Normas Internacionales Bombas Reciprocantes

600 Ponds and Basins
Abstract
This section discusses the design and installation of concrete basins, synthetic pond
and basin liners, and shotcrete or concrete pipeways. It focuses on environmental
considerations, primarily on the need for long term leak-free designs that protect
the soil and ground water. It also gives guidance on where to go for help in order to
understand the environmental regulations.
Chevron Corporation
Contents
Page
610
Environmental and Safety Concerns
600-3
611
Environmental
612
Safety
620
Concrete Basins
621
General Design Considerations
622
Design Criteria
623
Loads And Analysis
624
Construction
630
Pond and Basin Liners
631
Liner Uses and Selection
632
Flexible Membrane Liner Materials
633
Design and Construction
634
Inspection
635
Common Problems
636
Leakage Monitoring and Detection
637
List of Manufacturers and Installers
638
Company Experience
640
Shotcrete and Concrete Paved, Grade-level Pipeways
600-43
650
Description of Closure Technologies
600-44
660
Model Specification, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms 600-45
600-4
600-1
600-12
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Civil and Structural Manual
661
Model Specification
662
Standard Drawings
670
References
671
CRTCs Materials and Equipment Engineering Reports on Liners
672
Other References
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610 Environmental and Safety Concerns

611 Environmental
Many federal, state, and local regulations govern the installation, operation, maintenance, and cleanup of facilities which are set on or in the ground. Most of these
regulations are still in the process of being developed or interpreted. However, the
following generalizations can be made:
Understand the rules and regulations which govern your area. Consult
your local operating company environmental specialists or CRTCs HES
Group for assistance. In some cases, it is also important to have an idea where
regulations are headed in the future. The environmental specialists can also
help you with any permits that regulatory agencies require.
Avoid the installation of new basins or ponds if at all possible. While ponds
and basins may seem like the most economical alternatives now, they may be
expensive to maintain or to close and clean up in the future as they become
more and more regulated.
For any ponds or basins which must be installed, consider secondary containment and leak detection. This is required by regulations in some cases, but may
be prudent even if not required.
Do not underestimate the testing, management, and disposal costs of excavated

material, especially in existing plants. Again, consult your environmental
specialist on what can be disposed of onsite versus offsite. Our objective
should be to minimize offsite disposal.
Section 650 lists techniques for clean-up and closure of ponds or other waste sites.
Consult CRTCs Material and Equipment Engineering for up-to-date technology in
this area and for other entities in the Corporation that have undertaken similar jobs.
612 Safety
The following safety precautions should be taken when excavating for pond liners
or for concrete basins:
Maintain the proper slope stability or shoring as discussed in the Safety in

Designs Manual.
Understand the hazards of the material being handled. It should be sampled in

several locations to determine:
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The type of protective clothing to wear

The degree of breathing protection required
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620 Concrete Basins

This section primarily discusses basins designed to retain water. Other fluids, in
particular molten sulfur pits, need special design and material considerations. In
sulfur pits, the vapors from the sulfur mix with moisture and condense on the
exposed concrete surfaces. The resulting acid attack rapidly deteriorates normal
concrete materials. Consult a materials engineer for selection of a proper lining for
molten sulfur pits.
621 General Design Considerations

Belowground concrete basins are frequently used for waste water treatment
systems, such as oil/water separations, biological treatment, and clarifiers. They are
also used for drainage sumps, cooling tower forebays and basins.
The types of facilities mentioned above are commonly installed with part or all of
the structure at or below grade level. This is done to meet hydraulic gradient
requirements, provide convenient access for operators, and to take advantage of
lateral soil pressure on the outside of basin walls to resist hydrostatic pressure
within the basin.
Reinforced concrete is commonly used for construction of these facilities for the
following reasons:
Concrete provides physical properties that assure long service life with low
maintenance if properly designed and constructed.
Concrete offers great design flexibility. It can easily be formed to provide

desired water flow requirements and to support mechanical equipment, piping,
and appurtenances.
With proper design, concrete basins can hold large volumes of liquids and
remain water tight.
Basin Problems
The structural problems that most commonly occur with concrete basins are:
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Differential settlement of the basin. Minor to severe cracking and leakage can
result if this occurs.
Inadequate concrete coverage for reinforcement. This can lead to corrosion

with spalling and deterioration of concrete.
Expansion and contraction of the basin from filling or draining. Problems may
occur at the connection of wall and basin slab or at wall connections.
Inadequate basin design for all possible operating conditions, particularly when
the basin is empty. A high water table or flooding could result in high external
soil/water pressures and possibly flotation.
Loss of water tightness where piping penetrates the basin walls.
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Controlling Cracks
At the design stage, the best techniques for controlling basin cracks and reducing
leakage from the basin include:
Getting the best information possible on the soil conditions at the site. Soils
that are fairly uniform over the entire basin area do not generally present a
problem, because large differential settlements are not expected. Varied soil
conditions across the site can cause severe problems if not recognized and properly accounted for in the design.
Providing adequate reinforcement in the walls to meet anticipated shrinkage

and temperature requirements.
Paying careful attention to the following structural details:
Interconnection of basin walls

Wall-to-slab connection
All wall penetrations
Abrupt changes to basin geometry or loading where planes of weakness
can develop in the structure or differential settlement can occur.
Secondary Containment
To meet specific site requirements or to comply with applicable regulations, it may
be necessary to provide secondary containment and leak detection for concrete
basins. Refer to Standard Drawing GD-S1119, Standard Secondary Containment
and Leak Detection Details for Concrete Basins and Appendix F (Secondary
Containment for New Construction and Existing Facilities).
Precast Concrete Basins

Although this section primarily deals with relatively large cast-in-place basins,
there is often a need for small basins, sumps, or boxes. The availability of precast
units should be explored to determine if this is an economical way to meet the need.
622 Design Criteria

Following is a discussion of some of the critical elements that must be considered
when designing basins.
Recommended Stresses
ACI 350R, Concrete Sanitary Engineering Structures, discusses the importance
of using conservative allowable stresses to minimize cracking in reinforced
concrete basins. Tables are included which provide recommended maximum stress
at service loads for various bar sizes and severity of exposure. The commentary for
ACI 318R (10.6.4) states that Several bars at moderate spacing are much more
effective in controlling cracking than one or two larger bars of equivalent area. For
this reason, the recommended stresses for flexural crack control decrease with
increases in bar sizes.
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Design Conditions
Besides the normal operating conditions for the basin, consideration should also be
given to the following cases:
Basin empty with active soil pressure and possible hydrostatic pressure acting
on the basin walls. This is a condition that will probably occur after initial
construction when backfill is complete, and again whenever basin maintenance
requires it to be drained.
High ground water or flooding conditions with the basin empty. Basin to be
checked for possible flotation.
Design Recommendations
ACI 350R makes the following recommendations for design of basin walls in
contact with liquids:
Walls 10 feet and higher should be at least 12 inches thick.
Maximum reinforcing bar diameter should not exceed 6% of the thickness of

the structural member.
Maximum reinforcing bar spacing should not exceed 12 inches.
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement perpendicular to the main flexural

reinforcement should be a minimum of 0.3% for walls less than 12 inches
thick. For walls more than 12 inches thick, the requirements of ACI 318 should
be followed.
623 Loads And Analysis

The primary loads that must be considered for design are:
Vertical loading on the bottom slab of the basin. If the basin is pile supported,
the use of uplift piles may have to be considered.
External lateral loading on the basin walls due to hydrostatic pressure, buoyant
loads, and lateral soil pressure.
Dead loads from equipment or structures that the basin will support.
Hydrostatic loads from fluids in the basin.
For analysis and design of belowground concrete basins, refer to References 1 and
2 in Section 672. Perhaps the most useful for typical Company installations is
Reference 3, Rectangular Concrete Tanks, which may be obtained by writing or
calling:
Portland Cement Association
Order Processing
5420 Old Orchard Road
Skokie, Illinois 60077
847-966-6200
June 1997
600-6
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This publication includes:
Moment coefficients for slabs with various edge conditions (free, fixed, hinged)
Moment coefficients for rectangular concrete tanks
Shear coefficients
Top and base slab design
Muticell tank design
Details for wall-to-base slab
Using the moment coefficients from Reference 3 of Section 672, the designer is
able to calculate moments at critical points in individual wall panels under hydrostatic pressure increasing from zero at the top to a maximum at the bottom. The
same coefficients are applicable for design of walls for square tanks. Where there
will be moment distribution at the edges of walls, such as with rectangular basins,
separate tables are provided for determining critical design moments.
624 Construction
Corrosion Considerations
Unless the fluids in the basin are expected to include concentrations of corrosive
substances, concrete will be quite durable in service. Resistance to chemical attack
of the concrete can be improved by providing the following:
Good quality concrete to make it dense, strong, and impermeable
Adequate cover for reinforcement
Thorough compaction of the concrete
Smooth surface finishes for contact surfaces
Epoxy-coated (with electrostatically-applied powder) reinforcing steel
The use of a surface coating or sealing system. Refer to ACI 515.1R, A Guide
to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective, and Decorative Barrier
Systems for Concrete.
Consult a CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering coatings specialist if an

internal coating is being considered.
Mix Proportioning
Refer to ACI 350R for the following requirements for concrete mixes for construction of basins:
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Compressive strength
Cement type
Maximum water-cement ratio
Air entrainment
Slump
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Construction Joints
When a pour must be stopped at intervals during construction of the basin, a
construction joint is created. Construction joints should be located so as to least
impair the strength of the basin structural components and provide logical separations for the sequence of construction. ACI 350R (Reference 4) recommends
vertical spacing of construction joints from 10 to 15 feet and horizontal spacing of
20 to 30 feet unless expansion joints are serving as construction joints. All reinforcement should be continuous through construction joints with waterstop and
keyway if required. Provision should be made for installation of sealant on the
inside face of construction joints. Refer to ACI 504R for recommended details for
construction joints.
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints are required to allow for basin expansion, contraction, differential
foundation movement, or unbalanced applied loads. As a general rule, expansion
joints should be provided at a spacing of not more than 50 to 60 feet for basins
exposed to the atmosphere and 80 to 100 feet for basins completely underground.
The recommended expansion joint widths for different temperature ranges of the
concrete, shown in Figure 600-1, are taken from ACI 350R. Expansion joint details
are illustrated in Figure 600-2. Joints typically are constructed using the following
components:
Preformed joint filler

Joint sealant
Waterstop
Fig. 600-1
Recommended Expansion Joint Widths

Spacing Between Joints (ft)
40
Conditions:
60
80
100
Recommended Widths (in.)
Underground, 40F
1/2
3/4
7/8
Partly protected above ground, 80F
3/4
7/8
NR(1)
Unprotected, exposed roof slabs, etc., 120F
7/8
NR(1)
NR(1)
(1) NR = Not Recommended
Preformed joint filler preserves space into which the concrete may expand. Materials for the joint filler are selected that are compressible to one half their original
thickness yet fully recover when compression loads are reduced. Materials such as
sponge rubber and cork conforming to ASTM D1752 are commonly used.
Joint sealants are discussed in considerable detail in ACI 504R. For expansion
joints, sealants must have the following properties:
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Good bond
Low shrinkage
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Chevron Corporation
High strength in rubber-like materials

