0
125.0
0 4-
-20
//.
s~ ^
tank diameter
288 mm_
clearance
115 mm
tip vetocity
1.0 m/s
Huid
water
XX. ^ -
...>-"' \J
-^n
"-^T
i^.~r-
-10
20.10-3m
10
6.12 R a d i a l velocity p r o f i l e s f o r s e v e r a l r a d i a l
p o s i t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to the t a n g e n t i a l d e t m o d e l ,
'\
0 8
-v
115 mm
""lip
.1
Fis.
mrr
mm
mm
mm
mm
turbine diameter
I
turbine diameter
'
~
57.5 mm
87.5 mm
1
115 mm (0.4T)
clearance
115 mm
tip velocity
1.5 m/s
Huid
PAAm 500ppm
125 0 mm
0.4
Q/5D
# : . -
fl
^
"^^"j^^
ssi f i i f i
c=
îi^v.----.
2z/h
'
1.0
-1.0
Fig, 6.13 R a d i a l velocity p r o f i l e s as a f u n c t i o n o f

a x i a l position f o r a 5 0 0 p p m PAAm s o l u t i o n .
T h e x-axls h a s been r e s c a l e d by t h e blade height.
is g i v e n , a c c o r d i n g to f i g u r e 6.10,
velocity
normalized
in t h e det. T h e t a n g e n t i a l m o d e l
the d a t a by a parameter o p t i m i z a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g
'complex search* method
the fitted
magnitude
by t h e m a x i m u m
has been fitted to

to the
of B o x \ 1 6 5 \ . T h e d e v i a t i o n o f all
c u r v e s to the d a t a p o i n t s a r e o f t h e same o r d e r of
(O.O).
The results are summarized
in table 6.2.
155
Table 6.2
Parameters for the tangential Jet model

solution
C ._
/T
tip
C
d
"o
m/s
Water
33
1 0
.00
. 060
987
1 007
. 00
78
.40
1 0
.01
. o6a
1 002
1 0U2
. 201
71
1 0
.038
. 06
1 001
1 03"
. 119
75
1 5
.039
. 06
1 119
1 092
. 171
78
1 0
.031
. 037
916
681
. 129
56
1 5
.031
. 00
906
77U
. 112
63
1 0
.031
.033
9U
553
.128
51
CMC 500 ppm
PAAm
"test
500 ppm
series"
"rheogram"
PAAm 1 0 0 0
1 5
.033
.039
982
81U
.133
61
1 0
.030
. 038
811
66
.173
60
.032
. 01X2
890
809
. 133
67
ppm
1 5
In table 6.2 the parameters C
en C
r
are almost
e
equal to 1 for the Newtonian fluids. In this case, the model

of Kolar et al. may be formulated by the equations used by
Desouza and Pike \1972\, while a direct relation between the
scales in the flow direction of the Jet and in the transverse
direction (S)
can be presumed. The ring source of the Jet is
then at the tip radius of the Impeller and the Jet is

tangentially directed in regard to the impeller. For the
fluids with an elastic behaviour, the Jet is more radially
directed with a ring source inside the impeller radius, and
the model of Desousa and Pike may not be valid. The elastic
forces near the shaft give rise to a different inflow pattern
(paragraph 6.2) and this will cause a change in position of
the imaginairy source.
156
turbine diameter
0.8
50.0
57.5
65.5
87.5
110.0
125.0
0.4
clearance
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
tip velocity
fluid
1 15 mm (0.4T)
1 1 5 mm
1.5 m/s
PAAmlOOO ppm
/ '?
-1.0
Fig.
-0.5
6.1U
Radial
velocity p r o f i l e s
1.2
o
.
A
T
A
X
0.8 -
M
V - ' f~^.
f t
' ( ***,
o*
\
A"
Fig.
.
.
* \
6(T)
1.0
2.0
T h e similarity of the real d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y

p r o f i l e s at several r a d i a l p o s i t i o n s .
T h e e f f e c t o f the e l a s t i c
small,
\ .
-1.0
6.15
\ o
^v
> ^
0
-2
water
V p : 1.0 m/s
C/T : 0.4
*
- ^
A=fc
#*
iL
'
solution.
A\*
?
X /,
I- -
1.0
for a 1000 ppm
'
r (mm)
117.5
110
108.5
95
87.5
80
78.5
0.4 -
0.5
as compared
f l u i d s on the d i s p l a c e m e n t
is
to the i n f l u e n c e of the c l e a r a n c e from
the
bottom. This m e a n s that the s e c o n d a r y l o o p s do not effect
the
main circulation
polyacrylamlde.
displacement,
loop
for these c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
of
T h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r is I m p o r t a n t
for
the
also because of the i n f l u e n c e of the geometry
on
157
the flow pattern. A more turbulent flow
gives a greater
displacement, as may be noted by comparing table 6.1 with

table 6.2. According to Holland \1973\ there will be no futher
fundamental differences for Re > 8.0 10
using water. The
highest Reynolds number used is 7.3 10 , which may be the

reason for a lower value of the displacement parameter.
The width of the Jet is determined by the parameter k.
For Newtonian fluids this parameter is equal to 0.06a. The
k value is about 50% lower for the PAAm solutions. The
elastic solutions give a damping of the turbulence and
therefore less entrainment in the Jet.
The greatest difference between the values of the
parameters, reported by Kolar et al. \19S&\, by Desouza and
Pike \1972\ and those obtained in our experiments for water,
is for the parameter C , which determines the height of the
d
profiles. In comparison with the data in table 6.2 Kolar et

al. give the approximately 50 % lower value of 0.02. while
Desouza and Pike report a two times higher value of C . This
difference may be caused by the use of a different type of
anemometer, a Pitot-tube, which is more liable to systematic
errors in these complex flows (Revill \19S2\).
Summarized, it is possible to model the discharge flow
of Newtonian fluids for Rushton turbines with the data
obtained in these experiments by
(6.18)
2
u(r.z) = 1.28
2
[l - tanh 2 (7.8(r 2 - _JL) ' 5 - 0.20)]
U
In this equation (r
- (D /U )
gives the radial
distance from the tip of the impeller blade.

For visco-elastic liquids the extended model described
in equations 6.5 to 6.9 should be used.
158
6.5
THE PUMPING CAPACITY
The impeller may be considered as an open pump with a specific

discharge per second into the tank: the pumping capacity Q
P"
The Rushton turbine forms a turbine with a radial pumping
action. The pumping capacity can be defined by
<6
Q - L . D h
- 19)
P
tip
with u the average radial velocity at the blade tip
over the height of the blade h. An often used definition is
(6
*h/2
-20)
If the pumping capacity is measured at the blade tip

the Influence of the tank geometry will be small and the
entrainment In the Jet will not be important. The pumping
capacity will often be characterized by a discharge
coefficient according to
(6.21)
C = _
P
N D
Revlll \1982\ gives an extensive review about the

discharge coefficient for a Rushton turbine for Newtonian
fluids. The reported measured values for C
vary between 0.6

P
and 3-0 for geometrically Identical vessels. However,

different experimental techniques have been used. Disparity is
also caused by the applied definitions for the pumping
capacity, which differ from equation 6.20. After the use of
corrections for these differences and measuring techniques,
Revill concludes that C
in equation 6.21 has a value of

P
0.75 - 0.15. This result is in adequate agreement with the

results reported by costes and Couderc \198\, LaufhUtte
\1986\ and Yianneskis et al. \1987\. who have found values of
0.73. 0.78 and 0.79 respectively by laser Doppler anemometry.
159
100
'T
v p = 1.0 m/s
water
CMC
500 ppm
PAAm 500 ppm
PAAm 1000 ppm
v I i p = 1.5 m/s
80
Q,
CMC
500 ppm
PAAm 500 ppm
PAAm 1000 ppm
-L
60
60
Fig.
6.l6
80
120 mm
100
T h e p e r c e n t a g e of the radial d i s c h a r g e at the height

of the impeller b l a d e as a f u n c t i o n of the radial
p o s i t i o n for the s o l u t i o n s used.
120 m m
Fig.
6.17
T h e t o t a l radial d i s c h a r g e flow as a f u n c t i o n of the

radial p o s i t i o n , showing the c i r c u l a t i o n c a p a c i t y .
They have used t h e i r data of

the turbine.
tangential
-h/2,
Jet m o d e l
according
calculated
discharge
Impeller
coefficient
of 0.72
experiments,
fit for
between
and 6.21.
to e q u a t i o n 6.17.
tip. The a g r e e m e n t
l i t e r a t u r e , in w h i c h
160
has been i n t e g r a t e d
to e q u a t i o n s 6.20
according
the d i f f e r e n t
the radial v e l o c i t y .
In o u r e x p e r i m e n t s , the best
0.02,
between
with
Just
outside
the
+ h/2
and
u(z)
T h i s r e s u l t s in a
calculated
the r e p o r t e d
in this s t u d y
and
in
at
the
results
the
the l a s e r D o p p l e r t e c h n i q u e h a s
been
of
used, is very good, showing the accuracy of this measuring

technique.
The effect on the pumping capacity of the
concentrations of polyacrylamide used in our experiments is
small. The discharge coefficient C
for the polymer
solutions is about 0.6. This value is only 11% less than for
the Newtonian liquids.
The definition of the pumping capacity used gives a
characterization of the impeller. However, the capacity found
depends on the measuring position because of the enlargement
of the Jet. The fluid, discharged between +h/2 and -h/2 of the
Impeller, is given as a function of the radial distance in
figure 6.16. The figure shows that up to 80 mm the enlargement
is small and that 95% of the fluid flows between the blade
edges.
An alternative definition for the pumping capacity,
more strictly related to the circulation time, is formed by
tne total radial outflow, although the difference between the
two definitions is small for a properly selected measuring
position. The whole radial discharge between the stagnant
points at a certain radius has to be taken into account. For
tne tangential jet model, this means integration of the
profiles between z = -< and z + oo. This definition is used
for the relation between the discharge coefficient and the
radial measuring position in figure 6.17. For Newtonian
liquids the resulting discharge coefficient is 0.75 from the
blade tip up to a radial position of about 65 mm.
Using the tangential Jet model for water, the difference
between the pumping capacities is illustrated in figure
6.18. The radial discharge flow Q (r) in this figure is
r
defined by
(6.22)
+
Q (r) = 2 ir r
oo
,2
Cr
2..5
'
. q(r.z) dz
161
2.0
water
Q,'/ND3
O,/ND3
O,/ND3
Q,'/ND3
1.0
-J>'-~
80
60
100
120 mm
Fig. 6.18 The theoretical coefficients for the discharge

between the blade tips (Q' ) and overall (Q ) in
comparison with the experimental values.
Combination with equation 6.16 gives
; ! . . <fi>- **2
(6.23)
N D~
In the Integration of equation 6.22 the limits h/2 and -h/2
may be used, giving Q' (r). The two definitions of the
r
discharge flow are related by
Q'(r) = Q (r) tanh{q(r.h/2))
r
r
(6.2)
In figure 6.18 a good agreement is noticeable between the two

relations and the experimental data, except near the impeller,
where the jet contains the two trailing vortices. It looks
like a plane turbulent jet, which develops from two mixing
layers into one jet (Tennekes and Lumley \1972\). The
difference between the two definitions of the pumping capacity
is very small near the impeller, but increases for larger
distances in the Jet. This is in agreement with the figures
6.16 and 6.17. A decrease in the values for the two
definitions of the discharge flow is visible for large values
of r due to the influence of the tank wall.
Figure 6.17 also shows the circulation coefficient C
162
of the turbine, defined in analogy with the pumping

coefficient (equation 6.20). The circulation capacity Q
is
c
formed by the pump flow and the fluid volume, enclosed in the
jet by turbulent entrainment. The circulation capacity is
calculated by integration of the radial outflow between the
two main stationary circulation centres in the vessel. In the
absence of stagnant zones or secondary loops the circulation
time in the vessel is determined by this capacity. For the
geometry used. Sachs and Rushton \195\ report that the
additional flow by fluid enclosure equals the pumping
discharge, although the absolute values, reported by them, are
much lower. In our experiments for the circulation coefficient
C a value of 1.5 i8 found for the Newtonian fluids and 1.3
c
for the PAAm solutions. The circulation coefficient is twice
the discharge coefficient C , and is in agreement with the
value reported by Sachs and Rushton. GUnkel and Weber
\1975\ give a value of 1.8 for the maximum ratio between
circulation capacity and pumping capacity, for a D/T ratio of
0.5. This lower value for the relatively larger Impeller may
be explained by the smaller distance for the discharge Jet to
develop, giving less entrainment.
The effect of the rotational speed on the position of
the circulation centres is small. A tendency for a
displacement of the rotation point, the eye, towards the wall
is noticeable for a lower viscosity and rotational speed. The
discharge flow for the pclymer solutions turns into a vertical
direction at a point closer the wall than for water. The
reasons for this effect may be the thinner boundary layer of
the wall (chapter 3) and less entrainment in the jet for
polymer solutions. The value of k, given In table 6.2, forms
the direct parameter for the broadening of the Jet. For more
concentrated polymer solutions at lower velocities the Jet
will develop more slowly, giving a higher percentage of the
maximum possible flow between the blade tips. Related to the
slower broadening is the higher maximum radial velocity in the
Jet at a radial distance larger than 80 mm (figure 6.19). For
water the decrease of the maximum velocity, approximated here
by the radial velocity at z = 0. is constant near the blade
163
m/s
0.8
o
x
water
1000 ppm PAAm
0 4
0.0
120 mm
Fig. 6.19 The radial velocity at disc height versus the radial
position for water and a polymer solution.
tip, due to the trailing vortices (Van der Molen and Van
Maanen \1978\). After 90 mm a constant slope is found, caused
by the conservation of momentum, while the Jet is broadening
(equation 6.).
These effects are in competition with the growing
influence of the wall for fluids with a higher apparent
viscosity.
6.6
THE TRAILING VORTEX
6.6.1
Literature
The good dispersion obtained by the Rushton turbine,
is also caused by the two trailing vortices at the blade tips

