Timber Bridges & Foundations Forestry Commission

INNOVATIVE TIMBER ENGINEERING
FOR THE COUNTRYSIDE - InTeC
Timber Bridges and

Foundations
Timber Bridges and Foundations

A report produced for the Forestry Commission
PREPARED BY:
G Freedman - FCE (InTeC chairman)

C Mettem, P Larsen, S Edwards - TRADA Technology
T Reynolds, V Enjily - BRE
November 2002
BRE Ltd, Bucknalls Lane, Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR

01923 664000
TRADA Technology Ltd, Stocking Lane, Hughenden Valley, High Wycombe, HP14 4ND
01494 563091
Forestry Civil Engineering, Greenside, Peebles, EH45 8JA
01721 720 448
Building Research Establishment Ltd 2002

TRADA Technology Ltd 2002
Forestry Civil Engineering 2002
Front Cover Picture - Footbridge at Garpenburg, Sweden, with timber caisson foundations (photo BRE)
InTeC
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Bridges are one of the highest forms of civil engineering - few other structures
command the same combination of functionality and visual impact. In the United
Kingdom bridge building in timber has been very limited. This is in marked contrast to
the initiatives which have taken place in North America (USDA Forest Service Timber
Bridge Initiative), Canada, and Northern Europe (Nordic Timber Bridge Programme).
World-wide, the use of timber for bridges is experiencing a major revival. In most
industrialised countries other than the UK, timber is widely and increasingly being
used, for vehicular, as well as for pedestrian bridges. The strength, lightness in
weight, energy absorption and environmental features of timber make it highly
desirable for bridge construction.
Although there is an established history, and a continued use, of timber for bridges in
the United Kingdom applications tend to be limited both in span and capacity, than is
merited by the virtues of this aesthetic, sustainable material. Experience elsewhere in
the world is showing that with correct design, timber is also a durable material for
vehicle carrying bridge structures and, additionally, piled foundations. Nevertheless,
this aspect remains a significant query in the minds of many mainstream designers,
both engineers and architects, who advise UK clients. Revitalised timber bridge
activities elsewhere are impressing UK specialists. Nevertheless, there is a great
need to disseminate awareness and knowledge to mainstream designers,
commissioners of projects and the public. At present, timber bridge producers in the
UK are a small, niche sector of the UK timber industry, and some firms are really only
representatives of producers that are adding the main value elsewhere in Europe.
Timber engineers have the expertise to provide aesthetically exciting, well-protected,
and durable bridge structures. To achieve impact, economic drivers must be
harnessed, to unlock consumer and specifier indifference. Key motivators include:
National cycle routes

City regeneration, calling for aesthetically exciting, well-performing links.
Canal and rail regeneration
Marina and dockside development
Housing developments, with associated bridging needs.
Forest roads and infrastructure maintenance in remote regions.
Linking to value-added forest products.
The use of sustainably grown and locally produced timber for bridge, foundation and
sea defence engineering will increasingly be seen as favourable. In addition there are
concerns and moves in Europe away from the use of timber treatments such as
creosote and Copper Chrome Arsenic. Applied research and development,
demonstration projects, and benchmarking involving the use of domestic grown
timber are seen as vital. Above all, however, well-informed promotion is recognised
as of paramount importance in unlocking demand for timber bridges as flagship
projects in sustainable development, environmental protection, and improvements to
the quality of life.
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0
INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT BACKGROUND
2.0
THE HISTORY OF TIMBER BRIDGES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Bridges in ancient history

Mediaeval bridges
The Renaissance and the growth of trade
Long spans - the triumphs of bridge carpentry
The dawning of industrialisation
Laminated timber - from mechanical to reliable adhesive technology
The railway era
Protective design lessons from history
Maintenance of historic timber bridges in Britain
New materials
5
6
6
7
8
8
9
11
11
12
3.0
THE OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT OF TIMBER BRIDGES
13
3.1
3.2
Relevant history
The way forward to make use of international research
14
18
4.0
CURRENT UK POSITION
20
5.0
CATEGORIES OF TIMBER BRIDGES
24
5.1
5.2
Categories of use
Locations
24
24
6.0
STRUCTURAL FORMS
26
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
General
Beams, including bowed types, no arch action
Arches
Girder beams & trusses
Lift & swing bridges
Further design fundamentals
26
29
29
29
29
29
7.0
MATERIALS
31
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
Principal elements
Decks & decking UK current practice
Parapets & handrails
Connections
31
36
37
38
DURABILITY
40
8.1
8.2
8.3
Detailing
Natural durability
Preservative treatments
40
42
44
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9.0
TIMBER FOUNDATIONS
47
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
History and overseas Use

Durability of timber piles
Traditional timber species and treatments
Marine structures
Pile driving and design
Other geotechnical uses for timber
47
48
49
49
50
52
10.0
BRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE
55
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
General practice for design of bridges in the UK

Deflection limits
Eurocode 5
Overseas practice - Decks:
55
60
60
61
11.0
FUTURE CHALLENGES
65
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
High efficiency composite materials

New adhesive bonding technologies
Steel reinforced timber
Timber concrete composites
Deck protection systems
65
65
66
66
66
12.0
PRIORITY WORK AREAS
67
12.1
12.2
13.0
Innovative Timber Engineering for the Countryside

prEN Eurocode 5, Part 2
CONCLUSIONS
67
67
68
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bridges are one of the highest forms of civil engineering - few other structures
command the same combination of functionality and visual impact. In the United
Kingdom bridge building in timber has been very limited. This is in marked contrast to
the initiatives which have taken place in North America (USDA Forest Service Timber
Bridge Initiative), Canada, and Northern Europe (Nordic Timber Bridge Programme).
World-wide, the use of timber for bridges is experiencing a major revival. In most
industrialised countries other than the UK, timber is widely and increasingly being
used, for vehicular, as well as for pedestrian bridges. The strength, lightness in
weight, energy absorption and environmental features of timber make it highly
desirable for bridge construction.
Although there is an established history, and a continued use, of timber for bridges in
the United Kingdom applications tend to be quite limited - although some very fine
short span timber footbridges are constructed. Experience elsewhere in the world is
showing that with correct design, timber is also a capable material for vehicle carrying
bridge structures and, additionally, piled foundations. Nevertheless, this aspect
remains a significant query in the minds of many mainstream designers, both
engineers and architects, who advise UK clients. Revitalised timber bridge activities
elsewhere are impressing UK specialists. Nevertheless, there is a great need to
disseminate awareness and knowledge to mainstream designers, commissioners of
projects and the public. At present, timber bridge producers in the UK are a small,
niche sector of the UK timber industry, and some firms are really only representatives
of producers that are adding the main value elsewhere in Europe.
To illustrate the extent of use elsewhere, the United States Department of Agriculture
reports that approximately 41,700 road bridges of over 6 m span are made of timber,
and improvements are continually being introduced, through the federal Highway
Administration Timber Bridge Programme. Also in North America, a number of
significant modern timber bridge innovations were first introduced in Canada, in the
1970s. These included the stressed laminated deck, details of which were added to
the Ontario Bridge Code at that time. Since then, use of the material has continued,
and the technologies have further improved, with several additional innovations such
as new types of structural deck, and prefabrication systems. North American
experience has been that in situations where salts and other de-icing chemicals are
extensively applied, modern timber bridges are more durable than concrete
structures.
In Finland, about 700 timber bridges are owned by the Finnish Road Administration,
and along with other Nordic countries, (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden), a
development programme has been in progress since 1994, to extend relevant
techniques and experience. Due to the investments into research activities applied to
timber bridges in the Nordic Region, and the increase of the general interest in the
use of natural materials, timber bridges have become again a real alternative in bridge
engineering (Figure 1). In continental Europe, particularly but not exclusively the alpine
regions, impressive modern bridge structures are also to be seen, and major
contributions have been made to developing harmonised codes and guidance
documents, spearheaded by the new bridges Eurocode itself.
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Figure 1: Modern timber road bridge - Evenstad, Norway; 5 spans of bowstring

trusses; 180m total length; creosote treated pine glulam; internally flitched steel
gusset plates, attached with stainless steel dowels. (photo CM/Trada)
The advantages of timber for bridges is also recognised by quite a large number of
emerging countries, such as the West African territories, notably Ghana; countries in
Central and South America, as well as a number of Asian regions. In developing
countries, the revival of interest in timber bridges in the fully industrialised zones of the
world encourages a futuristic view, rather than a poor material attitude. For those
with rapidly growing populations, this is eminently appropriate, not only from an
environmental viewpoint, but also in order to be able to avoid expensive imported
technologies and materials.
Bridge clients, engineers and architects are beginning to become aware once more
that bridges using this traditional material can be designed, fabricated and constructed
in exciting new ways, as well as being created in forms sensitive to past traditions.
Developments such as new, efficient connection techniques, and the introduction of
modern wood-based composites which can be preservatively treated in
environmentally acceptable ways, are further encouraging innovations.
To re-establish timber bridges in the UK, a great deal needs to be done, especially in
terms of Knowledge Re-Packaging and technical dissemination. Architecturally
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pleasing solutions need to be backed up by the ability and confidence to provide good
protective design measures and to overcome prejudices about lack of longevity.
Modern timber bridges need to be seen as more than just a routine, and possibly
poorer alternative to concrete or steel bridges. Timber is a renewable construction
material with impeccable "green" credentials. Trees, while they grow, absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. 1 cubic metre of dry softwood represents around 611kg
of carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere. In addition, forests
also provide areas for wildlife and recreation. Timber is light to transport, easy to
handle and work with on site, and has a natural empathy with the landscape.
To ensure a viable future timber supply chain for engineered, exterior structures,
including bridges, the industry needs to grow both the high-profile, spectacular
projects, and also the bread-and-butter access structures and smaller bridges that are
of great amenity and community value. Producers and advocates of timber bridges
also need to establish, sustain and grow their abilities to meet exacting performance
requirements, in terms of safety, serviceability, and design life, as well as providing
client satisfaction through elegance, tactility, warmth and craftsmanship. Contractors,
looking for rapid delivery, and even faster erection, seek standard solutions. The
importance of minimising road or track closures is paramount, and competing
answers, especially steel footbridges, are fully geared up to these demands.
Softwood timber production in the UK has doubled in the last 10 years and is about to
double again in the next 10 years but pulp, paper and board markets are so saturated
that new markets need to be developed. The structural market is poorly penetrated by
home grown products and timber is the UKs second biggest import. The focus of this
research is to utilise poorer quality home grown timber for the high quality structural
market. The timber-housing sector is growing steadily but needs a boost and any
structural developments will be welcome. Rural structures e.g. bridges, towers and
crash barriers are high profile uses will help move timber into the public eye and act
as a catalyst for other developments. Research is essential to support these uses in
the UK.
To compound an already serious situation the value of the raw material has dropped
dramatically over the last 5 years and this has led to a drop in harvesting and a
general weakness in the industry at a time, ironically, when Forestry has been granted
Industry Cluster status in Scotland. This means that it is one of the countrys 5 core
industries employing a large number of people and as such, requires to flourish for
the sake of the economy. These factors point to the desperate need for the creation of
new initiatives, in the knowledge that they will be well supported by Government
agencies.
Innovative Timber Engineering for the Countryside:
Against this background Forestry Civil Engineering (FCE) of Forest Enterprise (FE)
and the two major players in timber research, Building Research Establishment
(BRE) and Timber Research and Development Association (TRADA), came together
to gather ideas. It was during initial meetings that agreement was quickly reached on
the focus being Countryside and Highway and that to utilise lower quality home
grown timber in high value added products Engineering would be required.
Innovative ideas for research projects were put forward and immediately some
common factors surfaced. Timber has some very desirable properties but it is
relatively low in stiffness compared with steel. In the interest of sustainability and
optimal utilisation of existing forest and woodland resources, there is a desire to
include the use of lower grade material. This led us to accept that composites with
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steel, high quality timber or fibre reinforced polymer composites (FRPs) would be
required to develop a product in which timber could display its best value.
The objective of the InTeC project is to stimulate by research and demonstration the
use of timber for road bridges as well as pedestrian traffic, and the use of timber for
other related civil engineering including abutments, retaining walls and foundations.
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2.0 THE HISTORY OF TIMBER BRIDGES

2.1 Bridges in ancient history
Timber is a traditional bridge building material, with examples in authenticated records
dating to as long ago as 600 years BC. It is suspected that even before this, ancient
cultures, including those in China, Persia, the Asian subcontinent and around the
Mediterranean rim, had quite sophisticated timber bridge structures. Roman bridges
are recorded in works quite accessible today. Julius Caesar himself, for example,
records a large timber bridge in Italy, whilst Padillio (1518 1580) discusses another
big bridge which was used by the Romans to cross the Rhine into Germany. There is
also some evidence that the Roman bridge in London was by no means a crude or
simple structure (O'Connor, 1993).
One of the largest and best documented of the Roman timber bridges was built over
the Danube, in what is now Bulgaria, in 104 AD. This is often known as Trajans
Bridge (Figure 2), because its images are recorded on Trajans Column, now
standing in Rome. This bridge consisted of 20 piers up to 45m high, each joined by a
semi-circular timber arch of about 52m span. The thrusts in the triangulated
timberwork, correctly transmitted into the masonry piers according to modern
engineering concepts, seemed to be fully understood by the Roman engineers, who
constructed and rapidly erected this prodigious feat. Methods of timber conversion
and treatment for durability were also recorded in contemporary Latin texts.
Figure 2: An arch of Trajan's bridge, modelled by architectural historians,

Florence University. (photo CM/Trada)
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2.2 Mediaeval bridges

The oldest timber bridges that still exist in Europe date from the late mediaeval period,
that is from the 14th to the early 16th century. Many of these are covered bridges,
owing their longevity to this simple structural protective device. Several examples of
these ancient bridges are in Lucerne, for example the Kapell bridge and the Spreuer
bridge.
Other such timber bridges, which are very important from both the historical and also
the technical point of view, are those built by the State of Berne during the 16th
century. These include bridges at Neubrugg 1532, Gummenen 1555, Wangen 1559
and Aarberg, 1568. These are still in good condition, most of them having their
original main elements, and some still carrying heavy traffic. It is to be emphasised
yet again that all of these bridges follow the same structural principle; that is protection
of the timber against direct wetting from rain, sleet and snow, by means of a duopitched roof with a large overhang.
2.3 The renaissance & the growth of trade

A large number of timber bridges which are still on record, and sometimes still in use,
were built from the 16th through to the 18th century, when increasing trade and
transport needs resulted in the construction of new and better roads. As a result of
the beginnings of an understanding of engineering principles, during the spread of
learning after the Renaissance, more technically advanced designs began to appear,
and new construction techniques were introduced. These included arches, trusses
and suspension bridges.
Palladio, mentioned earlier as the recorder of Roman bridges, also documented and
illustrated a series of his own Inventions. The sites of some, such as the oftenillustrated Cismone Bridge, have been rediscovered and archeologically investigated.
Less well known are some ably-conceived timber trussed arch bridges, also by this
same influential architect.
Leonardo da Vinci, (1452-1519) Italian painter, sculptor, architect, engineer and
scientist, was one of the greatest figures of the Italian Renaissance. He was active in
Florence, Milan, and, from 1516, in France. Amongst his design sketches and notes
are a series of ingenious timber bridges, several of which have been modelled in
recent exhibitions of his life and works (Figure 3).
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Figure 3: Bridge designs by Leonardo da Vinci (photo CM/Trada)
2.4 Long spans the triumphs of bridge carpentry

