Images, Iconoclasm, and The Carolingians

I MAGES, I CONOCLASM, and tile
C AROLINGIANS
Thomas F. X. Noble
n [he year 726 c. E., the BYLantine emperor
Leo
III issued an edict declaring images to be idols,
forbidde n by Exodus, and ordering all such images

in churches co be destroyed . Thus was set
011' the
first wave of Byzamim: ico noclasm, which ran its

"iolene course um J ;8;, when the underlying issues
were temporarily resolved at [he Second Counci l of

Nicaca. In 815, a seco nd great wave of iconoclasm
was set 0([, only
to
were rescored
[he churches of the East and the
to
end in 842, w hen (he icons
iconoclasts exco mmunicated.

The iconoclast concroversies have lo ng been
undcrsrood as marking majo r hssures between
the \Vcsrcrn and Eastern churches. In Images,
Iconoclasm. alId rill: Carolinglans, Thomas F. X.

Noble reveals (hat the lin es of di\~sion wc rc not
so dear.
It is t raditionally maintained that the
Caro lingians in the 790S did not understand the

basic issues involved in the Byzantine dispute.
Noble contends that th ere was, in fact., a signihcant
Carolingian controversy about visual an and, if its
tics
to
Byzantine iconoclasm were tenuous, they
were also compl ex and deeply rooted in central

co ncerns of the Carolingian court. Furc.hc rmore,
he asserts that the Caro lingians made distinctive
and o riginal co ntribut ions
to
the whole debate over
rel igious an .
Imagr$. Iconoclasm, alld dll! ClirolillbrillllS is the first

book
to
provide a comprehensive study of the
\Vesrern response co Byzantine iconoclasm.
By
comparing art-texts with laws, leners, poems,

an d other sou rces, Noble reveals the power and
magnitude of the key discourses of the Carolingian
wo rld during its most dynamic and creative decades.
11w P' 'r ... _ of"'" " " - ..... ~

A... of do< U.. ......,.ofN..... D.....
All ~........J.. F......

"'~
Or' _
&- "" I...;.... ...
r..Ni.hN~
U.... .....,. of .............. .....

PhOloddplo ....... "".,. .... _
",
, S~ "
""
......,..",....'..
.. "'" I"'~
r.. b<;,t.......,.... """ ... """'"'" of .......... ~itO.OWIY W'- _
"'>01< ""T"' ~ io - , ..... t.,. -, ....... _
""7"
s.~
01
wm.. ~ _ '"' poIoIobn
CONTENTS
Introduction
CHAPTER ONE
An, Icons, and Their Critics and Defenders Before the Age of Iconoclasm
CHAP T ER TWO
Byzantine Iconoclasm in the Eighth Century
46
CHAPTER T H REE
An and An Tal k in the West in the First Age of Iconoclasm

CHAPTER
FO U R
The Franks and N icaea: Opus CaroN Rtgii

CHAPTER
[58
F[VE
Tradition, Order, and Wo rship in the Age of Charlemagne

CHAPTER StX
The Age of Second Iconoclasm
244
C HAPTER SEVEN
Art and Argument in the Age of Louis the Pious

CONCLUSION
NOTES
366
37 '
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
[[[
437
481
AC KNO W L EDGMENTS
487
287
207
[0
Introduction
n- shalt ...' ..... M"to ,iN- nJ 1'4"'" '-t'. ., ~"7Ii"""" of.""hi"f

,hot, it;~ th< liN.... aN'" rhd, It ,. tht M"h ......th. or m", it i~ Jo.
Of
__ M...Mo Jo.-.urI..
-F.. od", '0 .

I. Jo. ~ of EM..,..U 4" ;, ~ "'Jfo.Jt to _ _ ""J ~nL fur
_"
_ _ sha. Jo. ..1m""". ofm. C"'-' '-t''' 'N r.hriJti.Jn
"'"'"'
- bn .. KjIli"5<" .. n.: Cult
un"'....-
GO"' "''' . ''1 1"0 1\1".... ,..j,h Ki"jng ' gI"" ... ke . s '" .ho kc." of . long.
"'mctim", hi"" , nd .1 ......)"> f.....,i!U.,i"ll- ~h.p1<' in ,he hi"".i", of
of Chri ...
,i. ni,y, .nd "f Wes,<'" ",1",,<. Th" b<><tl f"""o<> on o ne in>p"'n.n, hu, ne
g1c<>ed . nd mi,undc<s[ood ..-gm<m of too.. hi""rid. B<r","n 790 .nd 840. in
differing ,;r<;um ".,nca .nd ",""h differing .im, .nd inmion., C.mlinsi.n
... ritO'. p,oduo;cd hundrtd. of ~ of imdlig<m. 'm""ing. and n(\1 inf",.
quem ly polemicl wri, i,,!: .bo", Ch,i"i." "'. Thi, hook
.nd ino<,!"o"
. 00st t"'U. In .bout 79'>. ThroJ"lf uf
with the lid of $C>'"",I of hi'
",,,.. mpo,,,,i .., ,od 00 the
"" "",.,,,1 of O"rle"ug''''. h<vn '0 wri ..
, he 0"", c,....J;. Thi. "'.,
of ><v< ...1 h",.drtd P"g<S . h.. O>1<n.;bly
fotmed ,portl< to the dcci.iom of the Sccond Council o( N"" ... of 787
1IfC'" ....:mbJr
hlod pm. ["mpo"''r end [0 B)fZl!ntinc
Just .I1e,
li40 }om.. of Orlb.n>--<h" he .nd TheoJ" lf "'. ". hi""'"", of the .. one ... i.
purdy coi ocidcntal_l"'t .he fi"i>h;ng to""h", to hi> 0. ntln. i-inurn. Jon....
[fu,il<. origi ... lly Ix-g.. n >< , he 'I.""" of Loui, [h. I''''u. ,n 817 ,nd compkr""
un the ur<kr of Ch 1cs the fuM. <ponded , .hoc iconocl m of Bi.hop Clau_
di", ofTufi ~ ~nd to m""h <II< bai.dc..
W,i,ingJ .bo", Ch" " i,n m. or .hour ",hlo, ,;....1 ,n, Chri", .. , migh'
.n.
""I'''''''
O.k.",.
"ud,,,,
,,,,,,,i..
rI" "
"""""bsm.
ho.., .00 how ,hey migh' US< ,h.m, kp.n wi,h ,t..: t pologim in ,h ...:ond
,<n""y.' y", no, un,it 'he <igh'h o;cn,uty did ,h. llrun'i"" w<>dd
in 0
rin ... di"' .... io" of ,h. ""ptop'i"~. of Chri,,;'n ~gurol .n. Th. so.ealkd
"i"""",u"i,
'MY' ,Iu: ,.;rn,1'$ go< '0 IUI1IC ,h. 1:.. 1.
,t..: I,,,,,,.-Iw bn ailed "one of , .... gr<a"'" poli'ical .nd cultu ..1cri<cs of
lI,....n';um .""' Mo .... ,h..n .his. ;...... undouh.I1y .,n. of ..., m.;Or ""nR;':" ;n
,h. histoty of ,he CI,ri",." Ch"rch, ... AIII""d. of lif....", ffoal by ,t..:
""oAi.1I
of """cty w<l< ;""oIvcd in ,h uuggIe. The Gglu ...... ";oIon'.
biu" . nd <k:\J><"', ",
rpri.;nglr. ,hen, a majo< .u,ho,ity """ ..y , h.., tho
'conod.>,," ""n,rov<J'S)'
g,"hly . he ""';0' "",nif..,.,i"" of ch..ngo .oJ
",,",inuily in early mliC'r.llllynn,ium. n,
llyumine ironoct..m <:In """ coursn, Th. fi", u,,1 from 7'6 fO 787 .nd
.h. """"nJ from Sr) '0 84'_ As "",I ju" .Ixw<, Th..,dulf wr" .. ,he Opw c.",o
'" r"""",d ,,, ,Iu: cvuotcil ,h .. pur.n.nd '" ,h. firs, ph,"", oficnnocluon. DiJ
\"('" ,rn CQft'mv<:<>y ""i,,' If """, ~ i, 0 SK'" oi,isl Did i, ,hoke tho (W~n)
Chris,:"n Chu h '" it< foundori,,,,,1 Don i, ......a!<ignifican, for"" of rh. ngd
U, wli)' ,..., m,wers '0 ,1tQC q.,..'.,,,. ... . 11 in 'he "'V,i"". Th. \"('.. m
irn.gt di ......
n ... N'H.........M~~"S, ... *.ide .huw." to ,he Ilyun.
,in< n" in even'. It is u" ..1Iy .,Sued ,h" ,h. Carolinsi.n, in ,he 790' . . mply
did not undo ..",nd the ha<i< i...... invul..-d in 'ho B)"Un,in. dispul<. In
ho"h." ,ellinr,. , he Corol;ngi.", 01< .lIege<! .0 h.v, I. dt<d Gl<'<k 00.:.1<> and
b.mior,. "" wdl .. an undct-rutnding of ,h. phil_phial ,nd ,heoIogical ,...di
,ion. of ,he G.k Church. In the mild", 'ellinr,. 'he Corolingi. n. Iud poor
, ,,n.t.,;"n. of ,he t~ of II Ni""", pcm'P-' ind<l. m<r< ex'rac, from ."',... Iurni""u. docurnen,,_ Corol'ng;.n wri,;ngs W<t(. in .ny C1, w"hou, d;"' n_
ihl. inA""n "" ,he con,inuing COIl .... of II)""OIin< 'conoct.,m .nd, say wh"
"n ..... ill .1:>0<" ,he Nicen. dn4. ,h ub.eq,n. wri,ings of nin,h..".,ruty lIyun
,in. ing< ,hcolog'. n, _'" <"h~, unknown o. unrem .. ke<! in rh. \\'.. ,_ AI_
,Iooug. '~i"r )-.-u. >S" 1'".. It""," .. iJ
,he iam,,,,I ..,i, COotmv<:"y ......
"in the grip< of. "ri.is of u"",in'n!"""i". " "" On< coulJ ,h.n '" ""uld ""'"
.. ). ,h... me abou, the Wcs'.' T" 'his J . ). ,h.re ..i ... ""i,hcr. compr.hens;"'.
<be.,!"i.,n.,. "'-'pl.",uiQn of ,h. W"" ... n ''''f'O'''' fO lI,....n';n. icorwxlwn o
,horough .CCOUn. of C.rolingian rdi<'Ct,on' "n im. gcs. Th,. book c" ns,;,u,,,,
.u...
""n,,,,.,rsy"_
""U,
oft ..
N", ....
wo, "..
.,o "....
,h.
,ho.
/i", ,uch '''''''P''
In.,,, wu. ,n f..... C.rolingi.n ."",m,.,,), . hou, ..;"ul 1M hill i".ies.o
1I,....,,';n. '0>"0<1..", ... nU<>\u ,00 comple>. Thus .10.", ;,.n 01'P"""n,1)'
h., ,h. Co"~i"!9.n di ........ i"" ",,,"!Iy i, linked t<>. I <It> not deny ,h..,
Th.,-,.!ulf tOOk it .. hi, fi", tool. to ''''I''md '0 ,h. <c>nd Nice"" """neil. ,,'"
1 do -....en ,h .. hi, reo""n .. is 'on,e<! &:q>ly ;n =r,,1 con.n, of ,h. C.mling.
'0"" ..
IOn
>~n
;n [hc )"""
b<~n
,00...[ 780 ,nd 800. G oodnl b)' II N;ClCI ,he
0,,01;<>19'''' ""~ ,he",,,,I""';II di"i""i..., ""'Y'
,bou,
l'''*'leo>, ,h" ~e
impon' nl [0 ,hom ,nd ,h., were fund, mem.lly dilf.rem from m.ny, but no<
.11. o( ,h. pfObkm. [h .. cx<,c;,.ro [he Byunrin... V, ...-..l in thi, "'.y. the
61",/1 becomes I"" , n i!>COmperent 'n unrompreh.ndin& re.pon", to Brun,jum ",.n cunning.Ibei, un6ni>h<il , nd unpo!iohed, . temen' o( basic
Fr.,n k'oJ, COncc,n,.
When the frank.< re,utt...J
the ,ubjt of im,&<" in the 8.0<. tht)' ...,,'"
p..,mp'cd ,,, do '" hr tht llrun"ne' ~n J. ao in
790'- ,=oJ ,Ji";ne<i,,
!",[h . EmpelOf MOdu<, w''l1< ''l Loui, ,he Pious 1(' . nlO ..
hi, ,id..,d 'Uppofl , nd I'l <lI1'!. io hi, "WO ""i'ln, in ,he r",,- t.o"i, ....,mhled
hi. ,t.rolotian" At
in 81\ 'ht)' produced. b'1\< d,... ., of m...",b ,h ..
seem to '<$pO<Id O1Ily p.n;'II)' to [hc b ., of Midw:1 II .nd [0 co""'pond only
in obl;que waY' with the ,u.s du" Iud "".cted tho ."cn,ion ofThrodulf .nd
e!u,km'gn.' ,,,h., k<:y .dvi",,,. Oncc win, h"we"."
COOtt fo, the
tle:ui><> writt.n .. P, ri, in 8,S io [0 Ix: sough[ . mid m.jo, prcoccup-:u;"ns of
Lou;"he Piou,..,d hi, kC)' ."""i.... ,0 the
fif,..,n 01..,
o(
",ign
of Ch>rlcm'gn<', hci,.
A, jun .bou, ,IK ,ime when Loui.'. ,hrologi. n. werr g,.. hering in P.rio ,he
F,::mki,h wo,ld <!>COun,."", . Itorne-gro",," .11.."",ion . Chadiu, ofTulin, ,h.
Sop,;rn.,,"'" p,oI:>.>hly V"igOlhic. bishop, ,h~n, .".l.rch """0,,,,,;,1;51,
w<:m on ... mp>g< of i""'g< dCSII"qion , nd ironophobic plOp>g>nd . Loui.
dimoted -"mao of O,le, n. ...+'0 Iud p,,,,W;kd .. ,h. p,ri, delibe .. ,ion., '0 n:.pond '0 Cbadiu . He did", by begi nning hi' D< "''''' ;",ar;i~~'" byt under
.Iiglllly m),>'criouJ <1lO1m"",,ccs laid if ",id., unnni,hed . O[h<l w,;,.". how_
""", look up pens--o .... ,Im<< ,.id cudII"b---.>g:oin>< (;l. udi..,: 11""",kmil.
,he.bbo< of Psalmody and Du~!;>I . the chief .. hoolm,n in PaY;'. mo>1 promi.
n.mly. AgoIurd 0( 1.yon , m .. n...-hile, ,,~ighed in on his'l",n " 'i,h . ,<e>ti .. ,h ..
.. p~ f'CS<'".. ,ion, .bou, Ch,;"i,o .n m.u:h g.."Ct
,Ito", ,,,icul.,ed hy
,he Pari, throl"ll;'n" Throdimi,. 0' DunS'l, bm In< =klc.s [!un [ho", of
Cl.ydi .... S,ill ",h ",,;.--II.-.wnu. M,uru,> Eloban.l . anJ W.I.hfrid
S, .. '0 mcmion ,he ,h= mm< plOminen, on<>-,",'..". On ." ,,., bu, dOl
'"' i" ,e,nu o>ole .pp",.;ng ,ha" ,h.,.. I'...... d by A&>ba,d .tld CbuJiu . )'Ct
quite diffi:rcnt o n k<y po,n" from thooc of joR'" . nd DURpl . The con"" fo'
ohio Carolingian l"Il"ouchy io ,h. ,urhukm wOlld of ,hc 8)0> when ,he F... nt..
lOugh, ci"il "'.", <ndured foreign .I1"u, . nd "'eou.",d ,he buoy,n, '>p,;m"m
,h" h.d ch" ...... ri=! ,he ",;g" "rCh"Ie""ll'" ,nd ,t.. .,Iy yeo" of u>u;, ,h.
Pi",,,
S"nd" d "'Oft.. un Catolinp.n .n hinory "rely discu .. the t:ot,l<$ . nd
0,..,
'0
,\0.
p.,,,
,h.
ye'" ,h.
fi",
,h".
oo.
'~UODUCTlO"
doo.,mcn" i"" ....... ,ionl. To. <kgret ,hi, negkc, is ju"i~,blc bca, ... nny
of ,h..., Caroling"," ,.... ,bot" a"is,iH an ..,.m '0 Iu", voy li,d o do wi[h
pet ... A.. I >-holl rtp::a.edly -'SI><. Mn''''''<r>ics ,Iu. wn. sp>ricJ by "'me
probl<m Iuving '" 00 wi.h an rurnod in[o ""';Or .""cmen .. of or <4< qu>.rd>
"""'.ml"'.. ...,. m.... [Iu[ did nO! Iu", Ch,i,,;'n.n .. ,hci. p,im ...,. .... bj<d m. uer. Perh.", ,his i. no. '" odd. Th roughoU[ his[ory. h..[cd deb ....
ou[ . ni .. ic oq>rd<nu.ilKl . nd .h. . .,u.l dc;.",,';"n of public . nd pri..
worlu of .n. Iu"" bttn b).prodoctt of o.her kind, of oocw. political. 0' ,di
giou, m(W<men, .. ' On. ,hinl<> imrndi1ld y of P""", .. n, imn<:><u.m in , he
,ix.=.h .oJ ...... nt<"cn.h a n.u.i..; of.he I"'li.i<>1 iconocl"m of.he Frtn<h
Rcvulu<ion; of.he idcologi..1 iconoclasm of bo.h F..a.. .nd Communi ...... es
.. ><ri""," dispu,<o ""'" lUg bumin~
.oJ public .... b.idi..
"'1M """"""
b1uphemou. 0'
""""ne. The icon"clas.i<" moment in .hese ~m.n" ~rno" .1"",)"> prov;dcs.
,h .... rtful ~"'<r will,
view of .he "rnJ<> .oJ [.... in [he "",i.! f..btie
of. gi ... n place 0' "DIe. In >-hon. I ,h.1I ",~ .he .....0."0 look
me., an.in
problen .. ,n Camlingi, n hiSlory i" ""'Y' .Iu ......... 1<1 k<m 1",~l y n.... m.! to
hi""ri.n, ofmh ,imt>.oJ pU=. n..., i,
hmod view. In , he .... row vi .....
C.rul;"~;'" hi,,,,,;',,, "'"r di.ow.. ".,.. 'l, i,,~ h..... I ;nvi .. ,h.m ," rc/Irt.
"'j,h DI. on ncgI.'"o:J ,..... and prohlc"". And I hnp< '0 p<nu>d. '" h .. ,o,;,ns
m .hink in new "'"YO .bou. ,he . ubjec .. of,h", in ...,iga,i .... "
Thu. F.. [he I>r-gc il<"" to ,,h id. 'his book i, oddressl. The no[ f.y,. ~.
provide , h.pICl. by-<:lup. oric~ ... ion '0 how [he book KI""lIy ",0001 .
Clup,m 4 [0 7 fotm [he h",n of ,he book. Th. 6 .. , thrtt m.pce... r< no[
m'r<ly innoduc,<>I}.Iw......" . By looking ,n d... ,1 ., ,h. p<.iod from [h. founh
""nlUry '" [he .igluh. [h ... elup"" .... bl .. h [he I>ngu.gt. m......nd ideas
,,hieh , h. Caroling,"ns
mod;~cd, ncgIcc=I. Th. <lup .... are long.
hu, <~ .dd,..... . I,ie .nd ""heren. huNlI. of problenu wi,h,n .pific
Of'
,00'"
lOr '"''''e.....me. ,II..
detm
.ru.'l'
wi,,,
,h.
.n,,,,,""'.
""I",r.l .. wJ chrolIDl"gicol """,.. ,,.
n-.. 6", chopr .urn. u, the .nei.n oJ 1> . mi~ ... Mo:Jitcrran<1n hom._
Iarld boIh of Brun.ine . oJ Frankish .n and of Christi.., il}". I [fC>' <cvd>1 .......
in
')",><>p';" f.. hion. W}", ki .od, of d'>eul<io,,, .bou. on ,ook pi",.
in .he Mo:Jitc'Tanean _ .Id bcfo ... he "u.b .... k of Byun.ir>< iconoclasm! \1Vha.
<=tI~ Of. . . ned i",n<. and who, pw:. do 'hC)' occupy wi.hin the larger coma,
of~g<, raI an gtn .... lly. of "'ppon fo' nr oppos"ion '0 .",h . n . and of 'digi",,,
p..,.,ica in ,he r...., .OJ in ,he We,,! ,,",'Iu. kiNl. of di ..".,i"", of . n ,,,,",,,
pl.a in Ih. W.., bcfQ.. It." outb=k of icon...e!=" .nd ",I... , cull .. p""';"",
if .n)". an he :ouoc;"o:J w" h WO'ks of.n in.he "",'",,, W"h()tl, h.", . n,i.i"".
ing the diKu"ion ,Iu. will follow. fur [h. pU' p<<> of .hi. "udy I .drnowlo:Jgt
"'''''''''1}".
,hot .ny itrug< co~IJ I><.n iron. b", f'O'i, ,ha, ...red icons . re not inugcs o f,
!"" icul .. . ryl< . i... or 1"<;::l1 ion bU! ins'.,.d inug<> th.u did. '" ,h., W<'f< <x.
pt.l to do. ",,,,uhing. Thf)'
im. g '0 which ~uh "'as paid . These a ..
hUg< ... bjecu wi,h el>bon ... comp l<. . nd conmiou> biblioglphi... Ou, . im
hore will mon:ly I>< to pid OUt ct,,.in k<y thtmcs.., .. 1><".. ,,, ",,,Io .. ,,n<l
w,,,.
p'''' , os""
bosic Carolingi. n "",i,ion>. In 'urn. ct ..

wh" l.n8""SO' ... , ..
.. >oJ p~n" ,...."" ..,i bblc '" I>< .cc<pt.l. r<j'.I. 0' mooi6.1 in ,ho oiginh
;om.,
o:mlt')'.
Ch.p<cr 1 Op<n> wi,h .n in'I"",ion of.
r.... 1,,10 ,i,,,,,
in ,he t~"",u,
o"e' lIy"n, i"e i<"""eI"", , E''''Y''ne 'g<=,h" ,I>< llrun'ine irooophi.

Ii. following ,he 6,,, phu. "f Byumine ;"on..>d..m """,i",,<:<1 ,he Op~, Glro/i,
""",nil
'" i, i, imp<""i,,, '0 cxplot. wha, <I.. Throdulf.nd comp>ny "",U h.", f'"
'p<>nd.l '0. Thi. ch.p,., ..",nd, ,he discu .. ion begun in Ch ,p'" , of how F.... ,
. nd W... won: . Iih and dif!i:n:n' in d.il)' cult p.... 'io: .. .....ell as in theologicol
<\>o:o,b,i"". AM, h" im!",,,.n, objec,i,'. of rh i.
pte, is '" "'mind ",.de"
mOK familiar wi,h d.. W.., ,han ,II< F.as, ,h" r=m "h...J. "bip bas d<Cid...Jly
,educed
m'gni,..dt of 'ho Brun,inc" oon"o"''')' , ,he . 1><",,, quo .. ,ion, from
Ladntt.fHl f lo,,,,,.ky no,...;,], ... fHling. Brun,i", ico,>od.,n, "-.. '''~ '' . opi.
lOdic .nd tIC\'cr as dcvos['lIing in hulllitlt or lllittcriol 'erml . 1 for me,j), bdinnl.
Proctdi ng tho Carulingi.>.n "",rlJ wi.h ,hi. n.... undemanding of Byun,ium
in mind will help ILl '0 i t t ,ha, we .n: not d",ling wi,h ,he bi.... no and inntp!ico.
bit as)'m mttl)" of . ,i";liu,ion') .bock at ono ond of ,he M",li,.,r.no.n ,hOI
pruduetxl only . ,ipplo" 'ho o,h .. ond. Fin.lly, ano<f,.,r imp<>".n' objec.i" of
tili, ch. p<<< will 1>< . dimming of 'ho in' <lke' .... I. p,im.,ily ,heological. a.<pU
of .igh,hmury ito""",b,m, E.S! ond W.." For 100 long ",hola", mo.dy
Brun,ini ... and ""'" prumin<n,ly 'he R""ion mong ,I><m. have goo,en ow.y
wi,h both protOpl;" ond """Iop'ic ".di ng> .,f ,ho eigh,h "'''''\try ,ha, ptrmi'
vi"""lIy , II undt .... ndings of w;rtn, !D h,ve h.:.n p,cscn, rh.n . If one
.....,,".. ,h" ,ho ..,.rin~ ,h""lugicaI ~jghu of ";,,,h"I\Iry w,i,. ... "",h ",k
Po"i.",h Nio:phoru, ond Abbot 1"k<>d<:,,,, "f S",d ion wen: .I,..dy p.... n' in
,he . .. Iy and m;,WI< d=Jo ~ f ,he . ;t;h.h <>:mury, 0' .... , .10. lofty o. <ly e;w"h.
n.ury 'hrology of John of D.m ........... p<,..,.,i", " ,he ,ime of II Ni<=>.
,h.n i, i, ""y '0 po" "'y Throdulf. 'hrology 0' on ugly. Aigiulao bird , W.
,hall 'I)"
imerp'" ,h. hi"ory ' liuk d""" '" rhe ",dt, in which i, ",,,,,lIy
Iuppt,>.I.
Ch'p'e' J p""'ides .. ,1i>C\WKln o f rh. \I:'""",n h>d:SIOI,nd
,h. Op~ ,
Car<>li. T ho Angio.S;uon Ik<k (67)- 7)5). wh''''' w,i.ingo we .....<11 kno wn '0
tilo Carolingia ns, exprc<!<d him"l{ on an ....<...1 'im in. va,icty of Com",".
Wo .... 11 nd If.... of hi. inAU<1Kt. Tho p<>pc<. mo<tO,.-or. wi,h "'hom 'ho
,h.
,h.
'0
,0
,0
I~TOOOUCTlO~
,n
h",1<.< .", ...,j 'HIO solemn .lIi."""