Resistance to flow and stress relaxation
Ability to change shape without changing volume
Not susceptible to permanent deformation
The bond breaker noted on Figure 600-2 is a surface application used to prevent
the sealant bonding to the joint filler so that there can be independent movement of
both sealant and filler.
Fig. 600-2
Expansion Joint Details
Waterstops
Waterstops come in a variety of shapes. Four types are illustrated in Figure 600-3
and discussed below.
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Fig. 600-3
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Waterstops
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Ribbed. Ribbed waterseals are available both with and without the center bulb. The
ribs on the waterstop are designed to provide maximum anchorage to prevent water
seepage.
Dumbbell. Dumbbell waterseals are used for joints when little movement is anticipated. The ball at the end of the seal acts like a stopper in a bottle. Tension of the
seal pulls the ball tighter against any crack that may develop.
Centerbulb. Flat waterseal shapes are used where limited joint movement is
expected. Where greater joint movement is anticipated, centerbulb seals are generally specified. Flexure of the bulb accommodates much larger movements without
excessively stretching the waterseal material.
Labyrinth. Labyrinth waterstops are used in places where it is desired to form a
structural key between separate poured sections.
Materials and Construction. Materials used for waterstops are usually either
PVC, neoprene, or styrene butadiene rubber. PVC is not recommended for joints
that are exposed to low temperatures and where significant joint movement is
expected.
For basin construction, it is recommended that waterstops be 3/8 to 1/2 inch in
thickness with a minimum width of 9 inches. The effectiveness of joints in
preventing seepage depends on proper location of the waterstop within the joint.
Careful attention should be given to the method used to firmly fix flexible waterstops to the reinforcement or forms, to prevent movement during the placing of
concrete.
Figure 600-4, taken from ACI 504R, illustrates common performance problems
associated with waterstops and recommendations for avoiding these problems.
Fig. 600-4
Waterstop Performance Problems and Solutions (Courtesy of American Concrete Institute)
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630 Pond and Basin Liners

A flexible membrane liner (geomembrane) is a sheet of synthetic material, either
plastic or rubber, which is used to control the migration of fluids. In order to
comply with federal, state, or local environmental regulations, ponds, lagoons, and
other surface or below grade impoundments often require some type of impermeable liner to prevent fluids from seeping out into the surrounding soil and contaminating groundwater. Double liners with leachate collection are required in some
cases. Flexible membranes provide an alternative to materials such as clay, soilcement, asphalt, or concrete, which may also be used in some applications or form
part of a multi-liner system with membranes. This section gives information on
synthetic liner materials; the design and construction of membrane-lined impoundments; inspection; common problems; leak monitoring; and a summary of
Company experience with these materials.
Geomembrane liners for tanks are discussed in Section 500 of the Tank Manual.
631 Liner Uses and Selection

This section gives examples of membrane installations and lists factors in selecting
a membrane liner.
Examples of Membrane Installations

The flexible membrane liner industry was developed out of efforts to conserve
water in reservoirs, canals, and irrigation systems by preventing it from seeping out
into the surrounding soil. While this is still a major use of membranes in terms of
the volume of material installed each year, the use of membranes for pollution
control and environmental protection has received much more recent attention.
Examples of membrane installations for environmental reasons within Chevron
include pond liners, waste impoundments, and secondary containment membranes
beneath and around storage tanks. Refer to Section 638 for the service history of
various liners the Company has used.
Pond Liners. Waste water treating ponds, evaporation ponds, settling basins, oil
field brine ponds, and so on, are frequently lined with membranes to prevent the
effluent from seeping out into the soil. In this type of installation, the membrane
provides the primary containment, meaning that there is always fluid in contact
with the membrane when the pond is in service. The surface of the pond is usually
left uncovered, although floating covers can be manufactured out of the same
membrane materials. The membrane liner under the pond may be buried under a
protective soil cover, or may be left exposed.
Waste Impoundments. Municipal landfills and other waste dumps usually have a
membrane liner under them, particularly if the waste is considered hazardous.
Membrane liners are required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for
compliance with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, known as
RCRA.
These regulations prevent the migration of waste or leachate. For this type of installation, the membrane again acts as the primary containment. Double liners with
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Chevron Corporation
leachate collection are required in some cases. A final cover may also be included
in the design of a permanent waste impoundment. A membrane is often used as a
part of the final cover to prevent rain water from percolating down through the
waste.
Secondary Containment Around Storage Tanks. Many states have passed laws
requiring secondary containment around all underground storage tanks which
contain petroleum products or hazardous chemicals. Basically, the requirement is
that if the tank leaks, there must be a secondary system capable of preventing the
fluid from escaping into the soil or groundwater. Membranes can be used to provide
secondary containment by forming a big bag around the tank. Chevron Marketing
has elected to use double wall tanks to provide secondary containment at service
stations but has used a membrane liner around the piping from the tanks to the
pumps. They currently use double wall piping.
Chevron also uses membranes to provide secondary containment under the bottoms
of aboveground storage tanks. The design philosophy is that any leak which occurs
from corrosion of the tank bottom should be contained and some method of leak
detection should be employed which informs operations that the primary containment has failed. Refer to Standard Drawing GF-S1121, Standard Secondary
Containment and Leak Detection Details for Storage Tanks and Section 500 of the
Tank Manual.
Factors in Selecting A Flexible Membrane Liner

Many different flexible membrane liner materials are available, and no one material
is perfect for every job. The process of selecting the right membrane for a specific
installation involves matching the requirements to the characteristics of a particular
liner. Several key important characteristics (discussed in Section 632, under Properties of Liner Materials and Seaming Methods) are:
Mechanical strength
Weathering resistance (if necessary; not as important for buried liners)
Chemical resistance to the waste
Permeability
Ability to be seamed
Cost and availability
Selection of the appropriate membrane material must be based on the physical and
chemical requirements of the intended application:
Composition of the fluid or waste
Site conditions (maximum and minimum temperatures, wind velocities, soil

type, slope lengths and angles)
Four principal membrane materials, described in depth in Section 632 under Available Membrane Materials, are currently available:
Chevron Corporation
Polyethylene (HDPE, LLDPE, VLDPE)

Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE)
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Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
High density polyethylene (HDPE) is the most popular membrane material in the
industry and within the Company. HDPE has excellent weathering characteristics,
good physical properties at thicknesses of 60 mils and up, and very good general
chemical resistance. Some of the drawbacks to HDPE are its relatively high stiffness and high coefficient of thermal expansion.
Other polyethylene membrane materials are available. Low density polyethylene
(LDPE), linear-low density polyethylene (LLDPE), and very low density polyethylene (VLDPE), are more flexible than HDPE but are generally much inferior in
chemical resistance and mechanical properties.
Hypalon is the Du Pont trademark for chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE).
Hypalon is reinforced with fabric (scrim) to give it tear resistance. Hypalon has
good weathering resistance and good chemical resistance to acids and alkalis but
poor chemical resistance to oils, fuels and solvents.
Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) is available with and without scrim reinforcement. CPEs physical properties are similar to Hypalon, and it has good weathering
resistance. However, its chemical resistance is generally not as good as Hypalon.
CPE has no memory (the ability to return to original shape after deformation) and
should not be used on slopes without a scrim reinforcement.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a widely used membrane material because it is relatively cheap. A plasticizer is added to give PVC flexibility, but the plasticizer is
gradually lost during service, making the material brittle. PVC has poor weathering
resistance and durability, and its overall chemical resistance is inferior to other
membrane materials.
632 Flexible Membrane Liner Materials

This section has four parts. The first part describes what flexible membrane liners
are made of and how they are manufactured. The second part, Properties of Liner
Materials, describes the test methods used to evaluate these properties. The third
part describes seaming methods, and the fourth part lists available membrane materials.
Components and Manufacturing

Liners are made of polymers and various compounding ingredients. They are often
reinforced with fabric. Liner manufacturers use one of three fabrication methods:
calendering, spread coating, and extrusion.
Basic Polymers. The basic polymers used in manufacturing flexible membrane
liners vary from relatively soft rubbers to relatively hard plastics. All of the characteristics of the membrane, including its mechanical strength, chemical resistance,
ability to be seamed, and so on, depend on the polymer used and the method of
manufacture. The polymers used to make membranes can be divided into three
major categories: elastomers, thermoplastics, and thermoplastic elastomers.
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Chevron Corporation
Elastomers. Commonly called rubbers, elastomers are chemically cross-linked

(cured) under heat and pressure. They are thermoset, which means that after curing,
they will not melt when heated. Cured elastomers also have memory, or the
ability to elongate under stress and return to their original shape when the stress is
removed. Examples of cured elastomers which are used as membranes include
butyl rubber, neoprene, and ethylene-propylene rubbers.
Thermoplastics. Commonly called plastics, these differ from elastomers because
they will melt when heated. This characteristic is important because it allows
membranes made from thermoplastics to be seamed by the use of heat. Thermoplastics generally have poor memory and will elongate permanently under stress.
Examples of thermoplastics used as membranes include plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high density polyethylene (HDPE), and elasticized polyolefins (XR-5).
Thermoplastic elastomers. These polymers are uncured elastomers which will melt
when heated, like a thermoplastic, but which also have the memory characteristics of an elastomer. These are excellent properties for a membrane. Examples of
thermoplastic elastomers used as membranes include Hypalon (chlorosulfonated
polyethylene, CSPE), chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), and polyester elastomers. In
some cases, particularly with Hypalon, the elastomer would have much better chemical and heat resistance if it were cured. However, when used as a membrane, it is
left uncured to allow for easier seaming.
Reinforcement. Membranes are often reinforced with fabric, commonly called a
scrim, which is sandwiched between layers of the polymer. The purpose of the
scrim is to increase the tensile strength and decrease the elongation of the
membrane, improving its dimensional stability under stress and increasing the puncture and tear resistance of the membrane. A reinforced membrane is generally
much tougher and easier to handle than an unreinforced membrane made from the
same polymer.
Scrims are typically open weave nylon or polyester fabrics and are specified by
count, denier, and weave pattern. The count is the number of fibers per inch in each
direction. The size of the fibers is indicated by the denier, which is a measurement
of the weight per unit length of the fiber. Therefore, a typical 10 x 101000d scrim
would have ten 1000-denier fibers in each direction.
The most common weave patterns are plain and leno weaves. A plain weave has
single fibers in the fill direction passing over and under the fibers in the warp
or machine direction in an alternating manner. A leno weave is similar, except that
the fibers in the warp direction are arranged in pairs and are twisted around each
other in between each fiber in the fill direction as it passes over and under. This
prevents slippage of the fibers and increases strength. Scrims may have different
strengths in the warp and fill directions, and this will affect the properties of
the membrane.
The size of the openings between fibers in the scrim is important because strike
through of the polymer is necessary to obtain good ply adhesion. Polymers generally adhere much better to themselves than to the scrim, so scrims with higher
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count and denier are more susceptible to delamination. As a practical rule, scrims
heavier than 10 x 101000d are rarely used.
The scrim must be completely encapsulated by the polymer to prevent it from
acting like a wick and drawing liquid into the membrane, causing delamination. All
factory edges of the membrane should have about 1 inch of unreinforced polymer
(called selvage) to ensure that the scrim is not exposed. Edges where scrim is
exposed by cutting during field installation must be sealed, usually by flood coating.
Manufacturing Methods. Membrane manufacturers start with the basic polymers
which are supplied by chemical and rubber companies, such as Du Pont and Dow
Chemical. Chevron Chemical Olefins Division manufactures and supplies HDPE
resin pellets to several membrane manufacturers. The polymer suppliers do not
usually manufacture membranes, but there are exceptions.
The first step in manufacturing is to mix the basic polymer with various
compounding ingredients. These ingredients may include plasticizers to make the
material more flexible, carbon black to increase its resistance to degradation from
ultraviolet light, other antidegradants such as antioxidants or microbiological inhibitors, cross-linking agents, and inert fillers. Because compounding varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, finished membranes of the same basic polymer can have
different properties and are not necessarily equivalent. Also, manufacturers may
blend two or more polymers (called an alloy) to enhance certain membrane properties.
Calendering. The compounded polymer is converted into rolls of sheeting approximately 4 to 8 feet wide, usually by a process called calendering. The mixed
compound is passed through a series of heated rolls which compress it into a sheet.
If a reinforcing scrim is needed, it will be sandwiched between sheets of the
compound during calendering. Typically, unreinforced membranes are calendered
in a single ply, but some manufacturers may prefer to use two plies to prevent
pinholes through the sheet. Reinforced membranes are typically three plies
(compound/scrim/ compound) or sometimes five plies (compound/scrim/
compound/ scrim/compound).
Spread Coating. Another process used to produce membranes is spread coating, in
which the compound is softened with solvent and spread over the reinforcing scrim
or a sheet of release paper. However, this process is much less common than calendering.
Extrusion. This is used primarily for polyethylene. The compound is extruded
through a die at the desired thickness. Many different die configurations exist, and
sometimes the hot extrudate is overlapped to make a wide sheet. This overlapping
process (SLT method) uses a relatively small die. Only unreinforced membranes
can be manufactured by extrusion.
Other companies, such as Poly-America and GSE Lining Technology, Inc., use the
blown film method of extrusion. Polyethylene pellets are heated and extruded into a
large blower which forms a large, cylindrical bubble. This method forms a continuous sheet with no overlaps.
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Properties of Liner Materials

