P1-1

EXPERIMENT P1

METAL CUTTING PROCESS

Objectives

• To learn about machining equipment and the metal cutting process.

• To better understand the relationship between metal cutting parameters and other process
issues that impact cutting force values.
• To observe and understand the progression of tool wear and its effect on the process.

Introduction to Metal Cutting (Theoretical Background)

Figure 1 shows the geometry of the cutting zone and outlines the notation used to describe a bar
turning operation.

Figure 1. Metal Removal in Bar Turning (Elbestawi, 2002)

Various tool wear patterns can occur during cutting and are summarized in Figure 2.
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Figure 2: Types of Wear on Cutting Tools (Stephenson and Agapiou, 1996)

(a) flank wear; (b) crater wear; (c) notch wear; (d) nose radius wear; (e) comb or thermal cracks;
(f) parallel or mechanical cracks; (g) Built Up Edge (BUE); (h) gross plastic deformation; (i)
edge chipping or frittering; (j) chip hammering; (k) gross fracture.
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Flank face wear and Cutting (rake) face crater wear can be characterized using parameters as
outlined in Figure 3.

Cutting (Rake) Face

Flank Face

Figure 3: Tool Wear Characterization (Elbestawi, 2002)

a) Flank wear - flank wear width VB,

b) Crater wear - crater depth KT,
c) Tool nose deformation ND, (Not shown in figure)
d) Wear notch (Oxidation) VN,
e) Cracks,
f) Breakage

Usually criteria: a), b), and c) are quantitative and fundamental; while criteria c), d), and
e) are qualitative (they determine an end of tool life if they are excessive). f) implies an absolute
end of tool life if it occurs.
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Values VB, KT depend on cutting conditions such as: material machined (machinability
rating - tensile strength, hardness, and microstructure), cutting speed V (m/min), feed s
(mm/rev), approach angle σ, geometry of tool (especially rake angle α) and length of machining
time.

VB = Fl (mat, V, s, α, t) (1)

KT = F2 (mat, V, s, α, t) (2)

Choosing maximum admissible wear values, VBlim, KTlim, the tool life T is obtained:

from Eqn. (1): T1 = N1 (VBlim, mat, V, s) (3)

from Eqn. (2): T2 = N2 (KTlim, mat, V, s) (4)

The smaller value of either T1 or T2 determines the end of tool life. Figure 4 describes a
typical wear curve of a cutting tool.

Figure 4: Description of Tool Wear Rate (Boothroyd and Knight, 1989)

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Effect of Cutting Speed on the Cutting Process

A change in the cutting speed also impacts the cutting process. This is due to the fact that
the temperature in the secondary deformation zone (close to the rake face of the tool)
continuously increases with cutting speed and therefore the deformation process in this zone
changes as a whole. Figure 5 captures the effect of a change in cutting speed (V) on tool wear
(VB) and tool life. Generally a tool wear limit of VB* is set (typical 0.25-0.35 mm) to determine
tool life T.

Figure 5: Effect of Cutting Speed (V) on Tool Wear VB and Tool Life (Bhattacharyya, 1984)

The most apparent phenomenon related to these changes in the cutting zone is the
occurrence of the Built Up Edge (BUE) on the tool. This phenomenon is shown in Figure 6.
With 1045 steel BUE starts occurring at speeds of about V=10 m/min. The probability of BUE
occuring increases with cutting speed until a speed is reached at which it is a maximum then with
further increases in V the probability of BUE decreases. After this point a thin built-up-layer may
formed on the face of the tool that varies with further increases in speed.

Figure 6: Built Up Edge (BUE) in Metal Cutting (Boothroyd and Knight, 1989)
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Related to these changes are changes in friction between the chip and the tool, which
consequently changes the shear plane angle and impacts the components of the cutting force as
well. These are best expressed as changes of the chip ratio C, changes of surface roughness and
of the magnitude and direction of the cutting forces.

Cutting Force Measurements

Usually the cutting forces are measured in a three-dimensional cut, i.e., both the major
and minor cutting edges are active as is the case in bar turning. In such cases it is desirable to
report the three principal force components as shown in Figure 7. Please refer to Figures 8-10
for details on the cutting force tool dynamometer.

Cutting force Ft , which is in the tangential direction …………………… Fz

Feed force Fa , which is in the axial direction along the workpiece…… Fx
Thrust force Fr , which is in the radial direction………………………… Fy

Figure 7: Cutting Forces in Turning (Stephenson and Agapiou, 1996)

References:

Bhattacharyya, A., Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Central Book Publishers, Calcutta, 1984.