,he 71"'" _'. ,1"ply d,,,reskd by
B)'z.1n!in< iron<:>d>sm . nd ClIp licit!y objected '" it On num<r<mS occuion,. From
G"'8"ry 11 (7 16- )1 ) '0 H>d,t.n I (n1-<;l1) 1""1""' W"," frtqu<n,1y .bou, ,I><
inuge crisi, . nd ~cld ...
of council, ,~" odd........t 'm'geo--om""s 011..,
th 'np.. Begin ning in ,he 7)00 the ft.nlu .00 the popes .nt.toil",,,, inc ....... ngly
inl< .... r<b,;"", wi,h on< .no,h.,. ~ is ",me .. idonee ,Iu, ,he F... n l<.< beg>n
ne.
.. king noIice of B)'z.1n,''''' iconocwm in ,I>< 7\'" bue ,he ",,,';'inS ""''''..
convey li" l. ",n.. ,Iu, i.... go> 'q><tstnted Hgh, .w:ty . n impon. n. 0' im .....'
ing problem h>' ,he F... nl<.<. 0". ,>.4: of Clupl<' J. ,i>e<eIi>r<, is '0 ""pl.;n the
diff.";ng pe"p<C1iva or the pope> . nd of ,I>< Fr.mlu on B)'z.1min. ,digiou>
poli<y in go""..!, . nd on religiou n in fM,icul... in the c.n",,1 decade! of ,h.
cigl.. h <cnlUry. Problc1IIJI of rul."h'!' . nd church lI"'"mm.n, wac i,;cal 10
,h.,.., perSpec,ives. bu, 10 '00 we<c ""I< I"""', i> UIO<wed w;,h ... . How " ...
n .<lUlIlir used in ,I>< Fr.mk.i.h wo,ld. in Rom nd in Byun,ium! In ",h ..
..... yo d id ,h. F... nim.p"p"1 .lIi,,,,,,, oondi[;"n ,h. p""n.,' ''''00", '0 ''', <0
B,.... ntine iolnocbsm. ",d to One an<'!th ..1 By the end of Clupte. , the 'a' .... I.
poli<ic>l . nd dc.o[io ...1 K< O C willluvc bttn "'[ wi,h ,ullicicn,
~ "io"
.nd
d .. iry to",..u """ibic.n und ..... nd illg ofThrodulr. wo,k in his pt..ce . nd
lin",.
Clupl<t .. 011<" my touling ofth. Opt.. G.,.i; .... i'hin ,he >jlCCilic rom ... t
of ,he Carolingi.on COItl! du,ing ,he moot deci,ive. c,... ,ive , f""'dn"';"" yn" of
the reign of Ch .. lom.gne. The d"pte, kgin' wi,h diocu .. ion of tl>< mak.ing
or 'he 0"... c..roG th.. depend. h<>vily On the m.gi"nial wotk of Ann Freeman
h,,' ,ho, .dds ,,, kr findi"S> ""nc pet1peaivd .nd in'<I"tc<.,;vn, ,lut "'....
f..om
wide. vi .... ""ing .. ken in .h i, bool. 111< eh.plc> con.;nua wi,h a
lengthy ... mm .. ion of the """text< or th e Op~, c"roG. a u ,i;c th., has .......
been tt ... <I..ed in,o. modo.n Iongu;lg< .~d t~ .. h", been Inore d"""..eel t1"",
foul. mOfC ol1.n clurxtizcJ .... n c...:fully studied. NcXl the ~er cn m n_
...... . dclin."ion of ,h. m.jo< ''8"_n,, .nd ,I><m.. [Iu. run ,h",,,gh ,h.
.h.
0,.
Afte. Chop t.. ~', ":COUnt of .he mojo< "gu men t< in the 0P"" Ch.p' \
,,,rn, [0 ,h. wide, Fr.mkish ""n .... by mcu,iog , I><m .. in .he 0, ... c"roJi
"Vin" , nlU!" cop'lUu,i. d;pLo ...... la,",' codes. I." .... poem ... nd """ k. or
Carolingion .rt .nd . .. hi ..H UI<. 8 y ....ding ,I>< Op'" c"roJi 'gai"" hOlh [I><
imn...Ji ... h.nk,,,, ""or ... ' .n,l . full unde .."nding of ,he ""n_F"nh .h """, .." . i, will become" possihl<. h>' ,he 6.., ,im<, .o ."pbi n ,he cent,..! conee,",
of Th<<l"lr, wo.inll'c Was he I<,Ur 0", of"ep with By..n.i,.. an ..Ik in
genenl? Did the 0".., r<>Uy aaord bully wit/, wha, ..... ,..id 1nd don ... N i
eaea? Doc; the Op~' ev ince COn""''''" bc~n .h< Caro1insi .... and the vny
f"lpacy ,her had pIc.lged 10 kn'~ alld defrncl~ Wh .. ,riigiou. ",Iur did ,he CaIOIiogi.n . . .. ign ,,, the ,i ...J .",! Doc. the Op",.t.:d lisht on i",I"''''''' ""n,.on_
I"'r:uy il$UQ' Do th""" is>u<> hdp u, to undc" .. nd tl><
Ch.:tl"<r I> "pe .... wi,h . diOCt, .. io" of ,Il...new! o",h",.k of K:on""b ""
in Byz.>nlium... pIorcs ..,me of [h. inoohm.1 dim.",i"", of . nd ch.:tng<> in
s.o:.nd ko"",,!..,m, .nd go<> on [0 <kKrll>< how .... d in wh" form "Scmnd
kooocla<m "
it ;, oftrn ..... lIed_C"" . to tl>< .fI<nt;"n of tl>< Ff1n k. in 814.
n.. ,h.:tl"" rontinuC\. wi[h . p",>cn.. tion of ... h.:t[ the Fronh did in 814-l5 b)'
infprrting tl>< I<ngthy """ie, of m"e';. " p".,J"ccd in c"n"'~>n witll ,I><
81\ Pni. CoIk>qu)~fOr it W1> " ' " "",uncil, a< i. u. u.Jly m.im .ined . n..
chopr ... mind the cent rol th.me> in ,h.:t[ dos.ier on th.ir own rm. md [h ....
oomp''''' ,ho.< [he"...,. '0 .:o.",mpo"'<)1 Byz.>ntlne Idu. .nd pne'K'" .... d to
Of-"
-4'
P'''''''''' F",,.,ki.h po.i,ion>.
Chapt 7 thon p:t$$Q in "",iew the m.io, f"lni,ip. n" in tl>< nin,hntUfY
;m"l;< qu. rtd in the F,.,nk;,h ....."Id . nd toll< h..w th<)l b=m< inv.. lvcd . 11,e;,
w,;ting< are lUmm. ';zcd and th.ir maio< . rgum.nt> highligh,ed. The ""'pr
m"" .. 10 it> concl".io" by interp ..,jnS chose ,he",.. in light of ""noe of th<
m.;Or p'C<XCUp",iom ..,.ltm in . he
fOf the .. is'' of lo"i. the piou . A.
with ,h. OP~I in Ch. rl.m:agn.s tim . nOW ,h. P~ri! doosi.r . nd ,h. mnn.nts
of [h. Carolingi.n l"Il"m><hy ... """d .g>in" ", her hi,lOrial .nd .n;'.ie
"'''<=1 from ,he ign of IhO;, rho I';"u. l '1> i. eh.:tpt<l ....ml'... fin.ll y, [0
.h ..... th" . n "nJ<".,nding "f the F.. ~ k ;.h ""tld d",;ng s..c...nd ["''''....:I m
fru m wb.t ..... guing
clepcnds On Jio<ntongling tit< F.."h' t~()ugh ..... >coUlS<>
that ...... prom in.", in the CarolinS'. n """tid. By "di<.:ouf><" [ mean no mo ..
,h.:tn ,he ",..ed Inform>1ion, ."irudes, .nd mo<k:s of Ol'fOSiM .mong ,h.
Carolingion eli. ! h.:t,.. in mind "",,..hing like Bri. n Stock'. " T....w Com
..,,,te..
io".
m""i,i ..: ,h., i., group, of propl. united by com",o" UI><I." .. nd ing> of.od
pc,hap> "", ian.< m<>bih=Ilty, ,,,,,, ...1 m.,.,i,l, ,k. , .... no, n""""""ily k"o>w"
dir<aly by . U m.mbe" of the group.' 1'1"t su<h. diSCOUf>< .. i"ed ",m.in, [0
be dcroon" ... ed. I do not wish to impl)' th .. I . m <biming to h.ve identified
[he mnt,~/i'; of .h. G.rolingun wmld. The discourse of which 1 'p<1k "'"
hori1On .. l. noc ><ni""l, ,I.hough I I><lie.e .nd will [f)' [0 .how, , .... , I...... >Of)'
wid<. 1\[..,... S.ock de"",,,,,,,,.. , prople ,,hoo< ",,&,,!Ond'ng> we .. formed
by COm"",n tats .nd C'JIpi.n<c1 do not n<C<S$arily "1;' ",ith each ",h.. . 11 the
time. But ,hey do u..J.rsund each other. W. will di>c.m . h. rp diug<mrnrs
grounded in .....ed knowledg nd uoo ..... nding. If we I;".n ",fully.o fi f.y
,~,"o"u C T<O~
le' _ n h ofCarolingi.. di<rouon about . n . we <:an h<:a. them talkin8 .bout

m.ny of ,k ,hing> th .. "'....
imJlO"l.n,
,hom in ,he d."..,ic h,ll_
<entu!)' b,.tk<tl by Ct."km.!,;,," g=>t..,[ aploi ...nd the eivU "'.... . nd
".,.. in flu[ """,I up his ,mpi ...
T"ttt di"",,,,,,,,, tttu, in til< ."
,Id which ,hi. <ludy i. ,,!);Oni...!.
Th.
bhekd ,r.><!it"''':
,h. ""n,P' by the Ca,olins'.n. ,,, .i",at< tkln ..I,.". in historical ."J ><l>J...gial ,ime. Iu un. ' ;m< u. ,,,,,th., tk
Carolingian. [hought "f themlvc< '" hei" of the H<bmn. of the apo<>$<ks. .nd
01 [h. Ronun . Ikcm", Throdulf.nd hi, conmpon''''' 'hough[ i. imron.m
'0 okny ,Iu[ ,he llyu",in.., migh' h."" [he .. me inhe'ioan=. ,he
c.."g
i> uridtndy .mi_Brun.in . WIlik [h. [.:oJi[io",,1 dUcoun< i. ,h.
powe.fUl
on. in ,he
c"roh. i, b<com... oofr V<)"'" in [he I'.ri, choru nd i, """..
'imes in.udihl, in ,he hmk of , .." .... in. ugura,od by Claudi ....
A .. cond <li...,u,,", gou , ..... bhcl "'moo."' When we Ii>ICn m ,hi> on. "'"
<:an hca....... C.roIingian< tolking .bou, h.... to ordct a ... t< 0.-. church. a.;k;ng
qu,""ion, .bou, . ud\On,y . nd l<gitimaq. Who, mak .. , good ,uk,! A good
bith"l'! How i> [h. bu,inc of go><rnmcn' [ighdr conduct"!! Throdulf w.o.
at k"'t '0 "'me dcgm:. cotlCefnoo to ref" .. ,he di,""", of, rout>Cil whost
1"II";mocr ,h< c.,,,,,,,g;a,,, d.,.,t"",l. He "'-. , oJ"" > .. "",,,1 '" .I~ ............ a>'<l
m,,,,
",.1> " .....

CO"""""
Ii",.
0,..,
0,,,,
mo"
" 'hy Clurl.m'l;[lC "'.. , tI" ngln kind of rukt " 'hile Bru",ine 'm",,"''' rouId
no, 1><. and why C:irolir>gian bi,hops "',:re 1""1"" chuh"",n ",'k"". T..... i".,
, ..... p",;, h of C.""'.ntinopl,. was nOl, Ordt, waJ a nujot th ....... fa. The<>Julf. """'nd (01). '0 ,.-..lition, hut it became ,I>< m.jo, ,hom t Pali, in 8'j .
Rd .. ion. wi,h Bp.ln';um and with the P"I""'J' we discu,..,J .. I.ngth, . Ioog
wi[h ,h. kgi[inucy 01 roneil;., acoion and I""blem. of """",n.", . nd di_m,
Oo-d .. <limi"i"'", ,Iighdy U .n ;"'w: in [he writing! of [h. nimh_a;mury ",[holS
proV<)kcd by Chud;" . [, i, commonp laa; in [h. """"La"hi!, on [he C.rolingi_
.." ,Iu, ,hey p",,,,oood " ..roron: Among <>th .. [hing>. ..room .iou '0 ..",cd)'
di...,.-Jc" Th. C.",I;ngi.n ;m'~ t""" i<lentif)- .....t d'leW.< di",,'dercd thought
and
Oo-k, ", .-cc< du ,ho "me ,hinSTh, third diswu ... ! ""U "'"",.. hip." I .my undc. ,hi. Ioeading ",0., of
wlut , ..... """fa"> .<I... I1)"y about an_ Thi. diswurS< i, ,ith wi,h ironi ... At
lI)"",n,;"m ,he r.I, of im>gc< waJ in di.pme. P""umablr ,hi> cub ...... Iu[ n..o.
d"lf ",od..!. V... ., we.tull -""" ,h.,~ "'.... in ... t;,y. "" cui, of i""g<> in ,he
~b, . Altho"gh Throdulf Ius >ome in<c, ... ing .nd imp<lrtant [hing! ro .. ).
bom worship. >om<: f.",i",,[ing ,hi"", ro -t bou, Ch,i>[ion .n. and. numhe.
of ..-Il<c,;,,,,, on ........ "', ,he ..,.ttnsibly f'",,,,",, .. ,,,.1 'o pia of hi.
Ct..
bli_ ,h"", [ouchi"8 [he ",b of im.se-a.-. """"Ur I... promin.n, [h. n ,h.
u..di,i011 .nd o.-d di"",u"", [0 which ..... con'ributed . In ,h. I'..i> do<si.
1""''''''.
0,.,
""...hip pt..)~ rn .. igoo", mi . Th<: .mp<ro< ",d hi, thrologi;on, .....:r~ attracted
much mOfC
,he matt o( who to' to m.ke d",i,;"'n' ,h." 'hoy w<f<: tu ,h.
p;'lf(iool .. disi"", Ii,.. "ct. m><k. Order becomes :mr.d h<,. In .10. ni".h
:ntu'Y logomoch)' "",,,hip. (.i,h, belief. nd .h. <digio~1 edUCI,;"'n o( ordi""'Y
propl f<: ,h. ba.ic concern . fo. ,h~ ~'" .im . ,be cult of images ive>
..,,;'m nd focused ron.id.m;"'n in its own .igh,. Tooit;"'n .nd o,det w.:f<: the
d""""'''' of lho <>p[imi.ic in lho b .. eigi'llh century. """",,hip"~ ,he difCoUrt<
of .ht Clut;"" . perhap. of ,be pcsoimi;cic. in ,ho: ,"iddle of the n in,h cenmry.
During the great Carolingian century, from ,he <I""'tio" of Pippin to d..
Trcoty (jf Ve[dun 171'- 14)1. the Cuoling;.n elite continu.II) .. ked. \X'ho . r<
wd W1"'[ .... w.: '0 dn' How". W< '(j do i[' The . n ' .." ,ha[ undergi,d ,hi,
.. udy permit'" ,., Ii>t.n ro >ome m.mber; of the CaroJingion elite pr<>p<><ing
.""""" [0 [h"", qu .. [i(jn~ By romp>'ing ,he m
with b,.... 1<11,,,, p<><m .
'0
In"
nd other I<>u<= prod""'" by .nd (Ot the elite. w< Caroling.. n """tid during th.t ""'tid.
moot dynamic . nd c,co,i,." d<Ode>
CHA PTE R ONE
Art, icons, and Thei r Critics and Defenders