The important properties to consider in selecting a membrane are its mechanical
strength, weathering resistance, chemical resistance, and permeability. Manufacturers should provide this information in the form of a data sheet for the membrane
which gives the membranes properties as determined by standard test methods.
Figure 600-5 lists the standard test methods most commonly used for membranes.
The engineer must compare the information on various membranes and determine
which one is best for the particular job. Unfortunately, the manufacturers information is often incomplete or not specific enough, and additional testing may be
required.
Refer also to Figure 600-8, presented later in the section, where properties and characteristics of various membrane materials are compared.
Mechanical Strength:
Tensile Strength and Elongation. High tensile strength is desirable to prevent the
membrane from rupturing under stress from hydrostatic pressure, shifting soil, and
other mechanical forces. High elongation is also important to allow the membrane
to conform to irregularities.
Tensile strength and elongation are determined by one of several test methods,
depending on the type of membrane. For unreinforced membranes, a strip or dumbbell-shaped sample is usually tested according to ASTM D 638 or D 882 for plastics or ASTM D 412 for elastomers. Tensile strength may be reported in either
pounds per square inch or pounds per inch width (not divided by thickness) and
elongation should be reported in percent. For reinforced membranes, a standard 4inch wide sample called a grab tensile is usually tested according to ASTM
D 751 and the tensile strength is reported only in pounds (not divided by width or
thickness). Elongation should be reported in percent but is frequently omitted,
making it difficult to compare the strengths of reinforced and unreinforced
membranes. Probably the best way to compare strengths is to multiply the values
for unreinforced materials by a 4-inch width and the material thickness to get
pounds, but this is only an approximation as the specimen shapes are different.
Tear Resistance. High tear resistance is also desirable to prevent cuts and gouges, or
other irregularities in the membrane, from becoming large rips. Generally, reinforced membranes have much higher tear resistance than unreinforced membranes,
but again the numbers can be difficult to compare because of differences in the test
methods.
Unreinforced membranes are tested according to ASTM D 1004 for plastics or
D 624 for elastomers. Both of these tests measure the initial tearing force on a 90degree angle specimen. The results may be reported in pounds or in pounds per
inch of thickness. Reinforced membranes are tested according to ASTM D 751
which uses a tongue tear specimen to measure the tear propagation force, and the
results are reported in pounds. These values may be compared to those for unreinforced materials (in pounds), although this comparison probably makes unreinforced materials look slightly better than they are because the force to initiate a tear
is normally higher than the force to propagate one.
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Fig. 600-5
Standard Test Methods Applied to Membranes
ASTM
D 638
Tensile Properties of Plastics
ASTM
D 882
Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting
ASTM
D 751
Coated Fabrics
ASTM
D 412
Rubber Properties in Tension
ASTM
D 1004
Initial Tear Resistance of Plastic Film and Sheeting
ASTM
D 624
Rubber PropertyTear Resistance
FTMS
101B
Puncture Resistance (Method 2031)
ASTM
D 1149
Rubber DeteriorationSurface Ozone Cracking
ASTM
D 3041
Coated FabricsOzone Cracking
ASTM
D 471
Rubber PropertyEffect of Liquids
ASTM
D 3083
Flexible PVC Sheeting for Pond, Canal, and Reservoir Lining
ASTM
D 1204
Linear Dimensional Changes of Nonrigid Thermoplastic Sheeting or Film at Elevated

Temperature
ASTM
D 573
RubberDeterioration in an Air Oven
ASTM
D 746
Brittleness Temperature of Plastics and Elastomers by Impact
ASTM
D 1790
Brittleness Temperature of Plastic Film by Impact
ASTM
D 2136
Coated FabricsLow Temperature Bend Test
ASTM
D 814
Rubber PropertyVapor Transmission of Volatile Liquids
ASTM
E 96
Water Vapor Transmission of Materials
ASTM
D297-81
Rubber ProductsChemical Analysis. Section 15-Density; Section 34-Referee Ash

Method
ASTM
D413-82
Rubber PropertyAdhesion to Flexible Substrate
ASTM
D518-61
Rubber DeteriorationSurface Cracking
ASTM
D792-66
Specific Gravity and Density of Plastics by Displacement
ASTM
D1146-53
Blocking Point of Potentially Adhesive Layers
ASTM
D1203-67
Loss of Plasticizer from Plastics (Activated Carbon Methods)
ASTM
D1239-86
Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by Extrusion Plastometer
ASTM
D1239-55
Resistance of Plastic Films to Extraction by Chemicals
ASTM
D1248-84
Specification for Polyethylene Plastics Molding and Extrusion Materials
ASTM
D1505-85
Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique, Section 08.01
ASTM
D1593-80
Specification for Nonrigid Vinyl Chloride Plastic Sheeting
ASTM
D1603-76
Carbon Black in Olefin Plastics, Section 08.02
ASTM
D1693-70
Environmental Stress Cracking of Ethylene Plastics
ASTM
D2240-81
Rubber PropertyDurometer Hardness
ASTM
D3015-72
Recommended Practice for Microscopical Examination of Pigment Dispersion in Plastic

Compounds
ASTM
D4218-82
Carbon Black Content in Polyethylene Compounds by the Muffle Furnace

Technique
ASTM
D4545-86
Practice for Determining the Integrity of Factory Seams Used in Joining Manufactured
Flexible Sheet Geomembranes
EPA Test Method 9090
June 1997
Compatibility Test for Waste and Membrane Materials
600-18
Chevron Corporation
Puncture Resistance. High puncture resistance is another desirable property of a

membrane and is needed to prevent rocks or other sharp objects from making holes
in the membrane. Again, reinforced membranes usually have higher puncture resistance than unreinforced membranes.
The standard test most frequently used is Federal Test Method Standard (FTMS)
101B (Method 2031), which measures the load, in pounds, required to puncture the
membrane with a standard penetrator. The values for reinforced membranes are
easy to compare, but values are rarely reported for unreinforced materials.
Seam Strength. Seam strength is usually tested in a manner similar to testing tensile
strength, except that the sample has a seam perpendicular to the direction of the
tensile force. This is called the seam tensile strength and is covered by ASTM
D4545.
The two primary destructive test methods for determining geomembrane seam weld
strength are the peel test and the shear test. For both tests, 1-inch wide strips are
placed in a testing machine (tensiometer) as shown in Figure 600-6.
Fig. 600-6
Schematic Showing Peel and Shear Tests
For a weld to be considered acceptable, its strength measured in the destructive

tests must exceed a specified percentage of the liner sheet strength. Typically, five
tests are run for peel and for shear and four out of five test specimens must pass, in
each test, for the entire sample to pass.
Figure 600-7 shows a series of schematic drawings of various types of breaks. Separate break codes exist for many of the different welding techniques, although all
welds, from solvent to thermal, can be classified either film tear bond (FTB) or nonFTB.
Desirable breaks are the FTB classification. These breaks occur in the base material, which indicates that the weld is stronger than the sheet material. If the strength
of these types of breaks exceeds the specified minimums, usually 70% to 80% of
the specified sheet strength, then the test sample passes. Weld breaks are classified
as test failures if the strength fails to meet the specified minimum for FTB breaks or
if the break is a non-FTB break and the break strength is below 100% of the
Chevron Corporation
600-19
June 1997
Fig. 600-7
June 1997
Locus-of-Break Codes and Descriptions of Seam Breaks for Fillet Weld Seams
600-20
Chevron Corporation
minimum specified sheet strength. Non-FTB breaks pass if the break strength
exceeds 100% of the minimum specified sheet strength.
For reinforced materials, the peel strength is often limited by the ply adhesion, and
values may be considerably lower than the base material tensile strength. Preferably, as with the seam tensile test, the break occurs in the base material instead of
along the seam.
Peel tests are often used in the field to check seam quality during installation. The
seam may be judged by a pass/fail criterion based on whether the base material or
the seam breaks (FTB or non-FTB).
Weathering Resistance. Weathering resistance includes the ability of the
membrane to resist deterioration from exposure to both low and high temperatures,
sunlight (ultraviolet light, UV), ozone, water, and soil. Most membranes have good
weathering resistance but some are not designed to be used exposed, meaning
without a protective earth cover. PVC should not be used as an exposed liner
because it becomes brittle and cracks after prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light.
Most other membrane materials contain carbon black to prevent UV deterioration.
Low temperature flexibility is important in cold climates. Several standard tests
determine the temperature at which the membrane becomes brittle and may crack.
For unreinforced plastics and elastomers, an impact test (ASTM D 746 or D 1790)
is used, and for reinforced membranes, a low temperature bend test (ASTM
D 2136) is common. The brittleness temperature determined by these tests indicates
the minimum service temperature to which the membrane should be exposed.
Heat resistance of a membrane is indicated to some extent by the standard tests for
dimensional stability (ASTM D 1204) and heat aging resistance (ASTM D 573).
However, these tests only demonstrate the materials resistance to hot ambient air.
The maximum service temperature for membranes is more often determined by
their chemical resistance to the liquid which they will hold. Chemical resistance
data refers to immersion tests run at elevated temperatures.
For elastomers (reinforced or unreinforced), resistance to ozone cracking is an
important property if the liner will be exposed. Standard tests such as ASTM
D 1149 or D 3041 are used to determine resistance to ozone. These tests are not
normally run on plastics, because they are not susceptible to ozone cracking.
Resistance to water adsorption is normally tested by measuring weight change after
immersion according to ASTM D 471. Some materials, such as PVC, may lose
weight due to the extraction of plasticizers or other components, but most materials
will show a slight weight gain.
A test for resistance to soil burial is included in ASTM D 3083, which is a specification for PVC. This test is frequently applied to other materials as well to determine
their resistance to degradation by microbiological attack. Most materials contain
microbiological inhibitors and will show little change in properties after soil exposure.
Chemical Resistance. The chemical resistance of a membrane depends a great deal
on the basic polymer used, since the different polymers have different degrees of
Chevron Corporation
600-21
June 1997
resistance to acids, alkalis, and hydrocarbons. However, the chemical resistance of