During the 18th century, very long timber bridge spans were achieved through the use
of arched trusses. Typical European examples include a Rhine bridge, constructed
at Schaffhausen in 1758 by Hans Ulrich Grubenmann. This had an overall span of
119m, with the construction including a redundant pier at mid-span, which this
famous bridge builder was obliged to include at the behest of the dubious
Bergermeisters of the commissioning town. The structure had laminated arched
ribs, each with a depth of about 2 metres and comprising seven courses of timber,
notched and banded together. This same pioneer of timber bridging constructed a
number of other impressive structures, all of which had complex end-jointing details,
and many other advanced features.
Expansion of trade and business in North America also gave rise to some very large
timber arched spans, one of the most noteworthy being the Colossus Bridge over
the Schuylkill river at Philadelphia, USA. This was constructed in 1812 by Lewis
Wernwag, and had an amazing free span of 340 feet (102 m). The laminated arch
elements each comprised six 6 x 14 inch (150 x 350 mm) heart-sawn baulks of
softwood, separated, but strongly linked together with iron bands and threaded rods.
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2.5 The dawning of industrialisation

The next stages in the evolution of timber construction saw a gradual transition from
carpentry to engineering principles. This entailed the greater use of metallic fasteners
in the form of bolts, rods, spikes, straps and other devices, such as special keys.
These developments also involved the greater use of side-lapped members, rather
than members intersecting in a single plain through mortises, tenons and other such
carpentry joints. There was also an increasing reliance upon triangulation, and in
some instances standard designs accompanied by published calculations.
Truss systems started to be introduced for timber bridging, particularly in North
America, where the European custom of roofing timber bridges had been adopted.
Entrepreneurs such as Palmer, Town, Long and Howe introduced Patented Truss
Systems. Town and Howe trusses in particular were very successful, owing their
popularity to their simplicity and ease of construction from a relatively standardised
range of member sizes. Many covered bridges of these types have remained in use in
North America for over a hundred years. They are now regarded as part of the
historical industrial heritage, and even have Preservation Societies dedicated to their
upkeep. A few bridges of the Howe type were also built in Europe, and some of these
too remain in use.
Although the records are generally difficult to obtain, it seems likely that early
suspension bridges used timber walkways and support gantries, along with other
natural materials as the cables and suspenders. Such bridges must have pre-dated
arches and trusses, but by their nature they would have been regarded as less
permanent affairs. However there do exist 19th century photographs by Forrest, the
Scottish plant collector, of suspension bridges in China, using timber and other
materials, which are probably directly similar to centuries old designs. It is also
evident that the suspension bridge goes back long into history, from some of the
forms of such bridges that are still built in remote regions of Asia and the South
Pacific, without the benefit of any metal parts or cables.
In the 19th Century, impressive suspension bridges created very long spans using
steel cabling along with stiffening trusses and decking in timber. A good example is
the footbridge in Ojuela, Mexico, which was built in 1892. This has a span of 278m,
and is still in use today.
Through European development aid, particularly from Switzerland, impressive
modern steel and timber suspension bridges, for which a series of design manuals is
available, have been constructed in Nepal. The mountainous terrain, use of pack
animals, and extreme inaccessibility of some regions, makes these structures a
continued necessity of life.
2.6 Laminated timber from mechanical to reliable adhesive technology

Very early applications of mechanical laminating are discussed by Newlands (1857).
For example, he cites the knowledge, on the part of Col. M. Emy, in France,
commencing in 1819, of the much earlier mechanical laminating system of Philibert
De Lorme. Newlands also discusses a report for the Society for the Encouragement
of National Industry in 1831, by Emy, publishing his laminating inventions and
techniques. He illustrates a roof for a shed at Marac, near Bayonne, and a ridinghouse (cavalry training structure) at Libourne. Newlands then shows a Gothic church
roof at Grassendale, near Liverpool, which he states followed the Emy system. It is
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not at present known whether this still stands. He also gives quite elaborate details of
various forms of bending apparatus, manufacturing for curved roof laminations (of
the bending of timber).
The Timber Development Association (forerunner of TRADA) historic photographic
archives contain several examples of mechanically laminated worsted mills, in the
Bradford region of England. Booth (1964) discusses mechanically laminated railway
station roofs, such as GWR, Bath (by Brunel), as well as dealing extensively with
railway bridges, as indicated below. James (1982) provides densely annotated lists of
potential primary sources for those able to pursue early American and other
international (e.g. Russian) mechanically laminated bridges.
Developments in the use of glued, as opposed to mechanically laminated timber,
began surprisingly early, and in Europe it was established by the start of the 19th
century. During 1807 1809 a Bavarian engineer named Wiebeking developed
horizontally laminated timber arch bridges with spans of up to 60 m. Most of his
bridges used very thick iron bolted or rod-connected laminations of oak.
However in 1809, the first major glued laminated timber bridge structure was built by
Wiebeking, at Altenmarkt. This had ribbed laminations fabricated in situ, working
(presumably with great difficulty) from scaffolding and temporary piling. Thinner
spruce boards were used for this bridge than with the mechanically laminated oak
types that he had built previously, and there was an appreciation of the benefits of
staggering end-joints, relative to adjacent laminations.
Further evidence of the well-established nature of glulam is the mid-nineteenth
century Congregational Sunday School roof in Manchester, 1864, documented by
Booth (1971) and surviving until demolition in 1963. A former schoolroom, now used
as the Southampton Register Office, in Southampton, 1860 is documented by the
GLTA, and is also corroborated by Booth, as the earliest known use of glulam arches
in a building. Yeomans cites the German Gymnasium in London as another stillstanding structure with more than one hundred years service. Private
correspondence and photographs, courtesy of P. J. Steer, show a nineteenth century
music hall in Nottingham during recent restorations, that is glulam roofed, and still in
use.
By the start of the twentieth century, patents were being taken out for glulam in
Germany. In Switzerland, certain structures, laminated with casein adhesive, were
constructed that still stand today (Chugg, 1962). In 1939, in the USA, a landmark
technical publication appeared that strongly influenced subsequent North American
codes. This was entitled The glued laminated wooden arch, by T. R. C. Wilson
(1939) of the USDA. Evidently, glued laminated softwood bridges were well
established by then, since a footbridge of such construction is included in this
reference.
2.7 The railway era

The civil engineering construction associated with the rapid 19th century development
of the railways made extensive use of timber bridging. Some of the finest examples
included Brunels designs, although there were also other successful British railway
pioneers using timber for bridges and for other structures, including the Greens (John,
and his son Benjamin) in the North East of England. For the Newcastle and North
Shields Railway, these engineers continued the use of mechanically laminated timber
for structures such as Ouseburn Viaduct.
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Returning briefly to the famous Isambard Kingdom Brunel, there is only space to say
that he made extensive use of timber for many railway viaducts, which were built
across the valleys of south-west England and South Wales. Surprisingly
sophisticated concepts were involved, including the use of timbers that were
preservatively-treated using chemicals applied under pressure. An early process of
this type was Kyanising (1832, Kyans patent, using chloride of mercury, Newlands p.
106).
Brunel planned his designs to allow maintenance to be carried out on these
structures without interrupting the passage of trains. He built forty-three viaducts in
Cornwall alone, spanning a total of eight kilometres. The last of Brunels timber
railway viaducts were only dismantled in South Wales the 1930s, and generally these
structures were replaced only to construct bridges able to carry much heavier traffic,
rather than because of deterioration through decay. At Barmouth estuary, in North
Wales, a timber railway viaduct designed and constructed according to similar
principles remains in use today (Figure 4), with pitch pine piles having been replaced
by the extremely durable greenheart timber.
Figure 4: Barmouth Bridge - one half mile long timber trestle pile viaduct completed
in 1867, the only large timber viaduct in Britain still in use. It spans the Mawddach
estuary on 113 short spans. There are two steel girders at the north end, one of which
used to swing to allow ships up river.
For a wealth of further information on timber railway bridges in England in the
nineteenth century, the copious and scholarly work of Booth (1996) is an essential
starting point for the serious historian as it contains many secondary reference
sources, including Booths own. These would lead to many prime source references,
many of which are available in UK libraries such as the Science Museum (Imperial
College) and archives such as those of the Great Western Railway.
As mentioned above, the Kyanising Process, and similar methods, were known to
Brunels contemporaries. Other chemical treatment processes of that era are
described by Newlands. These include, for example, Sir William Burnett, 1838,
chloride of zinc; Paynes patent. 1841, sulphate of iron and muriate of lime; the early
use of tars and essential oils (Newlands cites as an example a 1737 patent by one
Alexander Emerson); Bethell, who gave the basis for modern creosote treatments, in
1838.
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Early patents for American bridges, during the Palmer, Town, Long and Howe era,
often involved the co-incident publication of patents concerning timber treatments.
Later, in North America, in the 1930s, the widespread industrial introduction of
pressure preservation processes, using substances such as creosote, is said to
have led to an expansion of the use of timber for large truss and girder bridge forms.
An impressive example was constructed at Sioux Narrows, in Kenora, Ontario, where
large, preservative treated Douglas fir members were arranged in a box-Howe Truss
pattern, to create what was for many years the worlds longest single-span highway
traffic bridge. At 64m main span, this bridge still remains in service.
2.8 Protective design lessons from history

Although decay has always been one of the factors affecting the service life of timber
bridges, they have more often been destroyed by war, natural disasters and fire. It is
known from the durability records of ancient timber churches, cathedrals and houses,
as well as roofed bridges, that preserving timber structures with adequate protective
design measures considerably reduces decay risks. The importance of good
protective design detailing is a lesson from history that cannot be emphasised too
strongly, in the context of modern timber bridges.
Figure 5: Good protective design features - in 1,000 year old Norwegian stave
church. Left; Stone sill elevates timber ground sill, sacrificial boarding protects
exterior of corner posts and cladding. Right; Elevated post base, drip moulding at
cladding bottoms. Note also extensive use of pitch preservative in both cases. (photo
CM/Trada)
2.9 Maintenance of historic timber bridges in Britain

Many historic timber bridges may still be found throughout Europe, including Britain,
and fortunately, nowadays, restoration work is undertaken to preserve them. The
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continuous maintenance and replacement of timber elements, using like-for-like

carpentry, in the Lucerne covered bridges has already been mentioned, as has the
restoration work on Barmouth viaduct.
Until quite recently, the Scottish East Coast main line railway crossed one of the few
surviving timber viaducts, over a peat bog, near Inverness. The live track no longer
passes over this structure, which has, however, been conserved.
In 1915, John Saner, engineer to the Weaver Navigation System in North West
England, designed a structure known as Dutton Horse Bridge. This has twin elliptical
spans skewing across the River Weavers sluice channel, which leads eventually to
the Mersey. The bridge is constructed from mechanically laminated greenheart, and
is believed to be the oldest such structure remaining in service in the world.
Greenheart planked caissons and many other impressive engineering features are to
be found in and around this outstanding structure. The durability of this structure is
unsurprising however, since greenheart is renowned for its longevity. In Guyana itself,
its country of origin, marine jetties of over one hundred years in age stand, even in
such adverse, warm sea-water and termite ridden conditions, whilst the cathedral of
Georgetown is claimed to be the tallest (greenheart) nineteenth century ecclesiastical
building in the world. Two examples of King post truss vehicular bridges in the river
Spey region of Scotland were used as lecture examples by TRADA until quite
recently, and were said to be still in service. There has not yet been opportunity to
verify their current status.
2.10 New materials

Following the epoch making construction of Ironbridge in Shropshire, England, (with a
framework arrangement based on contemporary timber designs!) the 19th and early
20th centuries saw the rapid spread of the industrialised use of the new materials,
iron, steel and later on, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete. This completely altered
the concepts of bridge construction, making the increased requirements regarding
longer spans, larger roadways, and higher loads achievable with ease. However with
higher frequency, heavier traffic, and the need to guarantee an all-year-round use of
the roads, problems have arisen with these modern materials. Besides faults due to
inadequate design and execution, which may happen with all materials, high
maintenance costs have been incurred as a result of the use of salt as a de-icing
agent on roads. This has caused corrosion problems with reinforcing bars and prestressing steels in concrete bridges, as well as deterioration of paints and member
surfaces in steel structures. The lesson has gradually been learnt that adequate
protective measures against direct and indirect hazards of the climate are also
necessary for these so-called durable materials, and that such measures invoke
considerable penalties in terms of whole-life costs.
The complete replacement of quite new bridges necessitated by poor durability has
also demonstrated the high costs of dismantling concrete structures. In the face of
this situation, timber engineers have recognised new opportunities, proposing their
material to solve some of the problems that bridge engineers have been
encountering. Timber engineering itself also has become armed with new
materials, several of which have very high performance, low variability and excellent
reliability, thus offering additional advantages over the traditional version of solid
sawn timber.
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3.0 OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT OF TIMBER BRIDGES

The USA, Canada, Australasia and the rest of Europe are well ahead of the UK in the
design and production of modern timber bridges:
Glulam timber and transverse decks

Longitudinal glulam decks
Dowel-laminated, longitudinal panel decks
Stress laminated decks
A common factor between modern bridge designs is load sharing through composite
action which distinguishes them from the old stick designs. Timber for bridges has
advantages over other structural materials which have been recognised overseas but
ignored in the UK. Timber is:
Durable and long-lasting - with modern treatments bridges are expected to last at
least 50 years.
Simple construction ~ Construction usually demands low skills and simple
equipment available locally. Maintenance is also within the scope of local labour
Prefabricated Components ~ Modern timber bridges are either entirely factory
made or factory component manufactured thus assuring good quality
Wood has high strength to weight ratio ~ This saves in foundations and gives
confidence to reuse old foundations. Crane loadings are reduced and money is
saved.
Competitive ~ Small span rural bridges can be built in timber at a significantly
lower cost than from steel or concrete.
Aesthetics ~ Timber is natural and is appreciated by everyone and looks as good
in the countryside as in an urban location.
Chemically stable ~ Timber is not affected by de-icing salts as is steel and
concrete
Expansion ~ Timber does not expand and contract much with heat so road
surfaces can be continuous over them without the need for troublesome joints.
Renewable and Sustainable ~ This is important to the economy
Removes Carbon from Atmosphere and locks it on the Ground ~ This is of
ultimate important in todays environmentally conscience world.
There is a lot of catching up to do and much development is needed to enable

modern bridge ideas to be imported to the UK and then assimilate them to UK
practice, codes and materials.
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3.1 Relevant History

Scandinavia:
Around 1990 the Norwegian/Nordic Timber Council took steps to plan the introduction
of more timber bridges to the public road network (notable examples are shown in
Figures 6 to 8). Their reasons were not in the first instance economic but more to use
indigenous materials and later to assess the whole value when practice had produced
the best solutions. Otto Kleppe, Chief Bridge Engineer for the Government in Oslo,
travelled the world to study old timber bridges in order to gain insight into efficient
design and durability. He learned lessons from 100 year old covered timber bridges
as well as the latest forms of modern stress laminated decks. He returned to Norway
and has engineered the development of some remarkable new timber structures, not
only on the public road network, but also over motorways. Norway is fortunate in
having vast reserves of very high quality timber available which makes the task of
producing elegant long spans much easier.
The Norwegians have worked on many fronts with a view to providing a full range of
timber bridge solutions and included experimental work with preservatives. A very
successful design is a combination of longitudinal glulam beams with CCA treatment
subsequently stress laminated and treated with creosote. They have developed very
high quality jointing systems which permit large king post and truss structures and
have innovative ideas allowing timber crash barriers. The high quality structures are
protected using copper sheeting on the structure and bitumen compounds on the
deck. In both Norway and Sweden simple stress laminated decks are factory made
for minor road and forestry road bridges. These low cost options are treated with
preservative but not protected in any other way. Even with a shorter life these
structures will have a very competitive whole life cost.
Figure 6: Vihantasalmi bridge, Finland - Glulam king-post trusses each spanning

42m; composite concrete-steel-glulam deck. (photo Nordic Timber Council)
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Figure 7: Evenstad bridge, Norway - glulam truss beams each spanning 36m with
stress laminated timber deck. (photo Nordic Timber Council)
Figure 8: Sinettjoki footbridge, Finland - glulam king post trusses spanning

18.8m with lumber deck. (photo Nordic Timber Council)
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USA and Canada:

Timber, which was readily available in enormous quantities, played a major role as a
construction material in the development of North America since the early pioneer
days. Indeed, it is estimated that by 1900 half of the total forest area of the continent
was felled. Timber trestles were used extensively to span gorges and rivers for the
transcontinental railways. Many century old covered road bridges are still in service
and are considered to be heritage items. With a main span of 64m, the Sioux
Narrows bridge, built in 1936 in Kenoria, Ontario, is one of the worlds longest single
span wood highway bridges (Figure 9)
Figure 9: Sioux Narrows Bridge - Howe trusses formed from solid sawn Douglas
fir (photo Canadian Wood Council)
Currently in the USA there are nearly 600,000 bridges, 7% of which are timber and a
further 7.3% have timber decks. Recent studies have shown that 240,000 of these
bridges are classified structurally deficient or functionally obsolete. This critical state
of affairs prompted Congress into introducing the Timber Bridge Initiative (TBI) in 1989
and another similar programme which promotes demonstration bridges, research
and information transfer. Under the programme a 50% grant in available to build a
bridge which demonstrates modern technology.
Timber structures declined in number from 50 years ago when large trees became
scarce and concrete technology became reliable. However the modern materials,
concrete and steel, have not been without their problems and since the middle 70s
much research effort has been undertaken to utilise smaller wood sections to build
large structures. It was in Canada in the 1970s the real pioneering work was carried
out on the stress-laminated decks which has become important to the new bridge
initiative in the USA and could become a very useful concept in the UK.
Timber engineering and technology has benefited greatly through these programmes
and many hundreds of bridges have been built although much remains to be done.
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There are so many avenues of help in the USA especially as these initiatives were
taken by government agencies but personal contacts will be crucial to ensure the
accelerated programme necessary in the UK, in order to catch up.
Australasia:
In Australia and New Zealand the increased production of plantation timber has
generated a modern timber engineering industry. The UK should have been
shadowing these recent impressive developments. Many are the same as those in
America and are necessary in the UK to catch up and create some high value
markets for our new increasing production. Although there are many initiatives in
transportation structures, there are also significant ideas in building, from which UK
practice could benefit.
Developing World:
There has been substantial experience involving the UK timber research
organisations, and TRL (see website http://www.trl.co.uk/bridges.htm), in the
overseas development uses of timber for bridges. These have been carried out
through assistance provided via organisations such as United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (reported in Anon 1985) and the UK Department for
International Development (DFID, formerly ODA).
For example, prefabricated modular timber road bridges have been successfully
introduced into a significant number of developing countries on four continents. The
first of a series of standard designs for modular timber road bridges was prototyped in
Kenya, some thirty five years ago. Further development work continued in Central
America the Far East and elsewhere. This development included contributions of
local expertise, and associated professional training. Similar road bridges are still
being produced, in accordance with well-tried design manuals and drawings, using
local timbers and labour, to the great advantage of rural communities in more than
two dozen countries, in all of the tropical continents. Extensions to the original
designs, and substantially new types of standard design, have subsequently been
added.
Figure 10: UNIDO prefabricated bridge (photo UNIDO)
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It has been found that by giving ministry departments, and their associated
professionals, renewed confidence in timber in communally important, heavy-duty
applications such as these, there is spin-off resulting in an enormously improved
usage for smaller-scale applications. These are initiated and executed entirely by
communities themselves, on their own initiative. This is another important lesson that
the timber industry needs to take on board, here in our own country.
3.2 The Way Forward to Make use of International Research

When specific areas of research are identified and funding is in place for individual
projects, the initial literature search will be extended using references and contacts.
Research partnerships will be explored and when the missing knowledge is identified
work will begin. Much will be assimilation of past international work to accord with UK
timber species. There are a number of codes of practice in existence which will be of
use but climatic conditions, safety regimes, species differences etc will create many
transfer problems. The mission of InTeC is not just to carry out the research, solve
the problems and show that things can work but also to produce the codes and
guidance so that the ideas are taken up. This part of InTeCs work will be time
consuming, but if the past successes of concrete and steel as construction materials
are to be emulated then the information circle must be closed. Young designers will
not adopt timber unless it is made easy, logical and sensible.
Some Specific International Ideas likely to be Transferred to the UK:
Stress laminated bridge decks are certain to become a useful solution for minor rural
bridges and they are a timely product of recent ability and need. Accurate sawing is
essential. Safe bacteriological treatment is demanded and high tensile stressing of
steel tendons is the key to the structure. All of these are now available at low cost.
The technology level is not high and their production could become a cottage industry.
This idea has arrived at a time when UK softwood timber production is about to
double again for the second successive decade and funds for rural bridging are low.
Abutments for bridges and retaining walls have traditionally been constructed from
permanent materials like concrete and masonry but the question of life cycle needs
to be addressed. A public road bridge in the UK is designed for a 120 year life but
forestry bridges are designed for 50 years as that is the economic cycle of the
industry, being the growth time from plant to mature tree. We have, in the past,
expected buildings to last forever given enough maintenance, but supermarket
buildings are now financially appraised over 7 years, that being the predictable trading
projection limit. Perhaps it is time to look at structures with a shorter life, provided that
short life gives a unit cost per year less than the more permanent structure. A timber
bridge deck and abutments could be constructed for a 20 or 30 year life, require no
maintenance and be replaced within the unit annual cost of the permanent structure.
Appraisal of Timber Structures:
Overseas countries have realised that timber structures enhance the environment,
local economies, society, aesthetics etc. factors which must be introduced into any
appraisal. Energy values are used in appraisals, where the inputs to refine the
component materials and the energy to carry out the construction and demolition are
evaluated to calculate a whole life cost. Timber structures excel in all of the
components of appraisal. A local timber industry creates stable rural employment
which tourism can latch onto. Timber structures are popular with rural people and
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their visitors. The western society accepts that timber structures in the countryside
make sense.
An international research check has proved that we are behind the rest of the
developed world in this area of applied engineering. This does, however, mean that
with careful planning and study of current research we can catch up quickly and then
concentrate our efforts on the most relevant areas. It means that much of our
research will be to assimilate ideas developed for other species. The most valuable
gain however will be in finding the ways to extend already good ideas. This is much
easier when a fresh mind takes up a partly developed piece of work. InTeC
researchers bring that quality and with the correct funding many exciting extensions of
existing work that could bring benefits to the UK. A programme similar the Timber
Bridge Initiative in the USA would be welcomed in the UK and could become the
cornerstone for future development while bringing forward the many bridge
replacements necessary in the UK.
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4.0 CURRENT UK POSITION

Unfortunately, the official bridge design scene, viewed from the position of the average
civil and structural consulting engineer in the United Kingdom, includes nothing to
encourage the use of timber. There is no British Standard dealing specifically with
design. The BS 5400 series only covers steel, concrete, and steel-concrete
composite bridges. This absence of a British Standard is thought to have inhibited the
specification of timber as the structural medium for many footbridges, as well as
having resulted in a number of designs whose performance has not been entirely
satisfactory. Although authorities such as Highways Agency (HA) have their own
standards, recognising timber in footbridges to a small degree, the absence of a main
code of practice and accompanying support standards, is a serious deterrent.
Awakening awareness by some influential specialists within authorities of the
development of new Eurocodes relating to bridges, is likely to provide better hope for
the future, provided that this is seized as an opportunity by the timber industry itself.
Timber interests in the UK were extremely impressed by the manner in which the US
National Timber Bridge Initiative was launched (USDA 1983), and by its subsequent
success. Their programme involves many demonstration timber bridges, together
with research and technology transfer. Starting from a relatively small financial basis,
it was difficult to see how anything comparable could possibly be started in the United
Kingdom.
However, there are now some positive signs. Work was carried out about seven
years ago, with support by DETR. This led to two preliminary study reports (Mettem
1993) and (Mettem 1994). A pilot project, termed Innovative Timber Engineering for
the Countryside, has been initiated involving BRE, TRADA Technology, and Forestry
Civil Engineering, with support from the Forestry Commission, and this report relates
to this particular project. The second positive step is that active work has now been
started on an EN version of Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures Part 2: Bridges.
This is scheduled for issue for public comment in 2003, with the target of a final draft
for printing in 2004. The principal Eurocode 5 for timber structures, to which the
bridges part refers for all of its main technology, is ahead of this, and has already
been strongly promulgated and supported by design guidance, involving TRADA
Technology and its various industrial and research partners. BS DD ENV 1995-1-1
was issued in 1994 and is already used in practice mainly by more experienced
timber engineering designers. A BS EN version is expected to be published early in
2004, before which, training will be given to all practising designers and new students.
Current Requirements:
Current requirements for bridges are generally formulated independently of the
materials to be used. In general terms, bridge design has to fulfil certain main
requirements which can be related to timber and wood-based materials as follows:
Load Capacity & Vehicle Clearances:
Modern timber bridge designs for vehicular traffic are perfectly possible, and are in
fact already being designed and constructed in a number of countries and regions.
Appropriately designed timber and composite deck systems can provide for
increasing traffic loads. Clearances, given in regulations, are taken into account
wherever necessary. For road bridges, vehicle size obviously affects the design of
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both the carriageway widths, and also, in the case of covered and arched bridges, the
overhead clearance.
Long Spans:
Earlier limitations of timber brought about by its availability only in the sawn form no
longer apply. Glued laminated timber, structural timber composites - STCs (Mettem
1996) improved strength grading procedures, reliable connection techniques and the
use of other materials acting compositely in conjunction with timber, all help to make
long spans possible.
Roadway Surface Conditions:
Normally there is a requirement that there shall be no difference in the surface
conditions and levels between the bridge and the connecting road pavements. With
appropriate deck systems and sealed wearing surfaces, such requirements can be
fulfilled using timber structures.
Routing of the Bridge:
Modern bridges have to be integrated into the general route-planning scheme.
Consequently skew, cambered and curved deck bridges are often required. Such
forms are attainable with timber bridges.
Recent Developments in Timber Bridge Decks:
Timber & Concrete Composite Decks
Timber and concrete composite decks have existed in regions such as New Zealand
and North America for decades. Early systems comprised nailed laminated decking
with un-reinforced concrete and a thin asphalt surface. More recently, thicker
reinforced-concrete layers and shear connectors have been added, giving greater
composite action. The effective width of the concrete flange is determined as for a
concrete T-Section. All of the shear force transmission between the two materials
takes place via special, strength-calculated connectors, and not by natural bonds. No
tensile strength is recognised within the concrete layer. Some design rules for this
form of construction are given in Eurocode 5 Part 1-1, the general design document,
whilst supplementary rules are contained within prEN Eurocode 5 Part 2, Bridges.
Developments in the composite timber/concrete deck continue, for example:
More stable laminated timber decking, using post-tensioning systems.

More efficient shear connecting systems between concrete and timber, to achieve
more reliable composite action during the service life of the deck.
Better systems to seal the concrete surface, and to provide protective and hard
wearing road surfaces.
Laminated timber deck plates are made of individual laminations which are held
together by nailing or adhesive bonding. In the case of pre-stressed plates,
discussed below, there is in addition a permanent lateral pressure, which guarantees
continued friction between the faces of the laminations, and according to the type of
construction, between any un-bonded adjacent faces which may exist between the
individual slabs.
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Pre-Stressed Timber Decks

Pre-stressing in a timber bridge deck is defined as a permanent effect due to
controlled forces and/or deformations imposed upon the structure. The plates are
normally pre-stressed by means of steel bars or tendons. Pre-stressed decks in
timber bridges first appeared in Canada, where they were introduced as a repair
method for nailed timber-laminated decks. The correct choice of materials and
specification of moisture contents overcame early problems with loss in pre-stressing
force due to timber shrinkage.
These forms of deck are now very common in North America, and their use has been
spreading to other regions where modern timber bridge developments are occurring.
These include Australia, and Finland, Norway and Sweden. The additional step of
using glued laminated timber rather than solid sawn timber for the decks was
probably taken first in Switzerland. Recently in Australia and Scandinavia, progress
has been made in utilising other modern STCs such as Laminated Veneer Lumber
(LVL), for which reliable pressure preservative treatment processes have now been
developed. Glued laminated timber and STCs are always supplied at low, factoryconditioned moisture contents, and with these, early problems in loss of pre-stressing
have been completely overcome. Decks with no re-stressing requirements are being
achieved by following design recommendations such as those given in prEN
Eurocode 5 Part 2, Bridges. Pre-stressing bars are also now sometimes bonded in,
resulting in a high degree of corrosion resistance and good load carrying capacity.
Dowel-Type Fasteners & Mechanically Laminated Bridge Structures:
The term dowel-type fastener is used throughout the structural timber Eurocodes,
and in the latest edition of BS 5268 (BSI 2002), to refer to fasteners whose crosssection is essentially of a cylindrically prismatic form, and whose function is to
transmit forces in lateral shear between adjacent layers of the timber. In the context
of current codes, such fasteners essentially consist of steels of adequate and defined
strength, although research is now in progress on the use of non-metallic, and in
particular Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP) dowels. Bolts, lag screws and plain steel
rods acting in transverse shear are all examples of dowel-type fasteners that are
commonly employed in bridge design.
Over the past twenty-five years, timber engineering researchers have extensively
explored the design theories associated with these types of device, and the theories
are now well adapted to reflect real fastener behaviour in actual structures.
Essentially, the theories depend upon a knowledge of the behaviour of the fastener as
a rod-like device, which tends to embed itself elasto-plastically into the surrounding
timber. The response of the latter is modelled as a yielding elastic foundation. At the
same time, allowance is made for the tendency for the steel of the fastener itself to
yield plastically, and to form plastic hinges at various points, whose locations depend
upon the exact interface arrangements.
The development and use of such theories for the design of dowel-type fasteners,
along with methods enabling designers to predict changes in the effective section
modulus, due to slip between adjacent layers, has enabled the accurate design of
large and impressive modern mechanically laminated timber bridge designs.
Mechanically laminated timber bridges are designed and constructed throughout
Europe, but are particularly prevalent in the UK, Netherlands and Germany. Very
dense, durable tropical hardwood timbers are normally used for these designs, with
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one particular timber , being found to be very successful. This is the hardwood named
Ekki in the UK, and Azob in Continental Europe (the same species of timber in
either case, namely Lophira Alata).
5.0 CATEGORIES OF TIMBER BRIDGES

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5.1 Categories of use

Three broad categories of use can be considered, as follows:
a) Highway and adopted road bridges.
b) Footbridges.
c) Footbridges with occasional vehicular access (e.g. farm, golf-course and parkland
bridges).
Category a) in timber is extremely rare in the UK, and in the main restricted to special
and historic structures. The present volumes of use in categories b) and c) are
modest, but growing, with opportunities for bridge and associated timber suppliers
and engineers, especially in the light of the positive factors mentioned in the
introduction. Even in category b) however, there are significant obstacles to the
procurement of timber, where influential authorities are involved. The Highways
Agency inventory for England, for example, contains only one timber pedestrian
crossing bridge over the roads for which they are responsible. It is the intention of the
present project to conduct more thorough market research, costing studies and
business potential investigations.
5.2 Locations
Generically, locations for footbridges and light vehicular bridges can be divided into
the following four types of crossing:
Over roads general access.