Before Ihe Age of Iconoclasm
s.,..- "Gm> _ ..... _ ....... dok_1

lk w .. ..... .0. _ _ . _ .. _ ,. .. ,....
s.-.-.~A'"
.,J/...., . .
toIJ."" ____ ?i ' 'Ii,....".,.,
..... tho- , _, A~.ou ~ _
..
&.,., if .. ..... 1fW""""
/)o_,...,~
~"" /,/"",/0< Ji,,-. """'"" "" to.,."", ,... _"... " ~ i~dJ.
/0< . """to,. .. . ,w"..,.,J tho- ""'" ofII. "
T.m C tl~.T U lOOKS .. 'h~ long JI<.iod bnwcon 'k tim< wkn Ch.isci.ni.y
g>ir>l kpI ..... in tIw: Ro_n Empi .... and tIw: .... of 1I),..",i"" iconocLosm:
_ghl)'1 .he )'C"'" )00 ,,, ]00. 0.... f<.cuo "';U he on ...t..r ""tK" in doi> peri<Jd
Wd
lip",l." , On tIw: ""'" lund ..... ...;0 i00i:", the- porn" tlut ...now
"";.m modt fO. <)r >pi ... , the: pooonsion and ,he ..... of the- ~ am. On theodr... tw.d, .... win k>oIc cloJdy r." momm ................ ......, only k
.......
... i,m ...:....tI)' .........t '" ~npgt ..... .....,. ....... 111;' dupi<1 ...i lllq ,he """nd,
.....k fO. ... undcn.undins of tIw: l\rnou. .'8".............. rdipou> ut ..... btoko
ou n.1It n gh'h a"II'ury.
.bou,
An l;"lk in
L,,~
Amiquit)'
tn o.der f.,. dd'nukn 0< cri,ia ofa,i"i' n .n '" h... ",n..,hing .0 .. lk abou
Jillin",".!)' Clrri"i .... .,' h.J '0 .,i.e""! .p....J in ,h. Mii!<,,,,nnn ....,..IJ.
An.lco..
"
Th...i".""" of ,h. ,ul"',b." "'orl<> ,h.,.", ,h. glory of churches . nd m"scmru the wodd <>vcr m un no< temp< u. to think thot .uch . rt
in""it.bl,.
Inbtd, "",.raI fo,ctS mili",ed ,gain" ,he emergtnox ofeh,i"i." Iigu",1 'rl.
Moraw<'. word.. .nd ron<cp" had to Ix di""".. m:! and di<stmin>ted .nd had
'0 en,., in,,, com,non di"",,, ... , fo' di",u ..~>n' of.n '0 <ok< plxe_ beh clup.. ' of mi> book ,,ill h,,-. ...,,;"n d""",,,,,
" a" <olk," mod." ph"' ..
imended.o I"0vidc oppon uniti<>.o s->.he. "'!loth" . nd ." r<A. upon th,...
word.. and conp"', In .hi, chap<e,. w<: will b<gin C(~I1ing tho.!< wo,d. and
con<cpto SO . hat th.,.. can k used rou.indy and eko .ly I, .. , "n , I" ,hi,
"",.ion . we will p",""" chronologi"-Ily fTOm . bout )00 to 700, noting w,i .. "
who -=r",d or "'je<:,ed reli&'ou, m, ,Ioei' '<fminol<>g)o' nd ,hei' .rgumen..
w"
,0
Ii",
Ahhough ,he (;,..,1<> .nd ,he ({oman, p><l'0<Cd m""h.n of high qu>liry .nd
gr<Ot kmt), their "",i<li", .Iw-')~ h><l eri,'" of ,i",.1 "p,""n,.,io". Among
,h. G~k . fo .... mple, He"",li,us cri,i<;...J ,he "ulf our of which im.s .. ,
presum. bly ... tun in p. nicuu" wcr. mad . X.nophan'" ,idi,ulnll11c id.. thai
beings such as god, could som,,,,,,,, "" d'P;C1ed Of
in figu ..... tl ...
looked . J.'mingly like oruinry mort.b.' H<l lready we m1 ,heme< that will
recur in b, Chri,,;, n discussion~ Greek cri,ies add......,.l tl>< O"tulogy of ;m_
'ges. tl><i' ba,i. moo. of ""inS- ,h un. .. nc<> of which ."..,. .r< ,n.de. S.. tu<>,
11, rot .nd 'un; i"""", i",..de them : mOe<: '''''' in ",."', t,;,d, roul ,!rem ,
Soch d,o" m. tt" i....I.olly unsuited to . he depiction of ",blim . pc,h.p. ineffa
ble.... Ii.ies, In addi.ion, m.ny Greek' th inke" ... Iutd tho in tdl, over the
I<n"",. nu, is. "'M' could I:>< pc",i~ by .he
of ,nl<mrh,io" .....
"'pcriOi to . ny.ning tn" <"'eltd coruciousnei> b~ nl<'''' of nlOry npcri,nCt: ,
l'u, in sligildy diff<r<m ,erm., rnlighntd G,I<> co'med ,he spiri ....1 mOl<
highJ~ ' Mn the m,I<,i.l . ,h "'trK' morr , hm ,I>< p:micul>r, ,I>< men .. 1 mOf<
,han ,h;'u.l. md ,he un; .....1 m()", tI,." ,he fi"i ..
Somr Rom.n, f..m:! ,h" l:><.uty"'" softening. that be.utiful thing< wuuld
"rip R""... n m'" of ,heir m.,,;'1 >nd " "''''y '>".1 ..... "10'<0"<" Rom,,,, f..,td,
0' ",m< inAu.mi.1 Rom.,.. .1fTed '0 feu, """ide id ..... . nd ,Iw>)'$ ... umed
' Mt 3ft would import tl- ''''Y notion h.,.. ... ished '0 ,<pd'
By ,h. b,er ~es or ,he SDnd Ct:"!Ury, ,",'hon n..,.. Ch,i"",.. rej'ctl
the (;"""ic.,wI M'""'i,. templ'"i,," ro ",.j"", the H,brew Xrir'''rcs. the
n.... f.ith h><l inherited n: ntly "rict p,ohibi,io n of im.gery ap.-..!<d
"plicid~ in bod", '0.4.nd implici.I) ,h.... h,r<. Th, Old Test ..... "t Pfohibi.
PO""';'''''
,.ft,
PO"'"
,;"n. could be U!xk",.,.,d ,n "",<rOIl W>.),>, T<> ,h. ",.. n, ,Iu. 'hq focu,..! <>n
the m." .. of " 'hieh im.1;<" ,,~,. mado, thry...no ,imil.. to G,..,k .nd R<>man
rdaYOIt;"n . But ",,,,, now thoOld .nteted the di"",..;"n too. Som...id tlu,
.he foi,h of b nd drp:nd<d on """'<4. OCI. on i""'S", n. ... ohs<",:u;"ns Op"ni
.. kmg debo" ""cr ,he ... 1.1,;..., ".1". of seeing.nd of hcaring. of looking alld of
mlding. Otbe .. <aid d"" in miling im.gcs . n;' .. woo ... u.urping.be ...... i
r< .Iu, belongs '" Coo .1"",'
In view of thC\<: " ... itU ofho$oili<y to .,.t, 10d in thc ab$cn"" <)fimp'($\i,..
phJ"icaJ .... idcoc<. o.d>oIa" long m.innined ,Iu..... Iy Ch,i";',,i<y W1i .ni_
ronic.' I" fa" hioty uf Chri'.n im. . CoIn be ....:cd from . bout A.D.
100.' />.Io",," .. r. i. ;; n(}W clear frum th< ff<1lctJeS in the S)"nagugucs .r 0.. ...
Eu<UpU>. Ain ed [h,k. .00 lleth Alph . ......11 .. fro m the V".. Torlo.,i. in
Rum< nd abo from .ni!tic m<>Iif; M:cn <>vet br Ch.;;t;'" book J>Ointc .. fro m
}ewi>h book>. th .. Chr'";'n'tr'. Jewi.h en""'","e"t ..... "'" ,,';tl<""t vill<al
'<J'><n .. ,;"n.7 Span< . nd >Cau..ed li, . ... <y , ... imon i.........al ,Iu ,Iy Ch"o<ians wr .. po5',bly ic<lnophobic bu. ceminl)' no. 'conocl...ic. Chr'''''ns \vc ...
lik. Jew> in w<>ny;ng m<l ... . bou. idob.t<y th.., about ~gu ... l.n p'''.I<:. O'igcn
(C.nlra Cth ... ).IS) said th .. in instruct,ng the young, ." .. ..oooid t<><h th.m
'" ~ . ;..101...><1 im.I!">' In. ,...<lJ ... t.., .. '''''1'1..." d in..g< . ........n""s ,be
mo>! b m ili .. and impon.nt f..m .... of ,h. ",hu ...1 b..,d>(::lpc. it ;; Q>Y '" ""'
why ..rI) Chris,;'n ",ri,." would Iu .. bn coDmi '0 condemn ,doL...y.'
Justin M.ltyr too W1i co<>c<m l .bou, the . n,hropomo<phi,m of "",u" .nd
.bou h.ir be,ng ..
(o,+'VXia) ~~" "<bd" (v~l!{l<i).' A.,h"ltSh ..." ...
1""""kaJ Cfi,ici.v"" , ....... is .'" .. ,Ii<l ...id.""" fot <Ii,.,....;., ... of I"in.ing. And it
is impo<t.n. to .mp!...iR ,),... h. ""r1iest C),,;,,;'n comments on .m. . (JC.
curt<'d i~
wri.ings of .pologiru ,,1.0 we,.. of,en .ngogcd in ,ryi~~ to penwdc
;nAu.",i.1 1"'&''' no.able; .1.., Orist;." _"hip ""'. ""m;",toI. bo:aU.l<: it "'~
.pirittul . Iu.;. aniCOflic. ApoIogi"" " ..... no' ....Ily ulki<>g .bout an per ",,,0
"'''II....
.h.
.bo."
In
}06. cltu ... h """neil E.... i ... , in Spoin. in co""n , I. .. W1i n",'cr
"V,n ci .,J by ehurclt ""un.iI .. f.. '" I Iu", bn .bl<: '" d ..,n'n, ...,d,
"th .... ought no. to be piau , .. ;n cltuhc>; for " .1... ;, WON.;ped ..d .tIu<<<i
ought no. to I:w:: pointed Ofl "",1".-" In the .. <iy fount. "'nto<y Eu.!<:bim of
c..c...rn (Col. ,(,o-C1, }40) .. id ,h. , .... knew of people wh" claim! to I""""
'm.S'" of""'h Chri .. ,..d ,h. '1'0"<1 ... nude ,""h,l. ,hey "' .... .Ii",. " An 'poe<y_
ph.>.11," "f ,he <v:>ng<li" John .i.h.. Wliff.n or ~,hd ,n ,h. ,hird ccnfU<y
,db of .n im:og< of him , h., he hod .",u.II)' >n . nd rejew:d a$ in.pp<opri.te. "
But Eu><bill> w;u no p. "ivc OMc:rvcT of ,ni"k rcplc<cn .. tion =n if hi. " ".ies.
lik< the Elvi".. canon. toll tIS cuincidcn .. lly th.t . ",h ",pr=nt""''''' t..J'ppar<:<l.nd ,h" "'m< p"ople beli<! ,h " ,n II, I"",,, been ,,,,,,,.,j rUI. IQ"g 'im .
F,.a~y in,he fourth ce",ury F. .... hi" ... member of ,h. imp<,i.:tl.ntou,.....
..... .. ko:J by
"f COII ....
..,nd he, ,n im'g' of C h,i".
E\IS<biu. ,efused '0 comply. H. ,<,lid he did no< know which im.g< ofChri" h.
h.d been . sked '0 pffflide: ",h. "ue and un,it.".. hl. 0"" wh i<:h b<:or-. Hi..... n
. i.1 eh.=:tcri"iq. '" ,he one which H. ,ook up for our .. k< when He ..mmcd
, he fo<m of ...""n, ," He :odded ,h" ',j..d colo" ,n<! in.nim ... deli"""ion,"
could "'" aptu",
gI ...." i"lI> n.. hi"g radi,,>cc of "",h glory." "id h. "'.
minded eo...... nti. ,hat cY<'n Ch,i,,', 0"'0 Ji>cipl'" h.d t.xo "n,bk t<t ".od
Hi. 'i&h' at , he ,ime of the Tr.n'~gu"tion. E.... biU! .ddal that the I,w furb><k
,uch lik<"""", . .,td
im.g<> were "b.ni>hcd.nd ",eluded from ChUM'" ,II
' ....er the _Id." and ",iled" p>g>n. ", ho wonhiped im,,!!" uf their god. .nJ
philo""'he ... .. This secm. cl..., .""ugh. Sr'rim,1 reoli, ... ctn he n.i,her &<C"
"i". '"
c""",.","" , ,;"..
,h.
,1,,,
!>Or rep,cs<n,ed hy h um"" nd, "'Y""'Y, dead nuncr ""nnot be used '" .. pre
>cn' living ~Ii'y. H e;' nuking the poi nt ,!.at no im.ge can be "luivakn' wi, h
,.h~, i, Ktlu to p,mr.y. ["",billS', p<ition wa> not c;ump~dy ironophobic.
In hi! Lift t{Q"",mliM he mentioned. with no nptc$.<Cd or imp lied criti<:itm,
",m .. an><> ,h., ,be
Chri .. ",n ertlp<ro, h.:td pm up in Co' ''''''''nopk:
0". was of. G<><I<l Sh.p h.,d .od nn. d"pie,e.i I).nid in ,be I""" du."
EU>cI>iu. "'... evid.ntly P"p'r<:<l '0 w:<p< im.>gef ,h were mcrd y ,ymbol. ,h.,
pointed to ,"Ii,;"" hcy\",d rncm,dvco. Ch,;" """Id ,,'" be Jep;cloo 1" " .. om<
o f Gud', my>letKs ruuIJ be rtvcakd by .tti.. ie .. nderingo.
Ewcbiu! '. observa,ion! ykld >om<: pcttinem fact bout emerging Gti"i",
utitudes 1O"".,d an. Fi"" .. Ie.., >om. art i. p<tmitted. p.nni"ibl" att m.y be
.ymoolic, nr i, m.y ... nd ... memori~l , In di><ussing ..... ue of ,he wom.n
" ,;th hemorrh.ap: (Mark j.1j- J-oI). Eubill> call. it a "wondCTfu l memori. 1 of
,h. bene~, the S,vior co"f;: ... cd Ul'On ~.,. "" Se.:.:md , w!oik "'" aacdy 'PI''''''
;ng "f pic,,"'" "f Ch,;". 1'.<. oJ 1' .,,1 .lIoy-dly I"';",.,.l ;n .h.ci< !;k,;mQ,
EU>cI>ill> .",ibut.. ruch "",,u,a to ,be ".ncien" h.bitually following thei, <>Wn
Gcn tile autum."" The poin' kern'
be that somc peoplc m.k. ;m,,!>'" inn<>untly .nout;!> while "''''''' ough, '0 know be"c" Pcrn.p>, '00, he .. ulking
.oou, ,h.c
i",cn,ion,.
The C"n",,,,i . i _~d <""ked ",h e,i,ic;, ,,,, of II", ncw Ch';" "",."
.nJ its U><>, Uc.. n tiu, (ca. 1jO-<O, ;lj). whom Constantine .ppoint"! "" tutu,
to hi. >on Cri 'l'U!, .,ked wh)' "")'<lne would ""nhip imag.. of the dead when
' hcycould tum ,heir .)... '" h.. ven. 1m'S.. only commcmo" ..
who h1Ve
Ii",
'0
.ft''''
,I,,,..
,,,,,h.
m""""",.
dil ""d.",
,her"~ "'I""fI"",,,, A, "", .. ,;.,1 ,Io;,,~.
,ky l>de
,u ~n>< ,nd unde ..tanding." AmQbiu, oI'Si= (fl. t..'e ,loin! =,uryl. L.", n,i.
,..ac"",.
y,',
""k....! wi,h grim humot ""'10... if ,)"',.,. war no "'.. gco. 'I><~'
would HO[ know 'hey wm: bring won hipcd. A< 'he wotk of . tti ... n... ,nd ..
,,~.,ioo, from .ile: ma" ... im"S"" a nn", ba, ,oy <rt..,ion.hip to ""' .. ,hq
pu<p<>n '0 "'p[_n" Thu. ,ru:,e i. ,bool u[dy n" r<ason '0 h".c [hem. "
In the )=11 ."",nd the: Con.tan, in ;"n pco of 'he mutch, ",hen Chn.
,;"n,n W1IIx>th emerging ,nd d..wi ng ,ritirum f"'m 'he impcri.1 COurt 'igh'
on down, ,h.", "owl~ 'roo< m),h of C h,i,,;"n . nicon""' , D"iJ Fmedborg i.
cen.inly",,'=' '0 ,",plus;,,, ,h", from b[e .n'iquity '" [h. Reform.,i,," .nd
beyond ,her<: .... bc.:n pc"",en' "m),h of . nironi""," n..: point of thi' myth
is '" .bim ro' it> ..110.","" ",.,...1 ."oJ ..,i,i,u.1 >up<riu.ri,y <.." ,10".., ... 10"
pos.s<SIl 0' u" im>ga. 1':Ipl. who wo"hip' GOO who i,
from mm ..
n1 ..dl ,.,/;"" '0 "'P'='" ' hei' ('~iJ by m.,ns n"!tot .nd "1
di><l>i"
[hose who do so. P"""m, who emb",,,,, the myth impu'" ,hoi, po,ition [0,]1
">o"><:"ts of ,100 hi ..,,')' of ,heir pwpl nd f.i,h .nd. 'OIXO,dingly. cri, ic'" ,10"",
who> . ", ironic. '" [0 opak.., O<IoI.."ou. ,od mpc:t>,i,iQill. "
Condi,ion. m.y h... ba:n unpmmising for ,h. <:m<fgone<: of o. ri"i.n
fig""" .". )"<' ,he ~)u"h . nd nf,\> '''''''lfi wi,.......,j "",i,.hl. o.p!o>i.on of
.n in m.ny 1'"""", ""Ip'u ... p>in,iog, ",,,,,,ie, "' ..... and m<l.lwo<1.. Rom.n
.... idonC<' ,10" du" .... . ",und A_D, !OO ...".... ,h><. i~ a,orornb>. Ch,'"i.n,
10..1 Ixgun [0 m< """",I .10"", ... I)mhol;'; rq>fQ<nta'ions l och :u ,he Good
Shrphml ,nd "",iou, ''l'[iz.cd bibli<.J >e<n<>. " N.,r 01>< 'l'ruolMl"" at Du",
Emopo< w.., Christi. n building "'i,h. piclUr<: of Ad.:om .Dd Ev< hel.,,,,.
and .!",. GooJ Shepherd. M"" Chn" i.n ."
"',i .... f,,,m l><:fflr<: Joo ..
fu,,,,,,'Y . nJ p,i"", .. Ch''''i.ni'r W1I,
11, il~L Af,., JOO, ~~"
Ch ri,tian ,nim bq;an gu1.rI~ to trptd<1" >ubj""" from Scri ... u.~ il><!uding
Chri Hirn,df. <V<D ,houglt i, took "10" ,h.n. crntury 1'0" b.Ji.7 nV<I<"i ...
of ",pe<><:n",;"n.1 Kru:m<> '0 be WOfW out . Afw Ch,Loti. nity become lici" i,
,i<:h p."on. ><cmcoml '0 d<g>mly dcro",,1 '1"=. 1nd buil, '"
,ook " ... 1.'1;< bui!Jing> .... , p.... idl 'pac< .nd so:>p< fOr .ni.. ,,1<0<: .... 11
p.in,ings. nlo .. ict. . nd I!"U" .pp<>1'<d ....'}'Wh<"'_ F"u .. h. ,,,J fi(,h-cemu,}'
discuss;on. of.1'I ,ook pl>ec in .n ..... ' m"ft richly ",n.m.n,....! <n"imnmcn"
",him hat! no, bc.:" ,,,'" in ,ho P'<,-Co"".n,ini'n p<riod "
M.ny .. pun"ion. h.v. bc.:n "",,nod fOr " 'hy ,his Iupp<r>I_ Som . "iling
in [h. " ..... of Adolf ,'on Hmud:., '''8&'''' [Iu, I"'pul.., ''If'<,.,i,w,,,, coo,binl
w"h ,100 ","i<tonC<' of pap,n p,,,,,icrs in .n unholy ,""m moda ,i09 of ,h
.<o<t<d ," ,100 p'"f.nt'." A I<>ng.,tanding i"!pma,ion hoW.
Ch[i"i, n'
'1'1""pri.,I '"
"wn u>< ,h.n"" .."I ",,,,if, of imp,:<i,1 ." . .I'hough ,h"
.p''''''
.1,."
f"",
,I", ....
.ro ..
..,=,1
,10",
,I",
An.
!""".
'1
.. plon.,;"n i, hc"Cf., "='ibing wI,.. h.ppcn! ,h.n it i, .. apbini<>g ..... r....

A .ecen' "i"", 5ugl;cm ,ho, Clu;"i.", ernbra=l . ..... man, of "prmoid;ng
.pirit ....1 r<mings"f,heOId TCi .. ment and . hence. 10, 'endcring'pi'i' ....I.~
;i, =il>l<.
Pi<t um rould r<ndCf 'he J<w;'h ..ory in'.e, . nd ... ,f..
<>nl< ,im . """.1 its hidden sign ;"""n",.'" Pu, ;imply, Chri"i,n, r<ndcrtd Old
T",unl<n! won!, in pi<mm of .hei, own m. king. " SUr<ly. ,h. depiction of"
k.., <orne Old Tcst.uncn, .ubi"<> i. con.lt! "'ith enl<rging modes of ryp<>logical e>gc<i~ the Old Toume", finc<lr..,u,.. !
N"",. T his i'''e'1'", ..,i"n
of pia,,,,,, ""'1!<"ic;1'001, ...... "Id ,,-"~ inlr .. pl.in ""me Old I""men, r<pr<lnu,ion btu no, ,h. full r<peno;r< of N<w T.."mcn, ",,"es, no< depiction.
of ..in". The cui, of ,he e....... nd ,he e"l, of r<lie Ie... b..-n ide",ifoal ..
p<miblc ,.,UlUS." In the COl< of ,I>< cross .nd of relic>. how.v.,. it i. <2SLa '"
di",,", com,ibution to p"cti= """",i.,ed with
v<""",;on mo" promi.
nently. than to thc =Cf-g<'nc< of ,I>< '" i"elf. I..., n.i<jut ",,,,,,,,I po",.i".
w.h u .h"", know" from F~l'" m. y h.... bn in ~uemi.1 in tl>< 'pillc
J ...dopment of sac""'- icono, by, thei, conn ... tion with Ch,;"i." '" in gen.",1
;. h.der '" f.,h"rn ," Likcv.'il<. ,h. ,remenJoul popul.rity of ,he coIumn.sitting
Styli,.. may have given a !pu, ' rq>.odUCfiono of 'hei' pinu"" . nd thuo '"
ieoo;, but i, ..,.nlS ,hat ,raditio", of Ch,;,,;on on were well under W'f I>cfure
,he ~.>t pillar .... ' dimbed, " An clf"n to 'W"'P'''t< ho.h ,he I<]''',.en,.,io"
. nd ,I>< poICIKJ" of the h I("(". ,he wi"" man nd ,I>< m.gician could h"e pla~
role." Munifincr: b)' membe .. of the "ppe,.lu.rcs who """t< ";,,,.-,,omal .0
richly ..!curt.,'" cn.i"""",,,,, '''''y h e heen , f>c,o,." I mp"',i,1 .h..
'p".. k;ng in ..,rn. of m.gni"'=", '" . nd " abundancc:' ""')' apl.in oom. docoratcd eovilOl1",eo"." Simibrly. ,he f"'t ,hoc Ch,;sti.", 'PPr<>JI,i"", m."y
gen"" of cI ..."'al litCT.ture m.y ptuvid~ due .. '" why ,hey .... ntwlly <kc;J!
to .pprop""e as ,,ell ,hc '1.08,,,,ge of ,,, ,, No 'ingle .. pl.ru,;"" ",ill .... ,
"""" 11 tl>< ....;doncc '" p""u.dc.1I ,he ",hoi.". Ir ,uffioo to .. y tha, "'r<>ioI
,he fu.., .. h ce nt",.,. di"" ... Christi," .',. ...... ",d I'rolif("(" .. 1 rapi,Uy . T h.. . "
adopted moch from i" p>gan <nvironment in ICno. of "yl . motif. nd ,cch
o i~u< o{ p".lu<. i" ... "
,h.
.n.
Of"'.
During ,he fOunh nm,.,. ,h. hui. Ch,i"i.n dek""", of im.g<> hcg>n '0 uk<
.h.pe ' gainst 'he boek(>1OunJ of ."i"ie p""h",,,,o on the
h.nJ .nd ,mbiv
. Ieno: o. honility On the ",her, T he f... ""h .nd forth """i.. wo"l,t . Iso wi.
n"",, mUle cohe"'"' ' rgytnenl:S "I>"i"".ft tI .. " the
w< 1.... encount,red '"
,,,I<
0.'"
16
CHArTEIl ON E
far. Among the defenses of art, one that grew in prominence in each succeeding
generation maintained that worship was n ansm itted from an image to [he person whom that image represented. This argument is associated with St. Basil
(329-79). In a homily on the H oly Spirit, Basil was trying to explai n how the
Son and the Father could be twO in person without being two gods. To make
his point he used the analogy of the imperial images. If a person looks at an
image of the emperor he will say, "That is the emperor," but there do nor
thereby appear two emperors since "the honor shown to the image is transferred
to irs model."JcO At roughly the same lime a similar argument was presented by
Athanasius (ca. 296-373) in his Third Dircouru Against fhr Arians. lS
A second line of defense emphasized the capacity of images to evoke emotional responses that greatly enhanced piety. Gregory of Nyssa (ca. 335-ca 39S),
speaking about the sacrifice of Isaac, said, " I have often secn this tragic event
depicted in painting and could not walk by the sight of it without shedding
tears.".16 Basil, again, spoke of the way images call deeds to memory " jUSt like
writing. For feats of war done bravely are sometimes expressed by orators and
sometimes by painters, these adorning those deeds with words. those painting
them on tablets, and each one incites nor a few to courage. For whatever of
history language communicates thro ugh hearing. silent pictures put those images before the eye for imitation."37 At about the same time John Chrysostom
(347- 407) mentions a tendency in Antioch to make images of SL Meletius. a
former bishop: "For you [the Antiochenes) were not only touched by his name
but also by the figure (tUl"tov) of his body. And what you did with respect to
his name yo u did also with respect to his image (dxova) . Indeed, on rings,
seals. vials, on the walls of dwellings, and everywhere many put up that holy
image that they might not only hear his holy name but also see the figure of his
body and take some consolation for his do uble exile.".18 John's account differs
from those of Gregory and Basil in speaking of a proliferation of images intended to bring "consolation." Right down to the thirteenth century many
writers maintained that words did nOt have the same capacity to arouse the
mind and the heart as picmres.3'!
Third. images were seen to be useful for instruction. G regory of Nyssa,
again, said that "painting, even if it is silent, is capable of speaking ftom the
wall and being of the greatest benefit . . . . When scenes of marty rdom arc
painted on the walls of a church ... this is of the greatest benefit and is like
writing."'" G regory was the first to draw a parallel between verbal eloquence
and the visual arts. T he word graphr could mean painting or writing, and historiai could mean a picture or a Story. Gregory compared pictures to "a book
endowed with speech ." Eventually this became a topOS in Christian discourse
An.l..- 'i
.., _" A. oo.h Ihoil ,ru;I G...gory .. ;,J. ,he I"'in, of g.uing" Chris,im m
indu"" em"b,i,,~. Emul""'n. i,ni,.,;"". mi,,,,,,;,, ""',. wot,,1 ,heme of
Ch. i"i.n "-";'ing. from [he GQSl'iogy we", b<gin_
ning .h'1< p<"p<Cti ~ .ntl ~[[. ,., <kgr. <i=t;p';'" .ucabul.tI)", I, ....
qui[, n1m",l. [he. dQ .., .Iu, ',.h.i,,;'n an W<)lOld he ..... P[ into , he gene ...1 flow
of Chri" i,n di"".",.. '
Seve",1 f"uu.et of ,hc .. rly J il<uion< of .n 'Iuire .mp!m; . Fir<t ... <h
wh[e ...id sorn<Ihing '00u[ .n while :ocn.. lly u.lking '00u[ ",mdhing d><
en,i,dy. Second. ,hc.c ... , ir< .... nei,he< odJ'minJ; one .no,he.
Jrknding [hem,d"" ",d ,hei, p<i'ion. from .ny known ..... ibn[. Third. 'heir d<reno<> of ....no ""..med in plOI)' in"rumen ..I .."",: :>n[h;": ron,id.""ioru
:0'" en,itd) .boen' , They talk
,he, cflttt. ,ho, . n <:on h.v<, The,e is no
ques,ion he", of . ",I. """,;,[ed wi[h ... . h i, .1", in .., ..[ing ,ho, none of
,hesc ,,'ri,... fd, ailed upon '0 rtbu" <horg. of idob,ry.
Lot< in ,he fuunh ",emu,)" Epipluni ... of S.lomi. (a . )'1- 40)) 'l"'ke 0""
.goi"" im.go> in. ",. iOl" .nd comp<ohen.i"" .... y." T h."" f~n" fmm hi,
writing>'1< f<m nd .mo,,!; ,he wo.b of Potri..h Niccphoru. (7\8- 8,8). whom
we: ",.11 m"", >go in," John of O.m"",,,. (a. 660----0. 7501. ,h. S""" <kfcndc,
of imogcs. ~ O" irr of EpiJ>honiw, E"", mindful of cccklimicaJ ".dillon!.
)<>hn ...,m, .o h,,,,, fd, ,h .. Epipluniu.
vi.IU.,lly . L,n, in "I'I""ing im>gc<
.nd could he ccily ignorro: '"one .""lIow d<><o "ot mde :0 .p.ing:" I. ""'.
~"l' 10, I.... w.ire"
,[fike Eu...biu. f'om ,h~ o:Ios.i., bea .... hi.
A,i",wn " ' n,ro .11 hi.< ""i,inS". Epiph.niu. "-.. l'<'fcc,lr ,,"h"""" bi'hop.
~ ..... hi. idc:o. could h".. bc.:n mOf< [f""blinK '0 ,urro"e" of Iigio",
.OO~,
""'. '0
'0
<w'
.boo,
w.,
"""Y'
m.
In hi.
'0
r"",-.., Epipltonim ..yo [It"
whe=.. ,he F"h", (he mcon. Old
T.... mcn, ngu,.,,) "'.OOmi n..<:<1 ,he idol, of ,he gen. ile>. . " .. ro.k. images of
,he .. in ..... memo,i. 1 ", them and wohip ,hc in 'heir oono . He g<><>"n
men,;"n propl. ,,ho ho"e p.im<:<l pi.",:. of " ..... John. ,nd 1'...1 on .he
" .. lis of ,h.;, ho ..... and ")~. "'I., tho ",h" helic..'. ,hot by 1<' Joing ,hq'f<
hon ", in~ ,he " I"",Ieo, b", , .... , ,hey .,~ ""h.. Ji",o""ri"~ '''"m. Epirh.niu,
""" ,h. fim w,i .. r to .. remp' 'Y,.." tatic J iffen,;,,;on bctwccn idol.
{(t.'><t .uj . nd im.g<> (~",6v.S>. IIr keeping the . p<[{)li. <x>mmmJmen' " Epiphoni ... "'Y', "" cr'"'' ,he G...., inugn of [he ."",. Ies. Epipltonio. ,1", <oj",,,
[he idc:o ,h .. br looking .. pic",,,,, of [he
1""''"< or" .heb)' remindc<
lifd ... nunc. of ,hei' pier",."." h' a l.n," tl> rJx "'1'< .... 1J,..,J,n;~, Epiphonio. comploin<:<l ,h., nU "Fothct" (h< 'rk" to both Old .nd New T"m_
me", hgurnl ""'ct I"'in,ed an im"l;< ofCh,i .nd pu, i. ,n . church Of ' 100,,
[0
."""Ie>
. od th .. no On< b.d <VCT m.dc a pinu,., of Ab .. h. m. lsue. J.cob. Moon. o. of

prop/l .... p.. .';.rchs, 0< ."",da. He odd. ,h.. pain" d'pic< ,uch propl. according to tbei. OWn ,,-hi..... and produce mukcdJ~ diffeo, l'Oprc<cnl:r..ioo ..
He condud..! by .. king tI.c cmpero' to remove paint..! curuin. from church.
b.:or"i>f<ries.. h"""",, .nd m ..'Y'u; '" whi'ewh "",II pain.ir>g>: .."I !O ,.mo,'.
mosaics wh """,bl . ' Fin.lly. in a Lntn kI ,Mm, Bi>Ip ofAdi.. (Adi. Capi.
rolin. i, jeru.<>km), I::pipluni u, "'pl. ined ,ha, h. Iu.d dioeov<r..! in , viUag<
a.lk<! AI,,",h ch"rd> ""ith. doo, CI""in on ,,-hich ,he,. " ... an imag< ,I.",
tlx loa!. bdicv..! 10 be ofeh.i .. 0 ' of one of the .. inu. Epiphanius pulled it
i, be ..=I ... hu.;'1 do,h fu, a POO' man. Epiphaniu.
down .nd in.i"..!
cuncl.><kd by """,,;ng ,he bUh"" uf J.....,lem th.t he had scnt 'eplace" .. ,,,
,Iu,
cumin,~
Another teStimony . urvive> ""Iy .nlOng the doCl"".nu prc<c,"..! at ,h.