the membrane also depends on how the polymer is compounded and manufactured,
so one manufacturers material may not be as good as anothers. Membrane manufacturers usually provide chemical resistance charts which can be used as a guideline in selecting the right membrane. However, these charts are very general in
nature, and it is sometimes difficult to determine the basis for their recommendations. Usually, an immersion test of candidate materials in the specific environment
is necessary.
EPA Test Method 9090 determines the effects of chemicals on flexible membrane
liner materials in a surface impoundment, waste pile, or landfill. The liner material
is immersed in the chemical environment (a sample of the actual waste) for at least
120 days at 23C and 50C. Data from these tests are intended to assist with the
decision of whether a given material is acceptable for the intended application. The
EPA 9090 test measures for changes in tear resistance, puncture resistance, tensile
properties, hardness, elongation at break, modulus of elasticity, volatiles and extractables content (mainly for potable water applications), ply adhesion (for scrim reinforced membranes), and hydrostatic resistance.
Chemical resistance may also be determined by immersion testing according to
ASTM D 471. Changes in weight and volume, hardness, and tensile properties,
including seam strength, are determined after immersion for several different
periods of time. It is difficult to set fixed criteria, particularly for weight and
volume change. Tensile properties after immersion should generally be at least 80%
of initial values. One qualitative method for judging acceptability is to look for a
leveling off of properties with time. Another method is to test a range of materials
and pick the best ones.
CRTCs Materials and Equipment Engineering has performed many membranewaste compatibility tests and has a good database for chemical resistance.
Stress Cracking and Environmental Stress Cracking of Polyethylene. Stress
cracking (for plastics) is defined as brittle failure at stresses below the yield stress
of the material. Certain grades of polyethylene are much more susceptible to this
mechanism than other grades. Much research has been done in the polyethylene
pipe industry on improving the stress cracking resistance of polyethylene pipe and
more research is currently underway evaluating geomembrane liner grades of polyethylene resins.
The Company has experienced stress cracking failures at field seams in HDPE liner
systems. In the cases evaluated, very high stresses, rather than inferior polyethylene, were the major cause. Stresses from thermal expansion and contraction
(cyclic stresses) concentrate at the welded seams and form cracks. The cracks propagate through thickness and the failure has the appearance of a tear with little
visible plastic elongation at the failure.
Stress cracking failures in HDPE geomembranes can be avoided by leaving
adequate slack in the liner system for thermal contraction at low temperatures and
by conscientious design (i.e., orienting seams vertically down slopes and leaving
slack around penetrations and odd geometries).
June 1997
600-22
Chevron Corporation
Environmental stress cracking (ESC) is stress cracking as defined above, but also
accelerated by a polar liquid, such as igepal (which is used in accelerated ESC
tests). The Companys Model Specification CIV-MS-4797 requires HDPE geomembranes to exhibit greater than 1500 hours ESC resistance in an accelerated ESC test.
This requirement is especially important as liquids such as aromatic and aliphatic
hydrocarbons and MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) are known to promote ESC
in susceptible grades of polyethylene. To date, the Company has not experienced
any ESC failures of geomembrane liners.
Permeability. Membranes are not impermeable to all liquids, although their permeability may be very low. Since the purpose of the membrane is to prevent the migration of liquids, it is important to select a membrane with a low permeability for the
liquid it has to contain. If the liquid is water, the choice of membranes is generally
easy to make because almost all membranes resist water permeation quite well. For
other liquids, however, the selection is more difficult. Membrane manufacturers
generally provide little or no information on the permeability of their materials. It is
frequently assumed that if the membrane has adequate chemical resistance to the
liquid being contained, then it will also have a relatively low permeability to that
liquid. This may or may not be true.
The standard test methods for determining permeability (ASTM D 814 and E 96)
basically consist of sealing a cup or jar with the membrane material and measuring
the weight loss of the apparatus with time. These tests are sometimes not very accurate, primarily due to the difficulty of obtaining a good seal. CRTCs Materials and
Equipment Engineering has developed a permeability test cup with an improved
sealing surface. Other types of tests using sealed pouches of membrane have also
been developed.
Unfortunately, permeability standards for synthetic membranes are not well
defined. Federal regulations for hazardous waste surface impoundments and landfills do not give specific standards for synthetic membranes; they must prevent the
migration of hazardous constituents into such liner. They do specify that
compacted soil liners must be at least 3 feet thick with a hydraulic conductivity of
less than 1 10-7 cm/sec. Federal NON-hazardous landfill regulations actually give
a membrane thickness standard: minimum of 30 mils thick, or 60 mils if the
membrane is HPDE. The specified minimum thickness for a compacted soil liner in
this case is 2 feet. California regulations for secondary containment membranes for
underground storage tanks (Title 23, Div. 3, Chapter 16) specify that the membrane
must have a maximum permeability of 0.65 gram/meter2/hr by method ASTM E96.
However, this was meant for containment around storage tanks and may not necessarily be applicable to pond liners. In addition, we currently have little data on
which we can base selection of membranes to meet this requirement.
Seaming Methods
There are several methods for making seams in membranes, and the best method
depends on the type of membrane, primarily the basic polymer from which it is
manufactured. Also, seaming methods for a given type of membrane may be
different for factory and field seams. Basically, seaming methods can be classified
into three categories: thermal, solvent, and adhesive.
Chevron Corporation
600-23
June 1997
Thermal Seams. These seams are made by heating the polymer until it melts and
then fusing the two pieces together. Thermal seams can be made only in thermoplastic materials (including thermoplastic elastomers). They have the advantage of
being relatively fast and easy to make and are fully cured as soon as the material
cools.
Several thermal welding methods are available and are summarized below:
Extrusion Welding. A bead of hot polymer is extruded between or on top of the two
sheets of membrane to fuse them together. This method is used for field seams of
HDPE membranes.
Hot Wedge or Hot Air Welding. The material is melted and then the sheets are
pressed together. Typically, this process is carried out by one machine which
contains a hot air gun or a hot wedge followed by rollers which press the sheets
together. This method can be used for factory and field seams and is popular for
some thermoplastics and thermoplastic elastomers including HDPE, polyesters, and
elasticized polyolefins.
Dielectric Welding. A high voltage electric current fuses the sheets of membrane.
This method is used only for factory seams because of the large, heavy equipment
needed and is popular for reinforced thermoplastic elastomers such as Hypalon and
CPE.
Ultrasonic Vibration Welding. This is a relatively new method for seaming HDPE,
XR-5, PVC, Hypalon, and other thermoplastic materials. We believe that the
process may have some potential, but we recommend that this method not be used
until further study and development are completed.
The Welding Institute recently completed a preliminary study of ultrasonic welding
of several thermoplastics and got generally poor results. Several other installers and
manufacturers agree that the results of ultrasonic weld machines have been mixed,
and they still prefer extrusion and hot wedge welding techniques.
Weather Constraints. Thermoplastics, such as HDPE, should not be welded when
the temperature drops to 45F or lower. When it is this cold, the molten extrudate
does not fuse to the membrane, and the welds will peel off the membrane when
peel tested. If the weld technician adjusts his welding equipment for hotter molten
extrudate, fusion will improve, but the weld will overheat. If it is overheated
enough, the weld will become brittle and will fail at low strengths when tested.
Solvent Seams. These seams are made using a solvent such as trichloromethane to
partly dissolve the polymer and then using rollers to press the two sheets of
membrane together. Solvent seams take longer to cure than thermal seams because
the seam does not reach its full strength until all of the solvent has evaporated. A
bodied solvent is one which contains some of the polymer already dissolved into it
to fill in the gaps between the two sheets. Bodied solvents are frequently used for
reinforced materials, since the surface of the membrane may have a texture corresponding to the scrim pattern. Solvent seams are popular for field seaming of thermoplastics and thermoplastic elastomers such as PVC, Hypalon, and CPE.
June 1997
600-24
Chevron Corporation
Adhesive Seams. Adhesives may include contact adhesives and gum tapes. Adhesives are used mostly for materials which are difficult to seam, such as elastomers
like neoprene, but may be used for almost any membrane. Generally, if other
seaming methods are available, they will be preferred over adhesives. Elastomers
are sometimes seamed with a vulcanizing (cross-linking) adhesive or tape which
requires heat and pressure to cure.
Available Membrane Materials

A wide variety of flexible membrane liner materials is available for different applications. Figure 600-8 compares the characteristics of most of the common
membrane materials, including their mechanical properties, general chemical resistance, most frequently used seaming methods, and so on. This information is taken
from various publications and manufacturers literature and should be helpful as a
general guideline for comparing different materials or for writing specifications.
More information about each material is presented below, including typical applications.
HDPE. HDPE is a thermoplastic and is never reinforced with a fabric scrim.
Chevron Chemical produces a resin, HiD 9642, which is used for liner manufacture. Polyethylene is the most widely used liner material because of its combination
of good mechanical properties, especially high tensile strength and elongation, and
good broad-range chemical resistance, including resistance to petroleum products.
HDPE also has excellent weathering resistance if carbon black is added for ultraviolet light stabilization, and is suitable for use as an exposed liner.
The primary disadvantage of HDPE is its relatively poor tear and puncture resistance, especially in thin sheets. This problem can be minimized by using relatively
thick sheets, and 80 mils is a common thickness for HDPE. Unfortunately, the thick
sheets are not very flexible (especially in cold weather), and are difficult to handle.
Another drawback to HDPE is its relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion
(1.2 x 10-4 ft/ft/C). Extra material, or compensation, must be left in the liner while
it is being installed to permit contraction when temperatures decrease. This is especially true for exposed liners in locations like Wyoming and Montana. Seam failures have occurred in membranes in the winter months in these states because of
stresses from liner shrinkage.
HDPE is generally manufactured by extrusion and is supplied in large rolls up to
30 feet wide and several hundred feet long. It is not normally prefabricated by
factory seaming. Field seams are made by extrusion welding, hot air or hot wedge
welding.
HDPE has been used for most of the tank bottom secondary containment
membranes installed by Chevron to date and also for a large number of pond liners.
Low density polyethylene (LDPE, LLDPE, and VLDPE) membranes are also available, but these are generally much inferior in both overall mechanical properties
and chemical resistance compared to the high density polyethylenes.
Chevron Corporation
600-25
June 1997
Membrane Materials (1 of 2)
Fabric
Reinforced
Typical
Thickness,
Mil
Approximate
Cost(1)
(material only), $
Chemical Resistance
Acids
Alkalis
Oils
Fuels/Solvents
600-26
Material
Available Products
Type
HDPE
GSE , Schlegel,
NSC, Poly/America
Thermoplastic
No
20-100
0.15 - 0.65
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Elasticized
polyolefin
Seaman XR-5,
Plasti-Steel Petrochem 10
Thermoplastic
Yes
30
0.62
Fair
Good
Excellent
Good
PVC
Watersaver, Staff,
Palco
Thermo-plastic
No
20-30
.30 - .40
Fair
Poor
Poor/Fair
Poor
Hypalon (CSPE)
Watersaver, Palco, Burke
Thermoplastic
elastomer
Yes
36
0.70
Good
Good
Poor
Poor
CPE
Staff
Thermoplastic
elastomer
No
Yes
20-30
36
0.35-0.40
0.60
Fair
Fair
Fair
Poor
Polyester
Cooley (Du Pont