(figure 6.1). The passage of the blades and the rotation of
the structured vortices give a periodical velocity component.
Van 't Riet \1975\ has studied the position and velocities in
the vortices by flow visualization and by measurements with a
co-rotating pitot tube. The position of the trailing vortex
depends on the Reynolds number for values smaller than 5000.
For higher Reynolds numbers the angle of the axis of the free
vortex with the blade is about 100'. Popiolek et al. \1984\
16
(a)
z = 16.0 mm
(b)
z=0.0mm
(c)
z = 16.0mm
(d)
z=0.0mm
Tangential velocity component

corrected lor the tip velocity
Fig. 6.20 The velocity in a horizontal plane for three axial

positions (water, v
= 1.0 m / s ) .
have been the first experimenters who have measured the
velocities in the trailing vortex with laser Doppler
anemometry. They have found a smaller angle, which is also
constant for the high Reynolds numbers. Van 't Riet suggests
that the velocities have a maximum magnitude equal to that of
the tip velocity of the blade. Van der Molen and Van Maanen
\1978\ conclude from the peak to peak value of the periodical
axial component that the circumferential velocity of the two
vortices seldom exceeds half the tip velocity. The magnitude
165
-8.0
-16.0 90.0
100.0mm
,
1.0m/8
Fi(. 6.21 R a d i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s for w a t e r in a v e r t i c a l

p l a n e at 5' phase behind the i m p e l l e r b l a d e as a
f u n c t i o n of the r a d i a l p o s i t i o n (v , = l.o m / s ) .
tip
-16.0 -
1.0m/s
Fla.
depends
22 T a n g e n t i a l velocity p r o f i l e s for w a t e r in a v e r t i c a l
plane at 5" p h a s e behind the i m p e l l e r blade as a
f u n c t i o n o f the r a d i a l p o s i t i o n
(v
= 1 . 0 m / s , impeller radius 57-5 m m ) .
tip
on the scale of the m i x e r and also on the t h i c k n e s s of
the b l a d e s . P o p i o l e k et a l . r e p o r t v a l u e s
of
166
the tip v e l o c i t y .
in the o r d e r of 25X
-8.0 -
-16.0 -
1.0m/s
Fig. 6.23
P r o f i l e s of the r a d i a l v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s for
w a t e r in a v e r t i c a l p l a n e at 5" phase b e h i n d the
i m p e l l e r blade as a f u n c t i o n of the r a d i a l p o s i t i o n
( v t i p = i.o m / s ) .
16.0
mm
8.0
0.0
-8.0 f-
-16.0 50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
w'.
100.0 m m
1.0 m/s
Fig.
6.2U
P r o f i l e s of the t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s for
w a t e r in a v e r t i c a l plane at 5" p h a s e behind the
i m p e l l e r blade as a f u n c t i o n of the r a d i a l p o s i t i o n
Wlth
"tip = 1 - m / s -
167
6.6.2
Experiments
The radial and tangential velocities near the impeller
have been measured simultaneously at 6 positions behind a

turbine blade, from 5' up to 55" at various heights.
Measurements have been carried out for a v
of 1.0 and
tip
1.5 m/s for water and the two PAAm solutions already
mentioned. Graphical representation is given in a horizontal
plane and In a radial vertical plane. Figures 6.20d, 6.21 and
6.22 give examples for the average velocity and figures 6.23
and 6.2 show the standard deviation in the radial and
tangential direction.
In figure 6.20 positions with a higher velocity than
that of the surroundings are notable. Here the trailing
vortices touch one another. At a height of 16 mm above and
below the Impeller disc (6.20 a and c) a minimum Is found. The
axis of the vortex can be assumed to coincide with these
positions. With this method the axes of the vortices have been
determined. In figure 6.25 the results are given. The axis of
the vortex is closer to the Impeller than has been found by
Van 't Riet. This difference in the position is also reported
by Ylanneskis et al. \1987\ and is explained by the use of a
smaller impeller than is the case in the publication of Van 't
Riet. No significant difference has been found for the two
PAAm solutions. The axis of the vortex, using the polymer
solutions, is closer to the Impeller in the radial direction
than is the case for water and the velocity depends on the tip
speed. A dependence on the Reynolds number, as reported by Van
't Riet for water, seems a reasonable explanation to account
for this difference. However, since both the polymer
solutions, with a large difference in viscosity, give the same
trajectory, this explanation is not likely to be valid. The
use of the zero shear viscosity would give the Reynolds
numbers necessary to obtain the results comparable to Van 't
Riet \1975\. But this is not acceptable with the shear- rates
expected in the vortex. To compare the positions with Van 't
Rlet's data, Reynolds numbers of 300 and 500 are necessary
for, respectively, a tip speed of 1.0 and 1.5 m/s. A direct
168
Fig. 6.25 The position in a horizontal plane of the trailing

vortices.
effect of the elastic forces, as shown in paragraph 6.2. can
be used to explain this phenomenon, induced by lower radial
and circumferential velocities. The circumferential velocity
of the vortex Is given in table 6.3- The value of the maximum
velocity found for water has the same order of magnitude as
reported by Van 't Riet (\1975\; II.3B.3.2). The velocity
for the polymer solutions at the origin of the vortex is lower
than that of water, but the decrease is also slower. The
vortex for water has not yet been vanished In the vicinity of
the next blade; however, for the PAAm solutions the vortex can
no longer be applied to that position.
169
Table 6.3
The circumferential velocity for the vortex, normalized

by the tip speed, at a vortex radius of 6 mm.
position
on the
type of solution and tip speed
vortex
water
PAAm
1.0
1.0
m/s
PAAm
m/s
1.5
m/s
5' behind blade
0. 9
0. U
0. 7
5' behind next blade
0. U
0.3
0.5
6.7
TURBULENCE IN THE VICINITY OF THE IMPELLER

The turbulence intensity is significantly Influenced by
the polyacrylamlde, as indicated by comparing figures 6.27 and

6.23 for the velocity fluctuations 5" behind an impeller
blade, while the average velocity is in the same order of
magnitude (figures 6.26 and 6.21) The velocity fluctuations at
a larger distance from the blade, generated by the vortices of
the leading Impeller blade, become virtually non-existent for
the 500 ppm solution. This damping causes a lowering of
turbulence intensity of up to almost a factor 11.
The time averaged turbulence Intensity measured at a
fixed point in the vessel near the Impeller has to be
corrected for the periodical component of the passage of an
impeller blade and the related trailing vortices, which are not
random in time. The periodical component induces a local shear
and is therefore also important for the dispersion and
homogenization, but a fluid element being a part of the
170
-8.0
-16.0 90.0
100.0 m m
1.0 m/8
Fig. 6.26 Radial velocity profiles for a 500 ppm PAAm solution
in a vertical plane at 5* phase behind the Impeller
blade as a function of the radial position
( v tip = 1 . 0 m/s. impeller radius 57-5 m m ) .
16.0
mm
8.0
0.0
-8.0 h
-16.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
u' t-
100.0 mm
1.0m/s
Fig;. 6.27 Profiles of the radial velocity fluctuations for a

500 ppm PAAm solution in a vertical plane, at a 5"
phase behind the impeller blade, as a function of
the radial position (v , = x.o m / s ) .
tip
171
0.20
m/s
0. 16-

0 12-
'
4>
i
0.08
20
Fig. 6.28
40
60
80c
T h e tangential v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s b e t w e e n two
b l a d e s as a function of the i m p e l l e r r o t a t i o n a l
posi tion.
0.12 -
0.08
Fig.
6.29
discharge
relation
The r a d i a l velocity f l u c t u a t i o n s b e t w e e n
as a f u n c t i o n of the i m p e l l e r r o t a t i o n a l
two b l a d e s
position.
flow w i l l be s u b j e c t
The
between energy dissipation,
t h e r e f o r e less t r i v i a l . T h e
position
in r e l a t i o n
is p r e s e n t e d
components.
172
to less t u r b u l e n c e .
*rms'
turbulence
to the r o t a t i o n a l
in f i g u r e s 6.28
The
t u r b u l e n c e and m i x i n g
and 6.29
fluctuations
intensity
position
for
two
for a
of the
fixed
turbine
velocity
in the radial
is
direction,
'
Rushion turbine
mm
mm
ia
100
100
p.
-I
U.
TP.
50
50
-rn
riND
T~-rn
m,
0.5-
0--
rr^r i i in
-40-
11
~1
i i
i -i
-40
r_x
-in.
- r
- i -
20
40
(a)
60
80mm
20
40
60
80mm
(b)
Fig. 6.30 Distribution of the radial (a) and axial (b)

velocity fluctuations (LaufhUtte \1986\).
relative to the tip speed, are between 0.13 and 0.20. In the
tangential direction the difference is less: 0.11 - 0.16. The
turbulence intensity. Including the pseudo turbulence as
described above, gives an average value of 0.27 for u'
and
r
0.3 for w' . This means that the non structural intensity
is about lxo% lower in the radial direction and approximately
60% in the tangential direction. The energy dissipation is
then at least times lower than expected. This effect can be
noticed up to half the radial distance from the turbine to the
wall, measured between the baffles. At the same experimental
conditions as given in the figures 6.28 and 6.29 a 1000 ppm
solution gives an average value for turbulence intensity of
0.10 for u* and 0.13 for w' , while the non periodical
r
t
turbulence intensity is respectively 0.038 - 0.081 and 0.036 -
173
0.072. This means a reduction of 50X In both directions,

giving also a fourfold reduction in the energy dissipation for
the volume element in the discharge flow, due to the
incorporation of pseudo turbulence in the determination of the
velocity fluctuations. The time averaged velocity
fluctuations
for the PAAm solution are however a factor 2.5 lower, giving a
6 times lower energy dissipation for this solution in the
vicinity of the impeller.
6.8
TURBULENCE IN THE BULK OF THE VESSEL

The turbulence in the vessel, not directly effected by
the trailing vortex (the bulk of the fluid), is almost

isotropic, as shown by many authors, such as LaufhUtte
\1985\ and Van der Molen and Van Maanen \1978\. In figure 6.30
the 'rms' values are shown in a vessel with a Rushton turbine.
The fluctuations are the same at every position, showing an
almost Isotropic turbulence. The standard deviation for the
tangential and the radial velocities is about 7% of the tip
velocity for the experiments in water. This is somewhat lower
than measured by other experimenters, which may be caused by
the relatively large dimension of the measuring volume in
axial direction. The polymer solutions give a standard
deviation of to 5% of the velocity. In the appendices 6.A
and 6.B examples are given for water and a 1000 ppm solution.
6.9
CONCLUSIONS
A model for the tangential discharge Jet of a Rushton
turbine has been quantified for Newtonian fluids and for

polymer solutions with a visco-elastlc behaviour.
For the pumping capacity the constant used yields
for fluids with a Newtonian behaviour and 0.6
0.72
for the
concentrated polyacrylamide solutions. More essential for the

flow in the vessel, and therefore also for the homogenization
in the vessel, is the circulation capacity. The constant for
17
this capacity is for the Newtonian liquids 1.5 and for the
polymer solutions 1.3- This means that the circulation
capacity is twice the pumping capacity for both Newtonian and
polymer solutions.
The flow pattern in the vessel differs for the PAAm
solutions. The circulation point is closer to the wall, than
in the case of water. The displacement of the Jet is a
function of the Reynolds number and the clearance from the
bottom.
The turbulence intensity in the bulk of the fluid is
approximately 7% for water while for the experimental
polyacrylamlde solutions almost h0% less than in the case of
water.
The determined position of the trailing vortices is
similar to Van 't Riet's observations for water. For the
polymer solutions the trailing vortex is positioned closer to
the turbine in the radial direction. This effect cannot be
attributed to the increased viscosity of these solutions. In
comparison to a measuring point at fixed position in the
vessel, the turbulent velocity fluctuations for a discharging
volume element in the vicinity of the impeller are two times
smaller in radial direction and three times smaller in
tangential direction. This effect will give rise to
significantly less mixing than is assumed by calculations
using the values of the turbulence, determined by direct
velocity measurements.
6.10
A
SYMBOLS
parameter
m s
parameter
parameter
concentration of polymer
ppm, kg kg
c
e
c_
coefficient 2R/D
coefficient 2e/D
clearance of the impeller from the bottom m
175
circulation coefficient
drag parameter
discharge coefficient
diameter of the Impeller
swirl parameter
height of an impeller blade
parameter
shear rate constant (eq.
6.1)
parameter
molair weight
momentum flux In the Jet
rotational speed
angular momentum flux in the Jet
power consumption
velocity component in discharge d
circulation capacity
pumping capacity
radial discharge capacity
radial distance from the axis
radius of the ring source of impu
characteristic flow time
relaxation time according to eq.
tank diameter
radial velocity component
velocity component
tangential velocity component
Weissenberg number
dlmensionless radius (r/R)
distance in axial direction
bols:
average shear rate
characteristic width in the Jet
specific engergy dissipation
distance in the flow direction of
similarity variable
dynamic viscosity
Pa s
apparent viscosity
Pa s
2 -1
m s
-3
kg m
Pa
iU
SPP
kinematic viscosity
g
*u~*a
*
density
first normal stress difference
rotation
special symbol:
-
time averaged
superscript:
the time averaged value of the root mean square
of the velocity fluctuations (standard deviation)
subscripts:
at zero height of the impeller
maximum value
tip
at the blade tip (radial position)

of the blade tip (velocity)
flow direction
direction of the velocity gradient
dlmensionless numbers:
El
elasticity number; (t
n0)/(e
for c > 0.25%; (t l w a p p ) / ( e