Boothroyd, G. and Knight, W. A., Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools, Marcel
Dekker, New York, 1989.

Elbestawi, M. A., Course notes for Machine Tool Analysis, McMaster University, 2002.

Shaw, M. C. Metal Cutting Principles, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989.

Stephenson, D. A. and Agapiou, J. S., Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, 1997.
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Experimental Apparatus

Lathe: Colchester
Carbide Cutting Inserts
Tool holder
Micrometers, stop watch
Tool room microscope and tool fixture (flank wear)
Cutting force tool dynamometer (strain gauge based system)

Tail Stock
Cross Slide (Workpiece
(Tool post support)
Spindle mounting
(Workpiece point)
holding jaws)

Figure 8. Colchester Lathe

Cutting
Tool Insert Dynamometer
Table 1: Dynamometer Calibration
Axis Calibrated Sensitivity
Fx 1204 (N/Volt)
Fz 1028 (N/Volt)
Tool Holder

Figure 9. Cutting Force Tool Dynamometer

(mounts on lathe cross slide)
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Safety Rules

This material is largely taken from Mr. Ron Lodewyks’, Machine Shop / Project Laboratory
Safety Training Program.

1) Keep in mind that machinery capable of cutting metal is inherently dangerous.

2) Develop and use common sense when using the equipment (think before you act).
3) Keep in mind that rotating equipment stores significant amounts of energy and represents
a serious entanglement hazard. Remember if it looks unsafe it probably is. Be sure to
discuss the operation of the lathe in detail with the TA before conducting the tests.
4) Do not operate the machine until you have had detailed instruction from the TA.
5) Make sure the workpiece is adequately clamped in the spindle for the job being
performed. Rotating parts with a slight imbalance can generate large forces, also
metal cutting generates large forces. The clamping force must be high enough to
resist movement under these conditions. Make sure the TA checks the part clamping
before starting the machine. (Never leave the chuck key in the spindle.)
6) Make sure the tool holder and cutting insert are adequately clamped for the job being
performed.
7) Always wear safety glasses when around the machine.
8) Long hair should be tied back to avoid being caught in the revolving parts of the machine
(Keep loose items away from rotating objects).
9) Loose clothing, rings or watches should not be worn when operating machine tools to
avoid having them getting caught in the machine.
10) Wear long pants (preferably cotton) as metal cuttings removed from the workpiece during
the machining process can reach temperatures in excess of 300ºC and can burn.
11) Watch out for sharp edges on the part, tool and on the chips. Use gloves when handling
sharp objects but remove them when operating the machine to avoid them getting
caught in the rotating machinery.
12) Do not use rags near the rotating machines when the spindle is running. Rags can be
caught in the rotating spindle and the result can be serious injury. Rags may be used
for material handling and for cleaning purposes provided there are no rotating hazards
nearby.
13) Use extreme caution with the chips produced during machining. Chips are sharp and
some chips are long stringers which can easily be caught up in the spindle and thrown
with great force. In general do not clear chips away from the work area when the
machine is in motion. If it is necessary ask the TA how this can be best done. (If
necessary there is a long handled tool available for pushing the chips out of the way.)
14) Sandals and opened toed shoes are not permitted in the lab.
15) It is mandatory to report all cases of injury to the lab TA.
16) Anyone using the lab equipment is expected to work safely at all times. If you do not
work safely you will be asked to leave. Re-admittance to complete the lab requires
the approval of the department chair. You are responsible for your safety and the
safety of others working around you. If you do not know how to safely operate the
equipment it is your responsibility to seek out the proper instruction from the lab TA.
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Test Procedure

1) For the supplied material and a given depth of cut, feed rate and cutting speed measure:
a. two components of cutting force using the dynamometer (Ft, Fa).
b. the deformed chip thickness, procedure outlined below, to find the chip ratio
i. Collect chips from each set of experiments
c. Make observations on the surface roughness of the workpiece
d. State of the tool (tool wear)
i. Be sure to collect the data as soon as the cutting force stabilizes so as to
minimize the accumulated tool wear on the cutting edge.