5ond Council ofNican in 787: """ Int ... On imag<" .1I<glly wli"cn by St.
1>:ilu. of Sinai (d. "'. 4;10), " Leo,"..! """ltn'u' h .. rcsardcd thClt I........
"'hen,i, ...... ,ino: ,668. when 1.> Alb,iu" ,heir Ii", wi,o., includW ,hem
.lonB wi,h ,he n... fly une thou<and lell"" ,hat m.l . up Nil".'. colkctcJ cu'to-,pondence. Rean,ly, hO~I, i, Ius bc-cn dw')wn that wherw the Nicen.
r.,h~" >"",,1 .n ""'""Phobic o.,undl "f 714 ,.f "' ...'''';ng , ....... 1. "<,, in "'r
h"'tilc to i..... go. it w'-l in fa SO<nlnc conntM ,..ith II Ni<=l who turn"!
Nil",', cam io"., mildly hostile- """i,ion in ,h. "ppo.if< dil<'<1ion."
I" ,he fi", k" .. Nih .. '''pposcJly ,.Ihof. m.n ""'" was .. ve.l by S,. PI.,,,
.nd who 10.... iu" who h>d .. ved him """'u.. he had "f,cn ><tn I'b,o', im.ge.
Th. -'''''Y ;, not ""'''pk<dy imr"'o,ibl. Io"t Ii" I... ""n>fo ... bl~ in ." "",Iy
The """,nd I."er .. ~ .. ,he
fif,h ,h.n in .....~n,h. '" cigh,h-ocn,,,'Y
Ii,n" of. ""P'''''' '" ,he F...... rch OlyonpK,do .... wh" was 'hinking .,rd<co,ra,ing
chu,ch wi,h c,.,.... . nim.b. ,nd h""'ing _ ..... I n ,h. in"rpob,cJ ~ .. i()ll,
Njl,,> -.II<glly wW Olyn'piodo>\IJ t" ,,.. """" . I"ng ,,i,., OIJ ."d N....
T", ... mem >ccn<> bocau .. ,hc nafU"lilti" imagn ,,"Oul<l b< diltra(1ir>g, The gen
lIin, ..,.;on of ,h" 1,"'<1 p,oh.bly in,i " ..! "n, cm".nd r,.,,.., ".. II, bocau .. in
church d..!ic:r,et! ' .h. ".,ny" ,be n,.,n,,'Y .J"" .,r ,Il.,.., wh" had diet!
.hould ",Ai to ... ,,,in tbc fait hful N il", m.y ha~ sDl tha, the ind ... ion of
<fo\'s alone would be the mark of. "linn and mao l)' mind. " In OIh<l WOld>.
whil. Nil", , ,,,,,Iy Jjd no' <ndo ... ,h. inIfO'r.""jon ,,f imaS'" in." chu",h ...
h, .... m. '0 od<no,,-lcJgc wi,h ""me di!fidene ,hoi, fneq ...... p.... nce. Unlik
Epipluniu., .. for as ,"," ~'''''''. h. do.! """ mo ... n y,
b,...- Drun,in ..-li.." "'pon 'hat nca, the .nd of the fifth .:m.ury Phil"x.
n". " f M,l>bug /",. -4-40---1'))' bi,hup of H il"rapoli. in Syti., d.imcd ,h .. it ....
nbwf,,1 ro .ndow .ng"''' with bodi .. hca. ... they ""',. in<orpo .... l H 1so
CO"'''',
...... I""",
'ru.
'9
..;d ,h., d", only

im.ge of o,ri ....... wo"hip in spiri, .nO 'Mh Uoho
. ,')- .... ). W,ong too. in rt.ilo ...
,~. "'C'" 1",,, ..
r>( ,he Hr>ly Sp"" ..
dov<:, Philo",n", .1>0 "to<)k dow" . nd obli[.r:otl im.ga of .ngel. ,n Jmlny
pl.ces, " ,I,il. tl>"'" "'ptcnting Chri" hc ...., .... N in ,n>C<'t:S>,ble . pots."" I'hi
lox<o~, ..... m.inly mnmN [0 romh'I! p'g>ni,m. nowcv<'. '" hi> .ct"'nl
'Pi n>! im"l\<> m. y n=l t<, be .i.",tl in tn. t COn'e~t onol< ,h,n " 'i,hin . r>
evol.i"g Chri,,;.n di"""t"" on ,n." Phil,}>.",,, .. mind, u, ,Iu, ,h. pokmic:ll
... nee uf the p!<'-Con ... n,ini. n pe'~..J "-,,, "ill.li,...
Th, Aow<ring orChri"'.n li" ... ,u,,", ,n ,he fo<",h . nd !i(,h een,m;e, .1,,,1
Ch,i"i." "'ri"" '0 d", difficulti .. o( ,.lk'''g
God. The intcn,it)' of ,ho.<c
diffic"I,;"" i. ",A"",ed in the qu".. t~>n ('<0", At>b.r 5<,1""'''' (("",,10 ee"""y)
wi,h which ,hi> clul"C! hogi" . Sop'''''' ..... 0<)[ "",dly .. Iking .ho", .";,,ic
r<t'fQCm.,uion . Ro,her. he w::t. ",(<<ring [0 the "O,ig<oi., co",rove"; th. t
u,\<I!I .. ptoblem "f .nth""",morphi!t'"
Th, Origeni". comphined ,h., p",)..r w" impedl '0 ,he .I"!I'" ,h" ,he
mind amid 001 ffCC i"",lf of ude im.g.... Sueh im.gn . < in 'he mind
b;:. ..... of.n ;n ...,i .. blc hum,n .""","n",n, '0 m.,.ri.1 ,e.lifjl. Th",. O,iseni,,,
h,ld h'" .pirim, li..,d . 119!",i..,j ,mc'p",,,,i,,n 0(.11 bihlicol pusogn ",I"ing
lQ man ib w:atcd in the im.gt and liktnm of G.xl, .... <1
the Son ib ,he
,m' g< of ,he F"h. Wh,,,,,,, O'ig<"i,,~ ""'''' in;,jolly <0<)1 '" 'm.geo " '0010 o(
Imguage. ,>t <v<n'" ~ kind ofl"'gu'g<, ,hey cvcn'""Uy beame ....... to im'S'"
... in,[fument> of. kind of viswl p<.ption which [h<)l '<go,dcd ... crude ",d
""'1<,;'1.
Th. Ari.ns ,Or) W<ft ""'''siy o~ '0 boch 1'''g''"I\' . "d.n ,h" MOVed
J..og<""uI)' <to..: '" J.:n)ing ,he ,hwlll tr' l\lCtndencc (Of God. Semi-A,;.n .
lik, E"IC'bi .... had fQCrvatio", ~I>o"t depicting Ch,i.\, ,,h il. O[herS argued th ..
Ch,;,, ', hum.nity could i,\<Im! bt depictl ... n...... " of di<pl''';ltg ,he g~lf
,lut scp>f:I[I Him (10m Hi> F.,hct. A, h.n"iu. coun,.rro [hi, vicw <kci.ivd y.
The C.pp.;tdoci.n h,!.." (lI .. il. Gf<1!.ory of I"l=.nd Gtcgoty N>Zi.n,u,)
worked ou' the t,.,i< Iong""ge lOr .. Iking .hom ('..,d. As W< luvo ...,n. n"il
.nJ C'<gO'l' .,( NY>'"'. in I'. n;cul .. , f"u"J in"'!!", bo,h I;.", .".1 Ir<lpful '"
prumo'ing .piritu.! ~".."'n"" .nd .fltttivc piety, "
HOSlile COmmen"' orS ",ioed .........1 poi .... ,h.t we h... . heady met OS
co"'I""" " " of ,he ,,,,,ien, iconopl,obi~ trod;,i"" ."d ,h .. w< will n\C<:' 'g>;n
in ,he'S" of i<XlOocwm, f i"" of all. th<)l .......1 to "" d.. .",,'" 'u which
i"",go> had .p,.. d and ,he wide .my o( hoi)' propk who "",. heing <kpictl.
Epiph. n'''''
p'''''d .. ,he ~"" on.mhis""", .."imony ,h .. im,S<' W<1'C
",,,,,,how heing .." ..... iped . Nci,t..;, " .. hiu, nOf ~ny ,,( ,he .. rl~ i,;,:""'ph'l ..
Iud soid thi,. The theme of the superiority "f <pi,it to m.tte, i. >"odl her<.
ou"
,...1.
,1>0",
"",h ,ul things u. not rui ..bI. chmncl, fo, ....... hip. in p.n brom'" of th<
""'".. of which ,hey ,re mad nd in 1" '"
of ,he f.llihilicy of ,he
hUl"'u .... ho m.k. ,hem. Pictu'CI.re.!so indcc.rmin.tc. A co,!",rcal .ngel i~
"""fu.i~g. fO. i..... n~ . nd in Aruu.1u p>pl< " ..,," u.... u wh_ im>g< "" ..
on the cu .... i. P.int.rs an"'" .gtcc on how .0 Jcpia .he: .. in.cd h.1OcO of
Chris.i..,ity. Sym~ic .epmcn ... ion_.he do .... fut in"'m'<-~ ""yiou.ly
opreading .nd ~ $ern to be <lr.ngol'OU.i. Thio io int<ldting in light of EUlCbi u"
'pp>renr .... illi0Y' .... o ",I.",...y rnl;.oli~ "'I"'""""orio_,h. Good Shepherd,
in p>n icul... AnthroJ>Ornorphic "'p.elCn.. lio", W'<TC held to be cn"le.nd di>rr.cling ""d fJOSi. ivdy w.m>ging to 'he ineff..,k ... Iily of. pUf'<I~ .pi ritwl
being. Fin.lly. ju" '" ,he iconophilco ,pok< -.bou, practice>. so roo the ico"",
phobc> :odd,~ o,di",ry ronduct which diSrurbr:d ,hem. They did no< expli,.
itly uldf<$i ,h. rupporn: .. of i ....g<> .od ,Ir.cy do !>Ot 'ppa' '0 Iu.", br:or>
clull<ngN" ,h. 'im . 1"" """" lonel y yo",,"- Ru, "" I... Iondy ,lun ,hO$<
" .. ieh r.voml uc.cd .rt.
l'hc ..... h <:emury ...... ren~ ,",en,.n.. in 1'''''1< of im'ge>. 1". chureh
hi.."ti.>n Engtiu. (a. 136 - 600) tell. of a freeo at Ap......a depicting. rni",ek
The im'gr ........... tip in.he ~ilins of ,he church ro m.k< kno"", ,he!< "",nrs
by m..", Qf p>;m;ng '" , .... ,.. w .... , W<''''' ;!no",n, of ,h<m ."" A, ~,,)~nrl
$arne .ime the: hioton .. Agi"h~ (a. I) t-G. 1110) .. id. coocccning an image of
tire "eb.ngol Michac:1. " nre "",",I "lim .... h" behold< the i.... go di"",. hio
mind '0 ' hiv.e, oonlOmpb,ion. Hi. ""n .... ,ion io no longr. d'""",I, "ngr>v
ins .... i,h.n him,df ,h. I"d.. ogrl'.] ,ni, .. h. ,remble>,. ifh. """e in ,he buer'.
I"=n . n..."..,. <"",~".ge Jeep th,~,~" . nd.It i, .ble by ..... n' ,,{ 0:10"
to bry "vet (," in ""i.1 thoc pla)",< "f the mind."" Thc:sc f"'grnenrs .re
f<v. . lin~ b~t other writ. of the tiln< .pok< ~t J1<'Oter kngrh . nd more ')'Stern
bec>,,..
,h.
" K"lIy.
One of ,hem. Hyparim. who ...... aKhbiohop of Epheow from Ij' to. pe'_
h,p" 1)8. addressor! "'In< MiJ"u,,_. 1"'1~irin to Ri$hop Julu .. of Atrym;
.;urn. Julun had booo.ne t.I.rrnerl t.I>o~t im.ge p... ct""" in his dio<<<c and
to hio mer"'I"'''t ... 1<.. cur'Md. lul"n ~ o:..",,,n.cgOin disturbing divine ...di,ion ." Julun "l'P>',,"Iy
biblieol p",hibi.ion, .~i" .... >Ch 'cpn:scnt>t;"n, bo,u .,td...t tlu, he
permitted the "",.. hip of p>mtings but not of statun. Hypatiu. goes through.
"".dUl cumina,ion of ",hy the Sctiprur<> ...y IIttmingly mn, .. diaory things
.oou. images . nd he ~ th" "",ml wri,ings. implicitly both Sctiprutcs.nd
.. in Ii,..... " " ,ul"" "". "We u l e n<) pl<uu,"" ,II in ",,,I,,,,,,",, Of p. inting."
Hyp.. iu, "')'S. "hll< W< I"',mi, .impl.. people,,, ,Ioey'''' bo pe.fccr . to lea ...
",,,oed
",.,l
Art, 1"""
"
.w.,
,oom
by",,)' of inili'lion
,oct. 'hings by Ilhc .. n.. of]
which i, mo ..
>PpIOP';"C <0 [hnr ",uu,,1 dc-.'dopment, cspcci>lly .. w< find [ho" ,,"en and
in m,ny respecu. ev~n old,nd"<w divi no comm,"dm~" 10 "", ,hcm .. lvcs '0
Ih ~ lowl of wtal<er p>p1e .nd ,I><i, SQuis fo, [h< .. kc of ,hei, ..:Iv.. ion: Un,a,.
iu. ,hen ~ in ,evi"", ,;eve,,1 Old .. >ow
preci .. ly!>ow (".. ><l used im"ll'" <0 moe, p>p1e wi.h bm ili>r rtru of f<<<nee.
,11ow own m, to';'l aclornmcn, in ,h
H< cominllO:!. " F", ,hest ......,n, "'.,.
.. ,>Cu... ,i .... 00' bccaus< we bdiC'VC ,h .. Goo ",mide ... gultl and ,ilve, and "I ~ cn
VCSlOlCnn and ~m " lUdded -=0<1... n."hlc , nd .. crro bu[ becamc w< p<,mi,
each order of the f.. i,hful <0 b<: guided and kd up
' he di"inc being ,n
nun"", . ppmpri> '0 i[ [,I>< ord.r[ bOC1U1< ...... ,hink ,h .. ",me ~k arc
guided c"cn by
19u1d . ih"" etC.) ,u , he tn,dligiblc .nd .mmateri. lligh,."
Aft "ring
Goo i. distinct f,om hi. c",.. ion and W<>!thy of 'piri,u ..1 ",Jr'
.hip alonc. H ypatiu. conclud ........ [ " We do n(}t. ,hen. disturb ,hc di,'inc fcum.
'00.
'0
,n...
t"",
nundme",,) wilh 'egard ,,, ,ho ""U"'es 00' we ",etch 0"' our hand in
mOlc ",i,,1>1< w>y to [hOI< who , rc "ill ",her imptrfct:<. yet we do no[ I".ve
,I><m U""ugh, .. t" ,h. rno .. ptrfoc, Ikn",,'Iit:"'1 bu, we "''''' ,h.m to know
.h.. [he divine lxing is no[" >II idem;",1 or ,he
0' .imiLa, <0 .n) of ,h.
<ljj,;,,!; ,hi..gs,"'"
..,m.
In ,he ca<ly "'.n,h cen'"1}" Bishop Lron, i", of Nca""li, (c.. 190-610) in
Cyprus ddiV<Tro a <cries of .. rmon. ag.in>t ,h. ,..,... tl>< fifth of which i.
"Id,.....d espe<i.lly .0 ;""8"". I..,.,",;",. optn ing i.
co"v~n,ion.l , H<
d~fen'" inl"l\es beaus< GoJ cumm."d i ,\1""", , 1'<" cl>c",bin> "" ,he .,k,
beause H e comnunded Ezhicl [0 dcco...,e ,!.c Temple; becam. Solomon pm
imag<'> in [hc Tomple. Lromiu. challengn [hc Jew> to r<:pr<:l><nd Goo Himself
fur con,m.n,l ins ,ho:so: irn>g'" to be m ...k A Jew """,Id ' <>p<J "d---m"ch "f ,I><
""mon is os, .. . J i.logu<-<ha, the inugn w<rc m.de only fo, mcmol)"
""d nOl for worship_ Th. C)ui"i>n would .n>w<, , h.......... harJly regard ,he><
lil<cn...... b:u(>UKt~;) and imag... (dxove;) ,nd fo.m. (t,;JI'o!) of ..in ....
if ' hey " ..". goo,." likcn"""" .,c hooo",d for wha[ they "p,<><n', not fu, ",ho,
,hoy . ... I' ... ... mpl . "wh<" " .. ,. pOcco< of w<><>d, pu, '''!;'II .. , ", m. 1.c a
cross, I v~n."". (JtQO<J;(tvWI ,he fig.... on KCOun, "f Clui who ~ crucified
0" i"
if ,I>< pi<cc> of ~ ...... re >q>.r.,od win. J wuuld tltrow
,hem in,o ,I>< fi ... A"d "". wh~" SQ"\O)n< CCi,.... " o,J fron t ,I>< <"'I"'''''
and I>< .. I...... ,h....1, h. do.. "'" honor (h 4.l)tJf,v ) ,hc d,y. ,h. P'pe', or ,he
Ic..!. bUl I>< <.nd. his ,'one", ion ("QOO",;v'l'JIv) and fap1 (o[fIu,) to [!.c
empelO'." lromi", [hen u JIu of boy. who. wben .hei, f.. I><, goc. 'W"l.y . ..,. hi.
" ..If, cloak, 0 ' chair and emblU< ,hem wi,h [<a . . and ki ..... AI 'he bo)~ honoc
things bcca .. oc of ,hei, f"hcr. so C h ri"i>", honor objcc bcc:o.uoc ,hey
,..,1><,
,""""",de.
[n...
"
ell .. " " '"''
<I .. m of Chtist. ehti",,,,, 1'''' "I' im,*" ",-o'Y""'o", "10 'hat i" ilKCS'
.... n<ly looking at ,he", WI: migh, rom ..
.nd no"Of IU~. os)'UU ho,-. fOfgo.... ", ,h. Lord yo", (;;,d." "J"" 1.1 )""." he ","'inues. '"i" adoring ,hoc book
of the law, do,.." odo tI .. hido and inl "ilia.. in i, b", ,he wo,d, "fGod
which Ii< ,h. .., i"dc<d I.;" honoring a" ;mag< ofCh';I<. do"", ado ,he
wood .nd cnIo" boo". in hoWing ,hi, in,ni",,,, like"~.' of Chri", I
to
l,oW Ch';'1 'hruugh iL" Ib,",i,,, .W ",j,y. if nothing m...te " to he adQ~.
l:troh kiU<"d joKph', dual or revcnccd hi' ... ff. If Q", im>g<S
t<">.lIy idols.
why do "'0 wo<>hip in t<mpln dediatl to tho< martyn who ddtroyal idols? If
Chri";,,,, honor wood ., gOO. wh)' do they hono' nunyfl who des,roytd
woodrn ,inluben' Jow> . ""hbo<n. blind. nd impio.... They r.... '" S<:<
,h .. imag<> PU' domons to Right. They ",ill_ ""kn~ how ,rumy vi"",
tio" ... in,i"ti"" ... ,,><I eff,,,io", of hi"",! ",me fto'" in'"'W"'. They do not "'"
how "",oy wiek<d. impiou. men. idoL"e .... m"rdo". forni"""O, .nd robb<"
Iu"" <orne", ,he lttOS"i,,,,,, of If",h 'hfOUgh i"",8"'_ I.<:o",i ... condudd by
mind inS tho Jew> llut they ko:p ""ny ",.n"f;lC1Utcd ,hi ng> fot ,ho,- glof)"'..J
memory of God: 'ho ".ff of M""". ,he ",bIcs of ,he uw. the bum ;ng huw. ,he
nunn . b<:oring urn. the ,It. he p""e with (;;,d', !Ume. 'ho cphod. ,he T.her_
n.<1<. Ch,i><''"'' no diffi,n, .nd do n", &,..,,< ,h< e1",s< of 'dol",1'."
Th....... nth " tul)'
1 ",he. an';-Jrwi<h di.logurs.. f'<'>'ibly
by H.,ocli .. ,', ' n, ijcv.-i.sh kgi,l"ion. " ... mong thex.
of Bi.sh<>p
S' erh." of lIos'n """ p>ni<ul>rly iml"'n' ~, booh I>ea".. i, was i~R"e~,i.II., ..
0" "" d l>eau .. he ...,. ,he fi", G .... k w,i,~, ,n ."empo. <:aJdU1 .. pIa""io" of
tho diA;"."". bcrwt:<:n .,lo,.,otm .nd ""n.... ion. His t<>t ","-;v.,. in ~f)"
f.-.gm<"t1f)"
It .pp<ar> th .. St<phen Ukd only the mo<t "'n""ntion.1
'<gIt."."". H~ .lay>. fo, ="'ple. 'h>t e--''Y'hing mad. i" (;;,d', !\an.. i, sood
.. ,.J ,h .. Chti.i. ns !lo"C' ..-,,<>hip m."f."",,-.d thinS' fur the", .. I~.. but fo,
,h. I"'""n. Ihey ~n' _ Mo,..,..". ,inu
o"e,)-,hinl\ is ",.n"r"".
t"""t i, ",.de by hum,,, h.,Ids. If "0 =p<et i, tu k """.-do.! ,,, ",."uf"",umi
[hing>. wh~ 00 Jew> """""'.. 1M wood~n aI ..,. the urn wi,h mon"". the ",hie
ond light> in,id<: .nd oul>i<k ,h< T'km.de~ lnug<> a """ ,hing. idolt .n
oth.., Si"". God tn.d. A<Um in Hi. im>g<. art ""'. "",,.ho... idols?"
... Ithough tho .rgum<n.. "''''''ined in the d;,logu<> of !..ronu"" and Sr<
" hen"", >,,,,. ,,,i,,,,>1 ."d. fOr the n..... I"rt. fa",;!;" tu '" by nvw. ,hm:'f<"
some
impliei, in ,heir wtitings. We", the", 'o::ally dialoguc,; Qn ,h< 'p<:'
cifi, .uhirtt of ;rn.g I;.m.'~ 1"";'''1., Ch""i.o>-----wh.cther !.romiu. 5,<phen. ,)f an)""e d!C>-.nd ""'".] Jew>? No the t<."" t/u., ",,,,i .. mor<: Ii['f)"
inn,io".' \l;1\y '''S'''' ",ilh Jow>" all, let al""< in ""nn"""io" ..-ith ;"'>gd?
[ ,-.n ,hough .... know c<>mp, ... tivdy 10,,1 0 .bout ,h< Jew> on tho ,i"h ."d
", ~,i.w
"bc"
""I'"
.'0
.,"i .........
'p"n'"
,ha,
".t<.
""''''')n.
P''''''''
Art, Irons
l)
seventh cemuries,!.o scholars have in rent years devoted considerable attention

