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I. INTRODUCTION
OST distribution systems require reactive power compensation to improve the power factor, save demand
charges, or to release additional active power from existing
equipment or for voltage support, i.e., the reactive power
support required to arrest the voltage drop on loss of a plant
generator. The nonlinear loads are increasing, i.e., pulp and
paper mill distribution systems invariably have adjustable-speed
drive (ASD) systems, which may form a considerable percentage of overall plant load. When power capacitors are used
for reactive power compensation, it becomes necessary to turn
them in to filters to escape harmonic resonance problems with
one of the load-generated harmonics It is not uncommon to
apply passive filters in the megavar range and filters totaling
some tens of megavars in a large installation may be required.
An improvement in power factor from 0.85 to 0.9 for a system
demand of 100 MVA requires approximately 10 Mvar of
compensation. Passive filters have been extensively used to
simultaneously meet one or more objectives and also meet the
requirements of IEEE Std. 519 with respect to total demand
distortion (TDD) at the point of common coupling (PCC)
[1]. Passive filters have also been extensively used in HVDC
systems, arc-furnace installations, and static var compensators
(SVCs) to name a few more applications.
Fig. 1 shows common types of passive filters, their configuration, and plots. The single-tuned (ST) filter, also
Paper PID 0335, presented at the 2003 IEEE Pulp and Paper Industry Conference, Charleston, SC, June 1520, and approved for publication in the IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Pulp and Paper Industry
Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted
for review June 20, 2003 and released for publication September 24, 2003.
The author is with AMEC E&C Services Inc., Decatur, GA 30030 USA
(e-mail: jay@amec.com).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2003.821666
Fig. 1.
called low-pass filter or bandpass filter is most commonly applied, however, one filter may not be adequate to filter effectively all the troublesome harmonics. Two single-tuned filters
will have characteristics identical to a double bandpass filter.
The plot of a second-order high-pass filter (a first-order
high-pass filter consisting of a series resistor and capacitor is not
used) shows that the minimum impedance of this type of filter in
its passband is higher than that of a single-tuned band-pass filter.
A high-pass filter will allow a percentage of all harmonics above
its notch frequency to pass through. This results in large rating
at fundamental frequency and high losses in the resistor. The
filter is commonly applied for higher frequencies and notch reduction. The composite filter consists of two branches of bandpass filters and a parallel branch of high-pass filter for higher
frequencies. This configuration is commonly applied to arc-furnace loads.
The filter types shown in Fig. 1 are generally adequate for
industry applications. The other filter types are third-order
damped filter and the recently introduced type C filter, applied
to transmission systems. The characteristics of passive filters
are described in [2][6]
II. RELATIONS IN AN ST FILTER
Fig. 2 shows an ST filter in a distribution system and
Fig. 2(b) shows the equivalent circuit. The filter and the
equivalent Thvenin system impedance are in parallel and the
harmonic current injected at a node through impedance
divides into the filter and the system impedances:
(1)
is the injected harmonic current, is the current
Where
is the current in the filter. The harmonic
in the system and
233
Fig. 3.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. Lumped distribution system and its equivalent circuit for harmonic
injection.
where
(2)
is the equivalent impedance of the utilitys source and the
distribution system as seen from the point of application of filter.
Therefore,
(3)
(7)
gives the quality factor of the tuning reactor
(8)
It determines the sharpness of tuning. The passband is
bounded by frequencies at which
and
(4)
where
and
are complex quantities, which determine the
distribution of the harmonic current in the filter and the system
impedance. The equations could have been written in terms of
admittances, too. A properly designed filter will have close to
(9)
(10)
The plot of the impedance is shown in Fig. 3. The sharpness
of tuning is dependent on as well as
and reducing these
234
(12)
,
is tuned frequency, and is fundamental
where
frequency.
Thus, the presence of a series reactor increases the reactive
power output of the capacitor. This is so because the voltage
drop in the reactor is added to the capacitor voltage and the
voltage at the junction of capacitor and reactor rises
(13)
The reactive power output of an ST filter tuned to
,
therefore, approximately 4% higher than that without the reactor.
The harmonic loading on the capacitor for a filter tuned to
harmonic is given by
Fig. 4. Distribution system for the example with predominantly drive system
load.
At harmonic , the harmonic current divides into the resistance and inductance. The inductive component of the current
is
(18)
where
is the current through the reactor and
is the total
harmonic current. The harmonic loading is, therefore,
(19)
(14)
and the fundamental frequency loading of the filter reactor is
(15)
235
TABLE I
HARMONIC SPECTRUM OF SIX-PULSE LOAD (FIG. 4)
(22)
Reference [1] may be seen for an explanation of symbols and
details of this expression. Using this and related expressions,
the operating power factor of the nonlinear load is calculated as
0.83.