Po
power number; P/(<? N
Re
Reynolds number; (g N D 2 ) / ( M
D2)
D2)
D )
)
app
Wl
Welssenberg number; t
177
6.11
REFERENCES
Bartels. P.V. and I. van der Reijden

198
Flow field characterisation In the mixing of vlsco-elastlc fluids
Proc. 8th Int. Congress of Chem. Enging., Chem. Equip. Des.
and Aut.. Praha. CSSR. Sept. 3-7. paper G2., 1-10
Bird. R.B., R.C. Armstrong and O. Hassager
Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids, volume 1
J. Wiley and sons. New York
1977
Box. M.J.
1965
A new method of constrained optimization and a comparison
with other methods
Computer. J.. (3. 2-52
Costes. J. and J.P. Couderc
198
Measurements of velocities and turbulence in the radial
discharge flow of a Rushton turbine by thermal and laser
anemometry
Proc. 8th Int. Congress of Chem. Engine., Chem. Equip. Des.
and Aut., Praha, CSSR, Sept. 3-7, paper V3.I, l-ll
Desouza. A. and R.W. Pike
1972
Fluid Dynamics and Flow Patterns in Stirred Tanks with a
Turbine Impeller
Can. J. of Chem. Englng. . 5_. 15-23
Elson, T.P., J. Solomon, A.W. Nienow and G.W. Pace
1982
The interaction of yield stress and vlscoelasticlty on the
Weissenberg effect
J. of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., . 1-22
Greene, H.L., C. Carpenter and L. Casto
1982
Mixing characteristics of axial impellers with Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids
Proc. Uth Eur. Conf. on Mixing. NoordwlJkerhout,
Netherlands, April 27-29. paper Dl. 109-126
GUnkel. A.A. and M.E. Weber
1975
Flow Phenomena in Stirred Tanks
A.I.Ch.E. J.. 21, 931-911
Holland. F.A.
1973
Fluid Flow for Chemical Engineers
Chemical Publishing. New York
Ide. Y. and J.L. White
197^
Rheologlcal Phenomena in Polymerization Reactors: Rheological
Properties and Flow Patterns Around Agitators in
Polystyrene-Styrene Solutions
Journ.. of Applied Polymer Sci., 1B_. 2997-3018
178
Kolar V.. P. Fillp and A.G. Curev

198
Hydrodynamics of a radially discharging impeller stream in
agitated vessels
Chem. Enging. Comraun.. 2, 313-326
LaufhUtte, H.D. and A.B. Mersmann
1985
Dissipation of power in stirred vessels
Proc. Fifth Eur. Conf. On Mixing., Wrzburg, Germany,
June 10-12. paper 33. 331-310
LaufhUtte. H.D.
1986
Turbulenzparameter in GerUhrten Flulden
Dissertation , Technlschen Universitat MUnchen
Metzner, A.B. and R.E Otto
1957
Agitation of Non-Newtonian Fluids
A. I.Ch. E. J. . 3_. 3-10
Metzner. A.B. and J.S. Taylor
i960
Flow Pattern in Agitated Vessels
A.I.Ch.E. J.. 6. 109-llU
Molen, K. van der and H.R.E. van Maanen
1978
Laser-Doppler measurements of the turbulent flow in stirred
vessels to establish scaling rules
Chem. Enging. Scl.. 3.2. 1161-1168
Obeid, A., I. Fort and J. Bertrand
1983
Hydrodynamlc characteristics of flow in systems with turbine
impellers
Coll. Czech. Chem. Commun. . _8. 568-577
Placek. J. and L. L. Tavlarldes
1985
Turbulent Flow In Stirred Tanks
Part I: Turbulent Flow in the Turbine Impeller Region
A.I.Ch.E. J.. 3_1. 1113-1120
Popiolek. Z., J.H. Whitelaw and M. Yianneskis
198U
Unsteady Flow over Disc Turbine Blades
Proc. Second Int. Symp. on Appl. of Laser Anemometry
to Fluid Mech., Lisbon, Portugal. July 2-5, paper 17.1. 1-6
Reed. X.B. Jr.. M. Prlncz and S. Hartland
1977
Laser Doppler measurements of turbulence in a stirred tank
Proceedings 2nd Eur. Conf. on Mixing. BHRA. Cranfleld, UK,
paper Bl, 1-26
Revlll, B.K.
1982
Pumping capacity of disc turbine agitators
proceedings th Eur. Conf. on Mixing, BHRA, Noordwijkerhout,
Nld., april 27-29. paper BI, 11-2(1
Riet, K. van 't
1975
Turbine agitator hydrodynamics and dispersion performance
Dissertation. Delft University of Technology
179
Riet. K. van 't. W. Bruyn and J.M. Smith

1976
Real and pseudo-turbulence in the discharge stream from a
Rushton turbine
Chem. Engine Scl.. 3_1_, 107-112
Sachs J.P. and J.H. Rushton
1951
discharge flow from turbine-type mixing impellers
Chem. Englng. Progr. , 5_, 597-603
Tennekes. H. and J.L. Lumley
1972
A first course in turbulence
The MIT press. Cambridge. Mass.
Thomas. R.H. and K. Walters
196
The motion of an elastico-viscous liquid due to a sphere
rotating about Its diameter
Qart. Journ. Mech. and Applied Math.. 1J7. part I. 39-53
Warmoeskerken. M.M.C.G
19S6
Gas-liquid dispersing characteristics of turbine agitators
Dissertation, Delft University of Technology
Yianneskis. M..
An experimental
characteristics
J. Fluid Mech..
180
Z. Popiolek and J.H. Whitelaw

1937
study of the steady and unsteady flow
of stirred reactors
175. 537-555
APPENDIX 6A
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN THE VESSEL FOR WATER

Impeller diameter: 0.115 m
Tip velocity: 1.0 m/s
radial and tangential velocities

with the velocity fluctuations ( 10 -3 m/s )
z (mm)
+ 90. o
39
87
+ 80.0
18
84
21
+ 70. 0
86
+ 60. 0
26
77
+ 50. 0
25
83
+ 40. 0
25
81
17
72
24
76
86
+ 30.0
+ 20. 0
+ 10. 0
1/16
0. 0
374
233
75
119
49
72
41
76
-10.0
-20. 0
-30. 0
-4o. o
33
-50. 0
71
13
62
-60. 0
-70.0
11
74
-90. 0
w
w'
r (mm)
50. 0
-80. o
u
u'
19
75
- 17
52
5
14
100. 0
75-0
99
90
95
95
98
83
87
72
86
74
77
66
56
62
57
72
240
156
705
336
136
164
51
69
61
79
46
88
48
79
65
89
86
91
80
70
10
11
46
67
54
70
56
70
29
74
33
69
34
65
8
60
32
66
87
144
658
273
107
95
73
52
54
52
28
63
15
73
- 31
72
- 55
64
- 25
51
8
18
44
88
58
97
61
96
66
81
59
74
54
74
43
58
45
60
96
146
552
319
33
76
2
51
13
68
5
65
- 9
-
64
2
72
6
73
1
43
5
13
33
82
36
86
40
77
34
68
25
71
33
63
18
61
53
70
246
177
419
202
133
90
80
54
79
57
59
61
7
61
- 56
64
-150
65
- 27
30
1
15
125- 0
25
78
28
72
38
63
46
72
33
60
42
59
29
63
58
77
165
159
267
192
81
96
65
56
62
60
96
72
73
75
46
69
53
64
2
25
9
12
7
78
2
77
13
83
-
7
79
2
81
2
80
20
93
87
117
206
155
240
157
130
124
42
84
24
79
3
76
9
70
- 75
62
-146
49
- 12
31
6
13
34
72
81
80
80
83
96
89
124
88
109
99
114
93
132
102
152
121
175
122
129
106
103
81
102
86
114
82
114
78
132
71
120
64
7
33
14
10
181
APPENDIX 6B
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN THE VESSEL

FOR A SOLUTION OF 1000 PPM PAAM
Tip velocity: 1.0 m/s
Impeller diameter: 0.115 ni
radial and tangential velocity

with the velocity fluctuations (10
z (mm)
82
ai
89
ao
+ 70. 0
43
a
as
60. 0
73
51
6a
9
62
a9
68
ao
+ 50. 0
+ 0. 0
+ 30. 0
+ 20.0
10. 0
+
0.0
-10. 0
-20. 0
-30.0
-ttO. 0
-50. 0
-60. 0
-70.0
-80. 0
-90.0
13
37
25
36
29
32
19
31
26
132
500
169
12
81
31
3
32
32
16
32
11
36
3
38
- 31
31
- 63
30
- 5a
26
182
100. 0
75.0
6
0
- 11
+ 80. 0
u'
w'
r (mm)
50. 0
-90. 0
m/s)
81
19
as
59
8
250
137
7a5
182
ia7
107
99
51
103
53
113
16
125
a7
las
aa
168
33
156
a6
95
3a
- 20
68
- 3a
6a
3
62
9
57
22
ai
a6
30
as
27
31
27
61
a8
595
80
55
39
52
2a
37
31
12
39
- 29
as
-
57
U7
- ai
36
- 35
30
- 25
2a
125. 0
39
60
25
- 77
51
-126
22
a2
as
aa
32
60
2a
68
28
71
28
56
30
38
57
27
50
25
as
22
36
31
ao
28
3a
a7
U9
a37
105
13
27
13
27
7
26
13
30
13
29
27
27
61
ao
63
37
33
26
5a
- 3a
aa
9
39
50
29
57
25
59
28
ia2
81
512
86
120
ao
77
27
35
31
9
26
- 71
32
-130
37
-118
a6
- 9
37
- 27
25
as
a7
32
ai
35
66
5a
253
67
29
31
27
23
as
22
67
17
72
23
66
25
aa
28
26
31
22
23
0
25
36
35
- 71
31
- 7a
3a
- 37
31
- 10
32
8
30
35
35
158
65
325
79
116
58
32
32
5
36
- 53
35
- 97
30
- 70
36
3
23
15
17
11
25
5
21
23
36
6a
32
91
2a
8a
29
71
30
66
3a
67
39
96
a6
157
52
101
as
7a
36
80
36
92
29
106
29
61
31
6
26
- 10
20
1
9
C H A P T E R
ELASTICITY AND POWER CONSUMPTION IN STIRRED VESSELS
7.1
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the power consumption for Rushton and
inclined blade turbines will be discussed in relation to the

hydrodynamics. Measurements of the power consumption have been
carried out in the same type of vessel as used for the
velocity measurements, which is described in chapter 6. A
visualization technique has been developed to observe the
remarkable changes in the flow pattern when using polymer
solutions with the inclined blade turbines.
7.2
EXPERIMENTAL
7.2.1
The tank reactor

All power consumption measurements have been carried
out in a fully baffled perspex vessel with an inner diameter

of 0.288 m (figure 6.5). Rushton turbines have been used with
diameters of 80.U,
115. 119-5 and 1U.3 mm, giving D/T ratios
of 0.28. 0.0, 0.1 and 0.50 respectively. The other

dimensions of the Impeller relate to the diameter, according
D=
L=
s '
w=
Fig.
7-1
D i m e n s i o n s of
the Inclined
0.1 15 m
0.0445 m
0.023 m
0.002 m
blade
turbine.
183
to the s t a n d a r d s proposed
c h a p t e r 6. T h e inclined
by R u s h t o n
and
as p r e s e n t e d
blade I m p e l l e r s , as shown
7.1. have a d i a m e t e r of 115 mm at the mid