Hytrel)
Thermoplastic
elastomer
Yes
30
1.80
Fair
Fair
Excellent
Excellent
EDPM
Carlisle
Cured
elastomer
No
30-60
0.50-0.60
Good
Good
Poor
Poor
Neoprene
Carlisle
Cured
elastomer
No
30-60
0.85 - 1.10
Fair
Good
Good
Fair
Butyl Rubber
Carlisle
Cured
elastomer
No
30-60
0.85 - 1.10
Fair
Good
Poor
Poor
Asphaltic
urethane
Commercial Industrial
Membrane
Yes
70
1.25
Fair
Fair
Poor
Poor
June 1997
Fig. 600-8
Chevron Corporation
Membrane Materials (2 of 2)
Mechanical Properties
Material
HDPE
Tensile Strength,
lb/in.
30-150
Elongation
500
(3)
Tear
Resistance,
lb
Puncture
Resistance,
lb
Temperature
Resistance, F
Low
Seams
High
Weathering
Resistance
Factory
Field
Notes
10-50
80-400
-40
180
Excellent
None
Thermal(2)
60-125
300
-30
220
Good
Thermal
Thermal
Elasticized
polyolefin
300-400
NR
PVC
46-69
300
6-8
NR(3)
-20
130
Poor
Thermal
Solvent
Oil resistant
grades
available
Hypalon (CSPE)
200
NR(3)
80
170
-40
160
Good
Thermal
Solvent
Partially
cures with
aging
CPE
34-43
200
250
NR(3)
3.5-4.5
35
NR (3)
170
-20
-40
130
130
Good
Thermal
Solvent
Poor
memory
Polyester
250
NR(3)
50
100
600-27
-50
250
Excellent
Thermal
Thermal
(3)
-75
300
Excellent
Vulcanized
Adhesive
Difficult to
seam or
repair
EDPM
42-84
300
4-8
NR
Neoprene
45-90
250
4-8
NR(3)
-30
200
Good
Vulcanized
Adhesive
Difficult to
seam or
repair
Butyl Rubber
36-72
300
4-8
NR(3)
-40
200
Good
Vulcanized
Adhesive
Difficult to
seam or
repair
Asphaltic
urethane
160
NR(3)
4.5
70
-40
140
Good
None
None
Spray
applied
June 1997
(1) In 1996
(2) Extrusion weld
(3) NR No data reported
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 600-8
Elasticized Polyolefins. Elasticized polyolefins (XR-5, Petroguard 3) are thermoplastics blended with a special resin modifier such as Du Ponts Elvaloy to make
them more rubberlike. Although originally introduced as unreinforced membranes,
most of these materials are now reinforced with a scrim. They have excellent tensile
strength, tear resistance, and puncture resistance. Elasticized polyolefins also have
good weathering resistance.
The chemical resistance of elasticized polyolefins is generally good, especially to
oils such as crude oil. However, they will be attacked by aromatic solvents
(benzene) or fuels with a high aromatic content (gasoline). Thermal seaming
methods are most commonly used, with dielectric welding preferred for factory
seams and hot air welding for field seams.
The largest use of elasticized polyolefin membranes has been for lining oil field
ponds where hydrocarbons are often part of the effluent. These materials are costcompetitive with HDPE, which is the other common choice where hydrocarbons
are present.
PVC. PVC is also a thermoplastic and a widely used membrane liner material
because it is relatively inexpensive. It is normally used unreinforced, although reinforced PVC membranes are available. Conventional PVC contains 25 to 35% plasticizer, which is usually some type of oil, to make it more flexible. The plasticizer
gradually will be lost during service, and the material eventually will become more
brittle. High temperatures will accelerate the loss of the plasticizer.
Initially PVC has good tensile strength and elongation, but the strength tends to
increase and the elongation to decrease as the plasticizer is lost. Its tear and puncture resistance are relatively low compared to reinforced membranes. PVC has poor
weathering resistance and should never be used as an exposed liner. It is resistant to
dilute concentrations of many chemicals, but overall, its chemical resistance is inferior to other liner materials. Special oil-resistant grades of PVC which have fair
resistance to crude oils are available, but they are not resistant to fuels or solvents.
Factory seams in PVC are usually made by thermal methods such as dielectric
welding, but field seams are normally made using a solvent. PVC membranes were
used mostly for waste impoundments until HDPE took over. PVC is still used for
some waste containment and water containment.
Hypalon (CSPEChlorosulfonated Polyethylene). Hypalon is a Du Pont trademark for chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE), a synthetic elastomer which has
been used for many different applications. The Hypalon used for membrane liners
is uncured, which gives it the properties of a thermoplastic elastomer, although it
does cure slowly in service. Hypalon is almost always reinforced because the
uncured polymer has relatively low strength. Reinforced Hypalon, however, has
good tensile strength, tear resistance, and puncture resistance. Hypalon has very
good weathering resistance and is frequently used as an exposed liner.
There are three common grades of Hypalon membranes: potable water grade,
aquatic grade (for fish ponds), and industrial grade. Industrial grade has the best
overall chemical resistance. It is resistant to a wide range of chemicals, including
strong acids and alkalis, but has very poor resistance to hydrocarbons. Chemical
June 1997
600-28
Chevron Corporation
resistance charts can be misleading, because cured Hypalon actually has very good
resistance to oils, fuels, and some solvents, but uncured Hypalon will soften and
swell in the presence of oils and can be dissolved by fuels and solvents. Unfortunately, cured Hypalon is very difficult to seam, which is why all Hypalon liners are
made from uncured Hypalon.
Factory seams in Hypalon are usually dielectrically welded, while field seams are
made with solvents. Because Hypalon cures partially in service, repairing it
requires special seaming techniques.
Hypalon is a very widely used membrane liner material and its cost is moderate. It
performs very well in many waste water and chemical services, but even small
amounts of oil in the effluent can cause it to fail prematurely, and it is not recommended for any service where oil contamination may be present.
Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE). CPE is another thermoplastic elastomer and
may be used with or without fabric reinforcement. The reinforced CPE membranes
have much better tensile strength, tear resistance, and puncture resistance than the
unreinforced ones, but in some cases, the unreinforced membrane may be adequate.
The mechanical properties of reinforced CPE are comparable to reinforced
Hypalon, but CPE has relatively poor memory (elongates and does not return to its
original shape). CPE has good weathering resistance and can be used as an exposed
liner. The chemical resistance of CPE is generally not as good as Hypalon, but
many CPE formulations do have fair resistance to oils and can be used in services
where low levels (a few hundred ppm) of hydrocarbon contamination are expected
or the liner will only be exposed to the hydrocarbon for a short time, such as for an
emergency spill containment.
Seams in CPE membranes are usually dielectrically welded in the factory and
solvent-seamed in the field.
Polyester. Currently, there is only one polyester elastomer availableDu Pont
Hytrel, manufactured by Cooley, which is a thermoplastic material usually used as
a reinforced membrane. It is relatively expensive, but its major selling feature is
excellent resistance to all types of oils, fuels, and most solvents, which other flexible, fabric-reinforced membranes do not have. It is also resistant to a wide range of
chemicals but can be attacked by strong acids or alkalis. It has excellent weathering
resistance and good tensile strength, tear resistance, and puncture resistance.
Both factory and field seams are made by thermal methods, typically dielectric
welding in the factory and hot air welding in the field. The major use of polyester
elastomers to date has been for secondary containment around fuel storage tanks.
Chevron Marketing has used Hytrel membranes for secondary containment around
service station piping.
Neoprene. Neoprene is another elastomer which has been used for membrane
liners. It is generally unreinforced, although reinforced membranes are sometimes
available. Its mechanical properties are comparable to other cured elastomers, and it
has good weathering resistance. Neoprene also has good resistance to oils but can
be attacked by some fuels and solvents. It has been used to contain waste water
which has some hydrocarbons present. Neoprene is difficult to seam. Vulcanized
Chevron Corporation
600-29
June 1997
seams can be made in the factory, but field seams must be made with special adhesives.
Butyl Rubber. Butyl rubber membranes have been used for potable water impoundments for many years. The membrane is an elastomer, usually without reinforcement. Its mechanical properties are comparable to other elastomers. Butyl rubber
has good weathering resistance and is also resistant to a wide variety of chemicals,
but it swells badly in the presence of hydrocarbons. Like most elastomers, butyl
rubber is difficult to seam. Vulcanized seams are used in the factory, but field seams
require special adhesives.
Asphaltic Urethane (Commercial Industrial Membrane) (CIM). CIM is a sprayapplied asphaltic urethane, usually fabric-reinforced. The fabric is laid in place first
and then the compound is sprayed over it. The main advantage to this type of
membrane is that there are no seams, but other application problems such as
pinholes, thin spots, or improper curing can occur. CIM is used primarily for water
containment. It has fair resistance to a variety of chemicals but poor resistance to
hydrocarbons. Its mechanical properties (tensile strength, tear and puncture resistance) are relatively low compared to other reinforced membranes.
Other Materials. Most of the available membranes are made from one of the
generic types of materials described above. However, new materials are being developed, and special blends of different polymers are sometimes used to obtain desired
properties. Manufacturers are occasionally reluctant to give out information on the
composition of their products, which can make it difficult to predict performance.
Laboratory testing can provide some additional guidance, but actual service experience is the best indication of a good material.
633 Design and Construction