The load flow shows a demand of 5.279 MW and 3.676 Mvar
from the 115-kV system, including system losses. A 1200-kvar
capacitor bank at the 4.16-kV bus will reduce the reactive power
input from the 115-kV source to 2.44 Mvar, and give an overall
power factor of 0.91, approximately.
C. Step 3: Ascertain Short-Circuit Level and Load Demand
at PCC
To calculate the permissible TDD, the short-circuit level at
the PCC and the load demand over a period of 15 or 30 min is
required [1]. For this example, the 4.16-kV bus is considered as
the PCC, the short-circuit level is 36.1 kA, the load demand
800 A, the ratio
, and the permissible IEEE TDD
distortion limits are as shown in Table II.
D. Step 4: Conduct Harmonic Analysis Study
It is not the intention of this paper to get into the details
of the harmonic modeling of system components and the
236
TABLE II
HARMONIC ANALYSIS AND FILTER DESIGN
237
phase. Then, three cans per phase give a kvar of 450.42 per
phase, i.e., a three-phase kvar of 1351.3 at the operating voltage
of 4.16 kV. The capacitive reactance is 12.788 per phase and
the capacitance
E
F.
The results of harmonic analysis are shown in row 3 of
Table II. The calculated parallel resonance frequency is
822825 Hz (a step of 3 Hz was used in the calculation),
maximum impedance angle 89.64 , and minimum impedance
. Thus, the amplification of 13th harmonic
angle
current is apparent in Table II. The distortion at this harmonic
. If a voltagetime
is 50.5% and the overall TDD
curve is plotted, it will be highly distorted. Thus, adding the
capacitors has increased the harmonic distortion, and a resonant
condition exists around the 13th harmonic.
3) Harmonic Analysis With Capacitors Sized to Eliminate
Resonance: Sometimes an attempt is made to size and locate
the capacitors so as to eliminate resonance. The resonant frequency can be placed at a harmonic or its fraction, which is not
generated by the load. The resonant frequency can be estimated
from (6), which can be written is more convenient form as
(24)
where
is the short-circuit kVa and
is the size of the
capacitor.
From (24), if the size of the capacitor bank is reduced, the
resonant frequency will shift upwards. A capacitor bank of 1192
kvar at 4.16 kV (500 kvar per phase formed out of 2.77-kV individual capacitor cans) will shift the resonance to around 900
Hz. As the load does not generate this frequency, resonance can
be escaped. The harmonic analysis in row 3 of Table II confirms
this. Although the distortion at the 13th harmonic is reduced, the
distortion at a number of lower harmonics exceeds the permissible limits and total TDD is at an unacceptable level of 30.86%.
Thus, sizing or relocating the capacitors in a distribution system
rarely succeeds due to the following.
The resonant frequency will swing with respect to the
switching conditions.
The required reduction in harmonic distortion at all the required frequencies can rarely be achieved, especially when
the nonlinear loads form a considerable percentage of load
demand.
given by
(26)
238
239
When considering detuning, it is necessary to check the efficacy of the final filter design for various switching conditions
of the plant. These can also cause detuning. The filter design, as
discussed, is sensitive to the utilitys source impedance.
where
is the coupled frequency,
is the main circuit
and
are the inductances and
switching frequency,
and
are the
capacitances of the secondary circuit, and
inductance and capacitance in the main circuit. If possible, a
single strategy for location of the capacitors in a distribution
system should be adopted rather than spreading these out at
multivoltage levels.
1) Consider Negative-Sequence Loading of the Plant Generators, if Present: The harmonics can be particularly damaging to the synchronous generators. The reverse rotating 5th
harmonic and the forward rotating 7th harmonic will produce a
6th harmonic in the generator rotor circuit. Similarly, the harmonic pair 11th and 13th will produce 12th harmonic. The unbalance and the negative sequence capabilities of the generators
can be exceeded [2].
ratio of the filter reactor at
2) Consider Q Factor: The
fundamental frequency determines the filter factor and Fig. 3
shows that sharper tuning can be achieved and passband reduced
with higher s. However, in industrial filter design, it can be
20 to 100, the response is undistindemonstrated that for
guishable. Thus, the fundamental frequency active power loss
and heat dissipation becomes a major consideration for large
filter reactors is anfilter reactors. The initial cost of high
other consideration and the initial investment needs to be viewed
in terms of energy costs.
3) Consider Presence of Nearby Nonlinear Loads: The
utilitys system may serve other customers from the same
service, which may have nonlinear loads or power capacitors.
These could effect the performance of filters. The utilitys
source impedance may exhibit a spiral shape characteristics
with respect to harmonics, rather than being a single-valued
function.
4) Consider All Possible Switching Conditions: It is necessary to consider the filter performance with varying plant operating conditions and readjust the filter designs.
A basic flowchart of the ST filters is shown in Fig. 7, although
it does not show all the iterative processes.