I m p e l l e r w i t h an angle or b e t w e e n
plane of
the b l a d e and
p l a n e of 9 0 " , 6 0 * . 5 * o r 3 0 * . T h e c l e a r a n c e
i m p e l l e r and
the bottom w a s 0.0
7.2.2
consumption
Power
T in all
For t h e power c o n s u m p t i o n
been m o u n t e d on
resulting
an a i r - b e a r i n g
t o r q u e of
strain g a u g e s
the turbine on
Installed
the
averaged,
b e c a u s e of
solutions
possible
0.01
in the v e s s e l . W i t h
is r e g i s t e r e d
by
to
number
in the t u r b u l e n t
7.2.3
Visualization
A stirred
placed
that o c c u r w i t h
5 10 ' Nm
region w a s about
perspex
tank w i t h
inclined
polymer
scale
is created
rotating
with
enabled
the r o t a t i o n a l
observation
The
also velocity
around
in v e r t i c a l -
and
of
u n t o a small
16 m i r r o r s on
the o u t e r
surface
e f f e c t s can a l s o be o b t a i n e d ,
speed
measurements.
flow
m was
light. This sheet
of the m i r r o r c y l i n d e r .
of the flow a r o u n d
the
power
i H %.
by a 5 mW l a s e r , d i r e c t e d
(figure 7 . 3 ) . S t r o b o s c o p i c
adapting
tank.
by using p l a n e s of
c y l i n d e r equlped
the
a d i a m e t e r of 0.19
b l a d e t u r b i n e s was v i s u a l i z e d
planes
of
time
was
(maximum
for m e a s u r e m e n t s
in a r e c t a n g u l a r p e r s p e x
horizontal
18
the
N m ) . M a x i m u m c o u p l e , w h i c h has been a p p l i e d , w a s In
o r d e r of 1 Nm. The a c c j r a n c y
light
at
D a t a are
the a p p r o p r i a t e a r m It
to o b t a i n an a c c u r a c y of
has
steel c o n n e c t e d
the s c r e w s .
the o s c i l l a t i o n s
the
7 . 2 ) . The
the v e s s e l
by
horizontal
the v e s s e l
the t a b l e . T h e a r m is held in t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n
tlghted
the
between
(figure
on an arm of s p r i n g
o u t e r end. w i t h o u t being
figure
cases.
measurements
table
in
In
an i m p e l l e r
by
This
blade
and
1: sensor for rotational

speed
2: motor with varlator
3: vessel (baffled)
11: shaft with impeller
(one end bearing)
5: radial air-bearing
of the vessel
6: axial air-bearing
of the vessel
7: strain gauges
(compensating)
8: spring steel blade
9: open contra-end
10: electronical processing
(Bridge of Wheatstone)
11: pulley with thread
and contra weight
12: horizontal table
Figure 7.2
Schematic of the set-up of the
air-bearing table for
measuring the power
consumption.
laser
Fig. 7.3
r'
rotating cylinder
(16 mirrors)
Set-up for the flow profile visualization.
185
7.2.1
Experimental fluids
Various solutions of PAAm in water have been used, as

shown in figure 7.1. The Bird Carreau model (equation 2.6) has
been fitted to the data with y.
approximated by the solution
00
viscosity. Characteristic parameters of the fluids are

summarized in table 7.1. in which the product of u
and t
forms the fluid-dependent part of the elasticity number for a

stirred vessel (equation 6.2) and n is the index in the
viscosity model.
Table 7.1
Rheological parameters of the experimental fluids
No.
Fluid
cone.
**
ppm
2000
*l
"0*1
m Pa s
m Pa s
0. 63
19
66
0. 15
30
0.66
15
12.6
0. 36
16
0. 67
500
19. 1
0.55
10. 5
0. 77
200
8.3
0. 31
2. 8
0. 79
5-3
0. 26
1. 1
0.79
1900
1700
1000
5
6
7
100
1000
500
PAAm
#q
CMC
77
6. 2
3.3
0. 20
0.68
2. 5
0.79
** Solution no. 5 has been used afterwards for the

measurements described in chapter 6. using a tip velocity
of 1.5 m/s.
Solutions 6 and 7 of this table are dilutions of no. 5,
Most of the fluids are also mentioned in chapter 8.
186
500
I I I
Polyacrylamide
solutions
c(ppm)
2000
1900
1700
1000
mPas
lOO -
500
*
50 -
200
100
..
5^
*=***-
Mapp
LL
I ....I
0.01
Fiz.
0 05 0.1
7.1
0.5
The r h e o e r a m s
of
the
solutions
50
10 +
04
water
o
A
0 5
1 % PAA m
0.33
0.25
"
+
5
100 1/S
used.
D/T
I i i i 11
10
1
20
JJ
"
+
+
A
P0
2
O 0 * 0 0
"
* Re
1
10
50
Fia.
7.5
100
500
1000
Power c o n s u m p t i o n for a c o n c e n t r a t e d p o l y a c r y l a m i d e
s o l u t i o n (IX) u s i n g i m p e l l e r s of v a r i o u s s i z e s .
Power n u m b e r s for w a t e r based on l i t e r a t u r e
(Rushton et a l . \ 1 9 5 0 \ ) .
187
7.3
INFLUENCE OF ELASTICITY ON THE POWER NUMBER

FOR RUSHTON TURBINES
In chapter 6 the influence of the fluid on the pumping
capacity, due to elasticity, has been shown. In figure 7.5 the

relation between the power number Po and the Reynolds number
is presented for a concentrated polyacrylamlde solution. The
power number is formulated as
(7.1)
Po =
e N3 D 5
In the turbulent region the power number Is constant,
as shown in this figure. The Reynolds number Re used in this
figure is defined by:
(7.2)
e v
Re =
N D
=
app
In the equation n
app
is calculated by using the average
shear rate, as defined by Metzner and Otto \1957\:
(7. 3)
i
= K N
'av
s
with k s = 11.5 for a Ruehton turbine
This relation has proved to be useful for the laminar region.
However, in the literature it is also used for pseudo plastic
fluids In the turbulent region, for instance by Metzner et al.
\196l\ and Hoeker et al. \198l\.
The previous relations do not take Into account the
elastic effects. In preliminary experiments a solution of
glycerol/water with 0.05% PAAm has given a
power number in
the laminar region which is at most five times higher than in

the case for Newtonian fluids. For this region Prud'homme
\198<J\ gives a relation for the torque and the Reynolds number
188
which involves the elasticity number. The relation can be

reformulated to:
(7.)
Po - (1+ 1. E l
0-25
) (25-U/Re + 0.077 Re)
In the laminar region our experiments for fluids with a

Newtonian behaviour show a function of the Reynolds number
according to:
(7.5)
Po = 95/Re
The influence of the elasticity on the power number becomes
obvious when the two equations are compared. The elasticity
will increase the power consumption. A difference between the
two equations occurs, when El is zero. Equation 7.1 then
contains only the two Reynolds number dependent terms, when
The Reynolds number is very small it simplifies further to a
linear inverse relationship. However, the last term of
equation 7. is very small for low values of the Reynolds
number.
With an increasing Reynolds number, the energy
dissipation due to inertial forces, especially in the vicinity
of the Impeller, will dominate the energy dissipation due to
the viscous forces near the wall.
For the turbulent region figure 7.5 already shows a
decrease in power consumption, due to the drag reduction of
the impeller blades and the suppression of the trailing
vortices (chapter 6 ) . The effect is significant for very small
values of the elasticity number. The CMC solutions showed no
significant pseudo-plasticity or any elasticity, while a small
decrease in the power number is noticeable. At higher
concentrations of polymer the decrease in power consumption,
due to the elasticity, tends to become less. An additional
decrease of up to almost 50 % of the value (Po 2.8) of water
has been found for a 1 % PAAm solution with an elasticity
number of 0.1 at a rotational speed of 10 s
and
189
1
i_
5.0 -
Rushion turbine
D(mm)
+ >.
80.4
115/1195
144.3
Figure 7.6
Power number versus the
e l a s t i c i t y n u m b e r for
three s i z e s of the
Rushton turbine.
line: e q u a t i o n 7.6
_*
Po
lt
El
1
1.
20
Be about
10
. The decrease
concentrations
that reported
stirred
4.0 10-
of PAAm
by Q u r a i s h i
tank, a l t h o u g h
in power c o n s u m p t i o n
for
high
is in the same o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e
as
et al. \ 1 9 7 6 \ for the s a m e type of
for very low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
the d e c r e a s e in p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n
of
polymer
is far m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t
in
our e x p e r i m e n t s .
In f i g u r e 7.6
elasticity
and
table 7.2
n u m b e r El a r e g i v e n for d i f f e r e n t
d i a m e t e r s . T h e p o w e r numbers
obtained
with Reynolds
the d i l u t e d
can
that
the p o w e r n u m b e r Po and
s o l u t i o n s and
be c o n c l u d e d
from
are based
numbers
10
larger
It is c l e a r l y
on
the
for w a t e r
and
figure
It
7.5.
Impeller
t u r b i n e s , in a f o r m u l a t i o n
according
values
for the 1 X PAAm s o l u t i o n .
related
p o w e r n u m b e r m a y be related
Rushton
10
this f i g u r e , and a l s o from
the p o w e r n u m b e r does not d e p e n d
dimension.
impeller
on the
than
the
number.
number
such as e q u a t i o n
The
for
7. IX,
to
(7.6)
Po = 5.5
This
function
Taking
- . 9 El 0. 17
has a l s o been drawn

a l s o into account
1 % PAAm s o l u t i o n ,
190
in f i g u r e
7.6.
the p o w e r n u m b e r d a t a for
the best fit for
the d a t a
becomes
the
Table 7-2
Power- and elasticity numbers for various impeller diameters
No.
Ruahton turbine diameter (mm)

80. U
Fluid
cone.
PAAm
Po
El
115/119
iaa.3
Po
El
Po
IC""
ppm
El
lo""
lo-"
10000
2.8
790
10000
2.6
1060
3.6
3a
2000
1900
1700
3-5
3.6
1000
5
6
500
3.8
200
tt.1
100
U6
3-9
23
28
3-9
1U
.8
CMC
1000
CMC
500
3-9
a.o
18
3. 9
a.2
2. 2
a.5
a.7
1. 0
5-1
5-1
a. 8
1.8
a. o
. 1
ia
6
1. 5
a.9
(7.7)
Po = 5.9 - a.3 E I o. 12
The rheogram of this IX solution has been determined using a
Rheogoniometer. The power law model has been used
(equations
2.1, 2.2 and 7.3) with k - 2.12, n - 0.a5, A - 3-0 and

b = 0.75.
191
7.
POWER CONSUMPTION AND THE TANGENTIAL JET

In chapter 6 it has been shown that the pumping
capacity Q
may be calculated for Newtonian liquids by

(7.8)
= 0.72 N D
A momentum balance over the impeller gives
(7.9)
P e (v
in
- v
out
) Q
Using the model of the tangential jet, as described in the

previous chapter, a relation can be given between the power
consumption P and the outflow, if the inflow velocity is
neglected, assuming a constant relation between the total
power consumption P and the power requirement for the pumping
action.
The total momentum flux in the outflow direction K is
defined by (see eq. 6.12)
17.10)
M = TT
0
erqdz
In which q is a variable of z, according to equation 6.5.

The assumption of a constant velocity q., over the blade
tip
height h gives
r ^
1
**
2 /
2
t i p
n
. rti
ir e
with
*
d
t l P
tiP d z
(7.12)
192
tlp "
e2)
'
U s i n g the
relations
r u
(7.13)
r w
Q =
=
r
it is p o s s i b l e to
formulate
(7.1)
1
H
TT
u_,
*i .
tip
tip
T h e a v e r a g e radial velocity
can
be given
by
(7.15)
The a v e r a g e
t a n g e n t i a l velocity
a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m of
approximated
the turbine
by t h e m o m e n t u m
the h e i g h t of the
from
the
flux n e a r t h e i m p e l l e r tip
be
over
blade
P
e
has to be c a l c u l a t e d
per unit of time, w h i c h can
2 IT N
"tip Q p
"'-LP P
<7-l6)
D
2
Because
(7.17)
3
p = Po e
it is p o s s i b l e
N
D
to w r i t e
(7.18)
"tip *
?
Po N D
Finally, equations
the m o m e n t u m
e po
i
Kolar.
7.11, 7.15
flux and
5
2
N DP
*
2 ir e
and
7.18
the p o w e r input
give a relation
according
between
to
(7.19)
p
=
c
ir N D
e
Filip and Curev \ 1 9 8 \ h a v e given an e q u a t i o n
o u t f l o w v e l o c i t y , as shown In c h a p t e r
6,
for
the
by
193
(7.20)
q(r.z) = ( C d N 2 D 5 / k e )
Combination
between
of e q u a t i o n s 6.1.
the p o w e r number and
coefficient
outflow
for
the
- 5
( r2
7-19
- e 2 ) " " 5 ( 1- t a n h 2 (rj( r. z ) ) )

and
7.20
gives a
the factor C . w h i c h
d
relation
is a drag
lnpeller and d e t e r m i n e s a l s o the
maximal
velocity:
(7.21)
C,
d
<e 0.011
Po
For w a t e r C
= 0.01 and Po = 5.1 have been m e a s u r e d using

d
t u r b i n e (tables 6.2 and 7.2 r e s p e c t i v e l y w i t h
Rushton
D = 0.115
m ) For a 500 ppm PAAm s o l u t i o n C . = 0.030 w i t h

d
Po = 3 - 9 has b e e n found. In e x p e r i m e n t s a factor of
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 125 has been d e t e r m i n e d b e t w e e n C
and Po.
d
This
is in r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e m e n t w i t h
equation 7-21,
zero
considering
the s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s m a d e ,
inflow v e l o c i t y . T a k i n g
In figure 7.6
number,
into a c c o u n t
b e t w e e n the e l a s t i c i t y
it la o b v i o u s that
the r e s u l t o b t a i n e d
the
will
in
like a
the r e l a t i o n
n u m b e r and
the p a r a m e t e r
shown
power
already
d
change significantly
solutions
for the s t r o n g l y d i l u t e d
(see a l s o table 6 . 2 ) .
7.5
VISCO-ELASTIC
7-5-1
Inclined
blade
F L U I D S AND I N C L I N E D
frequently
used,
blade
an axial o u t f l o w
loop.
t u r b i n e , if the b l a d e
in that c a s e , o n l y a radial
Warmoeskerken
\ 1 9 S \ has shown
an
Interesting alternative
for
The
equals
is
this type of
and
the
are
resembles
angle
outflow
that
is a l s o s u i t a b l e for gas d i s p e r s i o n ,
consequently,
19"
Impellers with
turbine has a s i m p l e g e o m e t r y w h i c h
9 0 " . Of c o u r s e ,
impeller
TURBINES
producing one main circulation
to some d e g r e e the Rushton
obtained.
BLADE
Impellers
For h o m o g e n l z a t l o n
inclined
polymer
is,
Rushton
turbine. In the literature there is only little reference to

the effect of visco-elastic fluids on the flow caused by these
turbines. Greene et al.\l82\ report a notable change in the
flow pattern for concentrations of polyacrylamide of less than
0.1%. The axial outflow of the turbine becomes almost radial
when these visco-elastic fluids are used. It may be expected
that this change in the flow direction, at this stage
resembling the flow of a Rushton turbine, will also alter the
power consumption in this manner.
7.5-2
Power number for inclined blade turbines with Newtonian

fluids
The power consumption of inclined blade turbines has

been studied by O'Kane \197\ and Warmoeskerken \198tt\ for
instance. They found that the power number (equation 7.1)
depends on the blade angle <x according to
(7.22)
J
Po = Po 0 sin (a)
O'Kane reports for Po 0 , the power number for the 90' Inclined
blade impeller, the value of 5.2, while Warmoeskerken mentions
a value of 5 with almost the same index for equation 7.6. In
our experiments Po 0 is 5.6. In figure 7.7 the experimental
1.0
water . D = 0.176 m (Warmoeskerken, 1986)
water
_x
D= 0.l15m
I900fjpm PAArn
0 = 0 115m
xj^^
0.8
0.6 h
sinu
0.4
---
Po
0.2
0.1
Fig. 7.7
0.2
0.4
0.6 0.8 I
"
8 10
Power number versus the blade inclination oe.
195
Table 7.3
Influence of the blade geometry on the theoretical expression
for the power number
design
blade
Po
theoretical
Po
Including
angle
eq. 7.6
blade edge
Po
calculated
experimental
average
blade angle
C )
C)
90
(5-6)
(5-6)
5.6
(90)
60
3.6
a.5
2.6
51
05
2. 0
2.7
1.6
0.7
1.1
0.8
31
30
values are compared with the data of Warmoeskerken.