Over rivers, canals and other water features.
Associated with the leisure industry, various crossings, including the three types
above.
Over railways general access.
Bridges associated with alternative modes of transport, such as cycling, might

arguably be regarded as a separate category. However, provision of routes and
facilities for serious and mundane access to work, education, and other aspects of
daily life by such means can hardly be argued to have reached the stage to warrant
separation from the leisure category.
a) Road crossings
Many footbridges are used to provide safe pedestrian crossings. Timber is permitted,
as well as steel and concrete. However, the Highways Agency (formerly, through a
Department of Transport document, currently undergoing revision) points out the
following, in its Standard BD 29/87 (DoT/HMSO 1987):
"A footbridge is the least suitable form of crossing for disabled people and should only
be provided when other forms of crossing e.g. a crossing at grade or a subway are
deemed to be unsuitable."
Timber has only a small share of this market. Furthermore, its share is probably even
smaller, as a result of some unfortunate instances of glulam bridges de-laminating
during the 1980s. These were manufactured by firms that were not members of the
Glued Laminated Timber Association (GLTA). Lack of independent third party
manufacturing control and certification is recognised to have been part of the
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problem. However, the failures achieved notoriety for the timber industry as a whole,
causing a major setback to information dissemination and promotional exercises.
b) Crossing rivers, canals and other water features
This is an important market, with timber footbridges, boardwalks and piers having a
sizeable portion of the total. Often the surroundings and environment are such as to
suggest the choice of timber as the most sympathetic material. Timber weathers
particularly well in marine environments compared with steel or reinforced concrete.
c) Associated with the leisure industry.
This is generally an expanding and promising market for timber bridges and other
landscape features. Example applications include golf courses, theme parks, visitor
centres, wildlife and animal sanctuaries and nature reserves.
d) Crossing railways
Timber has only a very small share of this market. Historically, the extensive facilities
for iron and steelwork available to railway builders tended to facilitate the choice of
metal in the first instance. There are some modern examples of timber station
structures, and a few of timber footbridge crossings. Not all of the engineers
concerned are opposed to this material, but railway structural engineers have a
cautious approach, and need assistance to specify in performance terms, rather than
by prescription. Reorganisation of the administration of the national rail network has
also made it difficult, in recent years, to decide where best to focus impact.
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6.0 STRUCTURAL FORMS

6.1 General
To describe the majority of footbridge and light vehicular access types, the following
five categories of structural form have been devised. The forms refer to the principal
structural elements of the bridge:
Beams, including bowed types, no arch action.

Arches.
Girder beams and trusses.
Lift and swing bridges.
Cable stayed and suspension types.
These five categories of bridge based upon the form of the principal members led to
the summary shown in Figure 11 and Table 1 (below). This classification also relates
to the usual static system for the principal members, connected in turn to the
structural analysis that will be required in the design. Also shown in Table 1 is the
form, or shape alternatives for the principal members, and an indication of the
materials which are commonly chosen for each of the types.
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A wide range of structural forms is available for bridge solutions in timber. Within this
report, the most common and appropriate are broadly categorised into five main types,
as follows:
a) Beams, including bowed types, no arch action.
b) Arches.
c) Girder beams and trusses.
d) Lift & Swing Bridges.
e) Cable Stayed & Suspension Types.
Figure 11
Five principal types of timber bridge.
(Not to scale).
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Table 1: Structural forms of timber bridge

a) Beams
b) Arches
c) Girder trusses
Usual
static
system
Single simply
supported
span; flat or
bowed
(positive precamber), but no
arch action.
3-pinned, round
& parabolic.
Single simply
supported span;
Triangulated, e.g.
King post trusses.
Bow-string trusses.
Additiona
l forms
Multiple simply
supported
spans.
Cantilever side
spans
supporting
suspended
central span.
Two-pinned,
multiple spans.
Multiple simply
Single-leaf
supported spans.
cantilever
Multiple bow-strings.
Single or twin
towers with
side spans.
Form of
principal
member
s
Straight, lightly
curved or precambered.
Circular or
parabolic (wide
range of radii).
Parallel or nearparallel chorded

(often Warren or
Pratt trusses).
Deck beams
straight or tapered
Structura
l form
d) Lift &
swing
e) Cable Stayed
& Suspension
Figure 1
Two-leaf
cantilever.
Main (lower)
beams straight
or singletapered
Timber masts; steel

cables/links.
Towers, parallel
masts or A-frames.
Balance
(higher) beams
straight or
double-tapered.
Common
materials
Sawn timber
softwood or
hardwood.
Timber poles
natural,
debarked or
turned/
profiled.
Glulam.
Mechlam.
Sawn timber
softwood or
hardwood.
Beams
sawn timber
softwood or
hardwood.
Glulam.
Glulam.
Mechlam.
Portals
glulam,
mechlam.
Towers and
masts Sawn
timber, glulam,
timber poles
natural,
debarked or
turned/
profiled.
Decks as in 1.
Glulam.
Mechlam.
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6.2 Beams, including bowed types, no arch action

Beam bridges range from a single, simply supported span, to multiple spans and
cantilever arrangements. In laminated construction, pre-camber, and slightly bowed
forms (without expressly designed arch action) are quite common. Span ranges for
beam bridges may be from as little as 3m for a very small solid timber footbridge, to
about 24m in bowed laminated construction.
6.3 Arches
Site, terrain and clearance considerations may lead to choice of the arched form,
which is architecturally very striking. Much larger spans are possible than with
beams, in the order of 12m to 70m being feasible. Various deck arrangements and
positioning levels can also be provided.
6.4 Girder beams & trusses

Trussed girders provide greater load carrying capacity and stiffness than simple
beams. Various trussing arrangements are possible. Girders are often formed from
several lines of trusses. These require to be cross-linked with bracing, and the design
may involve other lateral members, such as transoms. Deck levels may also be
varied. Camber and light curvature are often applied. Well-designed timber girder
bridges are architecturally pleasing. Viewers read the structural forms, and
appropriate designs can be conceived for both urban and rural situations. Individual
spans for bridges formed from girders of this type are likely to range from about 9 m to
45 m.
Modern timber engineering versions of several traditional timber bridge forms have
also appeared recently in the Nordic regions, for example. Both bow string and King
post truss types have been given an updated treatment through the use of new
connections technologies, innovative deck types, and environmentally sensitive timber
treatment processes. Use of these forms has been extended into multiple spans
creating some of the longest timber bridges constructed in modern times.
6.5 Lift & swing bridges

There are several practical and available moveable bridge forms in timber. These
include bascule bridges, which can be lifted by tilting, and swing bridges. It is of
practical importance in dockland, harbour, and inland waterway situations to be able to
obtain clearance for waterway traffic. Recently, in such areas, many regeneration and
refurbishment schemes have been undertaken. These continue to be needed with
expansion of walking and cycle routes, and linking-up of riverside districts. Modern
timber design methods, materials and fabrication concepts can provide similar
solutions to those used in the past for industrial duties. Either traditional or
contemporary architectural styles are possible. Spans for this type of bridge tend to
be fairly modest, with those in excess of about 24 m being uncommon.
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6.6 Further design fundamentals

Once the principal structural form has been selected, further fundamental structural
considerations are necessary. The elevation of the deck in relation to the remainder of
the structure is another very important design issue. The option of roofing the bridge
must also be taken into account at the early design and cost estimating stages.
According to the authorities concerned, regulations exist which may affect several
other key elements of the bridge structure, both at ground level and above. These
include for example abutments, piers or other supports, deck width, roof clearance (if
provided), stair or ramp accesses, and parapet height and design.
a)Deck levels
There are usually several options in choosing the elevation of the deck. For most
forms of bridge shown in Table 1, these are fundamentally low-level, mid-level or highlevel decks. The choice of deck level has considerable influence on the architectural
form and engineering design of the structure. It also relates to planning considerations
and functional aspects. The former includes for example headroom for vehicles or
vessels beneath the bridge. The latter include the measure of protection provided by
the deck to the remainder of the structure.
Possible elevations of the deck are interpreted in relation to the principal structural
forms in Table 2. This second table also incorporates some notes on variations on
the basic forms. It mentions for example roofed bridges. Although these are
uncommon in the UK, they are not unknown.
a)
Beams
a)
Arches
a)
Girder trusses
Structural
form
a)
Lift &
swing
a)
Cable Stayed
& Suspension
Figure 1
Deck
elevations
Over beams.
Between
beams.
Additions &
variations
Roof.
Beams as part of
parapet.
Over the
crown of
arch(es).
Over girders.
Mansard arch
with stairs.
Roof. Roof supports as

part of main girders.
Tied arch,
tangent at deck
or other level.
Trusses as part of
parapet
Skewed plan form.
Deck itself, as
for 6.
Deck itself, as for 6.
Generally
keeps to
classical form
of Dutch
drawbridge.
Single cable, central

in plan, from Aframed tower(s), or
similar principle using
stays.
Between girders.
Parallel or pitched top

chords
Vessel passage
also achievable by
swing-bridge
(another cantilever
form).
Table 2: Forms of timber bridge, deck elevations and variations
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b) Materials and durability

Correct choice of materials, also understanding and applying best practice options to
achieve durability, are such vital aspects of timber bridge design that these topics are
discussed under major sub-headings below.
7.0 MATERIALS
7.1 Principal elements
In relation to the categories of principal structural forms shown in Table 1, the
materials that are commonly used as elements are shown in the table. In essence,
these are as follows:
a) Sawn timber.
b) Timber in round and pole forms.
c) Glued laminated timber (glulam).
d) Other structural timber composites
e) Mechanically laminated timber (mechlam).
a) Sawn Timber:
This may be used for all of the forms in Table 1 which do not involve significant
curvature of the members and for which adequate lengths can be obtained to meet
the main spans and to provide the other structural spanning requirements. Sawn
timbers can range from small sections of softwood or hardwood, suitable for the
simplest of short-span beam bridges, through larger sections, more usually
hardwood, to very long lengths of specialist hardwoods that can be used for the
biggest members, such as masts for cable stayed bridges and for pilings. The latter
are still in some cases hewn, rather than sawn sections, although technically this has
little effect to the designer.
The types of hardwood used for the intermediate applications include temperate
species such as oak, often British grown, and established tropical hardwoods that are
available for structures in the UK. BS 5268: Part 2 lists data for oak, and also for
twelve tropical hardwoods. Typical examples of the latter are Iroko (West Africa, e.g.
Ghana) Strength class D40; Keruing (South East Asia, e.g. Malaysia) D50 and Ekki
(West Africa e.g. Cameroon, Ghana) D60. For the largest lengths and crosssections, including big beams and masts, Greenheart (Guyana) D70 and Basralocus
(Dicorynia guianensis- not listed in BS 5256) are used.
Sustainability: Mention of tropical timbers clearly immediately raises the issue of
sustainability. The key organisation for producers is the ITTO (International Tropical
Timber Organisation) which facilitates discussion, consultation and international cooperation on issues relating to the international trade and utilisation of tropical timber
and the sustainable management of its resource base. Regarding certification, it has
this to say, in one of its most recent (2000) reports:
Certification is a process which has, to date, not found favour with many producer
members, largely because it is seen to be discriminatory. But as countries make
progress towards sustainable management, certification may become increasingly
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attractive. Indeed, Malaysia has already established its own national certification
scheme, and in Indonesia the project Training development on the assessment of
sustainable forest management in Indonesia (PD01/95) is being operated jointly with
the Indonesian Eco-labelling Working Group, one of the aims of which is to develop
training materials for the inspection of sustainable forest management.
Principal ITTO exporter countries are listed in Table 3. Ghana is working towards a
similar position to Malaysia, in having its own, nationally-based scheme. Good
progress towards Certified sustainability is also being made independently by some
small tropical producing countries such as Fiji, Honduras, and several African and
Caribbean countries that have plantations of non-indigenous species, such as teak.
This material is particularly suited to bridges and other landscaping applications.
ITTO exporters of tropical timber

