CORE Manual

Conservation and Outdoor
Recreation Education
Working together for hunter safety.
Our cover page:
VANTAGE POINT DALLS SHEEP

These pure white sheep are found in the extreme northwest portion
of the province, with an approximate population of 500, moving back
and forth into the Yukon for part of the year.
The painting depicts two rams in their natural habitat with typical mountain
drops in the background, creating for the viewer a feeling of great height.
Joe Ferrante
2000 B.C. Ducks Unlimited Artist of the year
2001 Ducks Unlimited Canada Art Print Portfolio
2003 Ducks Unlimited Canada Art Print Portfolio
A resident of Prince George, B.C., Joe has painted nature and its creatures for the
past 20 years. He gets his inspiration from being in the outdoors, especially during
his many fishing and hunting outings. He is also an avid snowmobiler. He has
sold works to collectors in Canada, United States, Europe, Australia and Japan.
You can see Joe Ferrantes work by visiting
his website at: www.joeferrante.com
E-mail: joeferranteart@yahoo.ca.
Toll Free at 1-866-962-7289.
10082 Old Summit Lake Road, Prince George, B.C. V2K 5T1.
The B.C. Wildlife Federation acknowledges Joe Ferrantes permission
to use Vantage Point-Dall Sheep on the cover of the CORE manual.
B.C. WILDLIFE FEDERATION ART PRINTS

The B.C. Wildlife Federation sells an assortment of wildlife image limited edition
art prints. These include artists such as Liz Mitten Ryan, Bruce Muir, Yvette Lantz,
Wilf Schlitt, Peter Potapoff, Mark Hobson, Andrew Kiss and others. Proceeds from
art print sales support conservation projects in British Columbia.
For more information on art prints call
the B.C. Wildlife Federation at 1-800-533-2293.
B.C. Wildlife Federation
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
PREFACE: NOTICE TO READERS

The CORE manual is useful for anyone interested in outdoor recreation, wildlife,
and firearm safety. The CORE manual should be viewed as the foundation for any
outdoors recreational user. This manual is designed to ensure that prospective hunters
meet acceptable standards of knowledge and skill for their safe and ethical
participation in hunting recreation. By completing the CORE program you may be
eligible to obtain a B.C. Hunter Number Card. There is no requirement to become a
hunter. The question of whether to hunt or not is a personal one.
This book has evolved from the text Fish and Wildlife the Recreational Resource first
published in 1972 by the then Ministry of Recreation and Conservation. Liberal use
has also been made of the information and photographs found in the Alberta text,
Conservation and Hunter Education, published in 1986 by the Forestry, Lands and
Wildlife Ministry. The CORE manual was also revised in 1993 and it was updated in
1999 and 2001.
In 2002, a major review and update was completed on the CORE manual.
Information contained in the 1993 manual has been updated and additional
information installed. Material from the Introduction to Hunter Education course by the
International Hunter Education Association (IHEA) and other hunter education
programs, plus information from the Canadian Firearm Safety Course program has
been used in this review process. This is just part of the process of improving the
curriculum of the CORE program so that we strive to meet the IHEA standards for
hunter education programs.
An effort has been made to make this manual attractive and durable, one that will
have a life as a reference past its initial service as a student manual. We have striven
to improve the readability of this manual and hope it is compatible with the abilities
of students of age 13 or older. Goals, objectives, and reviews have been included so
that the substance and direction of program-related chapters are emphasized for
student and instructor alike.
As a result of new laws, technology, research, etc., the readers are encouraged
yearly to check the Migratory Bird Act and the B.C. Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis for new laws and changes to hunting regulations. Contact the
Canadian Firearm Centre for the most current information about the ownership
and use of firearms and ammunition. For medical procedures for treatment of
illness or injuries check with a competent medical authority or first aid organization.
Obtain additional information from your public library, provincial and federal
wildlife ministries or the Internet about wildlife identification.
Change is inevitable. Be prepared to obtain and study other resources
before your next outdoor adventure.
Any concerns about the content or format of this manual should be addressed to
the CORE Coordinator, BCWF, Unit 303-19292-60th Ave, Surrey, BC, V3S 3M2,
1-800-533-2293.
National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data

Main entry under title:
Conservation and Outdoor Recreation Education:
CORE manual / Robert Paddon, coordinating editor.
ISBN 0-9732016-0-6
1. Hunting--British Columbia.
2. Outdoor recreationBritish Columbia.
I. Paddon, Robert, 1958II. B.C. Wildlife Federation.
SK152.B7C66 2002
799.29711
C2002-911347-4
Copyright: The CORE Program c/o Ministry of Water, Land

and Air Protection (MWLAP), & the British Columbia Wildlife
Federation. Printer: Horizon Publications, 1983 Pandora Street,
Vancouver, BC, V5L 5B2
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Credit is gratefully given to the following organizations for the use
of their material and graphics found in this manual:
Alberta Hunter Education Instructors Association (AHEIA)
Canadian Red Cross
Department of Justice Canadian Firearm Centre
Government of Yukon, Canada
International Hunter Education Association
Izaak Walton League of America
Manitoba Wildlife Federation
National Wild Turkey Federation of America
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
Province of British Columbia
Greg Belyea, Ministry of Forests
Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection
Provincial Emergency Program
Province of New Brunswick, Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy
Saskatchewan Association of Firearms Educators
ArtToday.com
The CORE program would also like to thank the following people
for their assistance in upgrading the CORE manual in 2002:
Nina Armitage
Eric Baldini
Carol Foott
Berny Hugo
Bob Jones
Tim Lawhern
Roegan Lloydd
Alanna Malanchuk
Sandra Nahornoff
Sid Nielsen
Shawn Odnokon
Robert Paddon
Terri Paddon
Matthew Payne
Kevin Podrasky
Herb Stumpf
Geoff Swannell
Pete Wise
Our apologies if we missed any organization or individual who provided

material and/or assisted with the 2002 rewrite of the CORE manual.
iii
AN OPEN LETTER TO CORE STUDENTS

The B.C. Wildlife Federation (BCWF) is responsible for the administration of the
CORE program, delivery of new CORE material, providing leadership and guidance
to examiners and students, maintaining records, monitoring examination
practices, supplying materials for teaching and testing, and maintaining the overall
standards expected under the CORE program. As the designated agency to
operate the CORE program, the BCWF reports to the Director of Fish and Wildlife,
Recreation and Allocation in Victoria as per the Hunter Safety Training Regulations.
The B.C. Wildlife Federation is the largest and oldest province-wide voluntary
conservation organization in British Columbia and is the voice of hunters and
anglers in the province. Every year tens of thousands of dollars and volunteer hours
are put into fish, wildlife and habitat enhancement and protection by the B.C.
Wildlife Federation and its valued members. Stream and creek restoration, fish
hatcheries, stock assessment, wildlife feeding, fencing and wildlife monitoring
highlight just a few B.C. Wildlife Federation projects.
The B.C. Wildlife Federation recognizes that public awareness and education is the
key to preserving B.C. fish, wildlife and habitats indefinitely. The Federation offers
programs such as CORE, Becoming an Outdoors-Woman, Wetlandkeepers,
National Wildlife Week, Oceans Day, Fishing Forever, etc.
We hope you will enjoy your participation in the Conservation and Outdoor
Recreation Education program and will consider joining a B.C. Wildlife Federation
affiliated club or becoming a direct member.
Yours in Conservation,
Robert Paddon
CORE Coordinator
303-19292-60th Ave
Surrey, BC
V3S 3M2
604-533-2293
Toll-free in BC 1-800-533-2293
Fax 604-533-1592
Email rpaddon@bcwf.com
Website: www.bcwf.bc.ca
iv
"BECOMING AN OUTDOORS-WOMAN" (BOW)

The B.C. Wildlife Federation coordinates the
"Becoming An Outdoors-Woman" (BOW) program
in the province of British Columbia. The B.C. Wildlife
Federation is committed to offering education
programs that foster outdoor recreation with
emphasis on the conservation of wildlife and
habitat. The International "BOW" program has
taught workshops in outdoor skills related to
hunting, angling, and other outdoor activities to
more than 30,000 women throughout North America. The B.C. Wildlife Federation
embraces the concepts of the "BOW" program as a means to foster their commitment
to education and the encouragement of participation in conservation.
"BOW" workshops offer hands-on experience in a non-competitive atmosphere
conducive to learning outdoors skills. The B.C. Wildlife Federation is committed to
bringing the "BOW" program to all regions of the province to create as much
opportunity to participate as possible, and to try new activities that are specific to the
special features of each location.
At least twenty courses are offered at each "BOW" workshop; participants select four
courses. Courses offered may include: Archery, Bow Hunting, Rifle and Handgun
Marksmanship, Trap or Skeet Shooting, Black Powder Shooting, Basic Hunting Skills,
Wild Game Cleaning, Bird Dog Hunting, Beginner Fly Fishing, Float Tube Fishing, Fly
and Knot Tying, Trophy Fishing, Canoeing, Kayaking, Boat, Motor and Trailer, Off
Road Driving, Orienteering, Wilderness Survival Techniques, Wilderness First Aid,
Outdoor Photography, Horseback Riding, Hiking with Llamas, Camping and Outdoor
Cooking, Backpacking and Hiking, Chainsaw and Ax Use, Wetland Ecology and
Mountain Biking.
These workshops are for you if you:
Have never tried these activities, but have hoped for an opportunity to learn
Are a beginner who hopes to improve your skills
Know how to do some of these activities, but would like to try some new ones
Are looking for the camaraderie of like-minded individuals
For more workshop information or registration,
visit the B.C. Wildlife Federation Web Site at
www.bcwf.bc.ca or call/write:
#303-19292-60th Avenue,
Surrey, BC V3S 3M2
1-800-533-2293 office
1-604-533-1592 fax
Email: wildlife@bcwf.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Part I. What is hunter education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Goals of the CORE program: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Part II. CORE program study options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Test requirements: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
The examination process: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Part III. Licence Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Brief outline for resident licences: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Core Examiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Contact list Core Examiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
CHAPTER TWO CONSERVATION

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part I. Hunter's heritage/History of wildlife management
Part II. Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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.15
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What is Ecology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Ecology terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
The Importance of Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shelter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distribution and Adaptation
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The Balance of Populations: Limits to Abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Succession (Habitat Change)
Population Dynamics (cycle)
Habitat in British Columbia .
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.20
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Part III. Wildlife Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

How wildlife is classified . . . . . . . . .
What is Wildlife Management? . . . .
Wealth of Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protection of Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . .
Protection Through Reserved Lands
Management of the Habitat. . . . . .
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Predator Control . . . . . . . . .
Transplanting . . . . . . . . . . .
Management of the Hunt . .
Types of Hunting Seasons . .
Population Inventory . . . . . .
Hunter Sampling Techniques
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
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CHAPTER 3 ETHICS
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Part I. Outdoor and hunting ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
1.
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4.
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General outdoor ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hunting ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ethical relationships for the hunter . . . . . . .
a. Hunters and the public . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Hunters and landowners . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Hunters and their hunting companions
d. Hunters and wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Hunters and their own personal ethics .
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.42
Part II. Game care and ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

1.
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4.
5.
Preparing for the hunt . .

Hunting techniques . . . .
Taking the shot . . . . . . .
Trailing an animal . . . . .
Now the work begins . .
a. Field dressing . . . . . .
b. Skinning . . . . . . . . .
c. Quartering . . . . . . . .
d. Transporting . . . . . .
e. Hanging and Cooling
f. Preserving the Hide .
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.44
.44
.46
.47
.48
.48
.49
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.50
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.51
Supplemental information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Procedure for field dressing a Non-trophy Animal . . . . . .
Skinning procedures for Non-trophy Animals . . . . . . . . .
Skinning procedures for Trophy Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Skinning procedures for Bears, Wolves, Coyotes, Cougars
Processing Game Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Processing Rabbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
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.54
.55
.56
.57
.58
.58
CHAPTER 4 LAWS & REGULATIONS

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Part I: What are laws and who makes them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
a. Introduction . . . . . . .
b) Federal laws . . . . . . .
c) Categories of firearms
d) Municipal bylaws . . .
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.64
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Part II. Hunting laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Promotion of sportsmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Purpose of hunting laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Enforcement agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part III: How to use the Hunting & Trapping Regulation Synopsis .
Section A: Hunting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section B: General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section C: Resource Management Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section D: Trapping Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .68
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. .74
CHAPTER FIVE SURVIVAL

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
PART I: The Three Ps: Preparation, Planning, and Practice . . . . . . . . . .82
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Learn the risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Time of the year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Terrain and climatic conditions . . . . . . . .
d. Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Length of trip and remoteness of location
f. Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g. Injuries or illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Preparing yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Mentally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Physically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Medically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Safety and first aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Know the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. Plan with your hunting companions . . . .
viii
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.82
.83
.83
.83
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.83
.83
.84
.84
.84
.84
.84
.84
.84
.84
.84
4. Dressing yourself . . . . . . . . . .
The underwear layer . . . . . .
The insulation (clothing) layer
The shell (outer) layer . . . . .
Boots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gloves and mitts . . . . . . . . .
Hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hearing and sight protection
Colour vision . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Trip plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Your equipment . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Map and compass . . . . . .
b. Survival kit . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. First aid kit . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Firearm and ammunition .
e. Communication devices . .
Part II: Safety and Survival
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.85
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.92
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.95
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
1. Practicing safe behaviours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

a. Plan your trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
b. Act with caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
c. Know where you are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
d. Hunt with a partner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
2. Minimizing dangers around wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
a. Bear and cougar safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
b. Other creatures in the woods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
3. Survival Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Thirst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Hunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Boredom and loneliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Predatory animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4. Common survival situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
a. So you are lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
b. Ice and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
5. First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
a. What is first aid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
b. The objectives of first aid are: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
c. Three basic elements to first aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
d. Treatment of life-threatening conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
e. Chest Injury Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
f. Common field injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
ix
PART III: ORIENTEERING EQUIPMENT AND ITS USAGE . . . . . . . . . . .130

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Directional aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Tourist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Recreational . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Topographical . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Using a compass without a map
b. Using maps and compass . . . . .
5. GPS (Global Positioning System) . . .
a. How does GPS work? . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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.130
.130
.130
.130
.130
.131
.131
.133
.134
.135
.136
.136
.136
PART IV: COMMON FIELD EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138

1. Cutting instruments . . . .
a. Knives . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Axes . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Saws . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Backpacking . . . . . . . . .
a. Packboards . . . . . . .
b. Packsacks . . . . . . . . .
3. Camping equipment . . .
a. Tents . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Sleeping bags . . . . .
c. Setting up a campsite
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.138
.138
.140
.141
.142
.142
.142
.146
.146
.147
.148
CHAPTER SIX FIREARMS

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART I: Introduction . . . . . . .
PART II: Evolution of Firearms
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.157
.157
.158
.159
1) Evolution of firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

2) Types of Modern Firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
3) Basic Firearms Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
PART III: Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180

1) Rifle ammunition and its components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
2) Shotgun ammunition and its components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
3) Ammunition Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
PART IV: Firearms Safety
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
1) Basic firearms safety rules & procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

2) Cleaning firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
3) Firearms Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
PART V: Shooting Skills
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
1) Rifle Marksmanship Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

2) Shotgun Marksmanship Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
3) Learn how to shoot and practice safety procedures while shooting . . . . . . . .213
PART VI: Hunting Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217

1) Safety in the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
2) Field Carries and crossing obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
3) Shooting in the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
PART VII: Specialty Hunting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227

1) Muzzleloading firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
2) Archery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Firearms Glossary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250
xi
CHAPTER SEVEN MAMMALS

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Part I. Animal identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
a) Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) Techniques of animal and bird identification
Ungulate Tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key to ungulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Animal Droppings (during Hunting Season)
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.266
.268
.269
.270
.272
Part II. Key to British Columbia ungulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273

a) The "Cattle" Family (Bovidae)
Bighorn Sheep . . . . . . . . .
Thinhorn Sheep . . . . . . . .
Mountain Goat . . . . . . . . .
Bison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) The Deer Family (Cervidae) .
Mule Deer . . . . . . . . . . . .
Black-tailed deer . . . . . . . .
White-tailed Deer . . . . . . .
Fallow Deer . . . . . . . . . . .
Moose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Caribou . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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.273
.274
.276
.278
.280
.283
.284
.286
.288
.290
.292
.294
.296
Part III. Key to large British Columbia carnivores . . . . . . . . . . . . .300

a) The Cat Family (Felidae) .
Cougar . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bobcat . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) The Dog Family (Canidae)
Wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coyote . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Red Fox . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) The Bear Family (Ursidae)
Grizzly Bear . . . . . . . . .
Black Bear . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Part IV. Small Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
a) Overview of small mammals, their classification and the law
b) Rodent Order (Rodentia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Carnivore Order (Carnivora) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) Lagomorph Order (Lagomorpha) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) Marsupial Order (Marsupialia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
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. . . . . . . . . .322
. . . . . . . . . .325
. . . . . . . . . .333
. . . . . . . . . .336
. . . . . . . . . .338
CHAPTER EIGHT BIRDS

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Part I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
a) Techniques for game bird identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Protected and Schedule "C" species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Scientific Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
b) Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
Part II. Resident upland game birds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Upland Game Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356

a) Ptarmigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
b) Grouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spruce Grouse ("Fool Hen")
Blue Grouse ("Blues") . . . .
Ruffed Grouse . . . . . . . . .
Sharp-tailed Grouse . . . . .
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.357
.358
.359
.360
.361
c) Introduced species . . .
Ring-necked Pheasant
Gray Partridge . . . . .
Chukar . . . . . . . . . . .
Quail . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wild Turkey . . . . . . .
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Part III. Migratory game birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370

a) Wetland migratory game birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
Swans . . . . . . . . . .
Geese . . . . . . . . . .
Canada Goose . . . .
Snow Goose . . . . . .
Ross Goose . . . . . .
White-Fronted Goose
Black Brant . . . . . . .
Ducks . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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.371
.371
.372
.373
.374
.375
.376
.377
Puddle or Dabbling Ducks . . . . .

Northern Pintail . . . . . . . . .
Mallard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shoveller . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Wigeon (Baldpate)
Gadwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wood Duck . . . . . . . . . . . .
Green-winged Teal . . . . . . .
Blue-winged Teal . . . . . . . .
Cinnamon Teal . . . . . . . . . .
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.380
.381
.381
.382
.382
.383
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xiii
Diving Ducks . . . . . . . .
Redhead . . . . . . . .
Canvasback . . . . . .
Greater Scaup . . . .
Bufflehead . . . . . . .
Ring-necked Duck . .
Lesser Scaup . . . . . .
Barrows Goldeneye
Ruddy Duck . . . . . .
Mergansers . . . . . .
Sea ducks . . . . . . . .
Common Goldeneye
Old Squaw . . . . . . .
Harlequin . . . . . . . .
White-winged Scoter
Surf Scoter . . . . . . .
Common Eider . . . .
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.386
.387
.387
.388
.388
.389
.389
.390
.390
.391
.391
.391
.392
.392
.393
.393
.394
Marsh and shoreline birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394

American Coot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
Common Snipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
b) Upland migratory game birds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
Mourning Dove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397

Band-tailed Pigeon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
Part IV. Raptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401

Characteristics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Distribution
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Raptors and Humans
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Part V. Schedule "C" birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405

Part VI. Other protected birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
xiv
REVIEW TESTS & CHAPTER TESTS

Introduction Chapter 1
Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Conservation Chapter 2
Part I. Review Questions .
Part II. Review Questions
Part III. Review Questions
Chapter Review Test . . . .
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. .17
. .23
. .29
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Ethics Chapter 3
Part I. Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Part II. Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Law & Regulations Chapter 4

Basic law review: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Hunting law review: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Chapter Review test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Survival Chapter 5
Part I: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
PART II: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
PART III: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
PART IV: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Firearms Chapter 6
Part I. & II. Rreview questions
Part III. review questions . . .
PART IV: review questions . .
PART V: Review questions . .
PART VI Review questions . . .
PART VII: Review questions .
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . .
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Mammals Chapter 7
Part I. Quiz on the Family Bovidae . . .
Part II. Quiz on the Family Cervidae . .
Part III. Quiz on B.C.s Large Carnivores
Part IV. Quiz on Small Mammals . . . .
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bird Chapter 8
Part I. & II. Review Questions
Part III. Review Questions . . .
Part IV. Review questions . . .
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . .
...
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xv
xvi
Chapter
Introduction
GOAL
The student will explain the hunter education requirements
and licence provisions of the Wildlife Act.
OBJECTIVES
The student will be able to:
1. State the purpose and goals of
hunter education.
2. State CORE program study
options and expected behaviour
in a classroom.
3. State the procedures for obtaining
a hunting licence.
This chapter is divided into three parts:

I. What is hunter education?
II. CORE study options.
III. Licence requirements.
Chapter 1 Introduction
PART I.
WHAT IS HUNTER EDUCATION?
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Mandatory hunter education began in New

York State in 1949. Since then it has become
a requirement across North America. In
British Columbia hunter education became
mandatory in 1974.
4. The student will identify game

animals of British Columbia and
protected/endangered species through
knowledge of their characteristics,
habitat, and distribution.
Because of hunter education, "hunting is

safe and getting safer". Accident rates have
steadily declined and hunters and other
outdoors recreational users have become
more knowledgeable and skilled. Hunter
education has been a very successful safety
education program.
5. The student will identify game birds

of British Columbia and protected/
endangered species using knowledge
of their characteristics, habitat,
and distribution.
6. The student will identify the laws
affecting hunters and firearm
owners and the agencies
responsible for enforcement.
The Conservation and Outdoor Recreation

Education (CORE) program is useful for
anyone interested in outdoor recreation,
wildlife, and firearm safety. The CORE
programs should be viewed as the foundation
for any outdoors recreational user. You are
encouraged after completing the CORE
program to take additional training such
as first aid, orienteering, etc. Additional
self-study and practice will help improve
your knowledge and skills so that you are
more prepared to venture into the outdoors.
7. The student will explain acceptable/

unacceptable behaviours and
attitudes used by hunters and other
outdoor recreation users based
on ethics.
8. The student will explain the relationship between hunter heritage,
ecology, and wildlife management.
The purpose of CORE is to ensure that prospective hunters meet acceptable standards of
knowledge and skill for their safe and ethical
participation in hunting recreation.
B.C. residents who wish to obtain a

hunting licence require the CORE
program. Individuals who have completed
another state/province hunter safety
program are exempt from the requirement
to complete the CORE examinations.
Contact the government agent for more
details or call the B.C. Wildlife Federation
(BCWF) at 1-800-533-2293.
Goals of the CORE program:

1. The student will explain the hunter
education requirements and licence
provisions of the Wildlife Act.
2. The student will identify procedures
employed by hunters and other
outdoor recreational users prior
to and during their venture into
the outdoors.
To complete the CORE program a

candidate must pass both a written test and
practical firearms handling examination.
The CORE examinations are based on
information included in the CORE manual
and the Hunting and Trapping Regulation
Synopsis. The Hunter Safety Training
Regulations prescribe the required fees of
$10 for each test and $30 for the graduate
administrative fee. Course fees and manual
costs are in addition to the prescribed fees.
3. The student will operate basic

firearm actions and explain primitivehunting equipment commonly
used for hunting, in a safe and
responsible manner.
2
PART II.
CORE PROGRAM STUDY OPTIONS
You have three study options in order to
prepare yourself for the CORE
examinations. It is advisable that you
contact the local certified CORE examiner
to determine the CORE program resources
available in your community.
colleges, continuing education, or fish and

game clubs in your area.
Individuals may choose the self-study method
to prepare for the CORE examinations. It is
suggested that you allow approximately 24
hours to study the CORE manual and use of
the Hunting and Trapping Regulation Synopsis.
The CORE manual has sample questions to
prepare you for the written
examinations. A combination
Study Options
of reading, previous firearm
handling experience and
training or tutoring may be
CORE Course
required to prepare you for
Self study
the practical firearms Internet Course
handling examination.
CORE examiners names can be obtained

from offices of the government agent,
Ministry of Water, Land, and Air
Protection (MWLAP), local sporting goods
stores, fish and game clubs, and the BCWF
at 1-800-533-2293 or check out the BCWF
website at www.bcwf.bc.ca. See contact list
at the end of this chapter.
CORE examiners are trained and
knowledgeable in CORE subjects and its
examinations. CORE examiners are
certified under provincial regulation. They
may conduct examinations and issue
graduation certificates. They may be able
to inform you of where courses and/or
examinations are being conducted, and
how to obtain the CORE manual and the
Hunting and Trapping Regulation Synopsis in
your community.
If you have completed the Canadian Firearm

Safety Course (CFSC) program, you may wish
to consider the self-study option. The CORE
program will exempt you from the CORE
practical firearms-handling exam if you can
show proof you have completed the CFSC.
You will still need to do the written exams,
including the firearms and archery questions.
The BCWF website contains a self-study guide
that can be downloaded. This self-study guide
is recommended for youth or individuals who
have difficulty with comprehension.
Independent instructors offer CORE

courses. The student should ensure that
the course being offered is of the quality,
content and length appropriate for them.
Instructors offering CORE courses should
provide complete examination
preparation and may make arrangements
for testing by certified examiners. At the
start of a CORE course the instructor
should provide a timetable or schedule
outlining the course dates and topics to
be covered and explain all fees related to
the course and examinations. The
instructor should also outline the
expected behaviour for the classroom and
the evaluation process. Discuss these
arrangements with the instructor.
Independent instructors may advertise
CORE courses through the local media,
sporting goods stores, community
Internet Course
www.ihea.com/ihea/homestudy/index.htm
An "Introduction to Hunter Education"
internet study program is available via the
International Hunter Education Association
website at www.ihea.com. You will find
many simularities between the IHEA
webcourse and this manual as British
Columbia worked with the IHEA on the
Internet project. The "Introduction to
Hunter Education" internet study program
was written as a generic program. Each
state/provincial hunter education
3
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The practical firearms-handling

examination requires the safe handling of
two of the five types of firearm actions,
including the identification,
loading/unloading, and use of dummy
ammunition. A minimum score of 21 out
of 27 is required for a pass. The examiner
will provide the firearms.
coordinator has to determine what

additional training may be needed by the
student in order to meet their legislative
requirements for hunter education. At the
time of printing this manual in the fall of
2002, it has not been determined what
additional training e.g., field day for
hands-on training, would be required in
order to prepare the student for the CORE
exams. For more details contact the BCWF
at 1-800-533-2293.
Individuals who have completed the

Canadian Firearms Safety Course practical
firearms-handling examination need not
complete the CORE practical firearmshandling examination. However, a copy of
your Canadian Firearms Safety Course
record sheet, Firearms Acquisition
Certificate (FAC) issued after January 1,
1995, or a Possession and Acquisition
(PAL) licence must be provided to the
CORE examiner for inspection. A
Possession-Only Licence (POL) is NOT
acceptable for exemption from the CORE
practical firearms-handling examination.
Once you feel ready to take the

examinations, contact the certified CORE
examiner in your area. CORE examiners
operate on their own schedule and should
be contacted well in advance of the desired
examination date to arrange a mutually
agreeable time and location for testing.
Test requirements:
The written examination consists of 85
multiple-choice and 15 alternate-response
(true or false) questions based on the CORE
manual and the Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis, used as a reference.
The multiple choice questions are in the
format "Choose the most correct answer."
Supplemental information from the CORE
manual is not tested.
The examination process:

Prior to starting the CORE examinations,
the certified CORE examiner will have you
complete a registration form. Until both
exams have been successfully completed,
the registration form may be kept by the
student to be shown to an examiner each
time an examination is taken, otherwise
the record of the successful completion of
a test may be lost.
The new written exams have two parts,

A & B.
Part A has 70 questions on the
following subjects:
There is a one-hour time limit for the

written examination. Upon completion of
the test, the examiner will provide the
results to the student. A failed exam must be
retaken on a date other than the day the test
was failed. Each time an examination is
taken, a $10 fee is payable to the examiner.
Animals of British Columbia . . . . . . . . 18

Birds of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Laws & Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Outdoor Ethics and Game Care . . . . . . . 8
Outdoor Survival,
First Aid & Field Craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
When both examinations have been

successfully completed, the examiner will
present the student with a CORE program
graduation certificate. There is a $30
graduate administration fee payable to the
BCWF for the graduation certificate. The
examiner remits this fee to the BCWF
along with the registration form.
Part B has 30 questions on Firearms

Handling and Archery Equipment. In order
to pass this exam a student must obtain a
score of 23 out of 30 on Part B and achieve
a combined overall score of at least 75
points for both Parts A & B.
4
Example of a CORE Certificate

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PART III.
LICENCE REQUIREMENTS
You will need to take your CORE graduation
certificate to the local government agent
and request a B.C. Hunter Number Card
(HNC). There is no cost for the HNC. Before
a HNC is issued, you will have to prove that
you are a B.C. resident.
If the holder of a HNC changes his or her

legal name, residential address, or ceases to be
a resident, within 30 days of the address or
name change, or date at which they cease to
be a resident, the Director of Fish and
Wildlife, Recreation and Allocation (FWRA)
must be notified. See the Hunting and Trapping
Regulation Synopsis for more information.
A B.C. resident is an individual who has had

their permanent residence in this province
for seven months in the 12 months
immediately before applying for a HNC. A
member of the Canadian Armed Forces
enrolled in continuing full-time military
service, is eligible to obtain a HNC after
having permanent residence in British
Columbia for 30 days immediately before
applying for the licence.
Example of
Resident Hunter Number Card
A B.C. resident may only have and use one

HNC. If you lose your HNC, contact a
government agent in your area or the
Wildlife Branch in Victoria to obtain a
duplicate. DO NOT obtain a new HNC, as
this violates the Wildlife Act.
5
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With your HNC you may purchase a hunting

licence and enter the limited entry hunting
draw each year. Licence requirements and
types are explained in detail in the Hunting
and Trapping Regulation Synopsis and the
Limited Entry Hunting Regulation Synopsis.
"Acknowledgement of Responsibility"
form for his/her son, daughter or ward
when purchasing a hunting licence.
All youth under 19 years of age must be
accompanied and closely supervised
while hunting by a person who is 19
years of age or older who holds a
hunting licence.
Here is a brief outline

for resident licences:
A junior hunting licence can only be issued
to a youth 10 years of age or older through
the age of 13. The junior hunter need not
complete a hunter education course. No
species licence will be sold to a junior
licence holder.
A hunting licence allows a hunter to hunt

and carry a firearm. Species licences are
required for bear, bobcat, caribou, cougar,
deer, elk, lynx, moose, mountain goat and
sheep, wolf, and wolverine, in addition to
the hunting licence.
A person who is 10 years of age or older

may obtain a hunting licence if they have
completed a hunter education program
either in B.C. or in another province or
state. CORE is mandatory beginning at age
14. The parent or guardian must sign an
A Canadian Migratory Game Bird hunting

permit is required in addition to a B.C.
hunting licence for hunting migratory
birds, including some upland game birds,
species, waterfowl, coots, and snipe.
Examples of Hunting Licences

Hunting Licence
Migratory Bird Licence
NOTES
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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam.
Take approximately 10 minutes to answer these questions without referring
back to the material found in this chapter. Use the answer sheet provided at the
bottom of the page to record your answers.
The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you
have completely answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the
material found in this chapter to check your answers.
Complete each Chapter Review Test before calling a CORE Examiner and
scheduling an appointment to challenge the CORE written and practicalfirearms handling exams. The CORE Examiner may request to see the
completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting you for a challenge test.
1. In what year did hunter education become mandatory in British Columbia?
a.
1966
b.
1974
c.
1984
d.
1999
2. Hunting is safe and getting safer due to hunter education.
True
False
3. The Hunter Safety Training Regulation prescribes that the cost
for a written exam in the CORE program is:
a.
Free
b.
$5
c.
$10
d.
$20
4. The Hunter Safety Training Regulations prescribes that the cost for
the CORE graduate certificate is:
a.
$10
b.
$20
c.
$30
d.
$40
5. It is recommended that those individuals who wish to take the self-study
method when preparing for the CORE written and practical firearmshandling exams spend_______ hours studying the CORE manual and the
Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis.
a.
8
b.
12
c.
18
d.
24
8
6. Individuals who have taken the Canadian Firearm Safety Course are exempt
from taking the CORE practical firearm-handling exam
True
False
7. You have completed the CORE program and wish to purchase a hunting licence.
You must first obtain a:
a.
Resident Hunter Number Card
b.
Drivers licence
c.
Possession-Only Licence
d.
Care Card
8. What is the youngest age a person can obtain a hunting licence in British Columbia?
a.
8
b.
10
c.
12
d.
14
9. In order to hunt big game animals (e.g., moose, deer, etc.) you will
need a _______________licence in addition to a B.C. hunting licence.
a.
Firearms
b.
Drivers
c.
Big game
d.
Species
10. In order to hunt waterfowl you will need _______________ permit in
addition to a BC hunting licence.
a.
Migratory Game Bird
b.
Waterfowl
c.
Firearms
d.
Drivers
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
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CONTACT LIST INFORMATION SHEET

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The following pages contain the CORE Examiner Contact list as of November 1,
2002. These individuals have volunteered to have their names on this contact list.
They may choose to remove their name at any time.
The examiners whose names appear on the contact list have agreed to make
themselves available within 30 days to provide examinations at a time reasonably
and mutually convenient to themselves and any potential student.
There is No obligation for the examiners to provide a CORE course.
Contact the BCWF at 1-800-533-2293 for an current contact list
or visit the website at www.bcwf.bc.ca.
CORE EXAMINERS
ExamCity
Name
Phone No
ExamCity
Name
Phone No
100 Mile House

108 Mile Ranch
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Abbotsford
Agassiz
Agassiz
Aldergrove
Armstrong
Ashcroft
Atlin
Atlin
Barriere
Bella Coola
Black Creek
Black Creek
Black Creek
Bridge Lake
Bridsville
Burnaby
Burnaby
Burnaby
Burnaby
Burnaby
Burnaby
Burns Lake
Campbell River
Campbell River
Campbell River
Campbell River
Campbell River
Campbell River
Campbell River
Weber, Gordon
Turner, Tom
Askola, Juha
Derryman, Ken
Fairclough, Robert
Hall, Don
Paddon, Robert
Sanders, James
Swansborough, Dave
Tanner, Doug
Zuest, Dave
Faulkner, Jerry
West, Gordon
Hatch, Barry
Hickman, Pat
Brown, Ken
Holman, George
Sprado, Tobe
Struthers, Colleen
Suisdahl, Randy
Tipper, Dennis
Todd, Norris
Vandette, Tim
Citra, Larry
Martinoff, Michael
Camele, Danny
Camele, Victor
Hamilton, Sandy
Kremmer, Frank
Reinmuth, Roy
Simmons, Al
Mackereth, Bill
0rel, Edgar
Bowers, Randy
Cornfield, Charlie
Cowling, Jim
Fyfe, Bruce
Lochmanetz, Gord
Nielsen, Sid
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
Campbell River
Campbell River
Castlegar
Cecil Lake
Cecil Lake
Charlie Lake
Chase
Chase
Chase
Chetwynd
Chetwynd
Chetwynd
Chetwynd
Chetwynd
Chilliwack
Chilliwack
Chilliwack
Chilliwack
Christina Lake
Clearwater
Clearwater
Clinton
Clinton
Comox
Comox
Coquitlam
Coquitlam
Coquitlam
Coquitlam
Coquitlam
Coquitlam
Coquitlam
Coquitlam
Courtenay
Courtenay
Sidhu, Gurdeep
Swanson, Bill
Dickson, Bob
Sears, John
Stumpf, Herb
Shaw, Wes
Chestnut, Chuck
Erickson, Ernie
Hudson, Terry
Derby, Jim
Evans, Bill
Hamilton, Gordon
Juergensen, Brent
Weissbock, Reinhold
Edward, Ron
Frost, Gord
Glazer, Berkley
Mcduff, Ernest
Seymour, Richard
Murray, Steve
Schoenberger, Owen
Eyer, Dodie
Eyer, Dave
Danylyshyn, Dave
Julyan, Rick
Abram, Kelly
Davey, Mike
Mi, Yiping
No, Ken
Tanchak, Maurice
Tiamzon, Ed
Yun, Kea
Zuckerman, Chuck
Adams, Mark
Courtenay F & G Assoc,
Courtenay
Courtenay
Courtenay
Jacobson, Randy
Sim, Kerry
Walker, Tom
(250) 287-0640
(250) 286-1907
(250) 365-5781
(250) 787-2443
(250) 827-3918
(250) 262-1346
(250) 679-2729
(250) 679-0009
(250) 679-3931
(250) 788-2046
(250) 788-2146
(250) 788-2169
(250) 788-9691
(250) 788-3035
(604) 792-3440
(604) 823-4052
(604) 824-2807
(604) 858-4154
(250) 447-9442
(250) 674-2753
(250) 674-4099
(250) 459-2503
(250) 459-7004
(250) 339-3693
(250) 339-7587
(604) 941-6933
(604) 937-5930
(604) 207-2877
(604) 931-2351
(604) 939-3665
(604) 685-1254
(604) 944-5930
(604) 724-9275
(250) 792-0598
(250) 338-9122
8am To 10 Pm
(250) 338-6443
(250) 897-1004
(250) 338-4048
791-7307
791-6231
850-3908
855-6570
852-4350
853-4151
850-8911
864-0985
854-5301
857-5481
850-6947
796-0006
796-9541
856-6006
546-8086
453-9415
651-7717
651-7818
672-9983
982-2465
337-0021
337-8025
337-1775
593-4362
446-2836
254-7513
254-7513
521-8623
298-5112
686-3086
291-1952
692-3600
923-3878
923-9902
923-2599
923-8009
287-3727
287-3503
923-5686
10
CORE EXAMINERS
i
n
t
r
o
Exam City
Name
Phone No.
Courtenay
Cranbrook
Cranbrook
Cranbrook
Creston
Creston
Creston
Crofton
Dawson Creek
Dease Lake
Delta
Delta
Delta
Delta
Duncan
Duncan
Duncan
Elkford
Elko
Fernie
Fernie
Fernie
Fernie
Forest Grove
Fort Nelson
Fort St James
Fort St James
Fort St James
Fort St James
Fort St John
Fort St John
Fort St John
Fort St John
Fort St. John
Francois Lake
Fruitvale
Fruitvale
Gabriola
Gabriola
Gabriola Island
Garibaldi Highlands
Gibsons
Gold River
Gold River
Golden
Golden
Golden
Golden
Grand Forks
Grand Forks
Grand Forks
Grand Forks
Greenwood
Hanceville
Heffley Creek
Hixon
Hope
Hope
Houston
Houston
Hudson's Hope
Invermere
Invermere
Jaffray
Wortman, Wayne
Dolynchuk, Gary
Giles, Robert
Kirk, Robert
Harvey, Harv
Purdy, Bob
Wayling, Tim
Irwin, Robert
Hitchcock, Gordon
Newton, Mike
Rodrigues, Richard
Temoin, Doug
Wood, Albert
Zentner, Dennis
Bone, Jack
Kopp, Robert
Schuckel, Bill
Zimmerman, Jim
Rawson, Brian
Bossio, Liz
Rocca, Mario
Uphill, Don
Vallance, Larry
Derkson, Paul
Woodcock, Warren
Gammon, Gareth
Houghton, Terry
Mclean, Ken
Peterson, John
Allen, Doug
Clarke, Barry
Lahaye, Guy
Phibbs, David
Ekkel, Richard
Skillen, Barb
Cournoyer, Lynn
Ramsay, Brad
Cuthbertson, Stephen
Graf Van Westarp, George
Kenchenten, John
Willgress, John
Gazeley, Fred
Mcnally, Morris
Patrick, Scott
Arlt, Grant
Cadden, Matthew
Hagman, James
Tanner, Adrian
Caravetta, Joe
Guthrie, Jim
Kemprud, Denny
Mckay, Warren
Nelson, Stan
Joyce, Art
Newman, Brian
Kirkland, Joanne
Hislop, Robert
Jess, Ruth
Mcdonald, Frank
Perkinson, Sonny
Walker, Lou
Stade, Brian
Trask, Byron
Head, Steve
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
Exam City
338-6310
426-4144
426-0924
489-2541
428-4426
428-3554
428-2894
246-9041
782-8822
771-3816
583-8817
943-7167
940-0042
946-1995
748-2104
748-1887
748-1265
865-4556
529-7775
423-7686
423-7281
423-3874
423-6112
397-2567
774-3095
996-7780
996-8423
996-7933
996-7346
785-3706
827-3264
785-1442
787-9315
785-8531
695-6552
367-7344
367-2228
247-8801
247-8868
247-8804
898-5964
886-9131
283-2160
283-2484
344-2969
344-5143
347-2307
344-5306
442-0600
442-0020
442-8258
442-0600
445-6194
394-4367
578-8569
998-4617
869-9098
869-3361
845-7030
845-3156
783-2321
342-3424
342-9213
429-3248
11
Name
Jaffray
Jaffray
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kamloops
Kaslo
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kelowna
Kimberley
Kimberley
Kimberley
Kitimat
Kitimat
Kitwanga
Knutsford
Lac La Hache
Ladysmith
Langley
Langley
Langley
Langley
Langley
Langley
Odnokon, Shawn
Plant, Bill
Cartwright, Stu
Cook, Ken
Farquharson, Alec
Kelly, Jim
Kowalchuk, Jim
Mcknight, George
Richardson, Anthony
Smith, Bill
Werner, Mark
Wiggins, Jim
Mattes, Robert
Cadden, Rob
Campbell, Stew
Chaffee, Dwayne
Hardy, Chuck
Keller, Peter
Kosarczuk, Jim
Newman, Dave
Rogers, Chris
Van Dyke, Tim
Wasman, Brian
Blackwell, Daniel
Grant, Allan
Pelter, Wayne
Hummel, Albert
Walker, Mike
Hobenshield, Edwin
Dreger, Glenn
Blackwell, Paul
Hall, Jim
Baldini, Eric
Goldsack, Glen
Goldsack, Marlene
Hamilton, Robert
Helsdon, Jim
Langley R & G Club,
Langley
Lazo
Likely
Lillooet
Lister
Logan Lake
Logan Lake
Lone Butte
Lumby
Lumby
Lumby
Lumby
Mackenzie
Madeira Park
Mansons Landing
Marysville
Masset
McBride
McBride
Merritt
Merritt
Merritt
Merritt
Metchosin
Midway
Stofoni, Stelios
Trotter, Floyd
Ulrich, Keith
Snucins, Vit
Palmer, Merrill
Daigle, Bob
Werring, Dirk
Forsberg, Vince
Aussem, Peter
Blain, Mike
Mcleod, Gerald
Vogan, Len
L'heureux, Wilda
Cameron, John
Piggott, Ed
Warkentin, Bill
Robinson, Ed
Berndsen, Peter
Hruby, David
Beech, Doug
Crack, Dave
Crack, Kathy
Davis, Bob
Hutchinson, David
Clapperton, Leo
Phone No.
(250) 429-3757
(250) 429-3193
(250) 372-1516
(250) 828-3123
(250) 376-3596
(250) 314-1619
(250) 578-8288
(250) 573-2428
(250) 573-2514
(250) 376-7970
(888) 567-7867
(250) 376-6482
(250) 353-2671
(250) 861-4838
(250) 765-0459
(250) 861-4838
(250) 762-9001
(250) 861-6522
(250) 766-1774
(250) 860-6036
(250) 762-2656
(250) 769-7696
(250) 765-6410
(250) 427-4986
(250) 427-7203
(250) 427-5308
(250) 632-6424
(250) 632-4705
(250) 849-5698
(250) 372-3837
(250) 396-7286
(250) 245-5871
(604) 532-0783
(604) 534-9908
(604) 534-9908
(604) 534-3551
(604) 533-7922
(604) 816-0315
8am To 8pm
(604) 533-5363
(250) 339-5770
(250) 790-2236
(250) 256-7734
(250) 428-7682
(250) 523-6992
(250) 523-6704
(250) 593-4004
(250) 547-6708
(250) 547-6403
(250) 547-6955
(250) 547-2478
(250) 997-4819
(604) 883-9153
(250) 935-6504
(250) 427-3525
(250) 626-5190
(250) 569-0208
(250) 569-3292
(250) 378-4379
(250) 378-2734
(250) 378-2734
(250) 378-2111
(250) 704-0055
(250) 449-2463
i
n
t
r
o
CORE EXAMINERS
i
n
t
r
o
ExamCity
Name
Phone No
Mission
Mission
Mission
Montney
Nakusp
Nakusp
Nanaimo
Nanaimo
Nanaimo
Nanaimo
Nanaimo
Nanoose Bay
Nelson
New Westminster
North Saanich
North Vancouver
North Vancouver
Ocean Falls
Okanagan Falls
Oliver
Oliver
Oliver
Peachland
Peachland
Peachland
Peachland
Pemberton
Pemberton
Penticton
Penticton
Penticton
Penticton
Penticton
Pink Mountain
Port Alberni
Hardy, Dave
Kenyon, Gerry
Lochrie, Donald
Yendrys, Kelly
Boswell, Dorian
Scown, Hank
Ball, Robert
Bennie, Robert
Forsyth, Robert
Patchett, Andrew
Wakelam, Tom
Harris, Doug
Millan, Dennis
Sapperton F & G Club,
Cornish, Ken
Pitkethly, Barry
Walzak, Don
Dailey, Oliver
Mehrer, Dwayne
Mckay, Joan
Norton, Gregory
Shannon, Mel
Mills, Ken
Reisen, Roger
Sheppard, Rod
Springer, Albert
Horth, Nicky
Knowles, Ivan
Bergman, Don
Drobe, Brian
Ford, Ed
Kerr, David
Modrall, Howard
Coy, Allen
Alberni District Sportsman
Assoc., Answer Machine
Clark, Darlene
Clark, Robert
Diemert, Don
Kearns, Rob
Mckinnon, David
Haralson, Ron
Fehrenbach, Mike
Gardner, Murray
Krell, Darren
Loewen, Peter
Clare, Larry
Fujino, Ken
Martin, Allan
Bruhs, Peter
Beeching, Wendell
Holgerson, Sverre
Miller, Gary
Misner, Larry
Simonar, Bob
Stride, Ivan
Bell, Dennis
Botham, John
Clare, Sheldon
Collett, Gary
Hechenberger, Tony
Kelly, Bob
Ko, Russell
Lemcke, Roy
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
826-9821
820-1757
826-9096
827-3424
265-9911
265-4137
758-1668
756-2090
754-4912
390-3596
741-9848
468-9798
229-4401
521-7568
656-7885
929-4269
987-2016
289-3248
497-8460
498-2040
498-4669
498-2660
767-0136
767-2867
767-9358
767-2287
894-1845
894-6630
493-6065
493-5585
770-3274
493-8326
492-3704
772-5143
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
724-1214
724-4657
724-4657
724-2927
723-2025
284-6201
557-4255
942-9880
889-3822
944-9047
941-3194
949-8957
949-2809
956-3456
786-5691
483-9449
487-4661
483-9424
485-3400
485-2165
483-4367
561-2415
964-4775
563-2804
962-6455
966-9392
564-8882
964-4431
964-3227
Port Alberni
Port Alberni
Port Alberni
Port Alberni
Port Alice
Port Clements
Port Coquitlam
Port Coquitlam
Port Coquitlam
Port Coquitlam
Port Hardy
Port Hardy
Port McNeill
Pouce Coupe
Powell River
Powell River
Powell River
Powell River
Powell River
Powell River
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
ExamCity
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince George
Prince Rupert
Prince Rupert
Prince Rupert
Prince Rupert
Prince Rupert
Princeton
Pritchard
Qualicum Beach
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Quesnel
Radium Hot
Springs
Revelstoke
Revelstoke
Richmond
Richmond
Richmond
Richmond
Roberts Creek
Roberts Creek
Robson
Rose Prairie
Salmon Arm
Salmon Arm
Salmon Arm
Salmon Arm
Salt Spring Island
Salt Spring Island
Sandspit
Sandspit
Sayward
Sayward
Sechelt
Sechelt
Sechelt
Sechelt
Sidney
Slocan Park
Smithers
Smithers
Smithers
South Hazelton
Sparwood
Squamish
Squamish
Stewart
Summerland
12
Name
Phone No
Little, Lloyd
Manning, Ron
Parfrey, Jim
Petrisor, Dan
Saunders, Lowell
Storch, Steven
Tschampa, Joe
Wilkins, Don
Brant, Dick
Derry, Ron
Robinson, Wallace
Sawchuk, Kelly
Trim, Michael
Adams, Paul
Swift, Don
Blair, Larry
Almond, Colin
Bentley, Jim
Cooper, John
Jmaeff, Brian
Leer, Art
Logie, Rick
Manning, Bob
Monk, Robert
Ramage, Brian
Standbridge, Mike
Teed, Roy
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
962-2259
964-6624
964-9767
614-4341
564-2725
964-7137
964-4164
967-4456
624-5834
624-6015
624-2777
624-7460
627-8317
295-4191
577-3461
752-0726
992-9649
992-9454
992-5940
747-1020
992-2808
249-0130
991-6512
992-3101
249-5801
249-5942
747-1925
Schmidt, Willibald
Angus, Matt
Lenzi, Todd
Mackenzie, Gordon
Palmer, Keith
Richmond Rod & Gun,
Yu, Sandy
Braun, Larry
Ross, Alex
Hawley, Ivan
Koop, Richard
Cowen, Doug
Holmes, Trevor
Kuna, Julian
Paul, Lou
Cameron, Ken
Knoblauch, Greg
Henry, Jim
Sample, Richard
O' Brennan, Linda
Watson, Roy
Hardwick, Ivan
Janis, Bob
Rankin, Beatrice
Reynolds, Darryl
Merriman, Mike
Anderson, Dave
Dancey, Brian
Hunter, Elton
Ulrich, Ken
Mason, Sharon
Podrasky, Kevin
Struthers, Darryl
Wright, John
Hyslop, Jim
Kinloch, Ray
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(250)
(250)
347-9731
814-0111
837-4629
214-0749
720-7363
278-2142
551-8492
885-4756
886-7966
365-2584
261-1456
832-3151
832-4105
832-7914
833-4048
537-1243
537-9815
637-2292
637-2200
282-3681
282-3242
885-8979
885-2830
885-9787
885-9205
655-7065
226-7803
847-3110
847-5467
847-1442
842-6913
425-2602
382-3609
892-5797
636-2601
494-7999
CORE EXAMINERS
Exam City
Name
Phone No.
Summerland
Sunset Prairie
Surrey
Surrey
Surrey
Surrey
Surrey
Tatlayoko Lake
Telkwa
Terrace
Terrace
Tofino
Tofino
Trail
Trail
Tumbler Ridge
Ucluelet
Union Bay
Valemount
Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver
Vanderhoof
Vanderhoof
Smith, Rory
Neufeld, Gerald
Di Salvoatore, Tony
Hugo, Berny
Ross, Don
Slee, Ron
Starr, Ernie
Knight, Len
Burlon, Bill
Hailey, John
Pegg, Roland
Amrhein, Michael
Tranfield, Al
Smee, Jim
Wright, Gordon
Duperreault, Fernand
Thompson, William
Wheeldon, James
Mitchell, Ron
Backus, Robert
Batista, Joe
Camele, Joe
Koverola, John
Lavery, Bill
Lowen, Marshall
Macdonald, Ross
Maynard, Mike
Davidson, Ross
Erasmus, Gerd
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
Exam City
494-1302
843-7493
599-8636
585-2486
589-9151
574-6592
582-6458
476-1147
846-5670
635-6542
638-1082
725-3379
725-3973
368-5477
368-5140
242-4416
726-2998
335- 2301
566-4362
228-8676
325-2303
254-7513
299-4877
325-5690
730-0260
683-4787
436-5667
567-2080
567-4055
Vanderhoof
Vanderhoof
Vernon
Vernon
Vernon
Victoria
Victoria
Victoria
Victoria
Victoria
Victoria
Victoria
Victoria
Westbank
Westbank
White Rock
White Rock
Williams Lake
Williams Lake
Williams Lake
Williams Lake
Williams Lake
Williams Lake
Winfield
Winfield
Winfield
Winlaw
Wynndel
13
Name
Forsdick, Doug
Wheeler, Mike
Danby, Simon
Hudon, Alan
Wise, Pete
Carter, Douglas
Fowler, Bill
Mitchell, Richard
Oetting, Jerry
Ogilvie, Robin
Thornton, John
Towers, Tim
Wright, Roger
Brown, Keith
White, Harley
Galpin, Thomas
Worfolk, David
Jenkins, Judy
Jenkins, Barry
Lucks, Ken
Owens, Ken
Reimer, P.j.
Riedel, Laurie
Armitage, Nina
Taylor, Ronald
Winton, Maurice
Milton, Ron
Sabo, Garry
Phone No.
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(604)
(604)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
(250)
567-3106
567-4751
549-3327
545-6413
545-8881
479-5010
479-8184
478-3508
474-5375
472-1894
721-1811
474-1267
478-2739
768-3599
768-5502
536-1326
536-1202
392-6750
392-6750
398-9808
305-9868
305-1034
392-7845
766-2618
766-2559
766-4716
226-7459
866-5749
i
n
t
r
o
NOTES
i
n
t
r
o
14
Chapter
Conservation
GOAL
The student will explain the relationship between hunter's heritage,
ecology and wildlife management.
OBJECTIVES
1. Identify hunter's heritage
and hunter's role in wildlife
management.
2. Define ecology and wildlife
management terms.
3. List the basic requirements of
all wildlife.
4. State how wildlife managers
protect and manage wildlife
and habitat.
This chapter is divided into three parts:

I. Hunter's heritage and the history
of wildlife management.
II. Ecology
III. Wildlife management
15
Chapter 2 Conservation
PART I.
HUNTER'S HERITAGE AND THE
HISTORY OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
c
o
n
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n
Hunting has been an important part of

North American heritage for both
Aboriginal communities and European
settlers. Animals were hunted for food,
clothing, and profit. In 1670 the Hudson's
Bay Company was founded in Canada. Its
chief interests for its first two centuries were
the fur trade, exploration and settlement.
centres. While the bison fell victim to a wellexecuted covert policy to deny western plains
tribes their base of operation against the army
and settlers, the pronghorn was a mere
"by-catch" of this campaign.
As Teddy Roosevelt related his observations:
different big game species disappeared
sequentially from the plains, depending
how easily they could be procured and how
rewarding it was to kill them. It appears
that after the army commanders in 1867
had decided on the covert campaign
against wildlife, it took about two decades
to bring silence to the prairie. The bleached
bones of bison still lay scattered over the
land as a mute testimony of their former
abundance, till these bones too could be
sold and were gathered and hauled away by
the box car full and used to refine sugar.
Tiny herds of pronghorns appear to have
survived over much of their range, to be
seen briefly at some distance, only to
disappear into the countless gullies,
coulees, mesas and hills of the prairie.
Expansion towards the west in the United

States involved paddle wheelers on the
major rivers by the 1830's, and railway lines
over land by the 1860's. In Canada, the
Canadian Pacific Railroad was founded in
1881 to build a railway linking Canada's
eastern population centres with the vast,
sparsely populated West. This huge
engineering feat was completed on Nov.7,
1885 - more than five years ahead of
schedule - when the last spike was driven
into the rail line at Craigellachie, BC.
This movement west involved market
hunting with an utter freedom to plunder
the continent's wealth. This, coupled with
the development of the modern breech
loading firearms and in the United States a
covert military policy to deprive native
people of wildlife, had a big impact on
wildlife, and even on songbirds. Urban
development, habitat loss, and market
hunting also played a big part in the loss of
waterfowl that migrates between Canada and
the United States. These activities virtually
succeeded in exterminating wildlife by 1900.
By the turn of the century there was a

continental surge of activity that looked at
how to conserve the dwindling natural
resources, in particular how to save wildlife.
Public debate organized in public hearings
led to policies soon enacted in legislation in
both countries, and established the first
international wildlife treaties. Market
hunting was outlawed by the beginning of
the 20th century. The first International
Wildlife Treaties were signed, and
Continental Conservation Policies were
developed. Teddy Roosevelt and Sir Wilfred
Laurier, US President and Canadian Prime
Minister respectively, were key players in
these early conservation issues.
As the bison declined, so did other big game

species. Market Hunters turned on such
species as elk, deer and pronghorn. For
example, the demise of the pronghorn was
rapid. Judge Caton notes that in 1855,
pronghorns were extraordinarily common
in California, but by the 1870's were
exterminated. In the central Great Plains they
hung on longer. In winter, frozen pronghorn
carcasses were stacked like cordwood along
railway lines to be shipped east to urban
These policies and wildlife treaties really

worked and the return of wildlife to North
America became the greatest environmental
success story of the 20th century, the finest
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system of wildlife conservation ever, the

only large-scale system of sustainable
natural resource development, a great
contributor to the quality of everyday life
in North America, as well as a howling
economic success in which private
enterprise created wealth and employment
from a public resource. Ironically, this
Public Good was the brainchild of some of
the foremost capitalist entrepreneurs at the
turn of the century, such as Sir Clifford
Sifton, a multimillionaire, the brain
behind the development of the Canadian
west, the man who ran Canada's
Commission on Conservation for nearly a
decade (1911-1919). His counterpart in the
US was the great Gifford Pinchot.
Wildlife management is a success story, a

great achievement that North Americans
can be rightly proud of. Numerous species
of wildlife have rebounded. For example,
beaver was scarce in 1900 and now there
are millions; white-tail deer was at the
500,000 level in 1900, and today we have
over 35 million in North America.
Hunters today support conservation each
time they buy a hunting licence with a
surcharge for the Habitat Conservation
Trust Fund in British Columbia. This trust
fund is used for both habitat and wildlife
conservation projects. Hunters, fishers,
and other conservationists also support
and join organizations such as Ducks
Unlimited, Rocky Mountain Elk
Foundation, BC Wildlife Federation and
other conservation organizations. These
groups and their membership help
support conservation: the wise use of
wildlife and habitat in British Columbia.
North America's system of wildlife

conservation is ingenious! It has managed
to captivate the enthusiasm and support
of the common person, the blue-collar
workers, the rural people who, for many
decades, have been paying dearly for
environmental protection, without
knowing that was what they were doing. It
returned most species from the edge of
extinction, increased wildlife abundance
continually over 80 years, gave rise to new
American professions such as the public
Wildlife Manager, biologist, and
conservation officers/game wardens. It
also organized citizens into a myriad of
conservation organizations, and taxed the
users of wildlife on behalf of wildlife.
Species Abundance
White-tail deer in
North America
1900
500,000
Today
over
35 million
PART I.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List four items that contributed to the loss of wildlife in North America prior to 1900.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List two things a hunter can do to support conservation efforts in British Columbia.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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PART II.
ECOLOGY
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The Importance of Habitat
In this part you will read about:

What is ecology?
Ecology terms
The importance of habitat
Distribution and adaptation
The balance of populations:
Limits to abundance
Stability
Succession (habitat change)
Population dynamics
Habitat in British Columbia
All living things have four fundamental

needs: food, water, shelter, and space. An
animals habitat or "address" must provide
these four basic needs. Each species of animal
has its own habitat requirements. It seems
obvious that wild animals need adequate
habitat in order to survive; yet many people
dont understand the vital role of habitat,
although they are keen to protect animals.
Without protecting habitat, protecting
individual animals becomes meaningless.
What is Ecology?
Food
Ecology is the science of the environment;

the study of how the world functions as a
unit. It is important to understand the
basics of ecology, as we humans are only
one of approximately 1,300,000 types of
organisms that share the planet.
All animals need food to meet their energy

needs: to grow, reproduce, escape predators,
and survive chilling winters or long
migrations. Each species selects very
particular foods from many items that are
present in its environment. Not just any
kind of food will do. For a bighorn sheep to
survive, for example, there must be enough
grass to last the winter, and the grass must
also have sufficient nutritional value. The
quality of food, as well as the amount
present, is important for survival. Food
quality may vary with the season, or even
the location. Food must also be accessible to
the animals. In winter, deep, crusted snows
may bury much of the food supply. An
important objective for wildlife management
is to conserve important feeding areas, and
to increase the amount and quality of food
available for wildlife. Winter food shortage is
the most important limiting factor for many
wildlife species in British Columbia.
Ecology terms.
Organism: refers to all plants and animals,
including humans. These living units
include not only large organisms such as
trees and whales but also the simpler species
such as fungi, bacteria, and protozoa.
Population: a group of individual organisms (such as moose or fir trees) of the
same kind (species). A population may be
local or global, depending on the size of
the area under study.
Community: the populations of plants
and animals living and interacting with
one another in a given locality.
Habitat: the place where an organism
lives in a community, its home. Habitats
may vary widely in size, from an entire
forest to a puddle. An organisms habitat
contains its four essential needs for survival: food, water, shelter, and space.
Shelter
Birds and mammals need shelter or cover to
hide in, and to protect them from bad weather.
Dense vegetation is the most common kind of
cover, but cover may also include rock piles,
burrows in the ground, holes in logs, or water
bodies. Some small animals, like beaver and
muskrats, build their own cover in the form of
houses. Plant cover is removed by many
modern land uses like logging, cattle grazing,
and open pit mining.
Ecosystem: a community of living things

interacting with one another and with
their physical environment (air, water,
soil, wind, etc.). An ecosystem can be a
planet, a forest, a lake, or a fallen log.
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Water
Most species need more than one kind of

habitat, and the best arrangement is where
many patches of the various habitat types
occur fairly close together. Extensive tracts
of a single kind of habitat dont support as
much wildlife. When there is a good
interspersion of different habitats, many
individuals will have ready access to all of
their needs, and the area will support a
larger population.
All animals need water. Many of our

wildlife species get enough water from the
food they eat, such as succulent plants,
but some also need to drink water,
particularly in dry regions like the
Okanagan Valley. Fortunately, water is
well distributed in British Columbia, and
usually not in short supply.
Space
The Balance of Populations:

Limits to Abundance
Animals need space to survive.

Overcrowding leads to severe competition
for food and breeding sites and eventually
to malnutrition and rapid spread of
disease and parasites. Most animals are
territorial to some extent; that is, they will
occupy specific sites. Their territoriality
tends to ensure spacing and prevent overcrowding. Because of the need for space, a
given area will only support so many
animals, no matter how much food, water
or shelter is available.
No matter how good a habitat is, and no

matter how much protection is given to
the animals in it, a given area will only
support so many animals.
The number of animals that an area
will support without damage to the
habitat or to the animals is called the
"carrying capacity."
The uppermost limit on the size of a
population is most often determined not
by the animals themselves but rather by
the availability of food. In general the
growth of plants depends on the supply
of nutrients and solar energy. The
quantity of plant material produced
determines, in turn, the maximum
possible population of herbivores (plant
eaters). The numbers of these animals
will then set a limit to the numbers of
carnivores (meat eaters).
Many wildlife species have very

particular needs for breeding sites. Dense
forest cover is needed by cow elk to
conceal their newborn calves and by treenesting birds to hide their nests. Bald
eagles need large old trees to support
their bulky nests, and these trees must be
near the shorelines where they feed.
Hole-nesting birds need snags and old
trees in which to excavate nests, falcons
need cliff ledges, and seabirds that nest in
colonies need secluded islands. Some
mammals, like wolves and bears, need
particular soil conditions for digging
their maternity dens. Wildlife managers
try to protect breeding sites, and to
improve them where possible.
Distribution and Adaptation
There may be factors other than food

which limit the growth of a population,
and so the maximum size of the population
may never be reached. There may, for
example, be enough food to support a
thousand birds in a certain area but only
suitable nesting sites for one hundred.
The distribution of various species is

determined by both local conditions and
overall geographical features. Local
conditions will determine where certain
species are to be found. The arrangement
of food, cover, water, space, and
particularly breeding sites determines
wildlife numbers and their distribution.
Birds and mammals can increase in

numbers very quickly, and may
temporarily exceed the carrying capacity
of their habitat. This results in social
stress, competition for food, starvation,
greater exposure to disease, predation and
parasites, poor reproductive success, and
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It is the combination of available

food and home range size that helps
define the upper limits to population
growth. Many animals occupy
specific home ranges or territories in
order to ensure that they have
enough food, cover, and breeding
sites to raise their young. The
territory size reflects the carrying
capacity of the habitat; territories
function to limit the number of
animals supported in an area.
Carrying Capacity of the Habitat
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Most animals are food for other

animals, and when their population
increases, so does the number of
predators. Once the prey population
has been reduced, there may be less
food for some predators: their
numbers will decline and equilibrium
may again be restored.
Stability
Organisms, populations, and all
natural systems have some ability to
withstand or to recover from
externally imposed changes or stresses.
In other words, they have some degree
of stability. Nature is remarkably
resilient. For example, plants can
eventually recolonize an area
devastated by volcanoes, fires, and
even paved parking lots. It is not known
how most ecosystems maintain their
stability, and there are a number of theories,
but one factor is thought to be complexity.
Complexity relates to the number of species
and the interdependence of those species
with each other and their environment.
With many different species and ecological
niches, impacts are more widely shared, and
the system has more ways to respond to
environmental changes. A parallel to this
idea is the fact that a city with a variety of
industries is more stable economically than
one where the economy is based only on
one or a small number of products. In other
words, "variety is the spice of life."
damage to the habitat. For example,

multiplying muskrats can very quickly eat
all the vegetation in a marsh, and then die
out. Subsequently the damaged habitat
has a reduced carrying capacity. A good
trapper will watch the effects that
muskrats are having on marsh vegetation
and harvest the excess population before
it damages the habitat.
In British Columbia, the carrying
capacity of many wildlife habitats is
determined by winter weather. There may
be an excess of available food, cover, and
space in summer, but not enough in
winter. This is particularly true for species
that eat plants because the vegetation
dies back in winter, may be covered by
snow, and is less nutritious.
Unfortunately, we humans often simplify

the complex systems of nature for our
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own benefit and use. Every dam, cornfield,

highway, pipeline, and use of insecticides
makes ecosystems more simple. We burn
or bulldoze fields and forests containing
thousands of interrelated plants and
animals and cover the lands with
buildings, roads, or fields usually
containing single crops, such as wheat,
corn, or alfalfa. However, due to their
simplicity, fast-growing, one-crop systems
are highly vulnerable. They must be
protected with chemicals, time, money
and energy resources. Just a single disease
or pest can wipe out an entire crop unless
we protect it with pesticides and
herbicides, and support the crops growth
with chemical fertilizers, irrigation, or
other means to overcome natural limits.
Succession can also be human-caused. A

disturbance such as a forest fire, logging,
or land clearing will accelerate the natural
processes of change. For example, after
logging or a fire in a coniferous forest, a
rich growth of grasses and other herbs
becomes established along with the
animal species favoured by them.
They are gradually replaced by shrubs and
seedling trees, often by fast-growing species
such as willow or lodge pole pine, and still
other animals. These are eventually
replaced by a dense growth of conifers,
which then grow into a mature forest that
supports associated animals. Succession can
take decades, or even centuries, depending
on the plant and animal species involved
and site characteristics such as soil,
elevation, and climate.
Succession (Habitat Change)

Communities are always changing and
dynamic, never static. Most of the natural
changes in a system result from the
interactions between the soil, plants, and
animals in the area. These changes are
known as "succession." An example of long
term succession is the gradual change of a
lake, first to a marsh, then to a meadow,
and finally to a forest. The process may take
thousands of years as the lake gradually fills
with sediment and one kind of community
replaces another. Shorter-term successional
changes are more apparent to people,
because dramatic differences can be seen
within a lifetime or less.
Human-caused succession may also

include the prevention of natural
wildfires, and livestock grazing.
Fire is recognized as a valuable tool for
wildlife forest managers. On the other
hand, prevention of natural fires often
results in vegetation community, which is
of low value to many types of wildlife.
Also, the accumulation of deadfall and
dry underbrush, which would have
undergone normal, periodic burning, can
result in severe massive blazes that can
impair long-term productivity by
Stages of Succession
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diminishing the soil base. However,

logging and prescribed burning can
replace natural wildfire on most sites.
measures such as winter feeding of starving

deer or moose only intensifies the real
problem of bringing the population into
balance with its habitat. Birth rate and death
rate are two processes of major importance in
population dynamics. Since most animals
produce many offspring, and we do not see
the population numbers constantly
increasing, it follows that the death rate is
also high. Those with the highest birth rates
also have high death rates. The causes of
death, such as starvation, disease, predation,
accidents, weather, and hunting are called
mortality factors. For example, weather can
cause great variation in both the production
and the survival of young. Any of the
mortality factors may be important in
particular places at particular times.
Wildlife biologists take the different birth
and death rates into account when
managing wildlife populations.
Excessive livestock grazing may maintain

grasslands in a perpetual early vegetation
stage by removing organic material and
thereby limiting soil development e.g.,
guinea pigs in yard. Tastier plant species
are eaten first, before the less palatable
ones. Plants that are short-lived and that
produce many seeds are often passed over
in favour of the longer-lived species;
many of the grassland weeds are annual
grasses and herbs.
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Population Dynamics (cycle)

Population dynamics refers to the changes
in structure and composition that occur in
populations. Density, age, and
productivity are the three main
considerations of population dynamics.
Habitat in British Columbia

It should be obvious by now that suitable
habitat is a critical requirement for the
survival of wildlife. Most management
decisions are subject to the limitations of
living space for the animals.
There are many environmental factors

necessary for the growth of an animal
population. Food, water, breeding areas, and
a variety of other factors combine to limit
the carrying capacity of a habitat. Animal
populations respond to a change in the
carrying capacity with a corresponding
change in numbers: if conditions improve,
the population will increase; and if
conditions degrade or habitat is lost, the
population will decrease. Wild animals can
never be "stockpiled" in excess of the
carrying capacity of a habitat; temporary
British Columbia has fourteen distinct

climates, which are superimposed on six basic
land systems. When combined, they form 26
distinct regional ecosystems. For simplicitys
sake the province can be separated into six
kinds of land, each with a different climates,
soils, habitats and land uses:
(1) The lowlands, which are composed of
the large basins, the Rocky Mountain
Trench and the Fraser Delta. They have
the warmest and driest climates and the
most productive soils in the province.
These areas have the most productive
soils, the most productive big game
winter ranges, and the greatest diversity
of wildlife species in the province.
Unfortunately, these areas are also the
most sought-after by humans for
habitation, industrial, agricultural and
forestry activities, and for construction
of roads, railway lines and power lines.
Animal Numbers
Population Cycle Seasonal Comparisons

Peak Population count after
birth of young
Breeding Stock
Losses to
starvation
and other
factors
Survivors
(Breeding Stock)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
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(2) The plateaus and valley bottoms

within the mountains. These areas
are generally used as summer ranges
by big game, but there is some winter
range potential along the floodplains,
on the southern slopes, and in the
old-growth forests. The primary
land use is logging. Nearly all
hydroelectric reservoirs are built in
this setting, and agriculture is most
often marginal.
(5) The Northeast or Alberta Plateau of the

northern boreal plain. The extensive clay
and silt soils that were laid down in large
glacial lakes coupled with the long, subarctic summer days are suitable for cereal
grain production. This area has productive
oil and natural gas reserves. There are
moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer and
elk winter ranges in the lowland areas,
while the uplands are used as both
summer range and extensive winter range
for moose and caribou.
(3) The isolated coastal inlets, islands and

estuaries. These are often steeply
forested, rocky areas with little access to
the large population centres except by
boat or over logging roads. Camps or
small towns are usually located on the
productive estuaries. Land use is mainly
logging, although there is some mining.
Productive wildlife habitat is restricted
to the estuaries, the seepage zone above
the ocean and isolated islands.
(6) The northern wilderness. These areas are

boreal or sub-arctic mountains and
plateaus. Few people live here, and the few
established communities are small and
scattered. The main land use practices are
guide-outfitting and mining. These areas
represent the largest wilderness in the
province and are the domain of Stones
sheep, woodland caribou, mountain goat,
wolf, grizzly bear and moose.
(4) The southern roadless mountainous

areas. These areas are the rugged,
upper mountain areas and highelevation basins. They contain some of
the most rugged and inhospitable land
in the province: the Coast, the Selkirk
and the Purcell Mountains. There is
very little human land use, except for
the occasional mine. The most
prevalent big game species are
mountain goat, grizzly bear and blacktailed deer and mule deer.
In measuring habitat, we must consider

quality as well as quantity of land. Many of
the areas critical for wildlife are also in great
demand by humans for other reasons. Valleys
are good habitat for many animals but,
unfortunately, also make the best agricultural
areas or good reservoirs. Delta areas essential
for waterfowl breeding often have high real
estate potential. Where we share areas used by
wildlife, as in cattle ranching, we often ignore
the needs of the native wildlife for the sake of
other land use interests.
PART II.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the four fundamental needs for all living things.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Define the word following terms:
a. Habitat __________________________________________________________________
b. Carrying capacity ________________________________________________________
c. Succession ______________________________________________________________
3. List the six basic land systems found in British Columbia. ________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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PART III.
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
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In this part you will read about:

How wildlife is classified
What is wildlife management?
Wealth of wildlife
Protection of wildlife
Protection through reserved lands
Management of the habitat
Predator control
Transplanting
Management of the hunt
Types of hunting seasons
Population inventory
Hunter sampling techniques
Endangered species. These species are in

danger of extinction, as humans (or some
natural process) have encroached upon or
destroyed their habitat. British Columbia
animals on the endangered species list
include the white pelican, the burrowing
owl, and the Vancouver Island marmot.
In the following section, the main

principles and practices of wildlife
management are outlined, as well as
some of its challenges and limitations.
Wildlife management is a bewildering term to

many people. Part of the reason for this is that
the field as we know it today is relatively new:
the first provincial wildlife biologist was hired
as recently as 1947. Many people do not
understand the concepts and practises behind
wildlife management. Why would a moose or
a robin need to be managed? Cant we just let
nature take its course? In a wilderness setting
sometimes we can, but sadly, there is little true
wilderness left, even in a province as large as
British Columbia. There are no places where
we humans have not intruded in some way,
changing the environment and using natural
resources to suit our own purposes. The
concept "wild" creates some problems, for
"wilderness" and "wild" generally mean "in the
absence of humans". In attempting to manage
wildlife, we, as humans, are obviously
influencing them, but a measure of our
success is the degree to which we keep
wilderness and wildlife "wild." In British
Columbia, wildlife management is a
complicated, many faceted field that involves
the public, the users, private industry,
government managers, and lawmakers.
Threatened species. These species are also in

danger but their position is not so acute. Both
endangered and threatened species are
protected under the Wildlife Act.
What is Wildlife Management?
How wildlife is classified

Wildlife species are classified into the
following categories:
Game animals are defined by law and
are generally valued for food, for
particular products, such as hides or
feathers, and for the hunting
opportunities they provide. Big game
animals include bear, caribou, deer,
elk, mountain goats and sheep, and
moose. Upland game birds include
grouse, ptarmigan, ring-necked
pheasant, and others. Migratory game
birds include ducks, geese, band-tailed
pigeons, and some shore birds.
Furbearing animals are defined by law
and are generally valued for furs. Other
parts of the animals such, as the meat,
are usually unimportant. Furbearing
animals include lynx, coyote, pine
marten, and mink.
Wealth of Wildlife
British Columbia has more diversity in its
landscape than any other province in
Canada. British Columbias large size,
coastal location, and mountain ranges
present a great variety of terrain and
contrasting climates. There is also a great
Non-game animals are those not

hunted for sport or trapped for their furs.
Songbirds, predatory birds, small
mammals, reptiles, and amphibians are
included in this category.
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diversity of plant life. Within the province

there are grasslands, shrublands, alpine
tundra, arid areas and swamps, lake-land
and river bottoms, as well as many kinds
of forests such as coastal rain forests,
boreal, and subalpine forests.
wildlife management programs in British

Columbia are primarily the responsibility of
the Wildlife Branch. However, the provincial
Wildlife Branch has little control over the
land and habitat upon which wildlife
depends. Much of the provinces land base is
either controlled by other government
agencies (92%) or privately owned (7.5%).
Even on the best habitat where the land has
been assigned to the Wildlife Branch (less
than 1%), prior resource commitments, such
as timber or range, impede wildlife habitat
management. Thus, a major component of
the Wildlife Branch management strategy is
the participation in cooperative planning
processes with other government agencies
and with private developers.
In this geographic and climatic mix there

are many different sorts of habitats, or
places for wildlife to live, and many kinds
of animals are able to live in British
Columbia - considerably more species of
birds and mammals than in any other
province. Seventy-one percent of all the
kinds of birds that nest in Canada, and
74% of the mammal species that live in
Canada, are found in British Columbia.
Many people benefit from British
Columbias diverse wildlife heritage.
Wildlife provides food; income for trappers,
hunting and tour guides, fur traders, and
taxidermists; recreational hunting for city
and country dwellers alike; opportunity for
scientific research; study for naturalists; and
aesthetic pleasure for everyone.
Many government ministries and resource

laws are designed to promote development
and profit on an individual resource
management level. Often these efforts are
conflicting or contradictory, and require
government intervention and an overall
integrated provincial land-use planning
policy. Without such a process, wildlife
habitat will be protected and managed only
on a local area basis. However, through
coordinated planning, there are a number
of options open for wildlife managers
through cooperation with other ministries,
private foundations, and other agencies.
Wildlife, like forests, water, fisheries, and

soils, is a natural resource. Wildlife is used
directly by many people and influenced
directly and indirectly by the numerous
ways humans use other natural resources.
Wildlife management employs our
understanding of how animals, their
environment, and people interact. It
operates through programs such as habitat
protection and improvement, harvest
regulation, and wildlife protection to ensure
the present and future welfare of wildlife.
Protection Through Reserved Lands

British Columbias over 600 species of
birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals
receive protection in a number of parks
and reserves set aside for general
conservation purposes, and also in places
set aside specifically for wildlife.
Wildlife management falls into several

categories, such as protection and
management. This section will review the
main objectives and procedures that form
the basis for managing wildlife.
Additional lands in and around the fringes

of many towns are closed to hunting,
mainly for human safety, but nevertheless
provide effective year-round rest areas for
many kinds of wildlife. Many regional and
municipal parks, particularly on the Lower
Mainland and Vancouver Island, provide
safe refuges and protect wildlife habitat.
Local sanctuaries operated by conservation
groups also provide small refuges.
Protection of Wildlife
The protection of wildlife involves both
provincial and federal legislation, planning
agreements, and enforcement. Under
authority of the provincial Wildlife Act,
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Reserved lands represent one end of the

spectrum of wildlife management, where
species and their habitats are preserved
to the benefit of hikers, campers,
photographers, birdwatchers, and all
students of nature.
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Livestock grazing can be damaging to

ground-nesting birds by the removal of
cover and through trampling. However,
by changing the grazing period to follow
the nesting season, grazing and wildlife
can be compatible. By reducing the
number of livestock that graze a range, or
by better stock distribution through
proper fencing, and waterhole and salt
development, there can be forage for both
livestock and wildlife.
Management of the Habitat.