The design and construction of a lined pond or impoundment really begins with site
selection. The site conditions, including the soil, groundwater, climate, etc.,
together with the composition of the effluent to be contained dictate the membrane
liner requirements. Any applicable codes and standards must also be considered to
assure compliance. Specific requirements for site preparation, leakage monitoring
systems, and installation and inspection of the membrane must be spelled out in
detailed specifications and drawings. See the Companys Specification CIV-MS4797, Pond and Basin Geomembranes, in Section 2000 of this manual.
Most liner failures occur at field seams. During design, the engineer should
generate a membrane panel layout that minimizes the number of field seams and
avoids horizontal seams on slopes. Seam intersections should be staggered to avoid
more than two weld intersections at one point.
Site Preparation
Before the membrane liner is actually installed, extensive design and construction
work must be completed to properly prepare the site and ensure that the liner will
perform well in service. Normally, the site preparation work is done by an earthwork contractor and is completed before the start of liner installation. The engineer
June 1997
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Chevron Corporation
must work with the earthwork contractor to establish the site requirements and
ensure that they are met. The final excavation should be inspected jointly by the
engineer, the earthwork contractor, and the membrane installation contractor to
ensure that it is satisfactory.
An analysis of the soil conditions will be required to determine the stability of the
subgrade and the compaction requirements. This is essential to ensure that settling
or shifting of the subgrade will not cause the liner to rupture. The angle of the side
slopes must be derived both for the stability of the slope and the strength of the
liner material, especially the field seams. For some materials with slow curing adhesive or solvent seams, shallow side slopes may be required. Generally, side slope
angles steeper than 2 to 1 (horizontal to vertical) are seldom recommended, and
slopes of 2-1/2 or 3 to 1 are common.
The surface of the soil must be smooth and free of rocks, roots, or other sharp
objects which may puncture the liner. If the soil is coarse textured or rocky, a 6-inch
layer of sand and/or a geotextile is recommended to provide a smooth bedding for
the liner.
An anchor trench must be dug around the outer perimeter to secure the top edge of
the liner. Anchor trench designs and dimensions vary. Typical trenches are U
shaped, 1 foot wide, and 1 to 2 feet deep and within a few feet of the top edge of
the side slope. However, if the slopes are long and steep, 2:1 or greater, or if a large
portion of the liner will be exposed to winds, larger anchor trenches are warranted.
Larger, V shaped designs are common for larger trenches.
The surrounding area should be contoured to provide drainage of surface runoff
away from the pond or impoundment.
The type of vegetation in the area must be investigated to determine soil sterilization requirements. Some types of vegetation can puncture membranes and grow
right through them. The composition of the soil and any previous contamination
must also be determined to establish whether or not gas generation under the liner
is a potential problem. A venting system and vent holes at the top of the liner may
be required. Figure 600-9 shows one kind of air-gas vent.
Membrane Installation
Panel Placement and Anchoring. Panels should never be unrolled and positioned if they cannot be seamed and anchored the same day. The first step in
installing the membrane is to place the unrolled panels in position before deployment. Drawings should be provided to indicate the correct positions of prefabricated panels, and each panel should be clearly identified. The panels should be
unrolled or unfolded as close to their final position as possible to minimize
handling and avoid damage. Panel placement must allow for expansion or contraction which may occur due to temperature changes. This is extremely important for
exposed liners at locations that have hot summers and cold winters (Montana and
Wyoming, for example).
Once the panels have been correctly positioned, they must be anchored in place
immediately and loose edges weighted down with sandbags. Panels should be
Chevron Corporation
600-31
June 1997
Fig. 600-9
Air-Gas Flap-Type Vent (Courtesy of Poly-America)
seamed together as soon as possible after placement. Two major blow-outs (loss of
material due to wind upheaval and carry away) have occurred during installation of
panels by the Company because of the Contractors casual approach to membrane
ballast (weights) during deployment.
Field Seaming. Field seaming requires specialized training and experience to
consistently do well. Only trained and experienced weld technicians should be
employed.
Methods for making field seams vary for different membrane materials, but several
general requirements apply to any seaming technique. First, edges to be seamed
must be clean and dry. Some seaming methods may require the edges to be wiped
with a solvent or abraded with a wire brush or sandpaper before seaming. Second,
the seam must have a minimum overlap width, which is typically several inches, to
obtain adequate strength. Solvent or adhesive seams typically require rolling to
press the two sheets together. Finally, the minimum recommended curing time must
be allowed before putting any stress on the seam, including walking on or near it or
inspecting it.
The welding process should be carefully monitored and field seams destructively
tested to ensure high seam integrity. All field welds, including patches, should be
vacuum tested for pinhole leaks.
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Chevron Corporation
Pipe Penetrations:
Sealing Around Penetrations. Many membranes will have to have some penetrations through them for pipes, sumps, and so on. Sealing the liner around these penetrations requires extra attention, because the liner is very prone to leakage at these
sites. Drawings of typical attachment details are shown in Figures 600-10 and
600-11.
Fig. 600-10 Typical Detail Showing Sealing of Membrane Around a Pipe Penetration Using a
Prefabricated Boot
Fig. 600-11 Typical Details Showing Attachment of Membrane to Concrete Using Batten
Strips
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June 1997
For pipe penetrations, a special boot of liner material is usually prefabricated to fit
over the pipe. A clamp and a sealant are used to secure the boot to the pipe, and the
edges of the boot are then seamed to the liner.
For attaching the membrane to concrete, such as sumps, a combination of stainless
steel or aluminum bars called batten strips and a caulking or sealant is usually used.
Bolts are embedded in the concrete, then holes are punched in the membrane for
the bolts to pass through. The membrane is placed over the bolts using plenty of
sealant, and the batten strip is placed on top and tightened in place.
The membrane should be anchored in all areas where turbulence is expected, such
as where pipes empty into a pond or near sumps, aerators, etc., to prevent the liner
from being stretched or lifted. This can be accomplished by anchoring the liner to a
concrete splash pad underneath it or by placing sandbags on top of the liner.
Protecting the Liner Around Penetrations. Consider using a diffuse sack, rubsheet, concrete shot block, or other protective device to protect the liner from
impact and erosion damage from flowing effluent. A protective rub sheet or other
device is advisable regardless of the effluent temperature or chemical composition.
Cleanout Provisions
Some ponds will require periodic cleanout of accumulated sludge or other deposits.
The method of cleaning must be considered in the design of the pond, because
liners can easily be damaged by cleaning equipment. If mechanical equipment such
as front-end loaders must be used to clean out the pond, the liner will have to be
protected by an earth cover. The equipment operator will have to be very careful to
avoid digging through the earth cover and tearing up the liner. Just driving the
equipment around on the liner could damage it if the earth cover or the bedding
under the liner is rocky. A ramp would also have to be provided to get the equipment in and out of the pond.
Another method of cleaning out a pond is to make a slurry by adding liquid to the
sludge and then vacuuming or pumping it out. This method works fairly well for
some types of deposits and is much less likely to damage the liner.
634 Inspection
Visual Inspection
The entire membrane should be visually inspected both during and after installation, primarily to check for obvious defects in materials or workmanship. (Shop
inspection of membrane material by Company inspectors is not needed.) Some
wrinkles in the liner should be expected since the materials expand and contract
with temperature changes, but for the most part, the liner should lie flat. Any cuts,
deep scratches, gouges, holes or damage from handling must be patched. Seams
should be smooth and have the minimum specified overlap. Verify that the specified
seaming method is used, including specific equipment and products. Special attention should be given to inspecting the quality of workmanship on seals around penetrations.
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Chevron Corporation
Nondestructive Seam Inspection

All field seams should be 100% nondestructively tested after they have had sufficient time to cure. Several test methods, described next, are available. Each method
requires considerable inspector skill to ensure that all defects are detected and
repaired. The inspector should also make a thorough visual inspection as he goes
along to look for any other obvious defects, such as wrinkles or dirt trapped in the
seam or seams which may have a narrow bonded area.
Air Lance Testing. A small diameter jet of air at about 50 psi is directed at the
edge of the seam. Unbonded areas will ripple or inflate. This method is not recommended for stiff, thick membranes such as HDPE.
Vacuum Chamber Testing. A gasketed chamber is placed over a section of seam
which has been wetted with soapy water. When the chamber is evacuated, any leaks
in the seam will produce bubbles. This method is very sensitive to small leaks but is
also relatively slow. This is the most widely used method.
Ultrasonic Testing. This test method has been developed for use on some unreinforced membranes. Pulse-echo methods are the most successful. This method does
not work well on reinforced membranes.
Spark Testing. A copper wire is inserted before the seam is welded. After welding,
a technician equipped with a spark tester checks for pinhole leaks. If there is a
pinhole gap, the machine will make an electrical connection with the wire in the
seam, and an alarm will sound. This method is also widely used.
Mechanical Pick Testing. A dull-pointed object (such as a screwdriver) is run
along the edge of the seam. The pick will dig into any unbonded or weakly bonded
areas. The inspector must take care to avoid scratching or gouging the liner. This is
a less effective method than those above.
Destructive Seam Testing

Nondestructive inspection of seams indicates seam continuity but does not test
seam strength. Destructive test samples should be cut out at regular intervals and
the seam strength checked, usually by a peel test on site. Note that the cut-out must
be patched. One test for every 300 to 400 feet of seam is typical for large installations. On smaller jobs, this frequency should be increased. If defective seams are
found, additional tests will be required to determine the extent of the problem.
Destructive seam testing techniques are discussed in Section 632, Flexible
Membrane Liner Materials, and specified strengths are included in Specification
CIV-MS-4797. Destructive seam tests should be performed during installation.
These tests help save time by identifying poor welders and defective welding equipment.
635 Common Problems

There are a number of common problems which can cause membrane liners to fail.
All of the potential problems should be investigated and resolved during design of
Chevron Corporation
600-35
June 1997
the liner system. Some of the more common problems and ways to avoid them are
discussed below.
Subgrade Problems
Settling or cracking of the subgrade can cause the liner to stretch and eventually
rupture. Good site selection and proper compaction will minimize these problems,
and the liner material selected should be able to withstand the expected stresses. If
there is potential for subgrade instability, a geotextile may be recommended.
Geotextiles are heavy, nondegradable fabrics that can be placed under the
membrane to provide additional support and protection. See Section 637 for a list
of manufacturers.
Erosion of the side slopes beneath the liner near the water line may occur due to
wave action. Even minor erosion will stress the liner, and if it becomes severe
enough that the liner is no longer properly supported, then the liner may tear. One
way to avoid this problem is to use shallower side slopes. Geotextiles and good
subgrade preparation also help prevent this from happening. If the liner is buried,
erosion may remove the protective covering, which could lead to damage.
If the soil is not effectively stabilized, vegetation may puncture the liner and grow
through it. Soil sterilization is usually accomplished by chemical treatment, which
may be specific to the type of vegetation in the area. This has not been a major
problem, however.
Gas pressure may build up under the liner from chemical reactions in the soil. Soils
containing organic materials will generate methane gas as they decompose. Chemical reactions between the liquid contained in the pond and the soil or rock under it
may also generate gas if any leakage occurs. Gas pressure will cause large bubbles
to form under the liner and force it up to the surface. If the possibility for gas generation under the liner exists, the bottom should be sloped and vents should be placed
at the top of the liner. In some cases, vent pipes may have to be installed under the
liner to allow the gas to escape.
If the bottom of the liner is too close to the groundwater table, groundwater may
exert pressure against the liner or flood the leakage monitoring system. The depth
of the groundwater table and its seasonal fluctuations must be determined when the
liner is designed.
Mechanical Damage
The potential for liner damage is often highest during installation when it is
handled the most. People will walk on it, weld on it, repair equipment on it (such as
welders, vacuum testing equipment, etc.), transport solvents, tools, cutting knives,
etc., over it, and smoke while they work on the liner. Most specifications prohibit
these activities, but Company personnel should remain onsite during installation to
enforce these basic rules.
Because liner installations often take several days to several weeks to complete, the
liner, or at least a portion of it, is always left unsecured during construction. Precautions must be taken to ensure that the liner is adequately ballasted so that it will not
blow away if it becomes windy. Liner blow-outs have occurred at Company installa-
June 1997
600-36
Chevron Corporation
tions causing the loss of several hundred thousand square feet of liner. In addition
to loss of time and money, blow-outs are life threatening. It is better to sacrifice
some progress and take the time to ensure that the liner is adequately ballasted
during installation. Worn, heavy equipment tires, sandbags, and unwrapped rolls of
liner have been used as temporary ballast.
Once installation is complete, exposed liners may still be damaged by wind, hail,
foot traffic, and so on. These factors should be taken into account when estimating
the expected life of the liner. Any damage which is found should be repaired
promptly. The liner may also be damaged by equipment used to clean out the pond,
and extreme care must be taken to avoid this. Sharp objects such as rocks will puncture the liner, and some rodents have been known to chew holes through it.
Chemical Deterioration
Some types of membranes will degrade slowly under normal weathering and soil
exposure conditions. It is especially important to select materials with good weathering resistance for exposed liners. The expected composition of the fluid to be
contained under normal and unusual conditions must be analyzed carefully before
selecting the liner material. For example, even very low levels of hydrocarbons can
cause some liners, such as Hypalon, to fail. When in doubt, it is best to test candidate materials and select the best ones. Call Materials and Equipment Engineering
at CRTC for help in this area.
636 Leakage Monitoring and Detection