Malaysia
Indonesia
Brazil
Cameroon
Papua New Guinea
Gabon
Cte dIvoire
Ghana
Table 3: ITTO tropical hardwood producers and exporters
Softwoods: Where smaller sawn cross-sections and lengths are required, there are
better opportunities in bridges than in the building market generally for specially valued
British grown softwoods. The great majority of British softwood production is of Sitka
and Norway spruce, non-durable species that are hard to treat with preservatives, and
unsuited to prolonged external exposure.
Those British softwoods worthy of consideration include Scots Pine (SS grade =
C22), which has good preservative retention, and Larch (three British grown species,
SS grade = C24), which has a good degree of natural durability. Douglas fir grown in
the UK also has a degree of natural durability, and sufficient availability to be
considered in some regions. In comparison with imported Douglas fir (SS grade =
C18), it seems to have suffered from an unduly cautious down-rating of its strength
properties. However, this has recently been rectified, for larger cross-sections at
least, by a Code amendment approved but awaiting printing.
b) Timber in round and pole forms.
All three of the British softwood species or groups mentioned above have a long
record of accomplishment of good service in exposed conditions as power-line and
telegraph poles. Suitable treatment regimes for these are well established, and these
have been supplemented by further quite recent research into the topic of durability.
Poles themselves are also used, as the main beams for small or medium span
footbridges, and occasionally for small masts. They are usually of softwood, with a
preference for species with a degree of natural durability such as Larch and Douglas
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fir. Debarked, straight poles are a simple version of this class of element. A limit on
taper, such as 10mm per metre, is recommended. Strength grading rules for round
timber in uses other than power lines and telegraph poles are not yet fully
standardised. In the past, similar ad hoc grading rules and stresses have been
derived for other projects. These have included applications in developing countries,
where the use of plantation softwood poles is of great economical importance.
Advantages of using round timbers include the retention of the natural strength of the
tree form itself, and, in appropriate situations, a good appearance. Disadvantages
include response of the round timber to drying, and difficulties in connecting such
elements neatly and efficiently. Both of these have, to some extent, been overcome,
as a result of applied research and developments of the technologies concerned.
Treatment techniques for poles are well understood and documented.
In countries such as Switzerland and Austria, where a great deal of use is made of
timber for bridges, round timbers are also partially shaped. Profiles that are used
include circular with one slot, to relieve radial drying stresses and eliminate splitting;
circular with one or two flats; and circular with one V-shaped segment removed.
Connection systems have also been developed for these more sophisticated forms of
round timber.
c) Glued laminated timber (glulam).
Glued laminated timber (glulam) bridge elements are manufactured to BS EN 386,
and other supporting standards, to which this principal document refers. Others cover
strength grading of laminations; adhesives; and end-joint testing. Strength classes for
glulam are contained in prEN 1194. Both softwood and hardwood laminations are
used for bridges, the latter to a far greater extent than in glulam beams for buildings.
The British timber code and its related standards used a system of grading
laminations and performing design calculations which was peculiar to the UK, but
which stood the test of time (8). Some of the procedures and requirements described
in the former British Standard for glulam, BS4978 are still followed for hardwood
glulam, since the European documents have been developed principally with
softwoods in mind. An introduction to glulam production and strength classes is
available in STEP/EUROFORTECH Volume 1, Lecture A8.
Glulam bridge beams are possibly more common in one particular laminated
hardwood, namely Iroko, than in any of the softwoods. This timber has found favour
for its combination of good durability, the ability to be bent and glued, and its good
joinery properties. Substitutes are now being considered, because Iroko is under
pressure through perceived sustainability issues, and may even be coming into
genuine shortage from some forest regions. Alternatives might include Dahoma
(Piptadeniastrum africanum). This has been used successfully in several vehicular
bridges in its country of origin, to demonstrate the concept of sustainability through
choice of alternative (Secondary) species. Since these bridges were built in a highly
termite-susceptible region, pressure preservative treatment was used in addition to
selecting a durable species.
Where laminated softwoods are specified, European redwood rather than whitewood
is preferred for external structures, by Nordic glulam producers, due to its greater
amenability to pressure preservative treatment. Douglas fir was hitherto more widely
used in these situations in the UK. Also, there are no technical reasons why larch
should not be chosen. Indeed, one particular specialist timber engineering
manufacturer prefers this timber, finding that it bonds very well. It was the preferred
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choice for Scottish fishing boats, including laminated keels, but is now uncommon in
the timber engineering industry.
Unlike the case in Germany, laminations for external structures such as bridges are
not restricted, in Britain, to a maximum of 33mm. In that country, this is understood to
be a precaution to ensure that full clamping pressure is applied throughout the depth
of the elements. However, a prescriptive standard of this nature would no longer be
likely, within the harmonised European system. The matter would be left to the
discretion of individual manufacturers, under third party quality assurance controls.
The normally permitted maximum of 45mm for straight laminations is quite common
for glulam in both softwoods and hardwoods. Permitted adhesive types are of course
selected from the most rigorous exterior/high hazard exposure category, and this
normally indicates a phenol/resorcinol formaldehyde type. Provided that the adhesive
specification and manufacturing procedures are correct, including quality control tests
in relation to the finger joints, there seems to be no reason to believe that 45mm thick
laminations, including those from selected hardwoods, are unsuitable.
d) Other structural timber composites.
The 'family of structural timber composites (STCs) is growing. Glulam is really the
best known, and longest established, structural timber composite, but it has been
joined by other products that are manufactured from veneers, strands and flakes.
These are dried, graded and reconstituted, using modern synthetic adhesives, applied
under heat and pressure. The exact processes vary, but long, prismatic structural
sections always ensue, as opposed to wide, flat boards.
The newer STCs are still not as widely known as glulam, by generalist engineers and
architects. These tend to take a long time to become aware of such changes, but
publicity by major European producers, and support work on codes and standards, is
beginning to take effect.
STCs are manufactured using well established techniques and materials that have
been developed over many years for the production of structural wood-based board
materials. Indeed, each member of the family of STCs has its relatives in the
structural board materials range, most of which have long-standing references by
codes such as BS 5268. Several types of STC are suitable for bridges, and instances
of their application for this purpose can already be cited. The following outlines the
three main types of STC, commenting on their potential for this purpose :
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL): Bonding together dried, graded, spliced and
trimmed veneers that are peeled from a log, in much the same way as making
plywood, produces laminated veneer lumber (LVL). Once pressed and trimmed, the
resulting long panels are sliced into prismatic structural-sized sections. Unlike
plywood, successive veneers are generally orientated in a common grain direction,
although a hybrid product, that has every fifth veneer laid orthogonally, has also been
found useful for diaphragm applications, including bridge decks.
European LVL is manufactured in Finland, from Norway spruce, by Finnforest Oy
under the name Kerto LVL. The standard (all veneers longitudinal) type is named
Kerto S, and the special (cross-veneered) type is Kerto Q.
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LVL is also manufactured elsewhere in the world, the great majority of the
manufacturing machinery emanating from Finland. In Australia, for example, LVL
made from Radiata pine is applied in bridges.
LVL is found to be amenable to full penetration by pressure-applied preservatives, and
is thus one of the best established of the new STCs for exterior structures.
Parallel strand lumber (PSL): Parallel strand lumber is manufactured from peeled
veneers that are cut into long strands. These are then coated with adhesive and
combined under heat and pressure, in a quasi-extrusion process, to form structuralsized sections in long lengths.
PSL is manufactured in the USA, by TrusJoist MacMillan, under the name Parallam. It
is made mainly from Southern yellow pine and Douglas fir.
PSL is also understood to be amenable to pressure-applied preservatives, but there
is less experience in its use for exterior structures in Europe, possibly due in part to
pricing differentials, compared with LVL.
Laminated strand lumber (LSL): Laminated strand lumber is produced by bonding
together flakes of wood, again under heat and pressure, to produce structural
sections.
LSL is also manufactured in the USA, by Trus Joist MacMillan, under the name
Intrallam. It is produced mainly from Aspen strands, a timber that is perishable
(extremely non-durable), rendering this an unlikely choice for bridge structures, even if
preservatives were to be introduced.
Advantages of STCs: The major advantages of STCs are that large dimensions are
available, with higher characteristic strength values than those of the raw material
itself. This is brought about by defect dispersal within the manufacturing processes.
These products are manufactured at a low timber moisture content, their dimensions
are accurate, and when installed, moisture-related movements, such as shrinkage,
twisting and warping, are virtually eliminated.
The strength of solid timber sections depends largely on the influence of defects,
such as knots and irregular or sloping grain, rather than on the inherent strength of the
clear straight grained species. Clear, kiln dried timber is normally at least two and a
half times stronger than average quality commercial sawn timber, at air dried
moisture content. When making composites, the veneers, strands or flakes are
recombined. This dispersal of defects produces a material, which has significantly
more consistent structural properties than solid timber. The longer spans that can
achieved often mean that fewer intermediate supports are required, and simpler
structural systems are possible. Construction times can be significantly reduced, by
taking advantage of these features, in combination with a number of innovative,
partially prefabricated techniques for element and connection formation.
Guidance and standards for STCs: The design of elements and components using
STCs may, in general terms, be undertaken in accordance with the rules given in BS
5268, or with those in DD ENV 1995-1-1 Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures Part
1.1. There are at present no British or European Standards for STCs, and as a matter
of principle, no materials have their design data included as part of the Eurocodes. In
fact, it is considered an advantage of the newer Eurocodes that they are more open
to the introduction of such innovative products.
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Suitable information on generically classified STCs is shortly to be provided, in

intended European Standards (ENs). Examples of existing Technical Approvals that
address STCs such as Kerto are the British Board of Agreement Certificates.
Meanwhile, procedures are also being developed to establish European Harmonised
Technical Approvals that will address materials such as these.
e) Mechanically laminated timber (mechlam).
Mechanically laminated members are termed "mechlam" as a convenient
abbreviation in this review, although it should be clarified that this is not a universally
recognised term. Recently encountered has been an interesting example of a
mechanically laminated Greenheart bridge, which was built in Cheshire in 1915 and
which, having remained in good condition, has just been refurbished.
The modern manufacturing process, which was developed in Germany, and used
quite extensively there and in the Netherlands, has become quite familiar in the UK.
Numerous examples of bridges containing members of this type are to be found,
ranging from simple short-span beam bridges, to the more ambitious types such as
arches and cable stayed structures.
Formerly, the timber used was almost exclusively Ekki, or Azob, as it is known in
Continental Europe. Recently, experiments and a few actual applications have
occurred using oak. The design of mechlam structures involves some special
considerations involving slip between the layers that leads to incomplete composite
behaviour. This affects ultimate limit states, as well as serviceability design. Some of
the fundamental principles are provided by Eurocode 5 Part 1-1, and STEP Lecture
B11 also explains the basis of the computations, with elementary examples, based on
this code. However, mechlam timber bridges are now offered in Western Europe,
including UK, by some half a dozen firms, on a design, supply and erect basis. All of
these types of supplier tend to guard precise details of the full basis of design from
mainstream practitioners, as well as from organisations such as BRE and TRADA
Technology.
7.2 Decks & decking UK current practice

Structural diaphragm decks do not at present form part of the British timber bridge
designers vocabulary. They are an extremely significant item that needs to be
brought forward for their attention, in order to improve efficiency, as outlined in the
Introduction. For convenience however, the following only discusses decks that span
as secondary or tertiary items between transoms or stringers, and which do not act
as composite diaphragms. The latter are briefly introduced in Section 10.5 of this
report, dealing with Overseas Practice Decks.
The commonest form of simple one-way spanning, non-diaphragm deck uses
spaced sawn planks. These are usually laid transverse, but are sometimes placed
longitudinally. The deck planks can be softwood or hardwood, with certain hardwoods
preferred for maximum wear and durability. In connection with wear, designers are in
either case advised to discount a proportion of the section, as newly-placed, when
calculating for strength and stiffness. This point is addressed specifically by prEN
Eurocode 5 Part 2.
Softwood decking planks can be specified as either GS or SS grade to BS 4978.
Suitable preservative treatment may be considered. This would tend to lead specifiers
towards timbers such as Scots pine/European redwood, Douglas fir and larch.
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Hardwood decking planks are usually from a naturally durable species, such as Iroko,
Jarrah or Ekki, and are specified as HS grade to BS 5756.
Slipperiness of timber decks in general is recognised as something to avoid. It is an
issue also related to maintenance and upkeep. It is an aspect of timber footbridges
that would merit attention that is more specific to these structures, where the question
of incline of ramps and arches also enters into the equation.
Where foot grip is especially important, profiled decking planks provide a good
solution. Hardwood profiled planks, in timbers such as ekki, are marketed extensively
as a separate purchasable item, by timber bridge suppliers, for customers use in
landscaping and crossing structures beyond the realm of bridges. In footbridges
specifically, at higher gradients, profiled planks are sometimes used in conjunction
with kick-plates, which are nailed down to the deck. Unless these are well executed
however, they are a notorious source of early wear and hence maintenance cost.
Recently a proprietary form of profiled, treated softwood decking board has also
become available. This has embedded inserts of non-slip material, which are grooved
into each castellation of the profile.
It is generally felt that the gaps between simple decking in rural footbridges should not
be less than 5mm, in order that dirt and debris can pass through the deck. This also
allows air to circulate around the planks, thereby avoiding damp pockets where fungal
decay can start. Larger gaps are sometimes used, and in remote country areas,
deliberate gaps of up to 25mm have been specified. For certain bridges over roads
and railways, particularly in more urban environments, gaps in the walkway are not
permitted, due to concern over vandals dropping objects onto vehicles or persons
below. This has led some designers to use glulam beams, which can provide the
spanning medium for the bridge, as well as the deck. Such laminated decks are
abutted together, to provide the walkway. An alternative solution has been to use
plywood decking with additional non-slip surfaces, but this does not seem to have had
a good record. Wear has been rapid and it has become evident that plywood decking
requires special attention to drainage details.
LVL decks, with appropriate pressure preservative treatment and added wear
protection, have started to occur in a few instances, in the UK. This type of
progressive solution is moving towards the concept of treating the deck both as a
walking surface, and as a structural diaphragm. As mentioned above, this is
discussed further in section 8.5.
7.3 Parapets & handrails

The primary function of the handrails and parapets is of course the protection of
bridge users. Occasionally, in very remote areas such as forests and moorland trails,
bridges are built with no parapet, or with only one handrail. A pair are however the
norm. Various configurations are used, with the choice primarily depending on the
following:
a) The type of footbridge user (for example pedestrians only, or cyclists and
pedestrians).
b) The nature of the site and locality, for example whether it is a rural or urban
location, and whether it passes over a main road, railway or a stream.
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The first item dictates the height and strength requirements for the parapet, as
discussed in more detail below. The second affects the degree of openness that is
permitted for the handrail, intermediate rails (if any), spindles and posts.
Common solutions for bridges in rural locations involve cantilevered handrails. A
better, and very traditional arrangement in these types of location may be for the
vertical post to be triangulated, by projecting out the decking members in the vicinity of
the post, and adding a diagonal raking member. This type of design is often adopted
for short-span bridges, where the main beam is of limited depth.
For suburban bridges, it is not uncommon for mesh infill, or even solid, surfaceprofiled metal sheet, to be fixed to the handrail, to prevent children from falling through
the gaps. The cheap, but somewhat inelegant solution is mesh infill. A better
alternative is light section, close centred spindles with adequate intermediate
longitudinal rails for stiffness.
In fully urban areas, an altogether lesser degree of openness is usually required,
whilst for bridges over trunk roads, motorways and railways, there is serious concern
over objects being accidentally kicked, or deliberately dropped, onto the highway, rails,
or traffic. In applications such as these, authorities will invariably stipulate the required
dimensions of enclosure that will normally prevent an open solution. This has resulted
in a number of bridges where the deck is located near the centre, or towards the base
of the main beams. These then provide the lower half or two-thirds of the parapet.
This type of arrangement is common in glulam footbridges with through decks.
Larger, girder truss bridges ( for example the type illustrated in Figure 11 c), also often
incorporate part of the structural girder depth into the parapet. This of course has
further detailing implications, but such structures tend to be offered by specialists who
have evolved practical and acceptable solutions that comply with the rules and
customs of the various European countries in which they operate.
Both softwoods and hardwoods are used for handrails, with the latter, in a suitable
species, preferred for durability and smoothness to touch. Most, if not all, of the
smoothest-to-hand timbers used in joinery are of tropical origin. External weathering
tends to aggravate splinter pick-up in open grained species. Hence, this is a particular
issue that needs to be clarified, in relation to user-inhibitions through preference for
avoiding tropical timbers, because of perceived sustainability questions. Besides
sustainability, however, is the matter of toxicity to skin of the splinters of some
species. Good detailing of parapets and handrails is thus undoubtedly an aspect of
the furtherance of timber ridges that requires co-operation between timber engineers
and wood technologists.
Regarding grade and strength class specifications, softwood handrail members will
again be GS or SS grade to BS4978, assigned to the appropriate strength class, and
with suitable preservative treatment, if required. Hardwoods are usually from a
naturally durable species, such as Iroko or Opepe, and are HS grade to BS 5756 and
thus to the appropriate hardwood strength class (D Classes).
Parapet and handrail detailing to achieve protective design against long-term
deterioration, through weathering and decay, is addressed by several Nordic and
German-language publications. Some indication of the type of guidance available can
be seen in STEP Lecture E17 (Fisher 1995). This is another aspect that will be well
worth further attention for UK design guidance.
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7.4 Connections
Connections within modern timber bridge structures is an enormous subject, that
could quite easily occupy a two year applied research and knowledge repackaging
project, in its own right. TRADA Technology is currently engaged in a separate project
to this, under DETR Partners in Innovation funding, entitled Connections IT Toolbox.
Good introductory texts for engineers on mechanically fastened timber joints in
general are also contained in STEP Volume 1, Lectures C1 to C19. The TRADA
Technology Eurocode Design Guidance Documents already published also address
the topic extensively.
Mechanical fasteners and connectors for bridge structures are at present normally of
steel, and quite often of stainless steel specifications, rather than from plain carbon
steel. In virtually all instances, some form of corrosion protection is required on other
that stainless items. Where flitched or spliced joints involve the use of steel plates,
these are usually specified with a thickness of not less than 6mm, following steel
bridge design practice. Again corrosion protection is essential and the Eurocodes 5
(both Part 1-1 and Part 2), supported by the documents described above, provide an
entry point.
Signposts to research on bonded-in connections, a lot of which is highly relevant to
bridges, are given in the state of art reference cited above. Work has also been
started on bonded-in non-metallic (Fibre Reinforced Polymer, or FRP) connections
that may in future be relevant, especially in view of their potential corrosion resistance,
as well as their high tensile strength (Bainbridge et al, 2000).
Fatigue within timber structural connections for bridges is another aspect that
researchers have started to address. Some success has already been achieved,
showing this to be not a hyper-critical issue, but one that can be handled using
established timber research and code formatting techniques.
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8.0 DURABILITY
Timber, when suitably protected, can be remarkably durable and can outlast in certain
conditions other materials such as metals, brick, stone and concrete. Timber is
invulnerable to salt water, either from sea or de-icing salts, and freeze-thaw action.
In a timber bridge, elements which are not covered will frequently attain moisture
contents above 20% - the threshold for fungal decay. The threshold for insect attack
is even lower, at 12%, although only sapwood and decayed heartwood is vulnerable.
Preservative treatment will be necessary only if the natural durability of a timber is
insufficient to meet the required service life.
8.1 Detailing
Bridges are a particularly exacting application, and ensuring that the timber members
have adequate durability is a vital consideration. Before considering this item from the
perspective of material selection, it is important to note that much can be achieved in
terms of increased durability by means of improved detailing. Indeed the converse is
also unfortunately true, in that if poor detailing is provided then premature failure of
timber components can occur.
Table 4 identifies seven susceptible parts of a timber bridge in general. Most of these
points apply to all types of bridge, irrespective of the precise form of the structure. The
table then exemplifies poor detailing aspects and gives better alternatives. At this
stage, the items in the table are regarded as pointers for guidance, and as
suggestions for closer attention, rather than definitive solutions. It is anticipated that it
will be necessary to pay considerable attention to detailing, and that these aspects will
require discussion by timber experts and bridge manufacturers, in conjunction with
the analysis of the survey results.
The benefits of effective and well maintained finishes have been very apparent in the
survey work which has already been performed and which continues. Modern water
repellent finishes offer a considerable measure of protection to exterior timber
structures such as bridges. The prevention of weathering of the timber surface itself
has an important role in this respect. A high specification of finish and a good
maintenance programme for the same would always be advocated in addition to the
correct detailing and choice of durable species mentioned above.
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Part of the structure