The state, age, and condition of a species
habitat are critical to wildlife abundance.
Through natural causes, important
wildlife habitat may become unsuitable
for the production of some animals, as
when a burned-over forest that can
provide ample winter forage for moose
becomes dominated by second-growth
lodgepole pine, and the forage production
is reduced to near zero.
Predator Control
Of all activities that a wildlife manager or the
government does in the name of wildlife
management, none is more controversial
than predator control. There are several ways
to consider animals: as individuals,
populations, or as part of an ecosystem.
Logging and burning are responsible for

significant changes in wildlife distribution
and abundance. Forest harvesting which
displaces one or more species often leads to
major improvements in habitat conditions
for other species. Certain species, such as
woodland caribou, pine marten and
pileated woodpeckers, are dependent upon
old growth or mature forests, while other
species such as moose, snowshoe hares,
and blue grouse do best in shrublands.
Logging or burning, removes the forest
canopy, exposes the soil surface to
sunlight, releases nutrients, thereby
increasing growth of herbaceous plants.
Thus, while the habitat of old growth,
forest-dependent species may be destroyed
by logging or fire, other species that are
dependent upon early shrub communities
often benefit. However, generalizations are
often misleading, since some species may
require both old growth and shrub
communities, depending upon such
factors as human disturbance, snowdepth, winter and summer temperatures,
and season of use. The great diversity and
complexity of habitats and wildlife
requirements in British Columbia, coupled
with the complexities of individual species
requirements, makes it essential that
wildlife management be incorporated into
forest management.
Control of livestock predators such as

wolves, cougars, and coyote is conducted
regularly in agricultural areas. Black bear and
lynx are also controlled. Society has deemed
that the protection of livestock comes first in
these cases. Predators are also controlled
around fish and poultry farms.
Predators may also be reduced to protect big
game stocks when the wildlife manager is
faced with trying to manage one species
(deer, moose, caribou, etc.) while another
(wolves, cougar, coyotes, etc.) is causing
excessive mortality. The choices are not
simple, for the management of one species
or population may be in conflict with the
management of others. Also, various sectors
in our society place different values on
predators and game species.
26
Transplanting
harvestable surplus. The only populations

that do not have such a surplus are those
that are declining due to diminishing
habitat or those that have only adults that
are past their reproductive years.
Animal populations have often been

wiped out in areas through human
activities, or sometimes habitat may be
vacant naturally, simply because a species
never found it. Through the capture and
transplant of individuals to these ranges,
new populations can become established.
Several herds of California and Rocky
Mountain bighorn sheep, and Rocky
Mountain and Roosevelt elk have become
established in British Columbia in this
way, which helps to augment our natural
populations. In most cases, these
transplants have been so successful that
hunting seasons have been permitted.
Humans hunt only select species of wildlife,

for their fur, meat, trophy value, or the
challenge they bring to the hunt itself.
Hunting seasons can take many forms, from
open, autumn-long seasons on grouse and
ducks, to more restricted seasons on males,
e.g., pheasants. Animals with high
reproductive rates that are sought after for
food generally have a longer season than do
animals that are hunted as trophies or that
have low reproductive rates. However, some
animals, such as elk and moose, may belong
to both groups, food as well as trophy
animals. General Open Seasons on the males
often reduce the number of both young
males and mature or prime breeding males.
The number of yearling or mature females
that are harvested can be similarly effected.
Restrictive seasons must be placed in order to
provide adequate numbers of breeding
females to maintain the herd, while hunters
can pursue the harvestable surplus.
Management of the Hunt

In pioneer days, British Columbia settlers
could shoot almost any wildlife anywhere,
any time. Gradually, restrictions on
hunting have increased to protect and
conserve the provinces wildlife.
Regulations are based on estimated
population numbers, habitat evaluations,
and external pressures on the populations.
The number of young produced by each
wildlife species varies. Frogs and toads
produce thousands of tadpoles. Grouse,
ducks, and varying hares produce 8 - 14
young per year. Deer, moose, and elk,
while capable of producing twins and
even triplets, average one young per adult
female each year. Female grizzly bears
generally only produce one cub every two
years. Therefore, the number of each
species that can be harvested and still not
diminish the population varies with the
reproductive capacity of that species.
Types of Hunting Seasons

In British Columbia there are two main types
of hunting seasons: General Open Seasons
and Limited Entry Hunting. General Open
Seasons provide equal opportunity for
anyone with a valid hunting licence and the
appropriate species licences to hunt. Harvest
restrictions are placed on the length of
season, sex, and age of animals to be hunted.
There is no restriction on the number of
hunters who may participate, or where they
can hunt within a Management Unit.
Animals produce more young than the

habitat can sustain into adulthood.
Through diseases, starvation, predation or
accident, no more animals will attain
adulthood than the habitat can sustain;
through habitat manipulation and the
elimination of predators this number can
be increased, but there still will be more
animals born than will be maintained as
adults. This principle is called the
Limited Entry Hunting provides equal

opportunity for anyone with a valid
Hunter Number to submit his or her name
for entry in any draw in the province.
However, the number of eligible permits
has been predetermined by the Wildlife
Branch's Regional Wildlife Biologists. As
with General Open Seasons, harvest
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restrictions are placed on the length of

season, sex, and age of animals to be
hunted. In addition, the number of each
sex or age and the length of season for
each permit can be assigned.
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improvement in optics, primarily nightvision scopes; by the advancement of

remote sending imagery; and by the
development of electronic technology,
particularly computers and radio
transmitters. It has also been enhanced
through new knowledge about the game
species biology, behaviour, and habitat
requirements. For many species, it is easier
to measure and assess habitat components
than to attempt actual population
inventories. This is due to several factors
such as the seasonal fluctuations of
populations, the difficulty and expense
of observing and or tracking individual
animals, and the complexities of
external influencing factors such as
predation and competition.
Limited Entry Hunting provides an

opportunity for hunting big game of
limited supply which would otherwise
have to be closed in General Open Season
hunting. Limited Entry Hunting also
provides for better hunter distribution and
better selection of animals of specific age
and sex. General Open Seasons provide the
hunter with opportunistic hunting, with
less planning and a greater choice of
hunting areas.
Population Inventory
In order to exert careful control over the
level and nature of the harvest of game,
wildlife managers need a great deal of
information about game populations. Most
important, they need an estimate of the
number of animals in the hunted
population, and the number taken each
year. Estimating the number of animals
present is called "inventory." Biologists use
aerial surveys for most big game animals,
particularly in interior and northern British
Columbia. The animals may be counted and
classified on sample plots or entire winter
ranges. When leaves have fallen from the
trees and snow is on the ground, dark
animals like moose are fairly easy to spot.
Therefore, wildlife managers need to look

for an appropriate mix of population and
habitat evaluations to support their
management decisions. Once wildlife
habitat is classified, selective population
surveys can be done to monitor
population status, and to provide
benchmark carrying capacity estimates.
Long-term monitoring of wildlife
populations can be done through a
combination of habitat assessment and
periodic population surveys.
However, animals like coast black-tailed

deer, grizzly bears and blue grouse, which
occur year round in fairly dense cover, are
much harder to spot. A different approach
must be used for them. Managers use
clues such as trends in observed animals,
hunter success, or the ages of harvested
animals to provide an index of the status
of a population.
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Checklis
Species
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Moos
Deer
Elk
Sheep
Bear
To be realistic, an inventory should also

assess the land base that sustains the
population. Our ability to inventory has
been enhanced by the use of aerial surveys,
using airplanes and helicopters; by
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Hunter Sampling Techniques

Several hunter sampling techniques are
important inventory tools in determining
the age and numbers of animals
harvested. Information about animals
harvested is gained through compulsory
reporting, mailed questionnaires,
telephone surveys, and other programs.
Mailed questionnaires and telephone

surveys assist the Wildlife Branch and
the Canadian Wildlife Service in
determining the numbers of hunters in
each Management Unit, the length of
their hunts, and their success. Thus,
changes in harvesting and hunting
pressure can be detected.
The Wildlife Branch requires that species

that are in limited supply or that have
critical population limits, such as cougar,
grizzly bear, mountain goats, and
mountain sheep, be inspected by a
Wildlife official. The purpose is to
determine the age and sex of the animals
being harvested as a means of monitoring
the population.
An important method of aging the

harvested animals is through the tooth
return program. By grinding the tooth
root lengthwise, the annual growth rings
can be counted to determine the animals
age. Hunters provide these teeth to the
Wildlife Branch. Check the Hunting and
Trapping Regulations Synopsis for the rules
for the Tooth for the Truth program.
PART III.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List five examples of game animals found in British Columbia. __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List two examples of game birds found in British Columbia. ______________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List three examples of a furbearing animals found in British Columbia.____________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List one example of an endangered species found in British Columbia. ____________

______________________________________________________________________________
5. What branch of the Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection is primarily responsibility
for Wildlife Management in British Columbia? __________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List two types of hunting seasons found in British Columbia. ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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CONSERVATION
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take approximately
10 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material found in this chapter.
Use the answer sheet provided at the bottom of the page to record your answers.
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The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you have completely
answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the material found in this chapter to
check your answers.
Complete each Chapter Review Test before calling a CORE Examiner and scheduling an appointment
to challenge the CORE written and practical-firearms handling exams. The CORE Examiner may
request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting you for a challenge test.
1. Wildlife population levels have been increasing in North America for most game species due to
the conservation efforts by hunters, governments and other organizations since the early 1900s.
True
False
2. A community of living things interacting with one another and with their
physical environment is called:
a.
Organism
b.
Population
c.
Ecosystem
d.
Habitat
3. What are the four fundamental needs for all living things?
a.
Food, shelter, water, space.
b.
Food, space, water, friendship.
c.
Shelter, space, stability, succession.
d.
Stability, succession, food, shelter.
4.In British Columbia, the carrying capacity of many wildlife habitats is determined
by ______________weather?
a. Spring
b. Summer
c. Fall
d. Winter
5. Wildlife survival depends primarily upon protection from predators.

True
False
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6. Which animal is considered an endangered species in British Columbia?

a. Beaver
b. Vancouver Island marmot
c. Moose
d. Coyote
7. The protection of wildlife falls solely under provincial legislation.
True
False
8. In a General Open Hunting Season you can shoot as much wildlife as you wish.
True
False
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____
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Chapter
Ethics &
Game Care
GOAL
The student will explain acceptable/unacceptable behaviours and attitudes
by hunters and other outdoor recreation users based on the use of ethics.
OBJECTIVES
The student will:
1. Define terms related to ethics,
hunting techniques, and game care.
2. State examples of ethical and
non-ethical behaviours employed
by outdoor users and hunters.
3. Explain shot placement, hunting
techniques, and game care methods
used by hunters that help promote
respect for wildlife.
This chapter will be broken

into two parts:
I. Outdoor and hunting ethics
II. Game care and ethics
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Chapter 3 Ethics & Game Care
PART I.
OUTDOOR AND HUNTING ETHICS
No matter what choice of outdoor
recreational activity you participate in,
such as fishing, hunting, camping, bird
watching, etc., unethical behaviour will
sour the publics opinion of that
recreational activity. It will bring pressure
to bear on that activity and could even lead
to its abolishment.
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group. People are judged by their actions.

How we behave and how we act affects
other people. Ethics are sustaining and
important guidelines for living with the
support of others around us.
Very often groups of people share the
same ethical beliefs. When any group or
organization has concerns about the
behaviour of individual members, a Code
of Ethics is often developed as a guide.
Such ethics are often written down, or
may simply be well known and followed
by each member acceptable to the group.
A member that violates the Code of Ethics
is often penalized in some way and will
not benefit from the support of the group,
and perhaps even from those outside it.
In that way hunters are a group similar to
most others. Hunters have a Code of Ethics
and they are judged in society by the values
and deeds of each member and those of the
hunting group as a whole. Without the
Code of Ethics developed by hunters over
the years, today's society would not tolerate
hunting for long in spite of its long and
significant role in human history.
Part one is broken into the

following sections:
1. Terminology
2. General outdoor ethics
3. Hunting ethics
4. Ethical relationships for hunters
1. Terminology
Ethics are standards of behaviour which
are generally considered to be morally
right. Personal ethics begin with standards
of behaviour held and used by individuals.
Such standards allow individuals to enjoy
the privileges of the group to which he or
she belongs and also enable the group to be
acceptable to society as a whole. A personal
decision about what behaviour is right or
wrong must be made by each person in the
Code of Ethics for Hunters

1. Ethical hunters respect the animals we hunt,
and, when we hunt, we do so responsibly.
2. Ethical hunters are students of nature
learning as much as possible about the game pursued,
its habitat, habits, and life cycle.
3. Ethical hunters support the concept of "fair chase."
4. Ethical hunters are skilled in the use of the tools of hunting.
When we shoot, we do so accurately and safely.
5. Ethical hunters are true conservationists who believe in the
sustainable use of natural resources. Our interest in wildlife
and the environment includes non-game and endangered species.
BCWF May 24, 2000
34
Ethics & Game Care Chapter 3
Some groups even have created a pledge for their members to take and follow
which reflects that group's Code of Ethics.
A Hunters Pledge
Responsible hunting provides unique challenges and rewards.
However, the future of the sport depends on each
hunters behaviour and ethics.
Therefore, as a hunter, I pledge to:
Respect the environment and wildlife.
Respect property and landowners.
Show consideration for non-hunters.
Hunt safely.
Know and obey the law.
Support wildlife and habitat conservation.
Pass on an ethical hunting tradition.
Strive to improve my outdoor skills and understanding of wildlife.
Hunt only with ethical hunters.
By following these principles of conduct each time I go afield, I will give my best to the
sport, the public, the environment and myself. The responsibility to hunt ethically is mine:
the future of hunting depends on me.
Pledge courtesy of the Izaak Walton League - www.iwla.org
Laws are created by governments and set

a standard of behavior that everyone
must follow or face the penalties provided
in the legislation. Sometimes laws are
made to reflect or enforce the ethics of
society as a whole. Todays hunting laws,
in part, reflect the ethics of hunters and
non-hunters alike.
these actions might be ethically correct,

the law generally does not. It is illegal in
British Columbia to be in possession of
wildlife or kill wildlife without a licence or
permit. How would you react if you got
into this situation?
There may be times when a situation arises

in which ethics conflict with the law. This
is what we call an ethical dilemma. For
example, a driver hits and injures an
animal with a vehicle. The driver may feel
that it is an acceptable course of action to
take the animal for treatment. Depending
on the animal's condition, the driver
might even consider that it is morally or
ethically right to end the animals suffering
by killing it. While most people would say
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2. General outdoor ethics
e. Respect all plant and animal life.

Don't needlessly kill other animals
such as snakes. Don't damage land
or vegetation. Don't cut trees,
remove bark, build fires near trees,
dig up plants, or destroy natural
vegetation. Use your axe only
when necessary.
With increasing numbers of people using

the outdoors for recreation, it is essential
that everyone develops a sound sense of
outdoor ethics. Without respect for the
environment or courtesy towards fellow
outdoor recreational users, there will be little
chance for individual enjoyment by anyone.
Here are some common ethical guidelines
that, if used, will demonstrate respect for
the environment and others:
a. Respect trespassing laws. This includes
Crown lands that you may access by
private roads or active logging roads.
Respect old buildings, such as
abandoned farmsteads or linesmen's
sheds. These can provide valuable
shelter in an emergency.
Photo by: Greg Belyea
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Respect all species
The Bull Snake, Pituophis melanoleucus,

is a hissing constrictor from North
America. This snake is also called the
gopher snake in western North
America. It is a constrictor, a snake
that kills by squeezing prey until the
victim can no longer breathe. The Bull
Snake makes a hissing noise; because
of this noise, people sometimes
mistake it for a rattlesnake.
b. All-terrain vehicles are especially

destructive to the environment. Don't
drive vehicles where you may damage
vegetation, cause erosion, or destroy
the aesthetic beauty of an area. Some
ecosystems, such as tidal flats and
alpine meadows, are so delicate that
vegetation can take up to a century to
recover from damage. Stay on the
designated trails.
f. Be careful with fire. Make sure your

fire pit is constructed so the fire will
not spread to tree roots, trees, dry
grass, or other vegetation. Use dead
or fallen wood for your fire.
c. Try to leave only your footprints

behind on the trail, don't litter. Take
everything out of the wilderness that
you took in. Use a litterbag and don't
leave behind such things as plastic
sheeting, shotgun shells, cases, cans,
glass or film wrappings. Besides spoiling the appearance of the area, they
can be dangerous to wildlife.
3. Hunting ethics
Good hunting ethics are essential for the
personal satisfaction of each hunter.
They are also important as a means to
gain the respect and understanding of
non-hunters. The lack of ethics will
often result in the loss of hunting
opportunities and stricter controls over
the use of firearms and hunting.
d. In a campsite, watch your noise, pets,

and litter. Properly dispose of human
wastes; these can be a dangerous contaminant and an unpleasant nuisance. It
is particularly important to dispose of
garbage especially where bears are a concern. Do not make a campsite dangerous
by providing attractants or feeding bears.
A good camp should leave no trace.
You may have heard of terms such as

hunter, slob hunter and poacher. What
is the difference? A hunter is someone
who employs hunting ethics. Basically,
hunting ethics are a code of conduct
36
that distinguishes the sportsman from the

slob hunter. Hunting ethics support
behaviour that emphasizes the quality of
the hunting experience and the way the
hunt is conducted.
death that is part of nature. They may not

understand hunting as a part of nature and
human history.
Many people may have no experience with
firearms. They may be uncomfortable
around firearms, or may have a negative
image from TV or films. They may not want
to see hunters carrying firearms in their
vehicles or in the countryside around the
general public.
The slob hunter is someone who hunts

within the rules of law but their actions
will likely offend the general public, e.g.,
driving down the street with a dead
animal on the hood of the car. This type of
action does not bring general public
support to the hunting community.
Improved transportation and increased

recreational time allow non-hunters to
visit and use areas formerly used only by
hunters. Hunters are no longer alone in
the wilderness.
A poacher is a person who purposely goes

out to break the hunting laws and hunting
ethics. A poacher is not a hunter.
4. Ethical relationships for the hunter
Many people have a concern for

environmental quality and endangered
wildlife. Sometimes this concern is not
backed by knowledge of the reasons for
the problems. The concern can easily be
directed at hunters who are seen as "killing
the wildlife." Such attacks on hunting
divert attention away from the real
problems facing wildlife such
as the increasing loss of
crucial habitat.
A high standard of ethics is reflected in a

safe, courteous, and respectful relationship
between hunter and companions, wildlife,
and other individuals.
Ethical hunters must develop positive
relationships and demonstrate ethical
behaviour if they wish to
continue to participate in
the hunting heritage. Ethics
should be considered,
developed, and employed
with the public,
landowners, hunting
companions, wildlife, and
even yourself.
These reasons show that there

is a need for a common
understanding between
hunters and non-hunters.
Understanding, courtesy, and
respect can help bridge the gap.
a. Hunters and the public

A positive public attitude
towards hunting is essential
if the opportunities for
quality hunting are to be
maintained. There are
several reasons why many people find it
difficult to understand or accept hunting.
It is important to understand these
reasons so you can help build a good
relationship with the non-hunting public.
It is the responsibility of every

hunter to improve and
maintain the image of hunting
and hunters. Demonstration of
your own standards of hunting
ethics will help. There are a number of
simple things you can do towards this end:
Respect the sensibilities of others. Don't
display firearms or freshly killed game
where they may offend other people.
What may appeal to you or other
hunters may be repulsive to
non-hunters.
Many people now spend their entire lives

in or around a city. These people have
little contact with nature and the life and
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If you are transporting a carcass, don't

display it unnecessarily. Don't tie a deer
carcass to your car or leave a gut pile by
the roadside.
guidelines that, if used, will demonstrate

respect for landowners:
Always ask permission to hunt on or
travel across private land. Try to ask
before the season opens so you do not
disturb the landowner early in the
morning of your hunt, and so you
know well in advance where you can
hunt. If you are refused, respect this
decision gracefully.
Don't display your firearms in your vehicle. When you carry one in public, carry
it in a case or broken down and wrapped.
Don't shoot where it may alarm or offend
others, near buildings or where people
may be engaged in other activities.
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If given permission to hunt, make sure

the landowner knows how many people
you are bringing; keep your party small.
Written permission is best as a
Conservation Officer may ask to see it.
Many states/provinces have created a
standard form that can be presented to
the land owner for signature. See the
example given below.
Obey the rules of safe firearms handling

and the laws governing hunting and
firearms. Encourage others to do the same.
On public lands, show the same respect
for other users of the land and their
property that you show to private
landowners. Don't litter and don't harm
the vegetation. Use your vehicle only
on roadways and designated trails, and
limit its use to travel to and from your
hunting area.
Never assume that, because other

hunters have obtained permission to
hunt on a particular piece of property,
the invitation extends to you. Obtain
permission yourself every time you will
hunt in a particular area.
Don't use alcohol or drugs when you are

hunting. If you consume alcohol after
hunting make sure your firearms are
safely stored first. Limit your
drinking in camp and ensure that
your actions do not offend others.
Try to understand the position or
beliefs of non-hunters. Accept the
fact that they are sincere in their
beliefs. Show them an example of
good hunting behaviour.
b. Hunters and landowners

Hunting on private property is a
privilege and not a right. The
continuation of this privilege depends
entirely on the understanding and
respect of the landowner. Each time
another landowner is offended
hunters lose more potential hunting
area. Good hunter-landowner
relations are based on courtesy.
Here are some common ethical
Landowner/Hunter Form
Permission to hunt.
I grant permission for the following hunter
to hunt on my property.
From (landowner): _____________________________
To (hunter): ___________________________________
Landowners Signature: _________________________

Property Address/Location: ______________________
__________________________________________
Date: _________________________________________
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When hunting, take extra care

to avoid disturbing livestock.
When entering a farmyard,
always unload your firearms.
Never shoot in the vicinity
of the landowner's buildings
or livestock.
Never harass or damage any
domestic animals or
equipment. If you hunt with a
dog, ensure that it does not
harass cattle, chickens, or other
animals (including the
landowner's dog).
Leave all gates as you find them. If they
were closed, make sure they are securely
latched again behind you. Never cut a
fence. When you cross fences, avoid
loosening the wires or posts.
Before you leave, thank the landowner

for the privilege of hunting the
property. Offer to share your bag, or
offer to help out on the property.
Send a thank you card or Christmas
card to show you appreciate the
landowners generosity.
Don't litter the land with empty shell

boxes, shells or cases, cans, bottles,
cigarette packages, or other forms
of garbage.
Remember, a landowner has no respect

for those who trespass. For the time it
takes to ask, why not feel welcome and
know you may come back again.
Be sure neither you nor your dog run

over seeded land or growing crops.
When driving, keep your vehicle on
the trail or road at all times. Don't
leave ruts on hillsides that may cause
soil erosion.
c. Hunters and their hunting

companions
True sportsmanship begins with your
fellow hunters. Being courteous,
cooperative and safe will make a
hunting trip enjoyable for all.
Tension and discomfort will ruin a
hunt for everyone.
When parking your vehicle, don't block

others' access to buildings, equipment
or roadways.
Safety is also important for everyone on

the hunt.
If you notice anything wrong on the

property, such as vandalism, a broken
fence or injured livestock, report it to the
landowner as soon as possible.
Some common ethical guidelines which,

if used, will demonstrate respect for
hunting companions are:
Limit the amount of game you and your

companions take from the property.
Take less than the bag limit, since the
landowner may also be a hunter.
Show consideration for your

companions. Be on time and ready
to go at the start of the hunt. Don't
invite people to join your group
unexpectedly.
Don't hunt on one piece of property so

often that you wear out your welcome.
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A well-trained dog can make a

wonderful hunting companion. For
some types of migratory and upland
game bird hunting and retrieval, a
trained dog is almost a necessity for a
successful and productive hunt. You may
use a dong in the hunting and trailing of
some big game species, keeping in mind
the restrictions described in the current
Don't do anything to interfere with

another's hunt. Don't shoot into an area
where you know or think others may be
hunting. Don't try to intercept game
others are hunting. Work out disputes
calmly if they arise.
Don't take an unfair number of the shots.
Give your companions the advantage of
getting a good shot whenever possible.
Show special consideration for
inexperienced or handicapped hunters by
allowing them to hunt from the most
advantageous position.
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These are some common ethical

guidelines which, if used, will
demonstrate respect for hunting
companions and the use of dogs while
hunting:
Invite a novice hunter to hunt with you each

season. Share your hunting knowledge and
experience and introduce the new hunter to
the enjoyment of hunting ethically.
Only use dogs when it is lawful for the

game you are hunting.
Don't shoot over your bag limit to fill the

bag limit of others. Don't shoot more
game than you plan to use.
Use only well-trained dogs. Puppies and

untrained dogs should be left at home.
Never feed, touch, play with, or give
commands to someone else's dog
without the owner's permission.
Observe the rules of safe gun handling at

all times. Insist that everyone you are with
follow the same safety rules.
Make sure your dog is not in the line

of fire, and does not interfere with
other hunters.
When travelling, confine your firearm

and equipment to the smallest space
possible. Don't rest your firearm against
anything that may be harmed or against a
companion's firearm, dog, or equipment.
Keep your dog in top condition and

teach it to be well mannered in camp.
Don't leave dogs unattended or in locked
vehicles when it is hot.
Do your share of the work around

your camp. Don't grumble about the
details of who does what or how
much your share is.
Respect your companions' equipment;
do not handle another person's firearm
without permission.
Do not settle down for shooting in a
marsh or field less than 200 yards from
the nearest hunter and do not intrude on
the range over which he will be shooting.
When a flight of geese or ducks is
expected from a particular direction,
always locate yourself parallel to the
hunter who was there before you.
40
d. Hunters and wildlife
Never kill anything that you do not

intend to use as food. Don't kill animals
such as bears or other predators because
you think they are dangerous.
Ethical hunters enjoy and respect the

animals being hunted and the variety of
other living things encountered in the
bush. True sportsmen enjoy wildlife year
round, not only during the hunting season.
Kill only the animals you are actually

hunting. Never shoot at any animal for
"target practice."
A hunters pursuit of game should

always be governed by the
"fair chase" principle. Simply
stated, this principle or ethic
demands that a hunter shall
always give his quarry a "fair"
chance to escape.
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Some common ethical

guidelines which, if used,
will demonstrate respect
for wildlife are:
Be certain your firearm is
accurately sighted in before
you go hunting. Practice before
a hunt, and learn the distance
at which you can be most
confident in killing game
quickly and humanely.
Use the appropriate firearm
and ammunition for the game
you are after.
Never waste game meat. Don't kill more
than you will use or are able to bring
back to camp. Consider the time and
how far you will have to carry out game
meat before you make the decision to
shoot. Don't allow meat to spoil through
careless handling or storage.
Never shoot at a group of animals

or flock of birds simply hoping you
might hit one.
Don't shoot until you have a clear shot
at a vital part of the animal. Get as close
as possible to the animal. Strive to make
every kill a clean one.
Save other usable parts of the animal

such as antlers or the hide to give to
someone who will use them.
If you wound a bird or animal, make

every effort possible to find it. Don't
allow a wounded animal to suffer. If a
companion wounds an animal, help
look for it. If you miss a shot, carefully
examine the place where the animal was
to ensure that it was not hit.
Enjoy nature. Let your interest in and

knowledge of wildlife extend beyond
game animals to the variety of other
species that live in the wilderness. Know
and study nature's ways and enjoy it all
year. Become involved in wildlife causes
and organizations, and help protect
wildlife and its habitats.
Don't use illegal hunting methods.

Always give game animals a "fair chase."
41
e. Hunters and their own

personal ethics
hunter too as "success" will not depend

on getting an animal on that particular
hunt. The whole hunting experience
itself is the prize worth going for.
Your personal code of ethics will be

developed as you gain hunting
experience. They are based on your
respect for people, property, all living
things, the environment, and your own
image of yourself.
Which of the above behaviour stages do

you fall into? You do not have to start at
stage one. The hunter's personal code of
ethics will often change as the hunter
passes through these five behaviour stages.
Your personal code of ethics and your

hunting behaviour will likely change
through the years. It is not uncommon for a
hunter to go through five behaviour stages:
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Some common ethical guidelines that, if

used, will help you create a positive
personal code of ethics are:
1) First is the "shooter stage"

a time when shooting firearms is
of primary interest.
Realize that it is your responsibility to

know how to take care of yourself in
the outdoors. Respect your own
limitations. Take a first aid course and
prepare yourself for what may be
needed on the trip.
2) Next is the "limiting out stage"

when the hunter wants, above all,
to bag the legal limit of game.
3) The third stage is the "trophy stage"
here the hunter is selective, primarily seeking out trophy animals of a particular species such as those that he or
she considers are the best eating, the
most difficult to hunt, or of a particular size, age, or colour, etc.
Read, watch videos, take additional

training on topics related to hunting,
wildlife, and conservation. The CORE
program only gives you the basics.
Learning more can be a wonderful and
rewarding life-long pursuit.
Never place your own or another's life in
jeopardy by failing to notify someone
where you intend to hunt and how long
you will be gone. If you change your
plans, leave a note on your vehicle.
4) Then there is the "technique stage"

the emphasis is on HOW the
hunter hunts rather than WHAT a
hunter hunts. Hunter satisfaction, at
this stage, comes from outwitting the
game in its natural element. The fair
chase principle of hunting where the
hunter goes one-on-one with the animal is very important to the hunter in
this stage. The hunter may take great
satisfaction from successfully decoying a flock of Canada geese or from
tracking a deer.
Know and respect your fitness strengths

and limitations. Have regular medical
checkups. Exercise to get yourself fit
before hunting season. Make sure your
glasses or contact lenses are correct for
any visual impairments.
5) The last stage is called the "mellowingout stage" this is a time of enjoyment derived from the total hunting
experience - the hunt, the companionship of other hunters and an appreciation of being outdoors. This stage is
very important to the beginning
42
PART I.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the word "ethics". ______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. List one example of unethical hunting behaviour and indicate what possible
consequences might come from such behaviour. ________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List two examples of ethical behaviour that demonstrate respect for landowners.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List two examples of ethical behaviour that demonstrate respect for hunting partners.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List two examples of ethical behaviour that demonstrate respect for wildlife.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
43
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PART II.
GAME CARE AND ETHICS
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You must keep hunting ethics in mind

when you determine the type of hunting
technique to use, and while on the hunt
itself. In this part we will take you through
the process of preparing for the hunt, the
various hunting techniques used, and the
pursuit and capture of game.
If I get an animal, do I know how to

treat it with respect and how to care for
the meat?
Do I know the legal procedures for
transporting game, reporting the
game caught, and how to cancel my
species licence?
Part two is broken into the

following sections:
1. Preparing for the hunt
2. Hunting techniques
3. Taking the shot
4. Trailing an animal
5. Now the work begins
2. Hunting techniques
The hunting technique employed by a
hunter will say a lot about a hunter's
personal code of hunting ethics. Using an
all-terrain vehicle or 4-wheel drive truck to
scout for wildlife is generally deemed
acceptable by ethical standards. Cutting
additional trails, driving recklessly, and
scaring game from other hunters is an
unethical use of these devices.
1. Preparing for the hunt

There is much to consider when you are
preparing for a hunt. You have completed
the CORE program and have obtained a
resident hunter number card. You have
bought your hunting and species licences.
Are you ready to go?
The hunter on foot will generally pursue

game using four common hunting
techniques. They are:
Still-hunting
Stalking
Stand-hunting
Driving
Consider what was discussed above in the

outdoor and hunting ethics sections of
this chapter. Ask yourself these questions:
The species you are hunting, the area in

which you are hunting, and issues such
as safety must be considered when
selecting a hunting technique.
Ethics also play an important role in
hunting techniques.
Do I have enough knowledge and skill

for a safe and enjoyable hunt?
Who will be my hunting companion
and what relationship have I established
with that person?
Have my hunting companion and I
thoroughly prepared for the trip and hunt?
Is my rifle suitable for the species we
plan to hunt, is it sighted in, and can I
use it safely and effectively?
Where will we go hunting, public or
private land? If private land, do I have
the owners permission and have I
developed a positive relationship with
the landowner?
Can I identify the animals or birds I am
hunting, other game that I might see,
and do I know their vital areas?
If I take the shot will I be able to
recover the animal?
a. Still-hunting is a technique in which

you move slowly and deliberately
through prime game territory, stopping
often to watch and listen.
The hope is that game will come into your
hunting area while you are standing
motionless and you will get a shot before
the animal even knows you are there.
Sometimes, game will come into your
area, but not close enough to shoot. In
these situations, you may need to
combine still-hunting with another
hunting technique called stalking.
44
b. Stalking is the slow, patient movement

of the hunter into a good shooting
position after game has been located.
cattails, grasses, or other natural materials

found in your hunting location. Or, they
can be made out of tarps, burlap, or other
man-made materials. Bird hunters and
bow hunters like to use blinds.
To be successful, the most important part
about stand-hunting is selecting a good
location with as wide a view as possible,
such as the intersection of several game
trails, feeding, gathering, or other wellused areas. Wind direction is often very
important, too. Try to position your blind
downwind from the animals' location.
Like still-hunting, stalking is best

accomplished in areas of quiet ground
cover, where you can walk without
making noise. It is also helpful to have
trees, shrubs, grass, or other items that you
can move between and hide behind as you
attempt to sneak up on your quarry.
Perhaps most important is wind direction.
Always try to move into the wind, so the
wind carries your sound and scent away
from the animal you are stalking.
Using a stand may also require the hunter

to be able to call in the wildlife. Duck
hunters will put duck decoys out in front
of their blind and call in the ducks so that
they will fly towards the blind. Turkey
hunters will put turkey decoys in front of
their blind. Turkey hunters have been shot
when some other hunter misidentified a
turkey decoy and shot at it. Never use the
stalking hunting techniques when
hunting a turkey.
Stalking can be dangerous if there are

several hunters who are stalking the same
animal without knowing the other hunter
is in the area.
When still-hunting and stalking, your
emotions, tempered with your level of
hunting experience, can affect the manner
in which you pursue the game. An ethical
hunter always identifies the target and the
area beyond the target before shooting.
This is done for the safety of your hunting
companions, the public, and the wildlife.
Ethical hunters never shoot at sounds or
what they only think may be a legal
animal. An ethical hunter will strive to
make every kill a quick and clean one.
In some states and provinces in North

America it is legal and is ethically acceptable
to bait an animal, e.g., the bow hunter puts
bait below his stand to attract a bear. In
British Columbia, that practice is illegal for
bears and migratory bird hunting and is
deemed unethical by many hunters for any
species. Check the hunting regulations.
c. In stand-hunting, or hunting from a

blind, you select a location where you
can see an area that is used by game
animals, and you stand (or sit) there
until game comes along.
d. Driving is the term used for a situation

in which one or more hunters (called the
drivers or pushers) walk through an area
trying to push game ahead of them into
areas where other hunters (called blockers,
posters, or standers) are waiting.
Pre-season scouting is critical to finding a

good stand location. This is an important
time for the ethical hunter to develop
positive relationships with landowners.
Driving can be effective in certain

situations, but it can also be dangerous!
Remember, in this situation, you have
hunters facing each other looking for shot
opportunities. The hunters must be totally
alert and careful at all times.
Stands can be as simple as a spot behind a

fallen log or rock, or as elaborate as a
covered platform in a tree or on stilts. A
blind is a stand that is designed to hide
the hunter from the game animal. Blinds
can be made out of sticks or tree branches,
The only way this method can be used

safely is if the hunters can see the others
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clearly as they approach, and if the shooter

is careful not to shoot if the animal is near
or in front of another hunter.
1) Have I properly identified the species?

2) If yes, is it legal to shoot this species
e.g., is it a six-point elk?
If you want to try this method, select

open areas with a lot of visibility, and wear
blaze orange so you and others will be
clearly seen.
3) Is it completely safe to take the shot?

4) Do I have an opportunity for a good
shot, e.g., a quick, clean kill?
The ethical hunter will allow other hunters

the opportunity to shoot while they share
the workload in driving the game.
5) If I shoot, can I recover the animal

considering its location, the time of
day, and the time that may be
needed for retrieval?
3. Taking the shot

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While hunting you have heard elk and

have bugled to call them into your
location. The animals have not come in
close enough and you have had to stalk
them in order to get in close enough range
to shoot. You are within a distance that
you think you can make the shot. Before
you take the shot, an ethical hunter will
ask the following questions:
Only once the ethical hunter has

answered these questions correctly,
should the hunter shoot. A safe and
ethical hunter will attempt a shot
at the vital area of the animal. If in
doubt, pass up that opportunity
to shoot.
Vital Target Areas

Heart and Blood Vessels
Spine and Brain
Lungs
Approx. 12"
(30 cm)
Shoulder Blade
Approx. 10"
(25 cm)
Leg Bone
Front View
Side View
46
4. Trailing an animal
blood sign does not always mean a miss.

Bleeding may be internal.
When the shot is taken, it is expected that

the bullet will hit the vital area of the
animal. We should expect that the energy
of the bullet would knock the animal
down almost immediately and ensure a
clean kill. Sometimes this is not the case.
The animal may still be able to run off
after being shot. It may only travel a short
distance but if pushed by hunters chasing
after it, it may go a considerable distance
and be lost.
Use all available information to judge

what you need to do next. Determine if it
is safe to go after the animal. Going into
thick brush after a wounded bear by
yourself without backup from your
hunting partner is not a good idea. It
might be dusk light conditions in the
open field, but pitch dark in the woods
due to the overhead canpoy of the forest.
If you are losing sunlight, you may need
to mark the spot and come back the next
morning to find the animal.
If the animal is shot and runs off, the

ethical hunter will need to note the
departure direction of the game and wait
a few minutes, then go to the location
where the animal departed. When you
get to that location, check for blood,
hair or other signs to ascertain whether
you hit the animal or not. Not finding a
Once you have determined it is safe to go

after the game, as an ethical hunter you
will need to use your knowledge of animal
behaviour, and your ability to find and
follow the blood trail.
Examples of Blood Signs

Examples of blood signs that indicate the type and severity of a wound are:
a) Blood that is frothy with bubbles usually indicates a lung hit.
b) Very dark blood may indicate a liver or kidney hit.
c) Blood mixed with vegetable material, often greenish in colour, indicates a "gut"
or viscera shot.
d) Blood with bubbles may indicate a neck hit where the neck arteries or the windpipe
has been cut.
e) Blood in a spattered pattern may indicate a rapidly moving animal or one in which major
blood vessels have been cut.
f) Blood on both sides of the trail usually indicates a pass-through wound. In some instances a
one-opening wound may produce this sign if the animal doubles back on its trail.
g) The height of blood sign on vegetation is an indication of wound location.
h) Blood splatter drops usually point out the direction of travel of a rapidly moving
animal, like the fingers of a hand.
47
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5. Now the work begins
When you are trailing after an

animal, follow these basic rules:
You have found the animal and it is dead.

Before you start to handle the animal, you
must cancel your species licence.
a) Mark the trail as you go,

especially in wet weather. Mark
the location of blood signs until
the quantity of blood becomes an
obvious marker.
You must cancel your licence

upon retrieval of game
Species Licence front
b) Don't disturb the trail; stay to one

side. Don't trail with more than
three people.
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c) If the blood signs disappear, mark

the last sign and check all main
trails for at least half a mile.
Also check to see if the animal
doubled back.
Species Licence back
d) Sit down and listen. Often birds

such as crows will be attracted to a
downed animal.
e) Wounded animals tend to go
downhill, not uphill. Gut-shot
animals may head towards water.
Heart-shot animals can travel
a long distance with little
external bleeding.
An ethical hunter does not waste game
meat. Do not allow meat to spoil through
careless handling or improper
transporting and storage methods. A
hunter must learn some techniques of
field dressing, quartering, skinning,
transporting, hanging, cooling, hide
preparation, and butchering.
f) Be wary and alert while trailing

larger animals. Sometimes a
wounded bear or moose will charge
a hunter when it is being pursued.
g) Look at specific objects such as
rocks, grass, or leaves for blood
spots; don't just scan the whole
trail. Rub reddish spots to see if they
are blood or just colour on leaves.
a. Field dressing
Field dressing is the procedure performed
by a hunter to remove the entrails and
hide from the game to make the best use
of it. Some animals, such as grouse, are
really simple to field dress. For big game
animals you will require some tools to
field dress the animal.
h) When you find the downed

animal, approach it quietly and
cautiously. If the eyes are glazed or
unblinking, it is safe to approach if
it has been several hours, or
overnight since you shot the
animal. Approach it cautiously
with your firearm and ensure the
carcass has not been claimed by
another large predator.
For a big game animal you will require a

hunting knife and sharpening stone. In
addition, an axe or small meat saw, nylon
rope (30 ft. - 9 m), cheesecloth, twine and
48
some red flagging material will

be useful. Black pepper and/or
vinegar will help keep flies away
from the meat after dressing, and
salt will help preserve the hide
from spoilage.
Remember that appropriate
evidence of the animal's sex is
required to be left attached to
portions of hide or carcass.
Before you field dress an animal,
you should decide what you
want to save for taxidermy or
mounting. What you want may
change the method used to field
dress the animal.
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step is to remove the head. Cut the neck as

close to the head as possible. Many
hunters remove the head by cutting too
close to the chest, thus wasting many
pounds of valuable stew meat.
Field dressing procedures for a non-trophy

big game animal can be found at the end of
this chapter.
b. Skinning
Game should be skinned as soon as
possible after the animal is dead. Skinning
is easiest when the carcass is warm. If
possible, move the animal to an area of
level ground or to your hunting camp
before removing the skin. This will
prevent dirt and other debris from getting
on the meat while it is being transported.
The next step is to halve the carcass by

cutting around the "waist" of the animal.
With the blade facing outward, place the
back of your knife against the backbone, on
the inside of the gut cavity, just below the
lowest rib. Plunge the knife out through the
flesh and hide. Cut upward from the back
towards the belly following the rib as a
guide. Repeat this procedure on the
opposite side. Saw through the backbone
and use your knife to cut the remaining
flesh and hide. The carcass is now in two
halves: front and hind.
Check the information at the end of the

chapter for the various procedures for
skinning trophy and non-trophy animals.
If you are keeping the carcass just for meat
you may wish to quarter the carcass before
you skin it.
You now need to split the halves. Saw

straight down the backbone of the front
and hind halves separating the underlying
flesh and hide with your knife. You now
have four quarters.
c. Quartering
For some big game animals, such as moose,
you might decide to quarter the animal.
Quartering is cutting the carcass into four
sections. This will aid in handling and
transporting the meat out of the woods. It
will also assist in rapid cooling of the
carcass in order to prevent meat wastage.
You are now ready to transport your

animal to your hunting camp. In
retrieving the quarters, it is advisable to
leave the hide attached. The hide protects
the meat from dirt and flies and prevents
drying during the aging process
To quarter a carcass you will need knives, a

bone saw, axe and other tools. The first
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d. Transporting
e. Hanging and Cooling
If you are backpacking game from field to

camp, tie red flagging on your packsack. If
the animal has antlers or horns, tie red
flagging around them as well so you will
not be mistaken for game by other
hunters. A bell tied to your pack frame will
also help others recognize you as a hunter
returning from the field.
It is not always possible to skin out big game

animals immediately. However, all big game
is best kept off the ground during and after
field dressing. The carcass is insulated by its
hide and by the ground on which it is lying.
Unless it is cooled, it will quickly spoil. The
best way to cool the carcass is to hang it in a
shady, cool place. A small block and tackle
or hoist is the easiest way to lift a large
animal. If this is not available, improvise a
winch using nylon rope.
To prevent damaging the hide, do not drag

game along the ground or roll it downhill. If
an animal must be dragged, lay it on a
blanket or coat, or put a layer of brush or
boughs underneath the animal. Pull the
animal along by its head.
When carrying an animal or hide on
horseback, be careful that ropes used to
hold it in place do not rub the skin and
damage the hide. A blanket, cloth, or layers
of grass placed between the ropes and hide
will prevent damage.
You will need some kind of "handle" for

hanging quartered animals. For hanging a
hindquarter, punch a hole between the
muscle of the upper leg and the heavy
tendon that runs out to the hind "elbow".
For hanging front quarters, punch a hole,
about a hand-span from the spine,
between the third and fourth bottom ribs.
If the animal cannot be hung until later,
prop the body cavity open with sticks.
Place it belly down over some logs or rocks
and cover it with spruce boughs to keep
flies and birds away.
A burlap bag is useful for carrying a hide or

meat from field to camp.
When transporting game by vehicle, be sure
to keep the carcass away from heat, gas,
sunlight, and road dust to prevent its spoilage.
In warm weather, black pepper can be

sprinkled over the carcass to keep flies off;
Examples of transporting game
50
towards the skin side. Keep it cool until it is

delivered to the taxidermist; even freeze it
if it will be some time before you get there.
Don't place it in a plastic bag or closed
container while transporting it.
Puncture Points
for Hanging & Cooling
Bear skins require a little extra care when

salting. As much excess fat as possible
should be removed from the skin before
salting. Open the ears, nose and lips and
cut away as much fat as you can. Be careful
not to cut the hair, which is rooted to the
inner surface of the bear skin.
cut leg here

make holes
here
quarter animal
here
The feet should be skinned out to the last

joint of the toes and the bones disconnected.
Cut away all fatty tissue. Use plenty of salt
and rub it in well. If there appears to be an
excessive amount of grease, rub wood ashes
into the greasy areas to absorb it.
Salting a skin is always preferable to
stretching and air drying it. Only when salt
is not available should you cure a skin by
stretching it in a frame or pegging it on the
ground. Pegging will leave holes in a skin's
edges which must be trimmed away,
wasting part of the skin.
cut leg here

vinegar, used to wipe the exposed meat
areas, also helps. Once the animal has been
skinned, it should be covered with
cheesecloth to keep it clean while it cools.
f. Preserving the Hide
Even though a skin may be stretched larger

than its original size, it will revert to its
normal size when tanned. After curing,
treating and tanning is complete, a skin that
has been stretched and air dried will probably
be smaller than if it had been salt cured.
If you plan to keep the hide, it is essential

to salt it thoroughly soon after its removal
to preserve it for taxidermy purposes. Use
common table salt or pickling salt in the
amounts indicated in the table below.
Lay the hide flat on the ground, fur side
down and stretch it to its fullest extent.
Sprinkle salt freely and evenly over the
entire hide. Rub the salt vigorously into
the skin with the flat of your hand. Be
certain the edges of the skin are
thoroughly salted. Work salt into the
lips, ears, nose and other difficult areas
to ensure it covers them completely.
Salt draws the moisture out of the
hide. After leaving the salted hide
exposed to the air for 24 hours or
more, sprinkle salt lightly over the
hide once more. Then fold it up
Preserving the Hide

GAME
AMOUNT OF SALT REQUIRED
Species
Cape only
Whole hide
Antelope
Mountain Sheep
Deer
Caribou
Elk
Moose
Black bear
Grizzly bear
1
2
2
3
4
5
3
5
3 lb. (1.2 kg)

4 lb. (1.8 kg)
5 lb. (2.2 kg)
8 lb. (3.6 kg)
15 lb. (6.6 kg)
20 lb. (9.0 kg)
10 lb. (4.4 kg)
20 lb. (9.0 kg)
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lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
( .4 kg)
( .9 kg)
( .9 kg)
(1.2 kg)
(1.8 kg)
(2.2 kg)
(1.3 kg)
(2.2 kg)
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g. Butchering
cut, wrap and freeze your meat with

minimum waste. If you wish to butcher
your game yourself you will need
additional instruction and references in
order to avoid wastage. Meat cutting
guides are available at many bookstores
and some public libraries.
Butchering is the cutting up and

processing of the carcass into steaks,
hamburger, sausage, roasts, etc. The
most effective way to cut up your game
is to have it done at a butcher shop that
will handle game meat. A butcher will
Basic Meat Cuts
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
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1. List the four general hunting methods used by hunters. __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What hunting method should NOT be used when hunting turkeys? ______________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. The Vital Target Area on most animals contains what two organs? ________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List three things you should consider when approaching downed games. __________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Depending on the species, what must you leave on the game animal
when field dressing it? ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Procedure for field dressing
a Non-trophy Animal
(2) Be careful not to puncture the

intestines or the stomach and avoid
getting hair in the body cavity. Split
the breastbone with your knife or axe.
Loosen the organs in the body cavity
by cutting all connecting tissue
including the diaphragm.
Lay the animal on its side or, if possible,

on its back. It is not necessary to bleed the
animal as sufficient bleeding will occur
from the bullet wound and the cuts made
to dress the animal.
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(3) Cut carefully around the vent in the

rump being careful not to puncture the
intestine.
With a sharp hunting knife, cut through

the skin and abdominal wall from the
crotch to throat, as close to the head as
possible. (1) Be sure to leave evidence of
sex on the animal until you get it to the
butcher or, if you are going to butcher it
yourself, until you get it home. This will
also be necessary for any animal
requiring compulsory inspection (check
the regulations synopsis).
(4-5) Loosen the intestine enough to

pull it out after tying the vent closed
with a piece of string. This will prevent
body wastes in the intestine from
spilling onto the meat when you
remove the entrails.
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(6) Now with the carcass on its side, turn

its head uphill. (7) Cut the windpipe free
at the throat. Hold the windpipe in one
hand and pull backward. With the other
hand, free any internal organs by cutting
through the tissue that attaches them to
the animal. Strip all the entrails from the
body cavity. Recover the liver and heart, if
desired. Prop the chest cavity open by
spreading the rib cage apart with a stick.
With a dry, clean cloth, wipe blood and
other waste matter from the inside of the
carcass. Trim away all damaged parts. If
possible, clean the body cavity with damp
cloths; using vinegar will help discourage
flies. Be sure to thoroughly dry the body
cavity after washing as a dry surface will
help stop spoilage of the meat.
Cut off the tarsal (scent) glands from the

inside of the legs first, then clean your knife
thoroughly to prevent contamination of
the meat. Cut along the inside of each leg
from above the knee joints to the belly
incision. Next cut around each leg at the
knee. Then cut completely around the
neck, as close to the head as possible, to
join the cut made along the throat when
the windpipe was removed.
Cut the meat and tissue around the knee
joints to remove the lower legs. Discard
them. Now use your knife carefully to free
the skin from the body by cutting the
connecting tissue in between. Once the
hide has been peeled back from the hind
legs, cut through the tail bone. This will
enable you to remove the hide in one piece.
Skinning procedures
for Non-trophy Animals
Retain the hide by trimming away excess

fat and tissue and salting it to prevent
spoilage. The hide can be tanned later to
make leather for gloves, jackets and
other clothing or it can be donated to
others for such use.
The steps in skinning most big game

animals that have antlers or horns are the
same. If possible, hang the animal off the
ground upside down; otherwise, skin it
where it lies.
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Skinning procedures
for Trophy Animals
Once the skull is free, work carefully

toward the base of the ears. Skin over the
muscle at the base of each ear until yellow
cartilage is visible. Cut down and forward
through this cartilage to the skull to free
the ears. Continue skinning along the
head to the base of the antlers or horns.
With the point of your knife, cut upward,
close to the skull and around the base of
the antlers or horns, freeing the skin
attached to them as you proceed. Once
the skin has been freed and pulled
forward, insert the forefinger of your left
hand under the rear edge of the eyelid
from the outside. Pull taut and cut the
tissue between the eyelid and bone until
the tear duct is reached. Continue
skinning close to the bone until you reach
When skinning an antlered or horned

animal for mounting, do not cut the skin
of the throat because this will ruin the
cape. Start by circling the shoulders. Begin
at a point on the back between the
shoulder blades and cut down each side to
a point behind the front legs. Next, cut a
curve over the two front legs to connect
with the breast incision. Then make a cut
along the back of the neck to a point
between the ears and the base of the
antlers or horns. Cut from this point to
the base of each antler or horn to form a
"T" shaped cut on the top of the head.
Now free the hide around the neck and

shoulders by pulling the hide away from
the body while cutting all the
connecting tissue with a knife.
At this point, the remaining
Skinning Trophy Heads
steps necessary to skin out the
head can be greatly simplified
If you are unsure about your ability to skin out a trophy
by cutting off the animal's head.
head properly, you can leave the cape intact on the
To remove the head, cut through
the muscle covering the large
neck joint immediately behind
the skull. Bend the head back to
expose the first vertebra where it
joins the skull. Cut as much
tissue free around this joint as
you can. Then twist the head off.
head and neck and have a taxidermist skin it out for a

nominal fee. It is not worth wasting a once-in-a-lifetime
mount by doing a poor job. Salt it down well, or even
freeze it, until you are able to get it to the taxidermist.
Also, if you skin a trophy head, be extra careful when
cutting around the lips, eyes, ears, and nose to avoid
cutting through the skin.
56
the corners of the mouth. Insert your

forefingers in the mouth and lift the lips.
Sever the cheek muscles about threequarters of an inch (2 cm) from the corner
of the mouth. Skin close to the bone until
the lower lip is free, being very careful not
to split the lip. Leave the upper lip
attached for the time being.
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cutting with the knife as necessary and

turning the ear inside out as you skin. A
long, blunt pointed stick is helpful in
turning the ear. Extreme care is necessary
while separating the skin from the
cartilage or the ear will tear.
Salt the cape thoroughly as described
elsewhere in this chapter.
Skin out the muzzle up the nostrils. Then

insert your finger in the nostrils to guide
you as you cut through nose cartilage to
the bone. Skin close to the bone until the
nose and upper lip are free.
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Skin out the remainder of the carcass as

described for non-trophy animals.
Use a bone saw to cut the top off the skull
with the antlers or horns attached. Leave a
fairly large portion of skull attached to the
antlers for use in mounting your trophy.
The cut works for both a full-head mount
or a European (antlers-only) mount.
Skinning procedures
for Bears, Wolves, Coyotes, Cougars
Check the regulations first to see if
evidence of sex is required to be attached
to the skin or the carcass. To skin a bear,
cut from the tip of the tail along the
centre of the abdomen to within about
three inches of the lower lip. Cut the
hind legs starting from the inside edge of
the pad near the heel, along the centre of
the leg until the cut meets the incision in
the abdomen. Sever the foot from the
carcass, leaving it attached to the hide.
B.C. game laws may require you to submit

the skull or a portion of the lower jaw or
other body parts to a compulsory
reporting centre. Be sure to recover them.
Once the hide is back in camp, finish
skinning it out as soon as possible. Open
the lips and nose by slitting the fleshy
parts from the inside. Remove excess fat
and flesh from the hide. Cut away the
flesh from the base of the ear cartilage.
Separate the skin from the cartilage only at
the back of the ear. To do this, cut the
tissue connecting the skin to the cartilage,
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Repeat this procedure for the front legs.

Now peel the skin off the carcass working
from the hind end forward. Remove the
skin around the head in the same fashion
as for antlered animals except avoid
cutting the hide on the top of the neck,
shoulder and head.
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For some grouse you can put the bird on its

back and spread the wings. Place your feet
on the wings, close beside the chest cavity.
Grasp the two legs and pull upwards. The
head will go through the chest cavity. All
the skin and feathers will be pulled off the
carcass. You will be left with a bare breast
with the two wings attached.
Cougars, coyotes, wolves and similar large

animals are skinned like a bear. Open the
long tail along the centre line on the
underside with the tip of a sharp knife. Be
careful to cut in a straight line; do not
zigzag from side to side. Leave the feet and
claws on the pelt, especially if the skin will
be used as a rug.
Processing Rabbits
To field dress a rabbit, cut off its head and
remove its feet at the ankle joints. Pinch
the loose skin on its back between your
fingers and insert your knife through the
skin, cutting across the back. Now grasp
the hide on both sides of the cut and pull
it away in opposite directions. Peel the
hide completely off and remove the tail.
Cut the abdomen open and remove the
entrails. Trim away any shot-damaged
meat, wash the carcass and wipe it dry to
prevent spoilage. Keep it cool while
transporting it home.
Processing Game Birds

Game birds should be field dressed as soon
as possible. Be sure to retain evidence of the
bird's sex and specie. One wing must be left
on the carcass until you get home. For some
game birds you may wish to skin the carcass
in order to remove the feathers. Some game
birds you will need to pluck the feathers or
pull them off the bird. Waterfowl should be
rough plucked in the field.
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ETHICS
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you have
completely answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the material found
in this chapter to check your answers.
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Complete each Chapter Review Test before calling a CORE Examiner and scheduling an
appointment to challenge the CORE written and practical-firearms handling exams. The CORE
Examiner may request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting you for a
challenge test.
1. Ethics employed by an individual are referred to as:
a. Personal ethics
b. Code of Ethics
c. Law
d. Hunters pledge.
2. Which of the following is an example of acceptable outdoors-ethical behaviour:
a. Randomly killing snakes because they hiss at you.
b. Cutting new trails with your vehicle.
c. Containing your fire to your fire pit only.
d. Tearing down old buildings for firewood.
3. A positive public attitude towards hunting is essential if the opportunities
for hunting are to be maintained.
True
False
4. An ethical hunter will shoot over his or her daily bag limit so that he can help fill
their hunting partners bag limit.
True
False
5. In order to select a good site for stand-hunting you should:
a. Cut down trees to obtain a better view.
b. Scout for good locations before the season.
c. Place your stand in front of the other stands.
d. Place your stand up-wind of the animals' location.
60
6. The vital target area for most big game animals is the:
a. head
b. butt
c. heart
d. neck
7. If you shoot a game animal and it runs away, you should:
a. Chase after it right away.
b. Look for blood signs, then trail after it.
c. Forget it and look for another game animal to shoot.
d. Take a few shots into the bush before going after the animal.
8. What first action must you do when you recover your game animal.
a. Take a picture of it.
b. Cancel your species licence.
c. Field dress the animal.
d. Skin the animal.
9. Cutting the game animal into the basic meat cuts is called:
a. Skinning
b. Field dressing
c. Quartering
d. Butchering
10. In order to preserve the hide you should sprinkle ________ on it:
a. Salt
b. Vinegar
c. Pepper
d. Ketchup
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
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Chapter
Laws & Regulations
GOAL
Identify the laws affecting hunters and firearm owners
and the agencies responsible for enforcement.
OBJECTIVES
This chapter is broken into three parts:

1. Explain federal firearm and
wildlife laws related to gun
ownership and the use of firearms
while hunting.
2. Explain how municipal laws
affect hunting and the discharge
of firearms.
3. Explain the laws and regulations
that govern the use of firearms
and archery equipment, and
hunting in B.C.
4. Obtain information from the
Hunting and Trapping Synopsis and
LEH Regulation Synopsis.
I. What are laws and who makes them?

a) Introduction
b) Federal laws
c) Firearm categories
d) Municipal laws
II. Hunting laws
a) Promotion of sportsmanship
b) Purpose of hunting laws
c) Enforcement agencies
d) Observe, Record and Report
III. How to use the regulation synopsis
a) Section A: Hunting Regulation
b) Section B: General Information
c) Section C: Resource Management
Regions
d) Section D: Trapping Regulations.
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Chapter 4 Laws & Regulations
PART I:
WHAT ARE LAWS
AND WHO MAKES THEM?
a. Introduction
Governor (for provincial). This can be

a slow process that may involve
committees, public hearings,
amendments, and other procedures.
In our society, laws are defined as rules that

regulate and control many areas of our lives
by setting a minimum standard of
behaviour. Laws are made by federal,
provincial, and municipal governments, and
cover a variety of subjects. All three levels of
government make laws that affect the
ownership/usage of firearms and hunting.
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A statute is the primary legal document and

generally is written in very vague or broad
terms. The Wildlife Act, for example, deals
with many aspects of wildlife management
in British Columbia. Section 18 of the
Wildlife Act deals with the requirement for
a hunter education course.
For example, at a road check you may be

approached by a provincial Conservation
Officer. The Conservation Officer will ask
you for your provincial hunting licence.
The Conservation officer is checking to see
if you are legally allowed to carry that
firearm and hunt under provincial law.
Wildlife Act
18. The Lieutenant Governor in Council
may make regulations as follows:
The RCMP member will ask you for your

federal firearms licence and the registation
certificate for that firearm. The RCMP
member wants to make sure you are in
legal possession of that firearm and that it
is registered as per the federal law.
(a) requiring that a person, before

being entitled to hunt or receive a
hunting licence or a firearms licence,
successfully complete examinations
on conservation, outdoor recreation
and safety approved by the director;
A local Bylaw Officer may approach you to

inquire into the whereabouts of your
hunting. They may have a report of
individuals shooting within the municipal
boundary. This might be an infraction
under the municipal No Discharge of
Firearms bylaw.
(b) prescribing fees for any examinations required by or under the Act;
(c) designating the persons required
to pay the fees;
(d) respecting the conduct of
examinations.
It is important as gun owners and hunters

to study and find out all the laws that
affect your ownership/usage of firearms
and hunting. Ignorance of the law is not
an excuse the judge will accept.
Regulations are part of the law or statute

under which they were created.
A regulation is an extension of the statute
and gives more specific information, e.g.,
the Hunter Safety Training regulation B.C.
53/98 is the extension of section 18 of the
Wildlife Act. This regulation is 4 pages
long and describes all aspects of the CORE
program, British Columbia's Hunter
Education program.
Laws can have two parts; a statute and

regulations. A statute is an act or bill
passed by a governing body. It requires a
certain number of readings (usually three)
and must be passed by a vote of the body
during a regular sitting. It becomes a law
after being signed by the Governor
General (for federal) or Lieutenant
64
Laws & Regulations Chapter 4
A provincial regulation is a law that is

adopted or approved by the Governor in
Council. It is specific to a statute that
authorizes that a regulation on a certain
issue may be made. Provincial regulations
are easier and quicker to create or change
and therefore usually deal with areas that
need to be changed frequently, such as
hunting seasons and bag limits, licence
fees, and similar things.
shipped as per the Transportation of

Dangerous Goods Act. If you bring the
ammunition in from the U.S.A., you will
have to deal with the Customs Act.
How much ammunition and gun powder
you can have at your home is controlled
under the Explosives Act. What type of
shotgun ammunition you can use to hunt
geese with is controlled under the Migratory
Bird Convention Act and its regulations.
b) Federal laws
c) Categories of firearms
Lets take a minute

and look at a few
federal laws that affect
gun ownership/usage
and hunting. The Criminal Code of
Canada defines what a firearm is and the
penalties for its misuse. It is illegal to own a
firearm in Canada unless you have a
licence issued under the Firearms Act or
have another statutory excemption.
As a hunter you will most likely hunt with a

firearm. Take a few minutes to understand
the categories of firearms and how the
federal and provincial laws may affect the
ownership and use of that firearm.
The Criminal Code of Canada defines a
firearm as a barrelled weapon from which
any shot, bullet, or other projectile can be
discharged and that is capable of causing
serious bodily injury or death to a person.
It includes any frame or receiver of such a
barrelled weapon and anything that can be
adapted for use as a firearm. Certain items
are deemed not to be a firearm: any
antique firearm, signaling device, or a
firearm that shoots a projectile less than
152.4 m per second or 500 feet per second.
Some pellet guns and BB guns, therefore,
are not firearms under federal law.
However, pellet and BB guns are a firearm
under provincial law for the purposes of
the Wildlife Act. You need a licence to
carry them in British Columbia.
Once you obtain a federal firearms licence,

you may wish to buy your own firearm and
ammunition. If you buy the ammunition in
Canada and want it shipped from the store
in Calgary by a commercial carrier, it will be
Federal Laws (a few to remember)

Criminal Code of Canada - Defines what
a firearm is and the offences for misuse.
Firearms Act - Deals with authorizations
(permits), licences, and registering of guns.
The Criminal Code of Canada classifies

firearms and devices as non-restricted
firearms, restricted firearms, prohibited
firearms, antique firearms, and prohibited
devices. To own a firearm, except an antique
firearm, you must have a federal firearms
licence, that is, one of a Firearms Acquisition
Certificate (FAC), Possession-Only Licence
(POL), or a Possession and Acquisition
Licence (PAL). To obtain a licence
application or information about licencing
requirements, call 1-800-731-4000 or check
out the Website: www.cfc.gc.ca.
Customs Act - Import of firearms and

ammunition.
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act
- Shipment of ammunition.
Explosives Act - Limits the amount of
powder and primers you can own.
Migratory Bird Convention Act
- Controls hunting for migratory birds,
e.g., geese, ducks.
65
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Most common sporting rifles and

shotguns are defined as non-restricted
firearms. They may be used for hunting
and sporting purposes. You need no
federal permit or authorization in order to
move them. Restricted and prohibited
firearms require a legal purpose to own
them, such as target shooting, and you
need an Authorization to Transport in
order to move them. Due to these
requirements, restricted and prohibited
firearms cannot be used for hunting.
rounds. Anything over that means you are

in possession of a large capacity magazine,
which is a prohibited device.
The Migratory Bird Act (federal law) limits
the carrying capacity of shotguns. You
can only have two shotshells in the
magazine and one in the chamber. The
Wildlife Act (provincial law) also limits
the magazine capacity of a shotgun
using a pump, repeating (bolt or lever
action with magazine), or auto-loading
(semi-automatic) action to two shotshells
in the magazine and one shotshell in
the chamber.
Modifying firearms
d) Municipal bylaws
Municipal governments in British
Columbia generally make two types of
bylaws that affect the shooting of firearms
within their boundaries. Check with your
local government for a copy of these
bylaws. It is important to see how the
bylaw defines a firearm. It may include a
bow and pellet guns.
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Types of Bylaws
If you decide that your shotgun is too long

to fit in the truck and you cut the stock of
a shotgun so the overall length is less than
660 mm (26 in.) or cut the barrel to less
than 457 mm (18-1/2 in.), then you have
made a prohibited firearm. If you purchase
a shotgun or rifle with a factory issue
barrel less than 457 mm, then the firearm
should be classified as a non-restricted
firearm as long as it is not a semiautomatic action. If in doubt about the
legal classification of your firearm, call 1800-731-4000 and obtain the name of an
approved verifier in your community.
Most gun shops and gunsmiths should
also be able to assist you in this matter.
1. Noise and Nuisance bylaws

- limits the hours for shootings
a firearm.
2. No discharge of firearms bylaws
- where you can shoot.
While most common sporting rifles and

shotguns are non-restricted firearms, you
must be concerned about the magazine
capacity on semi-automatic rifles or
shotguns that use centre-fire ammunition.
The magazine limit in this case is five
66
BASIC LAW REVIEW:

1. Name the three levels of government in Canada that make laws that affect the use of
firearms and hunting. ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Name the federal law that defines what a firearm is. ____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Municipal governments in British Columbia can make what two types of bylaws that
affect gun usage? ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Most sporting and hunting rifles and shotguns are classified as non-restricted firearms.
True or false. __________________________________________________________________
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PART II.
HUNTING LAWS
It is the responsibility of every hunter to
know the laws (federal, provincial, and
municipal) which apply to hunting in
British Columbia. This does not mean that
you have to memorize all the laws, but you
do need to know and understand the laws
that govern hunting, and where to find the
ones that apply in your case.
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3. having possession of, placing, or setting

poison for the taking of any game;
4. using pit lamps or lights of any
description at any time for the purpose of hunting game;
5. hunting black or grizzly bear by
placing bait;
Ignorance of existing laws is not an

acceptable defence in a court of law. If a
person plays hockey and breaks a rule of the
game, he is penalized. Likewise, he is
expected to know the rules of the game and
to abide by them. The same thing applies to
hunting. If a person decides to hunt, he is
expected to know the laws governing
hunting and must obey them.
&
Promotion of sportsmanship
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To qualify as an outdoor sport, hunting must

include limits which prevent the hunter
from having an excessively unfair advantage
over his quarry. Over the years, sportsmen
have developed their own code of hunting
behaviour which includes a respect for the
game they hunt.
6. hunting, taking, wounding, or killing

big game while it is swimming, unless
it has been previously wounded.
a. Purpose of hunting laws

Laws are made for the benefit and protection
of the people they serve. Hunting laws serve
hunters and non-hunters alike. They
generally fall into one of three categories:
protection of people, property, and wildlife.
Safety and Protection
Safety is an essential part of outdoor
recreation. Where there are situations of
obvious danger, as with the use of firearms,
laws are set to prevent endangering
sportsmen or the people they may come in
contact with.
To apply this code to modern

management, laws and regulations have
been set which prohibit any hunting
methods which allow the taking of
improper numbers or kinds of game.
Laws to Protect Life

The benefit of years of experience with gun
handling is built into firearms and hunting
laws. Each restriction is the result of a safety
problem that has been found in particular
situations. For example, laws prohibit:
The concept of "fair chase" is the basis for

many of these laws and regulations. What this
means is that the hunter must not resort to
artificial means of chasing or luring animals
into a situation where they are easily taken.
1. the carrying of loaded firearms in

a vehicle;
2. the discharge of firearms under
conditions where visibility makes it
unsafe to do so;
Some of these laws prohibit:

1. the discharge of firearms from an automobile, snowmobile, boat, or other
vehicle on or off a highway;
3. pointing a firearm, whether loaded or

unloaded, at another person;
2. hunting game from any aircraft, or

hunting or transporting hunters or
wildlife by helicopter;
4. the unsafe handling, carrying, or

storage of firearms.
68
Experience has shown that these practices

have produced unnecessary risk to hunters
and other people.
If you are caught breaking a hunting or

firearm law, you may be warned of your
offence or charged under a specific law.
Laws to Protect Property

Other activities may be damaging to
property if not to human life. The
privilege of movement over private
property carries with it a responsibility for
the sportsman to respect the rights of the
landowner, and this is supported by law.
For example, it is unlawful:
If you are warned, it may be because the

offence was not very serious, you made a
mistake, or no real damage was caused. A
warning serves to make you aware of the law
and the correct procedure for future use.
A charge is an accusation in legal terms. If
you are charged with breaking the law, one
of three things will happen. You may be
issued a ticket that asks you to make a
voluntary fine payment. You may be
advised of a date that you must appear in
court, or you may be taken into custody.
You may also have property seized in any
of these three situations.
1. to hunt or trap in enclosed land

or private property without the
owners permission;
2. to damage, or allow a dog to damage,
any seeded or planted area;
3. to discharge, dump, discard, or
dispose of litter on any land or
fresh water;
If you are charged with an offence, you may

plead guilty and be sentenced. If you plead
not guilty, you will have a trial at which time
the prosecuting lawyer will introduce the
evidence of the officer who charged you, as
well as any other witnesses and evidence. You
will be allowed to introduce any evidence
and witnesses you have on your own behalf.
The judge will listen to both sides and make a
finding of guilty or not guilty.
4. to deface any notice posted under

authority of the Wildlife Act.
Laws to Protect Wildlife
Most wildlife is protected by law. These
laws and regulations are usually of two
types: those that directly protect wildlife
and those that protect wildlife habitat.
Game animals for which hunting is
allowed are protected in many ways,
including restrictions as to hunting
methods or season, number, location, and
the sex or age at which the game animal
may be hunted.
If you are found guilty or plead guilty, you

will be sentenced to a fine or imprisonment
depending on the offence. You may also be
subject to forfeiture of (have to give up)
property such as firearms, vehicles, and
game. You may lose your right to hunt and
to possess a firearm. Because of the
seriousness of the consequences, you
should consult a lawyer if you are charged
with an offence.
Wildlife conservation and management is

discussed in more detail in another chapter.
b. Enforcement agencies
Observe, Record and Report

The public has a responsibility to report
law breakers. A governmental program
called "Observe, Record, Report" sets out
guidelines to help you report persons who
violate hunting laws. Under this program
you cannot make a "citizen's arrest" and
should not confront a violator. However,
you can use the guidelines to report them.
Hunting laws are enforced through

various government agencies. In British
Columbia, Conservation Officers have the
primary responsibility to enforce laws
applying to the environment. Other
enforcement officers include the RCMP,
forestry and parks officers, and other
persons who may be appointed.
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Observe
This includes:
1. Time, date, location, and
weather conditions.
Familiarize yourself with current

regulations. Some common violations are:
1. Killing game during a closed season.
2. Identification or accurate description

(size, clothing, hair colour, etc.) of
the violator and his companions.
2. Killing female or young animals during a male-only season.
3. Vehicle licence and description.

3. Exceeding the daily bag limit.
4. Evidence at the scene (head or viscera
of animal, empty cartridges, etc.).
4. Angling in closed areas.

5. Property damage (shooting powerline insulators, road signs, industrial
equipment, etc.).
5. Actions of the violator (number of

shots, etc.).
Report
Report the infraction as soon as possible to
the nearest agencies responsible.
6. Night hunting or "pitlamping".

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Record
Record your observations in note form
as soon as possible after observing the
incident. Photographs provide an
extremely useful addition to these
observations if they can be taken
without alarming the violator. Take
note of any features that will be of
use to the enforcement officer in
his investigations.
The longer you wait, the more difficult it

will be to investigate the violation.
Always give your name, address, and
phone number to verify that your
intentions are serious.
The proper official will lay charges when
they have enough evidence.
Who to report to
Hunting
Conservation Officer
1-800-663-9453
Migratory Bird
Environment Canada
604-666-5892
Fishing
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
1-800-465-4336
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HUNTING LAW REVIEW:

1. Who are the primary officials for enforcing hunting laws? ______________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the purpose of the observe, record, and report program? ________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Name three reasons for hunting laws. __________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List six illegal hunting activities.________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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PART III.
HOW TO USE THE HUNTING AND
TRAPPING REGULATIONS SYNOPSIS
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The Hunting and Trapping Regulations

Synopsis is a guide to the hunting laws, not
a legal document. The information
contained in this part of the chapter is
based on the 2002/2003 edition of the
Section A: Hunting Regulations
As with most books, the first place to start

is the table of contents. The table of
contents is your menu of where to find
information in the various chapters
(sections) of the book. The synopsis
contains 4 sections. Make sure you read all
sections of the synopsis.
The Definitions part provides a list of the

words as they are used in the regulations
and synopsis. You don't have to memorize
these, but you should know where to find
their definitions. You will learn animal
and bird identification in the CORE
manual. You will know what a bighorn
sheep is but you will need to read the
Definitions part to find out what the law
defines as a full curl bighorn sheep.
Major Regulation Changes is one of the

most important sections to read each year.
This page highlights the important
changes such as the new definition of
4-point white-tailed deer.
The Hunting and Trapping

Regulations Synopsis
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It is Unlawful part provides a list of the

most common regulations that guide
hunting. You must know and obey these.
Read each of the 50-plus paragraphs
starting with the phrase "It is Unlawful".
Read this list carefully. Can you see how
some of the laws relate to safety, wildlife
management, or private property rights?
Section A: Hunting Regulations

Major Changes
Definitions
Its is Unlawful
Licence Requirements
Hunting Methods
Complusory Inspection
Section B: General Information
Site Restrictions
Highway No Shooting and No
Hunting areas
Possession and Transportation
Designated Wildlife
A major part of the hunting regulation

section deals with information regarding
the CORE program, B.C. Resident Hunter
Number Card, licence requirements and
fees. Do you know the requirements for
getting a licence, age limits, resident and
non-resident restrictions, licence fees, and
special licence fees?
Section C: Resource Management

Regions
What is the fee for a resident hunter?
Section D: Trapping Regulations
What is the fee for a junior

hunting licence?
The Hunting Methods part contains
information regarding the types of
equipment (bow and muzzleloader), dogs,
falcons, and retrieval requirements that
must be used when hunting. Can you use
a handgun for hunting?
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Depending on the species you are hunting,

make sure to read the information regarding
Complusory Reporting and Inspection.
Certain species of game must be reported at
designated compulsory reporting centres.
These include: caribou, grizzly bear, cougar,
mountain sheep, mountain goat, bobcat,
lynx, wolverine, and, from certain areas,
wolf and elk. Certain body parts are
required for inspection.
The Possession and Transportation

part of Section B is important to read.
What evidence of sex must you leave
on the various species of game animals
and birds? If you give your game to
your hunting partner to transport
home, what must he or she have to be
legal? What must you provide to the
taxidermist or butcher when you drop
off the carcass or hide?
This information allows the authorities to

keep particularly close track of the
characteristics and numbers of harvested
animals so they can determine the
population characteristics and bag limits
for the following year.
Do you know that there is some wildlife

in British Columbia that the government
wants you to destroy as they are
detrimental to property and native
wildlife? Read the Designated Wildlife
section for more information.
Section B: General Information
Section C:
Resource Management Regions
The General Information section starts off

with Site Restrictions, Highway No
Shooting and No Hunting Areas. In
Canada it is illegal to have a loaded firearm
except in a place where it can be legally be
discharged. Check out this section for the
rules. Note that some highways have a 15metre no-shooting areas while others have
400-metre no-shooting area.
British Columbia is broken into

various Resource Management
Regions. Each region starts with a
map of the region outlining the
management units within that
region. It also provides the major
regulation changes for that region
and government office information.
Management Regions
Region
1
2
3
4
5
6
7A
7B
8
Name
Vancouver Island
Lower Mainland
Thompson
Kootenay
Cariboo
Skeena
Omineca
Peace
Okanagan
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In each resource management region you

will need to look up the specific restrictions
for the use of vehicles in that regions and
what parks and recreational areas are open
for hunting. Check the maps provided for
the no-shooting area restrictions.
An entry such as "2" for big game (except

ungulates) and small game in the
schedules means the season bag limit and
possession limit is two animals.
An entry such as "10(20)" for upland game
birds and migratory game birds in the
schedules means the daily bag limit is 10
while the possession limit is 20.
No Shooting Areas
Possession limit is the maximum number

of a species or type of wildlife a person
may have in his possession while hunting
or returning from hunting. You must be
aware of the possession limit for the
species you are hunting.
Section D: Trapping Regulations

Some animals are classified as fur-bearing
animals. See Definitions in the synopsis.
This section deals with the trapping of
animals, which is different from the
hunting of animals. This section provides
the definitions for trapping, educational
requirements in order to get a trapping
licence, licence fees and royalty payments,
open seasons, etc.
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Conclusion
The British Columbia Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis is printed every year
by the Ministry of Water, Land and Air
Protection. Each year, hunters should pick
up a copy from a sporting goods store,
Government Agents office or visit the
government website at
http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/
hunting.htm.
The hunter will need to check on the open

season for the species he or she is hunting
for in that region. Unless seasons are
indicated, there are no open seasons on
any game animal. Make sure to go back
and see the Designated Wildlife rules in
Section B.
Bag limits are the total number of animals
of a species that a hunter may take in one
licence year. Bag limits vary from species to
species and from region to region and are
shown in the regional schedules.
Read the synopsis carefully. Seasons,

limits, and hunting areas may change
from year to year. The synopsis will be
discussed in detail later in this chapter.
Bag limits are printed in a different type,

usually bold. Where no bag limit is in
effect, the abbreviation NBL appears.
The B.C. Hunting and Trapping Regulations

Synopsis includes the information
required for hunting migratory birds. If
you want, you can see the specific
migratory bird regulations by checking
out the website at http://www.cwsscf.ec.gc.ca/publications/reg/index_e.cfm.
An entry such as "2(1)"for ungulates in the

schedule means the season bag limit is
two animals of that species in total, one of
which may be anterless.
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Chart Open Season Region 4

2002/2003 Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis
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Chart Open Season Region 4

2002/2003 Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis
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NOTES
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LAW AND REGULATION

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take
approximately 10 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material
found in this chapter. You may use the Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis to
assist in answering the question.
The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you have
completely answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the material found
in this chapter to check your answers.
appointment to challenge the CORE written and practical-firearms handling exams. The
CORE Examiner may request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting
you for a challenge test.
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1. Provincial legislation becomes law when it is signed by the:

a. Governor General
b. Lieutenant Governor
c. Major General
d. Premier
2. The federal legislation that deals with what a firearm is is the:
a. Criminal Code of Canada
b. Firearms Act
c. Customs Act
d. Migratory Bird Convention Act
3. For the purposes of the Wildlife Act of British Columbia, a pellet gun shooting
a projectile under 500 feet per second is considered a firearm.
True
False
4. If you cut your shotgun too short so it fits under the drivers seat, you may have
turned it into a:
a. Non-restricted firearm
b. Restricted firearm
c. Prohibited firearm
d. Prohibited device.
5. The _________________ officer is primarily responsible for enforcing the
Wildlife Act of British Columbia.
a. RCMP
b. Customs
c. Game
d. Conservation
78
6. It is unlawful to use live birds as decoys to hunt game birds.