Monitoring
Most leakage monitoring systems consist of a layer of porous material, such as
gravel or coarse sand, that allows leakage to drain into a system of collection piping
or monitoring wells. The leakage monitoring system must be designed as a part of
the complete lining system. For a single layer lining, the leakage monitoring system
is placed in the subgrade below the liner.
Environmental regulations may require dual liner designs on all impoundments or
landfills containing regulated waste. For dual lining, the leakage monitoring system
is usually between the primary and secondary liners. The drainage layer is typically
1 foot thick, with a minimum slope of 2%. The collection piping is typically slotted
or perforated plastic pipe, laid out in a network such that any leakage will drain into
monitoring wells. The size and spacing of the collection piping must be adequate to
prevent any buildup of leakage in the drainage layer. See Figure 600-12.
Detection
Southwest Research Institute has developed a method to detect and locate leaks as
small as 1/32 inch in diameter in new or in-service geomembrane-lined liquid
impoundments. This leak detection method uses an electrical measurement technique which detects and locates leaks to within 1/2 inch or less. This method may
be used in regulated as well as unregulated impoundments.
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600-37
June 1997
Fig. 600-12 Double Liner, Details (Courtesy of Poly-America)
The major limitation to this technique is that it is ineffective in impoundments

containing solid wastes greater than 1 foot deep. See Section 637 for vendor
contacts and phone numbers.
Repair
Exposed geomembrane systems should be visually inspected routinely for damage.
The seams should be given the most attention, since that is where stresses concentrate and most failures occur. Regions that experience wide temperature variations
are more likely to experience stress crack failures along weld seams. Some locations are more likely to experience damage from animals (deer hooves have punctured 60 mil HDPE) and even vandalism.
The original manufacturer/installer should do the repairs. For emergency repairs
they should have no trouble mobilizing a small crew in a day or two. Some materials such as PVC and Hypalon are more difficult to repair because their properties
change over time. HDPE is no more difficult to repair than it is to install.
A full impoundment is much more difficult to inspect and locate leaks in. Several
leak detection options are listed in the following sections. For repair, the area
around the leak must be accessible. This requires either draining the impoundment
or building a dike around the leak and pumping out the liquid. This has been done
at several Company locations.
637 List of Manufacturers and Installers

This section lists vendor contacts for several manufacturers and installers of flexible
membrane liners. These are the companies that CRTCs Materials and Equipment
June 1997
600-38
Chevron Corporation
Engineering is most familiar with, but the list is not all-inclusive and does not represent an approved vendors list. More contacts will be added as Chevron becomes
familiar with more companies. Note that many manufacturers have their own installation crews or approved installation contractors for their materials. Manufacturers
have a great interest in making sure their materials are installed correctly to avoid
failures, so taking their recommendation of an installation contractor is usually a
good idea. Some manufacturers will refuse to warranty the material unless it is
installed by one of their approved contractors.
Also listed are two companies that are especially strong in the design of membranelined facilities and may act as consultants. Emcon Associates is especially knowledgeable about waste management, and MPC-Putterman has worked on special
designs for secondary containment membranes, including the service station piping
trench liners used by Chevron Marketing.
MANUFACTURERS
Company
Address
Telephone
Product
Contact
Du Pont Engineering
Polymers Division
2030 Main Street

Suite 1200
Irvine, California 92714
(310) 371-7516
Hytrel
Lindsay Overton
GSE Lining Technology, Inc.
19103 Gundle Road

Houston, Texas 77073
(800) 435-2008
HDPE
Chris Trevino
CMS Industries
7571 Santa Rita Circle

Stanton, California 90680
(714) 898-0867
PVC
Hypalon
Eric Christopher
Poly-America, Inc.
2000 W. Marshall Drive

Grand Prairie, Texas 75051
(800) 527-3322
HDPE,
VLDPE
Kris Kriofske
Columbia Geosystems Ltd.
1415 28th Street N.E.

Calgary, Alberta T2A 2P6,
Canada
(403) 273-5152
HDPE
Ed Zinkewich
National Seal Company
P.O. Box 1448

Galesburg, Illinois 61402-1448
(309) 343-3418
(800) 323-3820
HDPE
Clive Mills
JPS Elastomerics Corp.
9 Sullivan Road
Holyoke, MA 01040-2800
(413) 533-8100
CSPE/PET
textile
laminate
Janice Hall
Burke Industries
2250 South Tenth Street

San Jose, California 95112
(408) 297-3500
Hypalon
Doug Bartlett
Seaman Corporation
9111 Cross Park Dr.

Building D 200
Knoxville, TN 37923
(423) 691-9476
XR-5,
Fueltane
Felon Wilson
HPG International Inc.
200 Cottontail Lane, Vantage

Ct. South
Sommerset, NJ 08873
(908) 271-1300
PVC, CPE
Bernard Strauss
Carlisle Coatings and

Waterproofing
P.O. Box 1600

Sapulpa, OK 74067
(800) 338-8701
EPDM,
Neoprene,
Butyl
Tim Eorgan
Chevron Corporation
600-39
June 1997
MANUFACTURERS (Contd.)
Company
Address
Telephone
Product
Contact
Watersaver Company, Inc.
P.O. Box 16465

Denver, Colorado 80216
(800) 525-2424
PVC
Hypalon
Jim Miller
Occidental Chemical Corp.
27318 Sturbridge Circle

Westlake, Ohio 44145
(216) 892-8086
PVC
Rick DeSanto
Cooley Engineered
Membranes
50 Esten Avenue
Pawtucket, Rhode Island
02860
(401) 724-9000
Du Pont
Hytrel, PVC
Steve Siener
Staff Industries, Inc.
240 Chene Street

Detroit, Michigan 48207
(313) 259-1818
PVC
Hypalon
CPE
Edward C. Staff
Commercial Industrial
Membrane (CIM)
94 Grove Street
Peterborough, NH 03458
(800) 543-3458
Address
Telephone
Product
Serrot Corporation
5401 Argosy Dr.

P.O. Box 1519
Huntington Beach, CA 926476787
(800) 624-2437
HDPE,
PVC,
CSPE, and
others
MPC-Putterman
4834 South Oakley

Chicago, Illinois 6060
(800) 621-0146
Jack Moreland
Environmental Protection
Inc. (EPI)
P.O. Box 333

Mancelona, MI 49659-0333
(616) 587-9108
Fred Rohe
Midessa Industrial Vinyl

Co.
4809 West 42nd Street

Odessa, Texas 79764
(915) 333-3055
HDPE, XR5, Hypalon,

PVC
Ruben Velasquez
Field Lining Systems, Inc.
P. O. Box 7
6970 NW Grand Ave.
Peoria, Arizona 85380
(602) 842-1255
HDPE
Phil Ramos
Geo-Synthetics, Inc.
428 North Pewaukee Rd.

Waukesha, WI 53188
(414) 524-7979
Robert F. Groh
Environmental Protection
Services
7 Switchbud Place
Woodlands, TX 77380
(713) 362-0022
Jim Suh
Western Industries Inc.
P.O. Box 428

Miles City, MT 59301
(406) 232-1680
John Brennan
Richard H.
Stephens
INSTALLERS
Company
June 1997
600-40
Contact
Uno Kaskla
Chevron Corporation
DESIGN/CONSULTING
Company
Address
Emcon Associates, Inc.
1921 Ringwood Ave.

San Jose, California 95131
Telephone
Product
(408) 453-7300
HDPE and
other materials
Contact
Don Hullings
INDEPENDENT TESTING LABORATORIES

Company
Address
Precision Labs
1742 West Katella Ave.

Orange, California 92667
Telephone
Product
Contact
(714) 744-4599
Telephone
Product
Contact
(210) 684-5111
LEAK DETECTION
Company
Address
Southwest Research
Institute
P.O. Drawer 28510

6220 Culebra Road
San Antonio, Texas 78228
Mike
MacNaughton
GEOTEXTILE MANUFACTURERS
Company
Address
Telephone
Product
Contact
Amoco Fabrics and Fibers

Co.
Suite 300
900 Circle 75 Parkway
Atlanta, GA 30339-3035
800) 445-7732
Hoechst Celansa Industries

Spunbond Business Unit
P.O. Box 5650

Spartanburg, South Carolina
29304-5650
(800) 845-7597
Ling Industrial Fabrics
2550 W. 5th North St.

Sommerville, SC 29483
(800) 543-9966
638 Company Experience

The Company already has considerable experience with flexible membrane liners.
Consult with CRTCs Materials and Equipment Engineering for experience with
lined ponds, sumps and secondary containment applications. The Company has
used many different materials and, while many installations have been successful,
there have also been problems. A brief discussion of our experience is given below.
A list of CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Reports is included in
Section 670, References.
Water Treatment Plants. Sometimes water treatment plants have lined storage
ponds associated with them. For example, the waste water treatment area at the
Carter Creek Gas Plant has four ponds, all of which were originally lined with
Hypalon. Two of these liners have failed from exposure to hydrocarbons and have
been replaced with HDPE.
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June 1997
El Paso Refinery has had good experience with Hypalon in their evaporation ponds
(zeolite brine/caustic) but has also had failures of Hypalon when it was exposed to
hydrocarbons. Water softening plants in the Bakersfield area have used Hypalon
and HDPE. Above ground API separators at Richmond have liners underneath them
to protect ground-water.
Oil Field Storage Ponds. Oil field storage ponds for produced water have been
lined in some areas, including California, Texas, and Canada. Experience with
CPE, HDPE, and other materials has generally been good, although it should be
noted that many of these are emergency storage ponds which are seldom, if ever,
used.
Sumps. Sumps for steam generator scrubber wastes in the Bakersfield area have
been lined with Hypalon. Several of these liners have failed due to settling problems in the subgrade which caused the liner to tear. Replacing these sumps with
tanks is being considered.
Lining with flexible geomembrane liners can be a very inexpensive and effective
means of repairing leaking trenches and sumps. Rock Springs Chemical Plant
installed HDPE liners to seal several leaking trenches and sumps and, to date, the
repair has been successful, with only two notable problems. One section of trench
liner failed because a sulfuric acid line leaked during startup and the concentrated
acid mixed with water in the trench, generating heat and melting portions of the
liner. One sump liner had to be removed when liquid from a leaking discharge pipe
flowed back into the sump between the concrete sump walls and the HDPE liner.
Basins. Liners inside concrete basins at the Carter Creek Stretford Plant have
suffered physical damage from the agitation of the solution in the basins. In this
case, the liner was hung on the walls with batten strips, but not fully attached. A
glued-in liner in a concrete sump at Kennewick has performed adequately to date.
However, a similar glued-in liner at Pascagoula was removed after it failed, because
of water seepage from outside the basin.
80-mil HDPE was successfully installed in soil cement runoff collection basins at
Gaviota Oil and Gas Processing Plant in Santa Barbara. A 16-ounce geotextile was
deployed over the cement because the basin surface was rough and irregular, with
much loose aggregate. The geotextile will protect the geomembrane liner from abrasion and will actually increase the puncture resistance (from subgrade) of the liner
system.
Tanks. Secondary containment membranes have been installed under storage tanks
at Richmond and El Segundo. The old bottom is left in place and the membrane is
installed on top of it, followed by a concrete slab (which acts as a spacer) and a new
bottom. Almost all tanks at El Segundo and many at Richmond now have this type
of replacement bottom. Most of the membranes are HDPE, although other materials
have been used in special cases. Refer to Section 500 in the Tank Manual.
Marketing Facilities. Marketing has installed a secondary containment membrane
around the piping at approximately 50 service stations in California. The material
used so far has been Du Pont Hytrel, although other materials are being investigated. Marketing now uses double-wall tanks underground when secondary contain-
June 1997
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Chevron Corporation
ment is required. One buried storage tank in the Bakersfield area was installed with
an HDPE liner all the way around it to provide secondary containment.
640 Shotcrete and Concrete Paved, Grade-level Pipeways