End grain of members in
general
e.g. beams
Upper edges of exposed

members
e.g. beams and handrails
Examples of poor
detailing
Exposed end grain, leading
to fissures, unattractive and
ultimately a seat of decay
Flat upper edges where

water lies and which trap
dirt, especially when
weathered/ fissured
Examples of better
detailing
Protected end grain eg: by
attaching other timber
members having side grain,
or by ventilated
capping/sealing
Chamfered and sloped
upper edges which freely
drain
Edges protected by
ventilated capping
Joinery details e.g.:

handrails, parapet to beam
connections
Details which trap moisture

in mortises, fixing holes,
recesses etc.
Freely draining, ventilated,

flush details
Raise parapet above splash
level with separate drained
kerb
Decking and its

attachments
DPC between deck and

beams
Member intersection points,

column bases, especially
with steelwork
Bearing points, supports,
bank seats etc.
Deck which is tight jointed

or with a sealed surface but
which merely traps
moisture
Attachments to beams
which form traps
DPC between deck and
beams
Intersection points can
easily form moisture/dirt
entrapment regions.
Intersection points can trap
moisture and remain damp.
Poorly ventilated,
susceptible to silting up, dirt
and debris entrapment
Deck which freely drains,

laterally and longitudinally,
even when worn
Drip mouldings beneath
deck boards
Not easily avoided, but

detail for maximum
ventilation and drainage eg:
by drilling/arranging gaps
Design steelwork to allow
drainage and ventilation.
Avoid details which allow
the collection of water .
As well raised from
surroundings, eg: by
masonry and supporting
steel, as possible
Table 4: Susceptible parts of timber bridge structures, with examples of

detailing weaknesses and improvements
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8.2 Natural durability

The biological natural durability of timber is due to the anatomy of the timber species
and in some cases the presence of naturally occurring extractives within the
heartwood. Each timber species has its own characteristic set of these chemicals,
some of which are toxic to wood-destroying organisms. Even when the detailing is as
good as possible, for an exacting, fully exposed application of timber such as a
bridge, it is advisable to consider the use of a timber which falls into a natural
durability category which is at least as good as "moderately durable", Table 5. It is
important to note that the biological natural durability of a timber refers only to its
heartwood.
Such classifications are well-established in Britain for all of the better-known
construction timbers, both softwoods and hardwoods, including all of those listed in
BS 5268: Part 2. Table 6 shows the natural durability classifications of the twelve
tropical hardwoods listed in the code, together with European redwood and Douglas
fir, for comparison. These classifications are based principally but not exclusively
upon traditional ground contact stake tests. It should be noted that the ratings relate to
UK conditions, which do not include a termite hazard, but which represent a high risk
from fungal attack.
Exposure trials have been conducted using EN 330 "L-joint" type specimens, both to
assess natural (untreated) durability, and to evaluate various forms of preservative
treatment beneath a coating. In due course, the information from this project will be of
value to bridge designers, especially when they consider the joinery items such as
parapets and handrails. Certified, sustainable and naturally durable timbers, including,
for example, plantation teak from various sources, may be admitted for the most
exposed parts of superstructures, such as handrails and parapets, on the basis of
evidence from such tests.
Durability Category
Approximate life in ground contact, 50mm x

50mm section (years)
Very durable
More than 25
Durable
15 25
Moderately durable
10 15
Non-durable
5 10
Perishable
Less than 5
Table 5: Natural durability categories
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Timber, Standard Name; Species
Region of Origin
Natural durability
Balau
Dense Shorea spp
SE Asia
Durable
Ekki (Azobe)
Lophira alata
W Africa
Very durable
Greenheart
Ocotea rodiaei
Guyana
Very durable
Iroko
Milicia excelsa
W Africa
Very durable
Jarrah
Eucalyptus marginata
W. Australia
Very durable
Kapur
Dryobalanops spp
SE Asia
Very durable
Karri
Eucalyptus disersicolor
W. Australia
Durable
Kempas
Koompasia malaccensis
SE Asia
Durable
Keruing
Dipterocarpus spp
SE Asia
Moderately durable
Merbau
Intsia spp
SE Asia
Opepe
Nauclea diderrichii
W Africa
Very durable
Teak
Tectona grandis
SE Asia
Very durable
Douglas fir
Pseudotsuga menziesii
N America
Moderately durable
European Larch
Larix decidua (L. uropaea)
Europe, incl. UK
Moderately durable
Scots pine/European redwood

Pinus sylvestris
Europe, incl. UK
Non-durable
Durable
Table 6: Natural durability classifications of the twelve tropical hardwoods

listed in BS 5268: Part 2, and of Douglas fir and European redwood
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8.3 Preservative treatment

In the modern philosophy of designing for durability, the use of chemicals to treat the
timber, normally through pressure application, is regarded as the third line of defence,
following good detailing and species selection. Increasingly, though, the most
sustainable use of our principal commercial timbers (i.e. non-durable softwoods) is to
extend their service lives through preservative treatment. This allows more than
sufficient time for forest growth to compensate for the consumption of timber.
However, evidence from around Europe suggests that traditional preservative active
ingredients are going to come under increasing environmental scrutiny and legislation.
In Denmark and the Netherlands, legislation has already instigated restrictions on the
use of copper/chromium/arsenic (CCA) - the most widely used wood preservative.
Amendment to the EC Marketing and Use Directive for arsenic will limit CCA to a few
derogated uses including bridges. Creosote is due to be withdrawn for
public/domestic use in the EC in 2003, but will still be available for industrial
applications such as utility poles and bridges. Of the 150 bridges constructed
recently under the Nordic Timber Bridge Project (Nordic Timber Council, 1999), the
majority were either creosote or CCA treated. Clearly up to date guidance is needed
for timber bridge designers and certain clients may demand "environmentally friendly"
solutions.
In the United Kingdom only formulations approved under the Control of Pesticides
Regulations 1986 by the HSE Pesticides Safety Directive are used for timber
treatment, and formal authorisation procedures are in place to ensure that operations
comply with legislation relating to aspects such as employee health, safety, material
control and waste disposal. Treated timber is, of course, far more widely used in
applications such as fencing, decking and utility poles than bridges. The latter may,
however, come under greater scrutiny because of their siting over sensitive
watercourses.
For timber bridge members the principal chemical preservative treatments applicable
are either Copper Chrome Arsenic (CCA) or creosote, applied under pressure,
although there are some alternatives on the market. In general, hardwoods either do
not require treatment or are difficult to treat due to poor penetration, whilst most
softwoods are treated. Spruce and hemlock are difficult to treat, although penetration
can be improved by incising. BRE Digest 429 (1998) gives guidance on both natural
durability and resistance to preservative treatment.
Copper Chrome Arsenic:
CCA (marketed under the trademarks of "Celcure" or "Tanalith") is a water-borne
preservative with a particular application for softwood glulam bridge beams, usually in
conjunction with European redwood as the timber. Both pre-treatment of individual
laminations and treatment of the entire member after complete manufacture and
machining are known. Pressure cylinders of up to 25m length are available. Timber is
dried before application of CCA under high pressure/vacuum process and allowed to
dry again for between 7 to 14 days during which fixation occurs. The advantages of
CCA treatment are that the timber is free from odour and that paints and varnishes
can be applied. CCA treated timbers (such as off-cuts) should not be burnt in an open
fire, since this releases the preservative elements in the ash and smoke. Waste CCA
treated wood should either be burnt with flue gas recovery or put into landfill.
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Creosote:
Creosote is a complex mixture of over 300 substances derived from the distillation of
coal tar and tends to have a poor image due to an association with odorous garden
fences and weeping telegraph poles. In fact, creosote is a very long serving and
effective wood preservative which has low water solubility and is biodegradable when
dispersed in soil. There are many instances of creosoted timber structures and wood
piles still giving good service after 100 years of ground contact, and timber currently
treated by the pressure process can offer a service life of at least 40 years. Although
fresh creosote will burn the skin, requiring gloves to be worn during handling of treated
lumber, it is not a systemic poison. Creosote also protects wood from the
development of splits. Creosoted timber should not be used for parts of the bridge
which come into contact with unprotected skin, such as handrails. Freshly creosoted
timbers may cause the formation of on oil sheen if in contact with water.
There are two forms of creosote treatment, full cell and empty cell. In the full cell
process all the available voids in the wood structure are filled as far as possible with
creosote by first applying a vacuum to the timber, then flooding the pressure cylinder
with preservative. After the vacuum is released atmospheric pressure forces the
creosote deep into the structure. Further application of pressure after this stage
achieves even greater penetration. At the end of the cycle, a second short period
under vacuum is applied to withdraw a small amount of preservative from the surface
of the timber leaving it dry and in a reasonable state for handling. In the empty cell
process a longer period under vacuum is applied to remove a greater amount of
preservative, leaving the voids in the wood only partly filled but with the internal walls
of the wood cells coated. Although creosote is used undiluted by solvents, freshly
treated timber is normally allowed to dry for up to 7 days to allow the more volatile
components to evaporate.
Alternatives:
Many preservative products have been developed over the last 10 years that have
aimed to provide alternatives to CCA whilst providing equivalent performance in the
field. A number of these have focused on removing the arsenic compound from the
preservative formulations, such as CCB systems that use boron. There are also
systems available that are both chromium and arsenic free where tebunconazole and
boron based preservative have replaced those ingredients. These preservatives still
provide the timber with its characteristic green colouration, and are increasing used in
markets such as garden decking. All these products are approved for use in
Pesticides 2001.
Selection system for timber bridges:
Selection of an appropriate system for timber bridge component should follow the
European Standards below:
1. Design bridge (timber components in contact with the water, soil and out of
ground contact)
2. Assess the hazard class of the end use of the timber (EN 335-1). For example a
timber in freshwater contact is Hazard Class 4. Out of ground contact timber is
Hazard Class 3 and is a less challenging environment for the timber component.
3. Select wood species (EN 350-1 Natural durability)
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4. Is wood species natural durability sufficient for the performance required for the
Hazard Class? (EN 460 Links durability to Hazard Class)
5. If species is insufficiently naturally durable then select and specify the preservative
(EN 599-1 and required treatment result EN 351-1 and DD 239)
Alternatively a similar philosophy is passed through in BS 5589 and BS 5268 with
specifying based on preservative treatment schedules applied to particular timber
species being fit for purpose.
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9.0 TIMBER FOUNDATIONS

Timber piles are a highly suitable choice of foundation, given appropriate ground
conditions, for many structures including bridges. Timber piles are economical, easy
to transport, handle, cut to length and work with on site. They are particularly suited
for locations with access difficulties or where minimal disturbance is a priority such
as structures in the countryside and canal-side and shoreline sites where excavations
and the delivery of concrete would pose problems. Short driven timber piles can be
the solution for foundations in ground with a high water table or where firm strata
exists below surface material of loose sand, soft clays, highly organic soils or fill.
Timber piles are also resistant to acidic and alkaline soils, and soils with high sulphate
or free carbon dioxide content. Treated or durable timber can also be used for the
construction of wingwalls and bank seats, as well as for foundation pads and footings.
Timber is a sustainable construction material with obvious environmental advantages
over both steel and concrete. Trees, while they grow, adsorb carbon dioxide and
release oxygen. Forests provide areas for wildlife and recreation. One of the
suggested methods of reducing global warming has been to create carbon sinks - to
lock up carbon for long periods of time. Using timber for foundations would effectively
achieve this.
9.1 History and overseas use

Timber has been used for piled foundations for centuries. Before 1900 nearly all piles
were either untreated wood or stone. Old London Bridge was founded in 1176 on
stone filled starlings constructed from elm piles, and lasted 600 years (Nash, 1981).
The City of Louisiana is founded on timber piles, so too is Pont Notredame bridge in
Paris, The Royal Place in Amsterdam, The National Theatre of Finland, The Dome of
Utrecht and The Reichstag in Berlin. In 1902 the Campanile Tower in Venice was
rebuilt on the 1000 year old piles, still in excellent condition, which supported the
original structure (Haldeman, 1982).
More recently, Graham (2000) reports on the use of 30 tonne capacity timber piles for
the foundations of the Cargo Terminal at John F. Kennedy Airport. Timber piles were
also used for the 210m diameter Louisiana Superdome supporting 130,000 m 3 of
concrete and 18,000 tonnes of steel. Timber piles with 70 tonne design loads are in
use on a 300m long viaduct near Winnemuca, Nevada. In Canada alone over
30,000m 3 of treated wood piles are used annually. Most of the deep foundation
support for highway bridges in North America comprise of treated timber piles. The
US Army Corps of Engineers used over six million timber piles to construct the locks
and dams for the Inland Waterway System.
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Figure 12: Timber trestle piles supporting a concrete deck bridge

(Bellingen, NSW) (photo Kardon Piling)
9.2 Durability of timber piles

Timber piles, when driven in below the ground water level, are virtually immune to
biological degradation and can have an almost indefinite life. Timber piles have been
recovered from the remains of Roman and medieval constructions in a state of
perfect preservation. The section of a pile above ground water level is, however,
vulnerable to decay and one option is to terminate the pile below the water table and
continue the foundations in a different material such as concrete. In the past this was
accomplished with stone or masonry. The timber piles of historic buildings may decay
if the local water table is lowered below the tops of the piles for long periods, either by
abstraction, drainage or de-watering for nearby excavations. Both York Minster and
the Mansion House in London were built in marshy ground on timber foundations
which subsequently degraded due to drainage. Bouteje and Bravery(1968) report on
similar problems with buildings in Stockholm.
Above the water table in soil, fungi attack will lead to severe deterioration of untreated
non-durable timber in a matter of months only. Under fresh water such as in rivers
and lakes but also in soil below the water table the outer layer of sapwood of
untreated timber will become infected by anaerobic bacteria which can degrade the
strength properties over a time period of decades. In central Europe untreated
species of non-durable softwoods such as Scots pine and Norway spruce were
formerly used extensively.
Timber piles are highly resistant to both acid and alkaline soil conditions. In Austrailia,
at the Ulan coal mine, treated timber piles were chosen for a bridge carrying ore
trucks because high free carbon dioxide levels and extreme acidity in the soil would
have destroyed both steel and concrete piles. Timber piles were also used for the
foundations of the Brambles Container Terminal in Burnie Tasmania (soil pH 11.5)
and the Auburn, N.S.W., Waste Transfer Station (soil pH 2.5).
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9.3 Traditional timber species and treatments

BS 8004 (1986) gives guidance on the use of timber for piles, and states that in the
United Kingdom Douglas fir imported in sections up to 400mm square and 15m
length is the most common softwood used for piles. Pitch pine is also available in
sections up to 500mm square. Greenheart was formerly the most commonly used
hardwood, imported rough-hewn in sections up to 475mm square and up to 24m
long. Other suitable tropical hardwoods given by the Code include ekki, jarrah, and
opepe. In the past, domestic grown hardwoods such as oak, beech, ash and sweet
chestnut have been used for piles. Elm is also durable below ground, so much so that
it was used for water pipes and also coffins. In Scandinavia and Central Europe
Norway spruce, Scots pine and to a lesser degree fir and larch have historically been
used (Peek and Willeitner, 1981). In the US and Canada southern pine is used
extensively as well as larch and western red cedar.
The Romans are known to have treated timber for pilings by smearing the wood with
cedar oil, pitch and then charring. Pressure injection of coal-tar creosote began in
England in 1838. Following the use of pressure impregnated railway sleepers (or
railroad ties) in the United States the process was first applied to foundation pilings in
the early 1880's. Today, pressure impregnation of creosote or copper-chromearsenic (CCA) are the two main types of chemical wood preservation applied to
timber used for piles. Only softwoods are suitable for chemical impregnation, with
spruce and hemlock being difficult to impregnate. Both types of preservative are
applied during a high pressure/vacuum process. In the case of CCA preservative,
which is water-borne, the chromium acts as an oxidising agent and the metals
become highly fixed into the wood structure. Creosote, which is derived from the
distillation of coal tar, may be applied as a "full cell" or "empty cell" process. In the
latter case a vacuum is applied post application to remove surplus creosote which
might otherwise bleed under the influence of sunlight. For softwood timber piles
timber selected with a thick sapwood layer which adsorbs preservative treatment
better than heartwood is beneficial since this provides a thick protective layer of well
impregnated material. Spikes or hooks should not be used to handle treated timber
piles since this may expose less well protected wood in the inside of the log. All cutoffs and drill holes should be liberally applied with preservative. For hardwoods the
vulnerable sapwood is removed and the timber is normally supplied squared off.
9.4 Marine structures