to a substantial corpus of ami-Jewish literature that arose in this period.M This
is not the place for a derailed assessment of that literature, but one aspect of its
appearance deserves mention because it hdps to place the writings of Lrontius
and S((:phen into sharper focus. Byz.antium was subjected to severe military
pressu re and frequent defeat by Slavs, Persians, and then, most disastrously,
Arabs. The Arabs of coursc represemed not only a military threat of immense
proportions but also a profound religious challenge. In ways tha t are still a little
hard to fatho m, one dement of Byz.antium's response to this ongoing crisis was
a series of literary polemics against the defenseless and unthreatening Jews. For
David 0ls[er the polemics " used (he Jew as a rhetorical device to personify the
doublS of their own community with a recognizable, evil, and most important,
eminent ly defearable. opponent."6l Muslims were, on the other hand, triumphant and they were iconophobic, albeit less militantly so [han has usually been
assumed. 6J T he dialogues of Leontius and Stephen may not represent actual
Jewish-Christian dialogue so much as an imaginary way of addressing the legitimacy of the rising prominence of images. Once again. in other words. the very
texts that seem at first to reveal an intense discussion of the legitimacy of sacred
art may actually bear lillIe connection to any such discussions and may not even
have much rdevance to the topic of an .
Along the Greek world's frontier . in seventh-cemury Armenia, there was
some discussion of images. Apparently Vrt'am:s K'er['ogh, an influential churchman, was combating Christian iconoclasts in Armenia. One of his writings on
images, or an extract from onc of them , has survived. Vn'anes begins by rejecting the heretics' contention that no paintings or images (statues?) should be in
churches. Their charge is idolatry and it is based on the Old Testantent. The
immediate response is to cite Old Testament passages where God commanded
images to be made. Vn'anes then memions Paul and the altar of the unknown
God at Athens (Acts 17.23) and says that church fathers mention and approve
of images. H e adds tha t the cross is veneratcd because Christ died on it and
then says, " what is astonishing is {hat you accept the commandments and you
persccUie the Lord; you prostrate yourselves before the symbol [the cross] but
you 5tone the ki ng [presumably a corpus on a crucifix]; you hono r the cross and
yo u outrage the cruci fied . For this is how the Manichaeans and the Marcionites
behave who consider the Lord, who reall y took a body, an apparition, and when
Ihey $tt images of him they grow angry, become furious, and insult them."
Vrt'anes Ihen mentions the Story in Eusebius (Hist. 7. 18) of the woman at Paneas
whose hemorrhage was cured by a smue of ChriSI. He then talks of all the
pictu res of Mary, marryrs, and sainls that e:list in the churches of the C hristians
,Iu,
,nd ")"I
,U ,hot .... rwk 0/ 0.";" "'" <I<pormI. J.... aI ,n ,hot Scripw=
MEvnyohi,,& ......... thot Holy Sui!,,""'" rd.t. is p.ointtd in tho: <hurcha. AK
not boob wri" ......,,11 pigmcnt?n.. _
th.np'f< p.oin,cd wllh 1"&"'""" In
<hun:"" Indo.:d ,ho: eo .. heu ,ho ocrip<W<'O. bu, ,hot I...... On< .... """" wid!
,1M: .,.. .nd ..... I>nn ,htm with ,ho """. nd 0", undtrnando ,htm ..im ,hot
IM:." . nd .,... b<l"'n: H....;a "r tn., lmosa on: , ,1< btao .... ,hoy .'" llkbo
bu, ..'IM:n aui ........ """' .... ,he ..... "'.,. I>.fo... htoutofully dcn,I Gospel
book. ,hey do not
,h. preciow ,...
bu, ,he won! of Cod. If
,.,0.,).
m"""""
p.ol." .....iI . ho. 0<> ''''' >I. ,h. ,'tr' ol. s->II. and Kun, whkh m.I ,ht ink
with "hieh tht Scrip,ur.. ar. ,,~ill.n , lIu. M;tlUlir raint i. m>do from milk.
CW. ",<nie:. nd ",he. [hing>. 10m< 0/ ",hieh ' r< rood and ",ht" mrdicom<nu.
v,,',neo roncl..,.J.n [.... , __ can m.".. 1M In.i>ibk wo.Ld [hrougll. vioibk
thinJP." On ,hot ,,'1>01<. Vn..,... poo,,;"n .. 'lui .. modcr.t .... I~" wonIs do
"&nol . ~ . , ... , ....... drawins
"';,IIin ,hr: .m<~ns llyun,i ...
Empi - ....... familia< 011..;0. ;.,. boo.tndoria. ani!
OM ............ by
,to..,,;""
:dons.
au....." tal> one!".......... rncountm..

At .00'"
,hr:..,... tim<. """'..... prominmt Armm"n dtric. jobn M.j"I'>'

"tI,;.", opi .... ''''''W'' by "''" mo<IU " '100 Iud urged
.......... hnrd 0/ ........
prupk ..., ", ..."h i ...... 011" .hul'<h ..."'Is. .nd hr: .... n....,....d ,""n. '0 ~
10 ht ..ked them .....Y they oppoonI imaga :and
,hey .. id . >imply, , .... , ,bt Bible ... i,bt. rom ....nd..! n<H pc.mitttd ,hc:m. john
bd'un- him. Who .. ,hey did
rapondtd ,""i.h bibli",I'rgumtn" of "i, Own . H <aI<Iu.td ,h. d<.>r>,ion, on

Mo.... [tn' .nd ,h """,me"t of m. Ttmpl . Th ...... "Y' nothi"S .bout [h
.. n...,;"n "rin ... ~ .nd dot> no< ..... .1 , hi&h~" ,Ji,hoologial.p<CUuno..
on ti.h ... ide of ,hi> iiIuc."
M."y of ch.t >Ufcmc:nU by ,hot w,i ........ by ""'" f.mil .. , to .... B", ," ....
_ ""'.. h.l"" .nund ,hot music. Fint. Ag>.h~ .. Iks ..,I>t< <'YI"ieally. of
'mas<> dlm:,i"5 [he Yicwcr It> a !Up """empLltion. Hyp.ui .... n,h ... mDr<
dear1y. ~ of , ........" brins SUidcd up It> ,I>. dm ...
n... oounds .~
mudo lik I puur;< ntal oJ.. b<ginllins 0/ TN CtW.M H_"i.y by Diony>im
the: I.......x..A~ ... .,. euIy Jix'h..omnuy ,a'
d..... dtq> d..m from
,he ..-&O of Ntopl.a,,,,,ie tl.""gI". Poeu<k>-I)en)'l ooid. " 1)1'. l i t ltd up . .. f....
posoible . hrouglt ....'hi. imagco to tIM: ro'"empb,,,,,,, of ,hot Ji........... For I<WI'IC
J><Ur1<. pcriup. ""'''Y propI<. ~ i~ btaom<. hi""ly chars! poin' ",1KTt
.ougosy met 'htovh:an~. 'The ",iritu. l"""rgy of.he.~ ..... <ham><W UI"
word j,.., II h.., .. nly gr> and i",c~ion "'.r< eh.nn.1td oo,..'nwa.d, A pictUl' 'hu. benm< apabl< no, m<.dy.,r """.... nting hu. in fur of mtdiaring '0
,hot obot ...... the ,hing 010 ..,,-.<1. This i........, K.t! Mo.';"'" h.. alltd. "al"",
1.,1. yli....! mi"'ndc: .. ,.nding. ...' n. .... an I>. '''' doubt ,h.. NropI.,,,,,jc
""ns.
th.,
An. I"""
'I
thought c..'entu. i!y CQnuibutw to. b=kdo",n " f the barrier ,lut "l".... tcd ,he
im,S" from ,he 1'<""" ",hom i, rep....,n",d . JlU!, jotdging from Ag:.. hi:u .00
Hyp:uiu., P<rudo-Oionr-iu. ",>.S, in the .;'th c<n'ul)'. uooers,ood .. p"",iding
1 w.y of 'hinking ,bou, IOf.",n,i.1 mye' .nd dn",ion. 11>< "Ie> ,Iu,
im'l;<
I"'rticip:o.ed (ItWr;t.;) in. ur .h.f<'<! ill tho bcillg uf d.. pcno" it t.pl'<"S<"'cd
h.d nut )'t. been ,,,",,,1,,1. Thi, .,,,,,Id h,pp"O> "nly in ,he nin.h ""'>!"I)'.
Scrond, Lron.i", .nd. bs explicitly. V,t.nes reft, to mi t:ld ><sociatcd with
im.ses. Thi, 'opic ,",'ililt,,,m brge nd b'l; in br di>ruinm o( im.. gc>. Fo.
nOW. it i. worth noting tlu, twO cry difft.ent ",ri.... rould p> ovrt !hi
ubject ... ith complc tuonimity. Thi,d, Hyp.. iu. in f"rticul.tr do<> no. '"
mn.1> dd<"d im"ll" in goo ..... I ..1d on princ;ple .. .... gge<, .Iu, ,hOl-' nul'l>< of
v.. l"" '0 the ,impl., Im>&", ""'''' .Iw.y> "",n by ,hei, .uwort." .. " .. ful in
'C'OChing b". here w< bm who ~ to be .. ught by them- flO' .he whole
communi!)- bu, only it> humN mcml:>en. Th. impli"""", i, ,bat ,I:>e beTt ..
50" of 1>>1'1, ........ ble ,,, rik .. oo.e "'c'"
I'<""'p.ion.
of ,ho fif,h .... ion of II Nicu-:z. but not o,helWi..
Eml:>etldcd ;n <he
1',...",<1 . '" ..... ments fron, tWO bt. :l<VCm h-<en",,), Bruntine chICh ",e"
who .....1 i'''cteSting ,hing:. tu ... y io> ,lefcnk "f i.. ,,8<" lIi, h"p John ofTh""",.
kin;';' i, qUilled, in Ihe
plm:... ba,-ing ~id. f"" quire ,,,di,ion,1 thin!:).
He <kf.n<kJ im>g<:s heco"k thO}' <xi unly fe" ","", ,,,b.ting ,,,d h"""'ing
,ho .. dcpicf<'<! , 11>< im.SC" ,ho",..k .., ;ndel..re not hollof<'<!. bu< inst.-.d ,he
.."',"" ."d f""oo, of God who in".cede fo" 1""'1'1. lIu, ,hen -"'hn :uld" .. W
.. u kc i"uSC" "rGod, , I,. , is of 0'" 1",,<1 .",1 S.-iQr J..... Chris<, i",.., r.,., h<
""-' ..... upon tI .. earth ... d ,.lW with men. We p.in. thi' no, th .. i. 1.1."
im.!;< 1 h< ""dc:"tood "" GOO by ....
we <kpict tI .. hum.,,;,y, no. ,I:>e
inCOfpor<>1 d;.in;,y," John e,,,,dotd<>l by dcwlopinS ,ho .. me ..sumem w;,h
"'PCC' '0 ,"1;<10. Of co,,'" .h<y'''' inco'pore;o1['m ,h<)' .ppeaf<'<! m,n)' ,imes
'0 men .. if rorpor<>l . nd.., ,bat;. how ,hq.re <kpictcd," At .bout ,he ... me
ti"", Dexon Con"' n,inc. th< ClunophyJn (. ",hi,';". we might .. ~) of H.g;'
Soph;" dcf.oocd im.gc> of Chris, (0' eucrly ,ho ........ rnson ,ba, Joh n di&
Ch,,,, h.J 'I'pc'"cd.,. m.n ,nd.., ;"" 8< "fhim ",."ifc>tcd ,I,., , Iity
F... front the I>c:o" of Dyun,iunt. Atu$'>liu$ of S;n .. ttArocd on im .. gcs In
the 1,,< I<V<nth .:emu'}' in wcoy:l ,h .. h.rl<cncd b..ck to ok! phil<>lOphical .lobo,..
00.." the ",I"i,.. excdl""cc of sctinK .nd I>c:o'ing or re.. ding ,h.. """'''''',I w;,h
com.mpor,,)' co""'" .1>0<" ,h. ,u'h<"'ici1)' of ' .....00 ,ba, u!<lt<:>Sl ,-.,,)'
CU ffe,,' concem,- in tI.. world of Mon",hcl i.i.m .nd.1>< .i"h roun.i1 of 6!k>,
.boot Chri .., fuli hum.:znity. Ho .. id. defeooing dcp"'ion. of ,ho crucifixion,
,ba, ",ho tx., ruk: of ,h. wi ..., mon ;, ch'" nu,e,i.1 refut:Hion, ."d "'pr...,n,,
,iom .. ", ",,,ngt' .nd "''''e heliev.. hle ,,>r .h,,, both spokrn
,h.
.u"
"""'rr
fi",
,,,r< ..
.6
CH TOO o~.
WOld. 1M b . nl quo=. fOf ,he m,, ,e'''1 "'p,=o",ion ",ono. I>< gJ,....,d OJ
rorgd. wh.rea< ,h. ,pok.n .."",;,;on. "fbook.< on." sufl'cr .ddi,;""" .od omis.,i"". 1t ' he h.nw of cvil"p<iling me o." " No< until the ninth ccnmf)" did
<m""pha. ""i " .. p...... h. full ""'l"""I.nce I:>e-rwe<:n piau"'" .nJ ",,,,,<Is.. bu,
An ..'.'ius ..... oo.;"uslr on th .. ""th. In hi' OWn .ime. h~ . 11< ...... rer.
h.ps, I"" """,ccmcJ "i,h . n it>elf .ho" wi.h .d'u,ing ,he Theop.Khi"'" who
hdicvl ,ho, God h.J ",ffi:.1 on
~
Fo. A""" ..;u <!<piet",n of .he
cnocir..i"" " .... n ..e;'" in .poiog<fiao It demOR''''''e<1 ,h., i, ..... onJ~ 'he
hum:tn. 'he fullr huo=Jl . ./<>u. who rufferOO 10d dil!'
Th. Lu, p~ia)flod,,'i~ ,,~i.inll' on ;m>.g<> _;n >om< .~ ,hoe
impo''''''_ In 692 .1>< c<>uncil '"in Trullo" (oft<-n ",111 ,h. " Quini"",,'" 'If
" hf.hSi ..h ") >ddl kng. h~ .... of di.<ciplin' f)" <,, ,,,,n, '" ,I>< d<>gnU,ic <leci
.ion. of ,II< Fifth (IJP .nd Sinh (<180) Ecumenical Cou ncil>. Th..,. .imes .h.
Chu,",;1 >ddtes><d iudf,o ,he Uk of.n ;n Cillo. In "'oon 7) ,he council f.. hoe"
~ 'he i..... g< of ,h. em '0 t.. put Of! 'he floor. prau ..... bly in . m<>l;'c. n
Thi, ",nOlI "",u.. lJ y did '10 mo ,!u.n "'p<>,.n lie, ofTh><ku.i". II of ~ '7
,Iu. h,d bttn ..ken up in J",,;no.n', code:- It metn' tim s><rOO i .....goo we",
'0 be 1CC<).dcd
.od. ,h u no, '0 be ,rompll ""d.m",, _Canon ''''' ..".
,h" .i><," ,h""ld be n" ,"",,,<co ,h. , " co,~h ,he <y< .. " d ",nup' , i>< minJ.oo
ncit< I:>.s< plca$urQ:'" Thi. CtnOn ~ r~.dy no,iced 1- h~'on.n> of the inugr.
I.. mconing i mbig""u, in ,h. a'",me': If could ",Lot< [0 ><rubr Of QCrOO ~n.
If m.)' bor >om~ connection to ,h~ kind of 'hinking .h., b'er ",,,,.. ionl ,~c
imerpob. i"", in . ho loner of S, _Nil .... of Sin.i (_ >bov< p_ ,8) who,..,. .1I<gl
to t.. <:<>ncc",1 ,h .. ." ,n churc"," ",;gh. t.. Ji..."";ng and nO' ;n"'u",;,- .
Churches "'<'" pt.a.. of """,hip. no. of ""t<".inmen'. ~nd no or' ..... j ~"ifi
.bk ,ha, did no' .nh .. n ,II< pi.ty of wonhirrn. Fin. lly. in ito mas, famow
i.... g< aOOn, number 8>. ,hoe Trulbn Council de<:roed:
m. ....._
m""
""'J>'
]" ",m. depiCtion. of ,h. ""n.,.,!>I. irn.geo, ,h. h"e",nn<t i> po",.,rod
poin,inS wi.h hi' /inge " .1>mb, ~nd .hi.~ .. been .><e<ptl ...
"'I',...,n,.. i,,,, of sro. p",~g,"ing fu< u' 'hrougto
tow ,,", "ue
Lomb. Ch.i>, our God. V.n.ro,ing. ,hen. ,h .... 'ncien' "l'<...,n...;o""
.n<! fOrdh.Jowinp ... ymboh . n<! pr<6gur.t.iOfu of ,rutin handl
<I., ..-n by ,h. chu",h. n""""hol ...,,,,, I',o:fc. g< ..... nd ,ru,h, ...hich w<
h.... 'reei.....! .. fulfillm.n. of ,ho !:ow. T h<refor<. in ord.. ,h.. wha, i,
perf . <wn in p.>in,ingo. nuy be p<>",")-oo!:><fur< ,h. oyeo of >II.
dec,.. ,ha, I><nccfonh .h. liS"", of ,h. Lomb of God wOO ,okos .way
,h. ";ru "r ,he wotld. eh,i" ",,, (".<><I, .h,~,k! be ><t r""h in im.gd in
hum." fo.m, in,,~.. J "r ,ho . ncien. lo mb: fur in ,I.i. w>y """ 'l'V",h.nd
m.
w.
"n. ]"""
'7
thot d.pth <)f d,e Immilit) of d,e Word of God. atod . tc kd to thot
",memb",ncc <>fhi< IiI< in the firsh. hi. p' ;o" anJ hi. "" 'ing dc.,h .
nd the rndemptitKI .... hOch therd,y arne to the _tid."
It i. <omctimrs <.oid tlu.t thi< a non forhoJ. the depicti"" ofChti ... . umb,
II don not have to I>< ,c.d in thi' W', T,ken "'gct~ w;th ,~c """<.10 ofJ"~"
of n.c.s:.lonicl ,00 Con, ..",in. Ch ....ophyl . ,rKl vi ..... cd in ,he
of
the oont;nuing Chri"olog;al battlc< that d;urkd the O"OOdox Church. this
anon can he: t.ken ,0 m"" n th.,.;n ,,,dot til ""'rt ,hc d.,c,rin. of ,h. ;n",m,_
tion. Chri!t an ,nd ,hould he: dcpied a' , man . S"ued dilkntly. th i< Trulb n
".. >on on be in'p'oted ... an ,n;'''''''''n ,hot . the \\'",,1 h,v;ng betn maJ.
R..... ,here W>.< ,w) n<l ,n pro.-;J ~nlholOc rep"""" ..,;"n nf ,he S"'cc to
oome,'" With fQpt to ima~ ,hemsdV<S. we h.v<. in "xing' I"',h f'Qm
Emtbi u. to the Trull. n H,II. =crscd cours< . Euscbiu. could nIH im.gine m.k_
ing.n im.ge ofChri .. 1m, w:.. It>PrY .... i,h .1>"",. ,)'mool;c <q>rc><m",ion.
n.c Trull... f.,hm ,,"<'" a liul< dubio,," ,oou, 'Ymooh and romen' wi,h 'r<cilie ngu...J ndc, ings. In any Cll<. the TrulLm Council m"ked ,he ~"t tim< .
, let. ,he fi ... ,;m< ,inee ,he obl<u", fJ.",.n emnn qumed '00"'. ,It>, ,he
chutch prooounced offic o..lly On <.oIT<d .ft. It <annot he: <mph ..,z.cd too strongly
,b... ,he fdic,
docidlly affi,mative.
In the ,ge hcfu", Oro"""b,m . ,h.",fo,<. f!.;n N,;C 1"""'0'" hul hcrn
ou, by I:>o<h the ."",hlS ,nd the dcfcrKl.1S of im>g<s. The (ormer ..id
thot Cod ..... purdy <pi", ...1 bring ... "0 rould nu' be depic,ed , [)q>iC!;"nl.
in . ny ,,"<n,. wetc mode Q( .;1. m.ttO' w~;,:~ ...... n, nite<! ,,, tlo. <li.;,"'.....,ncc
,nd ;tl;o enroulOlgC<! <I", wo'ihip of ma",;"1 c",.,ion. C n:o'Oon " .. If. "'''''''''''<t.
.... Gud, ",ork . Ione. Prople ""ould not. in <<<>ting imag<>o p,c\ume to .It>"
in God , "wk. lm.:lg<> we'" ;Jol . 0< '" ,'cry mu<h lih ,h.m .. '0 m.k. no
diffe",,,,,, , Fin>lIy. God hod m'etkd him,dfin word"~ no' in piau"".
The d~nJ<,. Qf i m.~ used did.k a'1)u men", Art w .. good for ,I><
,,,,,,,ue';,,n "f d", ;s<>or." . " " " ;muh,e<! .h. em",;,.,,, in ""')'> ,h..
JiJ
<>0(. Aft encouf"J.g<d p.ople ,,, (hink deepc' (hough" .bou( higher 'hingo. An
,cm;rKlcd people Qf ,he ..:,ipm ...1 , M ccciaias,ic>1 h<roc> wltox example .
m.ined , continu ing P'ClCnC< .nd >mfOf!. An helped to!O.;U\ ,nd to r<:fc, ,he
p"'y"" of ,he bel..,..". An .... mad. of ,.;). n"t"t. pc,h,p, . bo' til< ""net
W>S 'nc ,& ~ ..1 to ,h. pU'l""'" of , n . M",,,,,,,,,,. GO<! It>d cr.",,l . 11 ,h 'ng< .nd
haJ pronounced ,hem good. M~,, C(>uld I>< ,bwcd. c<'t>'nl y. bUl it,,~ nO!
'n(f';"' '''lIy 1<1. In some .,.... :ICc;ng ...." prcfc"bl. ,,, he";"g Or n:W;"S'
Im.s<' """ked mi,><I.. in m>ny ploco. SUlci)' ,hi, helped '0 ",,,,hlilh ,heir
OOn'' '
w'"
",ked
_ rd,
k$irim>q . fifully, im'geI of eh,;,r h~lp<tl ro pro>d.>i'" rft< docrr;n. "f ,he
inc:IIn... ion,"
Ernst Ki!l!ing<' onco .. HI th .. ,he", .... s no ,ime brtwt-rn the fou,," ""ntuty
.nd rhe nimh when rl><", wu no di",,-';on of ;m:ogcs. " 'I'h" i, '''' .
i, is
" Iso true ,h,,, the dilCU...on, ,.'<'" ""~ in comparison wi.h, fOl tumple. tt..
f.e"", <kb>,es . " "oundi"! .1><: I"',..,n ,nd n""r, of Jesu, ChriS!. Th. moo.
commo n ch'rg< ~n".rr WU idoL"ty and the mOO' rommon dekn'" WU ,h.
in cert.in circumst. nce, GOO him!<lf had rom"",nded im' geI to I>< mule. In.
""y. rl><: inug< q ......d. wert 1'<>11)' hurl .. """. bibl",,1 ""<gW>. Thi, ""'Y I><:lp
.0 ""phin ,I>< cme<g<n of ,he di!boi" dekn .. of im>g<s. If. for .",mple,.n
im.g< rouJd be "",0<1"
,uPP"" an in",,,,,,ioni,, r ding of the New T.....
ment, then ouch , n inug< WU i... lf m ncgrtio;::r.l "gument .Vi.... ,h.cnr: who
im <'1',1 ,be Seri!,, " "" diffi:nrly.
M,yIx- ... rS"" ........ ;s ,I><: .... vng ""'n!. Few of ,he ....;.... whom " 'e I..""
'D<nrioncd
to h.v< bo:-n ,,,,,,,,ring . ny uf ,I>c othel writn>.)N-~ . nd
I><.er'" m.) h.", p'omp,I ..,n", dd'< ..... of inug<s. or ,hey ""y h"""
It".
'0
.ppea.
prompted no mo", th.n lit ....1}' in""ntions "''' in d",I<>g"" f"rm. P"puhl "".
CC'S><:Sk<m to h.. "'-"CaSiur>! >Orne .ttack>. Sut it W()UIJ be WTOOg to ,hin k of
n'o,-;",IQn8 dei>->tc . T I><<< "':re in. r o;I, ~ufins ,!teo< dyn.mi<ally ~","iv<
nru.i .. in ,h. his,,,1}' of Ch,;,,;. nil}'. """,ioo.l .nd ;sol" ed vo;e ... Killinger
.Iso .. m k<-d 'h" bcf(,,,, tl>< "lie of <ronod. m th ......-as no ' )'S'em"'" ."em!"
hli,h . Chri,,".n ,hool}' of im. ses.'" h is """".h ...wing ,h", .h... wu no
,)'S mar'" .hooty on ,i,h" ,ide of rhe ,...... No.h'ns i, I... p.edicrabk .lun
th .. , bitt<' im>g< q"",d ,hould h,,-. ~,i"'n in ,I>< eighth ntul}'.
,0 ....
T he Rise and
~unction
ofS.cred Icon"
Be(o", I could wri .. th ... word. I 'ook in lund . mou"".nd clicked on ",ric>
of ico .... These iro.... of o;ou .... arc me", ')'10001. dc>igned ro wnvry ". me
... iou. ""Ii, i<l md p<>S>,bilitics hidden dcq> in tl>< dc-cuonOa of my comput<,.
In I. ... nti'luity, mo'" . od mO f'C"!'le dicker! on "'ligi<>u< irons in otd .. to
",i,'''" ,he ",ligiQUS (01'0$ of .I><;,.S"
",,;'v ,impl)' met ... im>g<. pictu ... The WOfd etn refe. '0 .n) im:rgo ..
11. H;'tor;'n, of.. n u"" it. 00wcvc to rd'c. to >p:ihc ~p<> o( rdigio~, images.
Reservins ,he wo,-J "ici"," fu, 'd ig;ou. pietu.-el . "'ne i, """.lIy Ru.. i. n
~"g<> ""d. f",ly 1'<C<1\t one." N<Vtrthd ..... rt histori.n, wtfully di;ngui.<lr
b<t..-.." IUIT" ;'" piu ..... hu.o,;.",.t>d ieo n" nJro",,- ... hid> tend '0 r-q>'dcn'
one 0' f~ ~g,,"'" f""" . lly .",1 ,,,,,lly Out of t<m!"'.,.]. hi,,,,,;,,1 ""n'eJr'."
Such argumentl'~ b.utd pardy On Itylislic cuns.idmtiun. and in view of tlK