True
False
7. Fox are classified as big game animals.
True
False
8. What is the bag limit for skunks in Region 2?
a. No Bag Limit
b. 1
c. 2
d. 5
9. What is the latest date for hunting Black Bear in Region 2?
a. October 15
b. October 30
c. November 30
d. December 31
10. In Region 2, it is legal to discharge a shotgun using lead shot on any dyke or the water
side if you are going after upland game birds.
True
False
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
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Chapter
Outdoor Survival
and Safety
GOAL
The student will identify procedures employed by hunters and other outdoor
recreation users prior to and during their venture into the outdoors.
OBJECTIVES
The student will:
This chapter is divided into four parts:
1. Explain safety concerns/risks found

while participating in outdoorsrecreational activities and the
reasons for pre-trip planning and its
related procedures.
2. State procedures/steps used during
emergency situations and basic first
aid treatment employed by outdoorsrecreational users.
3. Identify orienteering equipment and
its usage.
4. Identify common field equipment
used by hunters and campers during
outdoors-recreational activities and
explain that equipment's proper
usage and related safety concerns.
I. The Three Ps
II. Safety and survival
III. Orienteering equipment
and its usage
IV. Common field equipment
Part one is broken into the following
sections:
1. Introduction
2. Learn the risks
3. Preparing yourself
4. Dressing yourself
5. Trip plan
6. Your equipment
81
Chapter 5 Outdoor Survival and Safety
PART I:
THE THREE Ps: PREPARATION,
PLANNING, AND PRACTICE
1. Introduction
Fourteen Lions Bay SAR and six North

Shore Rescue members responded to
search for a family of six tourists missing
on a day hike in the Harvey Creek area.
Subjects were located in a steep gully and
removed from the area by helicopter. The
father had been injured after sustaining a
30-foot fall.
British Columbia offers great opportunities

for outdoors-recreational users such as a
hunter, fisher, day hiker, etc. It does not
matter how short or long a time you are
going to spend on your next trip to the
outdoors, outdoor safety and survival
begins with preparation, planning and
practice. Do you know what the safety
hazards or concerns are in the outdoors?
Have you taken adequate training to
prepare yourself for your next outdoor
adventure? Have you practiced the skills
you have learned from various courses and
prepared your equipment?
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Three snowmobilers were caught in an

avalanche at the Powder King Ski Resort
east of Mackenzie. One snowmobiler
managed to escape, and one was located
deceased. On 30 December, 45 persons
assisted in the search for the one
missing snowmobiler. The body was
located, recovered, and both victims
were flown to Mackenzie.
Each year many individuals get lost or injured

in the outdoors. RCMP and municipal police
forces, Search and Rescue (SAR) volunteers
and their organizations spend countless hours
assisting individuals who have run into
trouble in the outdoors and in the recovery of
bodies. The following are just a sample of SAR
attempts in British Columbia:
Even hunters run into trouble in the

woods. From August 22, 2001, to January
15, 2002, there were 22 Search and
Rescue incidents involving hunters.
There was one death.
Twenty-two Comox Valley SAR members

responded to search for two hikers overdue
from a hike to Comox Glacier. They were
located and escorted off the mountain.
They got lost and encountered problems
with their cellular phone.
Dogs chased bear and hunter chased

dogs. Hunting partner reported him
overdue the next morning. Subject
hunter became disoriented and stayed
put for night. Walked out in the morning
as SAR Team was deploying.
Nine Pemberton SAR members responded to

search for a missing canoeist in the Tennis
Narrows area of the Lillooet River. Subject
had attempted to retrieve his canoe after it
was swept away. His unoccupied canoe
containing life jackets was located; however,
extensive air, land, and water searches of the
area failed to locate any trace of the subject.
The RCMP stood down the search.
Dease Lake SAR member responded to

assist the RCMP with the search for
three hunters overdue after their boat
was disabled in the Klappan area near
Dease Lake. It turned out to be four
people. The SAR team found people on
shore under a tarp with a fire. They were
removed from the area by helicopter. It
would have been a two-day + 20 km
walk out.
Eight Prince George SAR members

responded to search for a missing angler
last seen in the Nechako River area. Search
was stood down after subject contacted
relatives to report he was safe.
For more SAR incident reports or for

information regarding the Provincial
Emergency Program of BC check out the
Website: www.pep.bc.ca.
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Outdoor Survival and Safety Chapter 5
If you need to report an emergency call:
PROVINCIAL EMERGENCY REPORTING
IN
B.C.
911
OR YOUR NEAREST
POLICE DETACHMENT
While studying the material found in this

chapter of the CORE manual is essential, it
should only be considered as the
foundation for your knowledge and skills
needed before you venture into the
outdoors. More training is required!
b. Time of the year

Just because it is a nice summer day, it does
not mean that you can forget about
hypothermia. Hypothermia is a dangerous
condition caused by the body losing heat
faster than it can produce it. Hypothermia
is not reserved just for the winter, it can
occur all year round. See more information
in the survival section of this chapter.
You are encouraged to:

1. Take the time to plan your trip.
c. Terrain and climatic conditions

British Columbia has six basic land systems
(see Conservation chapter). Each land
system has different climates, soils, habitats,
and land use. Our society is far more mobile
than ever before. While the majority of
British Columbians live in the lowlands, are
they prepared for the conditions found in
the northern wilderness?
2. Take additional courses, e.g., first aid,

orienteering and review other
resources, e.g., books, videos, etc.
3. Obtain suitable clothing and
equipment.
4. Practice using your equipment.
5. Practice first aid and survival
procedures.
d. Equipment
You can spend as little or as much money
as you want on equipment. Just having the
newest tool does not mean you know how
to use it. Try putting up a tent or lighting a
lantern prior to your next outdoor venture.
Learn how to use the equipment and
become familiar with it. It is no fun at
midnight in the rain when you realize that
you forgot the tent pegs or poles at home.
See more information about common field
equipment later in this chapter.
6. Prepare yourself physically and

mentally for the outdoors.
2. Learn the risks

Ask yourself what the safety hazards or
concerns are that you could encounter
in the outdoors prior to going outdoors.
The following is just a short list of
safety hazards or concerns that you
should consider:
e. Length of trip and remoteness

of location
People make all kinds of plans and
preparations for a long trip or a trip to a
remote location but ignore the
requirements for a short trip. I do not
need a survival kit; I am only going be 10
minutes in the woods. When you get lost
a. People
Do you have enough training or
experience prior to your venture into
the outdoors? How about the people
who are coming with you? Read the
section later on in this chapter about
preparing yourself.
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or turned around in the woods and the

sunlight is gone, it's too late to remember
that you left your survival kit in the
vehicle. Remember "Murphy's Laws": If
anything can go wrong, it will. Be
prepared, carry a survival kit. See more
information about a trip plan and survival
kit later in this chapter.
b. Physically
Exercise on a regular basis for at least a
month before your hunt. Hunting requires
a lot of energy, strength, and endurance.
You will be walking long distances
carrying a pack and rifle, and you may
have to carry heavy loads through dense
bush or over hills. Bad weather is always a
possibility. If you are fit you will be able to
handle these situations.
f. Wildlife
You are not alone in the outdoors. There are
creatures big and small. Some are even
predators, such as a bear or cougar. What
would you do if you ran into a bear or
cougar? Do you know the safety precautions?
What would you do to avoid ticks and other
insects? These are just a few questions that
will be answered in this manual.
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c. Medically
Make sure you have no serious medical
problems. Have a checkup before you go.
This can prevent problems from
developing while you are in a remote area.
Get medical attention for small problems,
such as a cold or a blister, to prevent them
from developing into serious problems on
your hunt.
g. Injuries or illness
While we do not plan to get sick or
injured, it happens. Many accidents occur
due to slips, trips, and falls. While a
sprained ankle is not normally considered
a critical injury it can be very dangerous if
shock were to set in and you are 20 miles
from the nearest first aid post or hospital.
Do you know first aid? See more
information later in this chapter in
dealing with survival situations.
d. Safety and first aid

Learn all you can about safety and first aid.
Take a first aid course. Read books and
manuals. Practice making a fire, building a
shelter, reading a compass and map, first
aid techniques, and other safety activities.
With practice, you will be able to perform
these activities more easily if an emergency
or first aid situation should happen.
3. Preparing yourself
e. Know the region

Learn all you can about the area where
you are going to hunt. Study a map of the
area and locate good areas to camp. Know
the terrain. Is it hilly? Are there rivers or
streams? What is the vegetation like?
What will the weather be like? This
information will guide you in choosing
your equipment.
Experienced hunters and outdoorsrecreational users prepare themselves before

each hunt or trip. This preparation can be
basic or made more thorough by taking
courses. You should prepare yourself in
these areas:
a. mentally;
b. physically;
c. medically;
d. safety and first aid;
e. know the region; and,
f. plan with your companions.
f. Plan with your hunting companions

Choose your hunting companions
carefully. Are they skilled, safe, and
reliable? Will they make good companions
in camp conditions? Have they prepared
mentally and physically for the hunt? Do
they have any medical problems that you
should know about?
a. Mentally
Know yourself and your capabilities and
develop a calm, alert frame of mind. Deal
with any personal problems so they do not
distract you on your trip.
84
4. Dressing yourself
Every individual metabolism is different

as is everyone's tolerance and comfort
levels. For this reason, the best way to
regulate body temperature is with the
layer system. With this, a number of easy
on/off layers of clothing are used rather
than one large and heavy garment. The
layers are treated as follows:
Atlantic Hunters Education Manual
hat
turtleneck
outer jacket
shirt
gloves
The underwear layer

While the underwear layer provides some
insulation, its primary function is to
control moisture next to the skin.
Keeping the clothes next to your skin dry
is the key to staying warm. Cotton
underwear and t-shirts absorb moisture
from your body. In order to stay dry they
must be changed daily.
themal underwear
wool pants
boots
wool socks
The clothes that you wear in the outdoors are
very important. They are not for making a
fashion statement but for survival purposes.
Dress appropriately and be prepared for a
change in the weather. Clothes will also
provide shade from the sun.
Rather than absorbing moisture like the

natural fibers, polyesters and
polypropylene work by repelling water
away from the skin surface. To function
properly this layer must be thin and in
close contact with the skin surface. In
some products, a small percentage of
Lycra has been added to maintain a
close fit.
Generally, your clothing should be

lightweight and not hamper your
movements. Your clothing should be
functional and you should dress in layers.
You should break in any new clothes,
particularly boots, before your hunt.
The insulation (clothing) layer

This layer should offer insulation while
absorbing and transferring outwards the
moisture passed from the underwear
layer beneath. The trapped air in the
clothing layer provides the insulation. It
should fit comfortably, not too tightly,
and dry quickly. A variety of zippers offer
alternative methods of ventilation to
prevent moisture buildup without
actually removing the entire garment.
You should always take extra clothes and

socks so you have a complete change if you
get wet.
Clothes for outdoor use must have
three qualities:
They must provide insulation to keep
you warm.
With very little exception, thickness

means warmth. However, wearing many
thin layers offers more warmth than one
thick layer. By varying the selection of
materials in this layer and using a
number of garments in the layer, a
variety of temperatures can be
accommodated. Materials in this layer
include wool, fleece, pile and
occasionally down.
They should offer you protection from

heat, cold, getting wet, cuts and
scratches, and from being mistaken
for game.
They must be absorbent to soak up
sweat. They should not be completely
waterproof, but should "breathe" to
allow moisture to evaporate.
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Wool is warm when wet and does not wick

moisture. Wool will absorb 30% of its
weight in water and still retain heat. Wool
should not be washed too often as this
removes the water-repellent oils.
performed in wet conditions. Ventilation

has to be carefully managed to prevent the
buildup of moisture from perspiration.
Depending on your activity in the
outdoors, such as stand-hunting, you may
find that you are not exerting yourself.
You may wish to wear an outdoor shell
that protects you from wet conditions.
Instead of looking to high tech
recreational equipment, look to an
industrial supplier. What do forestry
workers, public works and fisheries
workers wear under similar circumstances
with similar activity levels? They use
neoprene, PVC or coated nylon raingear
not Gore-Tex or Stormshed. Whatever the
type of waterproof clothing is purchased it
should fit loosely to allow some venting.
Polyester (fleece, pile) is a good insulator,

remains warm when wet but has relatively
poor wind resistance. Some type of
windproof outer layer is required for fleece
or pile to be a useful insulator. In addition,
care has to be taken around fires, as sparks
will melt polyester clothing. Wool is a
better choice around fires as it is more
flame resistant.
Down has extremely good insulating
properties and is a good choice in very
cold, dry conditions. However, when it
gets wet it is a very poor insulator and it
takes a long time to dry. Therefore, it is
not the best choice when physically active
or when there is a chance it will get wet.
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The shell layer should protect you from

cuts and scratches. Jeans, jackets, and
gloves will help. Your clothes should be
strong and not tear easily in heavy brush.
If hunting, the shell layers should be a
bright colour to protect you from being
mistaken for game. You can also wear a
hunter orange vest over your clothes.
Cotton has no place in poor weather, as it

provides no insulation when it gets wet.
Cotton is suitable for warm or hot days as
it is very comfortable and provides
protection from the sun. Alternate
clothing must be available in case the
weather changes.
The shell (outer) layer
The shell layer is what actually protects
the wearer from wind, sun, rain, snow etc.
Waterproof materials can cause
condensation under the shell while
protecting against outside moisture entry.
Non-waterproof materials allow the
wearer to get wet while allowing inside
moisture to escape.
Boots
Your boots and socks are very important.
Care and conditioning of the feet and
properly fitting boots are essential to the
hunters well-being. Boots that fit poorly
can cause painful blisters and a blister can
be a major injury when walking far from
camp. Friction from boots that are too
large, loosely laced boots, or lumpy or
wrinkled socks can cause blisters. Wearing
two pairs of wool socks will keep your feet
warm and soak up sweat.
A material providing as much

waterproofness as possible while allowing
interior moisture to escape is the best
compromise for an exterior shell layer.
Although the ratios between waterproofness
and breathability vary, some of these
materials include Gore-Tex, Sympatex,
Stormshed, etc. No material will keep the
wearer totally dry if vigorous activity is
Break in a new pair of boots before you go

hunting by wearing them on short hikes.
Lace your boots snugly around your foot,
but less tightly around your ankle. To do
this, lace the boot firmly to the top of the
instep and tie a reef knot there to hold the
tension. The laces can then be
comfortably laced from the instep to the
top of the boot.
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The weight of your boots is very

important. Even a few ounces of extra
weight carried for many miles can be
equal to several hundred pounds of
physical exertion. Boots should be sturdy,
with strong soles that will not slip and
slide on rocky trails, but avoid wearing
boots heavier than you need.
inexpensive. For winter hunts in sub-zero

cold, down-filled mitts provide the most
warmth. Most down-filled mitts are
designed with long gauntlets to keep out
snow and wind, and some have mouton
backs as a convenience for wiping snow
and moisture from your face.
Hat
In almost any weather a hat should be
included with your hunting gear. In cold
weather, it is very important to wear a hat
since body heat is lost faster through the
head than from anywhere else on the
body. Your hands and feet will remain
warm longer if your head is covered and
warm. In bright sun a hat shades your eyes
and protects you from sunburn.
Boots bought for hunting should be a half

size larger than your regular shoe size to
allow room for thick socks and insoles and
for some swelling of your feet, which is
normal during hard walking.
Gloves and mitts
Source: AHEIA
Your hat should fit well so it cannot be

easily knocked off or nudged over your
eyes by tree branches.
Hearing and sight protection
If you wear glasses, carry an extra pair and
include another in your survival kit.
Plastic lenses are better than glass, which
can break if you fall.
Hunters mitts
with opening
for trigger
finger.
Everyone should take at least one pair

of optically correct and ruggedly
constructed sunglasses.
Gloves are a necessary part of a hunters

gear. They help keep you warm and
protect your hands from cuts, blisters,
splinters, and other injuries. In mild
weather, short buckskin gloves are best.
Avoid gauntlet-style gloves because they
will collect twigs, leaves, and debris. Less
expensive than buckskin, yet very durable
and practical are the jersey-knit work
gloves available from most department
stores. The jersey-knit gloves are warmer
than buckskin; however, they are not
waterproof and are impractical for wear in
wet conditions. In cold weather, jerseyknit gloves worn inside leather mitts will
keep hands warm and dry.
Tinted glasses can help the hunter to see his

target clearly under varying light conditions.
Tinted glasses
For extra warmth in very cold weather,

many individuals wear knitted wool mitts
inside tough leather mitts. This
combination is warm, durable and
Polarized glasses
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5. Trip plan
For persons who are sensitive to the suns

glare, polarized sunglasses tinted green,
brown, or smoky in colour are
recommended. Some lenses are
specifically designed to help the wearer
see better under dim light conditions.
Now that you are dressed for the outdoors

there is still some planning to do. Prepare
a trip plan. The Provincial Emergency
Program has created a generic trip plan
that you can use. You can use it or develop
your own.
If hunting in a snowy area, wear snow

goggles. You can make a pair by cutting
small slits in a piece of wood or birch bark
and tying these on with string.
Your trip plan should give information

about the five Ws (who, where, what,
when, why):
1. Who is on the trip?
Ear plugs are useful when shooting on a

range or next to another shooter. Carry a
pair of ear plugs and use them when you
know there will be shooting or loud
machinery. Dont wear them while
hunting though; you will need to hear
other hunters or game.
2. Where are you going?

3. What route are you taking?
4. What is your start time?
5. When are you due back?
Colour vision
Colour vision is the ability to distinguish
between colours and detect a range of
colours within the visible light spectrum.
6. What equipment was taken?

7. Why are you on this trip?
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Many hunters are unaware that their

colour vision is defective. When a hunter
is aware that he has a colour vision
problem, he can take extra precautions to
overcome this problem. An eye
examination will quickly detect any
abnormality in colour vision.
A good trip plan should also include a list

of equipment that you are taking with
you. You should leave the trip plan with
somebody and give them instructions on
what they should do if you do not report
back in time. If you are going hiking from
a parking lot area you might wish to leave
the trip plan on the dash on your car.
Then, if the vehicle is found the
authorities have an idea of your situation.
Blaze orange is one of the most visible

colours to wear in the woods. Tests have
proven that fluorescent colours, especially
blaze orange, are seen readily under
almost all light conditions. Even people
with colour vision defects are usually able
to distinguish blaze orange.
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Source: Provincial Emergency Program
Trip plan
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6. Your equipment
at all times. The best kit will fit into a jacket

pocket or waist pack. You must have items
that provide for your basic needs, such as
shelter, ways to start a fire, and a way to
signal or communicate, and water.
You will need basic equipment on any

outdoor or hunting trip. Plan ahead.
Knowing what to expect in the way of
terrain, weather, shelter, and water and
planning for these conditions are essential
to a successful hunt. This equipment is
important for day trips or long backpacking trips. Basic equipment can be
expanded or varied to meet the needs of
specialized hunting trips. The basic
equipment includes:
Your can purchase a commercial survival

kit at a sporting goods store or make up
your own from items found in your home.
Choose items that can have a multiple-use
purpose. For example, you can buy a
"Hypothermic Blanket", also known as a
space blanket. This blanket weights
approximately 1 lb. or 453 grams. They
come in various sizes and can be folded to
fit in a very small pouch that will attach to
your belt. The hypothermic blanket can be
used as an emergency blanket, shelter,
ground sheet, sunshade, windbreak, or
signalling device.
a. compass and maps

b. survival kit
c. first aid kit
d. firearm and ammunition
e. communication devices
a. Map and compass
You should carry a current map of the area
you are travelling to and a compass. Know
how to use them. See the orienteering
equipment part of this chapter.
Remember the Survival Rule of 3s when

it comes to packing your survival kit.
We can survive for
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b. Survival kit
A survival kit is important for every outdoor
experience, from a walk in the woods to a
week-long hunt. The kit should be small
and light so it can be easily carried with you
3 hours in severe situations

without shelter
3 days without water
3 weeks without food
WE CAN SURVIVE FOR
3 HOURS in severe situations without SHELTER

3 DAYS without WATER
3 WEEKS without FOOD
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Survival kit
needle & thread
tea bag
cotton
batting
matches
oxo cubes
fire starter
salt
spoon
safety
pins
snell hooks
flint &
steel
wire handles
holes for
handles
metal can
monofilament line
dry fly
knife (2 blades)
foil survival
blanket
wet fly
lead split shot
Assorted
nails
papers & pencil

snare wire
signal mirror
outside lid
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inside lid
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Tape the lid of the container to keep the

kit watertight.
c. First aid kit

You should never go into the field without
a first aid kit. The size and shape of the kit
will depend on how it will be carried
(backpack, jacket pocket, belt). Again you
can buy a commercial kit or make one up
from items from home. Your family doctor
may suggest that any needed personal
medication be included in your first aid kit.
Your first aid kit, like your survival kit,

should be completely familiar to you.
Know what it contains and how to use
each item properly. First aid techniques
will be discussed later in this chapter.
First aid kit
petroleum
gel
razer blade
scissors
tweezers
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mole skin
container
crepe
bandange
soap
first aid handbook
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mirror
Normal communication methods:
d. Firearm and ammunition

Firearms and ammunition will be dealt
with in other chapters in this manual. Be
sure to check the laws about having a
loaded firearm in the area you are
hunting. You may not be able to take a
firearm with you in various provincial and
federal parks. Carry a backup, such as
pepper spray, bells and whistles, bear
bangars, etc., to scare off wildlife.
Talking
Hand signals
Telephones
Radios
Emergency communication methods:
Whistles
Signal flares
Mirrors
Ground markers
e. Communication devices
When you are out hunting or camping it
is always beneficial if you can
communicate with the people in your
party and the outside world. While cellphones have made communication easier,
they do not necessarily work everywhere
in the province. Think about your normal
communication needs and emergency
communication needs.
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PART I:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the phone number if you have to report an emergency in British Columbia?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Is hypothermia a winter illness? ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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3. List six items you should consider when preparing yourself for a trip or hunt. ____
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Name the three layers in the layer system when you dress yourself for the outdoors.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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5. Who should you leave your trip plan with? ____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List five items you would put in your survival kit. ______________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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PART II:
SAFETY AND SURVIVAL
with a responsible adult. It must include

where you are going and when you expect
to return. Leave clear instructions of what
to do if you do not return. Leave your
vehicle in sight when you park it. Leave a
map of your route in the vehicle so a
rescuer can see it through the window.
Part two is broken into the

following sections:
1. Practicing safe behaviours
2. Minimizing Dangers Around Wildlife
3. Survival Psychology
4. Common survival situations
A contingency plan must be prepared in

advance. It would include the most
effective means of communication in case
of an emergency, alternate campsites or
route, equipment and food supplies if
travel is hampered by weather or injury.
1. Practicing safe behaviours

The saying "An ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure" is very true when
dealing with survival situations. As we
discussed earlier in the chapter, learn,
study, and practice outdoor safety and
survival skills, learn the risk, and prepare
yourself and your equipment prior to
your venture outdoors. When you are in
the outdoors practice safe behaviours in
order to avoid potential accidents,
incidents or mishaps.
All equipment should be checked before

the trip to ensure that it is in good
working order. It should be suitable for the
most demanding conditions of the trip.
Environmental conditions should be
taken into account when selecting
equipment for the trip. All equipment
should be evaluated from a health and
safety point of view to ensure that it is
suitable. A fully stocked first aid kit should
be carried on every trip.
There are four main safe behaviours you

should practice while hunting:
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a. plan your trip;

b. act with caution;
c. know where you are; and,
d. hunt with a partner.
Be prepared by planning and taking the

right equipment.
Remember
a. Plan your trip
It is essential that you develop an injuryprevention approach in planning you
trip. By good understanding of your
personal knowledge, skill, abilities, and
limitations the hunt will be enjoyable and
safe. Preventative planning your trip
includes route selection based on personal
and physical considerations. If a group
trip is planned, a form of leadership is
required. The leader should be both
physically and emotionally fit to lead the
trip, be aware of any potentially
dangerous situations, and be trained in
appropriate emergency procedures.
Plan your hunt and hunt your plan.

Leave the plan with a friend.
b. Act with caution
When walking through bush or along
dusty or gravelled roads, twigs, burrs, and
small stones can collect in your socks and
boots. Such bits of dirt and debris can rub
and irritate your skin causing painful sores
and blisters. Remove your socks and boots
occasionally and shake out any objects
picked up on the trail.
Be alert on the trail. Avoid areas with poor

footing. Test footing on fallen logs, dead
bark, or rocks in streams. Watch for dew or
frost, it will make your footing unsafe.
Route plan is detailed copy of the planned

route and the names and contact numbers
of individuals on the trip. Leave this plan
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Carry sharp tools, such as knives or axes,

in a protective sheath. If you fall there is
less likelihood of being cut.
As of September 1999, every boater

operating a motorized pleasure craft in
Canada is required to pass an exam in
order to get a pleasure craft operator's card.
Dont walk in the dark. Plan to be back at

your camp at least one hour before dark.
Take a boating course

Use a Personal Flotation Device
(PFD; a life jacket) when on the water
Ensure all safety equipment is in
working order
Check weather forecasts
Stay warm
Avoid standing up in a boat to take
shots at birds
Remember, alcohol and boating
don't mix
Go slowly, rest often. Dont walk if you are

too tired.
Speed Ratings:
Children to 9 years old: 5 km per day
Established routes: 3.5 - 5.5 km per hour
Off trail bush: 2 km per hour
Mountainous terrain: depending on the
vertical and horizontal distances
c. Know where you are

When you set up camp, orient your map so
the landmarks on the map line up with the
landmarks nearby. Note all visible landmarks
as reference points. Lay your compass on the
map and identify landmarks in relation to
their compass direction.
Remember
Hunting is about enjoying the
outdoors... not running through it.
Avoid water obstacles and frozen water

bodies. If you crossed a shallow stream in
the morning and it is now full due to rain,
do not try to cross it.
destination
direction of
travel
Learn and follow firearm safety procedures

especially when crossing obstacles. Make
sure of your target and beyond. Never
point a firearm at anything you do not
plan to shoot. For more firearm safety
rules, see the firearms chapter.
line of
sighting
Learn and follow safe boating procedures.

Use a Personal Flotation Device (PFD),
also known as a life jacket, when on the
water. Avoid standing up in a boat to take
shots at birds.
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Use your compass as you leave camp and

to get you back to camp. For example, if
you decide to hunt deer in a nearby range
of hills, take a compass reading before you
leave camp. If the compass showed the
direction of the hills as southwest of
camp, you know that after hunting in the
hills you must walk northeast from the
hills to get back to camp. Check your
direction at intervals along the way.
will defend itself or its young, if it feels

threatened. Here are some items to
consider in avoiding and handling wildlife
encounters:
1. Learn animal identification by studying
their habitat, characteristics, and
behaviour. Read the animal
identification chapter.
2. Learn how to avoid contact.
avoid certain areas
learn how to properly set up a camp
keep a clean camp
pack out your garbage
If you walk some distance after reaching

the hills take this into account when you
return. You can follow the compass
directions back to the general area where
you began, then look for landmarks to get
back to camp.
3. Learn procedures on how to handle

wildlife when encounters do occur.
Deterrent methods and tools
Defensive attacks
Predatory attacks
When your camp is near a "baseline" such

as a river, road, or ravine, you can easily
find your way back with a compass. If you
are hunting north of the baseline all you
must do is walk south to the baseline and
you will be in line with your camp.
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a. Bear and cougar safety
d. Hunt with a partner

While it might be very pleasant to go for a
walk by yourself looking for a few grouse
for that nights supper pot, have you every
thought what would happen if you got
injured? You left a trip plan at home but
you are not due back for hours. Who
would give you first aid?
Also consider the possibility of a conflict

with a wild animal such as a bear or
cougar. You are by yourself with a singleshot 12 gauge shotgun with 7-1/2 shot.
You are grouse hunting not bear
hunting, how would you avoid a conflict
with this wild animal?
Bears and cougars usually avoid people but

they may attack if they are provoked,
hungry, or startled.
In both cases having a hunting partner

would be helpful.
2. Minimizing dangers around

wildlife
Always hunt with a partner. When you are

on the trail, watch for signs of bears, such
as droppings, markings, or tracks, or their
strong scent.
Wildlife is exactly that... wild. Responsible

hunters and outdoors enthusiasts know
that wildlife is naturally wary and will try
to avoid people. However, any wild animal
Be wary near berry patches or the banks of

streams where fish are spawning. Never
approach a fresh kill.
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When not hunting, use a noisemaker,

such as a bell or tin can containing a few
pebbles. Attach it to your walking staff or
pack. The human voice is an unfamiliar
sound in the wilderness, so talking or
singing are effective. Be extra careful in
thick bush.
Running, waving of the arms, and

throwing sticks or stones may only
provoke a bear.
If you meet an aggressive grizzly in a
wooded area, speak softly and back slowly
toward a tall tree and climb as high as you
can. Grizzlies dont usually climb trees, but
they can easily reach up to 10 feet. And a
motivated grizzly will climb after you.
Be particularly careful in high winds,

when an animal may not be able to hear
you or be able to pick up your scent soon
enough to avoid you. If you see a bear at a
distance, make a wide detour or leave the
area at once. If you cannot make a detour
or retreat, wait until the bear moves away
from your path always leave the animal
an escape route. Do not store or cook your
food in your tent in camp. Store your food
and game meat away from camp,
preferably out of a bears reach.
If you are attacked, protect your stomach,

thighs, and neck by lying face down on the
ground with your hands clasped over your
neck. Wearing your pack will shield your
body. The bear may try to maul you, but
will do less damage if you can lie still. If the
bear rolls you over continue to roll until
you are in the face down position.
Resistance is useless. If the attack seems to
be lessening, and any movement attracts
the animal to attack you again, try to lie
still. Usually the bear will retreat
immediately after the attack although it
may just go a short distance and watch. If
the attack lasts more than about 30
seconds, the bear likely intends to kill you
so fight back with anything you can get
your hands on. Kick, punch, scream, and
use your knife, concentrating on the face
and head of the bear. This will not stop you
from getting hurt but it may save your life.
Female bears with cubs are especially

dangerous. Never approach a cub, even if
it seems to be alone, and never get caught
between a cub and its mother.
If you meet a bear, it will most likely move
away. However, bears can be unpredictable.
Learn to recognize the signs of a bear
attack, and above, all dont panic.
Do not play dead if attacked by a cougar.

Fight off the attack by any means at
your disposal.
b. Other creatures in the woods
There are a lot of other creatures in the
woods that slither, fly, or crawl that can
be dangerous. Even the droppings and
urine (excreta) from some animals can
be dangerous.
The sign of a probable attack are growling,

ears laid back, hackles raised, jaw
"popping", chewing and foaming at the
mouth, rocking back and forth, not
looking at you, and woofing. A bear
rearing up on its hind legs is probably
taking a more careful sniff to make certain
of who you are.
Snakes
The only venomous snake in British
Columbia is a species of rattlesnake found
only in the Southern Interior Dry Belt
region. It is usually found in shady places
in dry regions but may be near water at
night. Avoiding a bite is the best remedy.
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Watch where you put your hands and feet.

If you see a snake, ease back; sudden
movements can trigger an attack. A
healthy adult that is bitten by a rattlesnake
may get seriously ill but has a good chance
of survival, death from a snakebite is rare.
B.C. carrying the organisms that cause

numerous diseases, such as Lyme disease,
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularemia,
and relapsing fever. While the chances of
getting these diseases are small, it is worth
taking steps to avoid being bitten.
Some rattlesnake precautions are:

Wear stout boots and watch where you
put your feet.
Use a stick to check out holes, logs or
to turn over stones before placing feet
and hands nearby.
Step on top of obstacles, such as logs or
rocks, not over them.
Before sitting down for a rest, check
logs, stumps, rocks, and the
surrounding area.
If you encounter a snake stay calm, stop
and give the snake a chance to escape,
then back off giving it lots of room.
Small rattlesnakes can be just a deadly
as the larger ones.
Check clothes and packs before
putting them on.
Roll up your bedding or hang it off
the ground
To protect yourself against tick bites:

Walk on cleared trails wherever
possible when walking in tall grass
or woods.
Wear light-coloured clothing.
Tuck your top into your pants and tuck
your pants into your boots or socks
and consider wearing gaiters.
Put insect repellent onto clothing,
especially around the ankles, and all
uncovered skin.
Check clothing, scalp, and warm,
moist areas of your body (groin,
armpits) when leaving an area where
ticks may live.
Repeat this check over the next couple
of days as ticks may not be noticed
right away.
Regularly check household pets that go
into tall grass and wooded areas.
Micro-organisms
Water in the wild may contain organisms
that may be harmful to you if you drink it
before it has been disinfected. An example
would be Giardia, which is a microscopic
organism that can cause diarrhea, severe
cramps, and fever. There are several ways
to make water safe for drinking.
Insects
You may be bitten by mosquitoes,
blackflies, deerflies, and midges.
Prevention is the best cure protect
yourself with head nets, gloves, lightcoloured clothing and insect repellents.
Try to avoid the use of perfumes and
deodorant soaps as insects are attracted to
some of them.
Boiling when water has boiled it is safe to

drink. Boiling for 5-10 minutes sterilizes
water, killing micro-organisms and viruses.
Ticks
Ticks are small bugs, that vary from about
the size of a sesame seed up to a small
raisin, which feed on blood. Ticks cannot
jump or fly and do not drop from trees.
They wait on the top of grasses and shrubs
for their hosts and attach themselves to the
host as it brushes by. While most tick bites
do not result in disease, some do and some,
particularly if any body part of the tick is
left in the wound, can cause sores that are
difficult to heal. Ticks have been found in
Filtration this can remove most

diarrhea-producing micro-organisms but
may not remove viruses.
Chemical There are two effective water
treatments using chemicals; one is iodine
and the other is halozone or chlorine
tablets. It is important to follow the
manufacturers recommendations when
using these methods of water purification.
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Fear is a normal reaction; everyone feels

afraid when they are lost. Fear affects the
way you behave and, if not overcome, can
become your greatest obstacle to survival.
Waste material
Excreta is waste matter discharged
from the body, such as feces or urine.
In British Columbia there have been
reported cases of Hantavirus
Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS). HPS is a
severe, sometimes fatal respiratory
illness that is spread to humans when
the virus, carried on airborne particles
of deer mice excreta or saliva, are
inhaled or when there is direct contact
with the excreta.
Fear itself can become a survival weapon if

this powerful stimulus is controlled and
channelled. It is not always the physically
strong or happy-go-lucky person who
most effectively handles fear. Timid or
anxious persons may be the ones who
respond well under stress resulting in a
better chance of survival.
Ways to avoid coming in contact

with rodents:
"No fear" often means "No brains" in a

survival situation. It is OK to have a healthy
respect and awareness of the seriousness
and challenges of a situation. Controlled
fear is controlled energy. Do not exaggerate
the urgency of your situation but do not
underestimate it either.
Do not touch dead rodents without

disinfecting and using gloves.
Do not use cabins that are rodent
infested.
Do not camp near rodent feces,
burrows or dens.
Do not sleep on the bare ground,
use a tent with a floor.
Eliminate rodents and use rodentproof containers to store food.
Knowledge and experience are extremely

effective weapons. Knowing what to do in
a survival situation and how to facilitate a
rescue cannot help but reduce fear and
anxiety. Having confidence in one's own
ability and equipment is vital.
3. Survival Psychology
One important way of preparing for a
survival situation is to simply anticipate
it and know the types of personal
reactions that may occur. Knowing
what to expect can help to reduce the
mental and physical effects of some of
these reactions.
Other weapons include concentration

and confidence in your hunting
partners. Concentrate on the job to be
done without allowing one's mind to
wander and visualize the worst. Have
confidence in your hunting partners,
knowing that they are skilled and will do
their utmost to remedy the situation as
soon as possible.
Fear leading to panic, anxiety, shame,

and despair need no further description
here. More important are the weapons
that can be used to combat these
emotions.
The most important weapon of all in a

severe survival situation is the will to live.
This quality is impossible to explain,
difficult to develop and varies from one
person to another. It is why some people
have survived for long periods of time in
seemingly impossible situations, while
others have perished in a relatively short
time in survivable circumstances.
These weapons include:

Fear
Knowledge and experience
Concentration
Confidence
The will to live
(positive mental attitude)
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pain
predatory animals
cold
insects
heat
loneliness
thirst
bordom
hunger
fatigue
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The psychological problems discussed

earlier can be made worse as time passes
by other enemies of survival. Survival
enemies include:
are important ways of reducing the effects

of pain. If you give in to the pain, you
might stop trying to survive.
Cold
Cold is a serious threat to survival. Cold
numbs the body, the mind and the will to
survive. A victim of cold often loses the
ability to function normally. When you are
very cold, its hard to think about anything
other than becoming warm. Stay warm!
Wear proper clothing for outdoor-related
activities; see part one of this chapter.
Pain
Cold
Heat
Thirst
Hunger
Fatigue
Boredom and loneliness
Insects
Predatory animals
If an incident occurs, remove yourself or

the other person from cold air or water as
quickly and safely as possible. Try to get
as much of the body out of the water;
think trunk, neck and head first, arms and
legs last.
Pain
Pain is the bodys way of telling you that
something is wrong. Attend to any
injuries immediately using the appropriate
first aid treatment. Pain can weaken the
will to survive and easily get the best of a
person if it is allowed to do so. Knowledge
and application of appropriate first aid is a
good defence against pain as well as a
positively occupied mind. Making special
efforts to keep working and keep up hope
To survive in the outdoors you must find

ways to maintain your body temperature
by staying dry, building a fire, and
making a shelter to protect yourself from
the weather.
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delay the onset of fatique. Lack of sleep

and boredom may contribute to fatigue.
Rest as much as possible and avoid
overexertion. A comfortable shelter will
help you sleep.
Heat
Heat can lead to heat exhaustion or heat
stroke. Heat can be overcome by resting
during the hottest part of the day, staying
out of the sun, and getting enough fluids
into your body.
Boredom and loneliness

Boredom and loneliness can occur
while waiting to be rescued. This may
cause you to act irrationally, which can
create problems.
Thirst
Thirst, even when not extreme, can dull
the mind and under no circumstances
should a person be deprived of water
unnecessarily. A strong will to survive can
diminish the negative effects of thirst.
Dont worry about how thirsty you are.
You can survive for several days without
water if you are in normal health.
To overcome boredom and loneliness

you must try to adapt to your situation
and improvise solutions to problems.
Think positively and plan ways to
overcome problems. Tolerate solitude.
Avoid panic and keep calm. Be patient.
Keep your hands busy by doing things,
such as improving your camp.
Keep your mind active and busy with

plans for coping with the situation at
hand. Later, you can locate water near
your survival camp or collect it.
Insects
Insects may be extremely annoying
and cause morale to drop. Protection
with nets, smoke, or insect repellent
can help in this respect. On many
survival courses insects are the
biggest complaint.
Hunger
Hunger lowers the physical, and
sometimes the mental, efficiency of the
body. Thirst and hunger increase a
person's susceptibility to weakening
effects of cold, pain and fear. Carrying
survival rations is one way to reduce the
effects of hunger in the short term.
Be aware that some people may have

severe reactions to insect bite. Make sure
you discuss this with hunting partners
prior to going into the field and that
everyone is aware of that persons
allergic reactions and what to do if they
do get stung or bitten.
Though hunger will make you feel

uncomfortable, it is not a serious factor in
most survival situations. Your body fat will
normally supply enough energy to enable
you to survive three weeks.
Fatigue
Fatigue, in even a small amount, can
reduce mental ability causing one to easily
adopt the feeling of just not caring,
leading to dangerous behaviour, such as
the reckless use of tools.
Predatory animals
Problems with predatory animals are
unusual. Building a fire can help keep
them away. Often there is more
danger from the fear of animals than
from the animals themselves. This fear
can lead to irrational decisions, which
can cause more anxiety and panic
than the actual threat from the
animals themselves.
When you are tired you do not think

clearly and can become careless. Extreme
fatigue can even destroy a persons desire
to survive.
With all these enemies to survival, the

most important thing is being able to
recognize when they are occurring.
Avoiding unnecessary exertion and

maintaining a good mental attitude can
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One way to deal with the mental problems

in a survival situation is to
STOP (Stop, Think, Observe, Plan).
survivability, but even more important

can be the qualities of the person trying
to survive.
A list of desirable qualities includes:
1. Hoping for the best, but preparing
for the worst
2. Decisive
3. Can improvise
4. Can live with himself/herself and
others
5. Is patient
6. Can adapt to situation
7. Can control his/her fears
8. Can remain cool, calm, and collected
9. Can endure setbacks without being
discouraged
10. Is mentally and physically prepared
11. Knows the survival pattern and uses it
4. Common survival situations
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Survival situations fall into three

general categories:
If you find yourself in an emergency or

survival situation the first thing to do is to
STOP moving. Rushing around can
increase anxiety and will make you more
confused. In this state, decisions are made
with no forethought and actions do not
follow a logical plan. Once you stop
moving you can THINK about the actions
that can be done to improve your chances
of survival. While you are thinking you can
look around and OBSERVE your situation.
Look for immediate hazards or resources
you can work with. Finally, after thinking
and observing, you can PLAN your actions
in a deliberate, practical manner.
a. Being lost or unable to get back to

your camp;
b. Falling through ice or into water;
and,
c. Injuries which require first aid or
medical attention.
Each of these situations requires you to
be able to assess the situation and
choose the best action to deal with it.
The greatest threat to survival is in the
mind of the individual. Survival
depends largely on mental attitude. You
should practice survival techniques
before you go hunting. Practice will
make you familiar with equipment and
techniques for survival. It can also give
you confidence and lessen your
emotional stress if you are in a
survival situation.
It is also important to remember that in a

true survival situation there is an energy
budget. Every action, such as travelling,
shelter building, or gathering food, uses
up energy reserves and these reserves are
limited. Therefore, before an action is
carried out it should be decided that the
benefits of that action outweigh the
disadvantage of the energy loss.
In a survival situation you must first

treat injuries, then deal with other
survival practices.
Weather, terrain and the nature of an

emergency have important effects on
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a. So you are lost

A survival situation usually lasts less than
24 hours and seldom longer than five
days. Searches can take time; however, and
you will need to rely on your own
resources to survive until help comes. The
first step in being found is to tell someone
where you are going. If lost, the trip
information or plan left at home or camp
will now make a positive difference
toward being found quickly.
Fire Building
Fire is a basic need for survival. With a
fire you can warm yourself, dry clothing,
signal for assistance, cook a meal, and
enjoy a safe and comfortable night.
Fire provides security, comfort, and has
a way of putting fear and apprehension
out of your mind. Always carry
the means to light a fire when you
are hunting.
To build a fire you will need fire-starters,

fuel, and a safe location.
You must deal with your state of mind and

your physical comfort. To do this you
must know about:
Fire-starters
The most practical matches are the long
wooden "strike anywhere" variety. Keep
these in an unbreakable, waterproof
container. Remember to change these
matches in these containers occasionally
as humidity may cause them not to light
when you need them. If possible carry an
alternative lighting source, such as a
lighter, for backup.
staying put
composure and first aid
fire building
shelter building
rescue signals
food and water
Stay put
The greatest mistake a person who is lost
can make is to start wandering in an
attempt to find a way back to camp. If you
become lost, set up a survival camp and
stay put.
Fire-starting cubes are also excellent to

help ignite your fire. Always light your
fire from the upwind side.
Fuel
You need two kinds of fuel to start a fire:
tinder and kindling.
Your fire and other signals will help others

find you. If you use a sound signal and
hear a reply, dont try to find your rescuer,
wait for them to follow your signal to you.
If you keep moving around there is less
chance they will find you.
Most fires will not burn without first

lighting some easily flammable tinder. In
forest areas, you will find tinder readily
available. Gather the fine, dead twigs
from the lower limbs of standing trees or
from dry windfalls for tinder.
Never travel at night. You may fall into a

hole, trip, or step onto something sharp
and injure yourself. You will only add to
your problem if you travel at night.
Attend to your injuries if any, build a fire
and shelter, and stay put.
On the coast it may be difficult to find

something dry enough to burn. The core
of small, easily broken standing snags
may provide dry fuel even in the dampest
conditions.
Composure
Keep your composure during an
emergency or survival situation. DON'T
PANIC. Remember the enemies of survival
and react accordingly.
Gather a good supply of firewood for the

night; a good estimate is to gather twice
as much as you think you will need. Be
careful that you do not smother the fire
by adding too much fuel.
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Fire location
Carefully select the location of your fire
pit. Do not build a fire under a tree; the
tree may catch fire. The heat from the fire
may also melt snow on the trees branches,
soaking the fire and putting it out. If you
must build a fire on snow, construct a
platform on the snow made of green
logs or stones.
Fire signals
Fires make excellent signals. A large, bright
fire at night or a smoky one during the day
can be seen easily. Green boughs produce
intense smoke when burned, but dont
smother your fire when using them. If you
have enough fuel you can set three signal
fires to appear as a triangle from the air.
Flare signals
To attract aircraft, flare signals are best.
Flare cartridges are available which can be
fired from a rifle or shotgun. Also, small
flare signalling devices may be purchased
and included in your survival kit.
If the ground is dry, as it is in many parts

of the Interior, scrape away all grass and
debris and build the fire on bare dirt to
avoid starting a grass or forest fire.
Beware of exposed tree roots; they can
catch fire quickly.
Be sure to shield the fire from the wind
and use a rock or wall of logs to reflect the
heat towards you and your shelter. Beware
of rock from streambeds. When heated
these rocks have been known to explode
from the water vapour that has been
trapped in them
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Hold firmly
Fire first flare

immediately upon
sighting aircraft.
Rescue Signals
Once you have attended to any injuries
and made a fire you can try to attract the
attention of other people. There are five
types of signals that you can use: fire,
flare, mirror, sound, and information
signals. In general, three repetitions of any
signal indicate distress.
When among
trees aim through
a clearing in the
canopy
Fire signal
Turn face away

from flare gun.
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Mirror signals
A mirror rotated to reflect the sunlight is
an excellent device for attracting
attention. Move the mirror at an angle to
produce flashes of light.
Information signals
Your best chance of survival is by staying
put at one location. In addition to a fire,
you can make a large X or an SOS in a
clearing near your camp. Use heaps of
stones or earth, piles of brush, tree
branches or trampled grass or snow.
Sound signals
Carry a shrill whistle. It has a loud,
distinctive noise and will carry much
farther than your voice. Blow three blasts
as a signal.
If, after very serious consideration, you

decide to leave your place of shelter, be
sure to leave a message indicating the
direction youre going. Make a large arrow
on the ground from any available material
so that search aircraft or ground searchers
will know which direction to look.
Ground searchers will also be guided by
such signals. If possible, leave a note
explaining where you are headed and
what time you left camp.
Carefully consider using your firearm to

attract attention. Gunshots can be a
confusing signal as others may think
youre shooting at game and ignore your
signal shots. However, if you are very
seriously injured, fire your ammunition
off in groups of three shots, with 10
seconds between each shot. Wait 10 to 15
minutes for an answering signal shot.
Repeat this procedure as long as your
ammunition supply will allow, but dont
use up all your ammunition.
Tramp out large X in snow at least

150' (46 m) in length.
Sun
Stand boughs up to
cast larger shadow.
Logs
Travelling in
this direction
Rocks
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Branches and
trampled in snow.
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There are three basic types of shelters:

natural shelters, lean-to or tent structures,
and snow caves.
Shelter building
Choose the most protected spot you can,
and set up a warm, established camp to
give yourself a psychological lift. Shelters
should be simple and small. It is vital that
you stay warm when lost or stranded. Your
shelter should protect you from the wind
and cold, and keep you dry. Build the best
shelter you can without wasting energy. A
sheet of plastic taken along on the trip is
invaluable in building a shelter.
Natural shelters such as fallen trees or

overhanging rock ledges, are good if they are
well-secured. A fallen tree can provide a
quick and easy shelter. Cut away some of the
non- supporting branches and lean them
against the trunk to form a crude roof. If you
use a cave, make sure it is not occupied.
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Upon completion of shelter, locate wood

and build fire at entrance for warmth.
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6 to 8 (15cm
to 20 cm)
A bough bed will insulate you from the
ground. Boughs should be placed with broken ends toward the ground.
A lean-to or tent structure can be improvised
from a variety of materials including slabs of
wood, split wood planks, evergreen boughs,
and sheets of plastic. Make a bed of boughs
about 8 inches (20 cm) deep to insulate you
from the ground.
Snow caves are difficult to dig without getting
wet. They can keep you warm, however. Make
it deep enough to sit in and long enough to lie
down. Make the roof arched so moisture will
run down the walls and not drip onto you.
Leave a ventilation hole in the roof and keep it
open with a stick.
Food and water
Water and food are not as critical as they
may first seem. You can survive for several
days without water. Locating water is
generally not difficult in British Columbia.
You need 2 to 3 quarts (2.27 to 3.41 litres) of

water every day. Drink even though you
may not feel thirsty. Drink as much as
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possible whenever it is available. If your

water supply is limited, restrict your
activity and movement, especially during
the heat of the day.
If possible, boil or filter water before
drinking it. Melt snow or ice over a fire;
dont melt it in your mouth, as this will
cause dehydration and loss of body heat.
Food is not an immediate necessity for
survival. If you are in normal health you
should be able to exist for 30 days or
more. However, once other survival needs
are taken care of, you should spend some
time gathering food from the wild to ward
off hunger. This activity will also help
dispel boredom.
Almost all plants yield some nourishment
from their fruit, bark, or roots. Avoid
mushrooms, however, since some are
poisonous. There is often more food value or
energy in meat from wildlife than in plants.
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b. Ice and water

Ice and water can create survival situations.
Water
Never swim alone, after dark, when you
are tired, or after a big meal.
Ice
Stay off ice that has formed on salt water,
tidal rivers, or fast-flowing streams. Never
cross ice that is cracked, snow-covered, or
less than 4 inches (10 cm) thick.
If you must cross ice, carry a long pole or
have a knife handy. If you break through
ice you should:
Never dive into water without first

checking the depth. Wear a life jacket
in boats.
If you fall in or if your boat capsizes, get
out of the water as quickly as possible. You
can climb onto the boat since it will float
even if capsized. If you cant, remain still,
and curl up to retain heat. Wait for help.
extend your arms flat on the ice

surface and kick your feet to the
surface of the water;
hold a pole so it distributes your
weight so you can climb out; and/or,
use a knife to dig into the ice surface to
help you climb out.
If you fall into a fast-moving stream, turn

over on your back with your feet
downstream. This will allow you to push
off of rocks or other obstacles. Backstroke
and swim with the current and angle
towards the shore.
If someone else breaks through, dont run

to help him. Lie flat and extend a pole,
scarf, or other object to him so he can pull
himself out.
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If someone else falls into the water, throw

her a rope or something that will float.
Dont jump in after her or give her your
body to hang onto.
Once out of the water, roll in the snow.

Snow will act as a blotter and soak up the
water from your clothes. Build a fire on
shore immediately; warm yourself and dry
your clothes. Do not try to walk back to
camp. In cold conditions if you are wet
you lose body heat very quickly.
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5. First Aid
What happened?
Make the area safe by removing
any hazards
Determined number injured
Instruct the casualty not to move
Send for medical aid; this would include
a written evaluation of location and
patient condition
a. What is first aid?

First aid is immediate care given to a
person until more advanced care can be
obtained. Preparing for an emergency
includes having a first aid kit and
emergency contact numbers.
First aid does not take the place of proper

medical attention, but it can help save
lives and prevent further injury. It is
important to know what to do, as well as
knowing what not to do.
The information presented here falls far
short of a complete guide to first aid and is
better described as "emergency aid". You
should take a comprehensive first aid course
to be prepared for an emergency situation
especially before going into the woods.
b. The objectives of first aid are:
to preserve life
to prevent further injury
to ease pain and discomfort until
qualified medical assistance can
be obtained.
c. Three basic elements to first aid
Outdoor recreation has developed beyond
activities done only by adventuresome
individuals. As more people are engaging
in outdoor activities, we become faced
with more incidents in regions difficult or
impossible to reach by emergency care
ambulances. Consequently, first aid
training becomes an essential part of
preparation for the outdoor and remote
area user. An emergency scene might look
complicated at first, but following these
three basic elements to first aid will help
you organize your response:
Before entering the scene it is important to

determine if any hazards exist that may cause
further injury to the casualty or to you.
Carefully observe the surroundings and
circumstances of the accident. Wherever
possible, remove any danger (e.g., an
overhanging log, etc.) rather than moving the
victim. Be careful not to put yourself in
danger while trying to help. Hazards include
moving water, rock fall, lightning, presence of
gas, fire, animal, weather conditions (heat or
cold), slope of terrain, snow or ice avalanche.
Be calm and reassure the victim. The
emotional stress of an emergency situation is
often the greatest barrier to a well-planned first
aid operation. Fear, anxiety, and panic are
often the reactions of those involved in
emergencies. If you are frightened or upset,
you will make the victim even more excited or
afraid. Be as soothing and cheerful as you can.
This attitude will calm the person who is hurt
or sick and make him or her feel they are being
well taken care of until the medical aid arrives.
If a person appears seriously injured, dont
try to move him. If you dont know exactly
what the injury is, keep the victim lying
down with his head level. Dont move the
victim unless he is in obvious danger or
unconscious and you need to put the
casualty in the recovery position.
The recovery position
Scene assessment
Casualty assessment
Movement
Scene assessment
Survey the scene to be sure no danger
exists before you approach the casualty.
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Circulation - Look for signs of circulation:
Casualty assessment
Initial examination procedures
Check the casualty for responsiveness and
consciousness. Tap, gently shake and
shout, "Are you okay". Examine the victim
quickly for life-threatening conditions
using the following primary survey
procedure, it is a simple as A-B-C-D:
skin colour and temperature. Assess the

carotid (neck) pulse for 10 seconds.
Airway - Open the airway by tilting the

head back and lifting the chin, if there is
no suspected spinal or head injuries.
Deadly Bleed Check - Run your hands
over and under the body looking for signs

of internal or external bleeding.
Check for life-threatening conditions and
immediately attend to:
Not Breathing
No Pulse
Bleeding
Shock (pale, cool, and clammy skin)
Unconsciousness
Breathing - With your cheek near the
patients nose and mouth, listen and feel

for breath and watch for the any
movement of the chest for 10 seconds.
If no breathing is apparent, give two
slow breaths.
Treatment details for each of these are

explained later in this part.
Secondary survey
Only when you are sure that the casualty
has no life-threatening conditions needing
immediate attention should you do a
secondary survey. The secondary survey is
a way to find other problems that may
need first aid and documentation of all
information gathered. The secondary
survey has three steps:
Interview the casualty and/or
bystanders.
Record name, contact number, time, what
happened, casualty history (medical
conditions and medications, allergies,
last meal).
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Source: All images Canadian Red Cross (CRC)
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Stretcher
The safest method for moving all types of
injuries is the stretcher, which can be
improvised from many materials (e.g.,
blanket, coats, pack frame and poles). Be
sure to test the stretcher first with an
uninjured individual of the same size,
if possible.
Check vital signs

Vitals should be recorded every 10
minutes and compared to evaluate the
casualty's condition.
Vitals
Time:
Level of Consciousness:
Breathing Rate and Quality:
Pulse Rate and Rhythm:
Skin Temperature and color:
Perform a head to toe

Do a careful, systematic examination of
the body and be careful not to cause
further injury.
Your findings are important; write down
what you find. This information should be
sent with the individual that is going for
help and also to the medical aid personnel.
Pack frame stretcher
Movement of victim
Where it is necessary to transport the patient,
this must be accomplished with a minimum
of danger and discomfort. Under normal
circumstances a casualty unable to move
under his own power should remain where
he is until sufficient rescue and transport
equipment can be brought to them. There are
occasions; however, when a casualty must be
moved. In most circumstances, carrying a
person is limited to a short distance.
Once the casualtys injuries have been

treated and his condition has been
stabilized, it may be appropriate to move
him a short distance to a place more suitable
for providing additional care. The most
important part of transporting an accident
victim is making sure that movement does
not further complicate injuries. Ask yourself
if you really have to move the casualty.
Before you move a victim, consider the
nature of the injury, the distance from
help, the type of terrain, weather, and
time of day.
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Coat stretcher
Carries
If immediate, short distance movement
from potential environmental hazards
is necessary, the following methods
are appropriate:
You should also make sure you know your

destination and route thoroughly. Be able
to reach help even if the weather changes
for the worse. Be certain you can direct
help to the exact location of the victim.
What other resources are in the area that
can help you?
Drag carry
Hand carry
Chair carry
If you must leave a victim to go for help,
make sure the victim is out of shock.
Consider his state of mind (can they
stay alone?) and protection from
weather conditions.
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Chair carry
Drag carry
Hand carry
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Consider these points carefully before you

take action and always keep in mind that
it is your responsibility to try to save a life
without endangering yourself or others.
If you see anything in the victims mouth

that may obstruct the air passage, clear it
out with your fingers.
d. Treatment of life-threatening conditions

These conditions must receive
immediate attention:
Not Breathing start artificial

breathing; give 1 breath every 5 seconds
No Pulse start CPR (15 chest
compressions and 2 breaths)
Bleeding lay the casualty down,
elevate the injury if leg or arm, use a
bulky dressing and apply direct
pressure right over the bleed.
Apply a bandage. If it bleeds through,
apply another. Do not remove the
first bandage.
Shock is pale, cool, and clammy skin
cover the casualty with a blanket; be
sure to cover the head.
Unconsciousness put the casualty in
the recovery position
Open your mouth wide and take a deep

breath. Use a barrier device over the
victims mouth to form a tight seal.
Give two breaths and watch for the chest

to rise. Do this two times.
Not breathing
There are many causes of breathing
disruption. Whatever the cause there is
urgency for treatment since the victim
will suffer permanent brain damage or
death after a few minutes without
oxygen. Start artificial respiration
immediately, and if in doubt continue
until medical help arrives.
Check carotid (neck) pulse for 10 seconds.
Artificial respiration
It is recommended that you use a barrier
device, that is, a pocket mask, when doing
rescue breathing. To begin mouth-tomouth artificial respiration and, if a
fractured neck is not suspected, gently tilt
the victims head back.
If pulse is present, continue artificial

respiration; give one breath every 5 seconds.
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No pulse
If the pulse is absent, do CPR. Do four
cycles of compressions/breathing, then
recheck the pulse for 10 seconds.
Bleeding
Bleeding occurs in two manners, either
external or internal. Learn how to treat
both manners of bleeding.
Give 15 compressions
External Bleeding
Cuts are a common injury usually
resulting from accidents with tools, such
as axes, hatchets, and knives.
Do not dab at the cut and do not keep

looking to see if the bleeding has stopped.
If you release the pressure too soon the
bleeding will start again. If the dressing
becomes soaked, dont remove it. Add
another on top and increase the pressure.
Give two slow breaths
If the cut is on an arm or leg, keep it

elevated, if possible, to help stop the
bleeding. Have the victim lie down.
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If blood is coming in spurts, it means an

artery has been cut. Bleeding from an
artery can cause death in just a few
minutes if it is not stopped quickly. To
stop bleeding from a severed artery, use
firm direct pressure over the wound.
A good way to remember the basics of
first aid for external bleeding is the
acronym RED:
Dont stop CPR until the victim starts
breathing on his own, or another person
relieves you.
RED
R - rest
E - elevate
D - direct pressure
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Bleeding from most cuts can be stopped

by pressing firmly on the cut with a thick
cloth pad. Press the pad firmly, directly
over the wound, and hold it there until
the bleeding stops. Keep pressing for at
least five minutes.
#1 Put the patient at rest; lay them down.

#2 Elevate the bleeding part above
the heart.
#3 Apply dressings and bandage for
direct pressure.
Check to be sure bleeding has stopped.
The combination of elevation and direct
pressure will control most bleeding.
If the cut is in the lower arm, blood flow
can be controlled by applying strong
Source: Canadian Red Cross (CRC)
Indirect pressure points are used when elevation

and pressures do not control the bleed. It is
unlikely that you will need an indirect pressure
point since most bleeding is controlled by
putting the patient at rest, elevating the injury
above the heart and application of direct
pressure right over the bleed.
Main arterial pressure points

to stop bleeding.
Main arterial
system
A.
D.
pressure against the bone on the inside of the

arm on the brachial artery, halfway between
the elbow and shoulder. If the cut is in the leg,
blood flow can be controlled by applying
strong pressure against the femoral artery on
the bone in the groin area.
B.
C.
E.
F.
A.
B.
C.
G.
D.
E.
F.
G.
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b. Internal Bleeding
Internal bleeding may be suspected from
the history of the accident (e.g., crushed
by a log) and symptoms, such as loss of
consciousness or rapid, laboured
breathing, thirst, pale, cool, clammy skin.
Bleeding from natural openings may also
be visible and pulse may become weaker
and more rapid.
Tourniquet
A tourniquet should be used only when all
other means of elevation and direct
pressure on the wound prove ineffective.
The indirect pressure point will control all
bleeding since it is directly over the artery.
Tourniquets often do more harm than
good and can result in the loss of a limb.
Embedded objects
Do not remove any embedded objects as
this could lead to further damage and
bleeding. Protect the wound by padding
around the object
Keep the victim in the recovery position.

Watch for changes in symptoms, such as
choking or difficulty breathing.
Transport the victim to a hospital and
report that you suspect internal bleeding.
Dont give any fluids or anything else by
mouth, even if requested by the victim.
Support the object

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If an object is embedded in the chest DO

NOT REMOVE it. Stop the air from
entering the chest and the "sucking" sound
by sealing the wound with a gloved hand.
When all other life-threatening conditions
are cared for, apply an airtight "sealing"
dressing, e.g., plastic and tape in place.
Apply a pressure dressing
Rib Fractures
Stabilize all fracture segments. A pad large
enough to cover the segment and no
larger, may be taped firmly in place.
DO NOT APPLY ANY ENCIRLING TAPES
OR TIES AROUND THE CHEST.
Place the victim in the recovery position

with the injured side down, and transport
to hospital as quickly as possible.
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c. Chest Injury Management

Penetrating (sucking) chest wounds
A puncture wound penetrating the lung or
chest cavity around the lung lets air go in
and out of the cavity, thus producing a
sucking sound. Air sucks in and out with
each breath. This condition often results
from gunshot wounds or falls and
demands immediate treatment.
Shock
The victim of any kind of accident or
medical emergency will often suffer shock
in addition to his injuries. Shock is one of
the most dangerous things you will
encounter in an accident situation, and
can lead to death if not properly treated.
Shock may occur immediately, or it may
happen several hours after an accident.
Unconsciousness
An unconscious victim presents special
problems. All unconscious victims are in
danger of suffocating.
Check for unconsciousness by calling the

victim and tapping their shoulder.
If you get no response, do a head tilt, chin
lift, check for breathing. Look for chest
movement. Listen for breathing. Feel for
breath on your cheek.
Shock is usually caused by internal or

external bleeding. Recheck any bandages
to ensure bleeding is controlled. Shock is
often more serious than the injury itself.
If the victims breathing is noisy (gurgling

or snoring sounds), he starts to vomit or
bleed from the mouth, or if you must
leave him briefly, place the victim in the
recovery position. Do a secondary survey
by monitoring vitals every 10 minutes and
recording any changes in condition.
A person in shock is pale, cool, perspiring,

and feels anxiety, weakness, and confused.
The pulse will be rapid and weak and may
progress to unconsciousness.
Source: Canadian Red Cross (CRC)
No matter what the accident, after

immediate first aid treatment has been
given, keep the victim lying down even if
he doesnt want to. Handle a shock
victim gently.
Once the three most dangerous situations

(breathing, bleeding, and shock) have
been treated, you may begin treating other
injuries. This manual cannot describe all
possible injuries, but several common
ones are discussed below.
Keep the person warm, but not hot. A

person in shock loses body heat rapidly,
which makes the shock more severe.
Cover him with a blanket or coat. If he is
on the ground and his injuries permit
movement, put a blanket underneath
him/her and a hat on the head.
If the victim is conscious and medical aid

is delayed for a long period of time, they
may be given small amounts of liquid. If
the wound is in the stomach or lower
chest, or if internal bleeding is suspected,
do not give the victim anything to eat or
drink, even though he may be very thirsty.
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e. Common field injuries
be lost through the head. If your feet are

cold, wearing a hat will help keep them
warm. Dont sit or lie down on the cold
ground and always carry an instant body
shelter, such as a sheet of plastic, or
survival blanket for protection from wind
and wet. If the air is very cold, preheat it
through a scarf as you breathe and dont
sweat; slow down.
This section will deal with common field

injuries or medical emergencies:
Hypothermia
Heat exposure
Heart attacks and strokes
Penetrating (sucking) chest wound
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a dangerous condition
caused by the body losing heat faster than
it can produce it. Exposure to wind, wet,
and exhaustion causes hypothermia, which
is the number one killer in the outdoors.
The major factor is almost always
inadequate clothing. Often called exposure,
hypothermia is particularly serious as it
affects the mind as well as the body.
Treatment
Treatment includes moving the victim to
shelter and warmth as quickly as possible.
If there is no shelter, build a fire.
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The symptoms are difficult to recognize at

first in someone else and even harder to
recognize in yourself. Signs are
uncontrolled shivering, fumbling hands,
frequent stumbling, fuzzy thinking, slow
speech, and drowsiness. If not recognized
and stopped, memory lapses and
numbness follow, which can end in
stupor, collapse, and death.
Remove the victims wet clothes and get

them into a warm sleeping bag if possible.
Skin-to-skin contact is the most effective
way of warming the victim. Get into the
sleeping bag or lie as close as possible to
the victim. If they are semi-conscious or
worse, try to keep them awake. As the
victim recovers, give them plenty of
warm, non-alcoholic, sweet liquids. Be
aware that the person assisting by skin-toskin contact may also become
hypothermic. If you have more than one
other person available, take turns.
The best way to fight hypothermia is to

avoid it. Up to 50 percent of body heat can
Dont attempt to warm up by exercise.

This only uses up vital energy.
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rapidly rises. It is recognized in the

casualty by red, hot, dry skin, irritable,
bizarre, or combative behaviour,
progressive loss of consciousness, rapid,
shallow breathing, and rapid, weak pulse.
Without proper care, the casualty will die.
Heat exposure
Heat emergencies are generally caused by
prolonged exposure to the sun. Injuries
due to heat can result in the loss of body
tissue or in the loss of life. Heat cramps,
heat exhaustion, and heatstroke are all
caused by exposure to heat.
COOL THE BODY WITH ANY MEANS

AVAILABLE: wet towels, put ice packs in
armpits, groin and neck, continue
fanning. A person in heat stroke may stop
breathing or have a heart attack. Be
prepared to do rescue breathing and CPR.
Preventing heat emergencies with
common sense:
Avoid being outdoors in the hottest
part of the day
Take frequent breaks in a cool and
shady place
Drink plenty of fluids and avoid
caffeine and alcohol
Dress for the heat and activity level
Heat Cramps are painful spasms of

muscles usually in the calves and
abdomen. Have the casualty rest in a cool
place and give cool water, stretch the
muscle, and massage the area.
Heart attacks and strokes

Heart attacks have a variety of causes and
first aid is very important. Symptoms
include pain in the chest (may not always
be present), a shortness of breath,
dizziness, and sometimes unconsciousness.
Heat exhaustion is the most common of

heat-related injuries. It is more serious and
is recognized by normal or slightly
elevated body temperature, cool, pale
moist skin, headache, nausea, dizziness,
weakness, and exhaustion. If you can
recognize heat exhaustion in the early
stages, you can usually reverse it. Move
the casualty to a cool shady place away
from heat and give cool water to drink.
Loosen any tight clothing and remove
clothing soaked with perspiration. Put
cool water on the skin and fan the
casualty to increase evaporation. If heat
exhaustion progresses, the casualtys
condition worsens. The casualty may
vomit and show signs of changes in level
of consciousness, signalling the beginning
of heat stroke.
First aid includes:

1. Send for medical assistance
immediately.
2. If the victim is conscious, calm and
reassure him. Intense emotion often
brings on an attack.
3. Dont move the victim unless absolutely
necessary. If he has difficulty breathing,
keep him in a position of comfort for
him, which most commonly is in a
sitting or semi-reclined position, or raise
his head and chest on supporting
material like pillows.
Heat stroke is a life-threatening

emergency and can lead to coma and
death if the body is not cooled. Heat
stroke develops when the body can no
longer cool itself and body temperature
4. Dont allow the victim to exert himself

in any way.
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Strokes occur when blood circulation to a

vital part of the brain is blocked. A "small"
stroke produces very mild symptoms and
may be wrongly ignored. A series of small
strokes may precede a major stroke and
lead to death or paralysis.
Symptoms of a small stroke include
headache, dizziness, weakness, loss of
muscular use in some part of the body, and
brief loss or impairment of speech,
memory, or vision. Convulsions, paralysis
of one side of the body or face, and bulging
eyes are indications of a major stroke.
Wound management
This section will deal with:

Blisters
Abrasions and laceration
Sprains
Fractures
Blisters
Blisters are preventable. Inspect your feet
often for tender red patches which are the
beginnings of blisters. Cover these areas
with moleskin or adhesive tape to protect
the skin from being rubbed by your boot.
Although they may seem minor, blisters
on your feet can become major injuries if
not treated properly.
Once a blister has formed, make a donut
bandage (a round pad with the centre cut
out) to protect the blister and bandage it
in place.
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Do not break blisters, as this opens the

way to infection.
Abrasions and lacerations
Once the bleeding has stopped, the area
around the wound should be cleaned.
Wash around the wound with clean water
and soap. Be very gentle or the bleeding
may start again.
In either case:
1. Call for medical help immediately.
2. Have the victim lie down on his back,
if possible. If he is having trouble
breathing or is vomiting, place him in
the recovery position with the
paralyzed side down.
After the wound has been carefully

cleaned and allowed time to dry, apply a
sterile dressing or gauze compress and
hold it firmly in place with tensorwrap
or looptie.
3. Loosen his clothing and keep him

warm but not hot.
Check for signs of infection, redness,

swelling, heat, and pus. If an infection is
present, seek medical aid immediately.
4. If he is to be transported, be sure he is
in the recovery position, preferably
with a lot of padding under the body
and with a pillow under his head.
As a precaution against serious infection,

anyone planning a hunting or camping
trip should receive an anti-tetanus toxin
injection before starting out.
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Sprains
Sprains are an injury to ligaments and
muscles around a joint. Symptoms are
swelling, tenderness, and pain.
DO NOT REMOVE THE BOOT! except
when circulation is impaired. The boot
serves as a splint and controls swelling.
Dont move broken limbs to their "natural"

position. Splint them where they are.
Sometimes you have to make use of what
you are carrying with you to make a sling.
Whatever you carry with you should have
at least three uses; one of them should be
first aid.
Keep the injured limb elevated and apply
cold for 15 minutes every hour for 24-48
hours after the injury. Applying cold
compresses will reduce swelling and pain.
Treat a severe sprain like a fracture and
immobilize with splints.
Wilderness and Remote

First Aid Course
contact:
Canadian Red Cross
Fractures (broken bones)

There are two types of fractures. A simple
fracture is a closed break where there is no
wound associated with the broken bone. A
compound or open fracture is one where
there is a wound and therefore a danger of
infection to the bone. It may be difficult
to detect a fracture. If in doubt, treat as if a
fracture exists.
1-888-307-7997
www.redcross.ca
Symptoms of a fracture include swelling,

point pain over fracture site, inability to
move the injured part, deformity.
Handle the victim gently. Cover wounds
with sterile dressings to prevent infection.
Immobilize the fracture with splints or by
tying the injured limb to the victims body.
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SUPPLEMENTAL
Are you prepared for a
hunting emergency?
set up could cover the whole management

unit." The sun came out by 2 p.m. and the
temperature reached 70 degrees Fahrenheit,
which helped to dry things out.
By Sid Nielsen
Some hunting trips go well and some do not.
But with proper planning you can be prepared
for most incidents. On October 12, 1998, we
set out from Campbell River at 4:30 a.m. to
catch the first ferry to Vancouver. There were
three members in our hunting party: Bill
Tsangaris, Bill Walker and I. With the three of
us switching off driving we made it to Windy
Point just past Prince George the first night
and slept on the ground overnight. The next
day we drove to Fort Saint John. We stocked
up on necessary supplies at the local shopping
plaza and then headed to Pink Mountain.
Camp was set up and supper on by 5 p.m.
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The next day was dry and warm. The hunt

in the morning was good. Bill and I saw four
moose, all females with calves, and one big
old grizzly bear. Not an uncommon sight in
this area.
We planned the evening hunt. Bill Walker
and I were to go back to the area where the
grizzly bear was sighted. We had seen fresh
tracks from a big bull moose. I left camp at
5:30 p.m. with the ATV to get water from
the spring and return to the camp. Bill
Walker was planning to leave camp at 6:30
p.m. with the other ATV.
Bill Walker and I took the two ATVs and

went up to the spring to get water and do a
little scouting. We saw two cows and a calf
moose. We came back to camp in good spirits. During the first evening we sat around
and told a bunch of lies and planned how we
were going to hunt the area. Bill Walker and
I knew the country and we would hunt
together on the ATVs. Bill Tsangaris would
take the pickup and hunt the road.
I was to meet Bill Walker at the tree stand by

the big meadow. It would take him about 35
minutes to get there. I would come in from
the other side at about the same time, driving
any animals toward Bill.
I came in from the far end of the meadow
and looked through the binoculars. I could
see Bills ATV at approximately 1,000 metres
away. With the suns glare off the ATV, I
could not see if Bill was there. I moved closer
and was 200 metres from the ATV when I
saw Bill. Approximately 50 metres from the
ATV, I could then see Bill lying on his back,
cap over his eyes and rifle across his lap with
his finger on the trigger. I did not yell as I
thought he was sleeping. Bill could sleep anywhere and I did not want to startle him especially with gun in hand!
As luck would have it, it poured rain on the

camp all night. Opening morning we ventured out into the rain to start hunting. We
hunted until 10:00 a.m. and returned to
camp just as the rain stopped!
Camped next to us were two young hunters
who had pitched their dome tent during dry
weather. Their tent was now sitting in a sea
of gumbo. The two Bills and I went over to
see them. We invited them to share our
camp. As Bill Walker said, "the tarp we had
As I approached from the butt side of the gun

I could see that something was terribly wrong.
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I removed the gun and immediately checked

the action discovering that it was loaded with
one in the chamber and two in the box magazine. The safety was off. I made the gun safe
and then checked Bill first for his breathing.
Breathing was very shallow and smelled like
acetone. I then checked the pulse on his wrist
and it was very weak. I was calling him all
the while but got no response. There were no
other physical signs of an accident.
with a steep bank up the other side. I had to

get some duct tape and tape the throttle
down. The ATV was aimed at the far bank.
As the ATV started to move I went to the
back of it and picked up the travois, walking
it through the stream and up the other side.
It was straight going from there to camp. I
stopped and checked Bill for breathing and
pulse. I prayed that there would be somebody
in camp. As I drove into camp my partner
Bill Tsangaris drove in with my pickup at the
same time. It was now 8 p.m.
I looked around the area and coming up the

meadow was the same grizzly that we had
seen the day before. Right at that point I had
some tough decisions to make. I was three
miles from camp, which was 10 miles in from
the Alaska Highway at Mile 138. It was 7:10
p.m. There was no one in camp as my other
partner was out hunting with the truck.
Meanwhile, the grizzly bear was getting closer.
Placing Bill in the recovery position on a

foamy in the truck, we lost no time driving
to the Pink Mountain Store to call the
ambulance service. The ambulance
responded from Mile 143, with two people.
The driver then applied some kind of
sweetener, as Bill was a diabetic. We
loaded Bill on the gurney, face up on a
pack board in case CPR was required. Bill
still had a pulse at this time. I was surprised when the ambulance came back to
get me for additional support. Bills pulse
was getting weaker and they required a
third person to monitor breathing and
assist with CPR, if necessary.
The first step was to get rid of the grizzly

bear. I yelled and blew my whistle but the
grizzly bear stood up to look around. He was
now 75 metres from us. I took Bills gun and
fired three shots into the ground right in front
of the grizzly bear. This did two things; it
chased the grizzly bear away and gave a universal distress signal.
I then had to build a travois (a simple wheelless vehicle made of two poles dragged behind
a vehicle, dog, or horse) to carry Bill. I cut
two poplar poles about 14 feet long with my
axe. Using a frame lashing, I tied the poles to
the back of the ATV. Then using my coat,
spare pants and Bills jacket, I made a
stretcher and put Bill on it, face down and
roped him to it.
We met the other ambulance from Fort Saint

John at Mile 95. This is where we lost Bill.
Bills heart had failed. Later a doctor told me
that even if Bill had of been in hospital he
probably would not have survived.
In closing, I cannot stress enough the importance of adequate training, proper equipment,
and supplies. Above all, keep calm and think
things out. I will miss Bill a lot. A good
hunting partner is harder to find than a good
wife, and Bill was a good partner.
I then started back to camp. As I got to the

end of the meadow I had to cross a stream
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PART II
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List five items that should be included in your survival kit. ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. List five items that should be included in your first aid kit. ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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3. Describe six ways you can prepare yourself before hunting. ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe how a compass works, and how can you use it to

return to your camp after a hunt.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the declination in southern B.C.? ______________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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6. What six things should you do if lost? ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. List the three objectives of first aid. ____________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. What are the five priority conditions that must be treated immediately? __________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9. How do you stop external bleeding? __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
10. Describe the symptoms of shock. ______________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. Outline the treatment for heat stroke. ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
12. What is the treatment for hypothermia? ______________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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PART III:
ORIENTEERING EQUIPMENT
AND ITS USAGE
Part three is broken into the following
sections:
follow the road five kilometres until you

reach the lake.
1. Introduction
2. Directional aids
3. Maps
4. Compass
5. GPS
These common directions use natural

features, which are generally highly visible
during daylight conditions and in good
weather. What do you do if it is cloudy,
foggy, rainy, and at night? You may not be
able to see the intersection of the road to
make the turn. You can use your trip
meter on your speedometer to help you
find your way.
1. Introduction
It is hard to believe but far too often people
get lost on the North Shore mountains.
You are only several kilometres from
downtown Vancouver. At some places on
the mountains the view is majestic,
especially at night with the city lights.
How is this possible that people get lost?
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Other directional aids that can be used are:

Maps
Compasses
GPS (Global Positioning System)
The difficulty is that the clouds come in, it

gets dark, and starts to rain. Add to this the
forest canopy which blocks the majestic
view of Vancouver, and you no longer
have any landmarks to use to find your
way out of the woods. It is getting near
dusk and all the trees are starting to look
the same. You have taken a shortcut off the
trail. On top of this you left your map and
compass in the car because you were only
going for a one-hour hike. Sounds like the
North Shore Search and Rescue volunteers
are going to get called out again.
Trying to learn how to use these

directional aids once your are lost is poor
planning. These items take training and
practice in order to use them effectively.
3. Maps
Maps tell you where you are in relation to
your surroundings. There are a variety of
types of maps that are commonly
available.
a. Tourist
Tourist maps are generally provided on the
back of a brochure. They help you find
your way to an attraction, such as the
waterslides by Cultus Lake. Generally, they
only give landmarks and general
directions on how to find the attractions.
It is important that before you venture

outdoors you plan your trip, perform a map
appreciation, and practice your orienteering
skills using map, compass, and even
Ground Position System (GPS) equipment.
Take a course on orienteering. Remember to
STOP if you get lost in the woods.
b. Road
Road maps are found at your nearest gas
station. They are great for finding your
way around in a city or travelling down a
highway. You can get road maps that are
for the entire province or just a specific
town. Road maps generally do not provide
enough details when you are off-road and
up a hiking trail.
2. Directional aids
There are a variety of directional aids that
you can use when you venture outdoors.
Simple directions, such as you travel down
the road three kilometres, turn right after
crossing the bridge. Follow the logging
road to the T-intersection. Turn left and
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shown accurately, as are major, secondary

and side roads, and all man-made
features, such as buildings, power lines,
dams, and cut lines. They can also be used
as road maps when travelling on back
roads and side roads.
c. Recreational
Recreational maps can be obtained at
various sources, such as Crown
Publications, forestry and logging
companies, and various ministry offices.
All hunters should invest in a British
Columbia Recreational Atlas. The
recreational atlas will give you
management unit boundaries that are
not found on road maps. This is very
helpful in determining if you are in the
correct area for hunting. The recreational
atlas is in the scale 1: 600,000. In other
words 1 cm on the map = 6 km on the
ground. It comes in an 8-1/2 by 11-inch
book format and is easy to carry in your
car or backpack. The recreational atlas
covers all of British Columbia.
Topographical maps are available from a

variety of sources. Many sporting and
outdoors stores sell topographical maps.
Check out the Website
http://maps.NRCan.gc.ca/
or call 1-800-230-6275 for information
on topographical maps dealers.
Topographical maps take time to learn
how to use. Some features found on a
topographical map are:
Some logging companies will put out a

recreational map of a given area. This
map will show all the spurs found in a
logging area. These details are not
normally provided in enough detail on
a standard road map or in the
recreational atlas.
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Title
Scale
Magnetic declination
Legend
Topographical maps are orientated north,
that is, the top of the map is north.
Topographical maps are also broken into
grids so that you can find your location.
This grid reference is very helpful when you
want to tell another person where you are.
d. Topographical
Using information contained in the
National Topographic Data Base, The
Centre for Topographic Information
produces topographic maps at scales of
1:50,000 and 1:250,000. Topographic
maps are ideal for recreational activities,
such as hunting, fishing, hiking,
snowmobiling, etc. Hills, valleys, lakes,
rivers, streams and wooded areas are
The features on the map are listed on the

legend. Contour lines on topographical
maps indicate elevation. If the lines are far
apart, this indicates a gentle slope. If the
lines are close together, this indicates a
steeper slope or hill.
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Topographical Map
Prior to a hunting trip or other outdoor
venture, obtain a topographical map of the
area you are travelling to. Perform a map
appreciation, that is, study the map.
Determine the routes in and out of the area.
the layout of the land. Is it very hilly,

forested, etc.? Use a piece of string to help
measure the approximate distance for
travelling down a specific road. Compare
your measurement to the scale provided at
the bottom on map. Set the magnetic
declination of your compass using the
information provided on the
topographical chart.
Notice the various landmarks and

topographical features, such as rivers, lakes
and streams, you will encounter. Determine
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4. Compasses
objects. Stand several feet away from any

firearms, axes, or knives when taking a
compass bearing. Even a metal belt buckle
can distort the needles action.
Always take two compasses on any hunting

trip: one to use and a spare in your survival
kit. There are many types of compasses
available. They range from a simple pocket
compass, which shows general directions,
to complex models with sights and sighting
lines, useful for drawing maps or navigating
exactly to specific locations.
A compass needle always points to

magnetic north. The difference between
true and magnetic north is called
declination. As of 1999 in southern B.C.,
magnetic north is about 19 degrees east of
true north. Declination is simply the
angular difference between true north and
the magnetic north shown by a compass
needle. Most maps show direction relative
to true north, so declination must be
considered by using a map and compass.
A pocket compass is satisfactory when

you just need to know basic north,
south, east, and west directions to find
your destination. There are several types
of pocket compass. The best of these has
a liquid-filled dial which slows the
swinging of the compass needle and
makes it easier to use.
Practice with your compass before you go

on your hunting trip. The time to orient
yourself using your compass, map, and
landmarks is when you leave camp at the
beginning of your day. If you wait until
you are lost, it will be too late.
Be sure to hold the compass horizontally

and flat. Otherwise, the needle may stick
or show an inaccurate reading. The
compass must be kept away from metal
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Parts of a compass
Base plate (transparent)
Rules in inches
Direction-of-travel arrow
Magnifying lens
North point of dial
(luminous)
Index pointer
Orienting arrow
Rules in millimetres
Magnetic needle
(north end red and luminous)
Grading dial
(360 degrees in 2-degree graduations)
Orienting lines
(compass meridian lines)
Safety cord
Compass housing
(turnable)
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a. Using a compass without a map

Compasses can be used three ways
without a map:
Pick out a landmark along the line of sight

and walk to it. When you reach the landmark,
orient yourself again, walk to your next
landmark, orient yourself again, and walk to
your next landmark and so on. It is a good
idea to write the bearing down, if possible,
because a twig or limb may touch your
compass housing and move it.
To find directions or a bearing from

one point to another
To follow a bearing from one point to
another
To return to a point of departure after
travelling on a bearing
To follow this or any other bearing is
also a simple matter. With the needle
and orienting arrow aligned as in the
picture below:
destination
direction of
travel
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line of
sighting
To return to your starting point, turn

around; orient your compass to the opposite
bearing, and using landmarks as before, walk
to it. This is calling "using reversed bearing".
Thus, if you were travelling on a bearing of
60 degrees, the reverse bearing would be 60
degrees plus 180 degrees = 240 degrees.
A landmark should be chosen that is on the
course of the hunter's ultimate destination
and one that will be visible until it is
reached. On reaching the marker, the
hunter chooses another landmark in the
distance and checks the bearing again with
the map and compass.
In a forest, a straight course can be
maintained by lining up two trees and
walking directly toward them. As the first
tree is reached a third tree is lined up,
behind and in a straight line with the
second. This procedure is repeated each time
another of the trees is reached.
A common mistake when using a compass is
to look at the bearing too often. Renew your
bearing only as often as the distance
between good landmarks dictates. The
distance will vary with the terrain, cover and
visibility, ranging from three to 20 metres in
thick brush or fog to one-half kilometre or
more in open country on a clear day.
Remember too, that a compass can only give
you the direction you want to travel, but
cannot tell you where you are. You should
have a general idea where you are before you
try to use a compass. Therefore, before
entering the woods, always take time to
check the bearing of the road you are leaving
and the direction you are travelling. Then, if
you get "turned around", the reverse bearing
will take you back.
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Because a compass is equipped with a

magnetic needle, be careful to keep it away
from all iron-bearing metal and electric
currents. This includes axes, knives,
firearms, fishing rods, bridges, car, etc.
A compass is best used in combination
with a map. The map will show which
direction to take to get to a specific
location. The compass will keep you
walking in the right direction.
b. Using maps and compass
A compass used alone is a valuable asset in
unknown territory, but use it with an upto-date detailed map and a solid grasp of
map and compass principle, and you have
the next best thing to a local guide.
Individually, a map and compass are

valuable tools for navigation; together
they extend the limits of each, allowing us
to determine the direction and distance to
a destination and our ability to reach it.
The distance from one point to another is
determined by measuring the distance on
the map. This measurement is then
converted to the distance in field by
means of the map scale. For example a
measurement of 2 cm between two points
on a 1:50,000-scale map would be
equivalent to 1 km in the field.
Failure to comply with the directions above

will result in an error of 180 degrees. Since
most topographical maps are oriented
according to true north, a correction for
what is known as declination must be made.
Check on the margin of the map to
determine the angle of declination.
Depending where you are in Canada, add or
subject the angle of magnetic declination to
any bearings taken from the map.
If we are using a map of the Town of
Mission, B.C., and our map bearing is
50 degrees, we would add 19 degrees
declination. This would give us a magnetic
(field) bearing of 69 degrees.
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To find the direction or bearing between two

points on a map:
1. Draw a line between your starting point
and your destination (A-B).
2. Lay the base plate edge of the compass
along this line. Make sure the direction of
the travel arrow is pointing in the
direction you wish to go.
3. Holding the compass base steady, turn
the compass housing so the orienting
lines in the compass housing are parallel
with any meridian (north-south) line on
the map. Make sure that north on the
compass housing is pointing toward
north on the map.
4. Read the bearing on the compass
housing at the base of the direction of
travel arrow. In this example, 50 degrees.
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5. GPS (Global Positioning System)
time accuracy is in the 10-foot range. Submetre accuracy can be obtained by using
DGPS and post-processing calculations in
static positioning.
The Global Positioning System is a

constellation of satellites that orbit the
earth twice a day, transmitting precise
time and position (latitude, longitude, and
altitude) information. With a GPS receiver,
users can determine their location
anywhere on the earth. This information
can be used in charting and mapping,
plotting a course, navigating from point to
point, tracking vehicle movement,
locating previously identified sites or any
number of similar functions.
While a GPS is a great tool, it can fail you.