Timber is favoured for marine works because of its ability to absorb impacts, its ease
of handling over water, and the poor performance, historically, of cast iron, steel and
reinforced concrete. Timber is used for groynes and sea defence works as well as
jetties and dolphins.
In seawater and brackish estuary waters untreated timbers are liable to attack by
marine borers, around the British Isles principally the mollusc Teredo (the shipworm)
and crustacean Limnoria (the gribble). Teredo bores circular tunnels 15mm in
diameter and up to 150mm long horizontally and vertically in timbers leading,
ultimately, to severe weakening. Occasionally Teredo damage is observed in timbers
which have been floated in marine waters prior to sawing, the damage being
characterised by lack of bore dust and the chalky white calcareous tunnel linings
(Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996). Limnoria creates shallow tunnels approximately
2.5mm in diameter and penetrating less than 15mm in depth, the extensive nature of
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which leads to erosion. Another crustacean Chelura, is associated with attack by

Limnoria, but cannot by itself burrow very far into timber.
The Sea Action Committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE 1947) found
Limnoria and Chelura to be active in British waters, with Terodo active south of the
Mersey and Humber. Greenheart, kauri and jarrah were found very resistant to marine
borers, while oak and untreated softwoods were not resistant. Borer attack was found
to be limited in polluted water such as in docks, although this observation may not be
relevant nowadays. Greenheart was found in excellent condition after 60 years
service in Liverpool and similarly Danzig fir after 52 years service in the Thames at
Northfleet. Creosoted Baltic pine (i.e. slower grown Scots pine) was recommended
for British ports on the grounds of its useful economic life. Other suitable softwoods
include Douglas fir, Western hemlock and European larch. The Handbook of
Hardwoods (HMSO 1972) lists a number of tropical hardwoods recognised as being
resistant to marine borers such as basralocus, belian, okan as well as the Australian
hardwoods jarrah, ironbark, southern blue gum and turpentine, the latter being
particularly long favoured. Currently there are no FSC approved sources of
greenheart or ekki which were traditionally used for marine piles, although possible
alternatives include Acariquara and Purpleheart.
In tropical waters untreated timber piles of non-durable species can have a useful life
of only a few months. For softwoods, combined treatment of CCA and creosote has
been found very effective. Hardwoods, such as terpentine, will also benefit greatly
from the provision of an outer barrier layer of treated timber. Timber piles may also be
protected by providing copper or aluminium sheaths, and there has been some
development of the use of PVC (Heinz, 1975). Methods of repair of marine borer
attacked piles include jacketing with concrete. The principal inspection method for
marine timber piles is by diver.
Abrasion resistance is an important design consideration for marine structures such
as sea defences and groynes, particularly on shingle beaches. Timber can withstand
wear in the marine situation better than either steel or reinforced concrete, with
tropical hardwoods being particularly durable. Dense softwoods such as Douglas fir
and pitch pine also perform well. Timber structures can be protected from scour
simply by providing a sacrificial layer of planking.
9.5 Pile driving and design

All timber piles are displacement piles, therefore suitable ground conditions must exist
for their use. Conventional pile drivers are used to insert timber piles with the normal
weight of a drop hammer being 1.5 times the weight of the pile. A long narrow drop
hammer increases the chance that the pile is hit axially, avoiding damage to the pile
and maximising the downward impulse. Diesel hammers are also suitable, including
those that run on bio-diesel. Care must be taken with all hammers not to over-stress
the pile or to cause splitting of the pile toe. A helmet or cap protects the pile head from
fracturing or brooming, and in addition the pile may be banded to prevent splitting.
Hard driving should not be continued in an attempt to meet a prescribed set, since
this may result in the pile head disintegrating. Where there is a surface layer of hard
fill a pre-bore may be performed. Timber piles can also be inserted using vibratory
methods. Groups of timber piles inserted into soft clays may need to be loaded
temporally to prevent the effect on soil pore water pressures causing buoyancy.
Timber piles can be spliced and extended in length using short sections of steel tube,
angle or plates to reach loadbearing strata.
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Figure 13: Timber pile driving (photo Kardon Piling)
Timber piles support loads by end bearing, shaft friction or combined end bearing and
friction depending on the nature of the strata into which they are inserted. Driven thin
end down, trees make natural tapered piles enhancing shaft friction. Timber has a
high strength to weight ratio, and is particularly strong in compression parallel to grain.
The timber selected for piles should be straight grained and free from defects and, in
general, suitable material is obtained from SS grades and better. The centreline of a
sawn pile should not deviate by more than 25mm throughout its length, and for round
piles a deviation of up to 25mm on a 6m chord may be permitted.
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Piles are designed as columns, but consideration should be given to bracing for
unsupported lengths above ground level. BS 5268 (2002) may be used to calculate
the allowable compression parallel to grain. Stresses on the timber during insertion
are usually far higher than those encountered in service. Similar equations exist for
the loadbearing capacity of timber piles to those of steel and concrete, including those
based on dynamic pile driving formulae. Appropriate factors of safety for foundation
design are given in BS 8004 (1986) and BS 6349 (1988). To reduce the need for
excessively hard driving the working loads are often limited to 300kN (30 tonnes) on a
300mm x 300mm pile. The American Wood Preservers Institute (2000) and Canadian
Wood Council (1991) also give guidance and design examples on the use of timber
piles.
9.6 Other geotechnical uses for timber

Timber is attractive and its use for earth retaining structures such as bridge
abutments is suitable in sensitive countryside, in particular for forest tracks. In
addition, there is the obvious benefit of utilising an inexpensive, locally produced
building material in situations were the delivery of heavier materials would pose
problems. Timber can easily be combined with soil anchors and geotextiles in the
same way as concrete or steel. Round timber and sheet piles can provide an
economical wall for moderate heights of retained material. Examples of interlocking
timber sheet piles are given in BS 6349-2 (1988).
Further demonstration of the suitability of treated timber as foundation material is
provided by the permanent wood foundation or PWF (CWC, 1997). PWF is a load
bearing wood-frame system designed as a foundation for light-frame construction for
residential houses, commercial premises such as hotels and factories, and
agricultural buildings. Its use dates back to 1967 in Alberta, Canada. Water-based
pressure treated timber is laid directly onto a granular drainage layer 300mm deep.
This drainage layer prevents hydrostatic pressure building up against the foundations,
and allows timber framed basements to be constructed in suitable locations. All
connectors are corrosion resistant. A polythene moisture barrier extends over the
outside of the walls below ground level terminating at the top of the drainage layer
(Figure 14). A separate moisture barrier exists under the floor of the basement, either
over-site concrete or a suspended timber floor. There is no need for a damp proof
course between the timber footing plate and the bottom rails of the wall panels which,
like timber frame, comprise the main support of the structure.
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Figure 14: Permanent Wood Foundation (illustration Canadian Wood Council)

Stanchions and columns can be founded on footings comprising two layers of nailed
treated timber running at 90 degrees to each other (Figure 15). The timber footing is
laid on a thin layer of sand over undisturbed soil. A steel plate placed over the top of
the footing helps to transfer the load from the column over the timbers. The principal
advantages of these treated timber foundations are that they are economical, fast,
require less plant, and do not need measures to protect them from freezing - this last
aspect being particularly important in Canada. Timber foundations also make
excellent usage of an abundant, renewable and local material. Timber foundations
can also take the form of embedded poles with concrete pads and collars. Examples
of these types of foundation for countryside structures, together with half round timber
footings and an example of a simple wood foundation for a footbridge are given by
Jayanetti (1990).
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Figure 15: Timber column base (illustration Canadian Wood Council)
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10.0 BRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE

10.1 General practice for design of bridges in the UK
Bridges constructed from steel or concrete, whether highway or footbridges, are
generally designed using the BS 5400 series of Standards. This series comprises ten
parts, as follows:
Part 1
General statement giving design objectives and definitions.
Part 2
Specification for loads.
Part 3-5
Codes of practice for design of steel, concrete and composite

bridges.
Part 6-8
Specifications for materials and workmanship for steel, concrete and

composite bridges.
Part 9
Specification for bridge bearings.
Part 10
Code of practice for fatigue.
The partial factor design process for a bridge will primarily involve only two of the
above parts. Firstly the loads, and the partial safety factors for the loads, are obtained
from Part 2. Secondly the design (including partial safety factors for materials) is
undertaken in accordance with Part 3,4 or 5 depending on which construction
material is being used.
In the case of road bridges or bridges over roads, the Highways Agency (formerly
Department of Transport) has produced a number of Department Standards which
occasionally override the requirements of the BS 5400 Series. One such Department
Standard BD29/87 gives directions to engineers on how to design footbridges,
including timber types.
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An Outline Procedure For The Design Of Timber Footbridges Over Roads Or

In Urban Areas
In outline, the procedure may be considered in three stages, as follows:
1.
Establish the general arrangements for the bridge, taking note of the
requirements for layout and minimum dimensions given in DoT Departmental
Standard BD29/87.
2.
Evaluate the loads acting on the bridge, using the unfactored loads of BS
5400: Part 2, unless these are made more onerous by an HA Standard.
3.
Design the members of the bridge in accordance with BS 5268: Part 2 which
is a permissible stress code, used principally for timber members in buildings.
BS 5268 does however contain sufficient basic materials properties, fastener
design information and member design procedures for simpler types of
timber bridge, as explained above in the section dealing with materials.
An Outline Procedure For Design Of Timber Footbridges In Suburban Or Rural

Areas
Many engineers specialising in timber bridges consider the BS 5400/HA provisions for
minimum dimensions and loading too severe for lightly trafficked footbridges in
suburban and rural areas. For such footbridges, typical alternative procedures are
exemplified as follows:
1.
Establish the general arrangements for the bridge taking note of the minimum
dimensional recommendations given in publications such as "Footbridges in the
Countryside, Design and Construction" (Countryside Commission for Scotland,
1989).
2.
Evaluate the loads acting on the bridge using the unfactored loads of BS 5400:
Part 2, or consider making them less onerous on the basic of recommendations
given in publications such as the above.
3.
Design the bridge members in accordance with BS 5268: Part 2.
Examples of how the "Countryside Commission for Scotland" publication

recommends less onerous minimum dimensions and loadings are given in Tables 7
and 8 below:
Source of data
Location of bridge
DoT Standard
BD29/87
Urban area
Pedestrians only
1800
People with disabilities 2000
"Countryside Commission for

Scotland" publication
Accessible
Inaccessible
rural area
rural area (one(two-way
way traffic)
traffic)
1200
900
1700
1200
Table 7: Recommended deck widths (mm) for alternative bridge locations
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Source of data
BS 5400: Part 2
"Countryside Commission for

Scotland" publication
Location of bridge
Urban Area
Rural Area
Vertical imposed
uniformly distributed
load on bridge deck
(kN/m)
5.0
2.3 3.2
Horizontal load per

metre (kN/m)
perpendicular to
handrail
1.4
0.74 1.4
Table 7: Recommended imposed loadings for alternative bridge locations
Highways Agency criteria for layout and dimensions of footbridges

Layout of Footbridge
The HA (former DoT) Standard BD29/87 stipulates several criteria relating to the
layout of footbridges, some of which are quite fundamental to the bridge design.
These may be summarised as follows:
Access: Access to footbridges located adjacent to carriageways should be sited so
that pedestrians walking down the access face on-coming traffic. Plain ramped
access is preferred to stairs as it is more satisfactory for people in wheelchairs and
pedestrians pushing prams. However wherever possible both forms of access
should be provided.
Layout: The main span of a footbridge should, wherever possible, be at right angles to
the road carriageway.
Supports: Where a footbridge crosses a dual carriageway, preference should be
given to spanning both carriageways in a single span, to avoid the need for a support
in the central reserve. Supports which may be subject to collisions by errant vehicles
shall be designed to resist collision loading.
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Dimensions for footbridges

Width of bridges for pedestrians only:
The dimensions of the clear widths of the main span, ramps and stairs of a footbridge
would be derived on the basis of the information in Table 9 (below) meet the peak
pedestrian traffic.
Gradient
Clear width (mm)
< 1/20
300mm per 20 persons per minute
Steps or > 1/20
300mm per 14 persons per minute
Table 9: Recommended clear widths (mm) for alternative bridge gradients

Minimum widths of 1800mm for general purposes, or 2000mm stipulated for bridges
enhanced for use by disabled persons. Where bridges are to be designed for the
combined use of pedestrians and cyclists, further width requirements apply. These
range from a 1200mm wide footpath separated by a white line from a 500mm wide
cycle track, to a 1950mm wide lane for each, separated by railings. The DoT criteria
for heights of parapets vary according to the types and combinations of bridge user.
They are summarised in Table 10, below.
Type of footbridge
Parapet height (m)
Pedestrians only, where bridge is in area of

high prevailing winds or with headroom
under bridge greater than 10m
1.15 1.30
Pedestrians and cyclists
1.4
Table 10: Height requirements for bridge parapets

Stairway requirements may be summarised as follows:
Maximum number of stairs in a flight is 20
Riser dimension < 150mm
Tread dimension > 300mm.
It is a preference that ramps should not be steeper than 1 in 20. However if limitations
of space dictate then steeper ramps may be used, up to a maximum gradient of 1 in
12. For ramps with gradients greater than 1 in 20, landings must be provided in order
that the rise of any ramp section does not exceed 3.5m
Evaluation of loads using BS 5400: Part 2
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As mentioned above, timber footbridges are designed using the unfactored nominal
loads of BS 5400: Part 2. Interestingly, the use of unfactored nominal loads in
structural design is not only limited to timber, with the design of foundations and that
for aluminium structures also being based on unfactored loads. Where adequate
statistical distributions are available, the nominal loads in BS 5400: Part 2 are those
appertaining to a return period of 120 years.
The following types of nominal load relating to footbridges are considered by BS 5400:
Part 2
1. Permanent loads
Dead-weight of structural elements

Superimposed dead road surfacing, etc.
2. Live loads from pedestrian traffic
Nominal vertical live load

Nominal load on pedestrian parapets
3. Wind loads
Transverse
Longitudinal
Vertical
4. Loads from temperature effects

5. Erection loads
BS 5400: Part 2 suggests that in most cases snow loads can be ignored. This is
logical since the full pedestrian design load is improbable under heavy snow falls of
the duration likely to be experienced in the UK.
The maximum wind gust speed is evaluated by applying gust factors to mean hourly
wind speeds extracted from a map of isotachs. The magnitude of the gust factor
depends on the height of the bridge, and the horizontal wind loaded length. For
footbridges only, BS 5400: Part 2 allows the following reductions in wind load:
1. The mean hourly wind speed is reduced by 0.94, which is a conversion factor to
obtain 50-year return period values from 120-year return period values.
2. A reduction in the gust factor when the bridge is located in urban areas or a rural
environment with many windbreaks.
To use BS 5268: Part 2 for the design of bridge members, the designer has to decide
upon the service conditions for the bridge. This mainly involves deciding the exposure
and duration clauses that are appropriate for the member concerned. Experience has
shown that designers usually are on the conservative side by choosing to design
members using wet exposure stresses. With BS 5268, the threshold moisture
content between wet and dry exposure conditions is 18%. Hence this is often
unnecessarily conservative. For a vertical imposed uniformly distributed loading which
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represents a crowded bridge, experience has shown that designers usually select
medium-term duration. This is the duration class used with BS 5268 for snow loading
in the UK. Horizontal loads on handrails or parapets are usually designated as shortterm. This is the same load duration class as that arising from the case of a man
standing on a roof member.
10.2 Deflection limits