Differences may be caused by the geometry of the impeller, by
Inaccuracy of the Impeller construction, and by the flow field
in the vessel. The direction of the circulation flow in the
vicinity of the impeller may be changed due to wall effects in
the smaller vessel. Another effect, which may be taken into
account, will Increase the calculated Power number. This
effect involves the thickness of the blade, which causes an
extra height for the Inclined blades, giving a higher power
number, relative to 90* inclined blade Impeller. The influence
of the thickness of the impeller blades is more significant
here than is the case in the experiments of Warmoeskerken,
because of the smaller scale in our experiments. To correct
the effect of the blade thickness, the calculated values are
tabulated in 7-3- For the third column, giving the data of the
theoretical power consumption including the effect of the
blade edge, the measured maximum height of the blades has been
taken to calculate the power numbers for the 30". U5* and 60"
Inclined blade impellers using the value of the 90" inclined
196
blade impeller. The last column gives the calculated average

angle for the six blades using the experimental power number
data and equation 7.6. Except for the 6 0 ' inclined blade
Impeller the results are in agreement with the first column
taking into account the accuracy.
7.5-3
Effect of the fluid elasticity on the flow field for

axial Impellers
Only a very small amount of literature le available

concerning the influence of visco-elastlc liquids on the
turbulent flow in reactors with an axially discharging
Impeller. More is known about reactors with a helical ribbon
impeller, operating in the laminar region. A strong
suppression in the axial flow has been found by Chavan et al.
\1975\ and Carreau et al. \1976\. It was even possible to
rotate the PAAm solution as a solid body. For inclined blade
turbines Greene et al. \1982\ report a relation between the
discharge angle (figure 7.8) and the first time constant of
Figure 7-8
Discharge pattern for a 100 ppm
PAAm solution, showing the
discharge angle
(Greene et al. \1982\).
197
10
10
10>
-1
60
40
lO-a
Fig. 7.9
10-*
10-'
10
Relationship between the discharge angle

(figure 7.8) and the elasticity and Weisseberg
number, according to Greene et al. \1982\.
the Bird Carreau model, as shown in figure 7-9- The relation

has been found for one rotational speed, with Theological data
obtained from literature. The results in that paper show that
small amounts of polymer can cause a totally different flow
pattern in the vessel, possibly caused by a significant
Increase of the elongetional viscosity in the axial and in the
rotational direction, but not in the radial direction, where
the elongation rate, even in the vicinity of the impeller, is
much smaller. Our own visualization experiments give similar
results. For originally upward- and downward discharging
impellers, the flow ie sketched in figure 7.10.a and b. The
concentration of the PAAm solution is 2000 ppm. In both
systems the primary flow is almost radially directed. For the
upward discharging Impeller system a secondary flow close to
the impeller shaft is visible, similar to the flow in vessels
with a Rushton turbine. In the downward oriented system this
flow is suppressed. For very high concentrations it is even
possible that the primary flow Is reversed, and the up- and
198
upward directed
downward directed
Fig. 7.10 Flow pattern for a upward and downward forcing

inclined blade turbine, using a 2000 ppm PAAm
solution (N = 1 s
and T = 0.19 m ) .
downward flow are visible again. For concentrations up to
1000 ppm PAAm at a rotational speed of 1 B
in a 0.19 m
vessel the discharge angle depends to a significant degree on

the concentration of polyacrylamlde. For higher concentrations
the angle does not change much. An Increase of the rotational
speed to 7 s
, gives almost the same values for the
discharge angle.
7-5-1
Effect of the fluid elasticity on the power consumption
In the previous paragraph the notable effect of polymer

solutions on the flow around the axially inclined blade
impeller has been shown. This change, due to an increased
elongational viscosity in the axial direction, may cause an
increase in the power consumption for the same Reynolds
number. The Reynolds number is based on the shear viscosity
and not on the complex viscosity. Together with the effects
described in the previous paragraphs, a decrease in the power
consumption will be found for blades with a greater
199
Table 7. ft
Effect of the visco-elastlcity on the power number
for inclined blade impellers
No.
fluids
ppm
Rush ton
m Pa s
PAAm
turbine
b l a d e angle
90*
60"
30-
U5'
5.2
5.6
2.6
1.6
0.8
200
2. 8
ft.3
U.7
2.9
1.6
1. 0
500
5
3
10. 5
3. 9
ft.7
2.9
1. 8
1.1
1700
16.2
ft. 0
ft. ft
3-2
2. 1
1. 5
1900
29-7
3-9
ft. ft
3- 2
2. 2
1. 5
-33
-27
*23
-37
-88
Po from 0 to 1900 ppm (%):
inclination and for higher concentrations of polymer. In

table 7.ft the results are shown for a Reynolds number of
(i
about 10 . In the range around this number the measured

power number is constant. The experiments did not give a
significant difference for the power number for an upward or
downward discharge direction of the impeller, although the
large scale flow behaviour Is different.
In comparison with the decrease in power consumption
for Rushton turbines, the increase for Inclined blade turbines
is considerable. The effect gains in importance with an
increased inclination of the blades, giving a more significant
Influence on the relatively larger axial component in the
discharge flow.
Greene et al. \1982\ have applied an inclined blade
impeller, which gives a discharge angle of su = 30" for water.
This discharge angle causes an axial outflow velocity
proportional to oos(y<) of the real discharge velocity and to
200
Table 7.5
Effect of fluid elasticity on the calculated discharge angle

for Inclined blade impellers, compared with the data of
Greene et al. \1982\.
fluids
ppm
No.
El
io- a
PAAm
200
blade angle
50"
"5"
30"
30': Greene et al.
U0
31
30
U7
58
U0
33
500
38
U3
39
1700
12
66
55
56
1900
22
66
57
56
65
sin(or) in the radial direction. The determined power number is

proportional to the square of the outflow in the horizontal
plane of the shaft rotation (equation 7.9). using a projected
blade height relative to sln(oe) for the pumping capacity
(equation 7.8). while the tip velocity and the impeller
diameter are constant. For <p = 90* only radial outflow Is
obtained with the inclined blade turbine, due to the high
elongational viscosity in the axial direction for the polymer
solutions. In that case the power number will be In the order
of the number found for the 90" inclined blade impeller,
corrected for the smaller projected height. Using the data of
the 90' inclined blade Impeller an approximation can be given
of the discharge angle of the polymer solution used, by
calculating the angle y" for which the power number of this
impeller has to be corrected to obtain the measured power
number. In table 7.5 the angles are compared with the data
according to figure 7.9. using the elasticity number. For
water the design angle has been used to determine the
imaginary blade height. The calculated value according to the
values in the last column In table 7.3 has not been used.
201
Taking the estimations made for the conversion of the power

number and the elasticity number into account, the calculated
values show the same trend as presented by Greene et al.
\1982\ in figure 7-9- Using the calculated angles according to
table 7.3 would have given a larger discharge angle for the
polymer solutions. For instance, the 60' inclined blade
impeller with the 1900 ppm solution would have given a value
of 75" for the discharge angle p.
7.6
instead of 66'.
CONCLUSIONS
A relationship between the power number and the drag
parameter of the tangential Jet model for the discharge flow

of the impeller has been established for the turbulent region.
The power number for Rushtor. turbines can be related to the
elasticity number also. For small additions of the polymer
PAAm the power number will decrease strongly.
Due to the development of a more radially directed
flow, the power number for inclined blade impellers will
increase by addition of polymers to the water. With
concentrated solutions, both the flow pattern and the power
consumption resemble those of a Rushton turbine.
7.7
SYMBOLS
stress constant
stress index
ppm, kg kg
clearance between impeller and bottom
C
c
C .
drag parameter
pumping discharge coefficient
diameter of the impeller
N m
swirl parameter
height of an Impeller blade
parameter
202
k
k
consistency
s
N m
shear rate constant
momentum flux In the Jet
flow behaviour index
rotational speed
power
velocity component in discharge direction m 8

3
-1
pumping capacity
m s
m
radial distance from the axis
tank diameter
e
m
radial velocity component
velocity component
tangential velocity component
m 8 1
m B 1
distance in axial direction
s"
Greek symbols:
a
inclination of impeller blade
it,
average shear rate
a"1
specific engergy dissipation
2
3
m s
similarity constant
dynamic viscosity
Pa s
dynamic apparent viscosity of solution
Pa s
y.
dynamic viscosity of solvent
Pa s
density
kg m"3
distance in the flow direction in the Jet m
y>
axial discharge angle
app
special symbol:
average
203
subscript:
tip
at the blade
tip
(radial
of
tip
(velocity)
dimenslonless
El
the b l a d e
position
numbers:
elasticity
number;
for c > 0.25X;

Po
power number;
Po0
power number
Re
Reynolds
(t
(t
MoJ/(e
)/(g
1 "^PP,
J
P/(e N
D )
w
D ):
D2)
for an i m p e l l e r w i t h o u t
number:
(<? N D
)/(u
inclination
)
app
Wi
7.8
Weissenberg
number;
REFERENCES
B a t e s . R.L.,
P.L. Fondy and R.R. C o r p s t e l n
1963
An e x a m i n a t i o n of s o m e geometric p a r a m e t e r s of I m p e l l e r
I. & E.C. Proc. D e s . and Develop.. 2, 3 I O - 3 H
C h a v a n , V.V., A r u m u g a m , M. and U l b r e c h t
1975
On t h e I n f l u e n c e of Liquid Elasticity on M i x i n g
A g i t a t e d by a C o m b i n e d Ribbon S c r e w I m p e l l e r
A . I . C h . E . J.. 21.. 6 1 3 - 6 1 5
in a V e s s e l
C a r r e a u , P.J., I. P a t t e r s o n and C. Y. Yap

1976
M i x i n g of V l s c o e l a s t l c Fluids w i t h H e l i c a l - R i b b o n
1-Mixing T i m e and Flow Patterns
Can. J. Chem. E n g i n g . . _5_- 135-12
Agitators
G r e e n e , H.L., C. C a r p e n t e r and L. C a s t o
1982
M i x i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of axial i m p e l l e r s w i t h N e w t o n i a n
n o n - N e w t o n i a n fluids
Proc. Uth Eur. C o n f . on M i x i n g , N o o r d w i J k e r h o u t ,
N e t h e r l a n d s , April 2 7 - 2 9 . paper D l , 109-126
H o e k e r . H.. G. L a n g e r and U. W e r n e r
1981
P o w e r C o n s u m p t i o n of S t i r r e r s in N o n - N e w t o n i a n
G e r . Chem. Eng. . /, 1 1 3 - 1 2 3
and
Liquids
K o l a r v.. P. Filip and A.G. Curev

198a
H y d r o d y n a m i c s of a r a d i a l l y d i s c h a r g i n g i m p e l l e r
agitated v e s s e l s
Chem. Enging. C o m m u n . . 2 7 . 313-326
20
power
stream
in
O'Kane . K.
197
The effect of geometrie parameters on the power consumption of
turbine Impellers operating in non-viscous fluids
Proc. First Eur. Conf. on Mixing and Centrifugal Separation,
Cambridge, Sept., A3. 23-29
Metzner. A.B. and R.E. Otto
1957
Agitation of Non-Newtonian Fluids
AIChE J., 3_. 3-10
Metzner. A.B. and J.S. Taylor
I960
Flow Pattern in Agitated Vessels
AIChE J. . 6_, 109-111
Metzner, A.B.. R.H. Feehs Hector Lopez Ramos, R.E. Otto and
J.D. Tuthill
1961
Agitation of Newtonian Non-Newtonian Fluids
AIChE J., 7. 3-9
Prud'homme, R.K. and E. Shaqfeh
198
Effect of Elasticity on Mixing Torque Requirements for Rushton
Turbine Impellers
A.I.Ch.E. J.. 2p_. U85-tt86
Quraishl, A.Q.. R.A. Mashelkar and J.Ulbrecht
1976
Torque suppression in mechanically stirred liquids and
multiphase liquid systems
Journ. of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 1, 223-25
Rushton, J.H. , E.W. Costich and H.j. Everett
1950
Power characteristics of mixing impellers. Part II
Chem. Enging. Progress, ^ 6 , 67-76
Warmoeskerken, M.M.C.G., J.Speur and J.M. Smith
Gas-Liquid Dispersion with Pitched Blade Turbines
Chem. Enging. Commun., 25_, 11-29
1981
205
206
C H A P T E R
MIXING TIMES IN STIRRED TANK REACTORS
8.1
INTRODUCTION
Extensive literature is available concerning the
determination of mixing times and segregation in tank reactors

for Newtonian fluids, while the research for fluids with an
explicit viaco-elaetlc behaviour has been given lesser
attention. Most of these papers deal with the mixing of
vlsco-elastlc liquids in the laminar region. In this chapter
the effect of the elasticity on the turbulent mixing will be
discussed for a Rushton turbine and various axial impellers in
the same vessel as used in the previous two chapters. The
hydrodynamics and the power consumption will be related to the
mixing times.
8.2
LITERATURE
The homogenization in a vessel stirred with a Rushton
turbine can be simulated by an ideal mixer, formed by the flow

in the direct vicinity of the impeller including the trailing
vortices, which is in series with plug flow reactors. The plug
flow reactors are formed by the convective circulations of the
fluid (Van der Vusse \1962\). The mixing in the vicinity of
the impeller is very intense and gives a good local
homogenization, while in the rest of the batch reactor the
turbulence Intensity is less and more isotroplc and causes a
longitudinal dispersion (figure 6.30, appendices chapter 6 ) .
Voncken \1966\ (see also Holmes \196\) has studied the mixing
time on basis of the circulation time, using the salt tracer
technique. The impeller has been placed in the middle of the
vessel. In the turbulent region he showed that the mixing time
is a linear function of the rotational speed and the
207
circulation time and depends also on the mixing quality wanted