The GPS is operated on batteries, which
need replacing or recharging. Depending
on the quality and brand of GPS, you may
find it hard to get a signal from a satellite
due to the dense forest canopy and
weather conditions. Always bring a
compass as a backup when using a GPS.
Use a GPS in connection with a good
topographical map. Also take the time to
learn how to use the GPS properly prior to
that big trip.
a. How does GPS work?

The basis of GPS technology is precise
time and position information. Using
atomic clocks and location data, each
satellite continuously broadcasts the time
and its position. A GPS receiver receives
these signals, listening to three or more
satellites at once, to determine the users
position on earth.
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Conclusion
It does not matter what type of
orienteering equipment you plan to use,
you must learn how to use it properly and
practice what you have learned. When out
in the field, do not let your ego get the
best of you. Always ask for directions and
confirm those directions on your map.
Know where you started from and the
direction you are going. If you have not
reached your landmark, do not continue
travelling. Stop and review your route. It is
very easy to get turned around in the
woods. If lost remember STOP.
By measuring the time interval between

the transmission and the reception of a
satellite signal, the GPS receiver calculates
the user and each satellite. Using the
distance measurements of at least three
satellites in an algorithm computation,
the GPS receiver arrives at an accurate
position fix. Information must be received
from three satellites in order to obtain
two-dimensional fixes (latitude and
longitude), and four satellites are required
for three-dimensional positioning
(latitude, longitude and altitude).
Under normal conditions, the GPS signal
will provide a civilian user with an
accuracy of better than 15 metres (50
feet). However, using a technique called
differential GPS (DGPS), the user can
increase the overall accuracy of the GPS
receiver to approximately 1-3 metres.
With DGPS, one GPS receiver unit is
placed in a known location and the
position information from that receiver is
used to calculate correction in the
position data transmitted to other GPS
receivers in the area. The resulting real136
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PART III.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name three types of maps. ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What direction does the needle on a compass point? ____________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. If your GPS equipment fails, you should resort to what tools? ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. When using a good quality compass, you should always

set the _______________________ declination on the compass.
5. Before you leave the road to travel into the woods, you should
always take a _____________________ with your compass.
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PART IV:
COMMON FIELD EQUIPMENT
Having the proper field equipment, e.g.,
backpacks, knives, tents, heaters, etc.,
and knowing how to safely use this
equipment is important for your personal
enjoyment and safety while in the
outdoors. Having a sharp knife will speed
up the skinning process and save you
time. You must be careful that you cut
away from yourself with the knife. You do
not want to end up cutting yourself with
the knife and having to travel back into
town for medical treatment.
subsequently tested the new 12,000 BTU

propane heater. The heater was found in
perfect working condition and labelled
with a warning not to be used in
unventilated enclosed areas.
This part is broken into three sections
1. Cutting instruments
2. Backpacks
3. Camping equipment
1. Cutting instruments
It is very common for hunters to carry and
use knives, axes, and saws. Many of these
cutting instruments have different
models, which are designed for a specific
job. Choose the right equipment for the
right job. Learn how to use these cutting
instruments safely.
Prepare a kit list so you remember to

bring everything. There is nothing more
frustrating than having canned food
for your trip and forgetting to bring a
can opener.
a. Knives
Some hunters prefer a sheath knife, others
like a pocketknife. It is often wise to carry
both when hunting in case one is broken
or lost.
In the 1996 hunting season, two hunters

set up a campsite approximately 49
kilometres southeast of Dawson Creek.
They used their cell phone to call home to
report that the camp was set up and that
they were wet and cold because of rain.
The temperature that evening was going
to drop down to15 degrees Celsius. The
hunters then turned on their new 12,000
BTU propane heater to dry off themselves
and their mid-size camping tent.
Pocket knife
The next day at 8 p.m. a conservation

officer on patrol entered the camp to
perform a hunter check. The conservation
officer found the propane heater operating
from inside the tent. Both hunters were
dead in their sleeping bags. Cause of death
was carbon monoxide poisoning, 83%
saturation carboxyhemoglobin.
The blade of any knife should

be of good quality steel so it will keep its
edge for a reasonable time. With regular
use around camp, a knife will need to be
sharpened every three or four days.
The Gas Inspection Branch of the

Provincial Safety Engineering Department
Knife blades should not be used to pry,

chop, or bore holes.
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Source: AHEIA
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Practice using your field equipment

prior to venturing into the outdoors.
Read the owners manual and follow
the safety directions/warning labels on
your equipment.
Fixed knife
30-degree angle to the stone. Start at the

knife handle end of the blade and, in a
sweeping motion, rub the blade against the
stone to the tip. Turn the blade over and
sharpen the other side. Maintain an even
pressure and the same angle consistently
throughout the sharpening process.
Sheath knife
The blade of a sheath knife, to be effective
for hunting purposes, should be no longer
than 4 inches (10 cm). Longer knives are
clumsy and not as versatile as a 4-inch
(10-cm) blade, which can be used for
many chores, such as butchering,
skinning and whittling.
To test if the edge is completely

sharpened, run the blade edge lightly over
the tip of your fingernail. The edge of the
blade should grab at the fingernail. If the
blade slips at any spot on its edge,
continue to rub the blade against the
stone a few more times.
Sheath knives should remain in their

scabbards at all times when not in use.
The sheath, or scabbard, should be made
of durable leather, reinforced at the tip
with wire or copper rivets.
To keep your sheath in good condition,
clean it with saddle soap, never oil. Saddle
soap will keep the leather supple.
For a razor-sharp finish to your blade, you

can give it a final "stropping" on a strip of
heavy leather rubbed with jeweler's rouge.
Pocket knife
A pocket knife for hunting should have
two strong blades, each between 2-1/2 to 3
inches (6 cm to 8 cm) long. A pen knife is
not suitable for such use.
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Many sportsmen carry a sharpening steel

with them to touch up the edge on their
knife between proper sharpening.
Pocket knives should be kept folded when

not in use.
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Sharpening a knife
Knives must be kept sharp to perform their
functions properly. Present day sharpening
and grinding implements include a variety
of electric-powered wheels and abrasive
stones. Great care must be taken when
using power equipment. In inexperienced
hands, these grinders and sharpeners can
do more harm than good. Most power
sharpening and grinding devices produce a
great deal of friction, which generates very
hot temperatures. Overheating will "draw"
the temper, thereby ruining the blade,
which will never hold a keen edge again.
There is a danger too, that an
inexperienced person may grind away too
much of the blade.
Use sweeping or
rotating motion.
The safest method for the average person is

to use a sharpening stone. Keep the stone
wet using a honing oil or any fine grade
oil. Holding the stone in one hand and the
knife in the other, keep the blade at about
Reverse blade to
sharpen other side
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hardwood wedges and insert them in the

axe head next to the handle. Drive the
wedges in as far as they will go so the
handle is seated snugly in position and is
as tight as possible.
b. Axes
The modern outdoorsman will find an axe
is his most useful tool. Besides felling trees
and chopping wood for fire and shelter, a
well-sharpened axe can skin and clean game
and, if necessary, the steel axe head can be
used with a piece of flint to start a fire.
To protect the handle, rub linseed oil into

the wood of the handle along its entire
length using a soft cloth. Never varnish or
paint an axe handle. Painted or varnished
handles can cause your hands to blister.
Selection of axes
Axes come in different sizes to perform
many different jobs. Axes are categorized
as small, medium and large according to
the weight of the axe head and the length
of the handle.
If an axe head is loose, do not use it until

it has been tightened. You can tighten a
loose handle by driving the hardwood
wedges in further to fit more snugly, or
you can soak the axe head in water, which
will cause the wood to swell and the
handle will then fit more tightly.
A camp axe is a small axe with a head

weighing about 2 or 2-1/2 pounds (.8kg
or 1 kg) and a handle between 20 and 28
inches (50 cm to 71 cm) long. It will
chop small to medium size logs easily
and can be used for bigger jobs if the
edge is kept razor-sharp. The camp axe
takes up very little space and is ideal
when horsepacking or when camping in
small quarters.
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In extremely cold weather, always warm

an axe before starting to cut. Cold makes
the metal brittle which could cause the
axe blade to snap.
When using an axe, always work on a
chopping block. A stump or log makes a
satisfactory chopping block.
No matter what size axe you choose, it

should have a forged steel rather than cast
steel head. Cast steel does not hold a
sharp edge and breaks more readily than
forged steel.
Always be sure no one is standing in line

with the swing of your axe. Be careful when
using an axe to ensure that the area of the
entire swing is clear of all obstructions.
The best axes are made from high quality

carbon steel, which has been tempered to
resist brittleness.
Sharpening an axe
A dull axe is dangerous. A sharp blade will
bite into a log, but a dull edge may glance
off the mark and cause a serious mishap.
When selecting a wood-handled axe, be

sure the grain of the wood is straight for
the entire length of the handle. Hickory is
considered the best wood for axe handles.
To sharpen an axe you will need a file

and, if available, a vise. Place the axe head
in a vise with the blade up. Clamp the axe
head in the vise close to where the handle
is inserted in the eye. Holding the file flat,
file from the eye along the entire edge.
File on the outgoing stroke only,
maintaining the same pressure and the
same angle throughout the stroke. Turn
the axe head to the opposite direction to
file the other side of the blade. Be sure to
file both sides evenly.
Care and use of axes

Replace a cracked or splintered axe handle.
Do not attempt to patch it.
When replacing a wood axe handle, cut

off the old handle as close to the metal
head as possible. The remaining wood can
be dug out of the eye of the axe head in
small pieces. Insert the new handle in the
eye and tap it into place. Cut two
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An axe is the outdoorsmans most useful

tool. Select a quality axe and care for it
properly. Keep it sharp. Take proper care of
the handle, keeping the head tight and
the handle smooth. Never use your axe to
drive or pound on anything more than a
tent peg. Axes are not designed to be used
as a sledgehammer or as a wedge and
should not be used for these purposes.
With care, an axe will give the
outdoorsman years of useful service.
Use outgoing
down stroke
c. Saws
While hunting and camping you may find
it handy to have a saw with you. A small
saw is useful when quartering your game.
A manual-operated saw or gas-operated
chainsaw can be used for cutting logs for
firewood and for clearing fallen trees
across the road.
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Like knives and axes, saws are useless and

dangerous if they are dull. Keep them
sharp and learn how to use them properly.
Contact the Workers Compensation Board
of British Columbia for a copy of their
safety brochure on chainsaws, stock
number PH50.
Use stone with same

motion as file
In the field, where a vise is not available,
extend the edge of the blade over a log or
stump and hold the axe head securely
with your knee or foot while you file.
To check if you have sharpened the blade
evenly, sight down the edge. There should
be a fine bur, or slightly ruffled edge, on
the blade edge. If you notice any bright or
white spots, file the edge again until these
dull patches disappear.
A final rubbing with a fine emery stone
will hone the edge to razor sharpness.
An axe should never be thinned, that is,
ground or filed to a thinner shape than
when it comes from the factory. Grind or
file the axe in a fan-shape, leaving a little
more metal at the corners. The cutting
edge of an axe should be rounded, not
wedge-shape. The rounded edge will throw
wood chips outward, away from the blade.
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2. Backpacking
If its too high, you use muscle instead of

bone to support the weight, and that hurts.
The hip band should be padded. Most
manufacturers offer three lengths of frame.
Be sure to buy the proper size.
For a hunting trip lasting several days in

bush or rugged mountain country,
backpacking may be the only satisfactory
way to carry all your gear and equipment.
Backpack is a term describing the whole
apparatus carried on your back. It usually
includes a bag or sack to contain your gear
and a frame to hold the bag in position on
your back.
To carry game and other heavy loads,

many hunters use a "Trapper Nelson"
frame; a simple packboard made of heavy
canvas stretched between wooden sides
with a detachable bag. The load is
strapped to the wooden sides, which are
about one to two inches thick. Shoulder
straps hold the pack in place. Only the
canvas fabric touches the carriers back.
The hunter should choose a sturdy, heavyduty frame to carry his gear. Some
experienced backpackers say young people
under 14 should carry a pack of 30 pounds
(14 kg) or less and those in their older
teens can carry a pack weighing 40 to 45
pounds (18 kg to 20 kg). Other experts say
the pack can weigh up to one-third of the
carriers body weight.
Those who use a "Trapper Nelson" claim it

holds loads closer to the body than other
packs and puts the main carrying effort
directly on the hips and legs rather than
on the shoulders and spine.
Use care when using a backpack. You do

not want to strain yourself and put out
your back.
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Many backpackers use a tumpline for

carrying extra-heavy packs. The tumpline
fastens to both sides of the packframe. It has
a foam-padded headrest in the centre of the
line, which lies against the carriers forehead.
This takes some weight off the shoulder
straps making heavy loads easier to carry.
a. Packboards
Packboards are designed to rest easily
against the back, allow freedom of
movement and let air circulate freely
between the pack and the back. Various
loads or weight distributions can be
arranged on packboard frames.
b. Packsacks
The sack should be flexible in design so
weight distribution can be varied. Gear to
be carried for a short one-day hike and
that carried for a trek lasting several days
through heavy bush country will be
packed in different ways.
Most packboards have tightly stretched

canvas or nylon webbing lashed between
the vertical sides of the frame. The
webbing serves as a sling to hold the pack.
It cushions the load against the back and
lets air in between the pack and your back
to cool you.
Generally, lighter items will be packed at the

bottom of the sack with heavier gear near
the top so most of the weight is near the top
of the shoulders and close to the body.
Some modern packboards are made of

welded aluminum or magnesium. These
usually have an adjustable hip band
attached to the lower part of the frame,
which supports most of the packs weight.
The hip band should be moved up or
down to fit your body. It should ride above
your hipbones and below your waist. If it is
too low, it restricts the thighs when you lift
your legs while walking, and that is tiring.
The pack should hang so it does not pull

back on the shoulder straps. When the
weight is properly distributed, there is an
upward thrust from the hips and legs and
a lift and pull from the shoulder harness
while walking. The weight of the pack
should be supported evenly by the back,
shoulders, and legs.
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Cut-away view of pack

axe
canned food
camera
nesting cookware &
flashlight
utensils
gun cleaning kit
food
toiletries in container
block and tackle
ammunition
rope
wire
ground sheet
meat sacks
clothes
sleeping bag
survival kit
odds & ends
first aid kit

extra boots
Weight distribution
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The support and shoulder straps

should not restrict the movements
of the back or arms. The straps
should slide freely on the lift bars,
if your pack has them. This
motion will act as a shock absorber
if you slip or fall.
heavy
items
medium
weight items
light
weight items
Correct weight distribution will

also permit a constant flow of air
between the pack and the carriers
back. Very heavy loads should be
balanced so the centre of gravity is
high and close to the shoulders
with heaviest objects as close to
the body as possible. This is the
way to carry game or a heavy
trophy head. When carrying game
heads on a packboard, they
should be flagged with blazeorange ribbon.
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Backpacking trips
The hunter who plans to backpack
should make up his pack ahead of
time. Check the packs weight and get
the feel and balance of it. Then
practice carrying it before starting out.
Know your weight limit. Know the

weight you can carry under specific
conditions, such as rough ground and
hilly terrain, high altitude, hot or cold
weather conditions, and your physical
condition, and adjust your pack
weight accordingly.
The only items a backpacker should
carry in his pockets are those things
required from time to time during the
day such as a compass, pocket knife,
waterproof match box, watch, and
handkerchief.
The beginning backpacker should plan
to spend three or four days getting
acquainted with his pack, his
equipment and his ability to handle it.
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To Put on a Pack:
a) Lift the frame onto your thigh.
b) Put the right arm through the
shoulder strap and reach down to
grasp the lower corner of the frame.
c) Lift the frame high and to the left
with your right hand, then put your
left arm through the left strap.
d) To get up with a very heavy load,
lean the pack against something so it sits
upright. Sit down and put shoulders in the
straps. Tuck one foot under the other leg
and fasten hip band loosely. Roll onto
hands, knee and foot in the same motion,
stand up. Once up, hunch the shoulders
to raise load and tighten hip band.
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To Take off a Pack:

If you cannot readily swing out of the
loaded pack frame harness, sit down and
rest the frame on the ground or on a large
rock and then slip out of the harness.
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3. Camping equipment
wind, and waterproof. Although these

features are important, there are some
disadvantages to such models. The sewnin floor adds considerably to the tent's
weight and bulk. The tent can only be
pitched on smooth, level ground and mud
and dirt tracked inside on a your boots
makes housekeeping a problem.
Care must be taken when using a heating
source in a tent. Some canvas tents are
designed with an asbestos collar that will
permit the use of a stove inside the tent. A
nylon tent will go up in flames very
quickly. Use care when bringing in an open
flame source, e.g., candles, stove, etc., into
a nylon tent. If you are using a camp stove
with an open flame, make sure to start it
outside and then bring it into the tent.
Always turn off the stove with an open
flame before going to sleep. If it is that cold
that the stove or lantern has to stay on all
night, then take turns staying awake on
firewatch. It takes less than a minute for
some nylon tents to go up in flames.
Depending on your mode of transport to

the campsite, e.g., horseback versus truck,
and the length of the trip, your camping
equipment requirements will need to be
adjusted. Some people like to rough it and
sleep under the stars or build a simple
lean-to shelter for protection. Other
people like to tent it, while others bring
the camper with all the comforts of home.
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There is a great variety of camping

equipment out there for you to choose
from. Choose the equipment that is
suitable for your style of camping and the
climatic conditions you will find. Before
going camping, practice using your
camping equipment. It is not fun at
midnight in the rain trying to figure out
how to put up the tent and finding
out that you left the tent pegs and
hammer at home.
asbestos collar
a. Tents
Tents are made from several kinds of
fabric, including canvas and waterrepellent cotton, but most recreational
tents today are made of nylon. Nylon is
exceptionally strong, easy to repair if torn,
will not rot, is water-resistant and weighs
only a few ounces per square yard.
Ensure you have adequate ventilation for

the heat source.
Cooking, if possible, should be done
outside the tent. The moisture created by
cooking will condense and help cool off
your tent overnight. Cooking also acts as a
great attractant for bears and other wild
animals who are looking for a free meal.
Cook and store your food outside and
away from your sleeping area.
Most tents on the market today are

manufactured with floors sewn in,
mosquito screening at the entrance and
vents, which make them completely bug,
146
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In very cold weather, it's a good idea to fold

a blanket inside the bag for extra insulation
and warmth. Be sure to get a bag that is the
right size for you as it will keep you warmer
than a sleeping bag that is too large.
b. Sleeping bags
The most convenient, practical, and warmest
bedding for camping is a sturdy sleeping bag.
A sleeping bag makes a comfortable bed and
also helps to limit the loss of body heat while
you sleep. The warmth of a sleeping bag
depends on the thickness, not the weight, of
its insulating material.
If possible, while sleeping, keep your head

outside of the sleeping bag. Moisture from
your breath will condense and you will
have a colder sleep the second night. Wear
a hat and keep your head outside.
For camping in mild weather, filler material

of man-made polyester, such as Dacron or
Fortrel, provides adequate insulation and is
lightweight. In the fall, even though the
days may be warm, nighttime temperatures
can drop drastically and you will need a bag
that provides maximum insulation to keep
you warm. A down-filled bag will keep you
warm even when camping in the snow or in
Arctic conditions.
If possible, air out the sleeping bag to

remove the moisture buildup from your
body. Always check your sleeping bag for
small creatures before getting into it. If
possible, roll up your sleeping bag during
the day when you are not using it.
Underneath your sleeping bag, you will
want a foam pad or air mattress. As well
as cushioning your body from the
rough ground, a mattress provides
additional insulation. An air mattress
should not be overinflated. Blow it up
just enough so that, when lying on
your side, your hipbone will bump the
ground when you bounce gently up
and down, or roll over.
A sleeping bag should have a flannel inner

liner, which you can make from a
flannelette sheet, to protect the bag
and keep it clean. It can be removed easily
for washing.
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Sleeping Bag Shapes

Mummy Barrel Standard
Quilting
Overlapping tube quilting
Wall or box quilting
Straight quilting
Sleeping bag
Flannel liner (flannelette)

Goose down
Foam or air
mattress
Ground sheet
147
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Back your vehicle into the campsite. This

will help you should you need to boost
your vehicle because you ran the heater or
kept the lights on for too long without
recharging the batteries. If you are going
to run your vehicle to recharge the
batteries make sure that your exhaust
system is clear and not blocked by snow
or vegetation.
c. Setting up a campsite
Where possible, reuse an old campsite or
stay in a recreation site/campground. If
you are making a new site, move it off the
trail. You do not want to be surprised at
night when a bear walks down the trail
and through your camp.
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Do not choose a site in a low area,

especially beside a stream. If it rains, you
might find the river or rain water running
through your tent.
Be careful of how you dispose of your

wastewater from shaving and cooking.
You do not want to contaminate water
sources and damage local vegetation. Use
biodegradable soap.
Set up your campfire and cooking area

away from the tent and sleeping area. If
you are going to have a fire, make sure
that the fire hazard level is low.
Sometimes, especially during the summer,
outdoor fires are banned.
Set up latrines away from your sleeping

and eating areas; and away from your
water source.
When you leave the campsite, it should be
cleaner than you found it. Pack out your
garbage. Remember to tread lightly and
leave no trace.
Do not just needlessly cut down trees for

firewood. Use fallen trees and twigs for
your fire. Avoid using gasoline to start
your fire. Store all flammable materials
away from any heat source or open flame
in camp.
Turn off equipment, such as chainsaws,
etc., before refueling them. With a stove,
remove the fuel tank and fill it away from
the stove. Wipe off any spilled fuel before
reinstalling the fuel tank and restarting
the stove.
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PART IV.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Knife blades should not be used to ______________, ______________or bore holes.
2. What is the recommended length of knife for hunting? __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. The best axes are made from high quality ___________________ steel,
which has been tempered to resist brittleness.
4. What is the best wood for making an axe handle out of? ________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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5. What is the difference between a packboard and a packsack? ____________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List some safety precautions when using a heating source for a tent. ______________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Where should you set up your food storage and kitchen area in your camp? ______
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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NOTES
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151
SURVIVAL CHAPTER
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
check your answers.
challenge test.
1. The
a.
b.
c.
d.
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risk from hypothermia occurs:

Only when it rains.
Only in the spring time.
Only in the winter
All year round
2. Three qualities required for outdoor clothing use are, the clothes should be:
a. asborbent, provide protection and insulation.
b. waterproof, insulated, and be made of a bright colour.
c. fashionable, waterproof, and provide protective from branches.
d. made of wool, rubber and cotton.
3. The
a.
b.
c.
d.
part of the body that loose heat the quickest is the

Feet
Back
Head
Hands
4. You
a.
b.
c.
d.
can survive five days without:

Food
Water
Shelter in severe weather situations
Coffee
5. In order to legally operate a motorized pleasure craft (boat) in Canada you need a
a. drivers licence
b. operator's card
c. firearms licence
d. pleasure permit
152
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6. If attached by a cougar you should:

a. Play dead
b. Fight back
c. Call for help
d. Adopt the fetal position
7. Before entering an accident scene it is important to:
a. Determine if any hazards exist that may cause injury to yourself or the casualty.
b. Yell for help.
c. Be calm and reassuring to the casualty.
d. Remember the ABC of first aid.
8. An unconscious casualty should be put in the ____________position.
a. kneeling
b. prone
c. recovery
d. sitting
9. The
a.
b.
c.
d.
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best type of map to use while hunting is a ______________map.

road
tourist
recreational
topographic
10. A dull knife or axe is more dangerous than a sharp knife or axe.
True or false.
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
153
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NOTES
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NOTES
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156
Chapter
Firearms
GOAL
The student will operate basic firearm actions and explain primitive-hunting
equipment commonly used for hunting, in a safe and responsible manner.
OBJECTIVES
The student will:
1. Identify firearms and
their components.
2. Select modern ammunition.
3. Explain firearm and
ammunition safety.
4. Apply firing techniques
and procedures.
5. Demonstrate safe firearm
handling procedures.
6. Explain primitive hunting
equipment and its usage.
This chapter is broken into seven parts

I. Introduction
II. History of firearms development
III. Ammunition
IV. Firearms safety
V. Shooting skills
VI. Hunting safety
VII. Specialty hunting equipment
157
Chapter 6 Firearms
PART I:
INTRODUCTION
This chapter has been rewritten using
material from the Canadian Firearm Safety
Course and the old CORE manual. You
will note that this chapter follows very
closely the firearms-related chapters found
on the Introduction to Hunter Education
course found on the IHEA Website. Credit
is given to the IHEA and the Canadian
Firearms Centre for the use of their
graphics and materials.
three names for the same part. It just

depends if you come from England,
Canada, or the U.S.A.
Another difficulty with the English
language is that sometimes the same word
will have different meanings. Take for
example the word "replica". From the
shooting community perspective, a
"replica" is a reproduction of an antique
firearm that is capable of discharging a
projectile. An example of a replica is a
16th century Flintlock muzzleloader that
is not an original. This firearm may have
been made yesterday. Under Canadian
law, any flintlock rifle is classified as an
antique firearm.
Flintlock
rifle
If you are preparing for the CORE exams

by using the self-study method, you must
ensure that, along with reading this chapter,
you obtain some practice using real firearms
before you attempt to challenge the CORE
practical firearms-handling exam.
Under Canadian law, the word "replica"

means an exact reproduction of a
firearm that does NOT discharge a
projectile. A "replica" is classified as a
prohibited device under Canadian law
and cannot be purchased by most
individuals in Canada.
We have attempted to keep the

terminology consistent when writing this
chapter. The difficulty with the English
language is that terminology may change
due to a person's origin, e.g., England
versus U.S.A. For example, the front
wood found on a lever-action rifle has
So, as you start your study of the firearm

chapter, be prepared to learn the firearms
terminology and determine the different
meanings of the words.
Source: CFSC
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Source: CFSC
In order to pass the CORE program,

students are required to take a practical
firearms-handling exam along with the
written exam, which includes questions
on firearms and archery equipment. If you
have completed the Canadian Firearm
Safety Course (CFSC) and can show
proof (see Introduction Chapter), you
can be exempted from the requirement
for the practical firearms-handling
exam. You must still do the complete
written exam.
Fore-end
158
Forearm
Fore-stock
Firearms Chapter 6
PART II:
EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS
1. Evolution of firearms
2. Types of modern firearms
3. Basic firearm actions
1. Evolution of Firearms
Firearms have been around for over 500
years. The first firearms were called
"muzzleloaders." The shooter had to put
black powder down the bore of the barrel
from the front end of the barrel, called the
muzzle. Muzzleloaders had to be loaded in
a proper sequence or else they would not
fire. They were slow to load, heavy, did
not shoot far and performed poorly in
damp and wet weather.
Cock
Flint
Ignition
Frizzen (or steel)
Flash Pan
Source: CFSC
Part two of this chapter is broken into

three sections:
Full Cock Position
Cock Released Position
Flintlock system
The flintlock system uses a piece of flint

that is held in a "cock." When you move
the cock to the rear and pull the trigger,
the cock moves forward. The flint strikes
the steel, causing sparks to fall into the
flash pan. This ignites the priming
powder. The priming powder burns,
igniting the main black powder charge in
the bore. The flintlock system does not
work well in rain or wind and requires
shooters to carry two different types of
black powder.
Hammer
Percussion cap
Source: CFSC
Source: CFSC
Nipple
Trigger
Percussion Cap System

About 1850, the percussion cap system
was introduced. A percussion cap contains
a chemical that causes a spark when
struck. This spark ignites the main black
powder charge in the bore. This allowed
for quicker reloading and worked better in
poor weather conditions compared to the
flintlock system.
To ignite the gunpowder several different

types of ignition systems were developed.
The most common types of ignition
systems still available today are the
flintlock and percussion cap.
159
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Chapter 6 Firearms
The world saw many changes from 18501900 in the development of firearms and
ammunition. Muzzleloading firearms were
replaced with breech-loading firearms,
otherwise known as our modern firearm.
ammunition is far more dependable than

black powder, especially in poor weather
conditions, such as rain or snow.
Modern firearms use the same principles
as muzzleloading firearms. The ignition
and burning of gunpowder create
pressure. This pressure propels
projectile(s) down the bore and out of
the muzzle. The first modern firearms
used black powder. Since about 1890,
modern firearms have been designed to
use smokeless gunpowder. Smokeless
gunpowder creates greater pressures and
should not be used in firearms designed
for black powder. Follow the pictures to
see what happens when the trigger is
squeezed on this bolt-action rifle.
Breech
Breech-loading firearm
The modern firearm barrel is loaded from

the rear, or breech, of the barrel. This
allows for quicker reloading. Modern
Firing pin
Cartridge
Squeeze trigger
Trigger
Firing pin
Cartridge
2. Firing pin strikes primer.

Primer ignites powder.
Source: All images CFSC
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Burning powder
3. Burning powder
creates ressure.
Pressure pushes bullet
into lands of barrel.
Barrel
4. Bullet spirals down bore.
Leaves barrel at muzzle.
Sequence of a gun firing

160
Bullet
Firearms Chapter 6
2. Types of Modern Firearms
improved manufacturing processes and

the development of magazines, manualrepeating firearms were developed.
Modern firearms can be classified as

single shot
manual repeating
self-loading repeating
In each of those classifications you will
find rifles, shotguns and handguns.
Manual-repeating firearms allow shooters

to fire more quickly. Simply by working
the action, the shooter could eject a
cartridge from the chamber and then load
a new cartridge from the magazine.
Lever-action rifle
Source: CFSC
A lever-action rifle is an example of a

manual-repeating firearm.
Source: CFSC
By the late 1800s the semi-automatic and

fully automatic firearms were developed.
These are classified as self-loading firearms
and contain a magazine. When the trigger
is pulled, the cartridge in the chamber is
discharged. The action recoils by itself and
ejects the spent cartridge. The return
spring causes the action to close. As the
action closes, it chambers a new cartridge
from the magazine.
Classification of firearms
The first modern firearms were single shot.
These firearms contained no magazines to
hold ammunition. After each shot, the
shooter had to open the action, remove
the spent cartridge and load a new one. A
hinge or break-action shotgun is an
example of a single-shot firearm.
Source: CFSC
Semi-automatic means that with each

squeeze of the trigger one cartridge is
fired. Hunters use semi-automatic rifles
and shotguns. Fully automatic means that
with a squeeze of the trigger the firearm
keeps shooting until you release the
trigger or run out of ammunition. Fully
automatics are generally only used for
military and police purposes today.
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Eventually, with improvements in

cartridge case materials and designs,
Semi-automatic rifle
161
Source: CFSC
Hinge (or break-action) shotgun
Chapter 6 Firearms
identification and assist you in deciding

what type of firearm is suitable for your
style of hunting and shooting.
These differences determine the specific
uses of each of these firearms. Rifles are
designed for accuracy to hit a precise
point. Shotguns are designed to shoot a
spread of shot at moving targets.
Rifles and Shotguns:

What's the Difference?
Shooters have many choices when it comes

to selecting a firearm today. Generally
speaking, most hunters begin with the use
of a rifle or shotgun. While it is legal to
own and shoot a handgun in Canada, it
cannot be used for hunting purposes. For
this reason, handguns will not be covered
in this manual. For more information
about handguns, read the Canadian
Restricted Firearm Safety Course manual.
A rifle gets its name from the presence of

spiral grooves in the bore called "rifling."
These grooves spin the bullet, thereby
increasing the rifle's range and accuracy.
Bolt-action rifle
Hinge (or break action) shotgun
Rifle bore
Revolver
A shotgun's barrel wall is thinner than

that of a rifle and its bore, or inside
surface, is smooth.
Types of firearms
(rifles, shotguns, handguns)
There are four basic differences between

rifles and shotguns. Learning the
differences will aid you in firearm
Shotgun smooth bore
Rifle versus shotgun

Rifle
Shotgun
rifled bore
front & rear sights
single projectile
long range
smooth bore
front sight only
multiple projectile
short range
Source: All imges CFSC
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Firearms Chapter 6
12 Gauge using #7 1/2 shot

.308 Winchester
0
500
1000
1500
2000 2500
metres
3000
3500
4000
Dangerous range
A rifle cartridge has a single bullet or

projectile contained in a case. A shotgun
shell has a number of shot pellets inside a
paper or plastic hull. A rifle bullet may
travel more than 3,000 feet per second
and have a range of several miles. A
shotgun spreads or sprays its charge of
shot in a widening radius. The shot pellets
travel at about 1,100 feet per second and
have a maximum range of only a few
hundred metres to 1,000 metres
depending on shot size.
Hull
Bullet
Shot
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Source: CFSC
Wad
Case
Powder charge
Brass head
Power
Primer
Shotgun shell
Primer
Source: CFSC
Rifle cartridge
163
Chapter 6 Firearms
Chokes
The exact spread of the shot from
a shotgun is determined by a
constriction or narrowing at the
muzzle called "a choke."
Full choke produces a tight
pattern of distribution of the
shot. It is suitable for longer
ranges. Pattern is too dense and
small for hunting at close range.
Full choke
Modified choke produces a more

open pattern, suitable for medium
ranges and is recommended for
upland hunting.
Modified choke
Improved choke
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Source: All imges CFSC
Improved cylinder produces an

even more open pattern, suitable
for short ranges. At longer ranges,
the shot pattern is too thin to
ensure hits.
Cylinder bore produces the most

open pattern, suitable for shortest
ranges. At longer range, the
pattern is too thin and
widespread to ensure hits.
Cylinder choke
Four different types of chokes
164
Firearms Chapter 6
Additional information on chokes

The four basic chokes are Full, Modified, Improved, and Cylinder. Some manufactures have
developed variations of these chokes for special hunting and shooting situations; and
ammunition (shot) development. Manufactures have also developed shotguns that allow the
shooter to change the choke or adjust the choke setting.
The following are some of the typical chokes commonly find today:
Choke
North American
Designation *
European
Designation*
Extra Full
Full
Improved-Modified
Modified
Skeet 2
Improved-Cylinder
Skeet 1
Cylinder
EF
F
IM
M
*
**
***
IC
****
CL
* Typical choke markings found on the shotgun barrel.

Introduced in the last couple of years for turkey hunting is the Extra Full choke. This Extra Full
choke creates a tighter pattern than a full choke and extends the reach of the shot. Extra Full
chokes are usually only used with #4 shot or smaller shot. Check with manufactures
specifications when using an Extra Full choke.
With some shotguns, the firearm manufacturer may provide a basic set of chokes e.g. Full,
Modified, and Improved that you can install inside the bore of your shotgun using a special
wrench. You could then buy additional choke inserts for the style of shooting and hunting you
are doing e.g. Sporting clays, skeet, turkey, etc.
Some older shotguns come with an adjustable choke. Simply by rotating the choke you adjust
the choke setting from Full choke to Cylinder choke.
If you have a 12 gauge shotgun and the choke is not indicated. A gunsmith could refer to
manuals and take measurements to determine what type of choke your firearm has. A typical
12-gauge bore diameter is .729 inch. The following chokes have typically this amount of
constriction in the bore diameter:
Choke
Amount of constriction
Full
Improved-modified
Modified
Skeet 2
Improved-cylinder
Skeet 1
Cylinder
.035
.025
.019
.012
.009
.005
.000
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Chapter 6 Firearms
The sights on a rifle are constructed for

accurate aiming. Those on a shotgun are
less accurate and used simply for pointing.
Rear Sight
Front Sight
Bead Sight
Comparison: rifle and shotgun sights
Action
Barrel
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The stock is used to hold the firearm.

The barrel is the launching tube.
The action is used to load, fire and eject
the ammunition.
Firearms have a variety of common parts,

such as barrels, actions and stocks. How a
firearm is put together determines the
specific type of action, e.g., bolt-action
rifle. Take a few minutes to learn the basic
parts and functions of modern firearms.
Rifles and shotguns have three main parts:
stock, barrel and action.
Stock
3 main parts of a firearm

166
Firearms Chapter 6
Stocks are made of wood, rubber, plastics

and other synthetic materials. Stocks can
be one piece or two pieces for rifles or
shotguns. Some hunters will remove the
original wooden stock and replace it with
a synthetic stock. The synthetic stock is

lighter and holds up better under wet
conditions. No matter what stock you
choose, remember stocks and grips must
fit the shooter.
Stock
one piece stock
Fore-Stock
Butt Stock
two piece stock
Different syles of stocks
Barrels have these parts: chamber, bore,

muzzle (front), breech (rear) and sight. The
chamber is located at the rear of the barrel.
This is where you insert the ammunition.
Check the data stamp on the barrel to

ensure you have the right ammunition. For
shotguns, you must check the gauge and
length of the shotshell.
Barrel
Chamber
Rear Sight
Front Sight
Muzzle
Parts of a barrel
167
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Use the correct length of shotshell for the

chamber. A correct shotshell length is one
that, when placed in the chamber, has
enough room to allow for the shotshell to
fully open up prior to the wad leaving the
hull and coming in contact with the
forcing cone area of the bore. Too long of a
shotshell will cause a restriction at the
forcing cone area, which could lead to
metal fatigue and barrel failure.
The bore is the inside of the barrel where

the bullet or shot travels. The distance
across the bore is called bore diameter. In
a shotgun, it is measured in gauge. In a
rifle or handgun, it is measured in calibre
("caliber" for U.S.A.). Calibre is the distance
across the lands. Calibre is also used
sometimes to designate bullet diameter.
Right Size Shell

2 3/4"
Chamber
During firing hull opens to

2 3/4" to fill the chamber up
to the forcing cone
Unfired 2 3/4" shell
2 3/4"
Chamber
Forcing Cone
Unfired 3" shell in a 2

3/4" Chamber
During firing hull opens into

the forcing cone and could
cause the barrel to burst
Wrong Size Shell

DANGER: If shotshell is too long,
barrel may burst
168
Source: CFSC
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Forcing Cone
Firearms Chapter 6
The calibre and gauge are measures of the

bore or inside diameter of the barrel used
by a particular rifle or shotgun. The
calibre is a direct measure of the inside
diameter of a rifle barrel. It is expressed in
hundredths of an inch; for example, a .22
calibre rifle has a bore of 22/100 inch in
diameter. It can also be given in metric
terms such as 5.56 mm.
of lead balls of a bore diameter required

to make up one pound. This is an old
British measurement system. Thus, a 16gauge shotgun has a bore diameter such
that 16 lead balls of the bore diameter
would weigh a pound. Gauge
measurement has no connection to the
variety of shot sizes that may be found in
shotgun ammunition. The one exception
to the indirect measurement of gauge is
the .410 shotgun. In this case, the
measurement refers directly to the actual
bore diameter or calibre.
The gauge refers indirectly to the bore

diameter of a shotgun. It is not a direct
measure, but is calculated as the number
Groove
Diameter
Bore Diameter
Land
Groove
Rifled Barrel
Bore Diameter
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Source: CFSC
Smooth Bore Barrel
10 gauge
12 gauge
.775 inch
.729 inch
16
gauge
.662 inch
Common shotgun bore diameters

169
20
gauge
.615 inch
28
gauge
.550 inch
.410
.410 inch
Chapter 6 Firearms
The muzzle is the front end of the barrel.

This is where the projectile leaves the
bore. You must maintain MUZZLE
CONTROL at all times, even with an
unloaded firearm.
Barrels may have sights attached. Sights
help you aim or point.
Over and
Under
Side by Side
Drilling
Source: IHEA
Some firearms may have more than one

barrel. You may have barrels side by side
or over and under. Some firearms are
classified as combination firearms.
Typically, in a combination firearm, the
upper barrel is rifled and the bottom barrel
is smooth. You can get combinations such
as .22LR/20 gauge.
Barrel arrangements
the frame. The bolt is inserted into the

frame. A trigger is mounted to the frame.
The manner in which these parts are
assembled will make different styles of
actions. When the trigger is pulled, the
firing pin strikes the primer, which ignites
the gunpowder. The trigger is contained
inside the trigger guard. Some multi-barrel
firearms may have more than one trigger.
Handgun triggers function in single action,
double action, or double action only modes.
The frame (also called receiver) is the main

part of the firearm. The barrel is attached to
Triggers
Multiple triggers
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Source: CFSC
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Actions contain the parts that load,

unload and fire the cartridge. Actions
come in various styles. You will find rifles,
shotguns, and handguns with these
actions. Let's look at the parts of the
action: frame, trigger, safety, magazine and
action release. How these parts are
assembled determine a firearm's action.
Firearms Chapter 6
The safety is a mechanical device used to

prevent the firearm from firing. Safeties come
in various styles and may be located in various
locations. Learn how to use your safety, but
always remember muzzle control. Safeties, like
all mechanical devices, can fail. Some
firearms are not equipped with a safety, e.g.,
single-shot, hinge-action firearms.
Hammer in the
Half Cock Position
Hammer Block
Safety
Trigger Block/Lever
Safety
Safeties lever action
Lever/Pivot/Rocker Safety
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Wing
Safety
Safeties bolt action
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Chapter 6 Firearms
In order to open some actions you will

need to operate the action release
button/lever. Action-release buttons/levers
can be located in various locations. If you
cannot open the action on a firearm, you
may have to either release the safety or
operate the action-release button/lever.
Action Release
Slide/Tang Safety
Action release hinge action
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Cross Bolt or
Button Type Safety
Red or Black
Action Release
Source: CFSC
Action release pump action
172
Firearms Chapter 6
The magazine is a device that holds

ammunition. There are two types of
magazines: tubular and box. These
pictures show where the magazine is
located on different firearms. Some
magazines are removable. Locate the
magazine release button in order to
remove the magazine.
Cartridges
Magazine
Follower/Spring Mechanism
OR:
An alternative is the
hinged floor plate magazine
Source: CFSC
Floor Plate Release

Floor Plate
Magazines
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3. Basic Firearm Actions

You must be able to recognize which type
of action a rifle or shotgun has, and be able
to operate it safely and correctly. Before
handling any firearm, you must know
how to open the action and "PROVE" the
firearm safe. PROVE is a five-step
procedure to unload a firearm and ensure
the barrel is free of obstructions. PROVE
will be explained in greater detail in the
Firearm Safety section.
Knowing the various parts of a firearm aids

identifying and operating firearm actions.
Let's look at the following five basic firearm
actions hinge, bolt, pump, lever and
semi-automatic and see how the parts are
put together. At your field day you may be
expected to identify and operate various
actions and locate the parts and operate
these firearms.
A hinge-action firearm opens or "breaks" in

the centre, similar to the movement of a
door hinge. It is common to find hingeaction shotguns. Hinge-action firearms do
not have magazines and are classified as
single-shot firearms. This action is
manufactured so that both left- and righthanded shooters can easily work the action.
loaded, the action should automatically

eject the ammunition on most models.
Now examine the bore from the chamber
end of the barrel to check for obstructions.
If you wish to load a hinge action, first
locate the data stamp to identify the
correct ammunition. Insert manually the
new ammunition and close the action.
To open the hinge action, locate the actionrelease lever. Most hinge actions have
action-release levers on the top of the grip
of the stock. Some hinge actions have
action-release levers located in front of or
under the trigger guard. Push the actionrelease lever to one side and move the barrel
or barrels downward. If the firearm is
Action Release
Breech
Chambers
(location)
Barrels
Bead Sight
Safety
Triggers
Break-action shotgun or double-barrel shotgun
Source: CFSC
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On some hinge actions the safety

automatically engages when the action is
closed. In most hinge actions, you have
to engage the safety manually. Some
hinge actions do not have a safety.
Trigger and muzzle control is very
important in every case!
Hinge action
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Firearms Chapter 6
A bolt-action firearm operates on a lift,

pull and push sequence similar to a
door bolt. You may find rifles and
shotguns with this action. A bolt action
is common in hunting rifles. If you are
purchasing a firearm, remember that
many bolt actions are designed for
right-handed shooters. (Some
manufactures design bolt-action rifles
for left-handed shooters.)
Release the safety and then open the action.

You can then PROVE the firearm safe.
If the bolt-action rifle has no magazine it is a
single-shot firearm. If the bolt-action rifle is
equipped with a magazine it is classified as a
manual-repeating firearm. To load a bolt-action
firearm, the shooter will install the ammunition
in the magazine. When the shooter closes the
action a round of ammunition will be fed from
the magazine into the chamber. By simply
operating the action the shooter will eject and
load ammunition from the magazine.
On some models of bolt action the

action may not open if the safety is on.
Barrel
Action
Receiver
Safety
Chamber
Bolt
Rear Sight
Magazine
Trigger Guard
Bolt Handle
Trigger
Source: CFSC
Stock
Bolt action
175
Front Sight
Muzzle
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Chapter 6 Firearms
The pump action gets its name because the

shooter pumps the movable fore-end (also
called forestock) back and forth in order to
open and close the action. This pumping
action empties the chamber and loads a
new cartridge or shotshell from the tubular
magazine. Both left- and right-handed
shooters can easily work this action.
that button while pumping the action.

On most pump shotguns you do not
need to use the action-release button if
you have just shot the firearm. Simply
pump the action to open it. Pump actions
are commonly found on shotguns;
however, some rifles have pump actions.
Make sure that you "PROVE" a pump
action safe by cycling the action several
times to ensure the chamber and
magazine are empty.
To pump the action you need to locate

the action-release button. Push and hold
Action
Front Sight
Ejection Port
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Butt-stock
Trigger
Loading Port
(access from below)
Trigger Guard
Pump action
176
Tubular Magazine
Moveable Fore-stock
Source: CFSC
Muzzle
Firearms Chapter 6
A lever-action firearm has a metal handle

or lever, which is located just behind the
trigger. This action is manufactured so
that both left- and right-handed shooters
can easily work the action.
ammunition up from the magazine.

Normally, lever action rifles have tubular
magazines. Some may have a box
magazine.
When you PROVE a lever action rifle, be
sure to operate the lever several times.
Observe the chamber and verify the
feedpath from the chamber to the
magazine follower for ammunition.
Open the action by pulling the handle in a

downward direction, pivoting it towards
the barrel. This movement ejects any
cartridges or shells and brings new
Action
Safety
Source: CFSC
Hammer
Barrel
Loading Gate
Trigger
Tubular
Magazine
Lever
Stock
Butt-stock
Fore-stock
Lever action
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A semi-automatic action is a self-loading

type of firearm. Once the shooter loads
the magazine, cycles the action once and
pulls the trigger, the action will
automatically eject the spent cartridge or
shotshell and reload a new round of
ammunition. This is referred to as selfloading. The firearm is semi-automatic
because the trigger must be pulled for each
round of ammunition discharged. It is
common to find both rifles and shotguns
using a semi-automatic action.
inadvertently load a round of ammunition

from the magazine to the chamber.
To PROVE a semi-automatic firearm is

unloaded, it is important to remove the
source of ammunition. If that firearm has
a removable magazine, remove it. This
ensures that only one round of
ammunition will be in the firearm.
Operate the cocking lever to eject the
ammunition in the chamber. With the
magazine removed, you will not
Semi-automatic firearms are either recoilor gas-operated. Gas-operated means that

some of the pressure from the fired
cartridge is tapped off the barrel and
pushes a piston backwards, causing the
action to open. No matter whether a semiautomatic firearm is recoil- or gasoperated, it is important to keep the
firearm clean and use proper ammunition.
Most semi-automatic firearms have a

button or lever to lock the action open.
This allows you to observe the chamber
and verify the feedpath. Do not put your
finger in the action to see if the chamber is
empty. If the action closed accidentally,
you might injure or sever your finger.
Some models of semi-automatics lock
open when the firearm is empty.
Rear Sight
Action
Front Sight
Cross Bolt Safety
Trigger
Butt-stock
Magazine
Magazine Release
Trigger Guard
Semi-automatic action
178
Fore-stock
Barrel
Muzzle
Source: CFSC
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Firearms Chapter 6
PART II
RREVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Muzzleloading firearms are designed to use what type of gun powder? ____________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Name two common types of ignition systems used on muzzleloading firearms.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Name four differences between rifles and shotguns. ______________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Name the three basic parts of a modern firearm. ________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Name the five basic actions used in breech loading firearms. ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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PART III:
AMMUNITION
Rifle ammunition has four components:
primer, powder, bullet and cartridge
(or case).
Part three is broken into the following

sections:
1. Rifle ammunition and components
2. Shotgun ammunition and components
3. Ammunition safety
The location of the primer tells you if a

cartridge is rimfire or centrefire. The
centrefire cartridge has a primer located in
the centre of the base. A primer is a small
metal cup filled with a chemical mixture
which explodes when hit.
1. Rifle ammunition and

components
It is important to understand the basics of
ammunition and ammunition safety.
Knowing the proper ammunition to use
will help you become a more successful,
ethical hunter.
This explosion travels through the

flashhole and ignites the gunpowder.
Smokeless powder will burn, creating
pressure, thus pushing the bullet down
the barrel.
Modern ammunition varies in size,

appearance, materials and parts. Rifle
ammunition is called cartridges or rounds.
Shotgun ammunition is referred to as
shotshells or shells.
Case
Bullet
Shotgun
Shell
Primer
Types of ammunition
Centrefire ammunition
Ammunition is classified as centrefire
or rimfire.
centrefire
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.22 Cartridge Pistol

Rifle
Rimfire
Centrefire Cartridge
Cartridge
Powder
rimfire
Ammunition classification
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Firearms Chapter 6
If you look in a used centrefire cartridge

you will notice the flashhole. If there is
one flashhole in the bottom of the case,
then the case is referred to as Boxer
primed. If there are two flashholes in the
bottom of the case, then the case is
referred to as Berdan primed. On some
cartridges you can remove the primer as
part of the process of reloading the
cartridge case. Generally in North America
we cannot reload Berdan primed cases and
thus they are cheaper to buy.
The case is a container in which all other

ammunition parts are assembled. Cases
can also be made of different material
such as brass, nickel-plated, aluminum,
and steel. Some cases, such as aluminum
and steel, cannot be reloaded and thus are
cheaper to purchase.
There are three common case styles for
rifle cartridges. Look at the base of the
cartridge case to see if the case is rimless,
rimmed or belted magnum. Care must be
taken when loading rimmed cases into
magazines to prevent feeding problems.
Looking inside
a rifle casing
Berdan Primed
Boxer Primed
Rifle sasing
Belted case
The rimfire cartridge has no noticeable
primer. Instead, the priming compound is
placed inside and spun into the case rim.
When the rim is struck by the firing pin, the
priming compound explodes, igniting the
powder. The burning powder creates
pressure, sending the bullet down the barrel.
Rimless case
Source: CFSC
Case
Bullet
Primer
Powder
Firing Pin Contacts

RIM of Case
Rimmed case
Rimfire ammunition
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Chapter 6 Firearms
The powder charge is a chemical

compound which, when burned, forms
gases which propel the bullet or shot
through the barrel. Two common types of
powder available are black powder and
smokeless powder. Modern ammunition is
loaded with smokeless powder. Smokeless
powder produces greater energy and
pressure compared to black powder. Never
use smokeless powder in muzzleloading
firearms, unless the firearm is
specifically designed for smokeless
powder. Be sure to see the manufacturer's
recommendations.
In some cases the word Magnum refers to

the case design. If a person was to hand
you two rifle cases and asked you to
identify a .300 Winchester Magnum and
a .300 Savage case, without looking at the
base of the case, can you tell which case
is the .300 Win Mag? In this example, the
word "Magnum" refers to a belted case
design cartridge. Always make sure to
read the data stamp on the base of the
case to determine the correct
identification of the ammunition.
Some rifle and pistol cartridges might be

referred to as a "magnum." Depending on
the cartridge design, it may refer to the
powder charge or the case design. A .357
Magnum cartridge was developed from
the .38 Special case. Its case length is
slightly longer. Due to the longer case, the
.357 Magnum will hold more powder than
a .38 Special. A bullet from a .357
Magnum will travel much faster and have
a greater force of impact than the same
bullet from a .38 special.
.300 Win Mag
.300 Savage
.38 SPECIAL
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1.155
.357 MAGNUM
1.293
.38 Special & .357 Magnum cases
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Firearms Chapter 6
Bullets come in different shapes

and sizes, and are commonly made
of lead. Some bullets have a metal
jacket, making them travel faster.
lead
Full metal-jacketed bullets cannot be

used for hunting! They are okay for
target shooting.
RIFLE BULLETS
copper
Round Nose
Hollow Point
Spire Point
Full Metal Jacket
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Boat-tail
Source: CFSC
Partition Bullet
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Trajectory of Path or Bullet

Source: CFSC
Line of Sight
Exaggerated for Clarity
Bullet trajectory
Trajectory is the path shots or bullets take

during flight. Several factors affect this
path: gravity, air resistance, velocity and
mass. Gravity pulls the bullet down as it is
travelling forward. This results in a
downward curved path. Air resistance holds
back the passage of the bullet. This slows its
flight. Velocity is the speed and mass is the
weight of the bullet. The trajectory of a
bullet is slightly curved. If you sight in your
firearm to hit a target at 200 yards, you will
hit your target high at 100 yards. You will
hit your target low at 300 yards.
Ballistics is the science that studies the

motion of projectiles. Changing
ammunition changes the ballistics for
your firearm. For example, a .30-06
Springfield cartridge with a 180-grain
bullet has different ballistics from the
same cartridge with a 150-grain bullet. It is
important that you sight in your firearm
with the same ammunition that you will
be hunting with.
BULLET TRAJECTORY USING A .30-06 SPRINGFIELD

Powder
Specifications
Powder Weight Velocity
Type
In
Grains Feet per
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Second (FPS)
4350
55.0
2750
4350
55.0
2750
4350
55.0
2751
4350
55.0
2751
4350
55.0
2699
4350
55.0
2618
Bullet
Specifications
Trajectory
Bullet path (inches) + or - from line of sight
Bullet Coefficient Muzzle

Weight
Type
110
RN
110
Spire
150
Mag-tip
150
RN
180
Spitzer
200
Spitzer
100
yard
150
yard
200
yard
250
yard
300
yard
.144
-1.5
0.0
-2.0
-6.7
-15.0 -28.0
.273
-1.5
0.0
-2.2
-4.4
-10.0 -17.7
.301
-1.5
0.0
-1.95
-4.1
-8.9
.389
-1.5
0.0
-2.1
-4.2
-9.75 -15.3
.500
-1.5
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-9.1
-14.3
.556
-1.5
0.0
-2.2
-4.3
-9.8
-15.3
Source: Speer, Reloading Manual, 1981

RN = Round Nose BT= Boat-tailed
184
-16.9
Firearms Chapter 6
Choose the right bullet for the game you

are hunting. You must choose a bullet that
is heavy enough and fast enough to kill
the animal you are hunting with a clean,
one-shot kill.
SUGGESTED RIFLE AMMUNITION USE CHART

Ammo
Bullet
weight Black
In Grains Bear
Grizzly
Bear
Deer
Caribou
Moose
40
.222 Rem
50
.243 Win
50
100
.270 Win
130
160
7mm Mauser
139
160
7mm Rem Mag 175
.30-30 Win
150
170
.308 Win
150
180
.30-06 SPRG
150
180
220
.300 Savage
150
180
.300 Win Mag
180
.303 British
150
180
centrefire
Winchester
Remington Magnum
Springfield
Coyote
Wolf
Ground
hog
.22 LR
rimfire
Fox
Source: Chart 11 Canadian Firearm Safety Course manual, 1994 edition
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If the case is really small, chances are it is

a .22 rimfire cartridge. Years ago a wide
variety of rimfire cartridges were
available. Today, only .22 rimfire
cartridges are commercially available.
They can come in .22 short, long, long
rifle, and magnum lengths. You will have
to learn how to identify them by reading
the information on the ammunition box
as the data stamp is not on the base of
the cartridge.
Source: CFSC
Ammunition comes in different lengths,

shapes, and diameters depending on the
type of bullet or case used.
.22 Cartridge
Rimfire
Pistol
Centrefire
Cartidge
The .22 Hornet and .222 Remington rifles

use a .22 calibre bullet but use a centrefire
cartridge case. A rimfire cartridge will
travel 1,300 feet per second or less, while
a centrefire cartridge will do over 2,000
feet per second. The centrefire case is
bigger than the rimfire case and holds
more powder.
Rifle
Cartidge
FULL DETAILS OF THE .22 RIMFIRE FAMILY OF AMMUNITION

Cartridge
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.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
BB Cap
CB Cap
Short
Long
Long rifle
Remington Auto
Winchester Auto
Stinger
Extra Long
WRF & Rem Special
Winchester Magnum RF
Case
Length
(inches)
Overall
Length
(inches)
Bullet
Weight
(grain)
Bullet
Diameter
(inches)
.284
.420
.423
.595
.595
.663
.665
.694
.750
.960
1.052
.343
.520
.686
.880
.975
.920
.915
.975
1.16
1.17
1.35
18
30
29
29
40
45
45
32
40
45
40
.222
.222
.223
.223
.223
.223
.222
.223
.223
.224
.224
Learn the length of these cartridges and bullet weight to aid in identification.
NOTES:
1. If your data stamps says .22 S L & LR then your gun can shoot .22 Short, Long or Long Rifle.
2. Some .22 rimfire semi-automatic guns need Standard Velocity (SV) ammo to function properly.
.22 LR SV muzzle velocity is 1150 fps. .22LR High Velocity (HV) is 1335 fps.
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Firearms Chapter 6
2. Shotgun ammunition
and components
A shotgun shell has five components.
They are primer, powder, hull, wad, and
shot or slug.
Hull
Shot
Source: CFSC
Wad
are 2-3/4, 3 and 3-1/2 inch. Some European

shells give the shotshell length in
millimetres. You must know the correct
length of the shotshell, gauge and shotsize
when selecting shotgun ammunition. The
powder in a shotshell serves the same
purpose as in a cartridge. The difference with
shotshells is that you can buy the same
shotshells with various powder charges. The
boxes may be marked target, field or
magnum load. Magnum loads have more
powder and/or shot than target or field loads.
Powder Charge
Source: Winchester
Brass head
Primer
Shotgun shell
Source: Federal Cartridge Company
The primer and powder serve the same

purpose as in a centrefire rifle or pistol
cartridge. The case of a shotgun shell is
referred to as a hull. The hull is commonly
made of a combination of brass, plastic or
paper. Like some cartridges, some hulls
can be reloaded and used again.
The length of a shotshell is normally given
in inches and is based on the length of the
spent hull. Common lengths for 12 gauge
Shotgun ammunition boxes
Source: CFSC
Sometimes the powder charge, weight of

shot and size of shot will be marked on the
side of the shotshell or box, for example, 3,
1-1/8, 7-1/2. The powder charge maybe
given in Dram Equivalent or DR. EQ.
12 Gauge Shotgun Shells Unfired and Fired

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A shotgun shell generally contains

multiple projectiles or pellets called
shot. A single, large projectile in a
shotgun shell is called a slug. Shot and
slugs are traditionally made of lead.
properties and ballistics than lead shot.

Successful, ethical hunters practice
with the same type of shot they will
use for hunting.
Shot comes in various sizes. No. 9 shot is
very small while No. 000 shot is large.
Choose the right shot size for the
animals you are hunting. As a general
rule, the smaller the game, the smaller
the shot pellets. Some big game species
may be hunted using shot or slugs.
Check your hunting regulations!
Source: Winchester
Due to environmental concerns the use

of lead shot is banned while waterfowl
hunting. Lead shot is referred to as
toxic shot. Non-toxic shot can be made
of bismuth, steel, tin, tungsten-iron,
tungsten-matrix, or tungsten-polymer
materials. Non-toxic shot has different
SHOT DIAMETER AND SIZE BY COUNTRY

Shot
mm
Diameter Inch
2
.080
2.25
.090
2.41
.095
Country
2.5
.100
2.75
.110
3
.120
3.25
.130
3.5
.140
3.75
.150
4
.160
Shot size
USA
Germany
French
Spanish
7-1/2
English
Norwegian
8
6-1/2
BB
9-1/2
7-1/2
5
4
Italian
It is very common to buy shotshells in Canada that come from foreign countries.
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Source: Mirage Cartidges by Clever Italy
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Choose the correct shot for the type of

hunting/shooting you are doing.
SUGGESTED 12 GAUGE 2-3/4 SHOTGUN AMMUNITION USE CHART

Shot
Shot
Snipe
Size & material
Clay
Diameter
Targets
Upland
game
birds
Ducks
.080
Lead
Steel
.085
Lead
Steel
7-1/2
.095
Lead
Steel
.110
Lead
Steel
.120
Lead
Steel
.130
Lead
Steel
.150
Lead
Steel
.180
Lead
Steel
9
8
5
4
2
BB
Geese
Turkey
Rabbits Coyote
see
notes
Fox
Black
Bear
2 Buck
.270
1 Buck
.300
0 Buck
.320
Slugs
Notes:
1. Lead shot also called Toxic shot, may not be used for hunting migratory birds in
British Columbia except Band-tailed pegeon and Mourning dove.
2. Jack rabbits use BB, 2, & 4 shot.
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3. Ammunition safety
Some firearms made before 1964 or

ex-military firearms may not have a data
stamp. In this case, a gunsmith can help
you determine the correct ammunition for
your firearm. Sometimes the data stamp
on a firearm may be given in European
terms such as 7.62 x 51mm (bullet
diameter x case length). 7.62 x 51 mm is
also called 7.62 NATO and .308
Winchester in North America; three
names for the same thing.
In order to select the right calibre or gauge

of ammunition for your firearm, you must
locate the data stamp. Data stamps can
generally be found on the barrel of the
firearm. The data stamp will tell you the
correct ammunition to use, for example,
.300 Win Mag ("Win" is short for
Winchester. "Mag" is short for magnum).
You must also decide on the bullet size,
expressed in grains (for example, 150
grain) or shot size, that you will need to
use for the game you are hunting.
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Cartridge
Name
Ammunition
Manufacturer
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Base of Cartridge
(enlarged view)
Source: CFSC
Data Stamp
Firearms Chapter 6
Be very careful to make sure the

ammunition matches the data stamp.
.300 Savage, .300 Win Magnum and .300
Weatherby Magnum have different cases
and are not interchangeable. Remember
the basic rule: If the data stamp on the
firearm does not match the data stamp
on the ammunition, do not use that
ammunition.
You must follow several rules for safe

ammunition handling, carrying or
storage. They are:
Only use the correct ammunition for
your firearm. If you are unsure, check
with a firearms dealer or gunsmith to
find out.
Check the condition of ammunition
before you use it. If it is dented or
appears to be irregular in any way,
don't use it.
Secure ammunition and keep it away
from excessive heat or impact with
sharp objects.
Store ammunition in its original
container or ammo box.
Lock up ammunition and firearms
separately.
Only use round or soft-point
ammunition in tubular magazines.
Do not mix different size cartridges
and shell sizes. Keep them separate,
e.g., 12 and 20 gauge.
You can find 7.62 x 39 mm, .308 Win, .3006 SPRG, 9 mm Luger, 8 mm Mauser, .303
British, etc., as military surplus
ammunition. This military surplus
ammunition generally will not contain a
data stamp that is commonly understood.
Coding found on the base of the case
refers to the factory the ammo was made
at and the year of production, e.g., WCC
94 (Winchester Cartridge Company 1994).
You will need to determine the correct
designation of this ammunition prior to
using it. Check with various reloading
manuals or ask a competent individual
such as a gunsmith.
12 Gauge
20 Gauge
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Source: CFSC
Military - NATO
Metric
The shooter mixed ammunition

barrel burst
North American
3 head stamps
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Chapter 6 Firearms
REPLACEMENT PAGE 2002 CORE MANUAL

Do not shoot at hard surfaces, e.g. rocks, water, etc as bullets will ricochet.
Only load a firearm in a place where you can legally discharged it.
Unload your firearms when entering a building or vehicle.
Source: CFSC
Learn the distances that ammunition can travel.
Source: CFSC
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Firearms Chapter 6
PART III
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Rifle and pistol ammunition is referred to as__________________or ____________.
2. Shotgun ammunition is referred to as ____________________or _______________.
3. Modern ammunition is classified as either _______________ or _________________.
4. What is the purpose of the primer? ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List two cartridges that would be acceptable for shooting:

Grizzly ______________________________________________________________________
Mule deer ____________________________________________________________________
Elk __________________________________________________________________________
6. Define the word Trajectory. ____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the three most common versions of .22 rimfire ammunition that can be
commercially bought today? __________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. What are the common lengths of 12 gauge shotshells? __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
9. What is the difference in the word Magnum when used with rifle ammunition and
shotgun ammunition? ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. In tubular magazines, what shape of bullet must you use? ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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Chapter 6 Firearms
PART IV:
FIREARMS SAFETY
The part is broken into the following
sections:
1. Basic firearm safety rules
and procedures
2. Cleaning a firearm
3. Storage of firearms
To help you remember these four

basic rules, think of the abbreviated
version of ACTT.
A ssume it is loaded
C ontrol the muzzle
T rigger finger
T arget and beyond
1. Basic firearm safety rules

and procedures
Safe handling of firearms begins with the four
basic rules listed below. An easy way to
remember these rules is to
ACTT responsibly around firearms.

ACTT STANDS FOR:
1. ASSUME every gun to be loaded.
Consider any firearm you have not just
unloaded to be loaded and treat it
accordingly.
2. CONTROL the muzzlepoint guns in a
safe direction.
You must decide what the safest available
muzzle direction is and keep your
firearm pointed in that direction. Never
point a firearm at yourself or others.
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Unloading and Loading Firearms

Before learning the procedures described
here for unloading and loading firearms,
review these guidelines:
Have someone who is familiar with

the firearm give you guidance.
Don't do this on your own!
Use deactivated or "dummy"
ammunitionnot live.
Use your firearm's safety but don't
depend on it!
Remember to keep your finger
outside the trigger guard.
3. TRIGGER Fingerkeep your finger off

the trigger until ready to fire.
The natural instinct when picking up a
firearm is to put your finger in the
trigger guard. DON'T! This could cause
an accidental discharge if the gun is
loaded.
Practice! The more comfortable you

are with the operation of your
firearm the safer you will handle it.
4. TARGET identification is crucial

- be sure of your target and beyond.
Never point your firearm at something
you do not intend to shoot. Make sure
you positively identify what you are
shooting at and know what lies in front
of and beyond it.
Do not use telescopic sights as a
substitute for binoculars when
identifying persons, animals or objects.
194
When you pick up a firearm you should

approach the firearm from its side or
rear. Pick up the firearm with a twohanded grip. This is the time when the
first three rules of ACTT come into
effect. You now must PROVE that this
firearm is unloaded and safe to handle.
Firearms Chapter 6
PROVE stands for the following steps:

POINT
R
O
V
E
Point
REMOVE
O
V
E
Point
Remove
OBSERVE
V
E
1. POINT the firearm in the safest available direction.

Normally this is at the ground in a direction away from other people
including yourself. Maintain constant control of the muzzle direction.
2. REMOVE all ammunition.

If the firearm is a semi-automatic with a detachable magazine, remove
the magazine from the firearm first. Open the action to remove any
cartridges from the chamber. Removing the magazine first prevents a
semi-automatic from chambering another round if the action closes.
For virtually all other actions, open the action to remove any cartridges
from the chamber(s) first. Remove any detachable magazine and all other
cartridges from the firearm. If your firearm does not have a removable
magazine, it may be necessary to activate a latch button or other device,
or work the action several times to remove the ammunition.
Once all ammunition has been removed, leave the action open and if
possible, locked.
3. OBSERVE the chamber.

Check your firearm's chamber to ensure no ammunition or empty casings
are present and, if so, remove by hand or by working the firearm's action.
Point
Remove
Observe
VERIFY
E
4. VERIFY the feeding path.

A firearm's feeding path is the route by which ammunition stored in its
magazine is moved to the chamber where it will be fired. Only repeating
firearms will have a mechanical feeding path. To verify it is free of
ammunition, you must work the firearm's action and visually check the
feeding mechanism and magazine.
Point
Remove
Observe
Verify
EXAMINE
5. EXAMINE the bore for rust, excessive oil, or any obstructions.

If present, the firearm must not be fired until it is properly cleaned.
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Chapter 6 Firearms
3. Determine if the firearm can be

loaded with the safety on. If it can,
apply the safety.
4. Make sure to use the correct cartridge(s)
or shell(s) for the firearm by matching
the data stamp on the firearm with the
head stamp on the ammunition.
5. Load the firearm. How you do this will be
determined by the type of firearm you are
using. As a general rule:
Single-shot firearms: place the
ammunition directly in the chamber
and then close the action.
Lever-action firearms having a tubular
magazine: make sure the action is
closed, load the magazine, and then
cycle the action to bring a round from
the magazine to the chamber.
Firearms with a removable box
magazine: load the magazine first and
then insert it into the firearm. Close
the action to load the chamber.
Firearms with a non-removable box
magazine: load directly into the
magazine and then close the action
to load the chamber.
6. If you were not able to do so before, put
the safety on.
Accepting a Firearm
When accepting a firearm from
another person:
1. Check that the action is opened

before touching the firearm. If it isn't,
ask the person who is handing you
the firearm to open it for you.
2. Visually check that the chamber and
magazine are empty of ammunition
before touching the firearm.
3. Grasp the firearm with both hands,
keeping the muzzle pointed in a
safe direction.
4. Say thank you to alert the passer to
release the firearm.
5. Once the firearm is in your control
PROVE that it is unloaded and safe
to handle.
Loading
Follow the steps below to safely load a
firearm. Keep in mind that a firearm
should not be loaded until you are able to
safely and legally discharge it.
1. Make sure there is no ammunition in

the firearm or any obstructions in the
barrel. In other words, PROVE it safe.
2. Point the firearm in the safest
available direction. Know the location
of other persons around you.
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The firearm is now loaded and ready to use.

It requires continuous care and attention
until unloaded.
Load the correct

ammunition for
your firearm
Shell Length
and Shot
Size may be
indicated
on the
Shotgun Shell
Shotgun Shell Head
196
Source: CFSC
Data Stamps for Shotguns
Firearms Chapter 6
Safety Mechanisms
Most guns have a safety. Depending on
the firearm, a safety's on or off position
may be etched next to the safety
mechanism. Some firearms use a button
safety that is red in colour when the
safety is off and they are ready to be fired.
Remember "Red means ready to fire".
Consult the owner's manual if you are

unsure about how your firearm's safety
works or how to tell when the safety is
in the on or off position! As a general
rule, always keep your safety on until
ready to fire your gun.
Most safeties block the trigger but not
necessarily the gun's firing mechanism.
A hard blow in the right place can still
discharge a firearm. Safeties also wear
out and break. Never depend on a safety
to prevent a gun from firing!
Before you discharge the firearm you
must remember the last T in ACTT. Have
you identified your target and beyond? Is
it safe and legal to take the shot?
2. Cleaning Firearms
Firearms should be cleaned after every
use and after they have been stored for a
long period of time. Cleaning of the
firearm will maintain the:
Source: CFSC
firearm in a safe working condition

value of the firearm
accuracy of the firearm, and
ensure the firearm is serviceable.
Cleaning Materials:
The basic materials you need
to clean a firearm are:
Cleaning patches
Powder solvent
Gun oil
Soft cloth
Cleaning rod and attachments, i.e., bore
brush, plastic tips
Most hunters and shooters buy cleaning kits
for their firearms that contain these items.
When purchasing a cleaning kit it is
important to select the correct gauge or calibre
for the firearm(s) you own. A portable kit is
also a good idea for cleaning your firearm in
the field should you accidentally plug its
barrel with snow, mud or other material.
Cleaning tips:
Consult your owner's manual before
you begin.
Clean from the breech toward the
muzzle, if possible.
Minimize the amount of contact
between the cleaning rod and
the barrel.
Avoid skin contact with any metal parts
of the firearm. Perspiration causes rust.
If you discover a problem with your
firearm while cleaning it, take it to a
qualified gunsmith. Don't attempt to
repair a firearm yourself even if you
think the problem is a minor one!
The location of where you clean your

firearm is also important. Cleaning your
firearm on the balcony of your building
might cause a public reaction. Cleaning
a firearm on the white sofa in the living
room may upset your spouse. Choose an
area that is clear of clutter, well
ventilated and lit, and that does not
draw the concerns of others.
Cleaning Rod
Cleaning Patch
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Chapter 6 Firearms
3. Firearm Storage
Procedure:
The procedure for cleaning a firearm is:
Firearm safety rules apply at all timesnot

just when you are hunting. Firearms that
are brought into the home or camp must
be properly stored to reduce the risk of
injury to children or others. Follow the
guidelines below to ensure the safe storage
of firearms and ammunition.
1. Make sure the firearm is unloaded!

PROVE it safe.
2. Attach a bore brush to the cleaning
rod, lightly apply bore solvent, and
run the brush through the bore several
times to clean out powder residue.
3. Replace the bore brush with a patch
that is also coated in solvent and run
it through the barrel several times.
4. Repeat with additional patches until
they come out clean.
5. Run a lightly oiled patch through the
bore. Use only a small amount of oil.
6. Wipe the outside of the firearm with a
clean cloth and apply a light coat of
gun oil to the metal surfaces. The
firearm is now ready for storage.
Store firearms and ammunition

separately and under lock and key.
Make sure firearms are stored
unloaded. PROVE them safe.
Have family members attend a hunter
education class to learn firearm safety,
even if they don't hunt.
Non-restricted firearms (most rifles and
shotguns) must be stored unloaded and
inoperable as per the Firearms Act of
Canada. To render the firearm inoperable
you can do the following:
Remove the bolt or bolt carrier, or
Install a secure locking device, e.g., a
trigger lock, or
Install the firearm in a locked container,
receptacle or room that cannot be easily
broken open or in to.
Pull Through
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Cleaning
Patch
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Firearms Chapter 6
Source: CFSC
When you transport your non-restricted

firearm it must be unloaded. If you leave
the vehicle to go into the store, such as a
gas station, the firearm must be out of
sight and contained in the locked
vehicle. In a pickup truck, put the firearm
behind the seat, roll up the windows, and
lock the doors.
Source: CFSC
In a remote wilderness area, a nonrestricted firearm can be kept handy and

unlocked. They must be unloaded, but the
ammunition can be kept handy.
For more details on the safe storage,
display and transportation of firearms call
1-800-731-4000 or visit the Website
www.cfc.gc.ca.
It is a safe practice to store the
ammunition separate from the firearm,
but it is legal to store the ammunition in
the same locked container that the firearm
is stored in. Ensure that the ammunition is
not contained in the chamber or a
magazine attached to the firearm. Avoid
storing ammunition in unvented
containers such as a safe.
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Chapter 6 Firearms
PART IV
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the four basic rules that you must obey when handling firearms. ____________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List the PROVE procedure to unload a firearm. __________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List four reasons to clean your firearm.__________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. In Canada, a non-restricted firearm must be ________________and

_______________when it is stored.
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5. If you are transporting a firearm in a vehicle and you park the vehicle,
what must you do with the firearm. ____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Firearms Chapter 6
PART V:
SHOOTING SKILLS
1. Rifle marksmanship skills
This part is broken into three sections:
Marksmanship is the ability to hit your

target. It is important that a hunter be a
good marksman for two major reasons.
1. Rifle marksmanship skills

2. Shotgun marksmanship skills
3. Learn how to shoot and practice
safety procedures while shooting.
1. The first reason is safety. If you have

the ability to hit your target, you will
be self-confident. When you know you
can shoot accurately, you will not
need to spend time thinking about
how to shoot, but can concentrate
instead on where to aim. You will have
time to think. Is this shot safe? Is the
path to and beyond the target clear?
Shooting Skills
Shooting, like driving a car, is not a
skill that you are born with or just
know from watching others. It takes
time and practice to learn. You first
have to learn the parts of a firearm,
firearm safety and basic procedures to
load and unload a firearm before you
shoot one. Learning with a firearm that
is the correct calibre and size for the
shooter is also very important. Start off
with a .22 calibre firearm, not a .375
H&H Magnum rifle.
2. The second reason is to make a clean

kill. An accurate shot will kill quickly,
cleanly and humanely. A good hunter
practices marksmanship skills until his
or her shots are consistently accurate,
and study animal anatomy to know
where vital organs are located.
The fundamentals of shooting are

similar for rifle, shotgun and pistol. The
difference comes in the manner you
mount or hold the firearm, your
shooting position and body placement,
and trigger control.
No matter if you are shooting a rifle,

shotgun or handgun, you will first need to
determine your dominant or master eye.
The "dominant eye" is the eye you use for
sighting purposes. The dominant eye is the
stronger of your two eyes. The dominant
eye will judge speed and range, and focus
more accurately than your other eye.
The fundamentals of shooting can be

learned in the classroom before you head
to the range. Some firearm instructors
will employ training simulators such as a
rifle that emits a laser beam, or a pellet
gun to teach the basics of
marksmanship. This is generally more
cost effective and allows for more
systematic training. Talk to your firearm
instructor to determine what training
program he or she offers.
CORE Examiners are permitted to take
students to the range to teach shooting
skills as long as they follow the
procedures outlined in the CORE
Program Standards. It is NOT a
requirement to show shooting
proficiency in order to pass the CORE
practical firearms-handling exam.
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Most right-handed people are right-eye

dominant. Most left-handed people are
left-eye dominant. Some people are crossdominant. They are right-handed, but lefteye dominant. If you are cross-dominant,
your instructor may wish you to mount
the rifle or shotgun on your left shoulder
instead of the right shoulder. This can
make the difference between hitting or
missing the target. Firearm instructors
have other options for helping individuals
who are cross-dominant.
There are four common shooting

positions for rifle, shotgun and handgun
shooters: standing, kneeling, sitting, and
prone. Depending on the type of firearm,
the manner in which you mount the
firearm may be different. There are also
variations in each of these shooting
positions depending on the various
shooting discipline or competition you are
involved with.
Many shooters will sight in their firearms
by using the bench-shooting position.
This is also a great shooting position to
learn rifle and pistol shooters skills.
Trigger control, sight alignment and sight
picture should be mastered in the bench
position before you proceed to the four
common shooting positions.
To find out which is your dominant eye,

point your finger at a distant object with
both eyes open. First close one eye and
then the other. Your finger will remain
lined up with the object when your
dominant eye is open. This is just one of
many methods to determine your
dominant eye. Your instructor will be able
to help you determine which of your eyes
is the dominant eye.
Have a look at the various rifle shooting

positions. Your CORE examiner instructor
will help you learn these positions.
Positions may change due to the type of
firearm you are using and the shooting
discipline or competition you are
involved with.
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Firearms Chapter 6
The prone position is the steadiest

shooting position and the one from which
the fundamentals of rifle shooting are best
learned. It is a good position for firing
accurate long-distance shots. The prone
position is usually not suitable when
hunting in tall grass or dense brush which
can obscure the line of sight to the target.
straight and legs in a relaxed position.