In general, serious consideration should be given to installing lines in elevated pipeways instead of building or upgrading grade-level pipeways.
Grade level pipeways, particularly those installed in cuts or benched areas, require a
fair amount of maintenance to maintain proper drainage and ground clearances.
Applying shotcrete (gunite) to the bottom and side slopes of the pipeway has the
following benefits:
Prevents entry of hydrocarbon spills into the ground eliminating soil and
groundwater contamination and future cleanup problems
Directs spills into a collection system minimizing fire hazard
Reduces pipeway maintenance time because of easier washdown of the

pipeway
Reduces the amount of earthen material deposited under and around lines in
the pipeway, resulting in less external corrosion to the lines
Improves drainage of rainfall runoff
Deters or eliminates growth of vegetation
Stabilizes embankments on either side of pipeway to prevent additional erosion

or sloughing of material into the pipeway
Improves the appearance of the pipeway
Allows for proper inspection of pipes
Shotcrete vs. Concrete for Grade-level Pipeways

Shotcrete is normally used for lining existing grade-level pipeways. It can be
applied more easily than concrete in tight areas under lines and is more economical
than concrete.
Concrete is often used when constructing a new pipeway with vertical walls. It can
be engineered to drain properly and to withstand different soil loading.
Shotcrete Surface Preparation Steps

The following steps should be taken to prepare surfaces for shotcrete:
Chevron Corporation
Compaction of surfaces to receive shotcrete
Removal of loose materials, irregularities, and vegetation
Maintaining the surface in a damp condition for several hours before applying
shotcrete
600-43
June 1997
Refer to Figure 600-13 for a typical shotcreted pipeway. A discussion of shotcrete

is included in Section 700 of this manual.
Construction
Verify that Contractors are maintaining the proper slopes while gunning the
shotcrete.
Verify that thicknesses are as specified.
After the shotcrete has set, run water over it to verify that it properly drains
without pooling. This is very important especially in areas where slopes are
marginal and drainage is necessary.
Concrete
Refer to GD-S99641 for standard concrete pipe trench designs.
Section 200, Soils, Foundations and Concrete, contains guidelines and specifications for concrete construction.
650 Description of Closure Technologies

This section describes technologies for the cleanup and closing of sites contaminated with wastes. Consult CRTCs HES Group for detailed procedures and for
sources elsewhere in the Company who may have experience with these procedures.
Capping. Capping is a process used to cover buried waste materials to prevent
contact between infiltrating rainwater and the wastes. Depending on the required
service, there are standards to minimize liquid migration through the wastes,
provide efficient site drainage, provide high resistance to damage by settling or
subsidence, and have low cap maintenance.
Chemical Fixation (also called stabilization). Chemical fixation is a process that
immobilizes potentially leachable heavy metals into an insoluble matrix. Chemical
reagents are added to the waste (includes materials such as fly ash, Portland cement
or limestone) to transform liquids or sludges into stable solids containing the immobilized heavy metals.
Dewatering. Dewatering is a process that treats sludges in devices such as belt
filter presses or centrifuges to reduce the volume of material for disposal. The dewatering device separates oil and water from the sludge and produces a dewatered
cake.
Slurry Cutoff Wall. A slurry cutoff wall is designed to prevent lateral migration of
contamination from a waste disposal area. It generally involves trenching down to a
subsurface zone of low permeability. A low permeability material (such as a
soil/bentonite slurry) is placed in the trench to provide a barrier around the site.
Solvent Extraction. Solvent extraction refers to a number of different proprietary
processes to treat oily sludges. These processes contact the oily sludge with low
viscosity, volatile solvents to extract the more viscous indigenous oil from the
June 1997
600-44
Chevron Corporation
solids. Typically, the solvent and extracted oil are then separated using distillation,
and the solids are filtered or dried.
Solidification. Solidification is a process that transforms liquids or sludges into
stable solids. It removes free liquids and immobilizes contaminants by encapsulating them, sometimes in a monolithic product.
660 Model Specification, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms

661 Model Specification
CIV-MS-4797 Pond and Basin Geomembranes is included in the Specification
section of this manual (Section 2000). This Model Specification covers materials,
site preparation, installation requirements, and inspection and testing of geotextiles
and geomembranes.
662 Standard Drawings

The following standard drawings are included in the Standard Drawings and Forms
section of this manual or in other manuals.
GD-S1119
Standard Secondary Containment and Leak Detection Details

for Concrete Basins
GF-S1121
Standard Secondary Containment and Leak Detection Details

for Storage Tanks (in the Tank Manual.).
GD-S99641
Standard Design Guide Sheet for Pipe Trenches
670 References
671 CRTCs Materials and Equipment Engineering Reports on Liners
(Copies of these reports are available from CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering.)
Chevron Corporation
1.
El Paso Waste Water Pond Liner Materials Testing, B. J. Cummiskey, File

N31S05-El Paso, June 7, 1982.
2.
Impoundment Liner Testing, Western Producing Oil Cleaning Plant, B. J.

Cummiskey, File N31S05-Taft, June 30, 1983.
3.
Flexible Lining Recommendation for Concrete Basin Repairs-Carter Creek

BSRP, R. R. Konet, File N30.00-Carter Creek, August 27, 1984, and subsequent memos dated October 5, 1984, December 26, 1984, February 13, 1985,
and March 11, 1985, in the same file.
4.
Trip Report: International Conference on Geomembranes, J. E. Price, File

N28.23, August 29, 1984.
600-45
June 1997
5.
Storage Tank Containment Membrane TestsEl Segundo, R. J. Stofanak,

File N31D-El Segundo, April 3, 1985. See also, (Same Title), L. J. Klein,
File N31D, December 7, 1983.
6.
Carter Creek Pond Liners, J. E. Price, File N31S05-Carter Creek, April 24,
1985.
7.
Hazardous Waste Disposal ImpoundmentPerth Amboy, T. E. Rippel, File

N31S05-Perth Amboy, April 22, 1985.
8.
Groundwater Protection Standards Update Report on Membrane Materials,

J. E. Price, File N28.23, August 9, 1985.
9.
Permeability Testing-Flexible Membrane Liners, T. E. Rippel, File N28.231,

February 28, 1986.
10. Immersion Testing of Flexible Membrane Liners for Secondary Containment, T. E. Rippel, File N31D, May 30, 1986.
11. Trip Report: Visit to Matrecon Re: The Welding of HDPE Membranes, J. H.
Kmetz, File N31S05/N23.12, December 1, 1986.
12. Visit to Rock Springs Gypsum Pond, J. H. Kmetz, File N31S05, December
19, 1986.
13. Tailings Pond Lining Report-Stillwater Mining Co., J. H. Kmetz, File
N31S05, March 17, 1986.
14. Phase II Dam Liner Blow-out, K. C. Baker, File 25.6, June 26, 1987.
15. Tailings Embankment Lining-Stillwater Mining Co., K. C. Baker, File 25.6,
September 4, 1987.
16. Tailings Embankment Liner: Trip Report-Stillwater Mining Co., K. C.
Baker, File 25.6, October 22, 1987.
17. Compensator Work-Phase II Embankment Liner, K. C. Baker, File 25.6,
January 6, 1988.
18. Summary Report for Weathering Tests of Groundwater Protection Materials,
R. A. Doyle, File 25.6, January 12, 1988.
19. Inspection Guidelines for Liner Installations, K. C. Baker, File 25.6, April
21, 1988.
20. Geomembrane Leak Detection, E. H. Niccolls, File 25.6.5, July 22, 1987.
672 Other References
June 1997
1.
Merritt, Frederick S., ed., Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, McGrawHill.
2.
Gaylord, Edwin H., Jr., and Charles N. Gaylord, eds., Structural Engineering
Handbook, McGraw-Hill.
600-46
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
3.
Rectangular Concrete Tanks, Portland Cement Association.
4.
American Concrete Institute Publications:

ACI 318R
Commentary on Building Code Requirements for Reinforced

Concrete
ACI 350R
Concrete Sanitary Engineering Structures
ACI 504R
Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures
ACI 515.1R
A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective, and Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete
600-47
June 1997
Civil and Structural
Fig. 600-13 Pipeway Upgrade Gunite Banks and Trench Bottom, Before and After Maintenance
Chevron Corporation
600-49
June 1997

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600 Ponds and Basins

Environmental and Safety Concerns

General Design Considerations

Loads And Analysis

Pond and Basin Liners

Liner Uses and Selection

Flexible Membrane Liner Materials

Design and Construction

Leakage Monitoring and Detection

List of Manufacturers and Installers

Shotcrete and Concrete Paved, Grade-level Pipeways

Description of Closure Technologies

Model Specification, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms 600-45

600 Ponds and Basins

Civil and Structural Manual

CRTCs Materials and Equipment Engineering Reports on Liners

Civil and Structural Manual

600 Ponds and Basins

610 Environmental and Safety Concerns

Do not underestimate the testing, management, and disposal costs of excavated

Maintain the proper slope stability or shoring as discussed in the Safety in

Understand the hazards of the material being handled. It should be sampled in

The type of protective clothing to wear

600 Ponds and Basins

Civil and Structural Manual

620 Concrete Basins

621 General Design Considerations

Concrete offers great design flexibility. It can easily be formed to provide

Inadequate concrete coverage for reinforcement. This can lead to corrosion

Loss of water tightness where piping penetrates the basin walls.

Civil and Structural Manual

600 Ponds and Basins

Providing adequate reinforcement in the walls to meet anticipated shrinkage

Paying careful attention to the following structural details:

Interconnection of basin walls

Precast Concrete Basins

622 Design Criteria

600 Ponds and Basins

Civil and Structural Manual

Walls 10 feet and higher should be at least 12 inches thick.

Maximum reinforcing bar diameter should not exceed 6% of the thickness of

Maximum reinforcing bar spacing should not exceed 12 inches.

Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement perpendicular to the main flexural

623 Loads And Analysis

Hydrostatic loads from fluids in the basin.

Civil and Structural Manual

600 Ponds and Basins

This publication includes:

Good quality concrete to make it dense, strong, and impermeable

Adequate cover for reinforcement

Thorough compaction of the concrete

Smooth surface finishes for contact surfaces

Epoxy-coated (with electrostatically-applied powder) reinforcing steel

Consult a CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering coatings specialist if an

600 Ponds and Basins

Civil and Structural Manual

Preformed joint filler

Recommended Expansion Joint Widths

Recommended Widths (in.)

Partly protected above ground, 80F

Unprotected, exposed roof slabs, etc., 120F

(1) NR = Not Recommended

Civil and Structural Manual