' mall number of . urviving, prc-iconod""t or. mplcs-kwc, than tw<:nl}~i. i.
prob..bl)' danS<fou, to a .. ontpt to diffi:tcn,i. te fO() ""'rpl~ .m''''g the work! <If
. n .t our d;'~_ In Bd'ing', "",ni;. ,ho icon
nmhing bm. b" d"",iClI
p. nd pidu .. ,hOI inhi,I .he di.ine im' g<, ,he irn1'<.;.1 imag<, .nd ,II< po'_
""i, of ,II< de..!, TInl> ,he ienn ..!01"1 a muhiplici,}' of fomul d",i=. ew:J,
coming from a diAi:,.n. ,ndi'lon md from diAi:rtn. gon..,.. h hod no. )'C'
evul ...J ,tyle '" >.hetic of it> own, h embfKI ,hc coo"ict betwun ,hc
doi .. fO, comrn.mor... ing an indi.idu.r. like""", .nd ,ho ",ish fe" obt.ining
.n im"".", .. bk ide,I:'" Thi. i, II<lplUl, but the point can be eJrt.ndl by "ring
thot WOIk of an may be rel\...lI .. ironic when i, make:. no ref<rene.< 10
w",d, .t . U. It docs n(>l iIIUl .... tc biblical tar 0' .. jn.', li(. docs no. ,dl
""'Y. i. ,~" <. pectl.o d w ,ho
mind ,,"ck t..."mnhing that he '"
, hoe h.. rcod 01 h<nd .... FUl1h mo"" .. G.I}' Vil." h ,*",,,...J, insof~ ...
"icon" 'impl)' mean, "'nt'ge," 'he te.m ,huuld nut be rc<.ricti ", On .b...:oct
rdigioUl pon",i. pain!I in <gg cernJ><"'- on ~;<>Id-",,I w<><><kn b.:>ard. WIt ..
delincd on icon in 1I)'I.an.ium . nd .Iready in I.t< .ntiquity. " ... it> we .nd
wh. .. prople hoelicvcd i, '0 Ix_ An icon i d<"",ion.1 im.g< ,ho< m ....1s
rcv<rcnCC and rnp<Ct: it i, hoi" in ,he !.Cn",
if ,h.res in , h... nai'l" of ,he
figu", who'" lih n... i, burs . ..... palmin& bcc.me an icon at the momcnt ..hen
it bopn 1(, func, i"" .. m icon." "
B .....
"'"""",i,
,ho,
In .. king .bou, .be rio< . nd function of icon>. 11"d"." rum ......y (mm wiu.,
,lKy look lih . nd to i<>quire about how ,hey were uS<"<! .nd wi", , hoy did (or
.... r<" beli ..-cd, '" <">""".1, to dol. The OfC r",my problem. in ,hi, 'P!'~
tOO, "". the Ie..t of wh"h i h" ,holi,."')'so",,,,,,.tId ,ho ." .... iying.n
annot ... rule be b,,,...W" i",,,direct co"n<Clion wi,h cuh mhcr , for in,un.
,hc i, no ;n"',"'"""nihle ""iden"" f", ,he ~><e .,{ m, ouf;oc(u,,,, ",igin.1 pi",.
,,( displ.y, . od rul, p"'-Cti<. if anr. >w>lU p'c-iconoclaSf"
ieom ptarvcd in ,h. mo""",), ofS, . Cuh"ine in Sin,i" A. , II< " me ,ime,
. ;nu. II, . 1I .... nt lir:t')' allu,;"n, to icon. ",I>" ." paiming> .h" h... long
.i,\Cc ... ni,hl,
On one poin' moOt amho.i,i .. or. "II'o:eJ, An iron i", ,...,.l of . n bef<,,,,
..... ich ",,".;n >peeihc cult "'u wo", I"',fnrml." M"ic-f .. n ...... >Cpr oar> that
"i, is bcc. ...'"
nJ .., <kYotion.o it " tat.n im.ge beroma an icon, that i,
tu .. y. pIa "f rommun ication Ix......-..:o a dcvo.<': .nd ,he I"'""n who i.
".",It>
M,
'"
C~'PT" ONO
" r ~n",d:' "
H.n,' (;>tg Thummd :uIJ, <Iu< . n iu>n eme"F' when, pit<" ..

tlul "." honored .nd tlut " ... !n >$ cffi<aci<m' ,..... di<tinguilbcd from oth
ud> obi<> 0. from gene,,1 church <k<:ontion. g Tht fin. unombigUQtJ> rdc.
.no: to .uch "'" i< provided by S" AuSU',ine. woo .. id, "[ knuw , .........
"",ny wh" ado.. pi<ru .... of the d.ad:'''' Epipluni u., .. we uw, aptrt<cd lOme
enn"""" . 00UI how in,>go> we .. heing ,ued, bm his WOfd n: I...... pli,i h.>n
Augu"in""
Han, Ikl'in~ ,hink. ,lut ,he 6...
from > memo,i.1 image.o. cult of
<he inuge ...... he p"""i ... ofligh' ing cmdl.. ..,d uying gorl.nd. heft"e po
".i" .. ,~. g....... of the d.><I. s.,.,,,, tI,. po" ... i" cno,ld he "'I,I;.".,..! .,..1 ,hus
<he cuI! ..... n<> longe. ,ied to ,hI p~ wh ... ,h. pc...,n dcpicm:l ..... 1CC""lIy
bu.ied. In ",m< i", .. nUll' p'flirur.. pc""n 0' enmmunity bcc.cm< so", of
imp ...... io of , cuk" The 6fth.."n,ul)' wri. Thtodor "'l""n , of S,. Syrnm
SCj-li,ts ,h.. he "bcc.cme '"
in ,he gt<O' [.i,y " I] Rome ,h" i" , he
po,ch", of.1I .he "'o,bhol" ,her'" up link im,S'" of him", as ,n obui.
p'",ecrion and ,,",,"il)'.". ' Nor onl)' port ... i" wer< pon.ble. lbe lift 4Spuon
(c. ')')
to "''''tW. n ironi<:tlly 'Dmp! ... rtt..n token. Symron ,db.
(.. he, who hrough[ his ",n fOf. cur< to uke .he image . nywh<r< md '" 1001<
>t i, ,o .c< him .nJ hi, fX>""<'r. s"m< ."'" hundred of <hr>c ,oken. """,i.. in
... ,i<>lu rolke,i"",. Th. "'Jo;r.o "",keJ t!.c ptc\en: and dliGC)" (,f 'he pint
... il.bl n)'Whe", . We
I, ... i(:"",
could ...",d uff ",il .nd ict,1l$ .h..
muld <A't cu ..... G.fJo ibn .htch.. . typ1og)' of the!< po[ent ico"" in thn<
""': "While the (~ icon wo .. ld h.v< been made in [pO"" to ,he
... i .. of mir><ulou. powe' (.nd migh" .f.c. [he f.ccr, x, mi"cul"u,ly). md
<he "'Mp> iu>n would luve been ""d< to hdp p<ipi<> mj<>clc. ,he "",liK,.
""''' iron, by d<hni[ion, W()uld luv< boecn <<c:<<cd [0 he ,he ",ure( of it: '" If
by ,he fifth =tul)' pcopk .ooroJ images .nd <>p<C1N cu ..... nd pm,ecrion
from ,hem, then in " leas..... mc
spilic wo ...... of Chti"",n ." had
"'luir..! (u<><"lion, qui bcyooo [h"", of .. imula<ing. dCl.. ting. commemo,,'
in);, ."d ,,,,d,i.S- Such wo,k, of.II "'"y usefully bo:: aHN icon.<. AI I >lull lO ..
[he W()rd i<on her< and throughout thi . book. I mean to br-..:k<t pie,urn th ..
_r< holy. [h.>, "it! .hing>. bving "idr .11 ",he, picm .... which wer<. b)' defini
tion. ict,n. '00, At the <arne tim<", I .m oot con<"<rncd .,.j,h m.. of stylc, In
my .n.lysi,. it doco nm m>lW wlut. piccur< looked like. \X'h:ot roum$ i$ wh.>t
i, did. or wh.>. i, " CIIp<C1ed co do. M)' ddin;c;on i ihc;.,1 . nd "'" .gain
,!.c g<>in of ~"I hi".i",1 .. adition nJ di .. iplin.1}' und. ... "n.ding<, Wh ..
,hi. definition ho< going for it i:c cr.tit~ . nd ron' ;'I"Iq. Morttlv. when we
come '0 ,he C.rolingi'' '' we will > .hac ,My haJ mmy im.ga hut no ;ron,.
A wid" con,ick .. ,;o>n of ordin,1}' ohi<o. ,nd inug... ev<n of oi:>jecrs ",j[h
'''p
f,m"",
rd,,,,
,Iu,
!!,It.""""
,,", k.,.., I'

in~
'"".
"" th.n>, will

os ,.m;nJ., ,hi! icon,. pl nd p.inting>, "'10(;";.
,he ""I, of
d",,3, .nd ,h. ' p",mp. ic powers of ..,m. pK1ur", an.1I ,h<m_
.d va be: Ioatod wi,hin wi<k,
To oft.n ,h. discu..io" 01 ioon, i,
oonlin! m ,,,nsid.r.. ion of ei.h.r rm, f. m""" bc:. u,iful . nd "'!<m.. i,,~.I)
p"blic .m "f b., n,iqui,)"', dou",), .., <>r 01 ,ho plimi"~ ,h..... Clilod
"iO:1I". " m.inly "" "11;"ic groo,nd. Rur rh ... wos. whole ...'2Im of dom,i,
.rt, or .rt . 'hot wt .ho,,~ "(It I.,... ,ish' of. Syn>bvlic rcprese""'ion. of koo",
eyes, 6",1<.. .... nto. k<y>, '" "'""S')O' w.ft ,h""Sh' '0 w"J "If <:v'1. Chri"i.n
jrucripti"'" ,we' duo",,,),, cuu~ d" ,ho .. m. ,hin!;. OS rould lomb<. """"".
1<11e", .,,,rd,. " holy N"" ."." .od ,
y , ' <mOS. Hou"" .1.., Jud bmp .
bo,.1 . pitche .., md dish wi,h aplicitly Chri"i,,, im'g",.
.ymboli, .nd
dearly repm.en" 'ion.1I." John C hry;o<tom p,ovi<ie:< re-.-caling ,"""n'
of ,k p""'.I"e< of [k or.,.., in."".ingly ,he C h,i"i ., .ymbvl pl' ",cdknce:
.h.
.""'<><,.
'0
<>,,,,,,,,lI
..,me
"'me
Wlu, once honifi<J ",e'1"o"e, 'f> ligure i, no,," IOUgh[ b)' .Il. nd i,
discovcud <verywhere, .mong prince:> and .ub;":... ,mong m.n . nd
women, .mong vi ' gin. and m.rried, .mong .Ia"'" and Ire<:. E.... ')"On.
now pr..... ,h" , ign '''' ,h. ""hl p:tMS of ,hei, boJ,e ~ .. '11>< , r" ..
\Ctm. '0 be cdro,:ued ...erywhcr . in houses. in ,he fOrum. in des<rtcd
pt..ca. in " ... d....,.... in nlOU" .. i" ... in .,Iley>. in hill .. in ,h.... . in
. hip>, in ;'bod . in bod on dmhing, on ~I"'ns, in rooms ... I:>on
qu.", SOld ,,,d,il"" """,,"I. , in 1"',<1., i"
p.in, ins., on
boJ;" of pKk_.nim.k on [h. boJi", of [h,,>< . fIlieted~ demorn. in
.... r .nd io p<><'. in [h. "')~im,' . nJ .. nig/>" among '"'p' of .un"".
in communi,;., of ,h. '>fie. >-el),,"e >e<k. it> m. rvdou, gift, i..
in.xpraoibk g"ce . . .. No one . lfccu ,h. m. or hlu.hco wkn he ...1
i... ,h" ,hi. iymJ,.)1 of . damn~hl. de"h : ,"<ked, "'.'1"00>, ,..lorn,
him .. lf even mOl< wi,h it"
0"
""II
,h.
Ch,i"",,, .11 ov<' . k Mcdi ..",n.. n world were hecoming . cClmorncd '0 being
"mounded by a profu'ion of pi.<turao and imago [t. .. """"im<........:I
",f""h ,heir memor'" ,,,d !lu, we .. IOme"m [hough, 10 pro,[ or k.1
[hem, If moo[ .n<mion i, """lIy.cr"rdcd [0 Kon,. ,hen ,h"", icon, ,hoolJ
noo be,., off in ,,,,.. ,,,is'' d ..."," f",m I"',e." Im_gcs
'0
A )n,.n,". '" bro:>d [Ju, i, '<qui"" no .bho",'"'' hold. [h .. icon' . prud

,rcmendou.1y in ,h i"h ,nd ...... n'h "" "u,i... Ab.."dan, ,es,imo,,;", ... m.
J'
CHAPTU
o~ .
of them . Iready "",mio"ro ,n [ho ".",iou. """on, .11 Ui of 'C<>II' (0< ''''"5''')
in ,hurch.., hou""" roo ..... e, i.., .nd ;hops. We <v<n hal of m.n who ",,,rial
an ,m'g< of Sf>. Cosm... nd D.m"' '' in. de undc. I,;" .mo." Su. dy he .....
""' un"lu"
The
cemury saw rompreh~rui.., refiguring o( imptri.1 ",remoRial
d",igal'o >ehi""" . .... yI. of Il""""rning which '[)."S.-. [o:d .he ' ", pe,,,,J g<wommen' wi,h ron.ompor:>ry <2>[e" '" n.." W'e w>s religiou. And i, w>s cuhiv"o:d
in world ,h" w;u being '"Ii,urgifial. '" :>mid p.""""", "whereby 'he <old cl ...ial
. u"';""h los< ground [0 ' unifo[mly KJigi"", 'Wl'OXh > lif".
whob)' [h.
omptrot gndu.ll y i/lals .h radi.iorul Roman .[[rihl"",.o emug< full y :u ,he
phiwhhJIM
A.< en,I'<'.'" wo:n: in,<w"ing
nffiC<" . nd 'he ,itu.l.
>",,=1 wi.h ;. ,",,, ,he .. Iigiou, lif.:: " f th"t proplc. they ;dcntifil 'pee",1
",I<s for im.8""'oo ico",." r h y in tf... pmceoo
I" ,heir ",.mp" to ... ton: 1''-'1',,1., ".mfitlrnc.: in ' he gene,.. i"n' .fte' Iw,
,ini, n, eml"'''''' in,,<.ingi)' made M,ry the .....on ...d p[ot=o. ofCon", n, i
nopk." A. corly :u [I>. rcign of llorudooiu< II the
wif" Eudocia .sm.
from je..... lem '0 hil Me, Pukheria an i~ of M.ry .1I<gedly I"in[ro hy S. ,
wk." Just,nian w" p>rt;cuI..I)' Jevo,I M,ry"'" During the Avar ' Kg< of
6.6. ico n. of .ho Vi'S,n W<K arrit..l . round eo[)".ntinople ... ' 1=", ,of a. ...,
wcrt ,Iso C1trial.round the ory in 6'6.nd ><C</m... niro imptTial'rmi", inm
b, uk >g>in" [he POOO", . nd La .. r 'go'"" .h, Ar. .... ju"ifti>ft II pl>eal in",8""
"f Christ on his coin . n :oct of Chri.tomimcoi. <ksigo<d fO procl.im ,h .. h,
..... [h. ",10 kg;.;n .... ""nhly "'I"""'m~.i .... "r [h. hc:t .. nly l ing. 'n c.,., ... ",;.
norle. the empire. , nd ,he . m ptrot ....d . 1I come under the >pi>1 prOlOClion
of ,he Vitgin .nd of Christ. By ","n,io n. ,hen. cvnyune in the tmpi.. roiorJ
,he .. me p>["""ll" , nd pro ..." i"". The rdigiou. ~I ...[io n of .h. impe.i>1
oRi", .nd regime "..... n in'"gr."i .... force in ... Iy BY',,"t;n. society, On, k<y
,,,,,\.nod m.n;f<s< .. i<on of <lu. 10= ..... , he leon.
In ,world I<> dtq>ly Ch, ;"'. ni,I, .. leal. at ,he offici.! Icvd. in . world
"'h"c Jes ... , nd M.ry. nor ,he geniu. of the emperor or , .....",ngth of ,he
legion>- pruttetl the empire and it< pc<>f>k. iwn, p><m on< ekmen. in [he
",p1.cement of the "''''''ining YC>'iges of d ...ial cui",,,, by . <odili",[i"n of
knowledge bued on ",Iigiou. [n" h." '" If Ieol\' p..,,=o:d ,b.: ,mpi", .nd the
cml"'rut, , nd did", in very public di.pI.yo of p<>w<: then .... ",Iy ico", could
P''''w. heal . nd comfort ordirutry propk [00. Gnd Iud ..,.....11 him;elf by
mem. of m,n)' .ign. ,n ,foe p' '': ' he burninG bush. the tabletS of the Law. ,h.
Ark of [he c"...en,nt, ,he ........ the Sctip'utt:S, """'. m.n ..... i""n<c. ,nd an
db. K"""iodg<. lik< gr-oct. com ... .long 'pp",.,.,J ehol\n<Lr. 'h,,,ugh , .......
,ion, nOl [hrough ...:ul" l<aming. The ri", of'" m[hro[;', ico", .nd of mi",l.
.,,,h
"".tn...'"""
,t.c;.
=1'<'0",
'0
An. loo."
'0
"ori coonected wi,!. rrumy iCOll' ..,,,,,.. ,!.ow j~" hnw .ppwcJ ,hc ch. oneh o. "",d"ion "'cre ,h .. joinl ,io-.',cf>'o [h< obj" of [heir gou.
t<;. .urciy no' coinciden ..1 ,h... p.ni<ul.uly . u,hen,i< kind nfim.g< . ,hc
It(hino~;",OI. ,h< im.gc not mad. by hum." h,od.: begon '0 goin i~ '=&"i.
,ion ,nd """ub. i'!' io .he ,i"h .nd o<v<mh ""nruric>. H,,,, ....... kind of
im>g<-'hr: C.m~I"'n. ,ha' .. ri.I in Con". n,innplc f,om Syria in 17. ,h.
E.dcos.> im>g< '" ,hOI prot.ed if> <i,!, from .h, Peni.n> in j.4. o,.he do,h in
Mcmplri, wi,h ponr.i, nfCh,;" \of, wh." Hc h.d .....,hcd Hi, f"",'''' ~whooe
,""urCC .nd Imtc,i.!, could no, be <:oiled in,,, qu,ion . Ho .. o>~ld God oPI'<>'<
iron. if He lI im.df made [h<m for
p>pl<~ Uo... ro~ld ,1.< "",,,ri.1. in
icon. be l:wc if ,hey ""me ",.,ig, from h"""en' Th~ .o<H:>11cd Luc>n Mory fi ..
into ,hi. COIl'''''' '00. A I",,,,.,i ..,. onc of ,he <"o."S<l..... h)' one of(,>O<I. o... n
.pol<am<n . could nor be ill<W[im.l[~. And if Lul<c I"'in.ed Mary from lifo. ,1.<0
,bere could be 00 qU<>llnn of ,hc ... him, of ,he l"'iN or ladiog him '0 Imko .... y
>on nf pict ~r< hc wi.bed . LikC"'';sc. ,he G.lli. bi>hop Arculf. rq><>rling On hi.
O<V<II,h..:cIl'u,!, tr..ch in tho Holy Land. told Adomo;m of ~ doth """",,n by
Mary .nd bc:oring imoge> of Jesu. ond the _po"les. ,... ThC$C pictures "",e PO""
<rtul pm:istly bccaUI< they were 50 powcrtully "'. uthrnti<:'"
The >ix,h and S("IICmh Ct"murio no, only IlW [he prolifcr.ulon of lrorits
.t,..,.... iwh' "hOt m.de by h,,,~,,, h.~d" bu, .1", wi,~C>Scd. ,,,,,,h,,,,,,,,i"8 of
><xounu of .... nf 1<V<Or<0~ J><,formcd bcIOr< icoru.nd Of mirxlt> J><rtormcd
b~ ,hem . 1n< m<[ rommon folnU of ""'cren ",<re p""lrynni> . od 41/<''''''''
The httcr me ..". on"" .imply . ki",i " S hu, a" .1,0 ,"o.~ tu\\.h ins VI ~",h"",.
ihg. The fotmet <:on hav~. widc "'oS" of mc,ming>. Wri,c" U!<d it int~r<h.ng<
:rblr wi,h oth """d< (e>p;'U) for m! of "1'utiJ) but amid u<c it in On<
<cote""" o. I"'''S'''ph '0 refe, ." ,he wonhip. honor. ad,,!">.[ioo . or ""'o",n,,,
p.id both to God and tt Il i'on. And ",ri ..... did this >=von", ,hey wet< "y;ng
h}" .h< fom: of .heir ''I\"m<"" ,0 diff<ren.i ... crisply ber",.,.n ,he kind< of
f"n"cr<nct due to God .nd ", icon, th .. wet. only mcmori.I,. Irons wct< 'evcr
~oced"" g<nu!kc.ing or kn!iog before .hem:..,. .pprooching [h<m wi,h ao
dlc. ~,><l in",,,,,, ; ," by ~rcm"u;'lIy N. hi"g .hem.''" N" cloubt [he mOil
frcq""'" form of .....,.. n"" W>< ,he q ui p ..ycr. The key poit\! is th.r whil.
>om< wri,cr> ron. inucd '0 rumio'l< 00 [h< B.. ili. n ide:. of thr: rd. tiooship
~n ,h~ iougc .nd if> pro''''YI'''. ,he ,i .. h .0<1 !<V<n,h :nnni .. hcgio [0
. t.ow <vidcnce of p,...i.. nd nf ,o/ition, On tho>< p,...i.. thot !..ound
",m< im>g<>. icon. nd [heir "icwc" in ps].. ""ologian~.nd spi'i'u.>lIy romple.
H.,
w.)~. '"
Irons ""n: ,"""'" ' 0 f'<',,"id.: p''''ei"" . " d <c<mi,y. 'lney ..."dl "If ill,
.nd h""led ,ho.st . lroody .fRied. n ..-y dfc.cted thc "'turn of run ...... y ,1,,<:<.
C HArTER ONE
Icons stOod sponsor to children at baptism and brought them blessings later.
Demons were dri ven out by icons. Dreams were authenticated when the
dreamer looked at an icon and recogn ized the very person(s) who had visited
him in his sleep. Scrapi ngs from an icon could heal a sick person, as could the
water with which an icon was washed. Ico ns were suspended from the walls and
gates of (Owns to drive away enemies and icons were carried into battle.
Such, at any rate, is what Leslie Brubaker calls the "canon ical" interpretation of the dramatic increase in th e prominence of icons after about the 55os.
Her use of the word "canonical" refe rs directly (0 the evidence collected and
interpreted by Kininger. But Brubaker carefully collates two generations of
scholarship on Kininger's evidence and calls almost every piece of it into quesrion.110 She makes three fu ndamental points. Fi rst, while it is Hue that ftom the
seventh-note, not mid-sixth-century stories about images become increasingly common in texts of various kinds, and especially in saint's lives or collections of thei r m iracles, it is very rare for any miraculous power to be assigned to
the images in the stories. She looks closely at Tht Miracks of St. Arumios, Tht
Miracks ofCosmm and Damian, and Th f Lift ofSymfon rht Young" to make
this point. In other words, even if images arc becoming more and more evident,
they are not yet becoming more and more powerful. They are not necessarily,
in this interpretation, becoming icons. Literary testimonies about images are not
at all the same thing as evidence for an increasingly prominent cult of icons.
Second, viHually every story about a miraculous seventh-century image is embedded in a texl at a point that gives rise to some suspicions of later tampering.
A good example dating from around 600 is Thf Spiritual Mtadow of John
Moschos upon which Kininge r and others have drawn heavily. In his collection
of 243 edifYing tales (in a recent version) only four concern images at all. 1I1
Three image stories are quite possibly later interpolations. T hi rd, ahhough the
late sixth-century Piacenu Pilgrim is the first writer after Augustine to use the
term "adorare" (tl nos tam adoravimus) unambiguously in connection with an
image, lIl only in the time of Arculf and Stephen of Bostra- that is, late in
the seventh century--did proskynfsis begin to become routine. 11J By my count,
Stephen uses "llQooxuvw" in one fOfm or another nine limes in a text whose
surviving version runs to a mere forty-eight lines. 114 Practices that, as we shall
see in mo re detail in the next chapter, had become commonplace by the 73os,
when John of Damascus was writi ng, were fairly rent and not the inheritance
of many centuries of steady development. I II By 700 there were countless images
in all kinds of media in many different places. There were also icons in the sense
in which I am using the term. It is important nOT to conflate [he two, and it is
difficult [0 say what proportion of images were icons.
An, Icons
35
An Talk in the Latin West Before Iconoclasm