Both elbows should be bent and your
shoulders curved slightly forward to form a
solid upper body position. The upper body
and arms support the rifle weight.
If you are right-handed, lie on your

stomach with your body slightly to the left
of the line of aim. If you are left-handed,
reverse this position. Keep your back
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Chapter 6 Firearms
In the kneeling shooting position, the

shooting arm is free. This position leaves
the shooting arm and elbow
unsupported and is not as steady as
either the prone or sitting positions. But
with practice, the shooter can maintain
control and shoot accurately.
the right foot. Place the left elbow near,

but not on, the bony part of the left knee,
as far under the rifle as you can. If you are
a left-handed shooter, kneel on the left
knee with the right foot forward and the
right elbow on the bent knee.
Turn so you are approximately at a 45

angle to the target. Lower your body so
the right knee touches the ground and
place your left foot forward to steady you.
Sit comfortably on the heel or the side of
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Firearms Chapter 6
The sitting position is the next steadiest

shooting position. Both short- and longrange shots can be fired accurately from
this position. Sit solidly on the ground.
The legs may be crossed or open and the
body should be positioned about 30 to
the right of the line of aim. Place the left
elbow near but not on the bony part of
the left knee. As in the kneeling
position, tuck the elbow as far under
the rifle as possible. Place the right
elbow on or near the right knee. You
have now formed two triangles, which

make a firm support for the rifle. Reverse
the procedure if you are a left-handed
shooter. Hold the rifle firmly but do not
grip it tightly. Bracing your body against
something stable such as a tree or rock
will help steady your aim for a more
accurate shot.
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Chapter 6 Firearms
The standing position is the least stable

shooting position. It is also the most
difficult position from which to fire an
accurate shot. It requires excellent control.
The shooter must be skilled in the
fundamentals of shooting: sighting,
breath control, trigger squeeze and
follow through.
tightly. Reverse the procedure if you are a

left-handed shooter. If there is too much
waver, do not shoot. To help steady your
shot, rest or support the rifle on a stable
object such as a tree or large rock, or use a
carrying strap as a sling.
Turn your body approximately 90 to the

right of the target. Place your feet
shoulder-width apart. Support the rifle
with your left arm. Hold the left arm
against your body for extra support. Hold
the rifle firmly against your shoulder with
the right hand. Do not grip the rifle
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Firearms Chapter 6
Sights
for shooting both rifles and handguns. A

rifle or handgun is aimed. This requires
two things: sight alignment and sight
picture. Of course, our modern firearms
offer a variety of different aiming devices,
such as iron sights, peep sights and
telescopic sights to aid the shooter.
Shooting excellence depends on several

fundamental techniques, which must be
learned and practiced. They are: aiming,
trigger squeeze, breath control, followthrough and shooting position.
Aiming, trigger control, breathing and
follow-through are the same fundamentals
Open Sight
Shotgun Bead Sight
Peep/Aperture Sight
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Source: CFSC
Telescopic/Optical Sight
Electronic Red Dot Sight
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Sights
A sight is a device used to aim the firearm.
There are three basic types of sights: open,
aperture (peep) and telescopic (scope).
Rifles may have any of these three types
of sights.
Most shotguns have only a front sight

called a bead sight. Some shotgun
barrels may also have front and rear
sight. This type of shotgun barrel is
designed to fire slugs.
Rear Sight
Front Sight
Bead Sight
Comparison: rifle and shotgun sights
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Open sights
Most factory-issued rifles are equipped
with an open rear sight and front sight.
Sometimes open rear sights are also
referred to as iron sights. This type of
sight requires time to aim accurately and
may be used successfully when speed is
not a factor. When you line up the front
and rear sight with a target it is impossible
to have both the front sight and target
clear and in focus. When the front sight
becomes in focus, this is when you
squeeze off the shot.
VRear Sight
It is a normal aging process that after a

while your eyes will be unable to focus on
the front sight. Time to switch to a
telescopic sight.
Front Sight
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Firearms Chapter 6
Aperture sight
Telescopic sights
The aperture sight is called a "peep" sight

because it has a small hole that you peep
through to aim at the target. All you have
to do is look through the peep hole at the
front sight, then hold the front sight on the
target. The aperture sight is more accurate
than the open sight. Many aperture sights
allow the shooter to adjust for elevation
(height) and windage (side to side
movement). When adjusting the rear peep
sight always move the sight in the direction
you want the bullet to travel. If it is hitting
low and to the left of the bullseye, move
the sight to the right and up.
The telescopic sight or scope is a minitelescope mounted on the rifle. It

simplifies sighting because you need to
focus on only one object a known target.
The scope helps you see the target better
by magnifying it, making the target
appear larger and closer. It is also designed
for light transmission (to gather light) so
you can sight a target even under dim
light conditions.
The front lens on a scope is called the
Objective lens or bell. The rear lens is
called the ocular lens. The Ocular lens
does the magnification. Some scopes have
a variable magnification, e.g., 3 - 9 X. This
type of scope will have a power selector
ring, so the shooter can adjust the amount
of magnification. When you look into the
scope you will see the Reticle. Reticles
come in different designs. The most
common is the Cross Hair.
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The zero in is
obtained by applying elevation and
windage to the
shot group.
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Chapter 6 Firearms
the correct amount of eye relief in order to

get a clear full picture. Move your head
back or forwards as necessary.
Many new shooters have been "scoped"
when they shoot a large calibre rifle with a
scope. On recoil, the scope comes back
and hits the shooter in the eye or eyebrow.
This occurs because the shooter failed to
hold onto the gun properly or did not
have enough eye relief.
Cross hair
Never use a scope to identify an object, use

your spotting scope or binoculars. People
do not like having loaded guns pointed at
them in the woods and it is against the law.
Cross hair
tapered post
Varmint
or target
scope
Hunting scope
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Objective
lens
Tapered post
When buying a scope consider three
important factors: durability, repeatable
accuracy, and clear image. The scope has
to be designed for the calibre of rifle. A
scope designed for a .22-rimfire cartridge
will not have the durability when used on
a rifle with a centrefire cartridge.
Repeatable accuracy is important, as you
do not want the point of impact of your
bullet to change because the internal
workings on the scope have moved. The
scope should also have a clear image in all
weather conditions. There is nothing
worse in the rain than to bring your gun
up and find out the scope has fogged up
due to moisture inside the scope.
Windage &
elevation
adjustments
Lock ring
To use a scope, look at your target. Bring

the rifle up to your shoulder and look
through the scope. You should see the
target. If you see a black ring around your
target or a very small view of the target,
you may have your eye too close or too far
from the rear lens of the scope. You need
Ocular
lens
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Sight alignment means lining up the rear

sight with the front sight.
Do not tense up before the rifle fires. You

should be relaxed, allowing each shot to
happen as a surprise.
Controlled breathing is necessary to shoot
accurately. As you breathe in and out, it is
normal for your chest to rise and fall and
your arm to waver. So will your gun barrel
unless you control your breathing at the
exact moment you fire.
Proper sight alignment
When you are in a shooting position, with

your cheek against the stock, take a deep
breath, exhale a portion of it and hold
your breath while you aim. When your
front sight is in focus, squeeze the trigger.
Sight picture is placing the front sight on

the appropriate part of the target while
keeping the rear sight in alignment.
Front Sight
Rear Sight
"Follow-through" simply means

maintaining your sight picture and/or
shooting position after discharging the
firearm. If the rifle is moved a split second
too soon, the bullet will not have left the
barrel and your aim will be off target. After
pulling the trigger, count to three before
lowering the rifle from your sight picture.
Front Sight
Rear Sight
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Sight picture
Correct trigger control is essential for an

accurate shot. When the sights are aligned
on your target, squeeze the trigger slowly
and steadily. Do not jerk the trigger.
Anything other than a smooth squeeze
will cause the sight picture to waver and
will send the shot off target.
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If you hold your breath too long, you may

lose control, start to shake and your bullet
will not hit your point of aim. If you run
out of breath before firing, relax, take a
deep breath and do it again.
Firearms Chapter 6
Tunnel vision through technology
By Tim Lawhern
Many of us that are about 50 years old or older

remember the time when most of the firearms
used for deer hunting were equipped with some
type of open sights. In some cases a peep sight,
in others the typical blade front sight and V-notch
rear sight. How many times have we observed
hunters closing their weak eye in order to focus
better on the sights with their strong or dominant
eye? More often than not, Id say. You might
now be asking yourself why this has become an
issue. In Wisconsin, during the 2001 gun deer
season, we had a fatal hunting incident of
particular significance to this topic. A father shot
his son in the back of the head from a distance of
about 3 feet (1 meter). How could this happen
you ask? Read on.
heard his son shoot and the deer did not go down.
The father then took a shot. What happened next was
the worst nightmare imaginable! When the son fired
his rifle he raised his head from behind the scope to see
the reaction of the deer. Because the father had his left
eye closed and was looking through a scope set on 9
power he did not see his son raise his head; the father
thought he was shooting directly over the top of his
sons head. When I saw the photographs of the
reenactment of this incident I instantly wondered how
this young lad could hear anything since the muzzle
blast from his fathers rifle was always close to his head.
Remember the distance was only 3 feet (1 meter) from
the muzzle of the fathers gun to the back of his sons
head. The bullet entered the back of his sons head
near the top of the skull and slightly left of center.
The scene: This father and son (age 14) have

hunted for the past couple of years from the
same blind. The blind is located adjacent to a
railroad track and just off the right-of-way. It is
rectangular in shape, the walls are constructed of
plywood, there is no roof, and two chairs are
placed in the blind. The dimensions are
approximately 4 feet wide by 10 feet long.
The dilemma: Those of us that shoot scope-equipped

firearms know that the focal plane is extended from
the gun as the power of the scope is increased. Set
on 3 power we can normally see the front sight,
albeit blurry and slightly off center. As we turn the
power ring to a higher power setting we no longer
can see the front sight. Even though the son was
wearing a blaze orange cap it was not visible in the
scope set at 9 power.
Their method of hunting: These hunters would sit it

the blind and wait for a deer to come out of the
brush adjacent to the railroad tracks. When one
appeared, the son had the first chance to shoot
and the father would "back him up." If the son
missed the deer or if the deer did not immediately
go down the father would then shoot. This
method was successful in previous seasons. The
father also used a makeshift tripod for his rifle.
When the father was in the shooting position, the
rifle was slightly above the level of his sons
position. In order for this to be comfortable for the
father, and in an attempt to be safe, the father had
to stand up in order to shoot using the tripod.
What happened: A deer appeared from the brush.
The son chose to take a shot and the father
prepared to back him up. The father was using a
large caliber bolt action rifle with a 3 x 9 variable
powered scope. The scope was set on 9 power. The
father closed his left eye; he was right handed, shot
right handed, and was right eye dominate. He
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The lesson: I think we would all agree that there

were some things these two hunters did that none of
us would condone. What we havent given our
attention to is what happens when hunters use
modern technology, such as telescopic sights. Even
with the added benefits of being able to better place
your shot and identify your target, the field of vision
is narrowed proportionally to the magnification
setting. Additionally, as in the case of this incident,
we lose vision of items close to us as well when we
increase the power settings our scopes.
As a conservation officer and as the administrator of
the hunter education program, I am seeing more
and more scopes of increased magnification
capabilities being used for hunting purposes. Some
even in the 20 power range. It might behoove us to
spend a little time towards mentioning these issues
to our students and our hunters. Perhaps by doing
so we can save a hunters life.
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2. Shotgun marksmanship skills
When shooting, the body weight shifts to

the leading leg (left leg if you shoot righthanded, right leg if you shoot lefthanded). The leading hand holds the
shotgun fore-end and points naturally to
the target area. You don't aim the shotgun;
you point it at your target.
Shooting a shotgun is different from

shooting a rifle. With the rifle you must aim
precisely. With a shotgun you point at the
target. Because of this, the fundamentals of
shotgun shooting are different.
Accurate shotgun shooting requires a fast
sequence of movements involving the
body, gun and eyes. These movements
need to be performed in one smooth,
coordinated movement for accuracy.
The action of placing the shotgun to your

shoulder is called "mounting the gun."
You must place the stock against your
cheek first, then against your shoulder.
This makes sure the gun is in exactly the
same position each time you shoot.
There are some shotguns which are

equipped with adjustable sights and some
models that fire slugs. These types use the
same shooting techniques required for
accurate rifle shooting.
The shotgun shooting position or stance
resembles that of a boxer in the ring feet
spread apart, well balanced, arms and
trunk free to swing to the right and the
left of the target. This position must be
comfortable and natural to allow quick
movement in any direction.
Shotgun Shooting Stance
Do not make the error of raising the gun

to the shoulder first and dropping your
head to rest the cheek against the stock.
You will likely miss the target.
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Keep both eyes wide open and focussed on

the moving target, not on the gun barrel
or the bead sight. While watching the
target, mount the gun correctly and point
it toward the target area.Remember that
you do not aim a shotgun, you simply
point it.
Do not fire a shotgun with slow, steady
trigger pressure as you do a rifle. The
shotgun trigger is slapped. The trigger slap
is similar to the action of tapping the desk
with your finger. Slap the trigger quickly,
but not hard.
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Firearms Chapter 6
Leading means shooting ahead of the

moving target. Leading is necessary when
shooting at any moving target. If you
shoot directly at a moving target, by the
time the shot reaches that spot, the target
will have already passed by. With correct
leading, the shot and the moving target
will reach the same spot at the same time.
With practice, the leading will soon
become automatic to you.
shooter, the swing-through method is

easiest to learn. Swing the muzzle of the
shotgun so it points at the flying bird.
Follow its flight path, increasing the speed
of your swing until the gun muzzle has
passed through the bird to a spot just
ahead. Then fire. Continue your swing
during the shot and after.
It is extremely important to continue
swinging your shotgun after the shot. This
is called "follow-through." Follow-through
helps prevent you from shooting behind
your target.
There are three commonly used methods

of leading: swing through, sustained lead
and snap shooting. For the beginning
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Chapter 6 Firearms
A shooter using the sustained lead

technique estimates the speed, range and
angle the target is travelling. First decide on
the amount of lead necessary. Swing the
muzzle that distance ahead of the target.
Maintain this distance, or lead, in front of
the target up to and after the shot is fired.
Anticipating the amount of time he

thinks it will take a flying bird to get
there, a hunter using the snap-shot
method picks a spot in front of his
target and fires at that spot. He hopes
that the shot and the target will meet
at the same place.
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Firearms Chapter 6
3. Learn how to shoot and practice

safety procedures while shooting
Shooting combines the activities of loading
and unloading a firearm, selecting the
correct ammunition and utilizing numerous
marksmanship skills. It is not a difficult
activity, but it takes time, practice, coaching
and additional self-study to be proficient in
the use of a rifle and/or shotgun.
Seek the help of a firearm instructor to help
you when you are learning how to shoot.
Join a sportsman's club. For shotgun
owners, try some trap, skeet or sporting
clays shooting. This will hone your
shotgun skills. For rifle shooters, try
silhouette shooting or bulls-eye shooting.
You can find shooting opportunities that
are non-competitive or competitive.
Procedure to sight in a rifle or pattern
a shotgun:
target. Practice using your firearm so you

are very familiar with its safety, action,
weight, loading and unloading procedures.
Learn about the ammunition you will be
using, and its velocity and range.
On some occasions when you shoot
(especially with .22 rimfire ammunition)
you will experience a "misfire". This is
when the ammunition fails to fire. Slowly
count to 60 while pointing the muzzle in a
safe direction, and then remove the
defective case. Clear the firearm of all
ammunition and PROVE the firearm safe.
Check your ammunition for a firing pin
mark on the primer. If there is a good
indentation this was probably a defective
primer. A dirty firearm or defective firing
pin can also cause a misfire. Clean and
check the firearm for serviceability.
On a rare occasion, a loaded firearm will
not immediately fire when the trigger is
pulled. You may hear "click" a pause of 2-3
seconds then a '"bang". This is called a
"hang-fire". It is usually caused by defective
ammunition. Clear the firearm of all
ammunition and PROVE the firearm safe.
Check the condition of your ammunition.
1. Before hunting, your rifle must be

sighted in. This means that the rifle
sights must be adjusted so that the
bullet will hit a target at a specific range.
This is the first step to becoming a
responsible shooter and hunter.
2. Set up a target with a safe backstop at 25
metres and fire at least three test shots. Be
sure to use the same type of ammunition you will use when hunting.
3. Check the target. If the group of hits is
not at your point of aim, adjust the
rear sight in the same direction you
wish to move your hits. If the shots are
not grouped together, it could be due
to your technique or some other
mechanical factor. Get someone to
help you with your technique.
4. After your rifle is sighted in, practice
shooting under various light and weather
conditions, and at various distances.
Practice shooting so you know what your
sight picture looks like, and how your sights
look in relation to each other and the
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It is not that uncommon, especially with

reloaded ammunition to experience a
"squib load". This is where there is not
enough or no powder in the cartridge.
Clear the firearm of all ammunition and
PROVE the firearm safe. You probably
have a bullet stuck in the barrel. If
uncertain on how to remove the stuck
bullet, take the firearm to a qualified
person for repair.
Where to shoot is an important question
with some serious legal and safety issues.
Check with your local, provincial or
federal governments for any laws or bylaws
governing where you can shoot. The safest
place to learn how to shoot is at your local
range. Most ranges in British Columbia are
for club member's use only. Some private
ranges do allow the public access as a guest
of a member or through a day-pass system.
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Fi
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Cease-Fire
Line
Target
Backstop
Target
Holder
Down Range
Ranges are designed and, in some cases,

legally approved for the discharge of
certain types of firearms, shooting
activities and calibres of ammunition. A
typical rifle or pistol range layout will
consist of a cease-fire line, firing point,
firing line and down-range area.
Before using the range, learn the range
layout and range rules.
Range Rules, Commands and Etiquette

As well as range safety, shooters who are
considerate of others follow rules, certain
standards of etiquette. Here are just a few
examples of proper range etiquette:
When shooting blackpowder firearms,

shoot from a location downwind of
other shooters on the firing line.
Ask the owner's or shooter's
permission before handling that
person's firearm or equipment.
Avoid interrupting or distracting
others while they are shooting.
Avoid rapid-fire shooting if it will
disturb those sighting in or doing
deliberate target work.
Only shoot on your own targets.
Assist new shooters by offering some
advice or coaching, or letting them try
your equipment.
Be aware of where your brass is
ejecting, especially while using a
semi-automatic firearm. A
considerate shooter will move his or
her shooting position on the firing
line or install a barrier between
themselves and the next shooting
bays. This will help prevent the
shooter beside you from being hit
with your spent brass.
Clean up after shooting by picking up
your brass and taking down your
target. Leave the range as clean or
cleaner than you found it.
Range rules and commands may vary from

range to range. When you go to a new
range, take the time to read the range rules
and learn the commands used at that
range. Not all ranges use the same range
rules and commands.
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The person giving the commands is

called the range officer. Always obey the
range officer. Failure to do so could result
in loss of shooting privileges or possibly
cause an accident.
Here are examples of two typical basic
range commands:
"Cease-fire": means stop shooting, unload
your firearm, put it down on the bench
with the action open and the muzzle
pointing down range, and step back
behind the cease-fire line.
"The range is active"
(or "hot" or "live"):
means you can load and shoot your firearm.
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Side View
Firearms Chapter 6
Like many activities, shooting requires

safety equipment. Many ranges will insist
that shooters wear hearing and eye
protection. Shooting safety equipment is
generally inexpensive and is commonly
available. Safety equipment can be easily
replaced if lost, unlike your hearing or
eyesight. Even a .22 long rifle cartridge,
especially if fired indoors, produces
enough sound to affect your hearing.
When shooting, you can be hit with spent

brass. This is especially common with
semi-automatic firearms. A hot brass
falling into your shirt can burn you, and a
spent brass can injure your eye. Be sure to
wear eye protection and appropriate
clothing when shooting.
Wear eye protection with side shields.
Wear a T-shirt or a shirt with a
closed collar.
Wear a jacket with padding to help
prevent bruising your shoulder when
shooting a high-power rifle or shotgun.
Always use hearing and eye protection and

proper clothing when shooting. Use
headphone-type hearing protectors if you
are shooting a rifle or pistol. Headphones
provide reasonable sound protection and
can be used for years. Use earplugs if you
are shooting a shotgun, since headphones
affect how a shotgun can be mounted.
Some earplugs are disposable after one use;
others are reusable; and some can be
specially molded for your ears.
Proper clothing outside while shooting is

also important. If cold hands make it
difficult to squeeze the trigger, and you are
shivering, it will be hard to keep the rifle
on target. Wet and cold feet are
uncomfortable and will interfere with
proper shooting techniques.
Source: CFSC
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Chapter 6 Firearms
PART V
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Before shooting a firearm you will need to determine your __________________eye.
2. List the four common shooting positions. ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Which is the most stable shooting position? ____________________________________
4. What is the difference in trigger control between a rifle and a shotgun?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the difference in follow-through between a rifle and a shotgun? __________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List the procedure you should do when you have a "Misfire". ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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7. What actions must you do when a "Cease-fire" is called by the range officer?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. List three items of safety equipment that should be used when shooting.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Firearms Chapter 6
PART VI:
HUNTING SAFETY
This part is broken into three sections:
Being seen
Wearing highly visible hunter or
"blaze" orange clothing makes it
much easier for other hunters to see
you and increases your safety while
hunting. That's why the majority of
states and provinces recommend or
require hunter orange clothing for
most kinds of hunting activities.
1. Safety in the field

2. Field carries and crossing obstacles
3. Shooting in the field
Hunting is safe and getting safer due to hunter
education. Does this mean we can eliminate
hunting accidents? NO! It means we can
reduce the amount of accidents and the
severity of the accidents. We still have the
human factor so you will never eliminate
accidents. In this part we will talk about
procedures that will help avoid accidents with
or without a firearm in the field.
In British Columbia there is no rule

regarding the use of "blaze orange". It
is your choice. You may choose to
wear an orange hat while travelling
to the duck blind. Once in the duck
blind you might choose to change to
camouflage so the waterfowl cannot
see you. Don't wear tan, brown or
white clothing when hunting, even
while wearing hunter orange, as
these colours are associated with
game species.
1. Safety in the field

Transporting your firearm to the field
An important part of going hunting is
getting yourself and your firearm(s) to your
hunting location. Normally this involves
transporting your firearm by vehicle.
Whether that vehicle is a car, half-ton, ATV,
airplane or other means, it is important to
follow these rules in order to make your
firearm safe for transportation.
Never do anything that could make

someone mistake you for game, such as
putting a deer over your shoulders to
carry it out of the woods. An elk hunter
in Oregon was shot while carrying an
elk head on his shoulder in the 2002
hunting season. Be sure to be seen and
make sure to identify your target and
beyond before taking a shot.
Be sure that your firearm(s) is unloaded

before you transport it. PROVE it safe!
Place it in a protective case separate
from ammunition.
Always keep the muzzle pointed in a
safe direction when placing a firearm in
or removing it from a vehicle. Never
remove a firearm from a vehicle by
pulling it toward you muzzle first!
Secure the firearm so that it will not
move during travel. Position it so that
the muzzle will not be pointing at
people travelling in the vehicle.
If possible, store your firearm and
ammunition in a locked place where
they will be less prone to theft.
If using public transportation, such as a
plane, always check with your carrier to
determine its requirements for
transporting firearms and ammunition.
Preventing falls
According to Statistics Canada, falls
accounted for the second leading
cause of accidental deaths in 1998.
First cause of accidental death was
motor vehicle accidents. People have
shot themselves or others when they
have fallen with a firearm in their
hand. Other people have slipped and
sprained/broken various body parts
from a simple fall. In 1997, a hunter
in the Telkwa Pass near Smithers,
B.C., slipped on a mossy patch of
ground above a steep incline and fell
150 metres to his death.
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Causes of Death 1998

Source: Statistic Canada Shelf Tables
Accident Types
Deaths
Motor Vehicle
2949
Falls
2620
Accidental Poisoning
966
Submersion, suffocation and foreign bodies
705
Fire and Flames
245
Medical
189
Natural and environmental factors
152
Water Transport
117
Accidents caused by machinery
117
Struck by falling object
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Air and Space Transport
84
Railway accidents
34
Accidents caused by firearm missiles
31
Total deaths with firearms
1998
Total
985
Suicide with firearm
818
83%
Murder with firearm
130
13%
Firearm accidents
31
3%
Legal intervention
1%
Comparison: Deaths by firearms to gender - 1998

Male
903 deaths or 92% of all firearms related deaths
Female
82 deaths or 8% of all firearms related deaths
Total Suicides - 1998
3699
Suicide with firearm
818
Total murders - 1998
467
Murder with firearm
130
22% of all suicides
28% of all murders
Youth under 19 deaths by firearms: suicide 67, murder, 26, accident 8
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To minimize the risk from falls or

stumbles while hunting:
Wear the proper footwear! Deep-treaded
hunting boots that give you good
traction and ankle support are usually
your best choice.
Never run or jump while carrying a
loaded firearm.
Always unload your firearm when on
poor footing, such as loose rock and
steep hillsides, or when crossing
obstacles, such as fences or ditches.
Never try to cross a stream by walking on
a fallen log! Find another place to cross
or wade it if absolutely necessary.
If you do stumble or fall, make every effort
to control the direction of your muzzle so
that it remains pointing away from you or
your hunting companion(s). Open the
action, unload the firearm and check for
any barrel obstructions. Even a tiny amount
of mud, snow or other debris in the barrel is
extremely dangerous. Carry a portable
cleaning kit and know how to use it.
Two-hand (ready) carry the firearm is

carried with the muzzle end up and across
the body. This is one of the safest carry
positions, offering good muzzle control
while allowing you to get into shooting
position quickly. Use this carry when
others are in front of or behind you. Never
use it when someone is on the same side
that the muzzle is pointed.
2. Field carries and crossing obstacles

Cradle carry one hand is on or near the
grip while the fore-end of the firearm is
cradled in the crook of your elbow. It's a
comfortable way to carry a firearm, but
this position is not as secure as a two-hand
carry. Use it when others are behind or in
front of you, but never to the side where
the muzzle is pointing.
In the field you may find that the ground

may be littered with logs, rocks, brush, etc.
The ground may be slippery due to rain or
mud. It is important to learn the various
firearms carry methods. You will need to
adjust your carry due to the number of
people with you, the style of hunting you
are doing, and the environmental
conditions found in the field.
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Unlike at a rifle range, in the field you will

have various obstacles to cross and climb in
and out of. It is extremely dangerous to cross
the obstacle with a loaded firearm. In this
section we will give the proper procedures for
crossing an obstacle by yourself or with
someone. Learn them and use them.
Field Carries
A "field carry" refers to the position that
you carry your firearm while hunting. Six
commonly used methods are shown
below. Regardless of which method you
use, remember to ACTT responsibly
around firearms:
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Elbow (side) carry firearm is tucked

under the armpit and over the arm in
front of the elbow. A safe method when
walking in open terrain, but in brush,
branches tend to catch the gun. Use it
when others are behind or to your side,
but not when they are in front of you.
Sling carry the firearm is hung from

the shoulder by a sling with the muzzle
pointing upwards. When standing, this
carry method frees up your hands for
things such as scanning terrain with
binoculars. When walking, one hand
should grasp the sling to keep the firearm
from slipping off the shoulder. This is a
poor method when walking on difficult
terrain or in heavy brush.
Trail carry the firearm is gripped firmly

with one hand at the balance point. This
carry offers poor control of your firearm
should you fall. Use it when hunting
alone or when others are behind you or to
your side. Never use this carry when
someone is walking ahead of you.
Shoulder carry one hand grasps the

firearm at the grip while the firearm rests
across the top of the shoulder. This is the
least safe of all carries as you have little
control over the firearm should you fall.
Never use it when someone is behind you
or while walking on rough terrain.
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Firearms Chapter 6
Crossing obstacle by yourself

A ditch, fence, stream, etc., can be
considered an obstacle in the field. Use
these general procedures given below for
crossing a fence by yourself or with
another individual. In some cases such as
crossing a stream or river, you will not be
able to put the firearm across the obstacle.
In this case, cross the stream only with an
unloaded and open firearm.
1. Unload
and leave
action open
Follow these steps to safely

cross an obstacle when
hunting alone.
Step 1
Unload your firearm and
leave the action open.
Step 2
Remove your cap and place it
on the ground. Carefully
place your firearm on the
ground under the fence, with
the muzzle pointing in the
direction away from you and
the muzzle resting in the cap.
2. Place under fence
Step 3
Cross the fence far enough
from the firearm so that if you
fall, you won't fall on the
firearm.
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Step 4
Retrieve the firearm by
approaching the stock end,
not the muzzle end.
3. Cross well away

from muzzle direction
Source: CFSC
By yourself
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Follow these steps to safely cross

an obstacle when hunting with
a partner.
Step 1
Unload your firearms and leave
the actions open.
Step 2
One hunter crosses the
obstacle while the second
holds both firearms.
1. Unload
and leave
actions open
Step 3
The hunter who has not yet
crossed passes the firearms over
the obstacle to the first hunter
and then crosses the obstacle.
You may choose to use a
boat or a tree stand to assist
you while hunting. Like
crossing an obstacle, learn
the safety procedures for
using these devices.
2. Cross obstacle
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3. Pass
unloaded
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Firearms Chapter 6
Firearms in boats
When entering a boat with a firearm,
PROVE the firearm is unloaded and, if
possible, case it. If hunting alone, place
the firearm, muzzle first, in the boat
before entering it yourself. The firearm
should be put in a secure location where it
will not be jarred loose by the movement
of the boat.
them. Place the first unloaded firearm in

the bow of the boat pointing forward. After
the first hunter is in the bow of the boat,
the second unloaded firearm should be
placed in the stern, pointing backwards.
The second hunter can then shove off and
take their position in the stern. Do not
allow the firearms to extend past the sides
of the boat where they can catch on brush
or other vegetation.
If hunting with another person, PROVE

the firearms are safe and, if possible, case
Source: AHEIA
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Firearms in treestands
Use the following steps to get your firearm
safely into a tree stand:
1. Unload your firearm and leave the

action open. PROVE it safe.
2. Lay it on the ground with the muzzle
slightly elevated to prevent dirt from
getting in it.
3. Tie a short rope or cord around the
"wrist" of the stock and attach the
other end to the barrel just ahead of
the forearm stock. This "bridle" will
give you a means to attach your
hoist rope. If your firearm has a
sling, use it instead.
4. Tie or attach the hoist rope securely to
the centre of the sling or bridle so that
it does not cause the barrel to point
up when lifted. Make sure the hoist
rope is a bit longer than the height of
the tree stand above the ground.
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Source: MWF
5 . Climb the tree with the hoist rope

attached to your belt where it will
not become easily entangled while
you climb.
6. Once you are secure in your tree
stand, haul up the firearm and then
remove the haul line and bridle.
7. Check the firearm for obstructions,
and then load.
To lower your firearm, first PROVE it is
unloaded. Attach the hoist rope in a
similar manner as when it was raised and
gently lower it to the ground. Always
check the barrel for obstructions after
lowering it to the ground.
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3. Shooting in the field
When hunting with others, your zone of

fire will also be determined by the location
of others in your group. During such
hunts, it is crucial that each person knows
exactly where they may shoot without
putting others in danger. It is also safer if
there are no more than two or three
hunters in the group.
It is extremely important that you utilize

the final T in ACTT when you are shooting
firearms in the field. Positively identify
your target and beyond before taking the
shot. DO NOT use your riflescope to
identify the target, use your binoculars.
See the ethics chapter regarding the
questions you should ask yourself before
taking the shot.
A commonly used zone of fire when

hunting with other hunters is an area that
extends in a 45 angle directly in front of
you. To determine a 45 shooting zone:
Depending on the style of hunting some

hunters will hunt in groups. It is
important in this position to understand
your safe zones of fire and the position of
your hunting partners.
Start with thumbs up and out to

the side.
Focus on a point on the far wall.
Draw arms straight in until both
thumbs are in focus without moving
your eyes.
Safe zones of fire

The area into which a hunter may shoot
safely is referred to as a "zone of fire."
When hunting alone, your safe zone of
fire will be determined by your field of
view, the presence of unsuitable targets
such as trees, rocks or water, and the range
of your firearm.
Source: CFSC
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Chapter 6 Firearms
PART VI
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What colour can you wear while hunting so you can be seen? ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the leading cause of firearms-related deaths? ____________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List the six "field carries" used with firearms? ____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe how you would put a rifle into a tree stand. ____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Firearms Chapter 6
PART VII:
SPECIALTY HUNTING EQUIPMENT
Hammer
This part is broken into two sections:
Percussion Cap
1. Muzzleloading firearms
2. Archery equipment
Nipple
Under federal law a flintlock rifle is

deemed an antique firearm and requires
no licence to purchase it, and the flintlock
firearm does not have to be registered.
Long bows under federal law are not
firearms and do not require a licence in
order to procure them. For this reason,
some individuals are attempting to hunt
with these tools.
Trigger
Percussion Cap rifle

from inexpensive do-it-yourself kits. If you
do have an antique gun, before using it,
have it inspected by a firearms expert to be
sure it can be fired safely.
The problem is that both muzzleloading

firearms and archery equipment require
special training to use and have limited
range as compared to a bolt-action rifle
with a scope. Your skills as a hunter and
shooter must be far superior to a normal
hunter if you intend to hunt with these
devices. For these reasons, muzzleloading
firearms and bows are covered as specialty
hunting equipment in the CORE program.
With percussion cap models, the

breech plug should be removed and the
nipple, drum, and threads checked for
rust and deterioration.
Special attention must be given to antique
black powder shotguns. If they are
corroded, they are not safe to fire.
Antique shotguns, especially those with
Damascus barrels, are particularly
susceptible to corrosion.
1. Muzzleloading firearms
Black powder hasn't been used to fire guns

since early in this century. In recent years
hunting with black powder firearms or
muzzleloaders has been revived.
Today, the safest guns for black powder

use are reproductions of muzzleloaders.
a) Selecting black powder firearms

Black powder enthusiasts will find a wide
choice of firearms available today. There
are muskets, pistols, muzzleloading rifles,
and shotguns. Black powder shooting
need not be expensive. A black powder
gun costs about the same as a standard
shotgun. Muzzleloaders can also be made
Before buying a black powder gun, the

newcomer to the sport should first attend
several black powder shoots as a spectator.
Talk with the participants and learn why
they like a particular model. A gun which
is good for target shooting is not
necessarily the best model for hunting.
Know the gun's capabilities and those
functions it can perform before
purchasing a black powder firearm.
If you intend to hunt big game with your
black powder gun, give consideration to
the size of calibre you choose.
Flintlock rifle
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Chapter 6 Firearms
FFFg, and FFFFg. Each type has a different

burning rate depending on the coarseness
or size of the powder granules.
b) Selecting powder and ball

Muzzleloaders require different loads for
hunting and for target shooting. There
are four types of black powder, Fg, FFg,
Types and uses of blackpowder

Designation Grain
Use
Fg
Coarsest powder
Used to fire muskets shotguns with very

large bores e.g. 4, 8 & 10 gauge
FFg
Second Coarsest
Used in muzzleloading shotguns, rifles

and pistols .45 caliber and larger and
12, 16 & 20 gauge muzzleloading shotguns.
FFFg
Fine Powder
Used for all percussion revolvers, most single shot

pistols, and most muzzleloading rifles .36- to .45-caliber.
FFFFg
Very Fine
Used in priming flashpans of flintlocks
Be sure to follow the manufacturer's recommendations for the type

and amount of powder to use in your muzzleloading firearm.
Pyrodex is a blackpowder substitute. It is less smoky than normal blackpowder and burns a little
cleaner. Pyrodex relates closely to blackpowder on a volume to volume basis, not the weight of the
charge. In other words, a scoop type measure set to dispense 100 grains of blackpowder will
dispense roughly 72 grains of Pyrodex. This lighter charge of Pyrodex will fill the measure and
provide a charge, which is ballistically similar to 100 grains of blackpowder of the appropriate
granulation. Used in this manner, Pyrodex will yield approximately the same velocities and pressures
as blackpowder. Pyrodex comes in the following designations:
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Designation Use
Comments
Pyrodex RS
Rifle and shotgun
Designed for use in all calibres of percussion muzzle

loading rifles and shotguns.
Pyrodex P
Pistol
Designed for use in percussion muzzleloading pistols

and cap & ball revolvers. Also used in small calibre rifles.
Pyrodex CTG
Cartridges
Designed for use in blackpowder cartridges. This powder in

NOT suited for use in muzzleloading firearms.
Source: Connecticut Valley Arms (CVA) owners' manual.

Pyrodex also makes a "Pyrodex Pellet". This is basically a preset charge made in a pellet shape and is
available in different diametres. You drop the pellet in the bore, instead of using a measurer. This will
allow quick loading of muzzleloading firearms. Buy the appropriate pellet for your calibre and type of
muzzleloading firearm.
Another type of blackpowder substitute is called Clean Shot. Usage similar to Pyrodex.
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Firearms Chapter 6
Ball screw - a tip on the ramrod used

to remove the lead ball without
discharging the firearm.
Most muzzleloading rifles fire round

lead balls or conical-shaped bullets
called mini-balls.
Nipple Pick or Vent Pick - a length

of wire slender enough to be inserted
through the vent hole in a caplock or
the flashhole in a flintlock to clear
any fouling or obstruction. A nipple
wrench should also be carried to
replace a broken nipple.
Tables showing the correct bullet

diameter, powder type, and charge in
grains for various black powder guns are
listed in most publications about black
powder shooting.
c) Selecting accessories
The black powder shooter must
have certain shooting accessories
close at hand.
Cap Holder and Loading Block - The

cap holder is a small strip or disc of
leather punched with holes which will
hold extra caps securely. The loading
block holds pre-patched and
l ubricated balls.
Patching Material linen or

cotton fabric (not synthetic) cut
into individual patches or one-inch
wide strips. Vaseline or shortening
to lubricate the bullet and a knife to
trim the patches.
Possible Bag - A shoulder bag or

pouch in which the necessary
accessories are carried.
Powder Horn or Flask a

container for powder made of
material such as horn, brass or
copper that will not generate sparks
or static electricity.
Powder Measure a brass
measuring scoop to ensure the
correct powder charge is loaded.
Starter a short and long starter
are usually combined in one tool.
The short starter fits the ball
firmly in the muzzle and the long
starter is used to move the ball
down the barrel.
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Ramrod the ramrod is used to

push the tight-fitting bullet down
the length of the barrel.
Ramrod Accessories:
Source: Alberta
Worm - a corkscrew tip on the

ramrod used to remove cleaning
patches that have stuck in the bore.
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Chapter 6 Firearms
To test a percussion cap firearm, fire a cap

in the unloaded gun. If the gun is in good
working condition, a small curl of smoke
will come out through the barrel.
Or, if the muzzle is held near a leaf
or blade of grass, the puff of air
which comes out of the barrel will
move it.
d) Loading
First check to make sure the firearm is
unloaded. Use the ram rod.
Empty Mark
Target Load Mark
Hunting Load Mark
To test a flintlock, prime the flash

pan and flashhole with powder and
touch it off with the muzzle
pointing in a safe direction. Smoke
should show from the muzzle.
If the nipple vent on the
percussion cap gun or the
flashhole on the flintlock appear
to be closed, work the hole clear
with a nipple pick.
Source: CFSC
Before loading, the barrel of the

muzzleloader should be wiped
with a cleaning patch to remove
any fouling or oil residue.
For convenience, when on a
hunting trip, pre-measured powder loads
may be carried in small plastic pill
containers, or in individual paper tubes
twisted tightly at each end.
Ensure there is no percussion cap on the

nipple or priming powder in the flash pan.
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Firearms Chapter 6
2. Position lubricated
patching material over
the muzzle and seat the
ball flat side up using
the short starter.
1. Using measure, pour powder

charge into bore.
4. Using long starter

and a single blow from
hand, start the ball
down the bore.
3. Trim patch flush
with muzzle.
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6. Place cap on nipple, applying

pressure to seat firmly.
5. Use the ramrod and

steady pressure to firmly
seat ball against the
powder charge. Leave
no airspace.
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Be certain the ball is seated firmly in

place. To shoot with a ball lodged
midway down the barrel will damage
the gun and could severely injure
the shooter.
e) Safety Considerations
Muzzleloaders must be handled with
the same care afforded
other firearms.
Muzzleloaders are to be used with

black powder only. Never use a
smokeless powder. Black powder is
highly combustible and can be
ignited by a small spark. Never smoke
near black powder and be sure to
store black powder far from any open
flame such as a campfire.
Wipe the bore with a damp patch

after each firing.
It is important to know when a gun is
loaded. Experienced muzzleloaders
mark the gun's ramrod at levels,
which show the bore depth when the
bore is empty and when charged
with a heavy hunting load. When the
ramrod is inserted in the barrel, it is
immediately apparent whether or
not the gun is loaded and, if loaded,
with how heavy a charge. This safety
precaution is especially important.
Never pour powder from the horn or

flask directly into the muzzle. After a
shot has been fired, smoldering
residue often remains in the barrel,
which could cause an explosion or
backfire into the powder container.
Hold the muzzle away from the body
when loading. This will protect you
from burns if the powder is
accidentally ignited.
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Firearms Chapter 6
2. Archery
a) Bows
i) Bow Parts
The bow's handle is the middle portion,
called the riser. It includes the grip,
arrowrest, and sight window.
Archery is defined as the art, practice or

skill of shooting with a bow and arrow.
Bowhunting is the sport of hunting game
using archery equipment.
Bowhunting does not require great
strength. Co-ordination and control are
more important than muscle power;
however, these skills can only be acquired
through practice.
The upper and lower sections of the bow

are the limbs. They are light, very flexible
and strong.
The outside surface of the limbs is the
back and the inside is the face. An easy
way to remember this: you are face to face
when you draw a bow. The back is to the
outside.
The equipment required for bowhunting

need not be expensive. Learning how to
shoot a bow is easy. Nevertheless, it is best
to have an experienced archer teach you
the fundamentals.
The bow tips are the extreme ends of the

limbs. The distance between the grip and
the bowstring, before the bowstring is
pulled back to shooting position, is called
the brace height.
To become a bow hunter, it is important to

learn what the bow can do and what it
cannot do. Learning the habits of game
animals you expect to hunt and the ways
to hunt them are equally important.
The bow hunter should not hunt game
until he learns the fundamentals of
bowhunting and is capable of making
clean kills in the field.
Recurve bow
Handle Riser Section
Arrow Rest
Lower Limb
String
Notch
Back
Upper Limb
Grip
Brace Height
Serving
Sight Window
Nock Locator
Recurve
Face
String
Pivot Point
Idler Pulley
Cables
String
Compound bow
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Speed Bar
Tip
Eccentric
Wheel
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Chapter 6 Firearms
ii) Bow Design

There are three basic designs of bows:
straight limb, recurve and compound.
iv) Bow Weight

Bows also vary in their length and draw
weight. Draw weight means the number of
pounds of energy required to pull the
bowstring to a distance of 28 inches (71
cm) from the back of the bow. For
example, a 40-pound (18-kilo) bow is
one that requires a pull of 40 pounds
(18 kilos) to draw a 28-inch (71-cm)
arrow to the arrowhead. The draw
weight of a hunting bow may vary
from 40 pounds (18 kilos) upwards.
Straight Limb
Recurve
Hunting bows are usually shorter than

those used for target shooting because
a short bow is easier to handle.
v) Arrows
The basic parts of an arrow are the
shaft, head, fletching, and nock.
Compound
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Arrow shafts are commonly made from

wood, metal or fibreglass. Although
many types of wood can be used, most
wooden shafts are cedar. Cedar is light in
weight, straight-grained, and less
susceptible to warpage than most woods.
Wooden shafts are often preferred by
hunters because they are inexpensive.
iii) Bow Construction

Bows may be made of a single material
or a combination of several materials
bonded together. If more than one
material is combined to form the bow it is
referred to as a laminate bow. Most bows
today are laminate bows made from wood
and fibreglass.
Both fibreglass and metal shafts are more

expensive than wood, but they have several
advantages. Because they are machinemade under rigid production controls, they
Arrow Length Measurement

Shaft
Head
Crest or Cresting
234
Fletching
Nock
Firearms Chapter 6
are straighter and more uniform in

diameter and weight. Shafts made of these
materials are strong and will not warp.
Increased stability can be obtained by

increasing the number of feathers on the
shaft from the normal three.
Arrowheads, or points, come in a variety

of shapes: target point, field point, broad
head point and blunt.
One feather in the fletching is a different

colour than the others. It is called the
cock feather. The other two are called
hen feathers. When the arrow is nocked,
the cock feather is at a right angle to
the bowstring.
Target
Field
Broadhead
Cock
Feather
Nock
Hen Feather
Blunt
vi) Spine
Spine is the stiffness of the arrow's shaft.
Accurate shooting depends on using
arrows that are spined correctly for the
bow's weight.
Bowhunting requires specialized heads.

When upland game birds or other small
game are the quarry, a blunt should be
used. Blunts are also used in field practice.
When an arrow is released, the bowstring

whips forward with such force on the
arrow that the shaft bends around the bow
handle before it straightens out in flight. If
the shaft has a weak spine, it will bend too
much when shot from a heavy bow. If the
shaft is too stiff, or has too much spine for
the bow, it won't bend enough. In either
case, the arrow will veer off course.
To hunt big game, broadheads are

necessary. Broadheads are made of steel
and come in several different shapes with a
number of blades, all designed for
maximum penetration of the animal. In
Alberta, the law requires a bow hunter after
big game to use a broadhead at least one
inch wide or a multi-bladed broadhead.
The nock and fletching are at the opposite

end of the arrow from the head. The nock
is the notch or small slit into which the
bowstring fits when the arrow is drawn. It
is usually made of plastic or nylon.
Arrows are graded according to their

spines. Bows having up to five pounds (2
kilos) difference in draw weight will use
arrows with the same spine. For compound
bows, arrows should be spined for the peak
draw weight of the bow. For example, in
bows having a peak draw weight of 60
pounds (27 kilos), use arrows graded as 60
to 65 pounds (27 to 29 kilos) spine.
The fletching is made of turkey-wing

feathers or plastic vanes. Its purpose is to
guide and stabilize the arrow's flight.
When using a broadhead, increase your

spine weight approximately 5 pounds
(2 kilos).
Beginning bow hunters should learn the

safe, correct way to sharpen broadheads.
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vii) Length
Arrows used for field shooting and
hunting should be the same length. The
field arrow is used for practice and should
be as close as possible to your hunting
arrow in weight, length and spine.
From bottom of
nock slot to
back of bow at
full draw.
viii) Arrow selection

Matched arrows are a set of arrows
having the same weight, shafts of equal
stiffness and diameter, the same
fletching and the same length. An
arrow which differs from others in a set
will fly differently from the others.
Matched arrows are important for
consistent shooting.
1" (2.5 cm)

longer for
broadhead
ix) Bowhunting accessories

In addition to a good bow and arrows, a
bowhunter needs an armguard and a
three-fingered shooting glove or finger
tab to protect his forearm and fingers
from the snap and pressure of the
bowstring. The armguard is made of
leather or vinyl and protects the arm
against the lash of the bowstring when
the arrow is released. It also keeps the
archer's sleeve from getting in the way.
The shooting glove or finger tab keeps the
archer's three drawing fingers from being
rubbed sore or blistered by the bowstring.
Arrow length is measured from the base

of the arrowhead to the bottom of the
nock slot.
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Using arrows of correct length is important

to safety as well as good shooting.
The quiver or arrow carrier is another

essential accessory. Quivers come in
three basic designs; back, hip, or bow
quiver. The back or shoulder quiver is
slung across the archer's back so the
opening is just under the shoulder;
putting the arrow's nock and fletching
end within convenient reach.
A practical method of determining the

right length of arrow for you is to draw an
extra long arrow on a very light bow until
the length of draw is consistent and feels
comfortable. While at full draw, have
someone mark the shaft where it crosses
the bow back. The distance from this mark
to the bottom of the nock slot is the
length of arrow you should use. If your
draw length is 28 inches (71 cm), you
should select 28-inch (71-cm) hunting and
28-inch (71-cm) field arrows.
The hip quiver, sometimes called the

belt or pocket quiver, is usually used to
hold field arrows.
Most bowhunters prefer the bow quiver,
which is clipped or screwed to the bow
handle. This type is less likely to
become entangled in brush, is fast, and
quiet in the woods.
To avoid cutting your hand when drawing

broadhead tipped arrows, select arrows
one inch longer than your draw
measurement.
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Firearms Chapter 6
Other practical accessories are an extra

bowstring, spare rest and tube of
bowstring wax, a flat file and honing stone
for sharpening broadheads, Allen
wrenches, pliers for retrieving arrow
points from trees and stumps, a
bowstringer, string silencers and brush
buttons, bowtip protectors, and some type
of bow camouflage.
bowstring with frayed strands is

dangerous. Replace it immediately. Be
sure the bowstring is firmly seated in
the bow nocks.
Inspect all arrows for cracks and
splinters. Never shoot an arrow with a
damaged shaft. Cracked or loose
nocks should be replaced. Look for
loose or broken points and check the
fletching for damage.
x) Bow sights
Bow sights are not used by all bow
hunters. Many prefer to use the point-ofaim technique. But for the beginning
archer, a bow sight is one of the best aids
in learning to aim accurately.
Never nock an arrow or draw a bow

while facing someone.
Never draw an arrow and aim it at
anything you don't intend to shoot,
even in fun. Never aim a drawn bow
at another person.
Bow sights come in many different

designs. They can be simple and
inexpensive, consisting of a single fixed
or moveable pin, or they can be
complicated and expensive, utilizing
precision optical devices.
Never carry an arrow nocked in the

bowstring. Sometimes bowstrings
snap and plastic nocks break,
accidentally causing the arrow to fly
off. A stumble or fall might release
the arrow, injuring one of your
companions. Nock the arrow only
when you are ready to shoot.
Most bow sights consist of a slotted bar

fixed to the bow handle and an
adjustable pin, bead or post, which can
be moved up or down and from side to
side. Some types use a prism or crosshairs
and others have a series of pins, which
can be pre-set for various distances.
Be sure of your target. Never release

an arrow without full view of the
path to and beyond the target.
xi) Bow handling
Never draw an arrow if someone is

between you and the target or behind
the target. An arrow can be deflected
by a branch or twig and travel a
considerable distance if it misses its
mark. A bow hunter should never
shoot at something that is not clearly
visible. He should not shoot until he
sees the entire animal, can identify it
and pick a vital aiming spot.
Primary Safety Rules

Always check the condition of your
equipment before using it.
Check your bow for cracks, twisted
limbs, and broken or splintered
bow tips.
Never draw and release a bow
without first nocking an arrow. The
strain this action puts on the bow
limbs and string can damage the bow.
In practice, always use a safe

backstop or shoot into a sandbank or
open hillside.
Never shoot an arrow straight up in
the air. What goes up must come
down. If you shoot an arrow straight
Check the bowstring, especially the

loops, for any sign of wear. A
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xiii) Equipment care
up to see how far it will go, you don't

know where it will land. In falling, it
can be extremely dangerous.
Care and maintenance

A bow and arrows will give many years of
service and enjoyment to the owner who
gives them thoughtful care.
Always carry hunting arrows with

points covered for personal safety and
the protection of companions.
Fibreglass arrows are rugged and will not

bend. Wooden arrows may warp.
Aluminum arrows may bend if they hit a
rock or tree stump. Check your wood or
aluminum arrows to be sure they are
straight. A light coat of furniture polish
will protect wooden shafts and help
prevent warping.
When carrying broadhead arrows be

especially careful to use a protective
covering or hood to prevent the razorsharp blades from cutting anyone.
Put your tackle away after use to
keep it in good condition and prevent
accidents
When an arrow hits a hard object, its

point may be bent. Check to be sure the
nock and head are properly aligned.
Never store your bow standing on

end. Instead, hang it horizontally on
a wall rack or vertically on a hook.
Arrows should be stored in an arrow
rack, which helps keep them straight
and prevents warping. Arrows should
be stored in an upright position.
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If an arrow's fletching is damaged, your shot

will not be accurate. Make sure the feathers
have not loosened or come unglued.
Keep your arrows clean. A little dirt on the
head will change the weight of the point
and cause a bad shot. Glass and metal
arrows can be cleaned with a little soap
and water.
xii) Safe handling in the field

When carrying broadheads in the field be
especially on guard when climbing. If you
are shooting from an elevated blind or tree
stand, pull the bow and quiver up with a
length of cord. Secure
yourself to the tree
stand with a safety line.
Protect the bow's finish and keep out

moisture by occasionally giving it a light
coat of furniture polish.
Always take an arrow

out of your bow and
place it in the quiver
when not hunting.
Never go into a camp,
dwelling or group of
people with your bow
and arrow in
shooting position.
Compound bows should be checked

regularly to be sure all the bolts are tight.
The idler wheels and cams should be oiled
often and the cables checked for wear and
replaced when necessary.
The bowstring should be waxed every time
the bow is used. Wax will prolong the
bowstrings life. Rub the wax well into the
strands and remove any excess wax with a
soft cloth.
Never use your

equipment without
having the basic
rules of bowhunting
safety uppermost in
your mind.
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Firearms Chapter 6
Stringing the bow

Stringing must be done with care. If braced
incorrectly, the bow limbs may snap back
and hit you. The best method of stringing
a bow is to use a bow stringer. The stringer
is a length of heavy test nylon with a
leather pouch at each end. It is inexpensive
and can be carried in a pocket.
To string the bow using a bow

cord stringer:
a) Slip the larger loop of the bowstring
over the upper bow limb.
b) Place the smaller bowstring loop in
the groove of the lower notch and
secure with a rubber tip protector.
c) Fit the stringer pouches over the
bow tips.
d) Stand on the centre of the
bowstringer, pulling the bow up
while holding it by the handle.
e) When the bow has sufficient flex,
slip the upper bowstring loop in the
grooved notch.
Using as bow cord stringer
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Another way to string a bow is called the

"step-through" method:
After you string your bow, check the brace

height. This is the distance between the
face of the bow at the handle and the
string. Most manufacturers specify the
proper brace height for each bow. Buying
a bowstring specified for your particular
bow is made easier by taking your old
bowstring with you when purchasing a
new one.
a) Place the bottom bowstring loop in

the groove of the lower notch and
secure with a rubber tip protector.
b) With the right leg, step through or
between the string and bow and hook
the lower recurve on the outside of
the left foot and over the instep.
If your bowstring is slightly long, you can

twist the bowstring until you obtain the
proper brace height.
c) Place thigh against the bow handle

and apply pressure backward. At the
same time, bend the bow by leaning
forward from the waist and applying
pressure with the right hand. The
string loop can then be slipped into
place in the upper notch. Before
pressure is released, check to make
sure the string loops are firmly seated
in the bow notches.
Compound bows must be strung by using

a compound bow stringer. Compound
bows are not unstrung after use, as are
other types of bows, so you will need to
use the bow stringer only when a worn
string must be replaced. Follow the
instructions provided with the compound
stringer carefully.
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Using belt or rope to

avoid twist in limbs
Using a compound
bow stringer
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Firearms Chapter 6
Marking the nocking point

You must have a specified point on your
bowstring to place the arrow for every
shot. The point where the arrow rests on
the bowstring is called the nocking point.
Every time you place an arrow on the
string, or nock it, you should use the same
nocking point.
bowstring and arrow are at right angles.

You can buy a tiny nocking bead to attach
to the bowstring to mark this point. Some
archers use a double nocking point, and
the arrow nock is positioned in the centre
of the two markers.
xiv) Fundamentals of bow shooting
Master Eye
As in rifle, pistol and shotgun shooting, it
is necessary for an archer to determine
which of his eyes is the more important
one. Although both eyes should be used
when shooting the bow, the archer should
shoot from the right side if his right eye is
his master eye, from the left if he has a
master left eye. Otherwise, he will not be
shooting where he is looking.
To find the nocking point, place an arrow

on the bow with the shaft lying on the
arrow rest on the handle and the nock
fitted onto the bowstring.
Adjust the arrow so it makes a 90-degree
angle with the bowstring. The nocking
point is 1/8 to 3/16 of an inch (3 mm to
5 mm) higher than the place where the
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Nocking Locator
Nocking Point
90
Nocking Height
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Chapter 6 Firearms
Archery Fundamentals
To shoot a bow properly and effectively, an
archer must learn the fundamentals of
archery thoroughly before putting them
into practice. Every beginning bow hunter
should learn to shoot under the guidance of
a competent coach or experienced bowman.
Stance
The correct stance will give your body a
solid foundation from which to shoot.
Stand at approximately a right angle to
your target. Your weight should be evenly
distributed on both feet which should be
spread apart far enough to give you a steady
balance and a comfortable relaxed position.
Keep your body erect but not stiff. Once
you have turned your head towards the
target, keep very still. Any movement will
affect the accuracy of the shot.
There are six basic steps in correct

shooting techniques:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Stance
Gripping the bow
Nocking
Draw, anchor, and aim
Releasing
Follow-through
Oblique Stance
Regular Stance
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Approx. 12"
(30 cm)
Direction to
Target
Approx. 18"
(46 cm)
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Direction to
Target
Firearms Chapter 6
Gripping the bow

The correct grip on the bow is essential to
good shooting. Hold the bow in your left
hand if you are right-handed; in your right
hand if you are left-handed. The thumb
and forefinger should form a V at the
inside of the bow handle. The bow handle
should press against the base of the thumb
and not against the heel of the hand. Your
grip should be firm but relaxed. Do not
clench the bow tightly. Keep your wrist
straight, but not rigid. If your wrist bends
inward it will be stung by the bowstring
when it is released; if it bends outward,
your grip will be weak and awkward and
the bow may waver. In either case, your
aim will be poor and you are likely to miss
your target.
are left-handed) around the bowstring.

Your forefinger goes above the nock, and
your other two fingers go under the nock.
The string should lie in the creases of your
fingers knuckle joints.
Draw, Anchor and Aim
After you have nocked the arrow and while
the bow is still in horizontal position,
extend the arm that holds the bow toward
the target. With your outstretched arm
parallel to the ground, turn the bow to the
upright position. Keep your bow-hand and
forearm level with your shoulder but bend
your elbow slightly to allow for clearance
of the bowstring.
Hold the bow lightly, just tightly enough
to prevent it from jumping away when the
string is released. The pressure as you draw
will hold the bow firmly against the fleshy
part of your palm at the base of the thumb.
With the three fingers of your draw hand,
draw the string steadily back until your
drawing fingers touch a spot on your face
or chin. This spot is called the anchor
point. When your drawing hand touches
your anchor point youre at full draw.
Nocking
Grip the bow properly with your gripping
hand. Hold the bow parallel to the
ground, about waist high, with the
bowstring toward your body. Reach for an
arrow with the other hand. Using your
thumb and forefinger, grasp the arrow by
the nock. Place the shaft across the arrow
rest with the cock feather facing up, that
is, at right angles to the bowstring. Slide
the arrow nock towards you so the
bowstring enters the slot. Then slide the
nock on the string until it is positioned
just underneath the nocking point.
When the arrow is nocked, hook the first
three fingers of your right hand (left if you
The location of your personal anchor point

is not particularly important. But it is very
important that your draw is anchored at
exactly the same point on your face or
chin each time you draw. If it varies, your
shooting will not be consistent.
Drawing a bow is a dual action. You pull
back on the bowstring, and at the same
time you press the bow itself forward. Be
sure to use your back and shoulder muscles
to do the pulling and not the arm or hand.
As you draw the bowstring steadily back,
breathe in deeply. Drawing, from the time
you begin to pull the string to your face
until the arrow is released, should always
be one smooth, continuous action.
Cock
Feather
When your drawing hand reaches the

anchor position, hold it tightly against
your anchor point for a few seconds to
steady your aim. While holding the full
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draw, tighten your back muscles. If you

attempt to keep the bow at full draw
without increasing the pressure, your back
and shoulder muscles will quickly tire and
the arrow will creep forward. Even a little
lessening of full draw will make your shot
less powerful and not as accurate.
To set the bow sight, line up the head of

the pin or other device with the target.
Then shoot. If the arrow hits low, adjust
the sight by moving the pin down. If the
arrow hits high, move the sight up. To
adjust the shot to the left or right, move
the sight pin sideways. When the arrow is
left of the centre, move the sight pin left.
When the arrow is right of centre, move
the sight pin right. Continue this trialand-error adjustment until the arrows hit
the target exactly.
There are many aiming techniques but

two very reliable methods are to use a
bow sight or to shoot using the point-ofaim technique.
When the sight is properly set for a

given distance, the archer lines up the
pin or other sighting device with the
target and shoots, usually with
remarkable accuracy.
Using the point-of-aim technique, the
archer focuses on the point of the arrow
instead of the target and lines up the
arrows tip with some point either above
or below the actual target.
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The point of aim can be almost anything,

a rock, a post, a tree in the distance, or
specific spot of ground. On long shots, the
arrow tip should be focused on some point
above the true target. When distances are
short, focus below the target. By trial and
error and experience, the archer will learn
where the point of aim should be for
various distances.
For consistent accuracy in shooting, a bow

sight has several advantages. Use of a bow
sight is the surest of all methods of
aiming. It is the quickest way for a novice
to become expert at hitting the target.
Release
A crisp, straight, even release is very
important to accuracy. The release must be
smooth and consistent. If it varies each
time you shoot, so will the accuracy of
your shot.
The sighting mechanism of most basic

sights is usually a moveable pin, bead or
post. More sophisticated models and
telescopic sights use cross hair optical
devices as the sighting instrument. The
sight mechanism can be moved up and
down or sideways to correspond with
various distances marked on the panel of
the bow sight.
Hold the full draw just long enough to

be sure your aim is correct. Then, simply
relax the three fingers holding the
bowstring, letting the string slip away
smoothly. Don't jerk your fingers off the
string. This will cause the shot to veer
off its mark. There should be no
movement except for the easy relaxing
of the draw fingers.
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Firearms Chapter 6
Follow-Through
The follow-through in archery means
holding your shooting position until the
arrow hits the target. If you don't followthrough, keeping the bow-arm and hand
perfectly still and remaining in the same
position as at full draw, your shot will not
be accurate and on target.
Common Errors
When you have learned the fundamentals
of archery from a book or in the
classroom, you should practice on the
target range. At first, the shot will
probably be erratic but you should not be
discouraged. With practice and
concentration, the arrows will soon begin
to group on the target.
If your arrows are not hitting the bullseye, the following may explain why you
are missing the target.
High - Overdrawing the bow; pulling
bowstring back beyond anchor point;
nocking point may be too low.
Low - Insufficient draw; not pulling
back to anchor point; string hand
may be creeping forward at the
instant of release.
Right - Arrows of insufficient spine
for bow weight; having fingers bent
too far around bowstring; improper
stance.
Left - Arrows have too much spine;
gripping the bow handle too tightly;
moving string hand away from
anchor point.
Consistent accuracy and safe shooting

depends on doing the same thing the
same way every time you shoot. If you
practice the fundamental techniques of
archery regularly, safe and accurate
shooting will soon become a habit.
High and Right - Jerking the drawing

hand back and inward as arrow is
released; too much of the fingers
around bowstring.
Low and Left - Dropping bow arm as
arrow is released.
The practiced archer and bow hunter

doesn't need time to think about how to
shoot. He concentrates on the target and
thinks Is it a safe shot? Is it legal game?
Should I take it?
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Chapter 6 Firearms
an implement for hunting is increasing

with the recent surge of interest in archery.
b) The crossbow
The federal government has a provision
that you will need a federal firearms licence
in order to purchase a crossbow. This
requirement is expected to come into place
in 2003. At the time of revising the CORE
Manual, how this provision is to work is
still unknown.
The implement is a very strong bow (prod)

mounted upon a wooden or metal arm,
similar to the stock of a rifle (a substitute
for the archer's arm), whose string is
drawn by hand, or by a mechanical
device, to place the bowstring into the
lock, ready for release by one of a variety
of trigger systems not too dissimilar from
those found on firearms.
In addition, certain sizes of crossbows,

normally the small pistol-style crossbows.
are prohibited in Canada.
i) History of crossbows
Evidence from archaelogical studies places
the origin of the crossbow in China about
two thousand years before Christ.
This mechanical system allows the

mounting of a bow whose draw weight can
be much greater than that which can be
arm-drawn on a simple or compound
longbow. It also enables the crossbow to
use arrows of a much greater range of
weight than found in conventional arrows;
the heavier the prod, the heavier the bolt.
Historic evidence of crossbows suggests

that military explorations brought the
weapon westwards into the near East and
Europe. By the 11th century, it was a
common arm for defensive forces.
Crossbow arrows, whether used in

competitive shooting or hunting, are
generally in the 14-18 inch (35 - 45 cm)
range. Construction of the bolt, or quarrel, is
similar to that of other archery arrows, except
that the forked nock is not usually present.
Rather, a straight butt or one with a slight
concavity for string landing is provided.
Crossbows persist today as useful hunting

weapons in a number of primitive
hunting/gathering communities in Africa,
South America, and Malaysia. In the
western world, it is an instrument of
competitive target shooting whose use as
Bolt (Arrow or Quarrel) - the projectile shot from a

crossbow. Much shorter than the usual arrow shaft,
generally from 14 to 18 inches.
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String Nock
Rear sight
Channel Groove - a
grooved section down
the length of the barrel,
allowing the cock feather
to ride along the barrel.
Front sight
String Nock
Trigger Mechanism - similar to the trigger

on a rifle. It allow the bolt to be released.
Prod - the actual bow section
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Nose - a solid portion at

the front of the bow,
which retains the prod
before shooting
Stirrup - cocking device which allows the bowman to hold the bow in a stationary position
using both hands to cock the bowstring.
Firearms Chapter 6
ii) Hunting with a crossbow

The ballistic capability of the modern
crossbow is almost identical to that of a
hunting longbow and limits its use for any
responsible hunting to distances of about
40 metres. The weapon is not a convenient
device for a hunter on the move while
stalking game. The shape of the crossbow
does not allow for silently moving through
trees and brush, and the retention of the
arrow in a loaded position is almost
impossible. While the longbow hunter
places his arrow and draws the string only
after sighting the quarry, the crossbowman
must place the bolt against the string in the
groove of an already cocked bow. This
action requires that the hunter stay in a
fixed location. Thus, crossbow hunting is
effective only from a point of concealment
often from a dominant elevation over looking a game trail or crossing. Such
conditions impose severe restrictions on
the crossbow hunter in his hunting
strategy, and require a high degree of
shooting competence. He must have a
thorough knowledge of the flight curve of
his arrows, be able to accurately estimate
distance, and be aware of the vital areas of
the animals he seeks.
hunting arrow to perform similarly. Both, in

general hunting situations, achieve about
the same velocities, but in order to retain
the power of penetration at optimum target
distances, the crossbow bolt usually must
weigh at least as much or more than the
longbow arrow. Increasing the draw weight
of the prod will not produce significantly
greater velocity, but it will enable the use of
a proportionately heavier arrow.
v) Sights
Sights of different forms are adaptable to
the crossbow, the most common of which
are a rear aperture with laddered forward
post sight, similar to the sight on a
longbow. Telescopic sights are debatably
of benefit to the crossbow hunter because
of the varying performance of the bolt at
distance. Also, the trajectory of the arrows
is so extreme that a mechanism to adjust
the entire scope sight must be
incorporated in the sighting attachment.
Both the longbow (including the modern
compound format, which is now available
in manufactured crossbows) and the
crossbow present good opportunities for
close-quarter hunting. The expertise of the
hunter is more exacting for any bowhunter
than that commonly found in firearm
hunters. Only by constant practice with the
instrument, through knowledge of the
hunting locations, light, and weather
conditions, experience with arrow
performance, and a familiarity with the
anatomy and behaviour of the quarry can a
bow hunter become competent. And only
by such demonstrated competence can the
bow hunter gain the confidence necessary
to make proper killing shots on game.
iii) Safety
Safety considerations for the use of
crossbows require special care, for, while
the longbow shooter manually draws and
holds his bowstring and may release or
relax it under the same control, the
crossbow, once cocked, must, for safety of
the hunter and for protection of the bow
and string, be loosed under load.
Movement on the ground with a cocked
crossbow loaded with a broadhead is
hazardous as the arrow is held largely by
gravity alone in the groove of the
bowstock, another reason for the stationary
hunting position of the crossbowman.
c) Archery hunting regulations

Bows and arrows and crossbows and bolts
(quarrels) may be used for hunting all big
game, small game and game birds except a
crossbow is prohibited to hunt migratory
game birds. The following restrictions apply
to the use of bows and crossbows provincewide. Check regional schedules for open
seasons and additional restrictions.
iv) Arrows (Bolts or Quarrels)

A crossbow arrow is similar in form to the
longbow arrow, but, being much shorter
than a standard arrow, it must be much more
heavily constructed than the standard
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i) Crossbows
(1) No person shall hunt big game, other
than deer, with a crossbow (does not
include compound crossbows) having a
pull of less than 68 kg (150 lbs.) or a bolt
(quarrel) weighing less than 16.2 grams
(250 grains).
(2) No person shall hunt deer, small
game, or game birds with a crossbow (does
not include compound crossbows) having
a pull of less than 55 kg (120 lbs.) or a bolt
(quarrel) weighing less than 16.2 grams
(250 grains).
(3) No person shall hunt wildlife with a
compound crossbow having a pull of less
than 45 kg (100 lbs.) at peak weight or a bolt
weighing less than 16.2 grams (250 grains).
(4) No person shall hunt game with a
crossbow having a bolt (quarrel) other
than one having a broadhead of at least
2.22 centimetres (7/8 of an inch) at the
widest point.
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ii) Long Bow and Arrow

No person shall hunt big game with a long
bow having a pull of less than 18 kg (40 lb.)
within the archer's draw length and an arrow
other than one having a broadhead at least
2.22 centimetres (7/8 of an inch) at the
widest point.
No person shall hunt small game with a long
bow having a pull of less than 18 kg (40 lb.)
within the archer's draw length.
d) Bowhunting
Just as bowhunting requires special
equipment, the bow hunter must have
special knowledge of bow hunting
equipment, its use and its limitations;
knowledge of the game to be hunted, its
habits and habitat; knowledge of the
challenge; and knowledge of self.
A bow hunter should keep these following

thoughts in mind:
1. He must get close to his quarry to be able
to aim with a reasonable chance for
success. He must therefore become
familiar with the species of game to be
hunted; know when and where these
animals travel; where they feed and what
they eat; and learn their particular habits.
2. He must accept the limitations of his
equipment. An arrow, if well placed and
shot from a reasonable distance, will kill
an animal quickly, but the shot must be
accurate and hit a vital spot. The bow
hunter must master the skills of the
marksman before attempting to take
game in the field. The first shot is most
often the only shot the hunter will have.
3. He must know the vital areas of the game
species being hunted. As well as being
accurate, the bow hunter must know
where to aim in order to kill the animal
quickly and cleanly. The bow hunter must
know where the animal's arteries, heart,
lungs, spine, shoulders and pelvis are
located. These locations differ in various
species of game.
4. When game has been wounded, it must
not be lost. The hunter should know the
kind of wound and the extent of the
injury, based on colour, thickness, and
amount of blood trail. He must pursue the
wounded animal until it is found, or until
he is sure the wound is slight and the
animal will recover.
5. The bow hunter must be committed to
the sport. If he needs to know game, he
learns about it; if he must shoot well, he
practices until he can; if the requirements
for success are high, he must choose to
meet them and succeed.
The prospective bow hunter should learn by

reading as much as possible about the sport and
learn the special techniques required under the
guidance of an experienced bow hunter.
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To the sportsman bow hunter who

examines these points and accepts the
challenge, the rewards are many and the
satisfaction complete.
Firearms Chapter 6
PART VII
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. If you were using a .58 calibre flintlock rifle, what powder would you use for the:
Main charge _________________
Priming charge _______________
2. What is the purpose of the ramrod in a muzzleloading firearm? __________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Is it a safe practice to pour black powder directly from the powder flask into the bore?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. To become a bow hunter, it is important to learn what the ______________ and

what it cannot do. ____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List the four types of arrow tips. ______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Which type of arrow tip is used for big game animals? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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GLOSSARY OF FIREARMS TERMINOLOGY

Action: The mechanism of a firearm directly behind the barrel, by which a gun is loaded,
locked, fired, unlocked, extracted and ejected.
Anvil: That part of the cartridge primer which is a solid surface, against which the firing pin
strikes to set off the priming powder.
Autoloading: See Semi-AutoMatic
Automatic: an action that fires cartridges in rapid succession during one sustained pressure of
the trigger.
Ball: The round lead missile fired by smoothbore firearms. (The term is used today when
referring to some types of bullets fired from rifled barrels).
Ballistic Coefficient: A number which indicates how a bullet's shape, length, weight,
diameter and nose design affect its stability, velocity and range against air resistance.
Ballistics: The study of what happens to moving projectiles in the barrel and in flight - their
trajectory, force, impact and penetration. Internal ballistics refers to what happens inside
the barrel before the bullet or shot leaves the muzzle; external ballistics is what happens
after the bullet or shot leaves the barrel and travels to its final point of impact and terminal
ballistics is what happens to the bullet at the final point of impact.
Barrel: The metal tube of a firearm made from iron or steel, through which the bullet or shot
charge passes when the firearm is fired.
Base Wad: The paper filler at the rear of the powder charge of the shotgun shell.
Battery: The metal arm of a flintlock mechanism, against which flint strikes to create sparks in
the flashpan (also called the frizzen).
Beavertail: A wide, flat fore-end of a rifle or shotgun.
Bedding: That part of the stock into which the barrel fits.
Belt: The narrow band around the rear section of a cartridge case just forward of the extractor
groove. (The belt arrests the progress of the case into the chamber and controls headspace.)
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Berdan Primer: See Primer

Black Powder: A finely ground mixture of three basic ingredients - saltpetre (potassium
nitrate), charcoal (carbon) and sulphur.
Blown Pattern: A shotgun pattern with erratic shot distribution, generally caused by gas
escaping past the wads and getting into the shot.
Bluing: A process of treating metal gun parts in a bath of metallic salts and water, which
colours them blue to prevent rust.
Boattail: The tapered rear end of a bullet. (Also called "taper heel", this design is used to
increase ballistic efficiency at long range.)
Bolt: A steel rod-like assembly which moves back and forth in a bolt action, sealing the
cartridge in the chamber during firing.
Bolt Face: The forward end of the bolt which supports the base of the cartridge and contains
the firing pin.
Bore: The tunnel down the barrel of a firearm through which the projectiles travel.
Bore Diameter: The measurement from one side of the bore to the other. In a rifled barrel this
means measurement of the bore before the rifling grooves are cut.
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Firearms Chapter 6
Breech: The rear end of the barrel (in modern arms, the portion of the barrel into which the
cartridge is inserted). See Chamber.
Breechblock: A metal block that closes and locks the breech of the barrel.
Breechloader: A firearm loaded through the breech.
Buckshot: Large lead pellets used in shotshells.
Bullet: A single projectile fired from a firearm.
Butt: The rear end of a rifle or shotgun. (The portion that rests against the shoulder.)
Buttplate: A plate which covers the butt. (Some steel buttplates have trap doors covering a
recess for storage of cleaning equipment.)
Calibre: The diameter of the bore of a rifle before the rifling grooves are cut.
Cannelure: A groove around the circumference of a bullet or case. (For example, the
lubrication grooves of lead bullets, or the grooves into which the mouth of the cartridge
case is crimped, or the extractor grooves of the rimless or belted case.)
Cant: To tilt or lean a gun to the side when aiming.
Cap: See Percussion Cap.
Carbine: A light, short-barrelled rifle.
Cartridge: A case, usually made of brass or copper, containing the powder charge, the primer
and the bullet. (Before development of the metallic cartridge, the term was used to mean a
roll or case of paper containing powder and shot. Modern cartridges are generally classified
in two categories: centrefire and rimfire.
Centrefire: See Cartridge.
Chamber: The enlarged portion of the barrel at the breech in which the cartridge is placed,
ready for firing.
Checkering: A diamond-like pattern on fore-ends and grips of firearms. (The diamonds are
made by cutting crossing lines into the material with special tools.)
Choke: The constriction at the muzzle of a shotgun barrel by which the spread of the shot
pattern is controlled.
Cup: A detachable metal case designed to hold a number of cartridges for loading into the
firearm.
Cock: To set the action into position for firing. (On some firearms the action has an
intermediate position called half cock. On early weapons, such as the flintlock and
percussion cap, the hammer was called a cock.)
Comb: The upper edge of a rifle or shotgun stock where the cheek rests.
Cone: The sloping portion at the front end of a shotgun chamber in which the chamber
diameter is decreased to the diameter of the muzzle. Also, the rear portion of the choke at
the muzzle of a shotgun.
Conical Bullet: A cone-shaped bullet.
Cordite: A double-base, smokeless powder made of nitroglycerine and guncotton, which is
used in the form of long, stringy cords.
Core: The part of a bullet that is covered by a jacket.
Corrosion: The gradual eating away of the metal parts of a firearm by rust.
Creep: The movement of the trigger before it releases. (Also called drag or crawl.)
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Crimp: The portion of a cartridge case that is bent inward to hold the bullet in place, or in the
case of shotshell, to hold the shot charge in place
Cross Hairs: The sighting lines in a telescopic sight.
Damascus Barrels: Barrels made of strips of iron and steel welded together in a spiral fashion.
(Modern ammunition should not be used in such firearms.)
Deterrent: A material added to an explosive to slow its burning rate.
Double-Base Powder: A rapidly burning powder made by absorbing nitroglycerine into
nitrocellulose (guncotton). (Cordite is a double-base powder.)
Doughnut Pattern: A shotgun pattern with a hole in the middle generally caused by the
interference of the top wad.
Down Range: The direction from the shooting position to the target on a range. See Range.
Drift: The departure of a bullet or shot charge from the normal line of flight. (This can be
caused by wind or the unbalanced spinning of the bullet.)
Drilling: A three-barrel gun with a rifle barrel beneath two shotgun barrels. (Generally of
German manufacture.)
Ejector: The mechanism which throws the cartridge case free from the gun.
Elevation: The degree of adjustment of a rear sight or scope reticule necessary to cause the
bullet to strike higher on the target.
Energy: The amount of work done by a bullet, expressed in foot pounds.
Erosion: The wearing away of a barrels metal surface by a bullet or shot charge or by the heat
of powder gases.
Extractor: A hook device which pulls the case out of a chamber as the breech mechanism is
opened. (The extractor generally brings the case within reach of the ejector, which then
flips it out of the gun.)
Feed: The action of moving live cartridges from the magazine of a firearm into the chamber.
Firing Pin: The part of the breech mechanism which strikes the primer of the cartridge. (In
most firearms, the firing pin is part of the bolt assembly.)
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Flinch: To move or jerk a firearm involuntarily while shooting.

Flint: A piece of stone held in the cock of a firearm. (When it strikes the steel battery, or
frizzen, this causes a shower of sparks to fall into the flashpan and ignite the powder.)
Flintlock: The gunlock of early firearms in which flint is thrown against steel, causing sparks
to ignite the powder charge.
Floor Plate: The detachable metal plate at the bottom of the cartridge magazine of a bolt
action rifle. (The floor plate is usually hinged at the front and held by a release spring
located just ahead of the trigger guard.)
Fore-End: The forward portion of a shoulder-arm stock. (Located under the barrel, the foreend serves as a hand-hold.)
f.p.s.: Abbreviation for feet per second. A term used in expressing the velocity of a bullet.
Frizzen: See Battery.
Fulminate Of Mercury: A highly sensitive explosive used as a primer compound.
Gain Twist: Barrel rifling which increases in pitch from the breech to the muzzle to accelerate
the spin of a bullet.
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Gas Check: A metal cup placed on the end of a lead bullet to protect the lead against the hot
gases of the burning powder charge.
Gas Port: A small hole in the barrel of a gas-operated firearm through which expanding gases
escape to power the autoloading system.
Gauge: Measurement of shotgun bores derived from the number of bore-sized balls of
lead to the pound. For example, 12 balls which fit the bore of a 12-gauge shotgun
weigh one pound.
Grip: The small portion of the stock gripped by the trigger hand.
Grip Cap: A cap fastened over the end of a pistol grip on a rifle or shotgun stock.
Grooves: See Rifling.
Group: A series of shots fired with the same sight setting and the same aim.
Half Cock: See Cock.
Hammer: The part of the action that drives the firing pin forward.
Hammerless: Refers to a firearm whose hammer and striker are concealed within the
metal frame.
Hand Cannon: A variety of small, crude cannons used in the early 15th century.
Hangfire: Delay in firing a cartridge after the firing pin has struck the primer.
Headspace: The distance between the base of the cartridge and the face of the bolt or
breechlock. (This is determined by the rim of rimmed cartridges, the belt of belted
cartridges and the shoulder or rimless cartridges).
Heel: The rear end of the upper edge of a gunstock. Also the base of a bullet.
High Intensity: Refers to cartridges having velocities of 2,700 feet per second
(822.96 metres per second) or more.
High Power: A term applied to the first smokeless powder cartridges with velocities of
approximately 2,000 feet per second (609.6 metres per second).
Holding: The action of keeping the sights on the target while applying pressure to the trigger.
Hollow Point: A bullet with a nose cavity designed to increase its expansion on impact.
Igniting Charge: The charge used to ignite the propelling charge. (See Primer).
Inertia Firing Pin: A firing pin which moves freely forward and backward in the breechblock.
(The striker impels it forward while the explosion of the primer impels it backward).
International Ballistics: See Ballistics.
Iron Pyrites: See Pyrites, Flint.
Jacket: The outer covering over the inner metal core of a bullet.
Jaws: The vise-like device on a flintlock hammer used to hold the flint.
Jump: The amount of change in the bore axis, measured both vertically and horizontally,
while the projectile moves from the chamber to the muzzle when it is fired.
Kentucky Rifle: A flintlock rifle with a long barrel and short, crooked stock.
Keyholing: The failure of a bullet to remain balanced in flight so that it enters the target
sideways, leaving an elongated opening.
Kick: The backward movement of a firearm generated by the discharge of the projectile.
See Recoil.
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Knurled Surface: A metal surface which contains a pattern of ridges or beads. (This rough
surface aids grasping a metal part to move it.)
Lands: In the rifling of a bore, the uncut portions of the barrels inner surface left after the
rifling grooves have been cut into the metal. See Rifling.
Leading: Fouling of a firearm bore by metal particles from bullets adhering to the metal
surface caused by heat or friction.
Lede: The bevelled portion of the rifling at the rear end of the barrel (and the forward portion
of the chamber) where the bullet first engages the lands.
Length Of Pull: The distance from the front trigger of a shotgun to the centre of the butt.
Lever Action: An action operated by a lever located underneath it. (A secondary purpose of
the lever is to serve as a trigger guard.)
Line Of Bore: An imaginary straight line through the centre of the bore of a firearm
extending to infinity.
Line Of Sight: An imaginary straight line from the eye through the sights of a firearm
to the target.
Load: A charge of powder, a projectile or a cartridge. Also, to prepare a gun for firing by
inserting ammunition into it.
Loading Gate: The hinged cover over the opening through which cartridges are inserted into
the magazine.
Lock: The firing mechanism of a muzzleloading weapon. In breech-loading firearms, the lock
is the firing mechanism and breech-sealing assembly.
Locking Lugs: A series of projections on the bolt of a firearm designed to fit into
corresponding slots in the receiver to lock the action in closed position for firing.
Lockplate: A metal plate on which the firing mechanism is mounted on percussion
and earlier firearms.
Lock Time: The interval of time between trigger release and the detonation of the primer.
(Also called lock speed.)
L.R.: Abbreviation for long rifle.
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Machine Gun: A firearm which continuously fires ammunition at a high rate of fire when the
trigger is pulled only once. See Automatic.
Magazine: The part of a repeating firearm which holds the cartridges or shells in position
ready to be loaded one at a time into the chamber. (The magazine may be an integral part
of a firearm or a separate device attached to the action.)
Magnum: A cartridge or shell with greater power than normal (i.e., .300 magnum rifle, 3 inch
magnum shotshell).
Mainspring: A strong spring which activates the striker or hammer of a firearm.
Match: A long cord of hemp, flax or cotton, saturated in saltpetre, which burns slowly without
a flame. (It was used to ignite powder in early firearms.)
Matchlock: A firearm action which relies upon a serpentine or S-shaped piece of metal to hold
a smoldering match. By pressing the lower end of the serpentine, the upper end holding
the burning match contacts the priming powder in the pan.
Metal Cased: A bullet with a lead core and a solid metal jacket.
Metallic Cartridge: A cartridge with a metallic case. (Early cartridge cases were made of linen,
paper, etc.)
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Metallic Sight: A non-telescopic firearm sight.