The limited guidance given in BS 5268: Part 2 regarding deflection limit is of little
relevance to the design of bridge members. Enquiries indicate that a static deflection
limit of Span/200 under imposed load only is often used for beam members. The
"Countryside Commission for Scotland" publication recommends a tighter limit of
Span/240 under total loading. Lightly precambered glulam bridge beams are often
designed using a deflection limit for live load only, which is permitted in principle by
BS 5268.
10.3 Eurocode 5
As explained above, it has proven possible to design acceptable timber footbridges
using BS 5268: Part 2 recommendations, supplemented by additional guidance from
elsewhere. The eventual publication of EC5, Part 2 will be a great step forward and
will be welcomed by everybody involved. Meanwhile, EC5, Part I is shortly to be
available. Thus even at this stage, the Eurocodes will bring advantages to the more
sophisticated aspects of timber engineering such as bridges.
EC5 introduces limit states design to timber for the first time in the UK. It is therefore
a more radical change for timber than the introduction of Eurocodes for other major
structural materials. EC5 contains the essential rules for design, but unlike the British
Code, BS 5268, it does not include material properties, tables of fastener loads and
other such other design information. An immediately obvious change is that wherever
possible, EC5 uses equations rather than tables. Also much of the nomenclature and
terminology is considerable different.
As in all instances of limit states design codes, EC5 will require clear thinking about
the distinction between ultimate and serviceability limit states. The latter are, of
course associated with deflections, deformations and vibration. EC5 treats these
matters in a considerably more sophisticated manner than their coverage in BS 5268.
As has already been pointed out, BS 5268 gives no adequate guidance related to
deflection limits for bridges. Furthermore it is likely that the Working Group dealing
with EC5, Part 2 will require to give considerable thought to the serviceability topics.
EC5 offers a number of advantages over BS 5268. It provides the opportunity to
design with a wide selection of materials and components. The use of characteristic
values for materials, based directly on test results, means that new materials and
components, which have achieved suitable technical approval can more easily be
assimilated, thus facilitating development and innovation. More guidance is given on
the design of built-up components than in BS 5268, and EC5 provides a unified
design and safety basis for laterally loaded dowel-type joints (nails, staples, screws,
bolts and steel dowels). The ENV contains no information on the design of joints using
connectors such as toothed plates, shear plates and split rings, but a procedure is
being developed through other sponsored research programmes. Interim guidance on
the design of such joints is contained in the UK NAD.
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10.4 Overseas practice - Decks

The principal function of a deck is to distribute the loads produced by the traffic to the
supporting elements of the bridge. If the deck is designed as a structural diaphragm, it
can be used as a major spanning element in its own right. It can also brace other
main components, and transfer horizontal wind or brake loads through to other parts
of the structure, and ultimately to the foundations.
Dependent on its location, a secondary function of the deck may be to protect the
main structure from moisture and mechanical damage from traffic. An effective and
durable protection of substantial parts of the timber structure may be achieved with
closed, high-level decks.
Structural timber decks have been used in North America since at least the 1930s.
Initially, nailed laminated construction was used. Timber-concrete composites were
also introduced at quite an early stage. Later, glued laminated beams connected with
shear devices started to be used extensively. Nowadays, structural timber decks
exist in many designs, using half-round timbers, sawn timber, glued laminated timber,
and structural timber composites of various types.
In parts of Europe, particularly the German-speaking countries, structural decks of all
the types mentioned above are found. A more traditional type, used on lighter bridges,
including footbridges, is the two-layer herringbone boarded pattern. This does not
make a major structural diaphragm contribution, in comparison with stressed
laminated decks, for example, but it does contribute to the lateral bracing of the
structure. A good example is in the large Main-Donau Canal 190 m long tension
ribbon bridge, described in STEP Lecture E17. There is significant coverage of
structural deck design in prEN Eurocode 5 Part 2.
Research and practise in structural decks of various forms has also occurred in the
Nordic countries and in Australia and New Zealand.
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Common Timber Deck Types In Canada:

Longitudinal and transverse nail-laminated (LNL/TNL) decks:
In longitudinal laminated decks, the timber laminations are orientated parallel to the
direction of the traffic, whereas in transverse laminated decks the laminates are
orientated perpendicular to the direction of the traffic flow.
Figure 16: Longitudinal laminated deck ( left) and transverse laminated deck
(right)
Nailed laminated decks consist of planks of timber laid on edge side by side. The
laminations are nailed together to form a slab. Nails are driven through the faces of
the planks to fix them together laterally.
1. Timber-concrete composite (TCC) decks:
A concrete topping is applied to a timber deck, traditionally a longitudinal nail
laminated type, giving the slab a concrete compression zone and wearing course.
Shear keys are required between the timber and the concrete layers.
2. Longitudinal or transverse stress laminated (LSL/TSL) decks:
In addition to nails, post tensioning is applied using high strength steel to improve the
load transfer of the deck. Although the stiffness of the timber is low perpendicular to
the grain, pre-stressing allows a plate action in the deck. Edge members are often
made of hardwood or steel, in order to avoid damage due to high bearing stresses
perpendicular to the grain at the pre-stressing points.
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Figure 17: Tension rods

3. Floor beam ( or timber tie) decks:
This type is a beam and plank deck. the planks overlay heavy transverse beams or
ties.
4. Two layer plank decks:
As above, but with two layers of heavy planks.
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Primary
highways
subjected to
high volume
of traffic
New bridges
on
secondary
roads with
medium
volume of
traffic
New bridges
on
secondary
roads with
low volume
of traffic
Lightly used
park and
forest
access
roads with
occasional
heavy
vehicles
Longitudinal
nail laminated
Very low
volume roads
with little or
no
commercial
traffic
Deck
replacement on
steel truss
bridges
Economical
when
supported on
timber pile
bents
Economical
alternative to
replacing
concrete
Can give higher
live load capacity
Speedy
replacement
Transverse
nail
laminated
On steel or
timber
girders
Timberconcrete
composite
Spans up to
7m
Longitudinal
stress
laminated
Viable option
Will span up
to 8m for
286mm deep
decks and
longer for
larger timber
sizes
Transverse
stress
laminated
Not yet used,

but shows
promise
On steel or
timber
girders
Floor beam
Economical
Two layer
plank decks
Economical
Table 11: Summary of the principal applications for various combinations of

timber decks, beams and other structures used for highway bridges in Canada
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11.0 FUTURE CHALLENGES

Fresh challenges constantly arise, both for timber engineering in general, and
specifically for bridges. Salient aspects of timber engineering materials and design
relating to timber bridges which are still under development are outlined as follows:
11.1 High efficiency composite materials

Although timber provides high specific strength and stiffness, until recently, its natural
variability remained a challenge. However, through efficient strength grading
procedures and associated quality assurance measures, timber and wood-based
composites offer variability levels as low as those attained in metallic engineering
materials, and certainly much lower than in many commonly used grades of
concrete.
High-strength softwood glued laminated beams, using laminations of adequate
controlled quality and regulated end jointing techniques, can be produced with
characteristic bending strengths up to typically 36 N/mm2. By substituting STCs for
the outer laminations, composite elements of 15~25% higher bending strength may
be guaranteed, without increase in weight. Such composite materials are comparable
in strength to high-performance reinforced concrete, but have a mass of only onequarter of the latter. European research is also in progress in which, by utilising
structural composites based on temperate hardwood veneers, bridge beams with
characteristic bending strengths greater than 60 N/mm2 are feasible, with weight
increases of only 15%.
11.2 New adhesive bonding technologies

The classical timber engineering adhesives have been proven adequate for small and
medium spans in buildings. However new technical and economical requirements
have been driving towards improved adhesives and new bonding techniques.
Adhesive bonding is only now becoming accepted in the field of bridge engineering in
general, with strides having been made in resin bonding technologies for the
refurbishment and upgrading of steel and concrete structures. Until recently, these
techniques have depended upon the use of steel as the bonded-on reinforcing
medium. Recently however, field trials and in situ monitoring have commenced on
bridges reinforced with Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRPs), involving such advanced
materials as Carbon Fibre.
In the light of such developments, the climate of acceptance has grown for the
possibility of the greater use of bonding technologies in timber bridge engineering.
prEN Eurocode 5 Part 2 Bridges contains an Informative Annex on the use of Gluedin Steel Rods. These rules have recently been supported by a major European
Collaborative research Programme, known as GIROD. This will permit bonded-in
rods to form safety critical connections in timber bridge structures, and also provide
the basis for calculations concerning bonded-in reinforcements for applications such
as large structural deck plates.
At present, the Eurocode Informative Annex design recommendations apply only to
steel rod-type reinforcements and connections, these having already been subjected
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to earlier research programmes including outdoor exposure assessments. However,

this research is now being extended to embrace bonded-in materials of other
classes, including FRP Pultrusions joined to timber and timber composites (Mettem,
1996).
Bridge parts depending upon adhesive bonding for their manufacture and assembly
entail substantial manufacturing planning and production arrangements, to ensure
that the conditions for correct control are met. In large decks and other bridge
structural members, sections of up to about 1m 2 of cross-sectional area have so far
been produced, and this upper limit is constantly being expanded.
11.3 Steel reinforced timber

As mentioned above in connection with new bonding technologies, steel
reinforcements are already being used within timber elements contained in bridge
structures. In prEN Eurocode 5 Part 2 Bridges, design rules can be found for
reinforced members, transversely reinforced timber, and for deck plates containing
such reinforcements.
Most frequently, these steel reinforced timber elements serve as high duty deck
plates, although local reinforcing also takes place in stress-critical zones in the main
structural members. Reinforcement is especially worth considering where elemental
design is restricted through the relatively low tensile strength of timber transverse to
the grain direction. It is also possible to use certain techniques to improve shear
resistance, in situations where the action effects tend to cause sliding of adjacent
fibres (known as shear parallel to the grain). Another instance where this type of
reinforcement may be considered is at notches and at other abrupt changes in
section, where stress concentrations can cause Mode I or Mixed Mode I/II crack
growth and fracture. Finally, it is considered in some instances where highly
concentrated action effects are to be transferred between parts of the structure, and
where greater strength can be attained if such forces are transferred to zones deep
within the receiving members.
Where timber road bridge decks are steel reinforced, in general, the bars or tendons
are located in directions inclined or parallel to the major fibre directions of the parent
wood. In some instances, bonded-in steel-reinforcements are pre-stressed, to
compensate for shrinkage effects which may occur with the components in service
11.4 Timber-concrete composites

Current timber-concrete composites are described above, and as stated, design
principles and application rules are already given in the structural timber Eurocodes.
Challenges which remain for such systems, include searching for ways of achieving
still further efficiency in the composite interaction benefits that can be achieved with
better, more durable, shear key systems. Effort is also concentrated on securing
continuous improvements in the sealing and moisture protection of these types of
deck.
11.5 Deck protection systems

Better deck protection systems are being given a high priority in several of the
research programmes outside the UK. Higher traffic speeds and intensities of wheel
passage have drawn attention to the need for greater deck protection against wetting
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that is spread from the vehicles themselves. Deck systems and structural elements
both need carefully designed protection to avoid cumulative damage from these
effects. To some extent, the timber deck and the main structure may be treated
independently in this regard.
12.0 PRIORITY WORK AREAS

This Report has set out the state of the art of timber bridge design in the UK, with
wider references to Europe in general. From this, it is possible to identify the priority
work areas in which it is felt that effort should be concentrated, from a UK point of
view.
12.1 Innovative Timber Engineering for the Countryside

The above is the title of the Pilot Project in which BRE and TRADA Technology are
engaged as Technology Providers.
1.
Review serviceability criteria for footbridges in all materials.
2.
Continue bridge survey work, paying special attention to serviceability

performance and durability aspects.
3.
Carry out design studies leading to the construction of prototypes which are
to be used for serviceability assessments and durability monitoring.
4.
Produce nationally applicable design guidance.
5.
Maximise the use of UK grown species in sizes (round and sawn) likely to be
available locally for bridge construction
Within item 3 above, the initial design studies have already led to the conclusion that
there are four areas where supplementary design guidance is required. These are as
follows:
1.
The design and detailing of bracing systems to ensure member stability and
to resist horizontal wind loads
2.
Methods to ensure satisfactory vibration performance of bridges under

human footfalls
3.
Simple methods to ensure that the excitation of bridges by wind is avoided.
4.
In the case of mechanically laminated beams, a simplified method of

evaluating deflections is required.
12.2 prEN Eurocode 5, Part 2

The Project Team has identified several priority areas coinciding with those felt to be
necessary in the UK. The following have been suggested:
1.
The dynamic behaviour of bridges under pedestrian and wind loadings.
2.
The fatigue behaviour of connections.
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3.
Timber-concrete composite behaviour.
4.
Bonded-in steel rods.
5.
Durability requirements for timber bridges, including those for the connectors.
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13.0 CONCLUSIONS
Timber engineers have the expertise to provide aesthetically exciting, well-protected,
and durable bridge structures. To achieve impact, economic drivers must be
harnessed, to unlock consumer and specifier indifference. Key motivators include:
National cycle routes

City regeneration, calling for aesthetically exciting, well-performing links.
Canal and rail regeneration
Marina and dockside development
Housing developments, with associated bridging needs.
Forest roads and infrastructure maintenance in remote regions.
Linking to value-added forest products.
The use of sustainably grown and locally produced timber for bridge, foundation and
sea defence engineering will increasingly be seen as favourable. In addition there are
concerns and moves in Europe away from the use of timber treatments such as
creosote and Copper Chrome Arsenic. Applied research and development,
demonstration projects, and benchmarking involving the use of domestic grown
timber are seen as vital. Above all, however, well-informed promotion is recognised
as of paramount importance in unlocking demand for timber bridges as flagship
projects in sustainable development, environmental protection, and improvements to
the quality of life.
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INNOVATIVE TIMBER ENGINEERING

FOR THE COUNTRYSIDE - InTeC

Timber Bridges and

Timber Bridges and Foundations

G Freedman - FCE (InTeC chairman)

BRE Ltd, Bucknalls Lane, Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR

Building Research Establishment Ltd 2002

Timber Bridges and Foundations

National cycle routes

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT BACKGROUND

THE HISTORY OF TIMBER BRIDGES

Bridges in ancient history

THE OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT OF TIMBER BRIDGES

CATEGORIES OF TIMBER BRIDGES

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

History and overseas Use

BRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE

General practice for design of bridges in the UK

High efficiency composite materials

PRIORITY WORK AREAS

Innovative Timber Engineering for the Countryside

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

TTL, BRE, FCE

Timber Bridges and Foundations

Figure 1: Modern timber road bridge - Evenstad, Norway; 5 spans of bowstring

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

2.0 THE HISTORY OF TIMBER BRIDGES

Figure 2: An arch of Trajan's bridge, modelled by architectural historians,

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

2.2 Mediaeval bridges

2.3 The renaissance & the growth of trade

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

Figure 3: Bridge designs by Leonardo da Vinci (photo CM/Trada)

2.4 Long spans the triumphs of bridge carpentry

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

2.5 The dawning of industrialisation

2.6 Laminated timber from mechanical to reliable adhesive technology

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

2.7 The railway era

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

2.8 Protective design lessons from history

2.9 Maintenance of historic timber bridges in Britain

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Timber Bridges and Foundations

continuous maintenance and replacement of timber elements, using like-for-like

2.10 New materials

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Timber Bridges & Foundations Forestry Commission

Timber Bridges & Foundations Forestry Commission