2) Next conduct a sensitivity analysis, repeating step 1 while adjusting each of the three
critical parameters (depth of cut, feed rate and cutting speed) up by one increment,
then up by double the increment and then down by an increment, then down by
double the increment. (ie. nominal , nominal + increment, nominal + 2 X increments,
… etc (see form 1). Total of 12 more cutting tests over the nominal)

3) Repeat the test this time till the tool wears out (VB*= 0.3 mm) for the set of conditions
which supplied the highest measured cutting force (highest wear condition) this time
carefully monitor the tool wear versus the actual distance traveled by the cutting edge.
Interrupt the cutting process periodically to measure the tool wear. (TA to supply a
reasonable distance). Record the BUE and tool wear in Form 2a as well as the chip
and force data in Form 2b

Details on Testing

Experimental conditions (verify with TA before proceeding):

Workpiece material: medium carbon steel 1045, initial diameter 150 mm, final diameter
approximately 100 mm, length 750 mm".
Tool materials: Uncoated Carbide Insert, Geometry (σ = 0o, α = 5o, rn = 0.8mm)

Depth of Cut a = 1.5 mm (0.060 in) (increment 0.5 mm, 0.020 in)
Feed sr = 0 .25 mm (0.010 in/rev) (increment 80 μm, 0.003 in/rev)
Speed v = 120 m/min (400 feet/min) (increment 15 m/min, 50 feet/min)

Cutting force measurement:

Cutting forces are measured by means of a cutting force dynamometer. The lab instructor
will explain the design and calibration of the dynamometer used in the test. The detailed
procedure of reading it will also be given during the lab.

Details on measuring chip ratio:

h1
Evaluate chip ratio C =
h2
where h1 is the undeformed chip thickness to be determined from the value of the feed and from
the approach angle σ and h2 is the deformed chip thickness which can be very difficult to
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measure on the chip given the irregular nature of the surfaces. To avoid a potentially inaccurate
measurement for h2 the value used in calculation is based on an average of measured values.

In this lab, the thickness is measured using a pointed-tip micrometer. Two measurements will be
made from different chips and the average will be used to calculate the chip ratio.

Another method that is sometimes used is as follows. The mean deformed chip thickness can be
estimated by measuring the length of the chip l2, its weight W, the width of cut b (assuming no
side spread) and knowing the specific density ρ of 1045 steel.
W
h2 =
ρ bl2

Requirements:

Required Graphs:
C vs. depth of cut
C vs. feed
C vs. speed
Ft, Fa & FResultant vs. depth of cut
Ft, Fa & FResultant vs. feed
Ft, Fa & FResultant vs. speed

VB vs. Actual cutting distance (L)

Ft, Fa & FResultant vs. Actual cutting distance (L)

Where the actual cutting distance (L) is the distance that the tool tip travels, taking into account
the rotation of the workpiece. A is the linear distance that the tool travels in the direction of the
workpieces axis and Sr is feed per revolution.

A
L= × 2π × Radius
Sr

Discussion of Results

Using metal cutting theory discuss the results summarized in the graphs. Comment on what
changes occur in the chip ratio C and how the change in cutting geometry affects force. Relate
this information to final part quality and metal removal rate (productivity).
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Form 1) Cutting test results Date: ______________ Name: ___________________________________

Cutting
Depth Feed per
Test Dia Speed/ Force Chip ratio calculation Comments
of cut rev
Actual

a Sr d V=πDN Fx Fz Fresult h1 h2,1 h2,2 C

# m/min (tool wear and built up edge formation)
mm (in) mm (in) mm N N N mm mm mm
(ft/min)
1 2.0 (.080) 0.25 (0.01) 120 (400)

2 1 (0.04) 0.25 (0.01) 120 (400)

3 2.5 (0.1) 0.25 (0.01) 120 (400)

4 0.5 (0.02) 0.25 (0.01) 120 (400)

5 1.5 (.060) 0.25 (0.01) 120 (400)

6 1.5 (0.06) 0.40 (0.016) 120 (400)

7 1.5 (0.06) 0.10 (0.004) 120 (400)

8 1.5 (0.06) 0.25 (0.01) 140 (450)

9 1.5 (0.06) 0.25 (0.01) 160 (500)

10 1.5 (0.06) 0.25 (0.01) 110 (350)

11 1.5 (0.06) 0.25 (0.01) 90 (300)

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Form 2a) Tool Life Tests Date: _______________ Name: _____________________________________

At the end of every time interval, make a sketch of the tool’s cutting edge that you observe in the microscope, see examples EX in the bottom
right corner
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Form 2b) Tool life tests Date: ______________ Name: ___________________________________

Conditions:
Depth of cut = , Feed per rev = , N = __________, Dia = _________, Speed= ____________ (πDN)

Cutting Actual
Time
Time feed cutting Force Tool Wear Comments
interval
travel distance
T A L Fx Fz Fresult VB KT
# (BUE, Crater Wear, Surface Roughness etc.)
sec mm mm N N N mm mm
1

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