Mid-Range: The point in the trajectory halfway between the muzzle and the target.
Millimetre: A metric measurement equalling .03907 inches. (Its abbreviation is mm.)
Misfire: Failure of a cartridge to discharge after the firearms firing pin has struck the primer.
See Hangfire.
Mouth: The open end of a cartridge case into which the bullet is inserted.
Mushroom: The shape many bullets assume when the tip expands upon striking. (Sometimes
called mushroom bullets.)
Musket: A smoothbore shoulder gun (commonly used by military in the 17th, 18th
and 19th centuries.)
Musketoon: A musket shortened for cavalry use.
Muzzle: The forward end of a barrel.
Muzzle Blast: The violent disturbance in the atmosphere after discharge of a firearm, caused
by release of powder gases into the air.
Muzzle Brake: A slotted device attached to the muzzle which softens the kick of the firearm.
Muzzle Energy: The energy of a bullet as it emerges from the muzzle. (Usually expressed
in foot pounds.)
Muzzle Flash: The bright flash at the muzzle of a firearm resulting from burning of gases.
Muzzeloader: A firearm that is loaded through the muzzle.
Muzzle Velocity: See Velocity.
Naked Bullet: A bullet not covered by a metal jacket or patch.
Neck: The forward portion of a bottlenecked cartridge case. Also the portion of a rifle chamber
in which the neck of the cartridge case rests.
Needle Gun: The first rifle known to use a bolt action.
Nipple: A small metal tube extending through the breech of a percussion firearm through
which the flame passes from the percussion cap to fire the powder charge.
Nose: The point of a projectile.
Obturation: The expansion of the cartridge case, which seals the chamber, preventing gases
from escaping.
Open Sight: A non-telescopic firearm sight. See Sight.
Optical Sight: Usually a telescopic firearm sight. See Sight.
Over-And-Under Gun: A firearm with two or more barrels placed one over the other.
Pan: The small dished container located on the side or top of a matchlock, wheel-lock or
flintlock forearm used to hold the priming powder charge.
Parallax: The displacement of an object viewed from two different position. (For example,
when using a telescopic sight, the apparent movement of the reticule in relation to the
target when the eye is shifted to a different position.)
Parkerizing: A non-reflecting, rust-preventive finish used on the metal of firearms.
Patch: A piece of leather or cloth. The patch is greased and placed around a bullet before
ramming it down the barrel of a muzzleloader.
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Patch Box: Covered compartment in the buttstock of a muzzleloading rifle used to carry
patches or other small items.
Pattern: Distribution of shotgun pellets. This is measured at a standard distance of 40 yards
(37 m) using a 30 inch circle (762 mm). (A full choke charge should throw a pattern of at
least 70 percent of the shot into the 30 inch circle at a distance of 40 yards.)
Penetration: The distance travelled by a projectile from the point where it strikes the target to
the point where it stops.
Pennsylvania Rifle: See Kentucky Rifle.
Percussion Cap: A small metal explosive-filled cup which is placed over the nipple of a
percussion firearm. (As the cap is struck by the hammer, it explodes and sends a flame
through the flashhole in the nipple to the main powder charge.)
Pistol Grip: See Grip.
Pitch: The angle of the barrel of a rifle or shotgun away from the angle of the stock. (It is
measured by placing the butt of the stock on the floor and measuring the angle of the
muzzle away from a line perpendicular to the floor.)
Powder: The general term for any propellant used in firearms which burns upon ignition.
(The two major types are black powder, which is a physical mixture of charcoal, sulphur
and saltpetre, and smokeless powder.
Prime: To prepare or charge a muzzleloader for firing.
Primer: The collective term for the chemical primer compound, cup and anvil which, when
struck, ignites the powder charge.
Primer Cup: The housing in a shotgun cartridge base which holds a primer.
Primer Pocket: The depression in the base of a centrefire cartridge which contains the primer.
Priming Pan: See Pan.
Projectile: A bullet or shot in flight after discharge from a firearm.
Propellant: The chemical substance which imparts movement to the projectile in a firearm.
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Pumpkin Ball: A large round ball of lead used in shotguns. (These projectiles are the same size
as the shotgun bore.)
Pyrites: A mineral used to produce sparks in primitive firearms. (It was replaced by flint.)
Ramrod: A wood or metal rod used to force the wad and bullet down the barrel of a muzzleloading firearm.
Range: The distance travelled by a projectile from the firearm to the target. Pointblank range is
the distance a projectile will travel before it drops the extent that sight adjustment is
required. Effective range is the greatest distance a projectile will travel with accuracy.
Extreme range is the maximum distance a projectile will travel. Also, a facility designed for
the safe shooting of firearms.
Receiver: The metal frame of a rifle or shotgun which contains the breech, locking
mechanism and reloading mechanism.
Receiver Ring: The portion of the receiver which is threaded so the barrel can be attached to it.
Receiver Sight: A sight attached to the receiver.
Recoil: The backward force of a firearm caused by expansion of powder gases which also
impels the bullet out of the barrel. Recoil is measured in foot pounds. See Kick.
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R.F.: Abbreviation for Rimfire.

Rifle: A shoulder firearm with a rifled barrel designed to fire one projectile at a time. See Rifling.
Rifled Slug: A large, single projectile used in shotguns.
Rifling: Spiral grooves cut into the inside barrel surface to cause a bullet to spin, thereby
stabilizing it. The cut-away portions of the rifling are called Grooves and the uncut
portions are called Lands. See Lands and Grooves.
Rim: The edge on the base of a cartridge case which stops the progress of the case into the
chamber. (Its also the part of the case the extractor grips to remove it from the chamber.)
Rimfire: A cartridge in which the priming compound is contained in the rim at the base of the
cartridge. (See also Cartridge.)
Safety: A device that blocks the firing mechanism of a firearm.
Sear: The part of a firearm which links the trigger and the firing pin and releases it when the
trigger is pulled.
Sectional Density: The relationship between the weight of the bullet and the
cross-sectional area.
Semi-Automatic: An action which fires, extracts, ejects, reloads and cocks with each separate
pull of the trigger and is powered by the propellant gases. (Also called autoloading.)
Serpentine: See Matchlock.
Setscrew: A screw that regulates the amount of pressure needed to release the sear.
Shotgun: A firearm with a smooth bore designed to fire small pellets, called shot, or rifled slugs.
Shotshell: See Cartridge.
Shoulder: The sharply sloping portion of the cartridge case joining the body and neck. (Found
only on bottleneck shaped cartridge cases.)
Sight: The device on a firearm designed to help the shooter aim accurately.
Slack: The amount of movement in a trigger mechanism before it engages the sear.
Sling: A strap used to carry and aid in shooting a rifle.
Sling Swivel: A metal loop, sometimes detachable, by which the sling is attached to the firearm.
Small Bore: Generally refers to a .22 calibre firearm.
Small-Of-The-Stock: The narrow portion of the stock between the comb and the receiver of a
shoulder firearm.
Smokeless Powder: See Powder.
Smooth Bore: A firearm with a bore that is not rifled.
Snap Shot: A quick shot taken without deliberate aim.
Spanner: A small metal wrench used to wind the mechanism of a wheel-lock.
Spent Bullet: A projectile which has lost nearly all its energy and lacks the force needed to
penetrate the target.
Spitzer: A bullet with a sharp point for better stability during flight.
Stock: The part of a shoulder firearm by which it is held for firing and into which the metal
parts are fitted.
Straight-Pull Action: A bolt action in which the bolt is pulled and pushed straight backward
and forward.
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Striker: The front part of a firing pin which strikes the cartridge.
Swivel: See Sling Swivel.
Tang: A metal strip extending rearward from a rifle or shotgun receiver to attach the action to
the stock.
Throat: The forward portion of the chamber where it is tapered to meet the bore.
Toe: The bottom part of the butt of a rifle or shotgun.
Trajectory: The path a bullet travels from muzzle to impact.
Trigger: The part of a firearm mechanism which releases the firing pin.
Trigger Guard: A metal loop around the trigger designed to protect it.
Trigger Plate: The metal part under the receiver of a rifle or shotgun through which the trigger
projects.
Trombone Action: A pump or slide action.
Turn-Bolt Action: A bolt action which is locked by pressing the bolt handle in and down,
thereby turning its locking lugs into the receiver.
Twist: The angle of rifling grooves relative to the bore axis. (Expressed as the distance in inches
over which a turn or twist is completed, i.e., 1-10, 1-22.)
Velocity: The speed at which a projectile travels. (Usually measured in feet per second or
metres per second.)
Wad: A disc used to separate powder from shot; or to seal propellant gases behind the shot; or
to hold shot together in the barrel.
W.C.F: Abbreviation for Winchester Centre Fire.
Wheel-Lock: An early firearm mechanism in which a wheel with serrated edges is wound
against the tension of a strong spring and spins against a piece of iron pyrite, sending a
shower of sparks into the pan to ignite the charge.
Wildcat Cartridge: A non-standard cartridge usually made by modifying the shape of a
standard cartridge.
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Windage: The lateral drift of a bullet in flight caused by wind.

W.R.F.: Abbreviation for Winchester Rim Fire.
Zero: Sight adjustment so the bullet will strike the target at the point of aim.
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FIREARMS
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back to the material found in this chapter to
check your answers.
appointment to challenge the CORE written and practical firearms handling exams.
The CORE Examiner may request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to
accepting you for a challenge test.
1. Which type of firearm does NOT contain a magazine?
a. Hinge action
b. Lever action
c. Semi-automatic action
d. Pump action
2. A rifle bullet will travel more than ______________feet per second.
a. 500
b. 1000
c. 2500
d. 5000
3. The
a.
b.
c.
d.
three main parts of a rifle and shotgun are:

Hinge, barrel, stock
Barrel, stock, magazine
Action, barrel, stock
Muzzle, action, bolt
4. Which cartridge has the largest calibre?

a. .22 Long Rifle
b. .223 Rem
c. .308 Win
d. .375 H&H
5. Which shotshell has the largest gauge?
a. 10
b. 12
c. 20
d. 28
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6. The two types of modern ammunition are rimfire and pinfire.

True or false
7. If you purchase new ammunition for your hunting rifle, and the weight of the bullet changes
from 150 grain to 180 grain, you should:
a. Expect no change in trajectory of the bullet.
b. Be prepared for greater recoil.
c. Rechamber your firearm.
d. Resight in your firearm.
8. A shotgun shell contains multiple projectiles called:
a. Pellets
b. Bullets
c. Wads
d. Primers
9. .300 Savage and .300 Win Mag cartridges are interchangeable.
True or false
10. When you pick up any firearm you should:
a. Admire the craftmanship in the stock work.
b. Assume the firearm is loaded.
c. Squeeze the trigger before opening the bolt.
d. Examine the bore.
11. It is both legal and safe to store your unloaded firearm in a safe.
True or false
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12. The most stable shooting position is the:

a. Standing
b. Sitting
c. Kneeling
d. Prone
13. When shooting a shotgun, you want to ___________the trigger.
a. squeeze
b. slap
c. caress
d. stroke
14. The leading cause of firearms-related death in Canada is:
a. murder
b. suicide
c. accidents
d. legal intervention
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15. What carry is this? USE SliNG CARRY FIG 57

a. Two-handed
b. Elbow
c. Side
d. Sling
16. Muzzleloading firearms will use __________powder.
a. Gun
b. Black
c. Talcium
d. Smokeless
17. When loading a muzzleloading firearm you should point it away from your body.
True or false
18. When carrying broadhead arrows you should put them in a magazine.
True or false
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ANSWER SHEET
1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9. _____
10. ____11._____12._____13._____14._____15._____16._____17.____18._____
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NOTES
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Chapter
Animal
Identification
GOAL
The student will identify game animals and protected/endangered species
through knowledge of their characteristics, habitat, and distribution.
OBJECTIVES
The student will:
1. Identify ungulate species hunted
in BC.
2. Identify common small game
animals hunted or trapped in BC.
3. Identify carnivore animals
hunted or trapped in BC.
4. Identify protected and endangered

animals of BC.
5. Define common terms related to
mammals.
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This chapter is broken into 5 parts:
IV. Small mammals

a) Overview of small mammals, their
classification and the law
i) Classification: why use it and how
it works
ii) Small mammals to know in B.C.
b) Rodent Order (Rodentia)
i) The Squirrel Family (Sciuridae)
ii) The Porcupine Family
(Erithizontidae)
iii) The Beaver Family (Castoridae)
iv) The Mouse Families
v) The Pocket Gopher Family
(Geomyidae)
c) Carnivore Order (Carnivora)
i) The Skunk Family (Mephitidae)
ii) The Weasel Family (Mustelidae)
iii) The Raccoon Family
(Procyonidae)
d) Lagomorph Order (Lagomorpha)
i) The Hare Family (Leporidae)
ii) The Pika Family (Ochotonidae)
e) Marsupial Order (Marsupialia)
f) The Opossum Family (Didelphidae)
g) Conclusion
I. Animal identification, why do it, and

some tools to help
a) Terminology
b) Techniques of animal and
bird identification
II. Key to British Columbia ungulates
a) The Cattle Family (Bovidae)
b) The Deer Family (Cervidae)
III. Key to large British Columbia
carnivores
a) The Cat Family (Felidae)
V. Review test
PART I.
ANIMAL IDENTIFICATION,
WHY DO IT, AND SOME TOOLS TO HELP
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It is important for hunters to be able to

accurately identify wildlife animal species.
Study of their habitat will allow you to be able
to know in what types of areas you will look
for and find certain animals. The physical
characteristics including colour, shape, and
tracks will help you identify similar species.
Understanding their habits will also be an aid
in identification as well as tracking.
The ability to recognize various animals
and their actions, and to be able to predict
where they will be and how they will act,
adds to the pleasure and safety of your
hunting experience in several ways:
It gives the hunter a feeling

of confidence and familiarity
with his surroundings.
It adds immeasurably to
the interest of the hunt
by suggesting a variety of
features and habits that
the hunter can identify
and examine.
a) Terminology
There are a number of terms used
to describe wild mammals. It is
important to know these so you will
understand the terms when you are
reading about animals, and so you will
be able to use the terms correctly when
you are talking about the animals.
It enables the hunter to properly

identify game animals, resulting in
safe, legal hunting.
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Some of the important

terms include:
Browser: an animal that feeds on

leaves, twigs, shoots and other off-theground foliage.
Annuli: darkened rings which indicate

periods of slower horn growth; can be
counted to measure animal's age.
Brow tine, tine: projection on an

antler, in particular, the tine above
the forehead.
Antlers: bony structures that grow from

short pedestals on the skull of certain
ungulates and are shed annually. During
their development the antlers are
covered with a hairy skin called velvet
which has a rich supply of blood vessels
and nerves. Unlike horns, antlers grow
from the tips rather than the base (like
horns). As the season progresses the
antlers become ossified or bony. This
ossification finally cuts off the blood
vessels and nerves killing the skin and
making the antler itchy. This causes the
animal to rub the antlers which removes
the velvet and exposes the bony surface
which becomes shiny from the rubbing.
Antlers of mature animals tend to be
large and ornate in relation to the
animal's body size. Antlers grow during
the summer season and are fully
developed by the fall. They are used by
the males to assert dominance over other
males during fall courtship rituals. By
January many animals start shedding
their antlers. Shedding is caused by the
reabsorption of some of the basal bone
which weakens the joint so that the
antler falls off if it is knocked or rubbed.
Carnivore, carnivorous: meat-eating

animals.
Cattle family: see bovides
Cervid or deer family: the common
term for the family of animals named
Cervidae, which includes split-hoofed
mammals that have antlers which
are shed every year. They are all
ruminants. These include deer, elk,
moose, and caribou.
Deer family: see cervids.
Gestation, gestation period: pregnancy,
length of pregnancy.
Grazer: an animal that feeds on growing
grass or herbage.
Habitat: the region or environment
where a plant or animal is normally
found. Animals will choose certain
habitats where their preferred food is
plentiful, climate is favourable and other
requirements (such as denning, hiding,
and birthing areas) are available (e.g.,
rocky, rugged escape terrain for
mountain sheep; swampy areas for
moose; talus slopes for grizzlies where
they can dig out rodents).
Bell or Dewlap: a pendant of hair-covered

skin that hangs from under the throat of
an animal, e.g., the moose.
Bovids: the common term for the Family
Bovidae, sometimes called the Cattle
Family. This family includes split-hoofed
animals that have horns which are never
shed and are not branched. Horns are
present on both sexes. This group
includes the wildlife species bighorn and
thinhorn sheep, bison, and mountain
goat, and the domestic species cattle,
sheep and goats. They are all ruminants
and have no upper incisors.
Herbivore, herbivorous: a planteating animal.

Horn: a solid, bony core that is part of
the animal's skull covered by a sheath of
hard fibrous horn. The horn sheath
grows from the base or skin at the skull.
As new growth is formed the old growth
is forced away from the skull. The shape
that the horn sheath takes is formed by
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Predator: an animal that hunts other

animals for food.
Ruminant: an animal that has a fourchambered stomach. Their method of
eating is called rumination; this is a
process that permits an animal to
forage and ingest food rapidly, then
complete the chewing at a later time.
When they forage and eat they chew
their food and it enters one chamber
of the stomach. Later, while they are
resting, they regurgitate their food,
chew it a second time, then swallow it
again to complete the digestion.
Ruminants do not have upper incisors.
Rut: annual fall breeding period of
ungulates; often includes
competitions between males, such as
pushing or butting, for dominance.
Tine: a point or branch of an antler.
the inner bony core, which also
continues to grow. Horns are never shed
but continue to grow throughout the
animal's life. Both males and females
have horns but they may vary in shape or
size by sex in some species.
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Ungulate: split-hoofed animals. This

grouping contains the Order
Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates
like deer) and Order Perissodactyla
(odd-toed ungulates like horses).
Metatarsal, tarsal and interdigital

glands: The metatarsal and tarsal glands
are tufted, discoloured hair patches found
on the hind legs of deer. These areas are a
source of scent used for communication.
The metatarsal gland is located on the
outside of the lower leg, the tarsal gland is
inside the hock ("elbow" of the hind leg)
and there is also an interdigital gland
between the toes.
b) Techniques of animal and

bird identification
Reading and studying pictures, visiting
zoos and game farms, and watching
television programs or films will help
you learn to identify wildlife, but
practice in the field is essential to
develop this necessary skill. Take
opportunities to go out and identify
animals and tracks at different times of
the year, in different habitats and
different weather conditions. Practice
with someone who is experienced in
identifying wildlife.
Migratory: migration: moving from one

place to another in search of food, better
climate, or other environmental features.
Omnivore, omnivorous: an animal that
eats both meat and plant food.
Palmate: a shovel-horn type of antler
characterized by broad, up-reaching,
parallel palms, e.g., moose antler, fallow
deer antler.
When you are identifying wildlife there

are many factors that you will consider.
First, you must know the geographic
distribution of a species to know if it will
268
be in an area. The season will also

influence the geographic distribution of
migratory animals.
number and size of spikes or tines. Never use

a telescopic sight on a rifle as a substitute
for binoculars. Never point a firearm at
anything you do not intend to shoot.
Next, you must know what type of habitat

in which each specie will likely be found.
Habitat locations include where the specie
will eat, mate, sleep, keep out of the cold or
wind, etc. These also change seasonally.
The habits and behaviour characteristics of
the specie combined with habitat will give
you clues on identification.
A distribution map of wildlife is useful to

show you where you can expect to find
certain species, and where you will not
find others. Consult a map and discuss
hunting areas with others.
Wildlife handbooks, especially ones with
colour pictures, can be very useful items to
take hunting and there are some very good
ones on the market. You can refer to them
when you are uncertain or want to confirm
your identification, improving your skill.
Other animal signs will also assist in

identification. Tracks can be an important
factor in identification. Droppings, the
type of browsed vegetation, hair on bark
or twigs, and other physical signs of
animals can also help.
Animal sounds, gait or type of movement,
and whether an animal is alone or in a
group, are other factors that you should
use to help you identify or confirm your
identification of a specie.
Ungulate Tracks
You must be able to identify the sex and

age of game animals to ensure that you
do not target an animal that you can't
legally hunt.
Moose
Although eye shine can help to identify an

animal at night it is not an entirely
reliable tool as it depends on the type of
light you see them in (e.g., halogen or
krypton versus ordinary headlights or a
flashlight). Height of the eyes (off the
ground), number of animals, movement
of the animal once seen, and habitat in
which you spot them may also give you
clues for identification.
Mule Deer
Caribou
There is some equipment that you can use to

help you identify wildlife. Binoculars and
spotting scopes are extremely useful,
especially at long range. They will help you
see such details as colours and patterns of
different species antlers or horns. In fact,
todays hunting regulations may require you
to identify not only animal specie and sex,
but horn size to within inches and antlers to
Whitetailed
Deer
Bison
Elk
Bighorn
Sheep
269
Mountain
Goat
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KEY TO
UNGULATES
Horns, brown, in
males heavy to
massive, curling
back in spiral.
Females, horns
thinner, backward curling.
Not as above.
Antlers heavy,
wide, spread
horizontally,
palm points
facing forward
No horns or
antlers
horns
Has horns
or antlers
Antlers, deer like

in appearance
Antler near head

is deer-like
then becomes
palmate with
points facing
back
Paimitate antlers
(wide, flat, heavy
or partially so)
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Antlers not as
described
above.
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Antlers not
prominent.
Antlers
prominent
Antlerless ungulates (e.g. doe, white-tail)

Thinhorn Sheep
Horns heavy,
cattle-like,
curved up from
the head. Similar
in both sexes
Bighorn Sheep
Bison
Horns slender,
black, with
slight backward
curve.
Mountain Goat
Moose
Fallow Deer
Antlers thin,
forward sweeping, unbranched
tines on the
main beam.
Antlers upright,
not forward
sweeping.
White-tailed Deer
Mule Deer
Antlers upswept,
branching,
no prominent
brow line
Antlers upswept,
branching,
V-pronged tines,
prominent brow
line.
Caribou
Elk
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ANIMAL DROPPINGS
(during Hunting Season)
Bighorn Sheep
Mountain Goat
Moose
White-tailed Deer
Mule Deer
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Elk
Caribou
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PART II.
KEY TO BRITISH COLUMBIA
UNGULATES
a) The "Cattle" Family (Bovidae)
The ungulates of British Columbia have

two major characteristics in common:
The "cattle" family, Bovidae, are splithooved mammals that are ruminants and
have horns that are not shed but grow
throughout the animals life. Both sexes
have horns. Bovids include mountain
sheep, mountain goats, and bison.
a. All are split-hooved animals with

an even number of toes. They
have a large pair of hooves that
the animal walks on and a small
pair on the underside of the ankle
that serve no apparent function.
Mountain Sheep
Two of the five main types of wild sheep in
the world are found in North America
the thinhorn sheep of the north and the
bighorn sheep of the south. Wild sheep are
larger than domestic sheep and have
smooth coats. The hoof prints of wild
sheep are nearly identical; it will be the
area you find them in that will indicate
which species made them. Hooves are
dished and rough so that they give good
traction on rocks. Their breeding (rut)
period occurs in November/December and
lambs are born in late May or early June,
after a gestation (pregnancy) of about 6
months. Mountain sheep do not occur on
any of the offshore islands of B.C.
b. All are ruminants, animals that

have four-chambered stomachs,
and none have upper incisors.
They are split into two major groups: those
with horns, called bovids, and those with
antlers, called cervids. The bovids include
the bighorn and thinhorn sheep,
mountain goats, and bison. The cervids
include the deer, caribou, elk, and moose.
The species will be discussed individually,
but where there are characteristics in
common for a group of species, a comment
will precede the individual descriptions.
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Ewe
Tracks 31/2"
Ram
BIGHORN SHEEP
Common name:
Scientific name:
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Scientific classification:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Bighorn sheep
Ovis canadensis
Ovis canadensis canadensis
Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep
Ovis canadensis californiana
California bighorn sheep
Ungulate bovid
Ram
Ewe
Lamb
white on the belly, the insides of the legs,

and the rump. The white rump is a striking
feature that enables the sheep to be
spotted at a great distance. Part of the
muzzle usually is also white. The tail is
small and dark, contrasting strongly with
the light rump. California bighorns tend to
be darker than Rocky Mountain bighorns.
Body size and characteristics: A large
ram will stand about 3-1/2 ft. (105 cm)
at the shoulder and weigh around 300
to 325 lb. (135 to 145 kg). Ewes are
smaller than rams. California bighorns
tend to be smaller than the Rocky
Mountain variety.
There are two types of bighorn sheep the

Rocky Mountain and the California. They
are very similar and location will be a guide
to which species you are hunting.
Colour: The two bighorn subspecies are very
similar in appearance, being brown with
274
100
100
200 km
Rocky Mountain
Bighorn Sheep
California
Bighorn Sheep
Bighorn sheep distribution
Distribution: The natural range of the Rocky

Mountain bighorns occurs in two separate
locations in British Columbia: in the Rockies
from the U.S. border to Golden, and in
scattered bands north of Mount Robson. In
addition, transplanted bands have been
established at Chase, Castlegar and at Spences
Bridge, and transplants from a Washington
project have spread back into B.C. near Salmo.
The California bighorn is confined to the
south Okanagan, Similkameen, and midFraser River basin area. A reintroduction was
made north of Kamloops Lake, and new herds
have been introduced to the Grand Forks and
Dog Creek areas.
General comments: Sexes usually separate
in the summer after lambing. The rams
rejoin the ewes and lambs in the fall for the
rutting season. Spectacular head-butting
competitions are characteristic for bighorn
rams during the rut. Bighorns are very social
and are usually found in herds, sometimes of
as many as 100.
Horns: A distinctive feature of the mature

male bighorn is a set of massive brown
horns which spiral backwards from the
top of the head, curling down around the
small ears and then upwards above the
nose as the animal grows older. The horns
continue to grow throughout the life of
the animal and, because growth slows in
winter, annual rings (annuli) occur. The
number of annuli shows the rams age. An
old male may have horns that complete a
full circle (full curl), although the tips are
often broken or "broomed" from fighting
or rubbing on rocks. Horns can reach 50
in. (127 cm) from base to tip and up to 17
in. (43 cm) around the massive base. The
horns of the female are much smaller,
being thin and erect much like the horns
of female domestic goats, and only
reaching 12 in. (30 cm) in length. Annuli
on the ewes are closer together and it is
difficult to age an animal reliably from
them. The California bighorn often has a
more open horn curl than the Rocky
Mountain bighorn.
Bighorn sheep Key Points

Both bighorn species are similar
in appearance
Brown with white belly and a
white rump which can be seen
from a distance
Look like domestic sheep but
larger and have a smooth coat
Massive curling horns which
are close to the head on the
males, smaller and shorter horns
on females
Found on open, mountainous
slopes with rugged escape terrain
Located in the southern 1/2
of province
Habitats: Mountain slopes with sparse

growths of trees and rugged "escape"
terrain. They move to lower elevations in
the winter where snow is lighter and
vegetation is exposed earlier in the spring.
They are both a browser and grazer and
feed on a great variety of plants.
Using the Hunting Synopsis

What is a full curl bighorn sheep?
275
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Ram
Source: Hunters Guide, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.

Copyright 2002 Queens Printer Ontario
Ewe
THINHORN SHEEP
Common name:
Scientific name:
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Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Thinhorn sheep
Ovis dalli
Ovis dalli dalli Dalls sheep
Ovis dalli stonei Stones sheep
Ungulate bovid
Ram
Ewe
Lamb
There are two types of thinhorn sheep:

Dalls and Stones, both named after the
biologists who identified them. They are
called thinhorns because the horns of the
rams, compared to bighorn sheeps, are
thinner throughout their length and
more pointed. The horns also spiral out,
away from the head, more than the
bighorn sheeps.
Colour: Dalls are the only white wild

sheep in the world, but they are not
true albinos since they have the golden
eye common to all mountain sheep.
There may also be a few black hairs at
the tip of the tail. The hooves and
horns are pale with a golden or
yellowish tinge and present a striking
contrast to the white coat.
Stones sheep tend to be very dark (gray
to black) except for white on the face,
belly, inside of the legs, and rump
patch. Their horns are midway in
colour between the brown of the
bighorns and the yellow of the Dalls.
They may be much paler because of
mixed breeding and sometimes only
the saddle, tail, and lower legs are dark.
276
grasses in the winter. They also eat tender

twig tips in winter as they are both
grazers and browsers.
Stones sheep
Dalls sheep
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Distribution: Thinhorn sheep are found

in the northern part of the province, in
remote and very rugged terrain. Dalls
sheep are mainly in the Yukon, Northwest
Territories and Alaska but a small number
occur in the far northwestern corner of
B.C. near the Tatsenshini River. Stones
sheep occupy the southern and eastern
parts of the thinhorn range. They are
found from the eastern slopes of the Coast
Mountains and east into the north end of
the Rockies. The Pine River is considered
the dividing line between thinhorns and
bighorns and Bennett Lake, 80 km west of
Atlin, as the boundary between Dalls and
Stones sheep.
200 km
Thinhorn sheep distribution
This intermediate colour phase between

Dalls and Stones used to be called
Fannins but this phase is no longer
considered a separate subspecies. This
colour type occurs where the Dalls and
Stones sheep ranges overlap.
General comments: Thinhorns are

usually found in bands of 6 or more. In
the fall, the sexes band together and rams
compete by head-butting for dominance
and the right to breed with the females. In
early summer, after lambing, rams head
for higher elevations, often singly or in
small groups.
Body size and characteristics: The rams

are larger than the ewes. Dalls sheep are 3
to 3-1/2 ft. (.9 to 1.2 m) tall and 125 to 242
lb. (57 to 110 kg). Stones sheep are similar
in body size; their colour is their
distinguishing feature.
Thinhorn sheep Key Points
Horns: Both sexes have horns; however,

the rams have longer, heavier horns which
spiral widely. The horns of a ram can reach
44 in. (111 cm) from base to tip but the
bases are smaller than in bighorns,
reaching 14 in. (35 cm) in diameter. The
ewes horns are generally only 10 in. (25
cm) long and are similar to the bighorn
ewe. The annuli can be used to age a ram.
As with bighorn ewes, the annuli on
thinhorn ewe horns do not reliably reflect
the animals age.
Dalls sheep are white, Stones sheep

are dark
Both thinhorn species have thinner
horns than bighorn sheep and their
horns spiral out from the head
instead of the bighorns tight curl
Both thinhorn species are about 1/3
smaller than bighorn sheep
Look like domestic sheep but larger
and have a smooth coat
Horns on females similar to bighorn
ewes, smaller than rams
Found in open, mountainous slopes
with rugged escape terrain
Located in remote north of province;
Dalls in the extreme northwest,
Stones spread across the northern
mountains
Habitats: Rough terrain, mountain

tundra slopes, rockslides; in winter they
usually move to lower slopes where snow
is lighter and where spring green-up
occurs sooner. Thinhorns graze on broadleaved plants in spring and summer and
277
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Billie
Tracks 2"
Nannie
larger
horn base
horn tapers
with gradual
curve
MALE
wider
space
betwen
horns
FEMALE
horn
tapers
with
sharper
curve
(Reproduced with permission from the Hunting

Regulations Sumary, Department of Renewable
Resources, Yukon Government.)
MOUNTAIN GOAT
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Mountain goat
Oreamnos americanus
Ungulate bovid
Billy
Nanny
Kid
ridge from their shoulders to their rump

and down to near the ankles on both the
front and hind feet. More long hair on
their lower jaw gives them a bushy beard.
They have short tails and longish ears.
Billies are slightly larger, from 3 to almost
4 ft. (90 to 120 cm) tall and weigh 155 to
260 lb. (70 to 120 kg), while nannies
weigh about 120 to 165 lb. (55 to 75 kg).
The mountain goat is not actually a goat

but is a mountain-dwelling antelope related
to the chamois of the European Alps.
Horns: Both males and females have

slender, erect, stiletto-like black horns up
to 12 in. (30 cm) long. On both sexes the
annuli can be used to estimate age.
Nannies horns are thinner, have a slightly
larger space between them on the
forehead (the space is greater than the
diameter of a horn), and are straighter
with a curved tip, while billies have a
more uniformly curved horn and it often
looks like the horns are touching at the
base on the forehead (the space is less
Colour: Mountain goats are entirely white

throughout the year. At times, however,
they may appear yellow or off-white as
their hair becomes stained or soiled. Nose,
eyes, lips, horns, and hooves are black.
Body size and characteristics: Both sexes
are blocky in profile with massive front
shoulders to give them the strength for
climbing cliffs and pawing for food
through snow. Long, rough hair runs in a
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Goat hair is very thick and of two types:

long (up to 8 in., or 20 cm): hollow outer
guard hairs and a fine, dense undercoat
that is 2 to 3 in. (5 to 8 cm) long. This coat
keeps the animals warm even in intense
cold and high winds.
200 km
One aid to identification of sex is how they

are encountered. If you see a small group of
animals that includes kids, this will be a
nursery group of nannies with their kids
and yearlings. Billies often live alone or in
small groups of two to four. There will be no
kids with the billies. Occasionally a dry
female will be found by herself.
Mountain Goat distribution
than the diameter of a horn). However, it

can be very difficult to tell the two apart.
It is often easier to identify the sexes by
looking at the group they are in.
Goat hooves are very well designed for their

habitat. There is a tough pad that extends
beyond the hard outer hoof that gives them
good traction on slippery rocks. Also, the
toes can spread to distribute weight or can
grasp (like pliers) around rocks to add
traction when moving downhill.
Habitats: Goats are found on steep, rocky

slopes and cliffs, usually at or above the
timberline, although they can be found at
the tideline on parts of the rugged coast.
They occur in both wet and dry habitats but
the terrain is always steep. They are a very
versatile feeder, both grazer and browser,
feeding on grasses, lichens, herbs, bushes,
and both deciduous and coniferous trees,
depending on what is available. Goats are
usually above the timberline in summer and
at lower elevations in the winter. Wintering
sites often are where the snow is either
shallow or gets swept away by winds. Most
seasonal migrations are up or down in
elevation and not great distances, although
salt licks are very important in summer and
goats will travel some distance, even
through woods, to get to them.
The rut occurs in November/December.

Billies do not compete with intense headbutting like mountain sheep but will
wallow in pits in which they have urinated
and threaten each other. Gestation is about
6 months and a single kid is born.
Mountain Goat Key Points

Both males and females are very
similar in appearance
White all year, blocky shape, long
shaggy hair, black hooves and horns
If you see a group of animals
including kids, the adults are most
likely nannies
They are not true goats but are
antelopes related to the chamois of
the European alps
Larger diameter horns with a
uniform curve on males; smaller
diameter horns that are straight with
a curved tip on females
Found on rugged, mountainous
slopes and cliffs
Located throughout B.C.
Distribution: In Canada, mountain goats

are found in Alberta, Yukon and B.C. They
do not occur on Vancouver Island, the
Queen Charlotte Islands or on other
coastal islands.
General comments: Along with Dalls
sheep and polar bears, they are the only
large mammal that is completely white
throughout the year for their entire lives.
279
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Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Bison
Bison bison
Bison bison athabascae Wood bison
Bison bison bison Plains bison
Ungulate bovid
Bull
Cow
Calf
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BISON
in relation to their hindquarters. The head

is large with short, black horns, they have
a large shoulder hump and a relatively
long tail with a tuft of hair at the end.
Mature bulls are about double the size of
cows, reaching almost 7 ft. (2 m) in height
at the shoulders and weighing from 1,100
to 1,980 lb. (500 to 900 kg). They also
have thicker hair on their faces and a
larger hump than cows; however, it may
be easier to identify the sexes by
behaviour and herd groupings. Wood
bison are a bit larger and darker and have
a larger shoulder hump than plains bison.
Bison, sometimes incorrectly called

buffalo, are B.C.s largest ungulate big
game species. Both subspecies occur
in the province.
Colour: The front quarters of bison,
including the head, hump and front legs,
are covered in thick, chocolate brown,
woolly hair while the rest of the body is
covered in smooth, short, copper-brown
hair. The tail also has a tuft of dark
coloured hair.
Horns: Bison horns are black and

relatively short. Horns on the bulls
generally curve in towards the head while
Body size and characteristics: Bison are

massive animals with huge front quarters
280
General comments: The unusual shape of

a bison is an adaptation to be able to push
and paw through deep snow to forage.
They also swing their massive heads to
clear away the snow from their food.
W: Wood Bison
P: Plains Bison
P
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During most of the year mature cows,

immature animals of both sexes, and
calves form herds of varying sizes. Bulls
form bachelor groups or live alone until
the rut. In the north, the rut can occur
from July to September. Competitions
among the bulls during the rut consists
mostly of threat displays and roaring but
sometimes fights result in serious injury or
death. Bulls also wallow and "tree-horn"
more at this time. Gestation is 9 months
and a single, red calf is born between midApril and early June.
200 km
Bison Key Points

Bison distribution
Both males and females are very

similar in appearance but mature
males are about twice the size
of females
Largest ungulate in B.C.
Massive front quarters and shoulder
hump, hind quarters much smaller,
short black curved horns, long tail
with a tuft at the end
Head and front quarters covered in
shaggy dark brown hair, hind
quarters and rest of body covered
in short, coppery hair
If you see a group of animals
including calves, the adults are most
likely cows
Found in boreal forests and
open plains
Located in northern B.C.
cows horns curve up, but this is not a

totally reliable identification key.
Habitat: Bison are specialized grazers that
eat sedges and grasses almost exclusively. In
summer, a small portion of their food is
browsed willow leaves. Wet meadows with
sedges and reedgrass, willow openings, and
open prairie are favoured habitat. Bison will
travel through forests and use them for
summer shade or winter storm shelter but
do not usually forage there.
Distribution: Both plains and wood bison
used to occur naturally in B.C., the Wood
bison in the boreal forests and the plains
bison in the more open prairie habitats of
northeastern B.C. With settlement, all
were wiped out but an escaped herd of 50
Plains bison has now grown to over 1,000
head in the Pink Mountain area in the
North Peace; about 100 head of wood
bison have been reintroduced in the
northeastern part of the province. Bison
are also farmed in B.C.

What grain of bullet must be used
when hunting bison?
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QUIZ ON THE FAMILY BOVIDAE

This quiz is a self-test to help you learn each section of this chapter. The final quiz at the
end of the chapter is multiple choice, which is what your final exam will be like.
1. What is a bovid? ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
2. Give two examples of wild bovids in B.C. ________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe how a horn grows. ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Name the two subspecies of thinhorn sheep. ____________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. How can you tell a thinhorn from a bighorn sheep?
(include where they are found) ________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. How can you tell a mountain goat from a Dalls sheep? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. What are some clues to be able to tell the difference between
a nanny and billy mountain goat? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Mountain sheep and goats live in similar habitats.
Describe this habitat. __________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Describe a bison. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. What are some clues to tell a bull and cow bison apart? __________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. What is a bisons preferred habitat and food. ____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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12. Where are bison found in B.C.? ________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
13. What makes an animal choose a certain habitat to live in? ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
14. What are annuli? ____________________________________________________________
What are they useful for and when can they not be used? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
282
b) The Deer Family (Cervidae)
feeding on hay bales meant for cattle, and

in alfalfa fields during the summer.
The deer family, Cervidae, are split-hoofed

mammals that are ruminants and that
have antlers that are shed every year. They
include deer, elk, moose, and caribou.
Male cervids grow antlers that can be used
in identification. Of the female cervids,
only female caribou commonly have
antlers. It is not that uncommon,
particularly in the Peace region, to
encounter does with a full or partial rack;
however, this must be considered a genetic
mutation and not the norm.
While deer and moose eat many of the

same foods, during the critical winter
period, deer and moose are separated to
some extent because deer cannot move
easily in snow deeper than about 1-1/2 ft.
(.5 m). Deer and elk may also share the
same winter range but elk tend to graze and
deer browse at that season.
Deer communicate with scent produced by
glands on their legs. The metatarsal gland is
located on the outside of the lower leg, the
tarsal gland is inside the hock ("elbow" of
the hind leg) and there is also an
interdigital gland between the toes. The
metatarsal gland produces a scent when the
deer is alarmed, the tarsal gland is for
individual identification and the
interdigital gland leaves a scent along trails
where the deer walk.
Deer
Deer are abundant throughout all except
the extreme northern and northwestern
portions of the province. The deer native
to B.C. include mule deer, Columbia
black-tailed deer, Sitka black-tailed deer,
and white-tailed deer. Fallow deer occur in
restricted areas of southern B.C. and are
also farmed but this species is not native
to the province.
It takes a lot of practice to tell the

difference between a mule deer and a
white-tailed deer by their tracks. The mule
deer track is generally wider than a
whitetails and tends to be straight sided on
the inside of the toes while the whitetail is
slightly curved and leaves a bigger gap
about mid-toe. This can be difficult to see
unless the track is very clear. In general, a
mature buck of any species with a large
rack will leave a track with spread toe tips
due to the weight of its chest and rack,
while does will not have this spread unless
they are running. A large mule deer buck
leaves a longer track than a large whitetailed buck. An alarmed mule deer also has
a distinctive track when it "stotts," or
bounces stiff-legged, compared to the
gallop of a whitetail. The tracks will be
grouped almost in a rectangle with a large
gap to the next set where the mule deer
jumped. The galloping whitetail will leave
almost uniformly distanced tracks. In both
cases, the toes will be spread and you may
see the marks made by the dewclaws (the
"toes" on the ankles) as the animal lands
and the ankle flexes down.
Deer are important prey animals for

predators, which include cougar, wolves,
coyotes, lynx, bobcat, and bear. It
depends where you are in the province
as to which predator is most important.
Domestic dogs also sometimes kill deer.
Fawns are particularly vulnerable,
although predation is an important
natural process that "weeds out" sick and
weak animals. Numbers of deer will also
vary due to winter severity and natural
swings in predator numbers. Larger
predators can scatter herds on wintering
ranges, thereby achieving wider use
of browse.
Deer feed primarily at dawn, dusk and
into the night. During the day they rest in
areas that hide them from sight. They
thrive in disturbed habitats such as
logging clear cuts or forest fire scars that
are starting to fill in with herbs and
shrubs. Deer may compete for food with
cattle, sheep, elk and moose although this
is often only during certain seasons. They
can also become a problem in winter by
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Mule deer and the two black-tailed deer

species are related and share some
characteristics in common. White-tailed
deer are quite different and a treated
separately here, as are fallow deer.
Antler descriptions given for each species here

are for "typical" animals. "Non-typical" variations
are common; however, the general shape and
structure will be the same as the typical, even if
the details, such as branching, vary.
Tracks 3 1/4"
Doe
Buck
MULE DEER
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Mule deer
Odocoileus hemionus hemionus
Ungulate cervid
Buck
Doe
Fawn
with black hair. The bucks in winter are

usually grayish brown, while the does and
bucks in summer are reddish brown. They
are yellower than white-tailed deer. They
have a light throat, face and muzzle with a
dark forehead and their characteristically
large ears have black borders with white
hair on the inside.
Mule deer and the two black-tailed deer

species (Columbia and Sitka) are
subspecies of the same specie, Odocoileus
hemionus. They are mainly separated by
geography, size, to some extent colour,
and behaviour.
Body size and characteristics: Male mule

deer weigh between 160 to 250 lb. (70 to
115 kg) but can weigh up to 405 lb. (205
kg). They grow to about 3 ft. at the
shoulder (90 cm). Does are smaller and
rarely exceed 160 lb. (70 kg). Mule deer get
their name from their large ears.
Colour: Mule deer in general are brownish

in colour. They have a large white rump
patch and a slender white tail that is tipped
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General Comments: Mule deer are more

curious than white-tailed deer and are
often seen in open areas. When running
for cover, they often pause to look back,
giving the hunter a good opportunity for a
standing shot. When startled, they bounce
high and stiff-legged as if on springs
("stotting"); because of the great distance
covered with each bound the mule deer
appears to spend most of its time in the
air. If not as alarmed, they also will walk,
trot or gallop. The fawns and does, though
seldom heard, make a bleat; bucks have a
guttural grunt, especially during the rut;
both sexes snort when alarmed.
200 km
Mule Deer
Columbia
Black-tailed Deer
Mule & Black-tailed deer distribution
Antlers: The antlers of the male mule deer
grow in forked pairs. Each antler has two
main beams, and each of these split again
as the animal matures. (This is in contrast
to the white-tailed deer antler which has
one main beam with unbranched tines
coming off it; see figure.) Mule deer may
also have a single "brow tine" near the base
of the antler which is often quite small. A
mule deers rack (both antlers together)
curves out to the side, then up (in contrast
to the whitetail whose rack wraps
forwards; see diagram). Antlers are used
for fighting during the rut and then are
shed between January and March. The
older bucks shed their antlers first. Antlers
are regrown between April and August.
The rut usually occurs in November/

December. Bucks compete by threatening,
pushing, fighting, and bush-thrashing. Twin
fawns are born after 6 to 7 months. Mule
and black-tailed deer do not have strong
social bonding and will be found either
alone or in small groups. Occasionally mule
deer will gather seen in larger groups.
Mule Deer Key Points

Largest of the 3 native deer species
(mule, black-tailed, white-tailed)
Antlers in forked pairs
White rump patch with narrow,
black-tipped tail
Very large ears
Light face and muzzle with dark
forehead
When startled, will run with high,
stiff-legged bounce
May stop to look back when running
for cover
Found in a wide variety of habitats
Most widely distributed deer in B.C.
Habitats: Mule deer live in a wide variety of

habitats such as coniferous forests, desert
shrubland, grassland with shrubs, and the
mixed boreal forests of the north. They
favour openings in these areas, browsing on
shrubs and twigs and adding grass and
herbs at times. In summer they tend to
migrate to higher elevations and move to
lower elevations with less snowfall in the
winter. Winter range is often shared with
elk, white-tailed deer, and domestic cattle.
Distribution: Mule deer are the most

abundant deer in B.C. and are found
east of the Coast Mountains throughout
the remainder of "deer country" in
the province.

What is a four-point mule deer?
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Blacktailed buck
Mule doe
BLACK-TAILED DEER
Common name:
Scientific name:
Black-tailed deer
Odocoileus hemionus columbianus
Columbia black-tailed deer
Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis
Sitka black-tailed deer
Scientific classification: Ungulate cervid
Male name:
Buck
Female name:
Doe
Offspring name:
Fawn
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Mule Deer
Colour: Black-tailed deer have almost no

rump patch and a broad tail that is either
brown or black on top and always has a
black tip with a white underside.
Coloration of the black-tailed deer is warm
brown to gray brown. Columbia blacktails
are a bit darker than mule deer and Sitka
blacktails are darker than Columbias. The
facial markings are subdued; they have a
light face and muzzle but do not have a
very dark forehead.
Whitetailed
Deer
deer or white-tailed deer. Mature

Columbia bucks weigh from 105 to 200 lb.
(48 to 90 kg) and the does between 90 to
140 lb. (40 to 65 kg). Sitka blacktails are
even smaller. They both have smaller ears
than mule deer.
Antlers: The antlers of the male blacktailed deer grow in forked pairs like a mule
deer but lack the number of possible tines
that can grow on mule deer.
Body size and characteristics: Blacktailed deer are smaller than either mule
286
Whitetail deer
antlers
Mule deer
stotting
Whitetailed deer
running
Mule deer
antlers
Habitat: Old-growth forests are important

for coastal blacktails as the habitat
provides shelter, forage, and stops buildups
of deep, heavy snow. In the southern parts
of their range, this old growth is less
important due to abundant open areas and
milder climate. Blacktails are browsers in
winter and early spring and then mix in
grasses and a wide variety of herbs, as well
as browse, in summer and fall. Winter
ranges are often shared with Roosevelt elk.
Black-tailed Deer Key Points
Distribution: Columbia black-tailed deer

are found along the mainland coast west of
the Coast Range and generally south of
Rivers Inlet, on Vancouver Island and
associated Gulf islands. Sitka black-tailed
deer occur on the Queen Charlotte Islands
and the mainland coast and islands north
of Rivers Inlet. Columbia blacktails overlap
with Sitka blacktails in the Rivers Inlet area
and with mule deer range in isolated places
in the Coast Mountains where they
sometimes interbreed.
Smallest of the 3 native deer species

(mule, black-tailed, white-tailed) and
Sitka blacktail is smaller than
Columbia blacktail
Antlers in forked pairs, like mule deer
Almost no rump patch with wide,
black-surfaced tail
Small ears
Light face and muzzle but forehead
not dark
When startled, will run with high,
stiff-legged bounce, like mule deer
Found in forests and forest edges
Located on B.C. coast west of the
Coast Mountains and on the
coastal islands.
Columbia blacktails occur in the
south, Sitka blacktails in the north
General comments: Many of the

comments for mule deer apply to the two
blacktail subspecies. They are very good
swimmers. When running, a black-tailed
deer bounces like a mule deer but usually
holds its tail straight out.
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Buck
Tracks 2 1/4"
Doe
WHITE-TAILED DEER
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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White-tailed deer
Odocoileus virginianus
Odocoileus virginianus dacotensis
Dakota white-tailed deer
Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus
Northwest white-tailed deer
Ungulate cervid
Buck
Doe
Fawn
Body size and characteristics: Whitetailed deer are generally smaller than mule
and bigger than black-tailed deer. A
mature buck stands about the same height
as a mule deer (3 ft., 90 cm) but they
typically weigh less (150 to 225 lb., 68 to
102 kg). Whitetail does are about the same
size as mule deer does.
Antlers: The antlers of a typical whitetailed buck have a single main beam with
unbranched tines coming off it. The main
beam curves slightly backwards from the
head then turns out and wraps forward
over the head. (See the diagram and
description for mule deer to see the
differences.) Whitetails usually have a
brow tine, which can be quite large, near
the base of the main beam. As with the
other deer, antlers are used for fighting
during the rut and then are shed generally
between January and March.
Colour: White-tailed deer have a broad,

long tail that is cinnamon coloured on top
with a white fringe and white on the
underside. When the tail is raised in alarm,
the deer presents a large, flashing white
rump patch and under-tail that is visible
from a good distance. The white-tailed
deer is generally a cinnamon coloured deer
in summer changing to grayish in winter.
Its belly, inside of its legs, around the eyes
and its chin and throat are white. The face
has less white on it than a mule or blacktailed deer but it does not have the dark
forehead of a mule deer. Both subspecies in
B.C. look the same, the difference is in
where they live.
Habitat: The white-tailed deer lives in

forests, swamps, and the open brushy
areas nearby, and prefers valley bottoms
and farmland. Good habitat is often
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General Comments: White-tailed deer are

most often seen in early morning or late
afternoon when they move out on the
edge of open areas to feed. At other times
they stay in thick bush. Whitetails are
much more wary than mule deer and they
run in undulating leaps with broad white
tails "flagging" (held erect and waving
from side to side). Their voice is rarely
heard; it is a low bleat by fawns, guttural
grunts by old bucks in rut; and both sexes
give a loud, sharp, whistling snort when
alarmed. They are excellent swimmers.
Dakota
Whitetail
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Northwest
Whitetail
White-tailed Deer distribution
In spring and summer the basic group is a

doe and her fawns. Bucks live alone or in
small groups until the November rut when
they search out the does and fight each
other for dominance. Gestation is about 7
months and twins are most common. They
sometimes form groups of up to 25 in
winter, especially when the snow gets deep.
found beside streams and rivers. They

eat twigs, shrubs, fungi, and grass and
herbs in season since they are both
grazers and browsers. Although they can
overlap with elk, mule deer and cattle,
mule deer choose steeper hillsides in
winter and elk normally graze during
that period while the whitetails browse.
Competition becomes more important if
the range is overpopulated.
White-tailed Deer Key Points

Mid-sized of the 3 native deer species
(mule, black-tailed, white-tailed)
Antlers have a main beam with
unbranched tines coming off
Wide brown tail covers white rump
until startled; then animal runs with
tail, which is white underneath, held
high and waving from side to side
(called "flagging") and white rump
patch exposed
Small ears
When startled, will gallop with
undulating leaps
Very wary
Found in a variety of habitats but
generally more valley bottom than
mule deer
Mainly found in southeastern and
south-central B.C. and Peace country
but range is expanding
Distribution: White-tailed deer in the past

were found only in the southeastern
portion of the province (the Northwest
subspecies) and the Peace River area (the
Dakota subspecies). The Kootenays and the
Grand Forks area currently have the largest
population numbers in the Peace vary
usually with winter severity. Over the last
20 years, however, whitetails have been
expanding their territories westward and
the actual distribution is a lot more hazy.
Whitetails have now moved into the
Merritt and Princeton areas, Kamloops Lake
area, and west of the Fraser River. A large
enough population now exists in the south
Cariboo and the Smithers area to support a
hunting season and they have been
reported in Fort St. James, Vanderhoof, and
Mackenzie. This migration is likely due to a
number of consecutive winters of low
snowfalls. Two restricting factors for them
are snow depth and human development
in valley bottoms.

What is a four-point white-tailed deer?
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photo by Bob Jones
FALLOW DEER
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Fallow deer
Dama dama
Ungulate cervid
Buck
Doe
Fawn
cm) but they have a much lighter build

and appear thin, ranging from 90 to 175
lb. (40 to 80 kg). The doe is slightly shorter
but weighs only about 100 lb. (45 kg). The
front legs are somewhat shorter than the
hind legs. The buck has a prominent
penile sheath and an "Adams apple".
Colour: The fallow deer is usually light

brown with white spots but the
background colour can vary from nearly
white through silver to very dark. The
winter coat is darker and spots tend to
fade. A black stripe runs down the back
onto the tail and a distinctive white line
runs horizontally along the flank. Inside
of legs and belly are white. The tail is very
long for a deer; besides the black stripe,
the tail is brown, surrounded by a light
coloured area and a black or brown fringe.
Fallow deer are the only deer in B.C.
which have a spotted coat as adults.
Antlers: The antlers of a mature fallow

deer are very distinctive. The base of the
antler is narrow, similar to other deer, and
sweeps back from the head. There is a
prominent brow tine and a second tine
farther back; neither of these tines is
branched. Beyond the second tine the
antler becomes palmate with a fringe of
variable length tines pointing back (unlike
moose whose tines point forward). Where
the antler starts to become palmate, it
sweeps up. Although both moose and
fallow deer have palmate antlers, the
shape and difference in size and weight
easily distinguish them. Antler
development, use, and shedding are
similar to other deer.
Body size and characteristics: A fully

grown fallow deer will be approximately
the same height as a whitetail (3 ft., 90
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Rutting behaviour is different from that of

native deer. A fallow buck will set up a
small territory consisting of a scrape and
the surrounding trees and bushes which
he will thrash. The bucks do not use their
scrapes as wallows although they do
urinate in them and on themselves. Bucks
have a characteristic groaning call during
the rut which attracts the does to their
territory. Bucks will push each other
during the rut and sometimes inflict
wounds with their antlers.
Saltspring
Island
Vancouver
Island
James &
Sidney
Island
Does are very vocal and use a variety of

squeaks and bleats to communicate. The
bucks tend to vocalize only during the rut.
Victoria
Fallow Deer distribution

Habitat: Fallow deer are both grazers and
browsers. They prefer relatively open
habitat but also require deciduous or
mixed forest to hide, browse, and to have
their fawns. Fallow deer seldom drink but
get the majority of their water
requirements from the food they eat.
Fallow Deer Key Points

Thin, non-native deer from the
Mediterranean region
Large antler has 2 tines along a
narrow base, then antler sweeps up
and becomes palmate with
backward-pointing tines along edge
(moose have forward-pointing tines)
Light brown with white spots but
background colour can vary from
white to very dark
Black stripe down back and onto
long tail, white line along flank
Bucks have penile sheath and Adams
apple
Buck sets up a scrape and calls does
to it
Found in open habitat with forest to
hide in
Occur mainly on Sidney and
James Islands off Vancouver Island,
widely farmed
Distribution: Fallow deer are native to the

Mediterranean area of Europe and Asia
Minor; however, they have been introduced
around the world. The first known
introduction was by the Normans into
England at the end of the eleventh century.
In B.C., fallow deer have been introduced
successfully to a number of the Gulf Islands
and are also farmed throughout the
province. The principal islands where they
occur are Sidney and James Islands off the
southeast coast of Vancouver Island.
General comments: Fallow deer are herd
animals although the groupings will differ
depending on the time of year. During
most of the year the main grouping will be
does with their fawns and yearlings, with
the bucks living separately in groups. The
groups band together for the rut which
can start in late August but reaches its
peak in October. A single fawn is born
generally in May or June after a gestation
of about 8 months.

What species licence do you need
for a fallow deer?
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Bull
Tracks 5 1/4"
Cow
MOOSE
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Moose
Alces alces
Alces alces andersoni
Northwestern moose
Alces alces gigas Alaskan moose
Alces alces shirasi Shiras moose
Ungulate cervid
Bull
Cow
Calf
slim and set lower than the front quarters.

The tail is short and not seen at a distance.
Moose are 5 to 6-1/2 ft. (150 to 195 cm) in
height. The males weigh 990 to 1,180 lb.
(450 to 535 kg) and the females are 700 to
925 lb. (315 to 420 kg). B.C. has three
subspecies that all look similar, the main
difference is size; the smallest, the Shirasi,
occurs in the southeast corner of the
province, and the largest, the Alaskan,
in the northwest corner.
Colour: Moose are dark brown with

grayish legs and, at a distance, appear
black. Cow moose have a lighter coloured
patch on their rump around the tail which
can help identify them from antlerless
bulls in late winter and early spring.
Antlers: The males antlers have massive,

shovel-like (palmate) plates with small
prongs (tines) projecting forward from the
borders. They begin to develop in late April,
the velvet is usually shed by September, and
antlers are shed between mid-November
and late March. As they grow older, a lower
(brow) palm develops, which protects the
face during fights. Young bulls generally
have two or three points but no palm.
Antlers of older moose vary greatly in size
and number of points but can spread 66 in.
(168 cm) tip to tip. As with other deer,
antlers are used during the rut for fighting
to establish dominance.
Body size and characteristics: Moose are

the largest member of the deer family.
They have long legs, a shoulder hump, big
ears, a large overhanging upper lip, and
bulls have larger antlers than any other
member of the deer family. A pendant of
hair-covered skin, called a bell or dewlap,
hangs under the throat and is variable in
size and shape. In bulls it can reach 10 in.
(25 cm) in length. The hindquarters are
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Alaskan
Moose
Northwestern
Moose
100
100
200 km
Shiras
Moose
Moose distibution
Habitats: Moose live in forests with lakes
and swamps that grow the abundant browse
they require. In mountainous regions, they
usually move to higher elevations in
summer and return to the valley bottoms in
winter. In summer, moose spread out but in
winter, particularly in years of deep snows,
moose tend to concentrate in the willows
and shrubs along river valleys, wetlands,
burns, and clear cuts. Up to 80 percent of
their diet is woody browse. In winter they
feed on twigs, bark, saplings. They add
aquatic vegetation, new leaves and herbs to
their diets in summer. Moose, like elk and
deer, can cause problems tearing apart hay
bales intended for livestock.
General Comments: Moose generally live

singly or in small groups, although during
the rut the groups may get as large as 8 or 10
animals. Because moose normally have a
small home range, without protection local
populations may be quickly reduced if there
is easy access for hunters.
The rut occurs from late September to
November. During the rut, bulls will grunt and
bellow, lock horns and push each other for
dominance. The dewlap is used for
communication, both by sight and smell.
During the rut a bull will rub the cow with his
chin ("chinning") and the dewlap transfers this
bulls scent to the female. The size and shape
of the dewlap may also be an indicator of
dominance to other bulls, just as the size of
antlers is. Gestation is about 8 months and
usually a single calf is born in late May or June.
Long legs are an adaptation to the habitat
and climate the moose lives in. Moose have
little difficulty moving around in snow up
to 27 in. (70 cm) deep, stepping over fallen
trees, walking through muskeg, and pushing
through bush. Their hair is of two kinds:
long guard hairs and a fine, dense
undercoat, which allows them to live in the
most severe winter conditions.
Moose Key Points
Distribution: Moose are widely

distributed in British Columbia. They are
most common in the central interior and
northern boreal mountains and the mixed
boreal forests of the Peace River region but
are still expanding their range. They are
less common on the coast and in dry
southern interior valleys. Moose are not
found on any coast islands.
Largest of the deer family

Dark brown to black with grayish legs
A bell or dewlap under the throat
Antlers are massive and palmate
Distinctive shoulder hump and
overhanging upper lip
Often solitary
Found in forests with lakes
and swamps
Widely distributed in B.C. except in
dry interior valleys and on the coast;
do not occur on any coastal islands
Very few moose were found south of Prince

George until shortly after 1900. The reason
for this expansion south was the creation of
new habitat due to clearing by settlers,
miners, loggers, and forest and range fires.
As the new vegetation began to spring up,
it provided ideal browse for moose. This is
continuing today.

What is a tri-palm Bull Moose?
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Bull
ELK
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Elk
Cervus elaphus
Cervus elaphus nelsoni Rocky Mountain elk
Cervus elaphus roosevelti Roosevelt elk
Ungulate cervid
Bull
Cow
Calf
Colour: In summer, elk are a reddishbrown colour with dark legs, head, and
neck. They have a large rump patch that
is cream in colour and contrasts with the
rest of the body. By August their body
colour changes to their winter coat of
gray-brown with head, neck, and legs
dark brown. Both males and females have
a dark mane, which gets heavier in
winter. The rump patch remains creamy
coloured and distinctive. Roosevelt elk
are slightly darker than the Rocky
Mountain subspecies.
Body size and characteristics: Elk are
smaller than moose, much larger than
deer and only slightly larger than caribou.
Mature bulls stand 4 to 5 ft. (120 to 150
cm) tall at the shoulder and weigh 580 to
1,000 lb. (265 to 450 kg). Females are
smaller at 420 to 600 lb. (190 to 270 kg).
Mature Roosevelt elk are generally a bit
larger than Rocky Mountain elk.
Tracks 4 1/4"
Cow
Antlers: The antlers of mature bulls consist of

a long, round beam that sweeps up and back
from the skull with tines that are unbranched.
The normal number of tines on a mature bull
is six; the tip of the antler points down from
the main beam and the other five tines are
located forward and point up. Generally two
of the tines are above the forehead. Antlers
usually start growing in early May, are
complete by late August, and are shed
between late February and early April. The
tips of antlers on Roosevelt elk sometimes
consist of a "crown" of three or four points. As
with others in the deer family, antlers are used
to compete for dominance during the rut.
Habitat: Elk generally live in mountainous
areas with habitat as varied as dense coastal
forest to semi-open interior forest. They are
most active in mornings and evenings and
feed on grasses, herbs, twigs, and bark,
usually lower-growing species than those
chosen by moose. This restricts their range to
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Rocky
Mountain
Elk
just before the rut. During the rut bulls bugle,

wallow, spray urine, thrash vegetation with
their antlers, and fight, both with antlers and
front hooves. Bull elk, unlike other deer, will
form harems of cows that they will protect
from other bulls. Most females are bred in
September but the rut may continue into
November. Gestation is 8 months and a
single calf is born.
They have a characteristic "alertness" of
appearance that comes from holding their
head high as they move. This is in contrast to
caribou, which move with their heads down.
The calf has a high-pitched squeal when in
danger; the cow has a similar squeal, also a
sharp bark when travelling with a herd;
males have a high-pitched bugling call that
starts with a low note and ends with a few
low-toned grunts and is generally heard
during rutting season, especially at night.
Roosevelt Elk
Elk distribution
areas that do not have deep snow in
winter. In severe winters when grazing is
difficult elk will browse for food and may
even strip and eat trees. They can be very
destructive in alfalfa fields and on hay
bales and even drive off livestock that are
trying to feed. In spring and summer they
head for higher elevations. Although elk
may share winter ranges with deer,
bighorn sheep, moose or caribou, each
species targets different food. Cattle can be
serious competition however.
Elk Key Points

Larger than deer and caribou,
smaller than moose
Reddish brown with dark brown
head, legs, neck (opposite to caribou)
Large, distinctive cream-coloured
rump
Antlers are a long, backwardsweeping main beam with
unbranched, upward-sweeping tines
Hold head high as they move
(opposite to caribou)
Usually found in groups
Bulls have distinctive bugling call
during rut
Both grazers and browsers but choose
low-growing species so need areas of
shallow snow
Prefer semi-open forested areas from
sea level to alpine
Distributed in mountainous areas of
the coastal islands and eastern interior
Distribution: Roosevelt elk are found on

Vancouver Island and have been
successfully transplanted to the Sunshine
Coast. Rocky Mountain elk are found in the
Kootenays, west to Grand Forks, and the
east slope of the Rocky Mountain foothills
in the South Peace River area up to the Liard
River, as well as the Muskwa and Tuchodi
river areas. They have been transplanted to
numerous areas including southern
Vancouver Island, the Queen Charlotte
Islands, Grandby River, Lower Arrow Lake,
Williston Lake, Kechika River, Bridge River,
Naramata, Princeton, and Squamish areas.
General comments: Elk are the only
members of the deer family, other than
caribou, that form large social groups.
Twenty-five or more cows, calves and
yearlings will stay together until the fall rut,
which starts in September. Bulls form
smaller, separate groups or live singly until

What is the six-point elk rule?
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CARIBOU
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Caribou
Rangifer tarandus caribou
Woodland caribou
Ungulate cervid
Bull
Cow
Calf
lichens. The hoof print usually shows the

dewclaws, which provide extra support on
soft surfaces.
Antlers: Caribou are the only ungulate of
which both the male and female commonly
carry antlers. Caribou bull antlers differ from
other deer in that one or two flattened, heavy
tines called "shovels" extend out over the
forehead. The main stem of the antler
extends back, up, and out to the side, and the
tips of the antlers are branched. Caribou
antlers are flatter and wider than those of the
mule and white-tailed deer. Cow caribou
have smaller antlers than the bulls and some
may be antlerless.
Caribou are wild reindeer similar to the wild

and domesticated reindeer of Eurasia.
Although there is only one species of
reindeer in the world, two distinct types
occur in Canada: the woodland caribou and
the tundra caribou. In British Columbia, we
have only the woodland caribou.
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Cow
Tracks 4 1/4"
Bull
Colour: Caribou are generally a dark

chocolate brown on the body with limited
white areas on the belly, rump and lower
legs, and a whitish neck (opposite to elk).
Habitats: Woodland caribou, a creature of

the boreal and subalpine forest, seek the
seclusion of mature spruce and other
coniferous forests or remote alpine
meadows. They are not great travellers and
may move only a few miles from summer
range of alpine tundra to winter range in
timber lower on a mountainside. In more
level areas of the boreal (northern
coniferous) forests, they may graze and
browse limited areas of bogs, low-lying
Body size and characteristics: Woodland

caribou are mid-sized, between mule deer
and elk, and have long legs. They are about
3-1/2 to 4 ft. (105 to 120 cm) tall at the
shoulder. Males are about twice the weight
of females and reach 400 to 600 lb. (180 to
270 kg). They have large, concave hooves
that splay widely to support the animal in
snow or muskeg, efficiently scoop through
snow sometimes a metre deep to uncover
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100
100
200 km
Caribou distribution
grassy areas, or lichen-rich glades, and
move perhaps only a short distance to a
wintering area where tree and ground
lichens are available. They are primarily
grazers through spring and early fall but,
as they live in areas with long, cold
winters, winter food is extremely
important for survival. Lichens, both tree
(arboreal) and ground (terrestrial), are of
great importance to their diets. As lichens
are very slow-growing, the best sources are
in old lodgepole pine and black spruce
forests. In winter they will choose windswept alpine areas where it is easy to get at
terrestrial lichens or move to mature
forests where snow depth allows them to
reach arboreal lichens.
sociable and are often in small groups. In areas

where their habitat is more open (for example
the Spatsizi Plateau) herds can consist of several
hundred animals during the rut; however, it is
not uncommon to encounter caribou of either
sex travelling alone. The rut is much shorter for
caribou than other deer and occurs in midOctober. Gestation is 7 to 8 months and a
single calf is born in late May or early June.
Wolves are the main predator of caribou. In the
north, before logging and mining provided
new growth and access for moose, caribou were
relatively separated from wolves. But with the
movement of moose into overlapping habitats
and increased access from roads, the wolves
followed and predation on caribou increased. A
similar situation was created in the south with
cougar following the expansion of elk and deer
into caribou habitat. Snowmobiles can also
force them to leave critical winter habitat
leading to higher death rates.
Caribou Key Points

Larger than deer, smaller than moose
or elk
Very dark brown with white neck,
belly, rump and lower legs
(opposite to elk)
Both sexes may be antlered but bulls
have a distinctive brow tine or "shovel"
Hold head low as they move
(opposite to elk)
Large hoof to be able to walk on soft
snow or muskeg; print often shows
dewclaws
Grazers and browsers
In winter, lichen, both in trees
(arboreal) and on the ground
(terrestrial), is a very important food
Prefers mountainous areas with
mature forests and muskeg
Distributed mostly in the north, east
of the Coast Mountains, with a few in
the central interior and the east
Distribution: In the northern half of B.C.,

caribou are found east of the Coast
Mountains to the eastern foothills of the
Rocky Mountains. In the southern half of
the province, caribou generally occur in the
Columbia and Rocky Mountains and range
west (Selkirk and Monashee Mountains).
They are not found in the southern Rockies.
General comments: The animal most
closely resembling the caribou is the elk,
but even at a distance the caribous
distinctive brow tine, large feet, light
mane, and habit of holding its head low
when moving are unmistakable features.
They do not form large herds in the forested
areas of their distribution, but they are

What is the five-point bull
Caribou rule?
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QUIZ ON THE FAMILY CERVIDAE

1. What is a cervid? ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Give two examples of wild cervids in B.C. ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe how an antler grows.__________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the four native deer species in B.C.? __________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. How can you tell a fallow deers antlers from a mooses antlers? __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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6. Name the largest 3 wild cervids in B.C. in order of size. __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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7. Give 3 unique identifying characteristics of moose. ______________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. If you are handed an elk antler and the tip consists of a "crown" of 3 or 4 points, what
type of elk is it from and where would you be likely to find it? __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. What special adaptation does a moose have for living in its chosen habitat? What
about caribou? ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. When elk, white-tailed deer and moose occupy the same winter habitat, how do
they keep from competing with each other for food? __________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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PART III.
KEY TO LARGE
BRITISH COLUMBIA CARNIVORES
Carnivores are meat-eating mammals
which have teeth along the sides of their
jaws for cutting or shearing their food and
spear-like canine teeth for puncturing and
tearing. Bears have different teeth from
other carnivores; their back teeth are flattopped and are similar to those of
humans; they crush rather than shear
food. Bears eat a great variety of plant
material as well as meat but are included
in the carnivore group of animals.
There are a lot fewer carnivores than

herbivores in the wild because it takes
many prey species to feed a single
carnivore and a carnivore is often not
successful in its attempt to take an
animal (it is estimated that a predator is
successful only once in seven attempts).
If there were too many carnivores, they
would starve. The "food chain," in simple
form, is actually more like a pyramid. At
the bottom you have a large number of
rapidly reproducing prey species, such as
mice, that a lot of animals eat (such as
the mammalian carnivores, birds of prey,
and reptiles). These animals must
reproduce rapidly to keep their species
from disappearing due to being eaten.
The next levels up are larger animals, still
mainly herbivorous prey species, that
reproduce rapidly and can overuse their
habitat and starve unless they are
removed by predators. Examples are deer
and rabbits. The next levels up consist of
animals that both prey on other species
Large carnivores are generally cat-like

(cougar, lynx, bobcat), dog-like (wolf,
fox, coyote), or bear-like (grizzly, black
bear) animals. Each of these carnivores
has distinctive tracks. The cats have a
roundish track that does not show claws,
the dogs have a roughly 5-sided track
that shows the toenails, and the bears
walk flat on their feet with an almost
human-like back footprint and a front
print that resembles a human walking
on the ball of his/her foot.
Recognizing species by tracks
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bear family
cat family
Note: Cat tracks
leave a circular print
while the dog family
leaves a 5-sided
(pentagonal) print.
dog family
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and are preyed on themselves, such as

foxes. At the very top, you find the
primary predators, which have few or no
predators that prey on them, for
example, wolverines, cougars, wolves,
and bears. These top predators will
sometimes prey on each other or others
of their own species, but other species
almost never prey on them. Each level
higher on the pyramid is smaller,
representing a smaller number of
animals. This is why you will see far
fewer predators than prey species. It is

relatively easy to find a herd of deer or
lots of evidence of mice and rabbits, but
you may never see a wolverine or a
cougar. Bears are more common because
they do not strictly depend on prey
species but choose a wide variety of food,
both plant and animal, in their diet. You
dont have to chase a plant to eat it, so a
bears diet is easier to obtain than, for
instance, a cougars and therefore, a bear
is less likely to starve than a cougar.
The Food Chain
Primary Predators
e.g., cougars,
wolves, bears
Animals that
are both prey
and predator
e.g., foxes, lynx
Larger, rapidly
reproducing prey species
e.g., deer, rabbits
Prey species
e.g., mice
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a) The Cat Family (Felidae)
(A dog-family print will have a pointed

front to the main pad; the back of the pad
is variable.)
Except for colour and size, all cats (felids)

look alike. They have short faces, small
rounded ears, and well-developed
whiskers. They have five toes on each
front foot, and four on the back foot. The
fifth toe on the front foot does not leave a
print as it is located on the ankle (you can
check this on a domestic cat). Cats that
live in colder regions (e.g., lynx) have fur
covering their toes so will leave a smudgy
print. If you do see a clear print, the front
part of the main pad shows a single indent
at the front and two indents at the back.
All cats living in Canada have strong,

retractable claws for holding prey and
climbing trees and these claws almost
never show up in footprints. (As a note of
interest, cheetahs are the only cats that
have dog-like, non-retractable claws.) Cats
are solitary except for a brief time during
breeding and are often nocturnal. They do
not eat carrion except in extreme
circumstances.
COUGAR
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Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Cougar
(also called mountain lion
or puma)
Felis concolor
Carnivore felid
Male (or Tom)
Female
Kitten
Tracks 3"
Common name:
months. It can be important to be able to

tell a male from a female when hunting
and this can be difficult unless the
animal is treed. The female has darker
hair around the vulva and the male has a
penile sheath, but these can be obscured
unless the cat is above you.
Colour: The upper parts of the body,

including the tail and head, are tawny,
grayish, or reddish. The belly and rump
are white often overlaid with buff. The
chin, throat, and whiskers are white. The
backs of the ears are black and there is a
black patch at the base of the whiskers
and the tip of the tail. Kittens have
blackish spots on a buff-coloured body
and the tail has dark rings; these
markings disappear entirely within a few
Body size and characteristics: The cougar

is the largest cat in B.C. It has a slender
form, long cylindrical tail, short ears and
prominent whiskers. A mature cougar is
302
Breeding may occur in any season and,

after a gestation of about three months,
two to four kittens are born. It is rare to see
cougars as they are very secretive and
usually solitary. They can be active at any
time of the day but are usually nocturnal.
Cougars prey mainly on deer, but also on
elk, moose, and mountain sheep. Beavers,
mice, squirrels, porcupines, snowshoe
hares, and birds also form part of their
diet. They are not capable of long chases
so will either stalk an animal or lie in
ambush, often in a tree or on a rocky
outcropping. Cougars can kill prey up to
four times their size by jumping on the
preys back, severing the spine with
strong teeth and ripping open the throat
with its claws.
Cougar distribution
about 26 to 30 in. (65 to 75 cm) tall at the

shoulders, 6 to 7 ft. (180 to 210 cm) long
(3 ft. [1 m] of which is tail), and weighs
from 100 to 200 lb. (45 to 90 kg). Females
are smaller.
Cougars generally have naked footpads,

which can show up clearly in the
footprint. Other than the toes, the feet are
well haired to aid in the silent stalking of
prey. The tail, which is roughly the
diameter of a persons arm, is held out and
used for balance when in motion and is
often held down when at rest.
Habitats: Cougars prefer mature and

second-growth forests in rocky and
mountainous terrain, but may also be
found along the seashore, on estuaries,
and occasionally near human habitation.
Cougars that approach humans are
generally young adults that have been
pushed out by their mothers and are
trying to find a new territory, or are old or
sick animals that are trying for an easy
meal in the form of a domestic pet.
Cougar Key Points

Largest cat in B.C.
Solid tawny colour with white belly,
chin, rump
Back of ears, base of whiskers, and
tip of tail are black
Tail is long, cylindrical and used
for balance
Main prey is deer
Prefers mountainous forests
for habitat
Distributed mainly south of the
Peace and Skeena Rivers but are
expanding their range
Distribution: Cougars are found mainly

south of the Skeena and Peace Rivers in
the Coast Mountains, Interior Plateau
and Rocky Mountains. They are also on
Vancouver Island. Over the past few years
they have been expanding their
territories enough so that there is now a
hunting season for them in the Peace and
Skeena regions.
General comments: Although not very

vocal, cougars yowl like an ordinary
tomcat, but much magnified. At times they
communicate with bird-like whistles,
especially with their kittens. They also purr.

What are the dates in Region 4 for
pursuit only of cougars?
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LYNX
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Lynx
Lynx canadensis
Carnivore felid
Male (or Tom)
Female
Kitten
Tracks 4"
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Body size and characteristics: The lynx is

18 to 24 in. (45 to 60 cm) tall at the
shoulder and 32 to 36 in. (80 to 90 cm)
long with a 4 in. (10 cm) long tail. They can
weigh up to 40 lb. (18 kg) or more and are
larger than the bobcat. The legs are long
(often the hind legs will give the
appearance of being longer than the front
legs) and the feet are conspicuously large, 9
in. (22 cm) or longer, with light-coloured
pads. They have long, tassel-like ear tufts.
Colour: The lynx is almost solid gray and

has a short tail that is black at the tip on
both top and bottom (unlike the bobcat
whose tail tip is black only on the top).
The summer coat may be slightly
brownish. Ear tassels are black. There is a
distinctive fringe around the face which
forms two long white "ruffs" on each side
of the chin. The outside edge of this ruff is
generally black.
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Bobcat
Lynx distribution
Habitats: Lynx habitat is mixed deciduous

and coniferous boreal forests where it
usually remains in or near the cover on
burned areas and natural forest clearings.
Distribution: Lynx occur throughout
British Columbia east of the coast range
but they choose isolated wilderness areas.
Lynx
General comments: This cat is sometimes

called "link" in the north. Its food consists
primarily of snowshoe hares, but rodents,
birds, and the young of deer, moose, and
caribou are also preyed upon. Like cougars,
lynx will stalk and ambush their prey.
Lynx Key Points

Same general shape but larger than
bobcats (up to 40 lb.[18 kg] or more),
long legs
Almost solid gray with a short tail
tipped in black, top and bottom
Distinctive long, black ear tassels
Distinctive large, furred feet
Distinctive ruff around face ending
in two white ruffs on each side
of chin
Main prey is snowshoe hare
Prefers mixed deciduous/coniferous
forest habitat
Distributed throughout B.C., east
of the Coast Mountains
The foot is very well-furred, enough to

cover the toes so that they do not easily
show up in the footprint. The size of the
paws is an adaptation to life in the deep,
soft snow of the boreal forests where the
lynx can use its feet like snowshoes to
walk on top of the snow.
Lynx are usually nocturnal and solitary,
except during mating, which occurs from
mid-March to May. Nine weeks after
mating, two or three kittens are born.
Lynx are not very vocal but will yowl and
purr like domestic cats.
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Tracks 2"

BOBCAT
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Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Bobcat
Lynx rufus
Carnivore felid
Male (or Tom)
Female
Kitten
Body size and characteristics: Bobcats are

smaller than lynx but larger than house
cats. They stand up to 22 in. (55 cm) at the
shoulder, are 25 to 30 in. (65 to 75 cm)
long with a 5 in. (12 cm) tail. They weigh
15 to 35 lb. (6 to 16 kg). The ear tufts are
short and inconspicuous. Like lynx, they
have a ruff of fur around their face but it is
not as long. Their feet are smaller than
lynx, up to 7 in. (24 cm), and black
underneath. Toes are less likely to be
covered by fur than a lynx.
Colour: The coat of the bobcat is short,

buffy and heavily spotted. The belly and
chin are lighter in colour than the back.
The short tail is black spotted on top with
a tip that is black on the top only and
whitish below.
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Bobcat distribution
Bobcats are versatile predators preying

mainly on rodents, hares, birds, and
fawns. Like other cats, they stalk their prey
or lie in ambush.
Habitats: The bobcat is a southern cat and

prefers open brushland or semi-wooded
country. It occurs from valley bottom to
timberline though it generally is found in
mixed cover at lower elevations. The
bobcat is much less fussy in its choice of
habitat than lynx and will even live close
to humans.
Mating occurs in February or March with

generally two to four kittens born about
eight weeks later. Like lynx, they rarely
vocalize but, if heard at night, they often
sound like a baby crying. Bobcats are
solitary and generally nocturnal.
Distribution: Bobcats are found south of

Finlay Forks in the Rocky Mountain Trench,
southward on the Interior Plateau, on the
coast from Bute Inlet southward, and in the
Rocky Mountains from Mount Robson
southward. They are absent from the coastal
islands. Over the past few years it appears
that they may be expanding northward
through the Rocky Mountain Trench.
Bobcat Key Points

A bit smaller than lynx (15 to 35 lb.
[6 to 16 kg]); they are less "leggy"
than lynx
Buff coloured with black spots
Short tail is spotted and the tip is
black only on the top
Ears tufts and face ruff are smaller
and not as conspicuous, and feet are
smaller than on a lynx
Versatile carnivores
Adaptable to many habitats; prefer
semi-open, brushy forests
Distributed farther south in the
province than lynx
General comments: Lynx and bobcats can

be mistaken for one another as they are
similar in size. Distinctive features which
can help identification are that bobcat are
less streamlined and have shorter legs, they
have smaller paws, the ear tufts are not
conspicuous, the tail tip of a bobcat is
black only on top, and their body buff and
spotted in colour.
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These animals are dog-like in appearance
and, as a group, are called canids. They
have five toes on each front foot (the
inside toe is high on the ankle and is not
seen in a footprint; you can check this on
a domestic dog) and four toes on each
back foot. Each toe has a non-retractable
claw. Footpads are naked and the footprint
is approximately 5-sided in shape and
usually shows the toenails. The main pad
is pointed at the front. They have a scent
gland at the top base of their tail, which is
covered by black-tipped hairs.
Members of the dog family, although they

actively hunt prey, also eat carrion. Wolves
are most active at night, while coyotes and
foxes are active either during the day or
night, but night is preferred.
WOLF
Common name:
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Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Wolf
(also called gray or timber wolf)
Canis lupus
Carnivore canid
Male
Female (or Bitch)
Pup
Colour: Wolves are usually gray in colour

with a sprinkling of black although they
can vary from nearly white to black. The
hair of the muzzle, forehead and back is
always darker than the sides and belly
region. The coloration is much more
variable than that of the coyote.
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Tracks 4 3/4"
Vocal communication is variable among

the species but territory may also be marked
by urinating and scraping at certain areas
along the edges of the territories.
Body size and characteristics: The

wolf is the largest member of the dog
family in British Columbia and
resemble an extra tall, leggy German
Shepherd dog. They are 26 to 28 in. (65
to 70 cm) tall at the shoulder and
weigh 70 to 120 lb. (32 to 54 kg). Their
total length is about 5 to 6 ft. (1.6 to 1.9
m), which includes a 15 to 20 in. (38 to
50 cm) tail. They have a lithe,
muscular, deep-chested body, long
Wolf packs have a complex social structure

with a dominant male and female (the
alpha pair), sub-dominant adults, and
pups. Usually only the alpha male and
female breed. Mating occurs in February or
March and five to seven pups are born
after about nine weeks. The whole pack
helps to raise the young. Communication
is complex and consists of facial
expressions and body language (curled
lips, bristling fur, sticking the tongue out,
"smiling", tail position and wagging,
rolling over and exposing the belly) and
vocalizations (howling, whining, barking).
Wolf distribution
Wolves and coyotes may be misidentified;

however, coyotes are about 1/2 the size,
have a narrower, more pointed face and
carry their tail lower. To tell the difference
between a large dog and a wolf, tracks can
be an aid. Domestic dogs have narrower
hips than chests and the back footprint
will be inside the front print. A wolfs
front and back tracks will tend to overlap
and they tend to travel in a straight line.
Wolves also have a larger head, bigger
paws, and a bushier tail than dogs.
slender legs, a bushy tail, a long slender

muzzle, and large erect ears. They have a
wider nose pad and are larger and heavier
than coyotes. Wolves carry their tails high
while running (coyotes generally carry
their tails below the level of their backs).
Habitats: Wolves live in forest areas in
habitat that is favoured by their prey,
which consist mostly of ungulates.
Where you find the deer family, you will
find wolves.
Distribution: Wolves are found
throughout British Columbia with the
exception of the Queen Charlotte Islands.
They had previously been exterminated in
parts of the Interior Plateau and the
Kootenays but are now returning.
Wolf Key Points

Largest dog-like carnivore in B.C. (70
to 120 lb. [32 to 54 kg])
Colour variable, from white to black,
usually gray
Long legs, big feet
Tail held high when running
Hunts in groups, main predator of
large ungulates
Prefers forest habitat
Distributed throughout B.C. except
Queen Charlotte Islands
General comments: Wolves have an acute

sense of hearing, sight, and smell. They
are social animals and a pack may contain
three or four to 24 animals, although in
the north of the province packs of over
100 have been recorded. They usually
hunt together and can kill animals as large
as deer, elk, caribou and moose. They also
eat smaller animals such as beaver,
muskrats, mice, and snowshoe hare, and
will eat carrion. They hunt mainly by
scent and usually catch their prey by a
swift, open chase.