(8.1)
* = C
m m
. l/N t
c
After three to four circulations the turbulent diffusion.

especially in the direct outflow of the impeller, has caused
the desired homogenlzation.
Equation 8.1 can also be formulated in terms of a

dimensionless homogenlzatlor time 6
(8.2)
m
The circulation time t
in equation 8.1 is a function

c
of the circulation capacity Q
of the impeller, which

c
depends on the radial pumping capacity, and the circulation

volume:
(8.3)
3
1/t c = Q c/ V c = C c N D / V c
Cc N
In water the time needed for the turbulent diffusion is

the limiting factor for the homogenlzation, rather than the
molecular diffusion. The turbulent diffusion is strongly
related to the energy dissipation.
Nagata \1975. paragraph .53\ shows that an
approximation of the mixing time can be obtained by combination
of the effects of the circulation and the turbulent dispersion
(Re % 10 ) according to
(8.)
_L
e
m
= 0.1 <(> 3 C
T
0.21 ( ) ( ^ ) - 5 ) (1 T
c
p
-13(D/T>2)
The first part in the first group is related to the

circulation flow (equation 8.3). The second part depends on
208
the power consumption per unit of mass of the discharge flow,

P/(<?Q ). giving the large turbulent velocity effects. The
second group gives an indication of the spreading of the
discharge flow by the turbulence generated. The equation
Illustrates the homogenization after the Injection of a
tracer. The local tracer concentration deviation in the time
will be diminished during several circulations, due to the
pumping activity of the impeller and the turbulence generated
in the forced vortex part near the impeller.
Using a circulation model as described at the beginning

of this paragraph, Khang and Levenspiel \1976\ developed a
relation between the final mixing quality, described by the
relative concentration deviation D
and the mixing time
using an envelope curve as shown in figure 8.1

(8. 5)
tm = <k ln(2/Dm ))-l
lag
"~llme
envelope curve
mixing criterion (95%)
2 \--
Re > 10
\
k
. . deviation D m
/I S
I V x
_ J
c7
/
"
1
X
/ *
f /
aJ
./---Sll
Fig. 8.1
V_ -^=^- - _ -~~.
"^.concentration
-"
irt concentration C
schematic diagram of the concentration deviation

during the homogenization, used for equation 8.5-
209
In which k depends on the geometry of the vessel and on the

power number Po
N (D/T, 2 -3
(8
-6)
k =
0.1 Po
Equations 8.5 and 8.6 can be combined to an expression for the
relative concentration fluctuations D
m
Dm = 2 exp[10 (Po)-1 (D/T)2 J3(9)]
(8
-7)
In chapter 7 it has already been shown, that the discharge

capacity of the turbine is related to its power consumption,
so the equations 8.. 8.6 and 8.7 take into account the
pumping capacity as well.
8.3
THE EXPERIMENTAL FLUIDS

Two series of measurements may be distinguished
between. For the comparison of the impeller types solutions

have been applied, which are not fully determined with regard
to their rheologlcal behaviour. For the second series, the
rheograms have been determined (figure 8.2, parameters are
presented in table 8.1; 8.6). These series form a part of
the series also used for power consumption and velocity
measurements as shown in chapter 6 and 7. Prior to starting
the experiments in these second series, 15 PPm amylose, 0.3
mmol/1 iodine and 0.6 mmol/1 sodium thiosulphate have been
added. Some colourations and decolourations are necessary to
obtain a stable rheologlcal behaviour. Also a severe shear
history Is necessary for stabilization. This has been obtained
by filtration of the solution, which was necessary to obtain a
clear solution. Distilled water has been used for the
preparation of the solutions, together with an addition of
lsopropanol.
210
1000
| 11 i ' |
'' I i i III
1II | ' i 111
mpas
Solutions used lor mixing

experiment (Kl added)
doom)
1000 PAAm
2000 PAAm
1900 PAAm
1700 PAA m
500 CMC
100 -
10 -
-*r
i i i
I 111
I i ml
_,i
i i i nl
i I 11 ill
10
Fie. 8.2
Rheograms of the solutions used for mixing

experiments.
8 . IX
THE MEASURING TECHNIQUES USED
8.U.1
Introduction
The measuring; techniques applied are basically the same

as those used In chapter U, and are based on the experiments
and theoretical approach of Kappel \1976V
A correction for
light from the environment has been used as in chapter U. The

detection method is based on the redox reaction of iodine with
thlosulphate. The measuring techniques, presented in this
chapter, differ In the injection point for the Iodine or
thlosulphate and the design of the colourimeter.
For both methodes, the measuring volume has been made
as small as technically possible.
211
95%
F i g u r e 8.3
Schematic
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
the m e a s u r i n g
s y s t e m w i t h the
small p r o b e .
s h o w i n g a l s o the
l o c a t i o n of this
sensor.
8..2
The light
l 3 amylose Slue
N a 2 S j 0 3 .nieclion
colourless
probe
in
:he
For the c o m p a r i s o n
turbines
a probe
situated
in the c e n t r e
fluid
of r a d i a l l y and a x l a l l y
in the fluid has been used.
by the time needed
colour reduction
after
fully decoloured.
The mixing
The
o v e r the same r e s t r i c t e d
to d e t e r m i n e
thiosulphate
relation
vessel.
212
fluid
never
has been
colouring
the m i x i n g
Injected
becomes
below
t i m e s reported
here a r e
and
applied
A recorder
time g r a p h i c a l l y .
Just
has
The
the s u r f a c e and
to the p r o b e location at the o p p o s i t e

The m i x i n g
ultimate
has a l w a y s b e e n
trajectory.
The
been
Colouring with sodiumhypochlorite
decolouring with sodiumthlosulphate
been used
95 % of the
to o b t a i n
Injection.
time has
for
the
between
the p h o t o d i o d e w a s 10 mm.
is shown in f i g u r e 8.3.
defined
loop
t u r b i n e , to m i n i m i z e
i n f l u e n c e of the p r o b e . T h e d i s t a n c e
the light e m i t t i n g d i o d e and

set-up
been
(eye) of the u p p e r c i r c u l a t i o n
the m i x i n g of w a t e r w i t h a R u s h t o n
hydrodynamical
discharging
It has
s i d e of
in
the
the a v e r a g e of
ten
trigger
X?
cl
- trigger
diode
_n_n_TLikHz
comparison
and
transformation
of signals
MCP
[rigger magnetic
valve
Fig. S.k
Schematic set-up of the light absorption meter with

the full height probe.
decoloration measurements. The deviation of the mixing time of

a alngle measurement was always less than 15% of the average.
8..3
The light probe, measuring over the full height
In a second stage of experiments the mixing effect of a

Rushton turbine has been studied with a more sophisticated
213
u, y
block signa
Unots '
T-1 i
' T -
'
uou.
U
U*-Unol
U3-Uno
Figure 8.5
Diagram of the
envlromental light
compensation by the light
absorption meter.
system. The measuring volume has been situated axially over

the total height in the vessel half way between the baffles
and between the impellertip and the vessel wall, with a very
small diameter of the light beam (approximately 1 mm, figure
8.tt), with the probe situated outside the vessel. In this way
the sensors develop no stagnant zones, while the upper and
lower circulation loops have been taken into account. A 5 mW
Laser with a wave length of 632.8 nm has been used as a light
source. To measure the surrounding light the laser beam is
Intercepted 50 times per second by a rotating shutter. As
shown In figures 8. and 8.5 the intermittent signal Is used
to trigger the electronic subtraction in the colourlmeter of
environmental light. Optical glass windows have been used In
the bottom of the vessel and on the surface of the fluid. The
upper window is necessary for reason that the moving surface
will scatter the laser light resulting from refraction, a part
of which is already absorbed by the blue coloured amylose,
giving a too low light intensity for the photo diode.
The signals have been processed by computer in the same
manner as described in previous chapters. The data are stored,
reduced and averaged directly by computer. As had been done
graphically using a recorder, the computer plotted a light
absorption curve as a function of time (figure 8.7).
calculated the absorption difference in Volts output at t = 0
(U ) and after stabilization In the time (U ) and
determined the mixing time for the criterion wanted. The
21U
x-axis is the dimensionless time however, using the rotational

speed. The total measuring time has been about 1.5 times the
estimated homogenization time. For faster computation the
measuring time is divided into eight parts. In the Instance
where a specific period measured was of almost the same
average value as the preceedlng period it has not been used in
the calculations. The average constant end value found in the
terminal period (U ). together with the start value (U ).
have been used to calculate the homogenization time.
8..
The amylose indicator

For the measurements with the sensor in the fluid
{ 8.U.2) an addition of 1 g amylose per liter has been used.

A calibration curve for the output of the absorption meter
against the concentration of the reagent has been used to
choose a trajectory with an approximately linear relationship
suitable for the measurements (1 - 2 V In a range of
0 - 3. V ) .
Various concentrations of amylose have been
investigated for the advanced measuring system, which is very
sensitive. In figure 8.6 the effect of the concentration of
amylose is shown for the light absorption. U
is the output
o
of the meter for a clear solution. A lower value of U means
1*^5<
'
1
1.0
1
2.0
'
0.01 C
0.0
Fig. 8.6
concentration iodine
I
1
3.0
1
4.0mmol/m 3
Calibration of the output of the light absorption

meter for concentrations of iodine and amylose.
215
more absorption
solution
of light
by the fluid.
a limit in the a b s o r p t i o n
comparable
to the one shown
For
the 5 PPm
is v i s i b l e . This c u r v e
In f i g u r e U . 3 . T h e
15 ppm
has been used for t h e e x p e r i m e n t s . B e t w e e n
1.1
(O.KU/U
relation,
< 0 . 6 ) there
can be used
to a d j u s t
as the result
8.1.5
is a good
shown
logarithmic
the scale of
To I n c r e a s e r e p r o d u c l b i l l t y
for d r o p d i s p e r s i o n
and
a special
system c o n s i s t s
v a l v e is situated
as w a s d o n e
in this
is used
Is fixed
Duration of
the d r o p l e t s
Is
on
kg m
time
are m o v i n g out of
of
the
is In
forces
the e r r o r s
same
the
the
and
caused
It
is
flow.
experiments
silicon
injected
the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
can be o b t a i n e d .
the
The
the f l u i d s .
and c o l o u r e d
1 mPas has been
By c h a n g i n g
1.6
blades
fluid w i t h
to the s h e a r i n g
flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n
tetrachloride
with a viscosity of almost
216
the injected
in the c i r c u l a t i o n
For d r o p d i s p e r s i o n and
density
injection
and
of
is a l w a y s at
differences between
location
a m i x t u r e of carbon
and
the o p e n i n g
type o f injection m i n i m i z e s
a l s o an o b j e c t i v e
vortex.
the
vortex.
is p l a c e d
the I n j e c t i o n
the i n j e c t i o n
is perfect d u e
by d e n s i t y o r v i s c o s i t y
trailing
tube. T h e v a l v e
the same v o l u m e . B e c a u s e
fluid
the
b e t w e e n 30 m s and 2 s for a s e r i e s
In this w a y
turbulence. This
b e t w e e n 0.9
for
large
the t r a i l i n g
A trigger
for c a l c u l a t i n g
t r a i l i n g v o r t e x , the m i x i n g of
surrounding
In
in the laser D o p p l e r e x p e r i m e n t s .
( 5 m s ) for the v a l v e .
p l a c e and w i t h
experiments
tube l e a d s to o n e of
by c o m p u t e r or m a n u a l l y .
thiosulphate
system
successfully
of a c o r o t a t i n g
T h e o u t l e t is placed
controlled
measurements.
such
on the s h a f t , w h i c h c o n t a i n s air
A magnetic
t r i g g e r signal
curves,
injection
applied
flew v i s u a l i z a t i o n
fluid. A small
of the Impeller.
shaft,
which
concentrations.
has also been
pressure vessel, mounted

injection
curve
5 V
in 8.1.3.
The injection
some
Is
system
has been d e s i g n e d , w h i c h
system described
and
the a b s o r p t i o n
in figure 8.7, to
The injection
amylose
in
oil
the
a density
For a
of
high
the t r a i l i n g
vortex.
With a density the same as that of as water the droplets can

be used as 'flow followers'.
S..6
Measuring procedure
With the system, described in 8..2, at least 20

measurements have been carried out for each solution, at
various rotational speeds. For most fluids 6 rotational speeds
have been used between 1.2 and 5-3 s
. The rotational
speeds have been checked for the creation of a turbulent flow

by computation of the Reynolds number according to equation
7.2, the values of which are always larger than 1 10 , and
by determining the power number at these rotational speeds.
This number has to be constant in the turbulent region for all
speeds applied. For these dilute solutions the latter
criterion is more severe than the Reynolds number, because of
the assumptions made for the apparent viscosity. By an
alternating addition of a small quantity of thiosulphate and
iodine the mixing experiments have been carried out in the
part of the absorption curve as described in 8... Four
injection places have been studied: 5'. 135'. 225" and 315"
rotation with respect to the measuring volume. The absorption
curves at different rotational speed for every measuring
condition are averaged directly, because of memory
restrictions of the computer.
8.5
EFFECT OF THE INJECTION POSITION