(27)
2) The rms current including all harmonics should not exceed 1.8 per unit
(28)
3) The limits on rms voltage are given by
(29)
4)
(31)
240
Fig. 7.
Limitations:
1) Passive filters are not suitable for changing system
conditions. Once installed, these are rigidly in
place. Neither the tuned frequency nor the size of
the filter can be changed so easily. The passive elements in the filter are close-tolerance components.
2) A change in the system operating conditions can
result in some detuning, although a filter design
should consider operation with varying loads and
utilitys source impedance.
3) The system impedance largely affects the design.
To be effective, the filter impedance must be less
than the system impedance, and the design can become a problem for stiff systems.
4) Outage of a parallel branch can totally alter the resonant frequency, resulting in overstressing of filter
components and increased harmonic distortion.
5) The parallel resonance between the system and
filter (shifted resonance frequency) for ST or DT
filters can cause an amplification of the current at
characteristics and noncharacteristics harmonics.
A designer has limited choice in selecting tuned
frequencies and ensuring adequate bandwidth
between shifted frequencies and even and odd
harmonics.
6) Damped filters do not give rise to a shifted resonant
frequency; however, these are not as effective as a
group of ST filters.
7) The aging, deterioration, and temperature effects
may increase the designed tolerances and bring
about detuning, although these effects can be
considered in the design stage.
8) Definite-purpose circuit breakers are required. To
control switching surges, resistor switching and
synchronous closing may be required, although
the filter reactors will reduce the magnitude of the
switching inrush current and its frequency. The
switching surges, their problems, and mitigation
are not discussed in this paper.
9) The grounded neutrals of wye-connected banks
provide a low-impedance path for third harmonics.
Third harmonic amplification can occur in some
cases. (For industrial systems, the three-phase
capacitor banks are, generally, connected in ungrounded wye configuration.)
10) Special protective and monitoring devices (not discussed) are required.
11) ST or DT filters are not possible to employ for certain loads like cycloconverters or when the power
system has interharmonics (not discussed in this
paper) [2].
12) The filters can either be switched on or off.
Thus, a stepless control of reactive power with an
increase of load demand is not possible. The filter
banks can be switched in and out with voltage, current or reactive power control, to avoid generation
of leading reactive power at light loads.
241
REFERENCES
[1] Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Systems, IEEE Std. 519-1992.
[2] J. C. Das, Power System Analysis-Short-circuit, Load Flow and Harmonics. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2002.
[3] J. Arrillaga, D. A. Bradley, and P. S. Bodger, Power System Harmonics. New York: Wiley, 1985.
[4] D. A. Gonzalez and J. C. McCall, Design of filters to reduce harmonic
distortion in industrial power systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol.
IA-23, pp. 504512, May/June 1987.
[5] J. K. Phipps, A transfer function approach to harmonic filter design,
IEEE Ind. Applicat. Mag., vol. 3, pp. 6882, Mar./Apr. 1997.
[6] A. Ludbrook, Harmonic filters for notch reduction, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Applicat., vol. 24, pp. 947954, Sept./Oct. 1988.
[7] A. D. Grahm and E. T. Schonholzer, Line harmonics of converters
with DC-motor loads, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 19, pp. 8493,
Jan./Feb. 1983.
[8] J. C. Read, The calculations of rectifier and inverter performance characteristics, J. Inst. Elect. Eng. (U.K.), pp. 495509, Oct. 1945.
[9] R. Yacamini, Power system harmonics, Part 2: Measurements and calculations, Power Eng. J., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 5156, 1995.
[10] IEEE task force on harmonic modeling and simulation of propagation of harmonics in electrical power systemsPart I, concepts models
and simulation techniques, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 11, pp.
452465, 1996.
J. C. Das (SM76) received the B.A. degree in mathematics and the B.E.E. degree from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, in 1953 and 1956, respectively, and the M.S.E.E. degree from Tulsa University, Tulsa, OK, in 1982.
He is currently Staff Consultant, Electrical Power
Systems, AMEC E&C Services Inc., Decatur,
GA. He is responsible for power system studies,
including short circuit, load flow, harmonics,
stability, grounding, and also, protective relaying. He
has authored or coauthored more than 40 technical
publications and is the author of Power System Analysis (New York: Marcel
Dekker, 2002). His interests include power system transients, harmonics,
power quality, protection, and relaying.
Mr. Das is a Member of the IEEE Industry Applications and IEEE Power
Engineering Societies. He is also a Member of TAPPI and of CIGRE, a Fellow
of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, U.K., a Life Fellow of the Institution
of Engineers (India), and a Member of the Federation of European Engineers
(France). He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States of Georgia and
Oklahoma, a Chartered Engineer (C.Eng.) in the U.K., and a European Engineer
(Eur.Ing.).