Is there mandatory reporting of a
wolf kill in Region 1?
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Tracks 4 3/4"
COYOTE
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Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Coyote
Canis latrans
Carnivore canid
Male
Female (or Bitch)
Pup
Body size and characteristics: Coyotes

are mid-sized between wolves and foxes.
They stand about 23 to 26 in. (58 to 65
cm) at the shoulder, and have a total
length of 39 to 55 in. (1 to 1.4 m),
including a 12 to 18 in. (30 to 46 cm) tail.
They weigh about 20 to 50 lb. (8 to 23 kg).
They have a narrow chest and longer legs
than most dogs. The muzzle is long and
narrow; the ears are long and pointed. The
tail is bushy and is usually carried low and
close to the hind legs, unlike the wolf,
which carries its tail high.
Colour: The coyote is usually grayishfawn, white or almost so on the throat and
belly, with heavy dark-tipped hairs on the
back and tail. The "hackles" above the
shoulder blades consist of longer, blacktipped hair. The top of the snout is often
reddish, as are the backs of the ears, and
the forehead is gray.
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Coyotes are very vocal and will start their

howling with a series of sharp yaps. They
also bark. It is very common for a single
coyote to start what becomes a chorus of
many individuals, although the
vocalizations of one animal can be so
diverse that it sounds like more than one.
They also communicate with body
language, much like wolves, although they
do not have the complex social structure
that wolves do.
Coyote distribution
Habitats: They are found in almost any

habitat as their diet is so varied, although
it is more common to find them where the
habitat has open areas. They have greatly
expanded their range since they have
taken advantage of land opened up by
people and the control of wolves, their
major predator. Coyotes have adapted so
well to living near humans that they have
become established in downtown
Vancouver and other urban centres.
Mating occurs from February to March

with five to seven pups born after about
two months gestation. Both parents help
raise the young.
Coyote Key Points
Distribution: Coyotes are located

throughout British Columbia east of the
coastal areas and on the Fraser Delta. They
are not found on Vancouver Island or the
Queen Charlotte Islands.
Mid-sized between wolves and foxes

(20 to 50 lb. [8 to 23 kg])
Grayish-fawn with lighter belly and
throat, black hairs on back and tail
Bushy tail usually carried low, unlike
a wolf
Face is narrower and more pointed
than wolf, narrower chest than wolf
Can be found alone or in packs
Very versatile eater, including prey,
carrion, plants, and berries
Found in many different habitats,
commonly seen where habitat is
open, even successful in cities
Distributed everywhere in B.C.
except coastal islands and the coast
north of the Lower Mainland
General comments: Prey consists

principally of hares, rodents, and birds;
but it appears that anything that is edible,
either vegetable or animal, can become
part of their diet. Carrion is an important
source of food. Although it was thought
that coyotes normally hunted alone, they
are very versatile, and will hunt in packs
to bring down larger animals, particularly
in winter. (Packs of up to 15 animals have
been noted in the Peace region.) They
tend to be more solitary when prey
species are small.
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RED FOX
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Red fox
Vulpes vulpes
Carnivore canid
Male (or Dog)
Female (or Vixen)
Kit
Tracks 2-3"
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
Body size and characteristics: Foxes are

the smallest of the dog family in B.C. They
stand 15 to 16 in. (27 to 40 cm) tall at the
shoulder and weigh from 7 to 15 lb. (3 to 7
kg). A fox has large, pointed ears, a long
sharp muzzle, and large bushy tail that is
as long as its body.
Colour: Colour varies from pale yellowish

red to deep reddish brown. In addition,
silver or black colour phases may occur, as
well as the cross phase, which has dark hair
along its back and across its shoulders. The
belly and chest are white; legs, feet and the
backs of the ears are black; and the bushy
tail is tipped with white.
Habitats: As with coyotes, they are very

adaptable to living in almost any
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Red Fox distribution
environment and even close to humans.

They are animals on the "edge,"
inhabiting the edges of parklands, the
alpine, lake and river shores, logged-off
areas, and farmland.
pounce on their prey, use their tail for

balance (like a cougar), and fluff their hair
and arch their back in threat displays. If
low branches are available, foxes will
climb trees to gain a vantage point.
Distribution: They are found

throughout British Columbia east of
the Coast Mountains.
Red Fox Key Points
General comments: Foxes are

omnivorous, eating such varied items as
small mammals like mice and voles, small
birds and waterfowl, insects, eggs, grass,
carrion and fruit.
Smallest of the dog family

(7 to 15 lb; 3-7 kg)
Usually reddish with white chest
and belly, black legs and a blacktipped tail; can also range from
silver to black
Bushy tail as long as the body
Large, pointed ears and long,
sharp muzzle
Found alone or in family groups
Omnivorous, small prey
Found in variable habitat, but
usually on edges of fields,
forests, farmland
Distributed east of Coast Mountains;
have recently been found on
Vancouver Island
Mating occurs from late January to midMarch and a typical litter consisting of
five kits is born about two months later.
Both parents raise the kits. Coyotes are
major predators of foxes, as are wolves
and lynx. Foxes live either alone or in a
family unit.
Foxes are vocal, although less so than
coyotes and wolves. Most often heard is a
sharp yapping especially during denning.
Foxes have many characteristics that are
similar to the wild cats. They stalk and
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will show just in front of the toe prints. A

grizzlys toes are close together and are in a
fairly straight line while the toes of a black
bear are spaced out and form more of an
arc than on a grizzly. The print of the hind
foot of a bear can look surprisingly like a
humans. Bears walk in a shambling gait
and their footprints show this as being
"pigeon-toed" with their toes turned in.
Bears (ursids) are the largest living landdwelling carnivores. Although classified as
carnivores, they have a wide-ranging diet
consisting of carrion, fish, any animal,
succulent vegetation, roots, berries, and
insects and, like humans, have the teeth of
both herbivores and carnivores. Both black
and grizzly bears are capable of killing
large, healthy adult ungulates although
black bears especially tend to choose food
that takes less energy to capture. Both can
run very fast (they can outrun a horse both
uphill and downhill), are good swimmers,
and are extremely strong.
Both species of bears have short tails that

are almost hidden by their fur. Their ears
are small and rounded and their eyes are
small. A bear does not depend on its
eyesight as much as its hearing, which is
excellent, and its sense of smell which is
extraordinarily sensitive as they can smell
carrion or garbage from many miles away.
Although both species sleep in dens in the
winter, neither species is a true hibernator
since their body temperature does not
significantly drop and they can be
awakened from their sleep. In the north, it
is not uncommon for male grizzlies to
emerge once or twice from their dens
during the winter and then return to sleep.
Recent research shows them excerising
Bears walk on the entire foot and have five

toes on both the front and back feet, all of
which will show up in a footprint. Each
toe has a non-retractable claw. The
footprints of the two species are clearly
different. A grizzly has long claws which
will show in the track at quite a distance
in front of the toe prints; they sometimes
look more like a slash than the pointed tip
of a claw if the ground is soft. A black
bears claws are significantly shorter and
Photo credit: Sid Nielsen
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during hibernation by walking inside their

den. Mating occurs in June or July for
both species but the embryos do not start
to develop until the sow dens up for the
winter in about November. This unusual
adaptation, called "delayed implantation",
is designed to protect the breeding female.
If, by the time she has to go into her den
she does not have enough fat stores to
support both herself and the fetuses
through the winter, her body will reabsorb
the embryos. One or two cubs are born in
January and feed and develop while the
mother sleeps. They come out of their
dens in about April or May.
avoiding looking at whatever is upsetting

them. Communication is also achieved by
clawing, biting, scratching, and rubbing
trees to mark territories.
The two species of bear deal with prey
carcasses differently. A grizzly will drag a
kill some distance, feed, then bury the kill
under sticks, vegetation and other
available debris. It will then move off to
rest but will not travel far and will return
when it is hungry again. A black bear will
not usually drag a kill from the kill site and
it does not bury its food. It will feed, then
move off a distance to rest, watch and
listen and then return when it is hungry.
Coming across a kill is extremely
dangerous as both species of bear will
aggressively protect their food and will
usually be close by. Even if another animal
has made the kill, a bear will often take
possession of it. If you see or smell a kill,
leave the area immediately.
Bears can be quite vocal using a variety of

grunts and growls. Warning sounds
include hissing, growling, jaw "popping",
clicking their teeth, and woofing. Nonvocal aggressive communication includes
raised hackles, ears laid back, frothing at
the mouth, shuffling back and forth, and
Photo credit: Sid Nielsen
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Tracks 10"
GRIZZLY BEAR
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Grizzly bear
(also called brown bear in the U.S.)
Ursus arctos
Carnivore ursid
Boar
Sow
Cub
Colour: Grizzly bear coloration ranges

from blond through all shades of brown
and black. Some bears with darker
underhair have long blond or white guard
hair on the shoulders and back; it is this
coloration that gave rise to the name
grizzly or silvertip.
shoulder and weigh 325 to 1,000 lb. or

more (150 to 450 kg). Females and
younger animals are smaller. They are
medium to large bears.
Grizzlies have four distinguishing
characteristics: a shoulder hump, a large
head with concave or dish-faced profile
(unlike the straight face of black bears),
short roundish ears (compared to the
larger, more pointed and erect ears of a
black bear), and they have very long,
slightly curved, light-coloured claws on
both front and hind feet. These claws
Body size and characteristics: The head

and body height can be 6 to 9 ft. (1.8 to
2.7 m) tall when standing on their hind
legs. They are 3 to 3-1/2 ft. (1 m) tall at the
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large urban centres. They appear to be

re-establishing in the Okanagan and
introductions are being attempted in the
Lower Mainland and Manning Park
areas. These bears are not found on the
coastal islands.
General comments: Grizzlies are solitary
animals, particularly the males, although
coastal grizzlies will tolerate each others
company when feeding on salmon runs.
The cubs remain with the mother for up to
three years.
They are omnivorous and eat any
available animal, fish, carrion, or
succulent vegetation, root, or berry. Road-,
avalanche-, and winter-killed animals are
a very important food source when the
bears emerge in spring before vegetation
starts to green up. This carrion, plus
ungulate fawns, provide high-energy food
at a time that food can be scarce. Grizzlies
can also become a problem by preying on
domestic livestock.
Grizzly bear distribution

make it difficult for an adult to climb trees
as easily as black bears, but a motivated
grizzly will climb. Coat colour is not
necessarily a good clue for distinguishing
grizzlies from black bears as both bears
have variable coat colour and many
grizzlies do not have the light-tipped
guard hairs.
The grizzly has soft, thick, underfur
and long guard hairs that give it a
shaggy appearance.
There is no general open hunting season

for grizzlies in British Columbia. All
hunting is carried out under Limited
Entry Hunting regulations.
(See note at the end of this section for an
excellent website for testing yourself on bear ID.)
Habitats: Grizzlies live in mountainous

and wilderness areas, except on the coast.
In the coastal regions they come to
estuaries for the new vegetation in spring,
and salmon spawning streams when the
fish are running, but can be found in the
alpine, rock slopes and forests at other
times of the year, depending on changing
seasonal food availability. In the interior
they are usually found at higher altitudes
around rockslides, talus slopes, subalpine
openings, and forest fire openings where
berries and rodents are common, although
they can be found down in valley bottoms
as well. In the Peace region, they are
widely spread in all habitats.
Grizzly Key Points

Larger of the two bear species
(to 1,000 lb. or more)
Usually blond or brownish with
silver-tipped guard hairs, but can be
almost black
Shoulder hump, concave face, long
claws
Found alone or in family group
(female and cubs)
Omnivorous, will eat any plant or
animal, including carrion
Prefers mountainous wilderness
habitat
Located throughout B.C. except
coastal islands
Distribution: Grizzlies are generally

found in more remote mountainous and
wilderness areas of the province but are
not uncommon in rural areas away from
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Tracks 7"
BLACK BEAR
Common name:
Scientific name:
Male name:
Female name:
Offspring name:
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Black bear (14 different colour

phases have different common
names: Kermode, glacier,
cinnamon, brown, etc., but they
are all black bears)
Ursus americanus
Carnivore ursid
Boar
Sow
Cub
glacier bear, which has a blue-white

coat, has been reported from the far
northwest of the province.
Body size and characteristics: Although
the black bear is smaller than the grizzly, it
is nevertheless a large animal. Its head and
body are 5 to 6 ft. (150 to 180 cm) high
when standing on its hind legs and it is 2
to 3-1/2 ft. (60 to 110 cm) high at the
shoulder. They weigh 200 to 475 lb. (90 to
215 kg) or more and move with a flatfooted, shuffling gait.
Colour: Black bears are not necessarily

black. Commonly they are either glossy
black, with a brown snout (sometimes
with a white patch on the chest), or
brown with a lighter snout, but many
shades of black, brown, cinnamon, and
blond occur regularly, even in the same
litter. The Kermode bear is a white,
although not true albino, colour phase
which lives on the mid- and north
coasts and inland near Terrace. The
Black bears have a straight face in profile

(from the forehead to the nose), no
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Black bears are opportunistic omnivores,

like grizzlies, but tend to eat more
vegetative matter. Foods are varied and
include fruit-bearing shrubs, lush grasses,
roots, clover, and other succulent plants,
salmon and other fish, rodents, insects
and their larvae, carrion and the young of
other mammals, including livestock. On
occasion, adult animals are also targeted.
There is no hunting season for Kermode
or glacier bears.
Black Bear Key Points
Black bear distribution
Smaller than grizzlies (to 475 lb.

or more)
Usually black with a brown snout
but varies from black through brown
to white
Straight face, short curved claws, no
shoulder hump
Found alone or in family group
(female and cubs)
Omnivorous, will eat any plant or
animal, including carrion
Chooses diverse habitat with
thickets to hide in, coastal to
mountain and even close to humans
Located throughout B.C. including
coastal islands
shoulder hump, and have shorter, more

curved claws on both front and hind feet.
These claws make it easy for black bears to
climb trees and they do so with amazing
speed. The head is often smaller in
comparison to its body than a grizzlys and
their ears appear more erect, larger and
more pointed than a grizzlys.
Habitats: They can be found in all
habitats from coastal beaches and
estuaries to dry grasslands, forests, and
subalpine and alpine areas. They prefer
open forests where dense thickets of
timber provide cover and seclusion, and
intermittent open areas (such as those
caused by forest fires or clear cuts).
Note:
The Montana Department of Natural
Resources has set up an internet site
(http://fwp.state.mt.us/bearid) with an
informative self-test on grizzly and black bear
identification in the field. It is an excellent
resource and also has a training section. Take
the test more than once as it has more than
one set of photos for you to test yourself with.
Distribution: Black bears are widely

distributed throughout B.C., including
coastal islands, and can become pests in
both rural and urban areas if they become
accustomed to eating garbage, fruit from
orchards, or grain crops. They are the most
widely distributed bear in North America.

Is it unlawful to hunt black bears in
a family group?
General comments: They are solitary

animals, but cubs remain with the sow for
a year or more.
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QUIZ ON B.C.S LARGE CARNIVORES

1. What is a carnivore? __________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
2. How does a bears diet differ from that of other carnivores? ______________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Of the large carnivores in B.C., what 3 families are represented?

Give examples of each. ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is a felid?______________ a canid?_______________ an ursid?__________________
5. If you saw a clear footprint, how can you tell if it is a felid or canid track?
______________________________________________________________________________
6. What does a black bear track look like (both front and back paws) and how is it different from a grizzly track? ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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7. What are the 3 canid species in B.C.? __________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. How can you tell a coyote from a wolf? ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. What are the 3 felid species in B.C.? ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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10. How can you tell a bobcat from a lynx?________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
11. If you came across a partially eaten deer that was covered in brush and debris, what
specie is likely feeding on it and what should you do? __________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
12. Can bears climb trees? ________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
13. What are 3 characteristics that will help you tell grizzlies from black bears?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
14. Which is the largest wild cat in B.C.? __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
15. Which is the smallest wild dog in B.C.? ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
16. How can you tell a fox from a coyote? ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
17. Why will you find fewer carnivores than herbivores in B.C.? ____________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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PART IV.
SMALL MAMMALS
Goal
The goal of this supplementary chapter is
to familiarize the student with some of the
small mammals in B.C. that are
commonly seen and/or of economic
importance, and how to identify them by
their appearance, habitat and distribution.
Objectives
The student will learn to identify common small game animals that are hunted
or trapped in B.C. or that appear as special cases in the Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis.
This section is broken into 6 parts:
i) Classification: why use it and
how it works
(Erithizontidae)
(Geomyidae)
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iii) The Raccoon Family (Procyonidae)
f) The Opossum Family (Didelphidae)
g) Conclusion

Small mammals are hunted, trapped, or
harvested for the protection of property
and/or native wildlife. The diversity of small
mammals is vast in B.C. Proper identification
is critical as some species may be hunted while
other species are listed as endangered. For
example, you may capture or kill a yellowbellied marmot located in the dry interior
(Kootenay, Cariboo, Okanagan, and Nicola
Valley) to protect property (a Schedule "B"
animal) but there is no regular hunting season
for them. However, the Vancouver Island
marmot is listed as endangered and may NOT
be hunted, trapped, captured or harvested.
You are encouraged to review the Hunting
and Trapping Regulations Synopsis regarding
small mammals. All native species of
animals in the province have been
designated as "wildlife," giving them full
protection under provisions of the Wildlife
Act. The general rule is if there is no open
season listed in the Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis then the wildlife cannot
be harvested. The synopsis also provides
you with Schedules "B" and "C," and the
trapping regulations.
Schedule "B" lists animals that may be
captured or killed only for the specific
purpose of protecting property unless an
open season is designated by regulation. Here
are a few of these animals: snowshoe hare,
porcupine, voles, yellow-bellied marmot,
woodchuck, Columbian ground squirrel,
striped and spotted skunk, and raccoon.
Schedule "C" lists animals that may be
captured or killed anywhere and at any time
in the province. These are mostly
introduced species and are detrimental to
property and native wildlife. Hunting these
species requires a hunting licence. The list
includes: opossum, eastern cottontail,
European rabbit, eastern grey squirrel and
eastern fox squirrel.
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To trap in British Columbia you must

complete a trapper education course
approved by the Director of Wildlife.
Trapping is defined as the act of setting or
placing a trap in an operative condition, or
killing by the use of a firearm. Trappers seek
fur-bearing animals such as fox, beaver,
marten, lynx, bobcat, mink, muskrat, river
otter, raccoon, skunk, squirrel, wolverine,
wolf, coyote, and black bear.
species of animals. For instance, Fannins

sheep used to be classified as a separate
subspecies of thinhorn sheep but now they
are viewed simply as a colour variation
where Dalls and Stones sheep overlap.
All living organisms are classified by class,
order, family, genus, species and subspecies.
It can be more complex than that for the
enthusiast but this is a useful list for this
book. In this book we look at just the Class
Mammalia (mammals) and Class Aves
(birds). There are many more classes, which
include everything from fish to fungus and
bacteria to boa constrictors. We already
have looked at Order Artiodactyla (splithoofed mammals, a part of the Ungulates1
which includes all hoofed mammals). And
we have looked at the larger members of
the Order Carnivora (meat-eating
mammals). Below is an example of
mammals we have already looked at and
how they are classified.
i) Classification:
Why use it and how it works
All plants and animals in the world are
organized in a classification system to make
comparisons easier. Classification had been
attempted many times in the past but a
method that actually worked was not
conceived until, in the mid-1700s, a
Swedish scientist by the name of Linnaeus
worked out a scheme that we use today.
This system is flexible. Even today there are
discussions as to how to "lump" or "split"
Mammal Scientific Classification

Class
Order
Family
Genus
Specie
Subspecie
Common name
Mammalia (animals with vertebrae, hair, feed milk to their young 2 )

Artiodactyla (split-hoofed mammals)
Carnivora (meat-eating mammals)
Cervidae (deer family, antlers)
Felidae (cat family)
Odocoileus (deer group)
Lynx (lynx group, short tails)
hemionus (mule deer group)
rufus
columbianus
Columbia black-tailed deer
Bobcat
Many people consider "Ungulate" to be an Order, but it is actually a grouping based on how an animal
walks. Ungulates are animals that have evolved to walk on the very tips of their toes (unguligrade locomotion)
and include those with even-numbered toes (Order Artiodactyla, for example, bovids and cervids) and oddnumbered toes (Order Perissodactyla, for example, horses and rhinos). Hooves are modified claws. Animals
that walk fully on their toes but not flat on their "palm" are "digitigrade" (for example, dogs and cats), and
those that walk flat on their palms and toes are "plantigrade" (for example, bears and humans). Try this
yourself by putting your hand flat on the table (plantigrade), raising the palm and thumb (digitigrade, the
thumb becomes the dewclaw), then raising your hand again until just the tips of a couple of (or one) fingers
are still on the table (unguligrade). You have also just classified the relative speeds of animals. Plantigrade
animals are the slowest (usually), digitigrade faster, and unguligrade the fastest.
Most people also think of mammals as warm-blooded and, to a great extent they are. However, some
mammals have difficulty controlling their body temperatures. An example in B.C. is the mountain beaver
(Aplodontia rufa), which constructs its burrows to maintain fairly constant temperature and humidity to survive.
Another, non-Canadian, example is the sloth. If you shave a sloths hair, even though it lives in the tropics, it will
die of exposure.
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You can see that some groups need more

subdivisions (such as subspecies) than others.
Common names can be misleading as they are
sometimes quite localized and vary from
country to country. It is usually easier to be
sure of the animal you are searching for by
using their genus and species names, which are
universal around the world. As an example,
"moose" in Canada is called "elk" in northern
Europe but everywhere in the world the
scientific name, Alces alces, is used for this
animal. The genus and species names together
are the "formal" name for an animal. To
remember how it works, try this trick. Genus is
like a family name for people (e.g., Gordon),
while in a scientific name, genus tells the
group the animal belongs to (e.g., Felis which
means cat in Latin). The second part of the
name (species) is like the given name of a
person (e.g., Peter), being a particular member
of the group "Gordon", or concolor, which
means "all one colour" for the cougar, Felis
concolor. No two species share the same twopart scientific name. This is why the Hunting
and Trapping Regulations Synopsis uses scientific
names as well as common names in its
Schedules "B" and "C", so that there will be no
mistake in the animal they are talking about.
Usually any names from genus and below
(genus, species, subspecies, etc.) are in italics
and the genus name is capitalized while the
species name is not (e.g., Lynx rufus). It is
important to make sure that you can correctly
identify the species and subspecies.
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By now you already have some skills which will

help you find an unknown animal in a
guidebook, no matter where you are in the
world, without having to leaf through the
whole thing. Think of some of the key
identifying features from the large mammals we
have looked at. For example: split hooves and
horns (ungulate, bovid); split hooves and
antlers (ungulate, cervid); looks like a dog
(carnivore, canid); looks like a cat (carnivore,
felid); teeth for eating both meat and
vegetation, walks flat on all four feet, powerful
forelegs, short tail (carnivore, ursid). You may
think this last one is too vague to correctly guess
the bear family. But pandas, which are not true
bears, do not have teeth for meat as they eat
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bamboo; apes have these characteristics but no

tail and usually walk on the knuckles of their
front feet, raccoons have these characteristics
but have a long tail. As you can see, knowing a
few simple details can help you identify
animals much more easily. For fun, guess what
Order giraffes belong to (they have split
hooves)? How about camels (they have two
soft-soled toes with hard toenails)? If you
guessed Order Artiodactyla, you were right,
although the families are different (Giraffidae,
which has only giraffes, and Camelidae,
camels and llamas).

The small mammals we are going to cover in
this section are by no means the complete list
for B.C. However, they are important for you
to know about as they can be hunted,
trapped, or captured, or they are protected.
For small mammals in B.C. we are concerned
with the orders of rodents, carnivores,
lagomorphs and marsupials that live on land.
Rodents (Order Rodentia) are small,
gnawing mammals having a single pair of
continually growing incisors (front teeth) in
both the upper and lower jaws. Usually we
think of rats and mice as rodents, but this
order also includes chipmunks, marmots,
beavers, and squirrels.
Carnivores (Order Carnivora) are mammals
that feed chiefly on the flesh of other
animals, rather than plants, although some
are omnivores (eat both meat and plant
matter). This order includes cats, skunks,
weasels, dogs, bears, and raccoons.
Lagomorphs (Order Lagomorpha) are
rodent-like mammals. They are different
from rodents in that they have two pairs of
upper incisors, one behind the other,
specialized for gnawing. This order is
composed of rabbits, hares and pikas.
Marsupials (Order Marsupialia) are mammals
whose young are born at a very early stage of
development, continuing their growth outside
of the womb, usually in a pouch. A kangaroo is
the best-known marsupial.

The rodent order consists of the squirrel,
porcupine, beaver, mouse and pocket
gopher families. The squirrel family consists
or marmots, squirrels, chipmunks and
woodchucks.
image credit: arttoday.com

Marmots
British Columbia has three species of
marmots: hoary, yellow-bellied and
Vancouver Island. Marmots are stoutbodied, stocky and short-legged. They all
have tails, which can reach up to a foot (30
cm) in length. Hoary marmots (Marmota
caligata) live on mainland B.C. at higher
elevations, in colonies in or near rock piles
that are close to meadows of lush
vegetation. They are not found in the
northeast or at low elevation in the dry
interior. They generally weigh 10 to 15 lb.
(4.5 to 7 kg), and are a grizzled gray colour,
which accounts for their name. There is no
season on this animal.
Hoary mammot

Yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota

flaviventris) inhabit the dry interior in the
Kootenays and Southern Interior and form
colonies in rock piles near meadows. They
are generally smaller than a hoary marmot
(4-1/2 to 11 lb., 2 to 5 kg), have a distinctly
yellowish or orangey belly with a darker
back, and the feet are never black. Yellowbellied marmots are listed in Schedule "B" as
they can be destructive to farmland.
As its name states, the Vancouver Island
marmot (Marmota vancouverensis) is located
on Vancouver Island, with colonies
inhabiting rocky slopes close to good
meadows, in or near the alpine. It generally
weighs 6-1/2 to 13 lb. (3 to 6 kg) and is dark
brown with white nose, chin and chest.
The Vancouver Island marmot is on the
endangered list (the Ministry of Water,
Land and Air Protections "red list") and
may NOT be hunted, trapped, captured,
or harvested.
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Woodchucks
The woodchuck (Marmota monax) is also
called groundhog. As a member of the
marmot family, it is the same general
shape as other marmots, and can get to be
as large as a yellow-bellied marmot (5 to
10 lb.; 2 to 4-1/2 kg). It is brownish, with
an overall frosted look and the feet are
dark brown or black (unlike yellow-bellied
marmots whose feet are never black). Like
other marmots, it has a bushy tail.
Woodchucks prefer meadows close to
wooded areas. They are found in the
northern half of the province, the
Cariboo, the eastern portion of the
southern interior, and western portion of
the Kootenay region. They are not found
along the Alberta border from Jasper south
or coastal regions of the province.
Woodchucks are listed in Schedule "B" as
they can be very destructive in farmland.
Squirrels
British Columbia has the following species
of squirrels: eastern grey, eastern fox, red,
Douglas, northern flying, Arctic ground,
Columbian ground, golden-mantled
ground, and Cascade golden-mantled
ground squirrel.
Douglas squirrels (Tamiasciurius douglasii)

are located in the southern coastal area of
Mainland B.C. They are small native tree
squirrels (6 to 7 in.; 15 to 18 cm) that are
brownish on the back and an orangey
colour underneath and around the eye.
Red squirrels (Tamiasciurius hudsonicus)
are found throughout British Columbia
except for the Queen Charlotte Islands
and the southern coastal region. They are
also small tree squirrels (7 to 8 in., 18 to 20
cm) but they are brown above and white
below with a white eye ring. Northern
flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus) are
found on mainland B.C. They are active at
night and it is a special privilege to catch
their "flying" acrobatics. They are smaller
(5-1/2 to 6-1/2 in.) than Douglas and red
squirrels, have large eyes (because of their
Red Squirrel
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Eastern grey (Sciurius carolinensis) and

eastern fox (Sciurius niger) squirrels are
introduced species. The eastern grey
squirrel is found in the Greater Vancouver
and Victoria areas and is usually the black
colour phase. The eastern fox squirrel is
found in the extreme southern Okanagan
Valley. It is rusty on the upper body with a
pale yellowish belly and its tail is bordered
by a tawny fringe. Both species are much
larger than the native, tree-dwelling
species listed below (eastern grey is 8 to 10
in. [20 to 25 cm] and eastern fox is 10 to 15
in. [25 to 63 cm] body length, not
including tail). These squirrels live alone.
In areas of plentiful food, their territories
may be small and they may seem to be in
groups (for example, Stanley Park in
Vancouver). The eastern grey and eastern
fox squirrels are listed in Schedule "C" and
they may be hunted anywhere (with
permission on private land), any season as
long as you have a hunting licence.
image credit: Sandra Naharnoff
Arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii)

are found in the Skeena region and form
colonies of burrows in meadows, lakeshores
and sandy hills. They are grayish or rusty
coloured with whitish dapples on their backs,
and cinnamon on their heads and bellies.
There are no seasons on these squirrels.
image credit: Sandra Naharnoff
Ground Squirrel
Golden Mantled Squirrel
nocturnal habits), soft gray-brown fur on

the back and cream-coloured hair on the
belly. Although they are not capable of
true flapping flight, they can glide long
distances using a special fold of skin that
extends from their "wrists" to their
"ankles" and a wide, flat tail which is used
as a rudder. These three squirrel species
also live alone. There is no season on
these squirrels.
Columbian ground squirrels (Spermophilus

columbianus) are located in the Rocky, Purcell,
Selkirk, Monashee, and Cascade Mountain
ranges of the eastern portion of the province.
They are cinnamon coloured on the back with
black-tipped guard hairs, have a tawny face
and belly, and a light-coloured ring around
the eye. They are large squirrels weighing from
1 to nearly 2 lb. (450 to 850 g). There is an
open season on Columbia ground squirrels,
on private land only, and they are listed in
Schedule "B" since they can form extensive
colonies in farmers fields.
The Cascade golden-mantled ground
squirrel (Spermophilus saturatus) is found
only in the Cascade Mountains of
southwestern B.C. and down into
Washington state. It is a muted grayish
brown with lighter undersides, a rusty head,
neck and shoulders, and a white eye ring. A
single white stripe runs down each side of the
back with a faint black stripe on each side of
the white stripe. They live alone in rock piles
and talus slopes at high elevations. Goldenmantled ground squirrels (Spermophilus
lateralis) live alone in mountain forests of the
Columbian and Rocky Mountains, generally
inhabiting the same type of habitat as the
Cascade golden-mantled although they
occur often at lower elevations. Their
colouring is less muted than the Cascade
golden-mantled and they usually have a rich
chestnut head and shoulders, a gray back and
buff eye ring. As with the Cascade species,
two dark stripes surround a single white
stripe on each side of the back but the black
is much darker. Either of these ground
squirrels could be mistaken for chipmunks
but they are both larger (6 to 8 in., 15 to 20
cm) and they do not have stripes on their
faces as chipmunks do. There is no season
for these ground squirrels.
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Chipmunks
British Columbia has four species of
chipmunks: least (Tamias minimus),
red-tailed (T. ruficaudus), Townsends
(T. townsendii), and yellow-pine
(T. amoenus). They all live alone but, if food
is plentiful, there may be many in a small
area. Chipmunks are smaller (3-1/2 to 6
in.; 9 to 15 cm) than squirrels. They are
generally grayish brown or cinnamon on
the upper parts and buffy on the
undersides. All chipmunks have five dark
and four light stripes on the centre of the
back and three dark and two light stripes
on each cheek, although the stripes are
muted on the Townsends. It can be
difficult to tell them apart but distribution
may help. Townsends are found in the
Lower Mainland, Manning Park and
Whistler areas; red-tailed are found in two
small areas, one in the Selkirks and one in
the Rockies, in the extreme southeast of
B.C. The two other species are widely
spread, with the least chipmunk found in
the northern half and the yellow-pine in
the southern half. Chipmunks do not
occur on the coast except in the area of the
Fraser Valley. (This is a rough
simplification because they have
overlapping ranges.) There is no season
on chipmunks.

(Erithizontidae)
There is only one member of this family in
Canada, the porcupine (Erithizon
dorsatum), but there were others in
prehistoric times. The porcupine is the
second largest rodent in B.C., reaching 22
lb. (10 kg); the beaver is often twice the
weight or more. "Porkies" can be nearly 3 ft.
(1 m) long and are a chunky build with a
short face and legs and long claws. Their
upper body, tail and flanks are covered with
thousands of long, barbed quills which
detach easily and embed themselves in any
attacker. When alarmed, the porcupine
raises its quills, turns its back to the threat,
and lashes its tail. If a predator can flip a
porcupine over, the belly is not protected
and it can be killed. The under fur is dark
brown, and there are very long, yellowtipped guard hairs interspersed with the
quills. Porcupines are mainly solitary,
nocturnal, slow moving, and prefer the
tender bark of twigs and branches in winter
and fresh greenery in summer. They also
love salt (eating sweat-stained gloves,
boots, and wooden handles of tools) and
plywood (for the glue), so they can be real
pests. Porcupines are found throughout
B.C. except Vancouver Island and the
Queen Charlotte Islands. They are listed in
Schedule "B" of the Hunting Synopsis
because of their pest status, but can only be
killed to protect property.
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Porcupine
Chipmunk
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The beaver (Castor canadensis) is the only
North American member of this family
and is the largest rodent in Canada,
reaching weights of 65 lb. (30 kg). It is
similar in general shape to a porcupine,
being thickset, short legged, with a broad
head and short neck. However, beavers are
covered in glossy, dark brown, dense fur
and have a large, wide, scaly, flattened tail,
webbed back feet for swimming, and
prominent orange incisors (front teeth).
The lips can actually be closed behind the
teeth so that the beaver can chew under
water without getting water or mud in its
mouth. The tail is used as a rudder when
swimming, slapping on the water as an
alarm, helping stabilize the animal when
it is cutting trees, and it is a fat reserve.
These animals live in family groups in
areas with plenty of fresh water and trees
so that they can build their dams, ponds,
and lodges, and have enough fresh
aquatic vegetation and bark of deciduous
trees and shrubs for food. Beavers build
their lodges of mud, stones, and branches
and they can be very large. Once the pile
is complete, the beavers will chew and
dig out two or more underwater

entrances and one or more chambers that
are above water and dry. In areas where a
stream is too large to be dammed, beavers
will build their dens in the stream banks.
It is estimated that a single beaver needs
more than 200 trees and that a family of
five requires an acre of poplars (or other
favoured tree species) per year for food.
In the fall, they will cut branches for
winter food and store them close to the
lodge. The beaver has very valuable fur
and was largely responsible for Europeans
exploring Canada. It is so important in
Canadas history that it was put on the
back of the 5-cent coin. Beavers are found
throughout British Columbia. Even
though they can be extremely
destructive, they are not included in
either Schedules "B" or "C" and there is no
season on them, but they are a very
important fur-bearing species for
trappers. It is possible to contact a trapper
to remove a problem beaver during legal
trapping season (winter); the Ministry
also has a list of trappers that have a
special license to remove problem beavers
during other seasons.
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known as packrat), and, as stated in

Schedule "B", "all of the species of the
subfamily Arvicolinae and lemmings,
except muskrats". The subfamily
Arvicolinae includes all voles and
lemmings and also includes muskrats, so
Schedule "B" is listing all of them, except
muskrats, as being legal to kill to protect
property. The mouse family is large,
widespread and reproduces rapidly,
making them very important small prey
species. Brief descriptions of the Schedule
"B" groups are given below, as well as
muskrats because of their importance as a
fur-bearing mammal and because it is quite
common to see them or their signs in B.C.
There are actually three "mouse" families

in B.C. but members of only one of them
appear in Schedule "B". The three families
are: the Jumping Mouse Family
(Zapodidae), the Pocket Mouse Family
(Heteromyidae), and the Mouse Family
(Muridae). Only members of the Mouse
Family appear in Schedule "B".
There are three jumping mouse species in
B.C.; they are difficult to distinguish from
one another but characteristics that
separate them other mice are that they live
in wet habitats near running water, they
have extremely long tails and they can
jump up to a metre to escape danger.
Deer mice are similar in shape and size to a

house mouse, having a pointed face, large
ears, large protruding eyes and a long tail,
but the tail is furred and distinctly bicoloured, that is, dark above and light
below. It is important to be able to recognize
the common deer mouse (Peromyscus
maculata) as its droppings can carry the
deadly Hanta virus. The upper parts can
vary from buffy to grayish or blackish
brown and the undersides and feet are
white. They are common in sheds, barns
and cabins, can be as destructive as house
mice, and are found throughout B.C. except
The Pocket Mouse family is represented by

only one species in B.C., the Great Basin
pocket mouse. To tell the difference
between deer mice and pocket mice, read
the description for the deer mouse, below.
There is no season on jumping or pocket
mice.
Members of the Mouse Family show up a
number of times on Schedule "B" due to
the conflict between their life habits and
those of humans. Included in the list are
deer mice, the bushy-tailed woodrat (also
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on the north coast and the Queen

Charlottes. The pocket mouse is restricted to
extremely hot, arid areas of B.C.; it is
nocturnal and it does not need to drink as it
gets its water from its food. If you had one in
each hand, the pocket mouse and the deer
mouse look quite different but their
descriptions are similar. Heres how to tell
them apart: they both have a tail that is dark
on top and light on the bottom; however,
the pocket mouses tail is at least as long,
often longer, than its body and a deer
mouses tail is generally shorter than or
equal to its body length. The deer mouse
looks like a house mouse in shape (pointed
face, protruding eyes, large ears) while the
pocket mouse has small ears, a less pointed
face, a short neck and its eyes do not
protrude. Also, the pocket mouse has long,
black-tipped guard hairs over its olive
coloured fur, the tail can be crested (hairs
sticking up) at the end, and its hind feet are
very long. Both have light under parts but,
from the side, a pocket mouse looks like the
dividing line was drawn with a ruler while
the white on a deer mouse follows the
contours of the body. The Keens mouse
(Peromyscus keeni) occurs on the entire coast
and the coastal islands. It has gray upper
parts and its tail is slightly longer than that
of the deer mouse. Deer mice are found on
Schedule "B".
pungent smell, but the cabins contents

will be strewn everywhere and
miscellaneous items will be stuffed into
unlikely places. This woodrat is a constant
collector of things and will drop one
thing to pick up another. It will often visit
campsites in the night and pilfer anything
that is left out. The bushy-tailed woodrat
resembles a very large deer mouse (7 to 9
in., 18 to 23 cm) except for its long, bushy
tail, which is gray above and white below.
It is pale gray-brown, or darker, above and
whitish below and its whiskers are
extremely long. Since the woodrat is
nocturnal, it is more common to find its
large, messy nest than the animal itself.
The nest will contain a collection of the
packrats "treasures". It occurs throughout
B.C. except on the coastal islands. This
animal is found in Schedule "B".
Lemmings look somewhat like hamsters
in shape but are a bit larger (4 to 6 in.;10
to 15 cm). They have large heads and are
densely furred all over, including their
characteristic short tail and ears, to protect
them from the cold as they live mostly in
alpine tundra or cold, muskeg areas. They
are brownish in colour. Lemmings trails
are chewed right to the ground through
vegetation, just like little highways, and
the animals also construct underground
burrows. There are two species in B.C. and
they are widely spread but not often seen.
You will know if your cabin has been

colonized by a bushy-tailed woodrat
(Neotoma cinerea), also known as a
packrat, as soon as you walk in the door.
Not only do they have a distinctive
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Packrat
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Voles are a large group (11 species in B.C.)

and are one of the most important small
prey species in the province because they
reproduce so rapidly. They are similar to
lemmings in shape and size but their tails
are longer. They are also brownish to
grayish in colour. Their habits are similar
to lemmings but they are much more
widely spread, take advantage of many
habitats, and can cause extensive damage
in orchards and crops. These animals are
all listed in Schedule "B", part (c), as
members of the subfamily Arvicolinae.
Voles
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Muskrats (Ondatra zybethica) are much

larger than lemmings or voles (10 to 14 in.,
25 to 35 cm, not including tail) but are
much smaller (2.2 lb., 1 kg) than beavers.
Even though they are mainly aquatic, they
are not related to beavers but are actually
voles that have adapted to water life. The
muskrat has the same general shape as a
lemming or vole, with dark brown, dense,
silky fur. Its distinctive tail is long (up to 10
in., 25 cm), naked, and roundish but is
flattened side-to-side (like a Popsicle stick
on edge) to act as a swimming "oar". The
hind feet are partially webbed and have stiff
hairs to help paddle along. Like beavers,
muskrats are able to close their lips behind
their front teeth so that they can chew
under water. Muskrats do not build dams, as
beavers do, but they do build a variety of
shelters. The main shelter is the lodge
which, unlike a beaver lodge, is constructed
of tough aquatic vegetation such as cattails
and bulrushes. It is smaller than a beaver
lodge but can be large enough that geese
Muscrat
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image credits: arttoday.com
will nest on it. Once the pile is complete,

the muskrat will chew up from underneath
and create one or more above-water
chambers inside, much like beavers do.
Muskrats also may build bank dens like
beavers do. In summer they construct
separate feeding platforms of mud and
plant material and, in winter, "push-ups" are
vital to their survival. The muskrat will
chew a hole through the ice and pile
underwater vegetation on top of the hole.
This little "push-up" den is large enough for
one animal to rest and warm up. A few of
these will be constructed about 100 ft. (33
m) from the main den to increase a
muskrats foraging distance as they do not
store food for the winter like beavers do.
Their main diet is aquatic reeds and
pondweeds (they target the underwater
parts in winter), although frogs, fish,
carrion, and aquatic insects are also eaten.
In the summer muskrats tend to be solitary,
but in winter a few may den together for
heat efficiency. If you come across tracks in
the mud, it is possible to distinguish
between beaver and muskrat by the size of
the prints and the tail marks. Beaver tracks
are much larger and the marks from the flat
tail may rub out part or all of the footprints.
A muskrats tracks are much smaller and its
tail mark will show as a line, from the
bottom "keel" of the tail. You can also see
the web of the larger back feet for both
animals. Muskrats occur throughout B.C.
There is no hunting season for
muskrats but they are a very important
fur-bearing species.

(Geomyidae)
The northern pocket gopher (Thomomys

talpoides) is a medium-sized (5 to 6-1/2 in.;
13 to 17 cm) burrowing rodent which is
generally the colour of soil, varying from
black to light gray. There are numerous
other members of this family but this
species is the only one in B.C. The northern
pocket gopher might be mistaken for either
a vole or a mole. To tell the vole and pocket
gopher apart, the pocket gopher has furlined cheek pouches which open to the
outside, not the mouth; its tale is thick and
naked; it has strong claws for digging its
extensive tunnels, and its orange incisors
are always visible. Pocket gophers are quite
different from moles but they may be
confused because of the evidence of
extensive tunneling (dirt shoved out on the
surface). A mole has a very pointed face
with a naked snout, huge front paws that
are tilted out for digging, a very short tail,
and the body is nearly black. The northern
pocket gopher is found in almost any
habitat except dense forest, waterlogged or
shallow soils, and it occurs in the southern
interior from the Cascades to the
Kootenays. Although their burrow systems
can be very large, pocket gophers are
solitary except when breeding. These
animals can be very destructive in farmland
as they eat underground plant parts and,
therefore, they are listed in Schedule "B".
Pocket gopher

The carnivore order includes cats, dogs,
skunks, weasels , bears, and raccoons.
Cats, dogs, and bears were covered in the
main section of this chapter. In this
section we will deal with the skunk, weasel
and raccoon families.

Skunks are brightly marked, perhaps warning
of the danger of annoying or frightening
them. When alarmed, skunks can spray an
overwhelming, strong-smelling musk from
their anal glands; this musk is extremely
difficult to remove and is very irritating to
mucus membranes (throat, nose) and the
eyes. Be warned: they do not have to have
their backs to you to spray but are able to do
a "handstand" and spray over their heads or
twist into a "U" shape with both their head
and tail facing you. A skunk will generally try
to warn you first, though, to back off by
stamping its feet and raising its tail. Both
striped (Mephitis mephitis) and spotted
(Spilogale putorius) skunks are glossy black
with bright white markings. The striped
skunk is about twice the size (13 to 18 in., 33
to 45 cm, not including tail) of the spotted
and is about the same size as a domestic cat (6
lb., 2-1/2 kg). The
striped skunk has a
thin white stripe
which runs from its
nose to its forehead,
and a wide white
stripe on its neck
that splits in two,
runs down its back
and converges again
at the tail. The tail
is bushy and
often carries a
continuation of the
Skunk
white stripe to its
tip. Each spotted
skunk has unique
markings but the basics are the same: glossy
black body with white forehead patch, and
several stripes along the back that are broken
into dashes. The bushy tail is white above
and black below. The spotted skunk is
confined to the Lower Mainland/Sunshine
Coast areas while the striped skunk overlaps
in this area and is widespread in the rest of
B.C., east of the Coast Range. Both species are
omnivorous, solitary, nocturnal, and inhabit
semi-open forests and farmland. There are
open seasons on skunks and both are listed in
Schedule "B".
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The weasel family consists of the badger,
wolverine, otter, fisher, marten, mink, and
weasel. Most of these animals are trapped
for their valuable fur. All mustelids have
anal musk glands.
Fisher (Martes pennanti), marten (Martes
americana), mink (Mustela vison), and the
three species of weasels (Mustela spp.,
["spp." means a number of species all in
the genus Mustela]) have the typical
"weasel" shape, that is, long slender body,
short legs, small round ears and short,
pointed muzzle, and they all live primarily
on land. The difference between them is
in size, habitat, colour, and tail length.
They range from the largest, the fisher,
which reaches 12 lb.
(5-1/2 kg) and 17 in.
(43 cm), to the
smallest, the least
weasel, which is only
1-1/2 oz. (42 gm) and
6 in. (15 cm). They
are very efficient
predators and will
often tackle prey
larger than they are.
In fact, fishers
commonly hunt
porcupines even
generalized
though the "porky"
weasel shape
can outweigh them 2
to 1. Some may
occasionally eat
berries. The river
(Lutra canadensis) and
sea (Enhydra lutris) otters are a similar
build but have a thick tail and blunter
snout. They live in and around water. The
river otter is smaller, up to 30 in. (76 cm,
not including tail) and 25 lb. (11 kg),
while the sea otter can get up to 36 in. (90
cm) and 100 lb. (45 kg). Their food
generally consists of species that live in
water, either freshwater or marine.
There is no season on any of these
animals but they are important furbearing species, except the sea otter,
which is endangered and protected.
Badger
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Badgers (Taxidea taxus) are one of the two

largest members of the weasel family in
Canada, reaching weights of 24 lb.
(11 kg) and 22 in. (55 cm) in body length.
They have a typical mustelid snout
(although somewhat flattened), are squat,
muscular, with long, strong claws for
digging, a short tail, and are covered in
long, grizzled, grayish-yellow hair. The
hair on the flanks is longer than
elsewhere, which makes them look even
shorter legged than they already are. The
badgers facial markings are distinctive:
the face is blackish with a thin white stripe
running from the nose to the shoulders, a
whitish horseshoe-shaped stripe runs from
the temple, down across the eye, under
the chin and up to the other temple, and
the rounded ears are white and heavily
furred. The badgers legs and feet are dark
brown or black. Badgers live in burrows in
open grasslands and feed mainly on
rodents, such as ground squirrels and
marmots. Their dens are large, they live
alone, and they are usually nocturnal.
Badgers are not as bad-tempered as their
reputations would lead you to believe but
can be formidable if cornered. They are
also quite vocal with a variety of hisses,
chirring sounds, snarls, screams, barks,
and loud snuffles. The badger lives in the
dry interior areas of the Okanagan,
Kootenays, and Thompson-Nicola
but they are endangered and
there is no season on them.
iii) The Raccoon Family (Procyonidae)

With its distinctive "bandit" mask, gray
body, short, round, furry ears, and bushy,
black-striped tail, raccoons (Procyon lotor)
are one of the most common wildlife
species that an urban dweller may
encounter, although their range is far
greater than just the cities of the Lower
Mainland and
Vancouver
Island. Raccoons
are mid-sized
animals (11 to 35
lb.; 5 to 16 kg)
and, like bears,
have an
omnivorous diet.
They eat just
about anything,
from eggs to fruit,
meat, insects,
amphibians,
Raccoon
vegetation, pet
food and garbage.
The raccoons
name reflects the belief that raccoons
washed everything before they ate it
("raccoon" comes from an Indian word
meaning "scratches with his hands",
"lotor" means "washer" in Latin, and its
French name, raton laveur, means "washer
rat"), but it is now believed that water
enhances the sense of touch for these
animals. Raccoons live in diverse habitats
near water and are very comfortable living
near humans. They both climb and swim
well and are often found in wooded areas.
Like bears, they get fat in the fall but they
do not den up and need food throughout
the winter. Like bears and humans, they
walk flat on their feet. They are usually
nocturnal and solitary or found in smaller
family groups. Raccoons are limited in
their distribution by winter cold but occur
west of the Coast Mountains up to about
Rivers Inlet on the mainland, and on
Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte
Islands, and they are starting to appear in
the southern Rockies. There is an open
season on raccoons and they are listed in
Schedule "B".
Of all the weasel family, there is a season

only on wolverines. Wolverines (Gulo
gulo) are the largest member of the weasel
family in Canada. They are similar to
badgers in that they have a short, stout
muscular body, short bushy tail, large
bear-like paws with heavy claws, broad
head with a typical mustelid snout, and
shorted rounded, furred ears. However, the
wolverine is larger (up to 35 lb. [16 kg], 32
in. [80 cm] long, and 16 in. [40 cm] tall at
the shoulder) and is not as short-legged as
a badger. In fact, except for their bushy
tail, wolverines might be mistaken for a
small bear. The wolverines colour is also
quite different from a badgers since the
body is dark brown to nearly black. Lightcoloured stripes run in a downward arc
from the shoulder to the flank then join at
the base of the tail and run out onto the
tail. There is a wide, light-coloured arc
above each eye, on the forehead, which
runs down onto the cheeks. Wolverines
eat any meat they can get as well as eggs,
berries, larvae, carrion and trappers
supplies, if they manage to break into a
cache or cabin. They are determined
predators who are not afraid to tackle large
ungulates or stand up to a bear or wolf.
Their claws allow them to climb trees and
their oversized paws act like snowshoes,
just like a lynxs. When seeing them on
the run, another way to tell wolverines
and badgers apart is that wolverines lope
and badgers trot. Wolverines are solitary
and inhabit large areas of wilderness
throughout British Columbia except for
the Lower Mainland and the Queen
Charlotte Islands.
Wolverine
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which is the main predator of these hares.

In winter, the snowshoe hare moults its
coppery brownish summer coat for a winter
coat of white, although the ear tips remain
black. In the Lower Mainland, snowshoe
hares do not change colour in winter. It is a
medium-sized hare, weighing up to 3 lb. (11/2 kg). This hare is found throughout
mainland B.C. and lives almost anywhere
there is brush or woods. There is an open
season on snowshoe hares.
Lagomorphs include rabbits, hares and

pikas. With their large front incisors you
might mistake a lagomorph for a rodent
(and they used to be included in the Order
Rodentia), but, if you look closely, there is
a second pair of incisors right behind the
first pair. Only lagomorphs have this. Like
rodents, lagomorph incisors grow
continuously so the animals must keep
gnawing, both to wear their teeth down as
they grow and to keep them sharp.
Both rabbits and hares have short, cottony
tails, but to tell them apart, hares are
larger, have very long, upright ears, long
hind legs for jumping, can run long
distances, make their nests above ground,
and give birth to fully furred young which
are able to hop away from danger very
soon after birth. Rabbits have shorter ears,
shorter hind legs, cannot run far, make
underground burrows and give birth to
naked, blind, totally dependent babies.
Both hares and rabbits are mostly
nocturnal and timid. British Columbia has
the snowshoe hare, white-tailed jackrabbit
(which is a hare), European rabbit, eastern
cottontail (which is a rabbit), and
mountain cottontail (also a rabbit).
Hare
The white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus

townsendii) and mountain cottontail
(Sylvilagus nuttallii; also known as Nuttall's
cottontail) are native to B.C. Both species
are found in the southern Okanagan and
Similkameen, although the white-tailed
jackrabbit may no longer exist there as
this was the northernmost part of its range
and it has not been recorded there
recently. The mountain cottontail is
grizzled gray above, has a rusty patch at
the nape of the neck, the edges of the ears
are white, and its tail is black above and
white below. The white-tailed jackrabbit is
much larger than the mountain cottontail
(6-1/2 to 11 lb. [3 to 5 kg], compared to 1
to 2 lb. [1/2 to 1 kg]). It has much longer
ears and hind legs, an all-white tail, and
has similar colouring to the mountain
cottontail in the summer, but in winter it
is all white except for a grey forehead and
black ear tips. The mountain cottontail
prefers brushy edge areas while the whitetailed jackrabbit inhabits open areas.
There is no season on either of these
species and the white-tailed jackrabbit
is listed as endangered.
Rabbit
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The snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), as

its name implies, is well suited to winter
weather. Its hind feet are very large and are
used as snowshoes to keep it from breaking
through the snow. This is an advantage
with most predators, except the lynx,
which also has snowshoe-like feet and
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Pikas are the most rodent-like of the
lagomorphs. There are two species in B.C.
and the difference is mostly in where they
live. They look a lot like a small guinea pig
and inhabit scree slopes close to lush
meadows in the high alpine. Unlike hares
and rabbits, their hind legs are about the
same length as their front legs, they do
not have a tail, and their ears are rounded.
Both species are gray but the collared pika
has a faint pale-coloured stripe on each
side of its neck, a "collar". The
collared pika (Ochotona collaris) lives in
the extreme northwest corner of B.C. and
the common pika (Ochotona princeps)
lives in the southern half of the province.
There is no season on pikas.
The eastern cottontail and European

rabbit are not native to B.C. They are not
easy to tell apart but the European rabbit
(Oryctolagus cuniculus) has a wide variety
of colorations, including all those
normally associated with domestic rabbits
(spotted, gray, brown, black, white), with a
tail that is dark above and white below,
and it is a bit larger than the eastern
cottontail. It also can be found in large
colonies of extensive burrows. The eastern
cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) is buffy
gray above with a rusty nape of the neck
and legs and it has a white tail. The
eastern cottontail can be found on the
eastern portion of southern Vancouver
Island and the Greater Vancouver and
Fraser Valley areas and they prefer brushy
streamside habitats. The European rabbit
is also found in these areas but prefers
open habitats, such as fields. Both species
are listed in schedule "C".
Pika
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i) The Opossum Family (Didelphidae)

The Virginia opossum (Didelphis
marsupialis), the only species of this
family, has worked its way up the west
coast of the United States and into the
Greater Vancouver Regional District and,
although it appears to be expanding its
range, B.C.s winters are too cold for it to
spread much further inland or north. The
opossum is about the size of a house cat
but heavier bodied and with shorter legs.
It looks somewhat like a large, fat, whitish
rat with its pointed face, naked feet and
tail. The ears, unlike rats ears, are naked,
paper-thin and they are black. (A rat has
fur on its ears.) The tail is strong and
prehensile (able to wrap around things
and hold on, like a monkeys tail). When
the young emerge from the pouch, the
mother often carries them on her back
and they wrap their tails around hers to
hold on. The opossums feet are very
unusual and their footprint is different
from any other animal in Canada. The
front foot has five widely spread toes with
thin bases and a bulbous tip. All toes look
similar. The hind foot is quite different as
it has the appearance of a hand, complete
with an opposable (grasping) thumb for
climbing and walking along branches.
Again the toe tips are bulbous and the
thumbprint will be nearly at right angles
Opossum
338
to the rest of the foot. A strange survival

technique the opossum uses is to play
dead. It will first try to frighten off the
threat with hisses and screeches but, if this
doesnt work, it will flop on its side, loll its
tongue out and drool. Opossums are
generally nocturnal, solitary or in family
groups, and their diet is extremely varied
including eggs, fruit, insects, carrion,
small mammals and birds, and seeds. They
live in woods and farmland, in the Lower
Mainland, Denman, Hornby and Tree
Islands, and they may be spreading onto
Vancouver Island. Opossum are listed in
Schedule "B" and there is a hunting season
for them in Region 1.
Marsupials are a curious order and among

the most primitive still living on Earth
since nearly identical animals have been
found in fossils. In contrast to other
mammals, marsupials do not have a
placenta to nourish the fetus inside the
body and the young are born at a very
early stage of development, usually when
they are about the size of a peanut. The
baby then crawls, blind and with only
partly formed limbs, to the fur-lined
pouch (marsupium) where it latches onto
a nipple and continues to develop until it
can survive in the great outdoors. The
great majority of marsupials live in
Australia and the only species in North
America is the Virginia opossum.
f) Conclusion
As you have read, British Columbia has a
great diversity of small mammals. This
section has tried to give you the basic
information about small mammals,
especially ones you may run across or
those that are listed in Schedules "B" and
"C" of the Hunting and Trapping Regulations
Synopsis. We have not covered any
material about bats, shrews, moles, or any
of the saltwater mammals (seals, sea lions,
whales, porpoises, sea otter) of B.C.
There are an increasing number of

excellent guidebooks on the market. If you
plan to hunt or trap these species, wildlife
identification is a legal requirement.
Obtain a copy of the Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis or check out the
Website: www.bchuntingregs.com.
Visit your local library and obtain wildlife
identification books and videos for more
details. Contact your local Ministry of
Water, Land and Air Protection office and
obtain some of their information
brochures or check out their Website
www. elp.gov.bc.ca/wld/. We would also
recommend "Hinterland Who's Who" on
the Canadian Wildlife Service Website
www. cws-scf.ec.gc.ca.
You are encouraged to take the time and

obtain additional information about small
mammals so that you can fully identify
them by understanding their
characteristics, habitats, and distribution.
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QUIZ ON SMALL MAMMALS

This quiz is a self-test to help you learn this section of the chapter.
1. Give an example of a Schedule "B" animal. ______________________________________
2. Can anyone trap animals in B.C.? ______________________________________________
3. Why is it important to know the difference between:

a) the 3 marmot species ________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b) the squirrels ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Why is it a good idea to know the scientific name of an animal,

not just its common name? ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Whats an easy way to tell the difference between chipmunks and the 2 species of
golden-mantled ground squirrels? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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6. What is a distinctive feature of porcupines? ____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
7. What is another common name for the bushy-tailed woodrat? How would you know
that one had been in your cabin? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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8. What are 2 big differences between a muskrat and a beaver?______________________

______________________________________________________________________________
9. Why are pocket gophers on Schedule "B"? ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
10. Describe one of the 2 skunk species in B.C? ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
11. What is the typical "weasel" shape? __________________________________________

Give an example of the weasel family. ________________________________________
12. Why cant you hunt or trap badgers? __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
13. Give 2 or 3 ways that you can tell a badger from a wolverine. __________________
____________________________________________________________________________
14. What are 2 differences between rabbits and hares? ______________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
15. Briefly describe an opossum. __________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
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ANIMALS
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take approximately 15 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material found in
this chapter. Use the answer sheet provided at the bottom of the page to record your answers.
check your answers.
challenge test.
1. Horns are shed each year.
True or False
2. Both
a.
b.
c.
d.
3. You
a.
b.
c.
d.
Dalls and Stones sheep are:

California bighorn sheep
all-white wild sheep
Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep
thinhorn sheep
can tell the age of a wild ram by:

the annuli on the horns
the size of the animal
the length of the horns
the points on the antlers
4. You may be able to tell a nanny from a billy mountain goat by:
a. the space between the horns at the base
b. the group of other goats it is found with
c. the shape of the horns
d. all of the above
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5. Which Bovid was introduced to British Columbia?

a. big horn sheep
b. thinhorn sheep
c. mountain goat
d. bison
6. In feeding, most of the year deer are:
a. omnivorous
b. carnivorous
c. browsers
d. grazers
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7. In coastal B.C. the most common deer is the:

a. white-tailed deer
b. black-tailed deer
c. fallow deer
d. mule deer
8. The
a.
b.
c.
d.
__________ deer was introduced to British Columbia?

White-tailed
Mule
Fallow
Black-tailed
9. You
a.
b.
c.
d.
can tell a mule deer from a white-tailed by:

the manner of running
A, C, and D are all correct
the tail
the ears
10. Tines on a round main beam that sweeps up and back from the head are antlers of:
a. moose
b. elk
c. mule deer
d. caribou
11. Compared to lynx, bobcat are generally:
a. found in northern B.C.
b. longer haired
c. smaller
d. larger
12. Wolves are generally found:
a. in settled areas
b. in the Queen Charlotte Islands
c. A, B, and D are all correct
d. in northern wilderness areas
13. Long, slender legs, narrow muzzle and chest, light belly and a dark back describe:
a. wolf
b. cougar
c. coyote
d. fox
14. In their eating habits, black bears are:
a. omnivorous
b. ruminants
c. herbivorous
d. browsers
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15. You can tell a grizzly from a black bear by:

a. it teeth, claws, and eyes
b. its colour, size, and shoulder hump
c. its claws, shoulder hump, ears, and face profile
d. its colour, face profile, size and teeth
16. Which two animals are on schedule "B" of the hunting synospsis?
a. Hoary & Vancouver Island Marmot
b. Woodchuck and Yellow-bellied marmot
c. Hoary & Yellow-bellied marmot
d. Woodchuck & Vancouver Island Marmot
17. This animal has quills and is the second largest rodent found in British Columbia.
a. Porcupine
b. Chipmunks
c. Ground squirrel
d. Woodchuck
18. This member of the Hare Family (Leporidae) changes colour in the winter.
a. Snowshoe hare
b. White-tailed jackrabbit
c. Nuttall's cottontail
d. Mountain cottontail
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ANSWER SHEET
1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9._____
10. _____11.____12._____13.____14._____15._____16.____17.____18._____
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NOTES
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NOTES
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Chapter
Bird
Identification
GOAL
The student will identify game birds of BC and protected/endangered species
through knowledge of their characteristics, habitat, and distribution.
OBJECTIVES
The student will:
1. Identify wetland birds of B.C.
3. Identify raptors and other

protected/endangered birds of B.C.
2. Identify upland game birds

of B.C.
4. Define common terms related to birds.
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Chapter 8 Bird Identification
This chapter is divided into 7 parts:

I.
Introduction
a) Techniques for game
bird identification
b) Terminology
II.
Resident upland game birds

a) Ptarmigan
b) Grouse
c) Introduced species (pheasant,
gray partridge, chukar, quail,
wild turkey)
III
Migratory game birds

a) Wetland (swans, geese, ducks,
coot, snipe)
b) Upland (band-tailed pigeon,
mourning dove)
IV
Raptors (hawks, falcons, harriers,

eagles, osprey, vultures, owls)
V.
Schedule "C" birds
VI.
Other protected birds
VII. Review Test
PART I. INTRODUCTION
a) Techniques for game
bird identification
British Columbia has a rich abundance of

bird life. Usually, birds are grouped or classified by their habitat requirements (e.g.
waterfowl), their food habits (e.g. birds of
prey) or their legal status (e.g. game birds).
There is also legislation based on whether
birds are migratory or not (federal laws
governing the hunting of migratory waterfowl and provincial laws governing hunting of non-migratory upland game birds).
However, such groupings often overlap,
particularly where exceptions occur. For
example, the trumpeter swan is a migratory
waterfowl that may not be hunted (i.e.,
"non-game"), and the band-tailed pigeon is
an upland game bird that migrates.
There are nine groups or types of common

game birds in British Columbia that you
need to know about: geese, diving ducks,
puddle ducks, wetland birds (snipe and
coots), ptarmigan, grouse, mourning dove,
band-tailed pigeon, and introduced species,
which include quail, pheasant, partridge,
chukar, and wild turkey. These species will
be discussed in detail with respect to their
specific identification characteristics. As with
the mammals, we will briefly deal with scientific classification. We also discuss briefly
swans, raptors, and a few other important
specie, you need to be able to recognize
since they are not game species. And finally,
there is a brief coverage of "designated"
Schedule "C" birds.
Also, some species of birds have had a

change in status as a result of new knowledge about their habits and ranges. For
example, raptors, which were once considered vermin, are now protected by
laws. Some birds, such as the white pelican, are endangered in B.C. (although not
in other provinces), and are completely
protected in this province.
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All hunters have a responsibility to correctly

identify their targets before they shoot. You
must know which species and sex are legal
game and must be able to identify them
accurately. There are a number of characteristics that you can use to distinguish one
species or sex from another.
The Wildlife Act protects all birds found

in British Columbia, but allows some to
be hunted at certain times. The federal
Migratory Birds Convention Act established between Canada and the United
States also protects most migratory birds.
Habitat Identification
The identification of a species can be directly
related to its habitat. Each type of bird
requires a special "habitat", or a particular
kind of place in which to live. The habitat
348
Bird Identification Chapter 8
must include breeding territories, nesting

areas, brood cover, and feeding grounds.
Migratory species need separate winter and
summer habitats. Birds usually choose their
habitats on the basis of vegetation that they
use either for cover or food. Hunters must
learn which species of birds they can expect
to find in different habitats.
another. Depending on light conditions, a

birds true colour may be difficult to see,
but you can often use overall patterns as
a key to their identity, such as where on
the body light or dark patches occur.
Sound
You can identify birds by the sound of
their voices or calls, which might be
chirps, quacks, whistles, squeals, or soft
clucking. You can sometimes identify
some birds by the noise made by their
wings when in flight (e.g. the whistling
wings of goldeneyes).
Waterfowl require various types of water

bodies for brood rearing and feeding. This
often depends on whether they are a diving duck or a puddle duck, as the habitat
you will find them in is chosen by what
they eat. Upland game birds occupy most
habitats in British Columbia, from alpine
elevations to valley bottom farmlands.
The area in which they live depends again
on food availability and rearing their
young. You should understand and recognize the habitat for each species of bird.
Identification Techniques Silhouettes
Mallard
Action
Wing beats while birds are flying and different flocking behaviours are also useful
identification characteristics. For example, flying mallards form long lines, and
have a slow wing beat characteristic of
dabbling ducks. Canvasbacks fly in shifting, waving lines and have a fast wing
beat common to diving ducks. Snipe are
usually solitary, while many other shorebirds are found in large flocks. Different
upland game birds will flush in a different manner, for example, by running or
flying. These clues can help you identify
what species is coming in to land on a
body of water or what species is present
in the area of upland you are walking in.
Green-winged Teal
Pintail
Protected and Schedule "C" species
Colour and Shape

Bird silhouettes vary considerably. Large
or small heads, broad or narrow bills or
beaks, fat or slender bodies, and long or
short tails are just some of the variations.
As lighting can often be poor for seeing
colour, silhouettes can confirm a final
identification for you.
Protected species, or non-game birds,

include all raptors (hunting/meat-eating
birds, such as vultures, hawks, falcons,
eagles, and owls), as well as most smaller
birds found in British Columbia. There are
a few others, such as the pelican, which
are endangered and protected. Raptors are
an important part of the food chain, as
they, along with other predators, control
rodents and other bird populations from
overpopulating. Raptors are protected by
Colours are important for identifying

individual species that may look like one
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law and must not be hunted. All other

native birds in British Columbia, except
crows, house sparrows, European starlings,
rock doves (domestic pigeons), brownheaded cowbirds, and magpies are protected by law year round. These exceptions
are listed in the Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis under Schedule "C"
as "designated wildlife" which are not protected and will be discussed at the end of
this chapter.
tuaries, review guide books, and ask for

help from someone with good field experience since some bird species moult and
change colour significantly up to four
times per year. Juvenile birds, which can
be as large as adults, sometimes look
considerably different from their mature
relatives. Good binoculars (or a spotting
scope) are a must, as is a good field identification book. Sometimes it may not be
possible to make a complete identification of the bird until it is in your hand
but if you are hunting, it is your responsibility under the law to correctly identify
what you are hunting before you shoot it.
Useful Tools
As with mammal identification, it is a
good idea to watch videos, visit bird sanc-
Scientific Classification
The scientific classification of the birds in this chapter are listed briefly below. It can
be useful, as has been shown in the chapter on mammal identification, to know the
general categories of animals to help narrow down your search when you come across
an unknown bird.
Order Galliforma (gallinaceous birds)
Family Phasianidae (grouse, ptarmigan, partridges, chukars, pheasants, quails, and turkeys)
Order Columbiforma (pigeons and doves)
Family Columbidae (rock dove [domestic pigeon], band-tailed pigeon, mourning dove)
Order Anseriforma (swans, geese, and ducks)
Family Anatidae (swans, geese, and ducks)
Order Gruiforma (rails, coots, and cranes)
Family Rallidae (rails and coots)
Order Charadriiforma (shorebirds, gulls, and terns)
Family Scolopacidae (sandpipers, phalaropes, and allies, which include snipe)
Order Falconiforma (vultures, hawks, eagles, harriers, ospreys, and falcons)
Family Cathartidae (vultures)
Family Accipitradae (hawks, eagles, ospreys, harriers)
Family Falconidae (falcons)
Order Strigiforma (owls)
Family Tytonidae (barn owls)
Family Strigidae (typical owls)
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b) Terminology
Eclipse plumage: Most ducks shed their

body feathers twice each year. Nearly all
adult drakes lose their bright plumage after
mating, and for several weeks resemble adult
females. This hen-like appearance is called
the "eclipse plumage" and it may last for a
few weeks to a number of months, depending on the species. As some species may still
be in their eclipse plumage in hunting season, it is important to be familiar with what
these birds look like.
There are several specialized terms used

when discussing birds. Some of the more
important terms for hunters to understand include:
Crop: A muscular pouch part way down
the esophagus primarily of grain-eating
birds which is used to temporarily store
rapidly eaten food; sometimes an enzyme
is released in the crop to start digestion.
Studying the crop is useful as it can tell you
what the birds are eating and, therefore,
where to look for more birds (e.g. grain =
cultivated fields; conifer needles = forest)
even if you have found them elsewhere.
For instance, if you harvest a mallard on a
marsh but its crop is full of peas, locate the
closest pea field and thats where the ducks
are likely feeding at dawn and dusk.
Eclipse Plummage Sequence
Drake Full Eclipse
Dabbling duck: see puddle duck

Diving duck: Diving ducks are named for
their habit of feeding in water deep enough
that they need to dive for their food.
Common divers in British Columbia
include canvasback, redhead, bufflehead,
greater and lesser scaup, ring-necked duck,
ruddy duck, Barrows and common goldeneyes, plus the fish-eating ducks, the mergansers, which are seldom hunted. Diving
ducks are typically smaller and stouter than
dabbling ducks, have shorter wings, have
their feet farther back on their bodies, and
are commonly found in large flocks on
large, deep bodies of water. When launching into flight, they usually run along the
surface of the water and, when landing,
they skate over the water surface. In flight
they have a rapid wingbeat and you may
see their feet, which they use as rudders.
When swimming, you may only see their
head emerge before they dive to feed again.
They are rarely seen away from water as
the position of their feet far back on their
bodies makes it awkward for them to walk
about on land. Divers usually fly in large,
loose flocks. When seen up close, diving
ducks do not have the iridescent speculum
of the dabblers.
Emerging from Eclipse
Fall Plumage
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Gallinaceous: Most upland game birds are

"gallinaceous", or chicken-like, such as the
grouse, quail, partridge, ptarmigan, pheasant, and wild turkey. They are terrestrial and
have a crop similar to a chicken.
Game bird: A bird that can be hunted
according to hunting laws.
Introduced species: These are species of
birds that were brought to North America
from another continent and introduced
here. Examples include pheasants, gray partridge, and chukar partridge. They also
include birds that are native to North
America but not to this part of the continent, such as turkeys and quail.
Native species: include birds that originated
in North America or came here without
human intervention.
Migratory birds: Migratory species generally
live in the north in summer and move south
in the winter. The size and habitat characteristics of a migratory birds range depend on
the species.
Plumage: A birds plumage refers to its covering of feathers. From its plumage, you can
identify a species and usually determine its
sex and age.
Protected: Protected birds are species that
are looked after by laws that at all times
prohibit shooting, destruction of nests or
eggs, and other measures to allow the birds
to live and reproduce.
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Puddle duck: Also called "dabblers", puddle ducks are named for the shallow water
they frequent (puddles) and how they
feed. These ducks "dabble" with their beaks
on the water surface or "tip up" where the
bird submerges its head and breast and its
tail sticks up in the air. They are larger and
more graceful looking than divers, have
longer wings and neck, and their feet are
located under the centre of their body,
allowing for easier walking on land.
Puddle ducks eat land vegetation and
seeds, as well as aquatic species, so can be

found in farmers fields. When launching
into flight they jump straight up off the
surface of the water and they land more
directly onto the water. Puddle ducks generally fly in random bunches but will
sometimes fly in formation like geese.
They have a slower wing beat than divers
but the smaller dabblers, such as the teals,
will have a faster wing beat than larger
dabblers, such as mallards. An iridescent
speculum (wing patch) is common and can
often be seen from a distance. Common
puddle ducks in B.C. are the mallard, pintail, wigeon (or baldpate), shoveller, gadwall, wood duck, green-winged teal, bluewinged teal, and cinnamon teal.
Raptors: Raptors are commonly called "birds
of prey. Most are predatory (except the vulture which feeds on carrion), and all are
flesh-eating. They are characterized by large,
hooked beaks for tearing flesh and strong
talons (muscular feet with grasping claws) for
holding prey. The vulture does not have as
strong feet as the others since it does not kill
its prey. This group includes hawks, falcons,
harriers, eagles, owls, ospreys, and vultures.
Sea ducks: Sea ducks are diving ducks that
spend most of their time outside of the nesting period on the sea coast. Sea ducks
include the harlequin duck, old squaw, and
the common, white-winged, and surf scoters.
Shoreline and marsh birds: These birds are
generally waders that spend their time
between upland areas and open waters, on
muddy shorelines and in marshes. Most
have long legs for their size and wide spread
toes to support their weight in soft mud.
This group includes sandpipers, plovers,
curlews, cranes, snipes, and coots. Coots,
unlike the others of this group, are good
swimmers and are often found with puddle
ducks on shallow open water, but they are
not ducks. Snipes are classified as shorebirds
but are grouped with migratory game birds,
as are coots, in the hunting laws. Of the
shoreline and marsh birds, only coots and
snipes may be hunted in B.C.
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Speculum: The coloured patch on the wing

of ducks which can help in identification of
the species.
Waterfowl: This large group of birds

includes swans, geese, and ducks.
Waterfowl range in size from very small
ducks (such as the green-winged teal) to
45 lb. (20 kg) trumpeter
swans. Waterfowl are found
all over British Columbia
and are migratory. They
nest in British Columbia or
further north each spring
and raise their young over
the summer, migrating
south in the fall.
Upland game birds: These birds include the

gallinaceous birds, doves, and pigeons. The
term "upland" simply refers to where the birds
are often found and pursued as game. These
birds usually have short, rounded wings;
short, heavy bills; and heavy bodies. They
seek cover in brush or woodlands. They stay
on dry ground but may live close to water.
Typically these birds do not migrate but adapt
to seasonal changes, exceptions being the
mourning dove and band-tailed pigeon.
Generally, males and females are easy to differentiate. Males have more colourful plumage
to attract a mate, while the females plumage
blends in with the background as camouflage.
Wetland birds: This is a grouping of migratory game birds that includes the waterfowl
(geese, ducks, and swans) plus coots and
snipe. They are under the jurisdiction of the
federal government for hunting regulations.
PART II.
RESIDENT UPLAND GAME BIRDS
Resident upland game birds include the
gallinaceous, or chicken-like birds (i.e.,
grouse, quail, partridge, ptarmigan,
pheasant, and turkey). They are covered by
provincial hunting regulations. Two other
upland species, which are not considered
gallinaceous, are the band-tailed pigeon and
the mourning dove. They are migratory and
have been grouped with the other
migratory birds (waterfowl and other
wetland species) in this book since they are
covered by federal hunting regulations. The
term "upland" simply refers to where these
birds are often found and pursued as game.
Gallinaceous birds of several species and
forms occur throughout British Columbia.
The young of all these, except the ringnecked pheasant, retain the pointed outer
wing feathers through their first winter while

adults have round tipped outer wing
feathers. In general, gallinaceous birds have
short, rounded wings adapted for short
flights and strong legs well suited to running.
They are very adept at hiding in cover.
Grouse are subject to a poorly understood
population cycle, which can be very
pronounced and occur over a period of years.
Successful breeding of the ground-nesting
species is dependent on adequate, but not
too much precipitation, and temperature. If
there is too little moisture, eggs will rot, too
much and the chicks can drown or be chilled
and die, and if it is too cold when the eggs
are incubated or the young are still in the
nest, survival rates can drop. Both ptarmigan
and grouse will burrow into snowdrifts for
protection from extreme cold.
Resident upland game birds

Order Galliforma (gallinaceous birds)
Family Phasianidae (grouse, ptarmigan, partridges, chukars, pheasants, quails, and turkeys)
Family traits: ground-dwellers; feathered nostrils; short, strong bills; short, rounded
wings; brief but strong flight. Males often perform elaborate mating displays.
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UPLAND
GAME BIRDS
Legs and feet, including toes, completely

feathered.
Legs feathered
Tail feathers pointed,

not blunt.
Feet and toes not

feathered, or toes
lightly feathered.
Legs scaly, not

feathered
Tail evenly fan-shaped,

feathers blunt,
square tipped.
Introduced
Upland Bird
Ptarmigan
Native Grouse
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Ptarmigan
Middle two tail feathers noticeably longer
and darker than the
rest of the tail.
Sharp-tailed
Grouse
Ruffed Grouse
Tail, when spread, shows
a continuous wide dark
band edged front and
back with gray; prominent dark neck ruffs.
Tail feathers dark,

tipped with rusty
brown. Red wattle
over the eye.
Spruce Grouse
Not as above.
Tail feathers dark, either

entirely or with gray
terminal band. Yellow
wattle over the eye.
Blue Grouse
Centre tail feathers

long, barred and
pointed.
Ring-necked
Pheasant
Smaller grayish bird,

short tail, brown
feathers on breast.
Gray Partridge
Grayish bird with

black v-shaped bib,
white belly with black
barred sides.
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Chukar
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Winter plumage
White-tailed ptarmigan
camouflage. The summer plumage for all

three species is a mixture of blacks,
browns, and a small amount of white,
generally on the belly and the wings, and
the tail is either spotted or solid white.
Fall plumage is similar but muted. All
three species have a red "comb" above the
eye, which can be concealed or inflated
during courtship and aggressive
behaviour. The female of each species is
very similar. In winter both sexes of all
species are solid white. To tell the species
apart in winter, the willow ptarmigan
(Lagopus lagopus) has black tail feathers
with white tips, the rock ptarmigan
(Lagopus mutus) has black tail feathers and
a black line that extends from the bill to
behind the eye, and the white-tailed
ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) has white
tail feathers but the bill and eye are black.
WILLOW, ROCK,
WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN
Scientific name: Lagopus spp.
Size:
length: 12-1/2 to 15 in. (32 to 38 cm)
weight: to about 2 lb. (1 kg)
a) Ptarmigan
There are three species of ptarmigan
(willow, rock, and white-tailed) in British
Columbia and the following text generally
applies to all three.
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Description: Ptarmigan are stout, shorttailed birds that have white patches on
the wings and characteristic heavy,
feathered feet. They moult three times a
year and their winter plumage is very
different from the summer or fall
plumage, but all are remarkably effective
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General comments: Ptarmigan inhabit high

alpine habitat and tundra areas. In summer
they eat plants, insects, snails, berries, and
seeds, and in winter they switch to moss,
lichen, willow and alder buds, and conifer
needles. Ptarmigan are remarkably tame. They
do not flush with a flurry when frightened,
like grouse do, but, if pushed, will try to run
from the danger. They all have similar calls of
"ca-out-ca-out", "kow-kow-kow", "do-ack",
"kerr-ky-kerr" or a series of soft clucks and
squeals. Nests are built on the ground from a
scraped out hollow lined with leaves and grass.
Willow ptarmigan are the largest, followed by
rock, and with white-tailed the smallest.
Willow and rock ptarmigan live in the north
of the province and white-tailed in alpine
tundra areas further south.
All species of ptarmigan are monogamous,

that is, the male will stay with one female
during the breeding season until the young
can manage on their own. This is in
contrast to grouse, which are polygamous.
During the breeding season, ptarmigan
stay in family groups but in late summer
they will start to congregate in larger
groups to move to more favourable winter
habitat (although these birds are not
considered migratory). In winter, the
willow ptarmigan seeks the shelter of
willow groves south of its summer range.
The rock ptarmigan also moves somewhat
south and will drop down in altitude to
more sheltered areas. The white-tailed
ptarmigan migrates less and tends to stay
in the alpine.
b) Grouse
Grouse are small, chicken-like birds, with a
round body and small head. They are
generally a dull brown or gray colour. Seeds,
grasses, and conifer needles make up the
main diet and they may roost in trees. They
tend to have feathered legs and lightly
feathered feet, unlike the ptarmigan, which
have heavily feathered feet. The sexes appear
similar but there may be slight differences.
There are four species in B.C.: the spruce
grouse, blue grouse, ruffed grouse, and
sharp-tailed grouse. Grouse are generally
found in or near coniferous forests. As
shown in the generalized habitat map,
sharp-tailed grouse live in open parklands
at low elevations, ruffed grouse occur at
lower elevations in mixed forests or open

land, blue grouse occupy conifer forests at
many elevations although they nest low
and move to high elevations in winter.
Spruce grouse are found in heavy conifer
forests dominated by spruce generally at
higher elevations, while ptarmigan occupy
the alpine tundra. Grouse are polygamous,
that is, the male will mate with a number
of females during the breeding season and
the hen raises the chicks alone. All grouse
and ptarmigan are ground-nesters and the
nest is usually a shallow depression scraped
out of the soil and lined with grasses and
leaves. Sometimes it will be under some
type of protection.
Ptarmigan
Grouse and their habitat