The effect of visco-elastic fluids on the
homogenization is presented in the figures 8.7, 8.8 and 8.9

for water, a 1000 ppm and a 2000 ppm solution respectively.
The CMC solutions give the same dlmenslonless time as water.
For water the injection point is important for the behaviour
of the curves. The time needed to reach the measuring volume
can be calculated from this graph. For the visco-elastic
fluids the differences almost disappear (figures 8.8 and 8.9).
This curve similarly shows the decrease In the radial velocity
217
5.0
4.0 -
3.0 -
Fig. 8.7
E x a m p l e of the light a b s o r p t i o n curve d u r i n g the

h o m o g e n i z a t i o n of w a t e r for a r o t a t i o n a l speed of
N = 1.30 a'
and for I n j e c t i o n s at v a r i o u s
r o t a t i o n a l p h a s e s b e t w e e n the i n j e c t i o n point and
the laser beam.
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
10
Fig.
8.8
20
30
Light a b s o r p t i o n curve as shown in figure

1000 ppm PAAm solution (N = 3.31 s ) .
8.7
for a
4.0
200
Fig.
218
8.9
Light a b s o r p t i o n curve as s h o w n in f i g u r e
2 0 0 0 ppm PAAm solution (N = .01 s~ ) .
1.7 for a
and the increase for the tangential velocity, as also found

with the laser Doppler measurements. The figures also show the
slower initial mixing because of a decrease in the turbulence
intensity in the vicinity of the impeller.
8.6
THE HOMOGENIZATION TIME FOR A RUSHTON TURBINE

The measured light absorption curves can be reduced to
graphs, which give the absolute value of the relative

concentration deviation for the elapsed time. The relative
concentration deviation D is defined as
m
(8.8)
log(U ) - log(U]
e
D =
m
log(U ) - log(U )
e
o
In figure 8.10 such graphs, in a smoother version, are shown

for carboxymethylcellulose solutions (CMC). The dimensionless
time 9 is used for the x-axis. so that the graphs can be
compared. This is possible, because the mixing time t gives
m
a good correlation with the inverse rotational speed 1/N. In
figure 8.11 the relation between these two parameters is
presented for three mixing time criteria. Only a small, yet
- lilted lunction Dm = -1.72+4 8xEXP(-0.27xO m )

0.8 -
rotation:
45
- 135
225
- 315
0.4 - a-
0.0
0.0
10.0
20.0
Fig. 8.10 The concentration deviation as a function of the

dimensionless time for injection at several phases
with the fitted envelope curve (1000 ppm CMC).
219
20
*/
waler
1,8 (~>m = ' 5 6
- t 9 5 : m = 14.3
'98 '
,/- ' 9 5
//
^ ' 9 0
/ \
/ /^W
t 9 O : 0 m = 13.1
/ t ' /
-
10 'm
s*-^
t /
-
IN
L_
0 4
20
1 2 S-'
0.8
'
'
'
water
N = 1.12 s - '
Figure 8.11
Mixing time versus
Inverse rotational speed
for various mixing
criteria.
"
_
*
-1
i^*-** "^
+'
mixing criterion
1
20
Fig.
8.12
40
1 .
60
100 %
I n f l u e n c e of the m i x i n g c r i t e r i o n
d i m e n s i o n l e s s m i x i n g time 6 .
m
systematic, deviation
of the d a t a from
observed.
is also found
This effect
on
the
the fitted
c u r v e can
in the o t h e r s e r i e s
be
of
measurements (figure 8.17).

For one rotational speed the effect of the mixing time
criteria on the dimensionless homogenizatlon time are given in
figure 8.12. The application of a very small terminal
deviation criterion results In a larger standard deviation for
the determination of the mixing time, but gives a better idea
of the micro mixing. For the 99% criterion the mixing time
increases rapidly because of the influence of the much slower
micro mixing, but the results are less reliable due to side
effects such as reactions. The 98% criterion has been chosen
as an optimum for most of the measurements carried out.
220
Fis.
8.13 T h e d i m e s i o n l e s s h o m o j e n l z a t l o n
e l a s t i c i t y number.
For the w o r s t of m i x i n g
8.1.6,
time v e r s u s
c o n d i t i o n s , as g i v e n
an e x p o n e n t i a l e n v e l o p e curve can
every solution
For a 98 X d e v i a t i o n
measurements.
homogenization
times 9
in
be fitted.
these curves h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d

criterion
from
the
the
For
120
dimensionless
can be d e t e r m i n e d , w i t h an
accuracy
m
of i 5 X. T h e r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d
the h o m o g e n i z a t i o n
criterion
estimated,
for the e n v e l o p e curve

the d i m e n s i o n l e s s
linearly with
in
table 8.1.
time is also p r e s e n t e d ,
In the
table
u s i n g the 9 8 %
(9 , f i t ) . R o u g h l y
m
homogenization
time
Increases
the I n c r e a s i n g e l a s t i c i t y n u m b e r for the f l u i d s ,
in the same m a n n e r a s has been d e s c r i b e d in c h a p t e r 1 (figure

1.15).
In f i g u r e 8.13 the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the d i m e n s i o n l e s s
m i x i n g time e
(fitted v a l u e s ) and the e l a s t i c i t y number El
m
is shown.
In
this figure a l s o the d i m e n s i o n l e s s
times are given w h i c h

data without
that
using
have been c a l c u l a t e d
directly
the e n v e l o p e c u r v e s . It m a y be
In the fully d e v e l o p e d
f l u i d s give a m u c h
homogenization
t u r b u l e n t region
longer m i x i n g
time for
the
from
the
concluded
elastic
the same
rotational
speed.
The 2 0 0 0 ppm PAAm s o l u t i o n
used
in t h i s c h a p t e r is in
the same o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e as the e l a s t i c i t y

1000 ppm PAAm s o l u t i o n , d e s c r i b e d
n u m b e r of
In c h a p t e r 6. For
the
this
221
1000 ppm solution a discharge coefficient of 0.6u has been

determined, while for water this coefficient yields 0.72.
Calling; to mind the model as described by equation 8.U, the
much longer mixing times (8x) for the polyacrylamide solutions
cannot be explained by a smaller discharge volume or
circulation volume of the Impeller per second. However, the
turbulence intensity in the vicinity of the impeller is less
(figures 6.23 and 6.27. 6.8). In that case the local energy
dissipation may become the limiting factor for the
homogenlzation, because of the larger Kolmogorov eddies,
giving less turbulent diffusion. The dispersion in the
circulation flows may also become important.
Table 8.1
Dimensionless homogenlzation time 6
and power number Po

m
for various solutions used (numbers refer to chapter 7)
No.
Additive
cone. and
type
El
e
m
io-a
ppm
m Pa s
2000
PAAm
Po
m
fit
77
0.63
160
130
3.58
1900
66
0. 5
21
95
81
3. 80
1700
15
0. 36
11
60
52
3- 90
1000
12.6
0.20
1. 8
26
25
. 00
1000
20
a.so
20
500
20
20
U. 90
20
20
5. 15
CMC
water
6. 2
3-3
1
The dimensionless mixing time found with our own method

for water is approximately half the calculated result of 2 s
using equation &.U and a C
found in chapter 6. Taking into

p
account this factor two, the description of the homogenlzation
222
0.30
0.20 -
0.10 -
100
150
Fig. 8.1 The relation between the index C for the fitted
envelope curves (equation 8.9) and the dimenslonless
homogenizatlon time 9
m
150
Fig. 8.15 The relation between the constant C (eg. 8.9) and
the dimenslonless homogenlzation time for D = 1 .
m
by relation 8.U can be used up to an elasticity number of
approximately 2. Above this value the relative effect of the
Jet spreading or the generated turbulence are too different
from water when using the polymer solutions.
Knowing the mixing times S
envelope curves can be

m
calculated in the same way as equation 8.7. according to
(8.9)
Dm = C,
1
C 2 exp(-C
6)
223
The index C
has been fit with e

J
in figure 8.1H.
Figure 8.15 gives the dimenslonless time, which can be used

to calculate C
in equation 8.9, taking C
= 0 and
D = 1. The dimenslonless time found in figure 8.15 gives a

m
lag time between injection and first detection. Because of the
decreasing radial velocity for the more concentrated
polymer
solutions this lag time is increasing (chapter 6 ) . The

envelope curves give an indication of the deviation that can
be expected after a certain time of mixing. The constant C
can be assumed to be zero (Khang and Levenspiel
\1976\).
Using the data D 0.1197 m and T = 0.29 m,

equation 8.7 of Khang and Levenspiel \1976\ can be made
precise for the experimental conditions as used here for water
(6m = 19-5):
(8.10)
D = 2 exp(-0.26 6 )
m
m
In the experimental series for water and CMC a relation such
as 8.10 can be calculated by the method described before:
(8.11)
D = 5 . 1 exp(-0.28 e )
m
m
0
Fig.
22H
100
150
16 The power number in the turbulent region versus the

dimenslonless homogenization time.
The two relations differ by a factor of about 2. This Is

caueed by the different detection system used, giving a longer
lag time than expected theoretically for the system used by
Khang and Levensplel.
8.7
HOMOGENIZATION AND POWER CONSUMPTION

In chapter U the energy consumption has been given for
the mixing of elastic fluids. For the stirred tank reactor the
same effect of a significant decrease in power consumption may
be noted in comparison with the mixing time found, as shown in
figure 8.16. In this figure a noticeable change in the
relationship is found for a power number of >, as found for a
1000 ppm PAAm solution with El %20 10
(fluid no. ) .
Equation 8. may be used up to this point. A dlmenslonless

mixing time of 3 s has been found according to equation 8..
using the data of the 500 ppm solution from chapter 6, which
has approximately the same rheological behaviour. For fluids,
with a more visco-elastic behaviour, the mixing mechanism will
be different from water, because the circulation time is no
longer limiting, due to the less intensive mixing In the
vicinity of the mixer and by a decreased mass transfer between
the different loops or zones, as also described in 8.6.
The specific energy dissipation in the tank reactor may
be written as
(8
3 5
P
= 1.273
e Po
D V
-12>
0.25 ' T 3
It is acceptable to assume that the density is almost constant

for the fluids used. The tank diameter T is a factor 2.5
larger than the diameter of the Impeller in these experiments.
For the specific mixing energy E required it is in that case
possible to write
225
E = e t a 81 Po N D
m
m
(6 /N) = 81 N D Po 6
m
For a constant tip velocity the required mixing energy

depends on the product of the dimensionless homogenlzation
time and the power number, according to equation 8.13. From
table 8.1 it can be seen that this product is almost constant
for the last four fluids (numbers .8.9 and 0 ) . although a
minimum may be distinguished for the very low elasticity
numbers, not possible to determine (such as the 1000 ppm CMC
solution). For the solution of 2000 ppm PAAm the product of
dimensionless mixing time and power number increases with a
factor 5-7. For this solution a segregated upper- and lower
circulation loop was observed, which makes the mixing less
efficient. An optimum at a low concentration of polymer, such
as in chapter , is present, but not significant.
Keeping the Reynolds number the same, while adding
polymer to the water, means an increase of the rotational
speed proportional to the higher viscosity. The result is a
rapid increase of the energy E needed to obtain the same
mixing effect (equation 8.13).
8.8
RADIALLY AND AXIALLY DISCHARGING
IMPELLERS
With the mixing probe described in paragraph 8.(1.2 some

experiments have been carried out for turbines with different
inclinations of the blades. In figures 8.17 and 8.18 the
mixing time is given for the inverse rotational speed. In
table 8.2 the related power numbers are given. The power
number for the CMC solution (apparent viscosity: 10 m Pa s)
shows a lower value than for water. This tendency with CMC
solutions Is also presented for the other series of
measurements in table 8.1.
226
30 s
Rushlon turbine
24
,0.2% PAAm
0.1 % PAAm
18
A ^ 0.05% PAAm
-
% PAAm
12
1/N
1.5 8-'
1.2
0.9
0.3
0.6
Flg. 8.17 Relation between the mixing time t and the
inverse rotational speed for polyacrylamlde
solutions, using a Rushton turbine.
Table 8.2
Power number in relation to the concentration of the solutions

used for a U5" inclined blade Impeller (upward and downward
directed flow) and a Rushton turbine
(1000 ppm equals
Additive
cone . and
type
ppm
5000
PAAm
0.1%)
P o w e r num ber
Rushton
turbine
3.7
Po
5 ' Inclined
blad e i m p e l l e r
2. 8
2000
3.8
2 . IX
1000
U.
2.0
. 8
1.9
500
10000
CMC
.7
1.8
water
5.0
1.8
227
30 -
solutions:
0
0.05
0.1
0 2
1
%P A A m
% PAAm
% PAAm
% PAAm
%C M C
4 5 inclineO b l a d e
impeller t
0.3
Fie.
06
0.9
measurements,
mixing
for
the p r e v i o u s s e r i e s of
in this e x p e r i m e n t a l
t i m e s is again
solutions
found w i t h
and a R u s h t o n
there is no d i r e c t
turbine
relation
inverse rotational speed,

positioned
flow of the impeller.