Positive or negative refe rences to pictures or to cult practices associated with
them were as rare in the Latin West as they were in the Gr~k East. Once again,
it is difficult to trace direct connections betw~n one autho r and another. The
range of opinio ns that we have already met on the positive side appears in the
West, albeit with some new twists, T here is no writer so negative as, say, Epiphanius but many Western authors were quite reserved where figural art is concerned.
Thr Trrmr of Discussion

Paulinus of Nola (}S}/4-4}1) was among the first Western authors to express
himself on images. He did so in a poem in which he says that the houses of
Felix (of Nola) were adorned with picrures on sacred themes in the hope that
they "would excite the interest of {he rustics by their attr.lctive appearance." In
particular, it seems thaT the peasants around Nola were especially given to feasting and drin king and so, by means of pictures of "the feast of fas ting," the
hunger of peasants would be "beguiled" and they wo uld turn to better pr.lctices.
Some at least of these pictures were given titu/j, explanatory inscriptions, tha t
the more literate could r('ad to the 1('55 to enhance their instruction. II I, Paulinus
may strike us as naiv(', but there was by his time a fairly Strong tradition holding
that art could move its viewers.
John Cassian (}60- 435), in his te nth Conformer, said that the gentiles (he
means pagans) dressed in human forms the demons which they worshiped (loxcO/fbant). "Now they think they can ado re the incomprehensible and ineffable
majesty of the Hue God under the form of some sort of image (imflginis), believing themselves to have or to hold nothing at all if they shall nOT have put up
some sort of image." H e goes on to say thaI man was created in the image and
likeness of God but that to make images of God is to fall into the heresy of
anthropomorphism. 1ll John does not speak of idolatry. He reserves his objecrion
to anthropomorphism . As a discipl(' of Evagrius and the refore as an Origenist,
John may well be tal king more about the anthropomorphic controversies raging
in Egypt, which he visited, than about images per se. And he appears to be
concerned about recent pagan convens and their habit of bringing thei r old
pracrices with them into thei r new church. Be tha t as it may, Cassian's Conformers were widely read in the West, especially in monastic circles, but they do
nor seem to have deterrro the production of art works, including depictions of
....,1.
the deity. It m.~ be that hi

W<fe K.d primarily in tbe Contat of :mCK....
hefC$i.,.
Th.- prolific A"sunin. Iud linle 'o"Y ,too,,, .n . nd he was ... ,inly indif.
(efem [0 it. F... him. WOld. ,""fe . iw1ys ,upcfior to pictures. W< nota! .bQvc
Aup"ine', dispat>ging m .. k
"adOfm" of pietures of the de.d. In 01><
of hi. tm.i ... on the Setiptu,,:. Augu.stine a p rcs.sal COncctn .bout the t=
dency of .nil.. t<, engog< in ...mr<"Jnisnu tlut di'I<, .. the mconing of the Bible.
For in".nce. hc compl.ina!.l>o" t the tendenq of p>in.cr. to po""y ehri",
PCICf . nd hul t"l!ethcr .. if thq Iud bKn contern"" .. ri .... ' " Aug,mi[\( dc>rly
Iud J""b .. ,bout ,he >bili.y of pic<u,.. ", [.>do ...Iu[ ..... '" [he
of
SeriJKU"'. The """'nd book of AUgu.!,i,,". O~ ChriJli4n LJ...-trin<'.lpdl, Out the
... im , ide .. fl>out .igtt~ Asti"i, r<p<ocnt>,iotU an be .igo<: th.cy can convey
infum .. tion . bou. ""nCIhing other th.n [hemsdVd. Bu. bcc:oUII< pietur .. were
infer;'" .0 word . nod bcc:ou>< i[ "':Ii ......... ry fur pc""n to h.- well p"'p>.a!
in order [0 look". pi<"'''' ,tid Ie< wh" ir ,il!!'ifil. Augu"i .... rcg>rda! p>i o[.
ings . nd "",Iptu","", "<Up". Auow em ..,n .... ,,
A"gustin. w;o$. wordsmith . It il P<:[lurs nOl surprising th .. he I"iyj~
.h.- ... rinen . nd <polen ........d "vcr visual furm. of ",,,,,"unOat;"". In hil
,bt 7-"~i'Y (8' ~ -1) Augu"i"" lOy>, p<rlups thinking about che .mh"'pomorphi"
conrrovcl'S)', ,h.. 110 0"" can Iovc God befO", he know> Him. "'And ""h." i. i
" know Goo, c:<ccpt ." II: Him mcn .tly .od to pc","i"" him d <1y." In
"ring this. Auguine m"'.... bcrond w<>td. '" ",ntempJ.tion. He did not .hink
i. w" p""ibl< fOr .n inugo co tatmbk ilf ,ubjc bc=us< imap "'..,'" [he
ptodu, .. oH uman inugi"".i"n .nd every hcl~r or arci" im.gin .. God in hil
own w.y. '" Hi. qu..alm toou. pICKn .."""" Ole dc:orly expr....-d in . nmb ..
p>U>g< in On,~ 1,;~"'",
.bou.
_"Is
a..
WIoo Ito,ing ond or beard 0<1 o. hc:o.d wh.[ che 'po<[k 1'..<1 wrotc.
O[ "'.... t "'...... ti"'n .bout him. will 001 r"hion in hi.< mind . hce fut
.h, .posde. nd lOr every",,< cis< ...bo;' menuonal in [he>< texIS. And
,ince c>ch member .m""g ,he ... " ",uici,,,d. of .h"", to whom rh ...
t<"><".re I n''''," will dcink uf ,he I,,,cs .nJ ,h. p< of their bodi .. diffi,,<ndy. i[ is completely unccn.in who thinlu mo" do.ell' . nd ,c<",,,,,tcly.
Our hich i. 'w" COflrna! ""i[h w ..... ph)"i",,1 bee ,h.OS< men hoJ. but
... ,'" how ch")' Ii,a! .hrough .he gnoce of God . rod ",'h" [h")' did.
which thing>.re ...; ......-d in''''''' "'fiting:t. [11
In one ofhi. >ermon . Auguscine.rguo [h., Chrisc', .eM;.,n ..... rons>.ry.
>od ch .. i[ Iud [0 .... pp<n in [he .iglu of.he 'pos[\cs. bc=us< o[he<will< [hey
An. I""" P
M'''''
would h..... ",m.inc-d

on hi, hum." IOtm.nd WOllld Iu"e boxn un.bl.
'0 """'empl". hi, invi,ihlo di,illi,). w lIy ""m.mpb,ion. ,h.",fol<. Augm,in.
m ..", <ing [h. ;"vi.ihk. nd I>< .pok< "",,"cndy on [hi. kind of .igh, in hi'
lisn../ Co",,,...,,'Q'l ~~ (""""if:
wl.... i, set" K[u.lly. no, .. in.n im'SO . nd nm ,hrough ,he eyes of

,b. body. i. On by d.., vi.ion ,,hieh ,u[P"'<'.1I ",1><,.. In.., fat ..
,he Lord will I><lr me. I wiU Ir)' '0 pbin , I>< [ll"" of "i'KIO .nd ho,,'
'hey Jifl"<t, !khold ,,;,tll ,hi. "m PKC<J" i, "",d---"You "h,1I1nve Y"'''
neighbo':u )"tI""df"'_, h~ kinds of vi,io. >ri"" one [h,ouSh ,h. eye<
hy whi<h we $U ,he kn.,. ,hcm",lvu: .norhc, [h"'"gh ,I>< ,pi,i[ by
wl,ich ,h. ,.. ighh" , i, "".""pl" ..1",'tn ,h,,"gh he i, ' .... n<: .nd.
,hinl ,h",,,gh. pcl<.p,ion ...f ,he milld "'he,,,by ,hi, ""'Y love i, ...."
'" be u"rk"" . ><l . A""",S ,h..... ki nd. <:>fyi,i" . ,he fi", is c1.., '0
C>'e'JUl>C fu, in ' hi' w.)' h"" 'en .nd .. nh.", "",n .nd <v<ry,hin~ in
'I><m i, pc"",i,""" 1:' ,,<II ty<$- N<), i,
o,hc-r Onc. by which .h$cn'
b.,Jits.r< 0\"""'1'1.,..1>'I'.",lIy diffi,I, '0 '-"'pl. in_ Indeal, we con
,hink ahm' hcovcn md canh md ~II ,Iu, we COm I<t 10 ,hem C>'cn
when " ...1< ".nding in ,he da,k .nd .... ing nod'ing wi,h ou' bodily
C)'" . nd y<'[ ronrcmpl>[ing bodily inugn in ou, ..,ul. Thn< migh[ b<
,n 'nuge<. in.., f.... we h..,. _n ,h<e bodi... nd lrep' [hem;n
memory. 0' imogin.ry im.g.. in '" f.... ou, 'hinking has f.. hion""
,hem. s.:. i, is <lne 'hing think C.nh;rgc. ,,'hieh we know . nd
'M,hct 'bing '" ,hink of Ah.nJ,i . which " .. do "'" k,,,,,,_-n,< ,hi.-.j
kind <:>f vi,i"n. by ,,hich 10'"" is setn '0 b< "nders'ood. rollC<,n, ,hose
,hings ,.-hich Iu" no in,-,gc> '" lik~ ....... ,""hich'r< nOf ,",'h .. ,hey
,ho",,,,I= >c, u,lIy 'r<_ Fo, 0 m.n. 0"
0' ,h< ... n .nd wh .. <v<o,
",he. bodi .. thel< ' 1< in heaven o. on eanh . ", ICcn when p,...,n, ,n
[hei, own fo,m nd.1< con.empl.. 1 wl><n . bxnr in im.go> im
pr=<d on ,he mind. Th<)' gcnc."c ",,'0 kind. <:>f .i,ion: one ,h"",gh
,he pc',p,ion of ,he body ,n<! ."mh 'h,oogh ,h pi'i' in whi<h
,ho .. in'-'g<>.", ",n,.inl . I,love. ho"""c'. ICcn in one .... y when i,
i, I'.....", ;n ,he mm"ct '" which i, <>i" "J in ",,,,10<, "'r when i,
i, ,bscm in som<.om' of.n im.>g< 1,Ire ;[",If? No. Bu, in 50 fo, .. i,;"
prnsihl< [0 pcn:ci,'< wi[h ,I>< mind ,hi, lOY< i, $Un mofe dearl)' b)' OI>C
.0.1 kso <b,I)' by .n<><h, Bu[ if I(K\>< hodily im.>so;" mn[cmrb[I.
,hen i,;, nor lOY< ,h .. is ICCn ''''
,b.,
'0
or
"<C.
Aug" "i,,". yi";"n.ry ifrulgi",,, ion" m. y b< clo'''('lcrizi <m" ,.oinS "corp<>=1. picwgr.phic . nd ooncq>[wl" .igh, .,,,,),1 in 0 p'ce; hic",,,,hic.! o,rk,
whe.~.k CO'f"O ."J ... h. I~ ...""II.n. >tI,I. k ""neep"". ,f.c m"".'" Au

gm,in ....,.nded ,hi, lin. o( , houglll in hi, SI'ggcs<i.dy .n,i,led wwk 0.. h,;,/}
;h T/,i"t' U"'''~:
Th.cre.u ",m. who ,hio k .ho ChrU.i.>" religion ou~' '" be rid iculod
.. ,ho ho" uphold. lnel"QSOn for fh .. i, ,ho. in i" nor dl<' ,h inS which
.... ). be _n i. "" I'",h. bu, (ai.h in 'hingf which ar< n,,' _ " ;.
inlpod upon m<n. F" he ... k of mu,ing ,hose " h,,. pruJ<n, in
"",n opinion. !W<' ' 0 1"<>-<"' ro .he cya wbich ..< 1\0( . . . 0 <>u~. ro h< bdi<>=!. Now ...
,cpro.. .n".. whom foU)" .... made SO ",,,,iI"I}'1t.. <)... o(.ho body
,h., .h"l' do no, ,hinl,h.,. ",,~, '" btli",... nY'hin~ wb",h ,h.,. d...
''''' ptlUi", ,hrough ,ho <yeS. 'hey ... uglu. in ,ho Ii", plac<. 1(' be
"'min.d<d of ho... m.nr ,hing> ,he.., .re which c:t.l\nm be ... n wi.h
,uch cya----,hi"ll' which ,h.,. no< ""Iy bdi .... bu1so Irnow.
Th .... hing>.t< inoum,rabl. in our mind i... lf. WMoe n""re i,
in,i,ilk-I<' "'y "mhinS ,,( oti, .. ,h i.,&" Ii~ ,h<...,'Y f. i,h by which
.... beli..... "r ,!.c 'hough' proccs:< b)" which"", know ci,h.r d... , w<
beli<v< soo,nhing 0, ,h.. ,..~ do "," bdi= "~ .!though i, migh' be
<n,i,<lyou .. ide the realm o(,ho.c ~ WIt., i .he.. >0 ba ... 10 d<a
wha, 10 <e""in 10 ,he im <rio. p'''''''I''iQns o( Oll. minds' How. , he ...
fot<:. mus'....., no. bdi",.., wha, "" do no. 5 wi.h OUt bodily <yeS.
whon W< 1"lUi", beyo,,J . ny d.o.. t.l .i,r.o, ,ho, "'.., bdiC< '" do "'"
beli...., who .. "'" <:Onno, <mploy the <)TS of the body''''
.boi.
'0
Aug,,!tinc, ",I. ,i,.., ind iff<.<<><< '0 wo.b o(.rt .... ed on . 6rm I"in,i"k, 11/11.,.
d .. body. cya o:>ulJ _ on 'he "",rid is "'OIly inkt;"r to,...J ul,im"ciy leu
irnporrAIl' ,h.n ... h., ,he mi",fo ~ could so:. And ,il< mind i""l( co uld be
plo",dy i""rued only by wo,d.. k "" .h,1I sc< in Ch. pt.< 1. Augu"in",
ide.. wet< profoundly ;nfl "'n,i.>l in ' he Carolingi.>n "",rid.
In ,h. fif,h nmry. in ,h. ",,,,h ofG.ul. Ca""riu, of Aries (C>. 470-H')
npt<SSCd hin, .. lf on.n in. passage of hi. R..b for nu"~ He ..)'1 00 no, 1""
up p,in,ed .. blet>, no, .hould 'hn< be any piutTS on the ..... 111 '" in ,he room .
('" in. mon.",ry
should only be . hing> ,h.. 1'1..... ,he 'piriuw. no. ,he
h "",,~ . ..,.... There should be "" pi ... ,,,,, at ,.11 <:J<Cq" Of( h.nJ ke",hi,.(,. nd
(""".,,,,,..,1, when ,I.e . bbe>. ,.., >0 o r<kred: '" lni, ..... "'" iO much 1 rom_
men' On .11 a< i, """ pi""" of .umptuary legi,t .. ion fo, <loin.red o:>mmuni<r
,her.
i, 'I in'~I't$, ing '0 ..,.. ,h., c.e..rius "",m. !O h..

kit tlu, I"',n,inp """W bo di",.ocung.
l""'-of Scvilk (160- 6)6), in hi, widt ","V"I! EIJ~.1ud only. f.....
mingo '" ay
iJtuga. On ont lXCUion M dnnon ....,.. . conctm.t.ou,
OdoUuy. H...Y' ,............. .....,. """IU,n bn"".-n.,M ft,~ndo .. of cirics. iO<
...+.om. 010.. ,hey h.d diN. ''''I''''1'~ ...ho Io....d.n.m P'" up hk<neo>co (p""J.
_ l d... tMy m'ght h.>w >Om< comfo" f""" ClIft...."pb.ioo of ,... inugn
(;~u"'l. Bu, a li"k h, ... ""
" 'sing of,xm<IfU. "'.. ro, ..... fOu..,J
. mong m. ptopIr: no- .......... om:ogcs ,hoy Iud honored :ooIdy iO< tho ho_
of ,digiow
won .. n. 11m
.bou,
t'"
""*
of t'" ........ ,heir _"""'"

ro ... sud> and wohhip<d th<m.~ l.idoK don
not"y .nY"'... ~ ,h ,his ~.. ro"' "", 1(1 bo found.mong Ch,;";'".. He r;ocs
on '" ulk of dnnon .. and :ilio of like< ........ imulK ... im""", and 10 on.
n ...""ghoUl.....mptw;>:n
God . Ion. i. bo """.... ip!.on h<,.i><ft ho
""')~ 'N' "an icon (;,...,) is an """S< ("......) ..-flich ,ric. ro <ltpSl ,"'ligwe of
..,.,..,hing d .. by moan. of _ ... hing ,;n,ilo, '" On ."",1... occasion he- ""')"0
"poin'ing l,JWtu,,,) i. an ;""g< Ii....,.) n:p, ... ing ,be .PJIt> r.l""" of ,.".,..
thing .1.. which. whik i, io hoing ,~. b,ing> i. bock to ,he memo')". I\.
poin.ing. howc..... i. oJkd ."iF.ci,1. fot it i f"hion<d inug<. no< ,he
'0
,Iu,
,Iu, "
,,,,,h.' '" In hi. nm", IW" If O!in~",. Isi.lo .. ,ook lightly diff... nt linc.
i""
He .. Y' ""l1ny imi, ... ,h.lif.... f <l", ..

and they u k... p.n im>gc (rfJipnJ
of vi""" fro n> ,h. w>y of lift of ' n",h., >I,d, Ih. , if any im.g< (i""'fl' qlNUli/Kt)
is bei ng ~rdl i.. n<ly ,hen f,on. i, lik ..... (,i",i/irMdllU") ..,n "f 1"',,,,1
inu!l" COli ho f"tln!. Thu. ,h. on< w .... Ii ... in ,II. likc" ... of , h~ ;", .~
ba:on,.. likc .h e im,ogt." '''' hido .. , ,h ....
rccog~i,,",
tho
dt~gcr
of idobtry bu ,
he. p<,lup< Ijk johll Co"',n , "';11"" hip,<f tlcgrc<o "r ,i,k to ~n, ,h.n to
Chriit;.n . As fo,. imag<> ,he""",I,'eO(, hidOfc i, coolly analytical. a. a1w.yo. Hc
ClIpkwa """,dnd ,hc;, ...... ning<. In Joing .0, h. d;IO>" ." ,h.. i ..... g<> .rc
not real, , hey . ", no' .n~,hing in . hcm",l,a '" in Auguotin<', ,cdm..ing. im
0g , .... 1>, "'" .. tympo,he," ' 0 ,be i<l<a rlut "'or an ~
.mula,;"" . can:ltOUl< .irtu<.
~ ... iti ng> ofG"'FP')' ofT"",. (d. 19-4) Of'<'" IxfOt.. us the.....nd ofla,e
.n'iq<>< a.nd ... rly ~tlJIkioh G.w. G""S"'l' dncribco lIWIy churm.... ..,J hi
...Jumonom " ',i,ing>.
<>f h.. con'eml"""''''''' a.nd ~ .......
rncn,ion n~m<rou< orhtn. M.ny, pethapo ....... of ,,..,.. ch .. rchc:s ""'~ richly
dccora,i. GK!"'Y 'tlJI.mlt> an in,...,..i", . n..:dote concerning the ..ifc <>f
BUhop N......,,"" ... of
wi,h oo..k in ho. Lap dieming ,,>tho
,Iu.
pl." ,......
A.,"""" ..........,
I"'in,en "'110 ""'.. dcro< .. ing tilt -lit of So. St.phon '. Noilica ",j,h ~"orio:s of
&n<ic .. , dccd.. n, .. 11w:.. ","""'on (,om ,I-.: po: .. ofVrn.n,i ... Fonu",,,w a I"""'m
, ... , deKribeo cydt of
I"in.inp on II-.: lik ofS,. Mon,n th .. GgOfY
Iud i", ..lkd in hi. .<buil. "".hod..!. ," Th. church of L.o D.u...dc i.. T~
h:.d rich In of m<>$aiQ,.'" I..i<.my ,.. ",,,onies ",.m .housands of pictura.. 'n
C~. world my ......., bet .. ~ with p;..:U101
G"'S"')" oponoot<d WOIIu of .n. dacribc.l or rd\"md .0 nuny, and """"
spoke of people wIM:> hod 0",,', b.. ,n ,loci. hcam bu, " 00 It:od p;m.... of
hI< 'm<1"i,o';"... <kn!oMin , .... , 00 ..... and churcho. ,I-.: b.Hcr to ~OO
"'-deNa.. uo T..., is. comtnl)O'l~, MOft 'n 'nm'n' .... nrroom.... dnncn ..
ofG'cpy',.n ,a1k. I lcrbcn Kcsokr.tpI<S I"f""I,Wivdy , ..., G~ ...... tole:
10. at[ in mK.ioru.y...,..lt On 'M .. ,II ,papn ~ ofG.u1. '" If 1-.: .. 0>tI"<"CI.
, brn G~ ..... y ....., bn)'t1 onoth... ' u'hor who beli<ved ....., on h:.d ,I-.:
I""""'" ,,, .-..: it> oboc.w....
"un.,..,
Rob<n M"k ... d~ .. in C'rsory' ....riunp. rul' of Kotu in "'",h-,,,ury
G.uJ. '" G,"S"ry ,<lb.,r. ctu<ifi. in :"'lort-, .... h.t ...... SCt>l<n by. Jrw ...d
bled '" ........1 'he ,heft.'" He '00 'pnlu of, n,kN im>g<: of Chn.,
,Ita,
,Ita.
" kN '0 be cloohtJ. '" To M.,k,,,', slim doosk, mor be..tdcd two """" I-.:
ove.look<tl . In hi.l.rft .[5,. Mani. C~ry ,.1.... ,"", in
the ... was
on image of "'b"in wi,h ." oil I.mp b"tninS h<n .. th "~. Oil f.om , .... , bmp
w ""p>ble of ioc;,lillK ,lit tid:.'" In ,he d 'Y'ch of St. Man i,. in Tours 'h .... ..-as
an ilUCri!"i"" ." ,ibu,<tl '0 I'",lino" of I'etigll(u . This in><ripriun .tUrdS<"<! a
pc ................ pro.......
h< p"yi"IlI:>ef'o.... n im.~ of Monin in hova of
ob .. ining , ru.'. ,..
It i, ~bk
,n. rut. prx. ku ."J ""....1 io.>n. UJOC;"tcd with lo""em
och<tl and di ....n<tl 'hrough C.W. n...-. we ... m.ny ..."em.... in
Gout. no[ bo, nyme...,... Sy'''n OCHt, munitico.'" And S1"""'" d... Sryli,.,
imnxnao f'OP"un f)' i. judged by """'" ",hoUr> to lie .. the ~ of [he
riM: oficon .. W2S 0 Synon. Yet .M ...identt lOt 0 rul,of"",," in Cow is
and if..., fCft1c"mbcr .hat 1Hu~ Iuo dam......:l up Kinin",,'. Hood of >ixth
and ......"h-an,,,ry iconl in 'M ...... m Medim~. then i, ..... y be mo,
........ _100 inH...n ..." iiobk.o.he""", , .... n .... bn tlt.ou&h' um~ now.
ttIO<11 (0. In""" dout.. aboo,tl ~ wit of icon. in Go..I.
Ito"""...
mi"'''
""""ian....
"""'*
,ha,
meaur,
n........
N~m..
.M rrucifi. ,h bkd "'" "'" ' .....,,", .. ked ro bo< clotlt.ed ~ ...;
.J.:.n.:., of, .... cuI, p...o<:f ...... docwhc .. UOOCI.Otcd wi,h ..:on... n... ...... cue mq bo<
abou, an<if><mi .iom .nd .M ",loa
P""""'r 0< MCc1"'''m '" >Ocial comp-
.bott.
An. I"""
.'
sion. In .odi,ion, ,be- N.rbonn~;nugt odd~ iu.:lf.o. I"iesl "';th. G"",k