(general)
Ruffed Grouse
Quail Sharptail
Pheasants
Gray Partridge
Chukar
Bad lands
Park land
Spruce
Blue
Farm land
Blue
Ruffed
Barrens
Conifer Forest
Mixed forest
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High forest
mountain regions.
Dense conifer forest
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SPRUCE GROUSE ("FOOL HEN")

Scientific name: Dendragapus canadensis
Size:
length: 16 in. (40 cm)
weight: 3/4 to 1-1/2 lb. (1/3 to 3/4 kg)
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Description: The spruce grouse is a

medium-sized bird with two "types" in
B.C. the Hudsonian and the Franklins.
Males have a gray back, head, neck, and
shoulders with black bars; the throat,
chest, and belly are black with white bars;
and the flanks are streaked with white and
brown. The male also has a reddish fleshy
"comb" over the eye (most obvious during
breeding season), which is missing in the
female. The female is blackish above,
brownish below with a lot of black, white,
and reddy brown mottling. Females can be
difficult to distinguish from a female blue
grouse; however, spruce grouse generally
have a more rusty-tipped tail than do blue
grouse. You can tell the two types of
spruce grouse apart because, although
both have a very dark to black tail, the
Hudsonian has a rusty tail band and the
Franklins does not.
General comments: The voice of a spruce

grouse is commonly a series of peeping
clucks, but during courtship the males
produce a low, guttural whining series of
notes. The male also performs a distinctive
"flutter flight" either from a tree or by
jumping into the air from the ground. While
in the air they make a drumming sound
with their wings. They feed on a variety of
plants and insects when available but prefer
a diet of buds and needles of conifers during
all seasons. Spruce grouse nest and spend
the winter in open coniferous forests with
dense undergrowth at high elevation
throughout B.C., with the exception of the
coast and the Coast Mountains. These
grouse often show little or no fear of man,
which has led to the name "fool hen.
When flushed, the bird may fly to a nearby
tree and roost in spite of considerable
disturbance on the ground below it.
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BLUE GROUSE ("BLUES")

Scientific name: Dendragapus obscurus
Size:
length: 21 to 22 in. (53 to 56 cm)
weight: to 4 lb. (1-3/4 kg)
Description: These birds, the largest of the

grouse, have two "types" the "sooty" of
the coast and the "dusky" of the interior.
Males are mottled grayish-blue birds with
mottled brown wings, two yellow air sacs
on the side of the neck (seen when
inflated during breeding season) and a
fleshy, yellow "comb" over the eye (most
obvious also during breeding season). Legs
and feet are covered in gray feathers.
Females are mottled brown above, gray
below, and lack the yellow comb and air
sac. Both male and female have a dark tail.
Males of the two types of blues commonly
identified in B.C. may be distinguished
from each other by the presence of a gray
tail band in the "sooty" and its absence in
the "dusky.
series of clucks except during the spring

mating season when males make a loud
"hooting" sound, which is amplified by
the air sac. The summer diet is insects,
berries, tender plants, and seeds. Blue
grouse nest in open woodlands at lower
elevations but migrate to higher
elevations for winter where they feed on
needles and buds of conifers. Males move
earlier, when the females are beginning to
nest. As adults they show little fear of
man while roosting in a tree, or while on
the ground during the nesting period. If
they are flushed, they take off with rapid
wing beats then glide down to a nearby
tree. When in the higher forests, they will
generally be found close to water and
there may be many in the area.
General comments: The voice of the blue

grouse is typically a soft chicken-like
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female
male
Dot configuration
on rump feathers
RUFFED GROUSE
pump" noise by rapidly vibrating its open

wings, usually from on top of a log or rock
that gives it a good view of the
surroundings. He also raises his crest and
ruff. The genus name, Bonasa, means bison,
perhaps for its drumming, which can sound
like stampeding bison. The species name,
umbellus, means umbrella from the way the
male raises its neck ruff. If discovered on the
nest, the female will use the "broken wing"
trick to try to lure the danger away from her
young. During the summer, ruffed grouse
stay in family groups but in winter fairly
large flocks will gather together.
Ruffed grouse occupy mixed deciduous/coniferous forest and shrub areas
throughout the province but they are
most abundant in mixed, mainly deciduous growth. During spring and summer
they eat green shoots and leaves, insects,
and berries. In winter the diet switches to
seeds and buds of deciduous trees.
Generally, ruffed grouse are wary birds
and they usually flush with an explosive
burst of speed.
Scientific name: Bonasa umbellus

Size:
weight: 1 to 2 lb. (1/2 to 1 kg)
Description: Both males and females can be

either reddish or grayish mottled brown
colour, but they always have a fan-shaped
tail with a number of parallel, narrow, black
bands across a lighter background, and a
single wide black band near the tip. Both
sexes have a crest on their head that they
can raise or lower. A line of light brown runs
from the bill to beyond the back edge of the
eye. The male has a prominent black "ruff"
on each side of the neck. In the female the
centre two tail feathers lack the broad, black
band near the tip.
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General comments: Ruffed grouse are the

most abundant and wide spread grouse in
British Columbia. Their call is a series of
"squawks", "peeps", and "clucks" in both
sexes. During courtship the male makes a
"whump-whump-whump-pump-pump360
Crown
feathers
Tail feathers
cross barred
(female)
Crown
feathers
Description: Three sub-species have

been described in British Columbia but they
do not differ by features which are easily
recognizable in the field. Sharptails are
heavily barred with dark brown, cinnamon
and buff and have prominent white tips on
their body feathers; underparts have
distinctive V-shaped dark brown markings on
a buff or white background. They have
pointed, white-edged tails with dark bands on
the brown centre feathers. The tail is often
held erect, a very distinctive trait. Both sexes
have a small head crest which can be erected.
The male has a small yellow "comb" over the
eye and purplish sacs on either side of the
neck, which are inflated during courtship
Longitudinal Striping (male)
SHARP-TAILED GROUSE
Scientific name: Tympanuchus phasianellus
Size:
weight: up to 2 lb. (1 kg)
collect in large flocks where there is brush for

cover and food and good grass, and
sometimes near harvested fields where
spilled grain is easily available. In spring the
flocks break up for breeding season.
The voice is often a low, mellow "koot"
or pigeon-like "coo-oo" but it may also be a
series of low chicken-like "clucks" and
squeals. On the "dancing" ground, an
open, grassy area used every year, males
will perform to attract females. The males
display by bending forward with their
wings stiffly held half open, rapidly stamping their feet to make a drumming sound,
expanding their air sacs and "booming",
fanning their tails vertically, and rapidly
shaking their wings to create a rattling
noise. There can be up to 25 males on the
same dancing ground and the activity normally happens at sunrise and late afternoon. When startled, sharptails burst from
cover with a loud whir of wings, flying
straight away and periodically "sailing.
General comments: Sharp-tailed grouse are

not abundant in B.C., except in the parklands
of the Peace River region and the grasslands
of the central and southern interior. They are
not a forest or mountain bird. Isolated
populations occur in the Kootenays and
Prince George area and a few have been
recorded near Atlin on the British ColumbiaYukon border. Sharptails occupy grasslands
with brush cover, or open woodland; they
cannot survive in cultivated fields. They eat a
variety of plants and insects and, in winter,
they concentrate on seeds, berries, and buds
of deciduous trees or shrubs. In fall they
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c) Introduced species
of turkeys, they migrated across the

border into the Kootenays, and gray
partridge into the southern Okanagan,
from successful human-introduced flocks
south of the border. All the species
covered in this section are gallinaceous
birds (pheasant, gray partridge, chukar,
quail, and wild turkey).
Source: NWTF
There have been many attempts to

establish non-native game birds in B.C.
Most have been unsuccessful but a few
have been very successful. In the case of
wild turkeys and gray partridge, in certain
areas the species actually successfully
introduced themselves to B.C. In the case
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Description: The male is a spectacularly

colourful bird with characteristic dark,
iridescent green head, white neck ring,
and red eye and red fleshy areas on the
face. The sides are goldy buff spotted with
black, rump patch is bluish, the back is
rusty and spotted with black and beige,
the breast is bronze and the belly is black.
They have a very long, brown tail with
many irregular cross bars. Hens are smaller
and are mottled brown, darker above and
lighter below. Hens have a shorter tail
than the male (cock) but much longer
than a sharp-tailed grouse and they dont
hold it up like this grouse. They are also
larger than sharp-tailed grouse. Cocks
have a noticeable sharp spur on the lower
rear inside of their legs which they use for
fighting. Hens have smaller spurs.
RING-NECKED PHEASANT
Scientific name: Phasianus colchicus
Size:
length: male 33 in. (84 cm);
female 21 in. (53 cm)
weight: 2 to 3 lb. (1 to 1-1/3 kg)
brood per female is raised although another is

laid if the first brood fails). In fall the females
collect in large flocks for the winter. Cocks
tend to be relatively solitary in winter and
stay close to their harems in summer.
Pheasants do not migrate, but they will move
to areas of better cover for the winter.
Preferred habitat is cultivated land (particularly grain fields), rich soil, and suitable
shrubby, hedgerow cover. They eat a wide
variety of green plants, insects, weed and
grain seeds, and larvae. During the winter
their diet is mostly waste grain and other
seeds and fruit. When flushed, they burst
into the air with a flurry of whirring wings
often accompanied by loud "cock-cock-cockcock" call. They may also run from an
approaching human. Unlike grouse, pheasants will not burrow into snowdrifts for protection and they can be susceptible to very
cold weather if they dont have adequate
cover and food. They are found on southern
Vancouver Island, most of the Gulf Islands,
the Fraser Valley, the Fraser Canyon south of
Dog Creek, the Kamloops area, the
Okanagan, and the West Kootenays. They
are also widely farmed.
General comments: Although other species

of pheasants are becoming established,
especially on Vancouver Island and the Gulf
Islands, the ring-necked is still the most
common species to be seen or hunted. The
ring-necked pheasant originally came from
mainland Asia. Its voice is a loud "screech",
"squawk", "cock-cock-cock", or a screechy
crow sound. They also produce a wide
variety of "clucks" and "peeps" similar to
chickens. Pheasants are polygamous with
the male setting up a "crowing territory" to
attract females into a small harem. Crowing
generally occurs around dawn and dusk. In
summer they live in family groups but the
females raise the chicks alone (only one
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Detail of Scapular Feathers
Male
Female
GRAY PARTRIDGE
metallic sounding. "Huns" normally are

found in groups of 6 to 15 birds except
during the breeding season. The male is
monogamous and, although it does not
help with incubating, it does help raise the
young. The nest is generally concealed in
grass. When a flock is alarmed, the group
may explode from cover and fly in all
directions but they generally dont go far.
Occasionally they may escape by running
through the stubble rather than taking
flight. Their colouring is excellent
camouflage for their chosen habitat.
Gray partridge are found in cultivated
areas and grasslands where they feed on
insects, waste grain, weed and grass seeds,
and green vegetation. They are very
hardy and in winter they burrow into
snowdrifts for protection and to find
food. In difficult years huns can live on
buds of shrubs and trees above the snow.
They are found only in the dry grasslands
of British Columbias southern interior.
Scientific name: Perdix perdix

Size:
weight: 14 oz. (400 gm)
Description: Gray partridges are grayishbrown with a rusty face and throat. The
flanks are barred with cinnamon and the
short, brown tail feathers are obvious and
distinctive in flight. Cocks have a solid
brown horseshoe marking on their belly.
Hens and juveniles have a similar mark
but it is less distinct.
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General comments: Gray partridges (also

known as Hungarian partridge or "huns")
are an introduced species from central
Europe, although they arrived in B.C. by
migrating across the border into the
southern Okanagan Valley from successful
introductions in the early 1900s in
Washington. Their voice is a hoarse "keeah" and the alarm note is loud and
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CHUKAR
Description: Both sexes are coloured alike

and are easy to recognize. The chukar is
gray-brown above with bold black bars on
its white flanks. A black bar runs from
above the bill, across the cheeks, over the
eyes, then swings down to form a bib on
the chest. The chin and lower cheeks
(below the black bar) are white to buff.
Bill, legs, and feet are red.
Scientific name: Alectoris chukar

Size:
weight: 1-1/4 lb. (1/2 kg)
incubate or raise the young. If a brood is

unsuccessful, the female will lay another
clutch. Once the young are hatched, a
number of family groups will band
together into small flocks centred around a
water source.
Chukars occupy dry grasslands or
desert areas with shrub cover and favour
steep, broken slopes for escape terrain and
sunning. They do not need cultivated
farmland to thrive but, since they are
ground-feeders and do not eat shrub or
tree buds, in times of heavy snow they
may starve. In winter they concentrate
around river breaks, railways, and farmlands near easily available food sources. In
summer they eat green plants and insects,
but concentrate on grass and weed seeds
and berries in winter. Chukar are found in
the Fraser Canyon, the Kamloops-Savona
area of the Thompson Valley, the Gulf
Islands, and the south Okanagan.
General comments: Chukar (sometimes

called chukar partridge) are an introduced
species native to southern Eurasia. They
were introduced into the Okanagan and
Thompson valleys in the 1850s and have
done very well. Their call is a loud "chukar"
or a repetitive "chuk-chuk-chukar-chukar.
They are very vocal, particularly when
disturbed and when separated from their
flock. When flushed they fly extremely fast
but they often run away rather than flying.
When running, it is always uphill; they
can flush in every direction but will turn
and always fly downhill. In early spring
the flocks split up as mating begins. The
male is monogamous but they do not help
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Mountain Quail

Scaled Quail
Valley Quail
QUAIL
Gambels Quail
Scientific name:
Size:
Callipepla californica (California quail)

Oreortyx pictus (mountain quail)
weight: 7 to 9 oz. (200 to 255 gm)
the flock starts to break up for breeding.

Males are monogamous and, although
they do not help with incubation, they do
help raise the young. Mountain quail will
move to higher elevations during breeding
season and return to lower levels in fall
where they may overlap with California
quail. Quail do not like to flush and will
run for some distance. If forced to flush,
they will fly in a flurry in all directions
and will run again when they land.
Quail eat insects, berries, weed and
grass seeds, and green plants. In winter
they eat shoots, buds, fruit, and seeds. As
both species are ground-feeders, heavy
snow can severely impact populations
and dense, protective cover is necessary
for their survival. They occupy dryland
scrub and farmland hedgerows. The
mountain quail chooses higher elevations
than the California quail, which is sometimes called the valley quail. Another way
to tell the California quail apart is that it
roosts in trees while other quail do not.
California quail are found on southeastern Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands,
and in the Okanagan while mountain
quail are only found on southeastern
Vancouver Island.
Note: there is no open hunting season
on mountain quail.
Description: There are two species of quail

in B.C. the mountain and the California
quail. The mountain quail is slightly larger
than the California quail but they are easy
to tell apart. Both species are short-necked
and short-tailed brown and gray-blue birds
with a distinctive head plume (in both
sexes), forward-curving in the California
quail and straight and upright or tilted back
in the mountain quail. Males have distinct
facial patterns while females do not. The
male California has a black throat outlined
in white, a white stripe across its forehead,
the chest appears to have large, black-edged,
white "scales", and the belly has a chestnut
patch. The male mountain quail has a
chestnut throat outlined in white, no
forehead stripe, the chest is
solid gray, and the sides are chestnut with
bold, white bars. Distribution can also help
with identification.
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Mearns Quail
General comments: Quail have a threenoted call "qua-quer-yo", a soft peep, a low
whistle, various clucks, and a loud
"querk. In winter, flocks gather and can
number up to 100 birds or more. In spring
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Gobbler
Hen
WILD TURKEY
Scientific name: Meleagris gallopavo
Size:
weight: 17 to 28 lb. (7-3/4 to 12-3/4 kg)
Description: The wild turkey is the largest

game bird in North America and looks very
similar to the domestic species, but a bit
smaller. Both sexes are dark with naked
heads. The tom (male) is iridescent
brownish black, the wings have brown and
black bars and the long tail has a wide black
bar near the end. The naked head of the
male is blue and red, it has folds of red skin
(wattles) under the chin, wart-like
"caruncles" on the neck and a finger-shaped
"snood" hanging over one side of the beak.
They also have a tuft (beard) of hair-like
feathers on their chest. The older a tom is,
the longer its beard. There is a spur on the
lower leg that is used for fighting. The hen
is smaller and browner than the tom and
does not have the distinctive head
decorations that the tom has.
from introductions in the northern

states. Turkeys have a distinctive gobble
and they also chirp. They inhabit open
forests that provide them with big trees
to roost in, shelter, good water, and open
feeding areas. For nesting and brood
raising, they move to the forest edge into
high grass cover since they are a groundnesting bird. In winter they choose
denser cover. In the mountains they are
at higher elevations in the spring and
summer then move downhill for the fall
and winter. In winter birds will form
flocks, and the makup of the flocks can
vary from all young, just one sex, or a
mixture of all ages and sexes. These flocks
start to break up in spring for the
breeding season. The male is polygamous
and is not involved in raising the young.
It has been said that a turkey "will eat
anything that hasnt eaten him first.
Although this is an exaggeration, it
points out the turkeys varied
omnivorous diet of seeds, fruit, green
plants, frogs, lizards, insects, and snails.
General comments: Turkeys have been

introduced to southern Vancouver Island,
the southern Gulf Islands, the north
Okanagan Valley, and the population in
the Kootenays migrated north into B.C.
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PART I & II
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the word "game bird". __________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List the nine groups or types of common game birds found in British Columbia.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the difference in wing beat comparing a diving to a dabbling duck?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List three types of Ptarmigan found in British Columbia. ________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List the four types of grouse found in British Columbia.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Which is the largest grouse found in British Columbia. __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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368
7. Which is the most abundant grouse found in British Columbia. __________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Which sex of the ring-necked pheasant is the most colourful? ____________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Is there a open season on mountain quail? ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. What is the name given to a male Turkey? ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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PART III.
MIGRATORY GAME BIRDS
swans are all waterfowl and have
characteristics in common even though
they can vary considerably in size and
habits. Waterfowl have webbed feet,
similar feathering, and bills of similar
shape. The bill is long, generally
flattened, and often has ridges for
filtering food from water.
Migratory game birds in B.C. are covered

by federal hunting regulations. They
include the "wetland" migratory birds
which takes in waterfowl (ducks and geese)
and two species of marsh and shorebirds
(coots and snipe), and the "upland"
migratory birds, which are two species of
native doves and pigeons (band-tailed
pigeon and mourning dove). The
following gives a brief overview of the
scientific classifications of birds in the
migratory game bird group although it is
important to note that not all of the birds
in these groups may be hunted.
There are two species among the many

that make up the marsh and shorebird
families that can be hunted in B.C.: the
snipe and the coot. The coot is a good
swimmer and is often found amongst
ducks but is not a duck. The snipe is not
a true upland or water bird as it lives in
marshy areas beside water and it may be
found wading but not swimming.
a) Wetland migratory game birds

Waterfowl live a significant time of their
lives on the water. Ducks, geese, and
Wetland migratory game birds

Order Anseriforma (swans, geese, and ducks)
Family Anatidae (swans, geese, and ducks)
Family traits: aquatic; web-footed; form flocks; feed mostly on the water although
some dabblers, swans, and geese eat on land also.
Order Gruiforma (rails, coots, and cranes)
Family Rallidae (rails and coots)
Family traits: Marsh birds with short tails and short, rounded wings; wide spread toes
for walking on soft mud or vegetation.
Family Scolopacidae (sandpipers, phalaropes, and allies, which includes snipe)
Family traits: Shorebirds; flocks rise in unison, wheel, and settle back on shore; many
species look alike; long bills for probing mud and pools for food; toes wide spread for
walking on soft surfaces. Snipe are different because they are solitary.
Upland migratory game birds

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Family Columbidae (mourning dove, band-tailed pigeon, and rock dove
[domestic pigeon])
Family traits: plump body; small, bobbing head; strong, fast fliers. Larger species
called pigeons, smaller called doves.
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SWANS
Swans might be mistaken for geese except
for their coloration and size. They are the
largest waterfowl to visit or live in B.C.,
reaching up to 5 ft. (1-1/2 m) in length
and 45 lb. (20 kg). They are much larger
than geese and can be distinguished from
geese in both flight and on the ground by
their large bodies and very long necks.
Although their snowy white colouring is
similar to snow geese, the size of body
and length of neck will easily set them
apart. Swans also have a distinctive call,

either a "trumpet" sound or a "whistling"
call, which can distinguish them from
geese. Trumpeter swans (Cygnus
buccinator) nest in northeastern British
Columbia and winter of southeastern
Vancouver Island, while tundra swans
(Cygnus columbianus) nest further north.
The mute swan (Cygnus olor) is an
introduced species and is rare. There is
no season on swans in B.C.
GEESE
Geese are generally larger and plumper
than most ducks. They have drab
coloration, they have no eclipse plumage,
and both sexes are identical. Geese have
long necks in relation to their size but not
as long as swans. In flight geese tend to
form a recognizable "V" or "string" pattern,
and they have a slower wing beat than
ducks. Most species of ducks mature by
their first spring, while geese take two years
or more before reaching maturity. Geese
usually mate for life, and both the gander
(male) and the goose (female) help to rear
the young. If one of a pair of geese dies, the

survivor will usually find a new mate.
Geese are normally found on or near the
water, although they may fly some
distance to a good feeding area (for
example, a harvested pea field where there
are many peas still on the ground) but they
will not stay there. There are five types of
geese in B.C.: the Canada goose, snow
goose, Ross goose, white-fronted goose,
and black brant. Canada geese can be
found along the coast and in the interior;
other geese tend to stay on the coast.
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CANADA GOOSE
Scientific name: Branta canadensis
Size:
weight: 4 to 18 lb. (2 to 8 kg)
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Description: Canada geese have black

heads and necks, white cheek patches,
brown bodies, and white bellies. They are
easy to tell from any other species but it is
hard to distinguish between the different
races of Canada geese. There are at least
seven "types" or races of Canada geese that
occur in B.C. The smallest race is about 4
lb. (2 kg), nests in Alaska, Yukon, and the
Northwest Territories and migrates
through the interior and along the coast.
Unlike the larger Canada geese, these birds
do not "honk" but rather "bark" or "cackle.
The largest race is up to 18 lb. (8 kg), nests
mainly on the coast and throughout the
southern half of the interior. Larger
Canada geese migrate the shortest distance
and they spend the winter with northern
geese in British Columbia, Washington,

Idaho, and Oregon.
General comments: Also known as
"Canadas", these geese are among the
best known and most appreciated
waterfowl in North America. Canada
geese occur in all parts of B.C., nesting on
lakes, rivers, bogs, and marshes, and
sometimes on muskrat or beaver lodges.
Migrating flocks are particularly
noticeable as they fly in a "V" and
constantly vocalize with a distinctive
honk. Canada geese occur from the most
remote alpine lakes to the most accessible
urban parks. Many spend the winter on
our coast and in interior valleys where
food and water remain available.
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SNOW GOOSE
Scientific name: Chen caerulescens
Size:
weight: 6-1/2 to 7-1/2 lb. (3 to 3-1/2 kg)
Description: Snow geese are all white

with distinctive black wing tips. They have
pink feet and pink bills tipped with white
and a distinctive black "grinning patch" on
the bottom bill. There is also a rusty
coloured tint to the head and face.
California, and up to 20,000 birds spend

the winter on the Fraser River Delta. Other
flocks of up to several thousand birds
migrate from Arctic Canada through the
interior of British Columbia enroute to
wintering grounds on the coast of Oregon
and California. In flight, they form the
typical "V" pattern of geese and their black
wing tips can be easily distinguished from
their bright white bodies. They also
constantly vocalize with a distinctive
shrill "honk" or falsetto call as they fly.
General comments: Snow geese (often

called "snowies") breed on the Arctic coast
of North America and Russia. Large flocks
commonly migrate down the outside
coast of Vancouver Island enroute to
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ROSS GOOSE
Scientific name: Chen rossii
Size:
weight: 2-1/2 to 5 lb. (1 to 2 kg)
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Description: The Ross goose is the

smallest of the geese (often no larger than
a duck) and is similar to the snow goose,
which it is often found with. Although
very similar in colour, it has a shorter neck
and rounder head without the rusty hue
typical of the snow goose. Its stubby,
triangular bill does not have a grinning
patch and has a warty, dark-coloured base.
The easiest way to tell them apart from a

distance is the size.
General comments: Ross geese breed
alongside snow geese in the Arctic and
occasionally hybridize with them. Both
species commonly migrate together. In
flight it is more agile and has a faster wing
beat than snowies.
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WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE
Scientific name:
Size:
length:
weight:
Description: This medium-sized goose

(also called "specklebelly" or "white-front")
has distinctive white markings around the
bill. The body of the bird is brownish on
the head and back, and darkly mottled on
the chest and belly. Their feet are orange.
The entire back edge of the wing is very
dark, in contrast with the snow goose
which has only a black tip. Although the
"blue" phase of the snow goose does not
generally occur in B.C., an immature
white-fronted goose can look similar to it.
(If you are visiting the prairies this is a
good thing to remember). The bill on a
mature bird is pinkish while on an
immature bird it is yellowish.
Anser albifrons
29 in. (75 cm)
6-1/4 lb. (2.8 kg)
General comments: This Arctic-nesting

bird regularly migrates in large numbers
along the coast of British Columbia, but
few stop or stay long. In western North
America most "white-fronts" winter in
Washington, Oregon, and California, and
only a few remain in the Fraser Valley or
on the coast of Vancouver Island. In some
years, due to bad weather or tired young,
these geese are forced to stop in large
numbers in major waterfowl areas such as
Cape Scott and Tofino, on Vancouver
Island, and in the Fraser Valley.
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Atlantic Brant
Black Brant
BLACK BRANT
Scientific name: Branta bernicla
Size:
weight: 3-1/4 to 3-3/4 lb. (1-1/2 to 1-3/4 kg)
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General comments: The black brant is

sometimes called the "sea goose" as it is
almost always seen in saltwater areas. A few
black brant winter on the coast of B.C.,
from the Queen Charlotte Islands to the
southern end of Vancouver Island. The total
Pacific population of about 150,000
regularly moves along our coast between
the preferred wintering grounds of
northwestern Mexico and their northern
nesting grounds. Beginning in late March
large numbers of black brant are easily seen
along the south coast, notably in Boundary
Bay and along southeast Vancouver Island
from Sooke to Campbell River.
Description: The black brant has a black

head and neck, similar to a Canada goose,
but it has a white collar, in contrast to the
Canadas white cheek patches. It is also
smaller, although similar in size to the
smallest of the Canada goose races. In
general, it will not be difficult to tell the
difference between the two geese. The
body is dark with a white belly and white
outer tail. Another distinctive feature is
their flight which is close to the water and
fast, with rapid wing beats. The Canada
goose does not fly like this.
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DUCKS
Diving Duck
Characteristics
Dabbling or Puddle Duck

Characteristics
Generally have metallic speculum
Usually swim with tail

held clear of water.
Usually swim with tail

close to water.
Legs set near rear of body.
Legs near centre of body.
Typical Flock Formation
Diving Ducks
Loose Formation
Most Puddle Ducks

Lines of Loose V
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Key Points Diving Ducks

Patter along surface to get airborne
Skate along surface to land
Dive completely underwater to feed
Hind toe lobed
Duller colour, no bright speculum
Fast wing beat due to short wings
Stouter body, shorter neck
Rarely away from water
Bill usually short and broad
Foot larger, legs set near rear of body
Live on deeper, larger water
Usually swim with tail close to water
Flock formation loose
Patter along surface for some

distance to takeoff.
Dive completely underwater to feed.
Hind toe lobed.

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Key Points Dabbling Ducks

Spring into the air on takeoff
Land more directly on water
Tip up to feed
Hind toe not lobed
Drake usually brightly coloured
Brightly coloured speculum
Slower wing beat due to longer wings
Slimmer body, longer neck
Often found on land
Bill longer and narrower
Foot smaller, legs near centre of body
Live in shallower water
Usually swim with tail held clear of water
Flocks often in loose V
Spring into air on takeoff.
Smaller foot than in

diving ducks. Hind
toe not lobed.
Tip up to feed, rarely dive.
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PUDDLE OR DABBLING DUCKS
longish and narrower for their length than

divers bills and a dabblers hind toe is not
lobed, while the diver has a lobed hind toe.
The coloured wing patch, called the
"speculum", is generally iridescent and
bright, unlike on the divers where it is a
much duller colour. The speculum is often
a distinctive mark for field identification.
Many waterbirds such as loons, grebes,
cormorants, and alcids (auks and puffins)
resemble ducks while on the water or in
flight. Be certain of your identification.
Puddle, or dabbling, ducks usually

frequent shallow freshwater marshes,
ponds ("puddles") and river edges rather
than large lakes and bays. They usually
feed by "dabbling" with their bills on the
surface, or by "tipping up" and ducking
their heads to grasp food in shallow water.
They may fly in formation like geese or in
looser, smaller groups. These birds
generally have a more graceful shape,
longer wings and neck, and fly with a
slower wing beat than most of the divers.
They take off and land more directly from
the water than do divers because, since
they live on shallow water closely
surrounded by vegetation and upland
areas, there is more chance of being caught
by a predator so it is an advantage to be
able to leap straight into the air. Dabblers
legs are set closer to the centre of their
bodies than are the legs of divers and,
therefore, they can walk and run on land
easily. Because of this, dabblers are
sometimes found feeding on croplands.
They are often considered to have a much
milder flavour than the diving ducks due
to their vegetarian diet and are therefore
popular game birds.
Common puddle ducks in British

Columbia include the mallard, pintail,
wigeon (or baldpate), shoveller, gadwall,
wood duck, green-winged teal, bluewinged teal and cinnamon teal.
It is easier to tell the difference between

the male and female dabbler than the male
and female diver because the male is often
brightly coloured and the female is much
more muted or generally brownish.
However, during the fall, drakes (males)
may be in eclipse plumage and look more
like the females, so it is important not to
ignore this colour phase when you are
learning to identify the different species.
Dabblers also ride high on the water and
their tails are held clear of the water, unlike
the divers, which point their short tails
down into the water. Dabblers bills are
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MALLARD
Scientific name: Anas platyrhynchos
Size:
weight: about 3 lb. (1-1/4 kg)
Male this duck is distinctively coloured with yellow bill,

orange-red feet, green head, chestnut chest, grayish back and
belly, and dark green tail with several short upcurled centre
feathers. The speculum is metallic purple-blue bordered above
and below by white bars. Their call is a low, reedy squeak or a
guttural chatter.
Female brown, dark streaked bird with buffy coloured chin and
throat, dull orange bill with black blotches and orange feet. Their
call is a loud a quack.
The mallard nests in grass, under shrubs, in marshes, in abandoned
hawk nests near water and in tree cavities or stumps throughout
B.C. It is a particularly common nesting bird in the southern interior
and during migration it is one of the most common and abundant
ducks, concentrating in large numbers along coastal marshes and
valley marshes of the southern interior. Many mallards winter on the coast and in the
interior of B.C. where food and water are available but some migrate to wintering
grounds throughout the western United States and to southern Mexico.
NORTHERN PINTAIL
Scientific name:
Size:
length:
weight:
Anas acuta
20 to 26 in. (51 to 66 cm)
about 2-1/2 lb. (1 kg)
Male the thin white (front) and brown (back) neck

and long, pointed tail are distinctive. The wing patch
(speculum) is metallic bronze-green with a buff
coloured bar above and white below. Their call is a
short, mellow whistle, mewing notes (courtship) or
loud "quaw quaw" (alarm).
Female the female is smaller than the male. The body is
typically buff-brown and spotted and streaked with darker
markings. Like the male, the body is generally slim but the
speculum is dull brown with little or no green.
Their call is a hoarse, muffled quack.
This bird nests throughout grassland areas of B.C. on dry
land often some distance from water. A few birds have
been recorded nesting on the coast in the Fraser Valley.
Very few pintail winter in B.C. but large numbers of birds
from Alaska, the Yukon and Northwest Territories
concentrate on interior potholes and on coastal marshes
while enroute to main wintering areas along the coast of
the United States, Mexico, and northern South America.
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AMERICAN WIGEON (BALDPATE)

Scientific name: Anas Americana
Size:
weight: about 2 lb. (1 kg)
Male generally grayish with brown sides but with a

distinctive yellow-white crown; dark green mask
through the eyes; bluish bill; bold white shoulder
patches on the upper wing; metallic green and black
speculum. Their call is a distinctive three-note flute
whistle with the middle note much higher than the
first or last notes.
Female a brownish-gray bird with wing colours
much more subdued than the males. Their call is a
harsh, squawking quack repeated often.
Wigeon nest in grassy vegetation throughout grassland
and parkland areas of B.C. but a few have been found
on the coast and in northern forest areas. Many nest in
Alaska, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. Flocks of wigeon migrate
through interior valleys and along coastal marshes. Large numbers of wigeon
winter along the coastal marshes of B.C. particularly where agricultural lands
are nearby. Many birds winter as far south as California.
SHOVELLER
Scientific name: Anas clypeata
Size:
Male a colourful, medium-sized dabbler which at first

glance looks like the mallard with green head; white breast
and shoulders; brown sides and belly; black-green rump;
and orange feet. It has a distinctive bluish, broad-tipped
bill and wings like a blue-winged or cinnamon teal with
green speculum and chalk-blue upper wing patch. Its call is
a low, guttural "woa-woa-woa" or "toc-toc-toc", although it
often remains silent.
Female its body is brown with a buff chin and white tail.
It has a brown bill and wings coloured much like
the males. Its voice is a faint, low quack.
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The shoveller nests on the ground in thick cover near

shallow water and marsh throughout B.C., except on the
coast and in the Coastal Mountains. A few birds do nest
in the Fraser Valley. They also nest in Alaska and western
Canada and the west central United States, west of the
Great Lakes. During migration this bird is commonly seen
in the interior, the Fraser Valley and southern Vancouver
Island in B.C. Most birds winter from Oregon south to
southern Mexico.
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GADWALL
Scientific name: Anas strepera
Size:
Male a generally gray duck with a distinctive black rump and

white belly. It is the only puddle duck with a major part of its
speculum coloured white, gray and black and with a
prominent patch of rusty-brown on the upper wing. Its call is
of three distinct types: a reed-like "waak", a short whistle, and a
loud, short quack.
Female like the male except with more brown than gray and
with less prominent coloration on the wings.
Nests in tall grass or under shrubs near water on the coast and
in the southern interior of B.C. This bird also nests in the
southwest prairies and in the northwest United States. It is not
a common duck in B.C. except on the outer portion of the
Fraser Delta. Migrants occur on coastal and south interior
marshes. A few gadwall remain to winter in the lower Fraser
Valley but most migrate to California and southern Mexico.
WOOD DUCK
Scientific name: Aix sponsa
Size:
length: 18-1/2 in. (47 cm)
weight 1 to 2 lb. (1/2 to 1 kg)
Male this is the most intricately and multi-coloured of

our ducks with a green with white crest; body colours of
metallic green, blue, and bronze; white chin and belly; and
reddish bronze chest with white spots. Wings are dark
metallic blue with white lower edges. Their call is generally
a long series of squeaky whistles with periodic cheep-cheep
notes and clucks.
Female a brown-greenish duck with a white belly, chin
and distinctive eyestrip. Wings are like that of the male
except somewhat more subdued. Their call is a sharp,
scraping quack (alarm) or a mellow, plaintive peep, peep.
This bird is confined to south coastal and south interior
marshlands, oxbows and river channels of B.C. and
marshlands of Washington, Oregon and California where
suitable nesting cavities exist. It is not an abundant or
common bird in B.C. except where artificial nesting boxes
have been provided along southeastern Vancouver Island
and in the lower Fraser Valley. A few birds winter in south
coast marshes of B.C. but most winter in the Unites States
south to California.
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GREEN-WINGED TEAL
Scientific name: Anas crecca
Size:
length: 14-1/2 in. (37 cm)
weight: about 1 lb. (1/2 kg)
Male this is the smallest dark brown duck in North

America and it has a distinctive vertical white bar
separating the spotted buff breast from the gray sides.
The head is dark reddish-brown with a dark green
patch extending from the eye to the nape of the neck.
The speculum is a bright metallic green bordered by
black on the sides and buff brown above. Their call is
a short mellow whistle.
Female mottled dark brown with wing coloration
like the male but more subdued. Their call is a highpitched "quack.
Nests on dry land in grass and under shrubs throughout
B.C. but they are most common in the central interior.
In fall large numbers of this species congregate for
several weeks in southern interior marshes and in still larger numbers
along coastal marshes. A few birds winter in B.C. along the coast and
in the southern interior; most migrate to their main wintering areas
in the southern United States to central Mexico.
BLUE-WINGED TEAL
Scientific name: Anas discors
Size:
length: 15-1/2 in. (39 cm)
Male small dark-coloured duck with a noticeable

white crescent in front of its eye and a large chalk-blue
patch on its upper wing. The green speculum is
separated from the blue patch by a white bar. Their call
is a series of chirping, cricket-like whistles.
Female mottled dark brown with a more buff
coloured breast. Their wings are like the males except
they tend to be less vividly coloured. Their voice is a
faint quack.
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They nest on dry land in grassy cover near marshes and

willow borders throughout B.C. but they are most
common in parkland and grassland areas. Large
concentrations are not common in B.C. and most birds
migrate in the early fall to wintering areas in the
southern United States, Mexico and South America to
central Chile and Brazil.
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CINNAMON TEAL
Scientific name: Anas cyanoptera
Size:
Male much like blue-winged teal except the

head and body is rusty brown. Their call is a low,
reedy rattle.
Female almost identical to the blue-winged teal
except for a slightly wider and longer bill. Their
call is a soft quack.
Nests in grassy or shrubby areas on southern
Vancouver Island, the Fraser Valley and through
southern interior grasslands and parklands. These
birds occur in small numbers and migrate from
B.C. by late fall to their wintering grounds in the
extreme southwest United States, Central America
and South America to Colombia and Venezuela.
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DIVING DUCKS
sides and backs of the drakes. In

comparison to dabblers, their bills are
shorter and broader, except for the
canvasback, which has a long, sloping bill,
the buffleheads and goldeneyes, whose
bills are relatively narrow, the scoters and
eider which have unusual features to their
beaks, and the mergansers, which have
narrow, hooked, serrated beaks for
catching fish. The hind toe of a diver is
lobed, while the hind toe of a dabbler is
not. The foot of a diver is larger than the
foot of a dabbler.
"Divers" usually frequent large, deeper

marshes, lakes and rivers but they also
include the sea ducks which, outside of
breeding season, spend most of their time
away from land. They feed by diving,
often to considerable depths, for fish,
shellfish, mollusks, and aquatic plants.
Because of their diet, they are considered
by some to have a very strong flavour and
not be as desirable a game species as the
dabblers or geese. They can swim a
considerable distance under water to
escape danger and may emerge only far
enough to expose their head or bill before
submerging again. Diving ducks are
commonly seen in large flocks of no
distinct formation and fly with a faster
wing beat than other waterfowl due to
their stout bodies and short wings. They
use their large, paddle-shaped feet, which
are often visible when they are flying, as
rudders in flight. When launching into
flight, most of this group run or patter
along the water before becoming airborne
and, when landing, they skate along the
waters surface. Diving ducks are rarely
seen away from water because, with their
legs set farther back on their bodies than
dabbling ducks, it is more difficult for
them to walk on land.
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Unlike geese, it is possible to

tell the difference between
male and female ducks. The
coloured wing patches of
diving ducks lack the brilliance
of the speculums of puddle
ducks. Most diving ducks
appear to be combinations of
black and white. Diving ducks
appear to float lower in the
water than the dabblers due to
their short tails, which point
down into the water. They have
shorter necks and their heads
appear rounder and larger than
the dabbling ducks. From a
distance on the water, they can
often be seen by the flashes of
white and light gray from the
Sex Identification: Drakes "croak",

"peep", and "growl"; hens have a mallardlike "quack. Drakes are more brightly
coloured than hens, but eclipse drakes
resemble hens.
Common divers in British Columbia
include canvasback, redhead, bufflehead,
greater and lesser scaup, ring-necked duck,
ruddy duck, Barrows and common
goldeneye, and the mergansers. The sea
ducks, which are included in this group, are
the harlequin, old squaw, surf and whitewinged scoters, and the common eider.
Remembering Diving Ducks

Did you know?
Most diving ducks have
a human body part in
their name.
scalp (scaup)
back
neck
head
eye
Canvasback
Redhead
Bufflehead
Ring necked Duck
Barrows Goldeneye
Common goldeneye
Greater & Lesser scaup
(scalp)
Eider (eye-dor)
The others (ruddy duck, mergansers,

harlequin, old squaw, and scoters)
you will need to memorize.
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CANVASBACK
Scientific name: Aythya valisineria
Size:
weight: about 3 lb. (1-1/3 kg)
Male its large rust-red head with sloping forehead and bill is
distinctive and, as the name implies, it has a canvas-gray
coloured back which is accentuated by its black shoulder, chest,
and rump. Wings are generally gray with canvas-gray near the
upper edge. Its call is a harsh, guttural croak or a
peeping note.
Female it is like the male except it is coloured brown with a
small wash of gray to the back and upper wings. Its call is a loud
quack or a wailing "currow.
Canvasbacks nest over water on floating vegetation or on dry
land in the grassland and parkland areas of B.C. They nest
throughout the prairies, the southwest and Northwest
Territories and the northern United States. It is not a common
bird in British Columbia and flocks of more than ten birds are
seldom seen. Migrating birds are commonly seen on southern
interior and on coastal marshes. A few birds regularly winter
near Victoria and in the Fraser Valley but most winter in the
southern United States to Central Mexico.
REDHEAD
Scientific name: Aythya americana
Size:
weight: about 2-1/2 lb. (1 kg)
Male a large duck with a distinctive high forehead;

bluish bill; rusty-red head and neck; black upper back
and chest; dark gray back and white belly. Wings are a
dull brownish with a gray patch on the lower edge. Their
call is a mewing cat-like call or a guttural purr.
Female a non-distinctive brown duck with whitish
belly. Wings are like those of the male but without much
gray on the upper edge. Their call is a loud, sharp squawklike quack or a distinctive growling "r-r-rha.
The redhead nests over water or on dry land throughout
the prairies of Canada, mid and northwestern United
States and in the south and west of the grassland and
parkland areas of B.C. This species is not abundant in B.C.
but it occurs as a migrant throughout the valleys of the
south interior and in the lower Fraser Valley. A few birds
remain to winter near Vancouver but most migrate south
to lower California and the Valley of Mexico.
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BUFFLEHEAD
Scientific name: Bucephala albeola
Size:
length: 13-1/2 in. (34 cm)
Male a small white and black duck with a dark green

head having a white crown-cheek patch extending
upward from behind and below the eye. Their neck,
shoulders, chest and most of their back is white while
part of the back, the rump and tail are black. Wings are
black except for a white patch which extends from the
lower edge to the upper middle. Their call is a low,
guttural roll or a weak squeak.
Female a dark brown duck with a white patch below
and behind the eye, a white-gray breast and a small
white patch on the lower edge of the wing. Their call is
a hoarse quack or a "cuk-cuk-cuk" often repeated.
The bufflehead nests in trees or other cavities near water throughout
B.C., except on the coast and in the Coast Mountains. They also nest
in Alaska, the Yukon and Northwest Territories and east to Hudson
Bay. Migrating birds are common in the interior and along the coast.
Birds winter along the coast of Alaska and B.C. and throughout the
coast and interior of the United States.
GREATER SCAUP
Scientific name: Aythya meri
Size:
Male its dark metallic green head, black shoulders and

chest, and grayish back separate this bird from all North
American ducks except the lesser scaup. Wings are
brownish gray except for a white lower edge which
extends beyond the bend or "wrist" towards the tip.
Their call is a loud "scaup scaup" or, in courtship, a soft,
moaning "pahoo.
Female a brown duck with white belly and face and a
dull blue bill. Wings are coloured like those of the male.
Their call is a loud "cheep cheep" or "tuck-tuck-tur-a-tuck.
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Greater scaup nest on the ground near water in Alaska, the

Yukon and Northwest Territories and in the extreme north
of B.C. Migrants occur throughout B.C. and many remain
to winter in coastal and south interior marshes where food
and water are available. Most greater scaup winter on the
coast from Alaska to northern Mexico.
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LESSER SCAUP
Scientific name: Aythya affinis
Size:
length: 16-1/2 in. (42 cm)
Male it has a bluish bill; black-purplish head, chest,

shoulders and rump; and white back and belly. It is like the
greater scaup except the white on the lower edge of the wings
does not extend beyond the bend or "wrist" towards the tip.
Their call, particularly during flight, is a "purr purr" but they
emit a loud "scaup scaup" when startled or a low, mellow
whistle during courtship.
Female like the grater scaup, a brown bird with a bluish bill,
white face and white belly. Its wings are like the males. Their
call is a rattling, guttural "quaw-w-w.
The lesser scaup nests in grass and in shrubbery on land near
marshes or open water throughout B.C, except on the coast
and in the Coast Mountains. Large numbers of lesser scaup
from B.C., Alaska, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories
migrate through the south interior of B.C. and along coastal
marshes. Many winter along the coast of B.C., the U.S.A. and
south to Panama.
RING-NECKED DUCK
Scientific name: Aythya collaris
Size:
length : 7 in. (43 cm)
weight: 1 to 2 lb. (1/2 to 1 kg)
Male black-purplish head, chest and back (green near the

tail) and white belly distinguish this bird from other divers.
The bluish bill has two distinctive white rings; one near the
tip and the other at the base. Wings are brownish-green
with a gray patch on the lower edge. There is a faint ring
on the neck but it is not obvious in the field. Their call is
like that of the lesser scaup.
Female a brown duck with whitish face, white belly and
bluish bill. Wings are like those of the male but without
much green. Their call is like that of the lesser scaup.
This bird nests on open ground near water throughout the
southern half of B.C., particularly on higher lakes. It also
nests from the Peace Athabasca hills to the eastern
seaboard, south to the Great Lakes. It occurs in small flocks
on migration in south interior valleys of B.C. and along the
south coastal marshes. A few birds winter on south coastal
marshes and in isolated south interior areas where food
and water are available. Most birds winter in the southern
United States and Central America.
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RUDDY DUCK
Scientific name: Oxyura jamaicensis
Size:
Male This small duck has a distinctive black crown;

blue bill; white face below the eye; and rust-red body.
Their wings and tail are drab brown. Their call is loud
"chuc-chuc-chuc-chucar" or "ick-ick-ick-ick-u-cluck" or
"quo-ack.
Female a medium brown bird with a light gray belly
and white lower face with a dark, horizontal stripe
below the eye. Their call is a fair "quack" but they are
most often silent.
They nest over water on a floating nest in the interior
grasslands and in the outer Fraser Valley of B.C. Migrant
birds are seen in the southern interior and in the Fraser
Valley. A few "ruddies" winter on the south coast of B.C.
but most migrate to wintering grounds along the coast of
the United States south to central and coastal Mexico.
BARROWS GOLDENEYE
Scientific name: Bucephala islandica
Size:
Male a stout diver with a purplish-black head; a white

crescent below and in front of its yellow or gold eye; white
shoulders, chest and belly; and black back, rump and tail.
Its wings are black except for a large white patch which
extends from the lower edge to the centre. Like the
common goldeneye, the Barrows goldeneye has wing
feathers that "whistle" during flight. Their voice is like that
of the common goldeneye.
Female a brown-headed duck with a clearly defined
white neck and white shoulder, chest and belly. Its wings
are more subdued but like the males. Their call is like that
of the common goldeneye.
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The Barrows goldeneye nests in trees or similar cavities

near water throughout B.C., particularly in the Cariboo
parklands. It also nests from south central Alaska to
southwestern Colorado. Migrant birds commonly occur in
B.C. in the southern interior and in coastal marshes.
Wintering birds are uncommon but do occur on the coast
from southern Alaska to central California and inland from
southern B.C. to Colorado.
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COMMON GOLDENEYE
Scientific name: Bucephala clangula
Size:
length: 18-1/2 in. (47 cm)
Male a stout diver with greenish-black head; white shoulders

and breast; and generally black back and tail. There is a
distinctive white spot in front of and below the yellow or goldcoloured eye. Wings have pronounced white patches which
extend from the lower edge to the centre. The wings make a
distinctive whistling noise, particularly when the birds are just
taking off. Their voice is a sharp, loud "skur skur" but generally
they are silent.
Female its brown head and distinctly bordered white neck
are useful in separating this bird from all but the female
Barrows goldeneye. It has a white belly and generally browngray back and tail and the wings have much less white that
those of the male.
MERGANSERS

Common Merganser
Drake
winter
Mergansers, as a group, are fish-eating, diving ducks with

long, very narrow, hooked, and serrated beaks which are
specially designed for catching and holding fish. They all
have large, obvious crests (except the male common
merganser), which can be raised and are distinctive. It is
not uncommon to find them on rivers, although they also
inhabit ponds, lakes and, in winter, coastal areas. They are
not considered good eating and are not commonly hunted
but they are fascinating birds and worth looking up as you
may see them swimming and diving and mistake them for
the more common species listed above. In flight they show
distinctive pointed wings and the head looks like a bump
between the long neck and the bill.
SEA DUCKS
Sea ducks are considered part of the diving duck group.
What makes these ducks different is that they are stocky,
short-necked ducks that breed in the far north and
migrate in large, compact flocks to and from their coastal
wintering grounds which are generally open ocean or
large saltwater bays.
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HARLEQUIN
Scientific name: Histrionicus histrionicus
Size:
length: 16-1/2 in. (42 cm)
weight: about 1-1/2 lb. (3/4 kg)
Male a very colourful, dark, stout duck which is

metallic blackish-blue covered with black-outlined
white patches on the head, neck, chest, back and sides.
Their sides are rust brown and their wings are metallic
blue and purple with a patch of white on the lower
edge nearest the body. Their call is a mouse-like squeak
or a hoarse "lead-lead" or "oi-oi-oi.
Female a dark brown duck with white patches on the
forehead, below the eye and behind the eye. Their
wings are dull brown with a faint purplish lower edge.
Their voice is a loud "eck-eck-eck" or "jeak-jeak.
The harlequin nests on the ground under thick
shrubby cover in trees and on cliffs near mountain
streams throughout B.C. except the Peace River area.
They also nest along mountain streams in Alaska, the Yukon, Northwest Territories and
in the northwestern United States. Migrating birds are seldom seen inland except
during the early spring but by midsummer non-breeding birds are commonly seen near
kelp beds on the coastal wintering areas from Alaska to southern California.
OLD SQUAW
Drake Winter
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Hen
Male in winter and spring it is mostly white with dark

brown breast and back, gray shoulders; the bill is short,
black, and has a pink band. The white head has a large tan
patch with a dark brown spot at the back. Eclipse plumage
is mostly dark with white patch around eye. Male has
distinctive long tail, which is conspicuous in flight but
may be under water when swimming.
Female smaller than male. Whiter in summer, darker in
winter, mottled with light and dark brown; black bill; lacks
long tail of male. Both sexes have gray legs and feet.
Old squaw can be identified by their fast careening flight.
They are also considered one of the most vocal of
waterfowl with their loud, yodelling, three-part call,
clucking and growling. They nest on tundra or rocky
coastline close to water, either sea or freshwater, and they
often form nesting colonies. Their nesting range is from
northern Alaska, through the Arctic to Hudson Bay. Old
squaw usually migrate at night. They winter from western
Alaska to California on coastal bays or large inland lakes
often in large rafts of birds.
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Scientific name: Clangula hyemalis

Size:

SURF SCOTER
Scientific name: Melanitta perspicillata
Size:
Male an all-black duck with white patches on its forehead

and the back of its neck. The eye is white. The bill is humped
in the middle and is red, white, yellow, and black.
Female a drab bird in comparison to the drake, the female is
grayish brown with a white belly, small white patch beneath
the eye, and a grayish black bill. Both sexes have orange legs
and feet. Both sexes are normally silent but they also may
make low croaks.
This bird is called the surf scoter because it feeds along the
surf line. They breed in Alaska and in a broad band across
northern Canada. Nests are constructed in marshes along
rivers, lakes and ponds in open woods or even under
vegetation fairly far from water. Wintering distribution is
along the coast from Alaska to Baja California. In winter
they are often found in large rafts with other scoters.
White-winged Scoter
Surf-Scoter
Drake
Hen
WHITE-WINGED SCOTER
Scientific name: Melanitta fusca
Size:
Male an all-black, large duck with a yellow bill, having a

black knob on the upper base; a small white loop extending
behind the eye; and a distinctive white patch on the lower
edge of the wing. Their call is a faint, hollow whistle, in a
series of short notes, but they are most often silent.
Female an all-brown duck with white dots below and in
front of the eye and below and behind the eye. Their wings
are like the males except brownish instead of black. They
are generally silent but faint calls are like the males.
The white-winged scoter nests on the ground on rocks and
among shrubs around marshes or lakes from the Yukon
and western Northwest Territories to northern Montana
and North Dakota. Nesting birds occur throughout interior
parkland and grassland areas of B.C. Migrant birds are seen
on the coast and in the south and central interior of B.C.
but most are seen as winter visitors on the coast from
Alaska to northern Mexico.
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Replacement page 2002 CORE Manual

COMMON EIDER
Male white neck, breast and back; black flanks and

undersides; white neck with olive nape; black crown
with white streaks. The bill is long and sloping, giving
the head a distinctive wedge shape. The bill is
yellowish with a gray tip. In flight the male shows
white back and black tail, and black outer wing
feathers. The call is a three-note "ah-oo-ah.
Female tan and mottled black all over; grayish bill,
which is also wedge shaped. Females quack. Both sexes
have grayish legs and feet.
This is the largest North American duck. Most nest on
the ground on tundra or rocky shorelines, typically in
loose nesting colonies. They breed along the coastlines
of Alaska, the Canadian Arctic and eastern Canada,
and winter in Alaska and eastern Canada, usually out
of sight of land on the open ocean and often in large
rafts of birds.
Drake
Hen
Common Eider
MARSH AND SHORELINE BIRDS

These birds generally wade or run along beaches or in the mud looking for invertebrates
("bugs", snails, shellfish, etc.) or small fish. They spend their time between upland areas and
open waters, on muddy shorelines and in marshes. The first Order in this grouping
(Gruiforma) includes sandpipers, plovers, curlews, cranes, and coots. The second Order
(Charadriiforma) includes shorebirds, gulls and terns, and snipes are part of the shorebird
family in this group. Even though there are two Orders here, most of these birds have large
feet with wide spread toes for walking on soft mud, marsh vegetation, and muddy beaches.
Snipes and coots are grouped with migratory game birds, as are ducks and geese, in the
hunting regulations.
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Scientific name: Somateria mollissima

Size:
weight: 4 lb. (1-3/4 kg)
AMERICAN COOT
Order Gruiforma
Family Rallidae
Scientific name:
Size:
(rails, coots, and cranes)

(rails and coots)
Fulica americana
length 13 to 16 in. (33 to 40 cm)
weight 1 to 1-1/2 lb. (1/2 to 3/4 gm)
The majority of the birds in the marsh and

shoreline group have long legs and wide
spread, unwebbed toes to walk on soft
mud and floating vegetation. Many of
them have long bills for probing into the
mud for bugs and other food. Coots are
different because, although they have
wide spread toes, their legs are not
especially long for their size and their
beaks are short. They also are very good
swimmers and are often found with
dabbler ducks in shallow water.
trailing feet give this migratory bird a

cumbersome appearance in flight. Some
hunters find the flesh of this bird has a
very strong flavour. Coots eat a variety of
aquatic vegetation, as well as snails and
aquatic insects, sometimes making
shallow dives to collect their food. Large
rafts of coots congregate on large bodies of
water (such as Okanagan Lake) in winter
and in spring they split up into family
units and move out to smaller bodies of
water. Lakes and ponds used for breeding
areas are chosen for their marshy areas,
which provide materials and cover for the
coots floating nest. The coot breeds in
southern and central British Columbia,
north to Vanderhoof and the Peace River
district, and west to southern Vancouver
Island. It can often be identified by its
raucous voice, which sounds like it is
squabbling with its neighbours. On land it
can be quite aggressive at a food source,
vocalizing loudly with harsh croaks,
grunts, and cackles, and is able to chase off
ducks much larger than itself.
Description: Though not a duck, the

adult coot, commonly known as the
"mudhen", is a grayish-black, duck-like
bird. Adults have a black head and neck
and the rest of the body is slaty black. The
toes have large scalloped webs on each
side. The white chicken-like bill, which
has a bony extension running up the
coots forehead, and the pumping motion
of its head and neck when swimming are
distinctive features. Both male and female
look alike.
General comments: Coots are often
reluctant to fly and will run along the
surface of the water for some distance. The
Note: there is no open season on any

other species of marsh bird.
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COMMON SNIPE
Family Scolopacidae (sandpipers, phalaropes, and
allies, which includes snipe)
Scientific name: Gallinago gallinago
Size: length: 11 in. (28 cm) including
the bill
weight: 2-1/2 to 5-1/2 oz.
(70 to 155 gm)
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"upland" game bird as the habitat it

chooses is a bit less "wet" than that
chosen by marsh birds and its nest is a
shallow depression scraped out on dry
land and lined with grass. It is found in
bogs and wetlands with sparse vegetation,
grassy areas beside wetlands, flooded
fields, wet pastures and even ditches. The
snipe has the long bill of a shorebird for
probing wet soil and mud for worms,
insects, mollusks, other invertebrates and
seeds, and long, wide spread toes to
support it on soft, wet surfaces.
Description: It is important to be
absolutely sure of your identification of
snipe as they can be mistaken for other
members of their family, none of which
can be hunted. The common snipe is
mottled brown and white with a white
belly, it has a long (2-1/2 in., 6-1/2 cm)
light coloured beak which gets very dark
near the tip, the head and cheeks are
striped dark brown and white, and it has a
short, rust coloured tail which is edged
with white. On the head, one of the dark
stripes runs through the eye. Both sexes
look alike but females are slightly larger.
Found throughout British Columbia, its

summer range extends across the central
southern region of the United States up to
the coast of Alaska. The snipes winter
range runs from southern British
Columbia as far south as Brazil. Snipe
never form large groups for migration;
generally the group will be 12 birds or less.
In summer they tend to be solitary.
General comments: The common snipe

is sometimes considered a migratory
Note: there is no open season for any

other shorebird.
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b) Upland migratory game birds

Family Columbidae (mourning dove, band-tailed pigeon, and rock dove
[domestic pigeon])
Doves and pigeons are all shaped much like the domestic pigeon, which is common in
parks and around railway sidings. They have small heads, a stout body, and walk with a
bobbing head movement. All are strong, fast fliers and they eat mostly grain, small seeds
and fruit. The smaller members of this family are generally called doves while the larger
ones are called pigeons. The rock dove, or domestic pigeon, is an introduced species and
will be described in the section on Schedule "C" birds. Both the mourning dove and bandtailed pigeon are native species. Both band-tailed pigeons and mourning doves occur in the
southern parts of the province and tolerate close association with humans. They also are
migratory and are covered as migratory game birds in the hunting regulations.

MOURNING DOVE
Scientific name: Zenaida macroura
Size:
weight: 6 oz. (170 gm)
Description: The mourning dove is a

handsome, streamlined bird with a small
head and long pointed tail, which
distinguishes it from all other Canadian
doves and pigeons. Their plumage is slaty
blue above and reddish fawn below, with
large white spots on the tail and a few
black spots on the upper wing surface.
The mourning dove has a black spot on
the lower cheek behind the eye, a black
bill, and the legs and the feet are red.
Male and female are similar but the males
colour is brighter, particularly the black
head spot. In flight it is almost impossible
to tell the two apart.
flight. Mourning doves roost in the

evening and it is common to see doves
flying in to roost in dense brush and trees,
particularly along streams. As late summer
approaches, flocks assemble and it is one of
the first birds to leave for the south.
General comments: The mourning doves

voice is very distinctive with its mournful
"oh-woo-woo-woo. Both male and female
help build the nest and rear the young,
and up to four clutches of two eggs each
can be raised in a year. Nests can be built
on the ground or in trees, even in orchard
trees. Other habitats used are woodland
areas and farm fields where it feeds on
small seeds and weeds. Their flight is direct
and rapid and its wings produce a
noticeable whistle when the bird is in
The mourning dove breeds in the south of

the province, north to Williams Lake.
Most populations in B.C. are migratory,
although where there are intensive
livestock operations using grain, some
birds will stay the winter although their
survival rate is not high. In the fall, before
flying south, some flocks may wander
north to the Yukon.
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Replacement page 2002 CORE Manual

Source: Basic Hunters Guide, NRA, 1982
BAND-TAILED PIGEON
Scientific name: Columba fasciata
Size:
length : 14 in. (35 cm)
weight: 9 to 12 oz. (255 to 340 gm)
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Description: Band-tailed pigeons are

somewhat larger than domestic pigeons
and, unlike them, are of a consistent
colour and pattern. The name "bandtailed" is derived from the wide, pale gray
band across the tail. Both sexes are similar
with a blue-gray body and purplish head
and breast, white bar across the back of
the iridescent neck, yellow legs, blacktipped yellow bill, yellow eye with red ring
around it, and a white belly.
The breeding cycle ranges from mid-May

to late August. Like mourning doves,
band-tailed pigeons are monogamous and
both male and female raise the young. The
female lays one or two eggs per clutch, but
may raise several clutches per year. This
species is generally considered a southwest
coastal bird of low altitude coniferous
forests but it has scattered across southern
B.C. On the coast a few can be found as far
north as Prince Rupert. Large flocks form
in late summer and early fall to head
south. This species feeds primarily on
small seeds and berries.
General comments: Bandtails make a low

mellow "coo-coo" sound, similar to
domestic pigeons.
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PART III
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the three types of birds that are referred to as "Waterfowl". __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What white waterfowl bird cannot be hunted? __________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List the five species of geese found in British Columbia. __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the other name given for the Black Brant? ______________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List three characteristics of diving ducks. ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List three characteristics of dabbling ducks.______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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7. List five types of dabbling ducks. ______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. List five types of diving ducks. ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Which two wetland birds are not considered waterfowl? ________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. List the two migratory upland game birds found in British Columbia. ____________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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PART IV.
RAPTORS
Raptorial birds hawks, owls and eagles
have been both persecuted and used by
humans for thousands of years. To some,
they are among the most noble of birds
while to others they are killers that should be
destroyed on sight. Falcons and other birds
or prey were not protected in British
Columbia until 1961, following extensive
lobbying by falconers. Since that time, the
severe declines in certain species such as the
peregrine falcon, have led to better
management practices. All species are under
the sole jurisdiction of the province and all
are protected by the Wildlife Act. Raptors
may be captured only under special permit.
There is no hunting season on any raptor.
loss and environmental contamination

from pesticides.
The survival of raptors is dependent upon
the status of their prey species, the quality
of their habitat, and the use of pesticides.
Current management is limited to breeding
surveys of selected species and restrictions
on the capture of birds. Some particularly
important prey species habitat and raptor
nesting sites have also been protected.
Characteristics
In British Columbia there are eight species
of hawks, five falcons, one harrier, two
eagles, one osprey, one vulture, and fifteen
species of owls. Raptors are characterized by
large talons and strong feet for grabbing
and holding prey, and large strong beaks
for tearing the prey apart. The turkey
vulture has talons but its talons are not as
Several species may be used under permit

for falconry, for example, goshawks, redtailed hawks, merlins, and gyrfalcon. Some
species have declined because of habitat
Raptors
Order Falconiforma (vultures, hawks, eagles, harriers, ospreys, and falcons)
Family Cathartidae (vultures)
Family characteristics: small, unfeathered head and hooked bill characteristic of
carrion eaters; talons weak as they do not have to handle live prey; do not make nests
but lay eggs in sheltered spot; flocks often roost together at night.
Family Accipitridae (hawks, eagles, ospreys, harriers)
Family characteristics: birds of prey active during the day; hooked beaks and strong
talons; males usually smaller than females. Includes accipiters (woodland birds with
long tails and short, rounded wings), and buteos (high-soaring birds with broad,
banded tails and rounded wings).
Family Falconidae (falcons)
Family characteristics: long wings, which are bent back at wrist and are narrow and
pointed. Females larger than males.
Order Strigiforma (owls)
Family Tytonidae (barn owls)
Family Strigidae (typical owls)
Family characteristics: (these apply for both families) all have immobile eyes in large
heads; feathers designed so that flight is nearly soundless; many hunt at night and
roost during the day; since they swallow their prey whole, they regurgitate pellets of
indigestible matter (bones, fur)
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strong as those of other raptors since it feeds

on dead animals. All other species, except
the osprey which captures fish and the bald
eagle which kills and scavenges both fish
and terrestrial vertebrates, feed on terrestrial
animal species captured alive and
subsequently killed.
The raptors in British Columbia represent
five families. They include the turkey
vulture (a carrion eater; Family
Cathartidae); the osprey (a fish eater), bald
eagle, northern harrier, northern goshawk,
Coopers hawk, sharp-shinned hawk;
Swainsons hawk, red-tailed hawk, roughlegged hawk, broad-winged hawk,
ferruginous hawk, and the golden eagle
(Family Accipitridae); and the American
kestrel, merlin, prairie falcon, peregrine
falcon, and gyrfalcon (Family Falconidae).
great gray owl
Photo credit: arttoday.com (all images)
The owls of British Columbia include two

families: the common barn owl (Family
Tytonidae); the western screech-owl,
flamulated owl, great horned owl, snowy
owl, northern hawk-owl, northern pygmyowl, burrowing owl, barrel owl, spotted
owl, great gray owl, long-eared owl, shorteared owl, northern saw-whet owl, and the
boreal owl (Family Strigidae).
bald eagle
The hawks, eagles and falcons are all
daytime hunters. All species in British
Columbia, except the turkey vulture, are
characterized by the female being larger
than the male. All are strong fliers. In most
species the young do not obtain adult
plumage until two years old or older.
Members of the owl family are generally
nocturnal hunters, although some species
are active by day. Owls are characterized by a
large facial disc with the eyes situated in the
front looking straight ahead. The external
ear opening is very large while the feathers
are exceptionally soft for quiet flight. The
facial disc and the design of the ears help the
owl gather the sounds of its prey and then
process the information into a threedimensional "map" to be able to pinpoint
the prey even in the dark or under snow.
Some species migrate while others are
resident in parts of the province all year.
merlin
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Raptors nest in a variety of sites according

to the species: in cavities in trees, ledges
on cliffs, old abandoned nests of other
402
species, in barns, and on the ground. Most

hawks do not breed until at least two years
of age, while eagles do not breed until four
or five years of age.
(great grey owl). Others, such as the

peregine falcon, have more general habitat
requirements but must have a
concentration of prey species nearby with
plenty of airspace around to aid in
hunting. Such conditions are most often
found along sea coasts and river valleys.
Photo credit: arttoday.com
The raptors in British Columbia all lay more

than one egg, varying from two (turkey
vulture) to as many as eleven (burrowing
owl). Incubation varies from 21 days
(burrowing owl) to 45 days (golden eagle),
with the larger species usually taking longer.
In most species both sexes share in the
incubation and care of the young.
Incubation usually begins before all the
eggs are laid, and as a consequence, the
young hatch at different times.
osprey
The difference in the size of young often

leads to only the largest ones surviving;
especially when food is scarce. The time
from hatching to flying varies from about
four weeks in the case of the smaller species
to up to about 80 days in the case of the
turkey vulture.
Generally, each species has requirements
that vary slightly from those of other
species. Nesting sites are a feature of
habitat that may limit some species. Barn
owls, for example, normally nest in old
wooden buildings; the gradual destruction
of such structures on the Lower Mainland,
and their replacement by bird-proof metal
buildings has adversely affected their
reproduction.
In most species there is a high mortality of

young in the first year. This is most often a
result of starvation, due to their inability to
capture enough food. In some species, even
though they are protected and penalties
can be stiff, illegal shooting may be a
serious cause of mortality.
Many of the species of hawks occurring in
British Columbia have been bred
successfully in captivity in recent years.
Many of the smaller raptors require cavities

in trees for nesting. These cavities are most
often created by woodpeckers. Logging and
clearing for agriculture are reducing both
existing trees with cavities and the
numbers of trees in which cavities are
normally made and thus adversely
affecting some species. Some raptors nest
in mature or over-mature trees (bald eagle,
osprey), while others prefer cliffs (peregrine
falcon, prairie falcon). Other raptors use
the abandoned nests of crows and other
larger birds (merlin, great horned owl).
Some make nests that are very elaborate
(bald eagle) and some (peregrine falcon)
lay their eggs directly on the ground.
Since the early 1960s, declines have been

observed in many parts of the world for
raptor populations that feed primarily on
other birds or fish. The declines have been
attributed to pesticide contamination of
the prey species, which becomes
concentrated in the raptors and causes
reproductive failures.
Habitats
Habitat for raptors varies with the species.
While some require wide open spaces like
plains and deserts (ferruginous hawk),
others are at home only in the boreal forest
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Distribution
reduced by human development. The

spotted owl depends on coastal old-growth
forest so certain areas have been put aside
for them but it is not known whether this
action will retain the species in B.C. as it
has been found to interbreed with the
barred owl.
Both hawks and owls are widely distributed

in British Columbia. No geographic area is
without at least one species. While some
species are very restricted in range (e.g.
spotted owl, barn owl), others are
distributed over most of the province (e.g.
goshawk, great horned owl). No systematic
surveys have been carried out to determine
the number of hawks and owls in British
Columbia, with the exception of peregrine
falcons nesting on the Queen Charlotte
Islands and on some other coastal areas,
and bald eagles nesting on the coast.
Raptors and Humans
great horned owl
turkey vulture
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It can generally be stated that those species

with specialized habitats or foods are less
numerous than less specialized species. For
example, among the falcons, the insecteating kestrel is more common than the
more specialized merlin. Bald eagles, which
both capture prey and eat carrion, are more
common than the turkey vulture, which
eats carrion only. Some arctic-nesting
species (gyrfalcon, snowy owl) are more
common in British Columbia during winter
than at other times. Their numbers vary
but increase significantly in those years
when food is in short supply in the north.
Two species, the burrowing owl and the
spotted owl, are endangered due to loss of
habitat. There is work being done to try to
re-establish the burrowing owl in the south
Okanagan and captive breeding has been
successfully achieved but the owls habitat
(desert valley bottom) has been severely
404
Photo credit: arttoday.com (all images)
Historically, humans used raptors for several

purposes. The feathers and claws of certain
species were used for ceremonial purposes by
native people, some species were captured
alive and used for hunting (falconry), and a
few people spent time observing and
studying the birds. In recent years, interest
in observing raptors has increased. Only
certain species are of use in falconry, a legal
activity regulated by permit in British
Columbia. Raptors are useful to humans,
especially in agricultural areas, because of
the large number of rodents they destroy.
PART V.
SCHEDULE "C" BIRDS
In the chapter on mammal identification,
we found that certain species were
considered a threat to property and native
wildlife; these species were mostly
introduced. There are also a number of
bird species that fit this definition not all
are introduced species and they have
been included in the Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis under Schedule "C" as
designated wildlife that "may be captured
or killed anywhere and at any time in the
province" as long as you have a hunting
licence and permission to hunt if on
private land. The eggs and nests of these
species may also be destroyed.
(excluding ravens, Corvus corax), the

black-billed magpie, house sparrow,
European starling, rock dove (domestic
pigeon), and brown-headed cowbird.
Some of these species are extremely
destructive in agricultural areas (magpies
and starlings in cherry orchards); others
"parasitize" native species, that is, they
push the native birds eggs out of the
nest, lay their own and let the native bird
raise their offspring (brown-headed
cowbird); and others simply out-compete
the native species for food and nesting
areas and drive them out of their habitat
(house sparrows). There is a hunting
season in some management regions on
ravens but they are not part of the
Schedule "C" list.
The species included on Schedule "C" are

all species of the crow genus Corvus
PART VI.
OTHER PROTECTED BIRDS
The majority of endangered and
protected (red listed) species of birds in
B.C. are small, perching birds. There
are a few others that you should be
aware of as they overlap in habitat,
range, or habits with waterfowl or
marsh and shoreline birds and you
need to be able to tell them apart from
game species. Many of these birds are
not endangered in other areas but B.C.
may be their northern limit of their
range so they are rare in this province.
In other cases, the species is
endangered over most of its range.
The birds in this category in B.C. are

the western grebe, three species of
cormorant (double-crested, Brandts,
and pelagic), white pelican, a number of
shorebirds (American avocet, upland
sandpiper, Hudsonian godwit, Bairds
sandpiper), Forsters tern, common and
thick-billed murres, marbled murrelet,
and horned puffin. It will be unusual for
you to see one of these birds but it
stresses the point that it is your
responsibility as an ethical hunter, and
the law, to know exactly what you are
looking at before you pull the trigger.
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405
PART IV
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Is there a hunting season on raptors in British Columbia? ________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Which family of raptors tends to be nocturnal hunters? __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List four birds found on "schedule "C" in the hunting synopsis. __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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RESIDENT UPLAND GAME BIRDS

PTARMIGAN
Willow ptarmigan
Rock ptarmigan
White-tailed ptarmigan
GROUSE
Spruce grouse
Blue grouse
Ruffed grouse
Gallinaceous; alpine tundra habitat; mixed white, brown and

black body in summer; white in winter; heavily feathered feet
and legs; sexes similar.
Gallinaceous; generally dull brown or gray; often feathered legs
and lightly feathered feet; sexes similar.
High elevation conifer forests; gray upper body with black bars;
black lower body with white bars; red eye comb in males.
Low elevation (nesting), high elevation (late season) conifer
forests; mottled gray-blue body; mottled brown wings; yellow
comb in males.
Lower elevation mixed/open forests; mottled brown body; tail has
many narrow, parallel black bands with a single wide black band;
head crest; male has a black neck ruff.
Sharp-tailed grouse
Open parklands of Peace and Cariboo; brownish and heavily

barred; V-shaped marks on chest and belly; pointed tail that is
often held up; male has yellow comb and purplish neck sacs.
INTRODUCED SPECIES
Non-native, non-migratory, gallinaceous upland game birds
Ring-necked pheasant
Male large (to 33 in.); bright colours bright green neck, red
eye patches, white neck ring, bright body, very long tail. Female
smaller, browner than male; longer and larger body and longer
tail than sharp-tailed grouse. Wide spread near agricultural lands
in south of province.
Gray partridge (Hun)
Chukar
California quail
Mountain quail
Wild turkey
Box sexes gray-brown; rusty face and throat; barred flanks; short
brown tail; occur in grasslands of southern interior B.C.
Both sexes gray-brown above; heavy black bars on white flanks;
black bar from forehead, over cheeks and eyes to form bib on
chest; occur in dry grassland and desert in interior and Gulf Islands.
Brown and gray-blue with obvious head plumes: forward-curving
on the California and straight up or straight and tilted back on the
mountain quail. Mountain quail only on SE Vancouver Island;
California quail on SE Vancouver Island, Gulf Islands and Okanagan.
Very large; both sexes iridescent very dark brown; naked head;
male has colourful, fleshy "decorations" on head and neck, and a
tuft of hair-like feathers that stick out from chest; occur on
Vancouver Island, Gulf Islands, Okanagan, and Kootenays.
407
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MIGRATORY GAME BIRDS

WETLAND MIGRATORY
GAME BIRDS
Swans
tundra, whistling, mute
Very large body; very long necks; white; very slow wing beat;
webbed feet; can walk easily on land; protected.
Geese
Canada, snow, Ross, white-fronted,
black brant
Male and female alike; no eclipse plumage; larger than ducks; fly in
Vs or lines; slow wing beat; webbed feet; can easily walk on land
Dabbling ducks
mallard, pintail, wigeon, shoveller,
gadwall, wood duck, green-winged
teal, blue-winged teal, cinnamon teal
Male and female often easy to tell apart except in eclipse

plumage; more graceful, longer neck and wings than divers;
webbed feet; can walk on land easily; take off straight up; tip up
to feed; bright speculum; hind toe not lobed; slower wing beat
than divers; found on shallow water; vegetarians; excellent eating
Diving ducks
Male and female similar; plump bodies; short wings; webbed

feet; difficult to walk on land; patter along water to take off;
dive to feed; dull-coloured speculum; hind toe lobed; faster
wing beat than dabblers; found on deep water; sea ducks
winter at sea; eat vegetation, invertebrates and fish; not as
good eating due to strong-tasting flesh
canvasback, redhead, bufflehead,

greater and lesser scaup, ring-necked
duck, ruddy duck, Barrows and common goldeneye, mergansers
Sea ducks
(part of diving duck group)
harlequin, common eider, old squaw,
white-winged and surf scoters
Marsh and shoreline birds
Migratory but not waterfowl or upland birds
coot (marsh bird)
Grayish-black; duck-like; lobed not webbed feet; good swimmer;

wide spread toes; small beak with extension which runs up forehead; head pumps when it swims; both sexes alike
snipe (shorebird)
Correct ID essential as other shorebirds
may not be hunted!
Mottled brown and white; long beak with dark tip; head and
cheeks striped; wide spread toes; both sexes alike; solitary (other
shorebirds are not)
UPLAND MIGRATORY
GAME BIRDS
Mourning dove
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Band-tailed pigeon
Streamlined; small head; long pointed tail; slaty-blue above, reddish fawn below; white spots on tail; black spots on cheek; legs
and feet red; sexes similar; occur in south of province
Like domestic pigeon; blue-gray body; purplish head and breast;
white bar on back of neck; pale gray band on tail; yellow legs; both
sexes similar; southwest coast and expanding in south of province
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NOTES
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409
BIRD CHAPTER
REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take approximately 10 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material found in
this chapter. Use the answer sheet provided at the bottom of the page to record your answers.
check your answers.
challenge test.
1. A duck's speculum is the:
a. duck's droppings
b. feathers shed during the molt
c. coloured patch on the wing
d. moisture on a duck's tongue
2. Ducks with a slow wing beat, and a distinct flight formation are:
a. fish-eating ducks
b. sea ducks
c. diving ducks
d. dabbling ducks
3. Upland game birds which lack feathers on the feet and lower legs are:
a. any of the ptarmigan
b. introduced, non-native species
c. the grouse
d. migratory
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4. The
a.
b.
c.
d.
bird most commonly found year-round in southern BC farmland areas is the:

Ring-necked pheasant
Chukar partridge
Band-tailed pigeon
Ruffed grouse
5. Two
a.
b.
c.
d.
birds which often run from danger rather than fly are the:
Band-tailed pigeon and Mourning Dove
Ring-necked pheasant and Chukar
Ruffed and Spruce grouse
Mouring Dove and Common Snipe
6. A large white waterfowl with black wing tips is the:

a. Snow goose
b. White-fronted goose
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c. Whistling swan
d. Black Brant
7. Adult swans can easily be distinguised from geese because swans are:
a. are rarely seen in groups
b. do very little flying
c. are larger and feathered all white
d. are only found in protected parks.
8. Which of the following is a dabbling duck.
a. Mallard
b. Canvasback
c. Bufflehead
d. Barrow's goldeneye
9. Which of the following is a diving duck.
a. Gadwall
b. Widgeon
c. Wood duck
d. Redhead
10. The greyish black wetland bird that has the distinctive feature of pumping its head and
neck up and down when swimming is the:
a. Merganser
b. Black Brant
c. Harequin Duck
d. Coot
Answer sheet
1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9._____10._____
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411

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Conservation and Outdoor

Working together for hunter safety.

Our cover page:

VANTAGE POINT DALLS SHEEP

B.C. WILDLIFE FEDERATION ART PRINTS

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

PREFACE: NOTICE TO READERS

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright: The CORE Program c/o Ministry of Water, Land

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

Our apologies if we missed any organization or individual who provided

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

AN OPEN LETTER TO CORE STUDENTS

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

"BECOMING AN OUTDOORS-WOMAN" (BOW)

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

Part II. CORE program study options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Part III. Licence Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Core Examiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

CHAPTER TWO CONSERVATION

What is Ecology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

The Importance of Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

The Balance of Populations: Limits to Abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Part III. Wildlife Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

Part II. Game care and ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Preparing for the hunt . .

Supplemental information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

CHAPTER 4 LAWS & REGULATIONS

Part II. Hunting laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

CHAPTER FIVE SURVIVAL

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

Part II: Safety and Survival

1. Practicing safe behaviours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

PART III: ORIENTEERING EQUIPMENT AND ITS USAGE . . . . . . . . . . .130

PART IV: COMMON FIELD EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

CHAPTER SIX FIREARMS

1) Evolution of firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

PART III: Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180

PART IV: Firearms Safety

1) Basic firearms safety rules & procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

PART V: Shooting Skills

1) Rifle Marksmanship Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

PART VI: Hunting Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217

PART VII: Specialty Hunting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227

B.C. Wildlife Federation

Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education

CHAPTER SEVEN MAMMALS

Part II. Key to British Columbia ungulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273