i n f l u e n c e of
the u p p e r and
stagnant
polymer
In this
the m i x i n g
time is a l s o caused
measurements.
trend
The s a m e
directed
Is e v i d e n t
flow with
the same
and
been
in
the
gives rise
in the
to an
less
the
of
the d e v e l o p m e n t
used
z o n e s to permit
in
these
inclined
g i v e s a more
two s e g r e g a t e d
of
runs,
reliable
for the u5*
the 2000 ppm s o l u t i o n
the
series
PAAm solution
loop, c o m b i n e d w i t h
stagnant
in
by a s e g r e g a t i o n
z o n e s . A 5000 ppm PAAm s o l u t i o n ,
t u r b i n e . Here
of
This position
F o r t h e 2 0 0 0 p p m o r 0.2X
the lower
time
the m o l e c u l a r d i f f u s i o n
g i v e s r i s e to too m a n y
radially
visco-elastic
(figure 8 . 1 7 ) .
" e y e " instead
increased
turbulent "eye".
s e r i e s an i n c r e a s e
between
in the c i r c u l a t i o n
I n c r e a s e in m i x i n g
mixing
b e c a u s e the s e n s o r has
discharge
228
1.5 s-'
1.2
8.18 M i x i n g time t
versus i n v e r s e r o t a t i o n a l speed for
an 45" Inclined blade i m p e l l e r w i t h an upward
d i s c h a r g i n g flow. The d a s h e d line g i v e s the fit for
the r e s u l t s for w a t e r , using a R u s h t o n t u r b i n e .
As presented
blade
Rushton t u r b i n e
flows
as
1/N
i
I
0.3
I
0.6
I
0.9
I
1.2
I
1.5 S-'
Fig. 8.19 Best fits for the mixing times t versus the
inverse rotational speed for various polyacrylamlde
solutions and several impellers. Dashed lines are
used for downward discharging Impellers. Measuring
points are not showed in the figure.
observed with the Bushton turbine. In paragraph 7.1.2 this
effect has been discussed. This change in the flow pattern is
the reason that the mixing times for the two Impeller types,
using this concentration, are almost identical for the same
rotational speed. In figure 8.19 the relations for the
measurements of the mixing times and inverse rotational speed
with Rushton turbines and inclined blade Impellers are
presented. Three trends can be recognized. With a more axially
directed discharge flow, longer mixing times may be expected.
However, the required power input is also less (table 7.IX).
higher concentration of polymer gives lower values for the

mixing time, as measured in the upper part of the vessel for
the axially discharging impeller. In contrast, using the
Rushton turbine an increase in the concentration causes longer
times. This effect Is in agreement with the larger power
number found for the polyacrylamlde solutions and with the
change in the flow pattern. An additional second effect Is
229
caused by the Increasing secondary flows due to the elastic

forces (paragraph 6.2). which is most effective in the upward
directed direction. The third effect visible is directly
related to the more effective upward directed secondary flow
and is formed by the difference in the mixing times for the
upward and downward directed flows, while the power
consumption is the same. As stated before, these secondary
flows are not caused by the shaft rotation, but by the
velocity field induced by the impeller. This field is better
developed in the larger upper compartment (C = O.li), where the
additional friction near the bottom does not occur. The
combination of these latter two trends is the reason for the
longer mixing times for the 500 ppm solution as compared to
the 1000 ppm polyacrylamide solution for the downward
discharging axial impeller.
8.9
CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter It has been shown that visco-elastic
polymer solutions influence the homogenlzation in a stirred

tank reactor in the turbulent region. This effect is caused by
a lower power consumption, due to a decreased drag of the
blades and related diminished turbulence in the vicinity of
the impeller, and by changing flow patterns In the vessel. The
dimenslonless mixing time has been correlated to the elasticy
number of the polymer solutions and can be estimated to be
proportional with the elasticity number. The average
concentration deviation in the fluid over the height of the
vessel at one radial position can be predicted if the
homogenlzation time is known.
The noticeable decrease in the power consumption, when
polymers are added, does not result in longer mixing times up
to a concentration of PAAir, for which the flow field changes
markedly, especially in the vicinity of the impeller. The
mixing efficiency for the same tip speed is almost constant
for the lower values of the elasticity number, although a
slight minimum for very low numbers is found.
230
For impellers designed for an axial discharge mixing

times change significantly due to an alteration of the flow in
a radial direction and the additional secondary flows, induced
by the elastic forces in polymer solutions. With a sensor
located In the upper part of the vessel, the homoeen 1 zat ion
times for a Rushton turbine and a 45" inclined blade turbine,
with an upward directed discharge flow, become almost
identical for concentrated solutions, due to these flow
changes. Downward discharging Impellers give longer mixing
times than upward directed Impellers in this experimental
configuration.
1.10
c
SYMBOLS
Cc
mixing constant
m
ppm, kg kg
Ce
final concentration
mol m -3
discharge coefficient
start concentration
mol m
constant
_3
constant
constant
diameter of the impeller
relative deviation of the concentration
2-2
specific mixing energy
constant (equation
rotational speed
radius of the impeller
t
c
t
m
t
T
V
c
Q
U
circulation time
mixing time
characteristic relaxation time

tank diameter
circulation volume
s
3
m
m
3 -1
m s
V
8.6)
circulation capacity
output of the light absorption meter
231

at the end of the mixing time measurement V

o
at the start
Greek symbols:
e
specific energy dissipation
Pa
/i
zero shear viscosity
density
e
6
2 s -3
kg m -3
dimensionless time
dimensionless mixing time
dimensionless numbers:
2
u0)/(e
D )
)/(e D )
El
elasticity number: (t
for c > 0.25X: (t n
Po
power number; P/(<? N 3 D 5)

2
Reynolds number; (Q N D )/(/j
Weissenberg number; t N
Re
Wi
8.11
REFERENCES
Hiby. J.W.
1979
Definition und Messung der MischgUtte In
Gemischen
Chem. Ing. Tech.. ^ 1 . 70-709
flUssigen
Holmes. D.B., R.M. Voncken and J.A. Dekker

Fluid flow in turbine-stirred, baffled tanks
Part I: Circulation time
Chem. Englng Sci.. 1, 201-208
Holmes. D.B.. R.M. Voncken and H.W. den Hartog
Fluid flow In turbine-stirred, baffled tanks
Part II: Dispersion during circulation
Chem. Enging Sci. , i9_. 209-213
232
196a
1964b
Khang, S.J. and O. Levenspiel

1976
New ecale-up and design method for stlrrer agitated batch
mixing vessels
Chem. Enging. Sci.. 21, 569-577
Khang. S.J. and O. Levenspiel
1976
The mixing-rate number for agitator-stirred
Chem. Enging. . 11., 1U1-13
tanks
Kfippel. M.
1976
Entwikkelung und Anwendung elner Methode zur Messung der
Mischungsverlauf bei FlUesigkeiten
VDI-Forschungsheft 578, MUnchen 1976
Nagata, S.
1975
Mixing, Principles and applications
John Wiley & sons. New York
Voncken. R.M.
1966
Circulatie stroming en menging in geroerde vaten
Dissertation, Delft University of Technology
Vusse, J.G. van de
1962
A new model for the stirred tank reactor
Chem. Enging. Sci.. r. 507-521
233
C H A P T E R
FINAL CONCLUSIONS
9-1
Pipe line reactors and stirred tank reactors

The influence of the visco-elastic behaviour of polymer
solutions on the turbulent homogenization, encountered in pipe

line flow and in stirred tank reactors with Rushton turbines,
is significant for low values of the elasticity number. This
number incorporates as fluid properties the zero shear
viscosity and a characteristic time as defined by the Bird
Carreau model. The effect of a change in other fluid
properties is small in this study, because the experimental
concentrations of the polymer polyacrylamide are low.
A model has been quantified for the turbulent
tangential discharge det of a Rushton turbine for the
solutions used. The pumping capacity and the circulation
capacity, which proves to be about twice the pumping capacity,
are dust slightly influenced by the polymers added (10X
smaller). However, the standard deviation of the velocity can
be halved by the elastic behaviour of the experimental fluids,
especially in the vicinity of the impeller. The macro flow
pattern also changes, as a result of the elastic forces.
In pipe line flow the flow field does not alter much,
except in the boundary layer. In the elastic sub-layer the
axial turbulence intensity increases for higher concentrations
of polymer, up to a limit related to Virk's maximum velocity
profile. At the centre line the turbulence is almost isotroplo
and the velocity fluctuations do not alter in magnitude.
The power consumption in both the mixing devices

diminishes by the addition of polyacrylamide, giving quite a
considerable visco-elastic behaviour to the fluid. An
5
elasticity number of 10
for the fluids used is
235
significant. The drop In energy dissipation in these systems

is the result of less drag near the wall or blade. In this
context it is notable that with the static mixers the polymer
solutions do not show any drag reduction. Here, elongational
flow and local laminar flow may have an opposite effect.
For pipe line flow there is a threshold for the
elasticity number for the drag reduction at a certain Reynolds
number. In the stirred vessel however visco-elastlclty has a
large effect on the power number whatever the magnitude of the
related elasticity number.
In both the mixing systems the homogenization time is.
within limits, linearly related to the elasticity number
(figures tt.15 and 8.13). The mixing efficiency decreases
rapidly for higher values of the elasticity number, but for
small additions of polymer there is generally no effect,
though sometimes even an increase of the efflciecy has been
found (.22, table 8.1).
9.2
Scale-up
It has been shown that elasticity, quantified by an
elasticity number, has an influence on turbulent mixing,

especially on the energy dissipation. This number can be
used to determine the Influence of the elasticity on the
homogenization parameters, when designing large scale mixers
using the bench scale measurements.
On scale-up the elasticity number will decrease with
the square of the characteristic diameter of the apparatus.
Therefore, any negative effects on the mixing efficiency
resulting from vlsco-elastic behaviour of fluids in industrial
applications will be smaller than presented in this study,
since the diameter of the Impellers and tubes are often
larger. This statement holds particularly for impellers which
are often a factor ten larger. However, there is a reduced
power consumption in stirred vessels which will be noticeable
at very low values of the elasticity number. Such a value may
be a result of either using very diluted solutions or
alternative large impellers (figure 7.6).
236

An Experimental Study On Turbulent Mixing of Visco-Elastic Fluids

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An Experimental Study On Turbulent Mixing of Visco-Elastic Fluids

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AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor

Paul Vincent Bartels,

Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor

1 De axiale, de tangentile en de radiale uitstroomsnelheden van

3 Relaties tussen het meng- of stromingsgedrag In geroerde vaten

6 Het gecombineerde gebruik van fluorides in drinkwater.

8 Gezien de hirarchische relatie tussen een hond en zijn baas

9 Ook als het water in de R U n in de toekomst schoner wordt,

10 Voor de uitzendingen van de politieke partijen zouden de

"Ars longa, vita brevis"

A fluid, that's macromolecular

The enthusiasm and ideas of dr. ir. L.P.B.M. Janssen,

Arjen Markus (chapters 3 and 6)

Ruud van Beelen (chapters and 5 ) . Tjia Liem (chapters 3

have made a contribution

HYDRODYNAMICAL DESCRIPTION OF VISCO-ELASTIC

HOMOGENIZATION IN TURBULENT PIPE LINE FLOW

HYDRODYNAMICS IN A STIRRED VESSEL

ELASTICITY AND POWER CONSUMPTION

EEN EXPERIMENTEEL ONDERZOEK NAAR

Doel van dit onderzoek is het leggen van een verband

Het proefschrift begint met een karakterisering van de

Dit kental wordt bepaald door de karakteristieke

de hydrodynamica, de energiedlssipatie en de menging

In de buis is er een gedwongen grootschalige stroming,

bestaan, waarvan richting en groette kunnen veranderen. De

Met water wordt voor de schuinbladige roerders een lager

In de buis gemonteerde meng-elementen, zoals de Kenics

the diminished energy

The objective of this thesis is to relate the

This study starts with the characterization of the

velocity, while the homogenization has been measured by means

For both mixing systems a significant influence of

In the tube an imposed large scale flow occurs as a

In turbulent pipe line flow and in stirred tank reactors

a Bpeciflc rate of homogenlzation, will not change

The effect of inserted mixing elements, such as the

of complex rheologlcal behaviour, especially

in the food- and b i o i n d u s t r i e s , p o l y m e r p r o c e s s i n g

but a l s o in g l y c e r i n e and o i l s such

only a slight extent. In most cases elasticity is not

of minor importance. However, elasticity can cause significant

homogenization process, as compared to fluids with Newtonian

interaction between the mixing process and the rheology of the

Oolman. T., E. Walitza and H. Chmiel

is difficult to measure. There are major problems in

CHEMISTRY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL FLUIDS

polyacrylamide (PAAm) have been used as a typical

polyacrylamide, such as Sylvester and Tyler \1977\. Kuilcke et

kg/mol. with a broad molecular weight distribution.

Because it is an electrolyte, the viscosity and elasticity are

The relation between the zero shear viscosity,

Influence of pH on the viscosity of a polymer

Ubbelhode viscosimeters are used. The viscosity also depends

takes about a week. Because the polymer solutions are subject

the molecular weight

Effect of the stress history on degradation of PAAm

f~" 5 = 19 log (Re f 0 , 5 )

DEFINING THE VISCOSITY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SOLUTIONS

The viscosity of polyacryamide solutions

Weissenberg Rheogonlometer R16, while for the low

v a l u e b e t w e e n 0 and 1 for shear t h i n n i n g