""",.. 00 did ... ~..<tly oou. Thi. ""'1 ho: no ....polo .dI~ion of
rurrm. cane.. n. in d.. F..au.'" MOfCOYn he..: OfC _ mirxulou, i..... in
,ho ...... 01 ,,- in "'" F.... ,
DP<.,.t
indco:d ,ha, ........ bd~
to. pRWidc mindn fo, ,'.mou. pcopI. on ,"",la, ....... The..: imag<> """Ud
ooIr ono. with ,J.. ...... <bk oaprion "',J.. onn in R...rn"" ~ T"" ..... fOf
.. _ .......... G~ on
Ifom tilt Holy UnJ.
~dioctwo:d~. bu, J..
lhom .. i,1> Mico. .. yinSo " f.i,1> bdie-'os
WI <VCI)'Ihi"B ,..., _""" body
hoIy.~" G~ry ~ WOfb of..,
YCf)' much fo, yanttd. bu, .. i,h """ poutbk ou ........ IT"",,) ..., don _
one< ponr.y ...yon. """,,"!inK h,mldf bcfon, an im., ~ n'<1\ thm ...,
mordy ci,.. on imoipoion ... i",n by ........,... ..... V.. lit doo ..y .lut p<opI<
Wd """.,. bcfon, romboo.oo ,t.. c ...... ,~ 1'ho Lunp.OO imag< from 1Uv<1>""
.....nd ....-1..., tho E..o .. n ('2>0$ ,NI .I< SO f.mil .... Bu. Ro'n1fU wn. fur all
pncticaIl"''J'O''''>.... F....
eiry. It wa. tho .... t of tt.. GHdI ..... Byun,;nc
con'm.nO.. of ...... ,ioan <InIl n ...1 h.ly .f,c'
~ It would bo i"'pruden<
~nc ... lil< obou, d .. \1:'.. , r"'n> "n~ R...rnnno: c:u<. no., oil, ~'.
"'" ,lie ric''''.' " Uli~n.,.t " .,.ti, (Of Venan.;u" cur . .lthough i. doc._m
that tho oil >lui"" iu po .. nC)' (ron> .1>< pie, u"" lieonl). In ..td i,ion . G,"lI<It)'.
tbe '1>CC<'Uof to St. M."in. had ....ry inl" i,.. to .. po .. mything mlrvtlous Of
m;rocu\,,", I<la,i ng 'o the !QunJ "fhi, ..... Bu, ,h... "Ofi . .. the onlr ona
that G"'II"'Y could, 01 did. :woei.... with . n im"ll" of M." in. 11, it".,i". of
the Styl it Of. /0, Ih .. m",." . 1>< war "'hn Chry....tom dcocnbco ,he pl'><;';ees
1WOcl...,.t wi.1> St. MdCfiw in An,ioch rould no< h.ve bc.:n moIC differen,
f inally. 'be imc.il"ion in Tou .. may "dl ... eal .." of w<mhip coOOuacd
hd'orc ... image t,,,, i, ...,m, ,ha,
culo of t-bnin i, more impon>m h~
thOJ[ .... cult ofi m"ll"" n.. im>g<;' n>c.", to .. m ind tt.. p<'Ii,ione. of who hi.
,un.
,n., _ ..
'0.
""""ion. ,......
"'I"""
,,,,,,,I>n"
,.fn
"'m,- ....
.bou,
'0
,m:
1"'''''' i .
A oomph""i .. , foc",.. in ,t.. \1:'.., '" G~. Vcn.ntiu . 00 ow ... h.u

bc.:n limnrd by I'.. ricia
Mill. Gildk ok N;' .00 joaquin Mmi"" Pi,
0&fJu. Attunf,nr; .o Milkr . hI< ''''''I''''Y w . . .
aI ....... <V<'f)1bi"B
in 'co .... of illUF" I""'fp. ha..~. could bo undc ....ood,
""""It otho. pr;oooibk ..... yo, .. a11cpial. ""';nc. 0< ";'''''''''l'. pcopk
world ...... ~ on ,.w.:.r;- OJ[ " i",i"'nlly ilp.. l .... r of vioowi"B d.. lIUciol.
pl)'(hir;:. mrpou.. and prulaoophral dirror:nsiom ofhr.. "u, In dr 1>1;", opinion.
uu...,puic ......,i.. ion. II< "'" ~mi,I by d;,."., ....... pnncipleo .... h .. con,....!;.:.
lion ~ inconvui'l' ~ ouch , ha, "OJ[ ' .... could p><n. mulrilcYd..t. d)""'mic
1JU.h> in , .....r ,har .hA.........."""'.. could _. M, .. The poin. will he f.",iI ..,
to ...y<>nc who h.u r...J much in Cr"I"'Y 01 Tou ...... "erunt;'" Formn..,w_
eo.
.... ulKkn",oo
,j,.,. .......
""'red.
CM . . ' . . ,,~.
n.q balh hod .....nning "'f<"Y ' ... I"';n, .....,..,j-pic1u","
,ha,
we .. ob-iouslr
C">'Okt inugco-no ma" .. ""'" <>n< "";ml> to ...Itt ,ha, VI'ORl_in tho
mind, nf
ttodttt. n...~ is ........, ,han ...tuff t..", nf Augu'; ..... wri[;ng
obou, "'" "mind', ~," flu, ,his ........... Pin"" rnm> th< d~ with "'"
... u ",*""""",
CttgotY wcd. lint nf .11. 'Cltu.ol ......po: " Ruhcr dun
"Y r/u., Cr<J!l>l'TofT...... 'housl" ,n i,,"'P 1""",1<1 prdU to say th .. t.. "TO
in inufp. ..... Wh., ~ ,...... imago "'iJh' ho ... "..--.I, .. hrtbn [boy
..1 Of 'Cl' .... , .nd how ..... io '" i"''''pm
inup..ic .... yof think_
;"1\0 i> hord to ,oll. lIu, <>n< an CO<\/idm,Iy., ,ho, p>pIr did no< k .... wuh.
pb<% in doopo, or "'f'Y in'" ba,d........ . 1piau"," Of ,atu.oi fratm<nu.
Along wi,h Auguoti .... ,hr ....... inll ..... ,;.! of all !.t[C "'["1"" oom~ ..'"",
Of! " " ..... Pcp. GttgotY I h90-~), Ilis commenl> <am< _
in the fum, of
.,....<m.,ic ,,.,.,JSoO bu, ad ......dy ,n """,In'rn t.. di'f"td>cd 10 8ioh<>p~_
nUl or U,r.rsrill", in July or I" .nd 0n0bcT of 600 ........ t.. Inm! .... ,
his opi~ collngut had bo:m dottoying.....ru of.n . nd ......wiring [t..
I"'P"b,;"", C"'S"'Y _ di,,,,,,",,,, '0 Iro'n ,ho, So .... UI " ... ing ccn,in pcopI<
><loring (Mi.""..",) ;mogo, broke ,hem up .nd .h.rw .htm oy. of ,h.,
<hu.cl>es," G~ p .. o..d So",n", for hi. '&Cal in p~<nting nunufxmmd
[hinp (_ u ! _) {""" hcinS ... k>.0<1 bill ,.11. hi", . ... , he ,hould on no accoun, d.. uoy pinu .... brot,r.s< "pic,yttS u..d in <hu.d... 10 ,hat.hooc wOO
do no' know lett<" m.y or It... rnd by .... i"1\ .." ,h .....11. ,,'h... hey a .. _
r<:..J in boob," G'T'1 <o"dud..! hi. Ii", 1... <. hy .. i,.,..ing ,ho. p;"'u","
iliauld t.. pm up 1'0. [he ;"",ruction of.""", woo t.ok lette .. . nd by ..""ph..;,.ing ,hOI pic,,,,....~ nn'Ct '0 t.. ..Jom!. ,.. 10.10 .. tI",n a Y"'" I"e. G[<gO<Y ""01,
.goin hc-cou .. "" had .... rd ,h., So .. n~. f'<",j"cd in hi. ironod.. .m, 'ppa",mly
I><1 ..... ing .h., G"",'Y" Ii", k"., '" hin. WlIi ""sc'1. G"'W'Y U>Ufc:r SO"'n .....
of ,h u.hrn'ici<y of hi, Ii... k'm and ,htn , ono: >gOin, in';ill m>< Sc.. n",
CClI< from b.~ng ;"lOp. 'Tdl me mo,I.",.' GttpJ'1"y>. .... hen ...... )'OU
...... ....,d of .ny ptieoc rloin, ,,'ha,1"" did~" CK!"'Y"Y' opin [... , it ;. wrong
'0 ~ pier"","),u, ,ho, in piau"'" ...... can..,. ..... ,;, to be odomd. Crq;o<y
.. minds s....nu> no< ' 0 ..,... nd.:tli"" ,he ".. ntile." wt.o ho ..< " _ . m;nd..
Gtct"<Y l"O on 10 rcnll"" Strett ..... ,hal, .. . paotOI', hi< K"""rco. r:ono:nt ohould
be tIt.r If>innul halth '" ,t..1Iodo. ...., J.... bono en"""N '" his CO"'- Pia",..
can be htlpful ' " ~nu. in a"yi"B .... ' hi, ~,""" ""P"""ibili,ico. Ii... hy
~ ,be .. ntd"C"N :and oottd by dicK;ng toml"'lKtion.'"
Mr.och ,IIa, Gf'I"tO'Y so)'l <KI .n, "" <KI .........r ... bj<octo. io ~ui", CO<\VftI
,iono/. Pitt",,," a n .ndo, I'ioclOfft Cln .. it ,ht """"ions:and induoo: bcn be
IIa ...... l'ieI ..... "'" _ '" be odored. Jt.c,o,n, ochoI.o,oh;P Iw..~, ~'
some new 1"'......... ' ... 10 b.ar nn G~ '........... KoooIe<, opin. O<d in ,.....,
",..It, 10
.Mi.
,t.",
,,= ......
,ha,
ktrcn mor<: C'o,Hj.ncc fo, t~ . ""Iu. of ~n .mong p1pn Or o nly p1ni.lly 0..;,.
,i.oi,-I I"'rub,ioo . I 'g'cc. Coli. Ch. ulk, in findy n""nd "OOy of ooth
Cr<:g<>ry .nd hil prOO<CC>OO", ....blimo <I... G,<y>ry dult more fully .nd
ClIpliody than thor with t~. Od", tft.t in ot</.:, fo, an unl .. t.rOO p<""'n to .. mod ..
pielurc,
ptr>Ol\ h,d <0 1>0: "",.fully p"'porOO. I'ie,u, .. ""'tid no, rruly h<
"),,,,, "'" " ng" for oomeoo. who did no. k""", wh" ,h. w,;,ing ",'d. Should
onyon. W>nt'n o;""pl o ill"" ... ,. ,he I"'ior , Ie, hin> Of h., in"ginc.n oNi
rulry Cn';""n ,unding h<for<: rho "iumplul ".h of s.m. M .;. Masgior<: in
Rom. or the proc<>Oiorul fra.rod of S. n" Apollin.r<: Nu., ., in R,,,,:nll>. Su,d~
th.. "icw<:r would ft.", been b.Akd. Ag.iin , I . gre<. And I ",'o uld oJJ .... ,
furthe, proof for Chaz.dJe'. rh .. il i. ro h< found pri,dy in Gregol)'" ~dmoni
.ion> ro Serenu, to ptcaCh. teach. ~r>d .. , .n =mple for hi. Hod. llri. i b",i.
Gr<y>ry. I'tea<hing. 'e.ching, .nd -,<,ring. g"' oJ ",'''pie .rc ce", ..1 '" hi,
greatly inHu.n'''1 r~,,,,"" R"Ir. ~nd they .r<: them .. th.t rom. up .gain ~nd
"Vin in Gr<:g<>rJo" lone,.. G.<y>ry i. ,her<:for<:, ju" like mony of the other ute
. ",ique figure> whom w< haY<: di .... i. I Ie rurned <0 ,he subject of." only
when prompted to do so by som.thing cl ent irely. Even th.n , h. rn'cgr..ed
his comm<n .. ott.n """Iy inro hi, wid .., his long.nd con,i"en,I)' hdd. ,';.w.
on ,hc <pi""'l"'l offic<:
It migh' h< ,-,ked wh .. h.. o. no< Seftnui, hos,ili.y '" JICOPI. who .. 'd"'.....
pi."".. """Id be ".c" as
weigh, ('" Motl,,,', Od .. ,OOur on im.S" .,,1,
in G.ul. T hi' "iew i. not iml"' .. ibl . Rut J nO ,h.t Serenu;' .:a i. ~b.olutcly
i"'bt .... Tho, vel)' i",l ..ion i, intriguing, howcv<t'. Se'~nu ...... .,;andaliu:d by
oont<lhing. Bu, ... lur? Sine< it il in ~II probabiliry w>JI p1intinp, 0' I"'"ibl)'
m .... ia. ,lut Ser<:nu,
d"'roying. we or" H, wondering .OOut ,he pr-.<ticrs
that .vol<tll,i, ;ro. \I:'.ro l>rop'" kii"g ,b.-,< i" .. ges, '" ""pi"~ hi" of p;oin,
off d.. m, 0' p..,.,,.,;ng th<m.dYe< bd'o ,1>0:",. 0' ..e"" .. t in~ ,fw:-,I> with """.
die< and ;n:n? W. 00 no' know, And. <v.n gr-.nt<tl.U ,he dangerS inheren'
in ~rgum<n" (.om .iknce, w. n.ith.. h r of """h p.-..:ti<c> d:wh<r<: in ,h.
We no,.", we io(o."'1 ,,( ."",h d ""d,m ... wt..-:. h<1u..eJ ., s. ..."u, JOJ.
C~I)' himlf .. ked Ser<:nus if h. h.d n .. he"d "f .ny""" <be doing ...h"
he hod 00"". LikcwU.< "" do no< know ifSer<nu ...... agi,,,ed by G.ul> Of by
for<ign.tJ. M.""ill .. i I"'n eil)' on ,h o",h co,-" of G,ul, Ev<n if ,h<r<: .....
widc'p,,,,d image cult , her<:. i, il likely ,h .. ir hod ...... i.. ion' wi,h th ..
'ity', .uttn''"t''l u ,tern popubtion. Finally. '-' G '<g<>I)' ...a> con:rn'" with
"g<n,;Ie<:' th .. il with POS'"" i, m.)' be ,h.. in thi. <a we: h.." evidence fot
,h. lind "f I'<t'l'k: wh" C'o,,,ked concern r,um John Cu.;," . nd hid"", of Sc.ill<,
", ...-1)' or p1ni.lly con .. ned Ch,i"i, n, m.y h..,c hod .,.mc difficult;" in ,elin
,h"
.J,.'"
w"
qui,~i n g.1I
tht v<>tig of thc;r f",mo prKtic<'S .~J in ""'ing ,hc dil'k",,,,,,,

bmo."t<:n Chrin;m im,gcs ,,,cll"'g.~ itloh,
T ht.< \1!'Cjtern write .. m. kc moo, of ,h. . .m. J>Oin" ,ft., <hci' ""'tern
00"'"1''''' ~"I .1",.Jy ..... <k, lool,,,'!' .....,, . t:...:.!"t<. "nf~.I>I ....il. II",
... God hinuclf ft.d Qn ,,,,,,,,in """,i"n, wmnund<d inug<> '0 be nude, ,h<y
"""Id irwJ~ bc f.lo,i""".! '" l"'in,1 lOt ,ho: right ...,.,., ... , . ThOk ouson, we'"
'" <tJ"catc ,he ",I<'<i"aooJ. ro revr.1
holy my>l<rits, '" .. n... mhe" ,nJ '"
i,..pit< ''''''pun<1ion, In plaa:> in rlx ."',h-crm"ry \1;,<>, there ........ ill, linge'.
ing C<>nCrtfl wi,h idob,ry. John C-i.n .nd I.ioo.-. of s.-.ilk give ... >dcn"" of
,nd .., doc:s G'<g<>ry of Tou" in ,n inru,ing 1"!Sig< OInig.ting the
KIob'rr of ,he Funks bc{"", their ronvcnion.' '' A desit< ro .void ,nr hint of
lu. "ry Impdl<tJ Co=riu. '" r."bi,J poi""ng:< t" hi' ny"" The grc->< A..g,,,,in.
,<S"ttiod.tt a.
Cl<'gOty of T"""
I..,.. ",k<n it very m..d.
fot gr<Imod. New in ,he Wes, . at leas, coml",ed '0 ,h. 1'........... heighteDcd
"'''S< of ,he implic"ion. of P"'P'.... tion fot v....,llif.ncy. A PC""" oould no,
"r=d:' ",,,,Id "01 <ee>ll I" ""'''''''y. ". ~" he '" ,he h><l nor boen """,f"lIy
,0 .-.:cogni", ,00 "oo.",."d, ljk><-is<. '" w., ... n '0 ft.,.. J>Ossibilitia
fu, mi"io,,'ry worl..
Goo',
,I",.
,,,peril,,,,,,.
""'!n' ,,,
,."gIl,
Condusion
IXIb.n..., ,,,rn in ,he nex, <hap'" <0 ,he ou,b",.k o( 8y<anfine Knnod"m.....J
in ,he on f'er ,ft., '" ,he ini,i.:tl W.. 'ern aerio,," 'Q <COnoclum,..., ,hall d"
.., on til< b:.si, u! . r..... tn.i<' puint>, Fi"", Ji";",,,; I)-' Ch,i"i,n ~S" ....I .It
hod "ikn .nd 'PoJ "'pidly ,. ",1 ,,;'Idy in the _rid or 1,,< ''''Oque Ch,i .. , .... _
i<y. No pan ,,( , he Chri<ti.m "'''rid .... dcmon"",bly inugck:ss. anironic. Sec
""d. ;n oo.h Eas, a,,J West. voka h>d been ",<.<cd in dcf.:" .. or at( and abo
>gOin" i" O.,(onJ.,. ..... 'Y",he'" "'ikd pre"y m""h ,he ,..me i....... in ,hei,
apology. An rould ,=;h. remioo. dd;glu. and ',..pit<. AuacitcrJ go ... ",U)"
J>O"""! tI, 'doL:.'ry. 'lr'rd. Ihet< .imply .... n<.> ""h ....... "
I"n~ d.:bol~
abou, OKted art, In"cad. p.. ticub, autho", d",,..ing "". un.lI. COmmon "ock
of "adition. 1 ide.. and ,at>. ""ot< in 'pific ci,eum'unccs. Oft<" ,"".. cif_
eu"" .. n".. at< unkn(>Wn '0 us. $om; ",.. an go, fuIJcd in,o ,heological de_
ha,es .""h .. ,hu .. l>bel..l ..... ,hmp""'"rph;,m .. ')f ,h.,.. ",hieb ",,""" on ,h.
fi,II" ... ofCl,ri",-, h",,,.ni,y. Somet;mes
turned "1"" .", .
J""';,h pule". ... which .'" "nlikely '" h.-we been """,i"noJ ~ :.:tI disp,,'"
.1,,,,,, p;';;n" "". F">lnh. in ,he Eo" ,hom: d<x:. k<m t<> h.ve bn.n i"cipien'
cult of iron . Even if <><>. mInt :tdmit ,har ,Ii ",hola.. cogg<r.ued <he .,.'ent
""n''''....
">I'"'''''''' "" 11,
....... Iroru .J
.nd imcnsity of {he ~t~m cull. 01>< mu" >!i!! .. k ,..h..,h ... {I>. icon. o:k/il>l
nO! .. . picture evincing 1 crt... in ,~ic bu, ., .n obi"< or locus of cui ........
<W,. Ugni~c,", k.uuro of.1>. .pi.i.u.1 bndK""" of _ 10 in ,ho La.in 'X'",.
In '" fot .. icunod" m ,,~ m ."uk on K<>n'. we h.YO rfiS<>n to "..,ndo,
wh<thor ,ho Eas nd .ho \IIi,"" rould reodily h,,o un<k".ood o""h ",ho" ron
~,
C HAP T ER TWO
Byzantine Iconoclasm
III
the Eighth Century
n. G~ M4 in """~ I,.",!om. ,m." of"" .~ ofG.J

.O/Nd, "'" M"-I .. ""'" h<w poin"" J;r
51. l..u./w <hi. f"I.'';'' "",;J
~ i".",...,1 ""', ,I,. 'P'''' of"" .It.... """.... Ii..,J
,n th< ,....t":
-1f'"JJ .1..",...,1 J;r hp< /""",,,,, III. fv

.J/ f " " - """ ....... ..., 10.....-;...,1 bJ ..k.o of"" fo,,'+1 _>It., ,...,
.4,;d, ",""",,;aJ .,;.;...
,om .-.it'""" hmI .. - " i""'t"'.'
-L..wv>:o An,"n", Mum"';
TH. lEAR"." AN" g."rulous M~"'tot, (167)-171"0) in.rodoccs. '1"'" fwm hi'
p<atli.. tnkni,,,, uf Im,."",n, III 1";>Ii- 11I6t ",hot migh' "ill """ fu,
book ",rnm..}, of ,he iu.... in eigh.h.."n,ury B)"Untine i"""""turn . In ,he
",...1 tdl ing. Emptrot U:o I II (717- . ' ) u"""f"'<tedl~ took . profound di,like .0
Dy7~n'ium', ut.iqui,o ... and mira<ul ..... ,.di&,"'" imaga .nd ~t '0 dimi
..,,, ,hem. Hi> >(In . nd ,u<'W:>r. Con . .. minc V 17.'-71). aprcf.l<d hi> OW'll
"pp<><i,,,," '0 . di&,,,,,' imas<" by dcv<:k>ping ><>phi ..
'hrologicol a'Su
"",nn >gain" ,h.m. by des'roying' grco[ 'l,-"n. iry of ''' . ."d by pet><CUling
""'''''Phib, <:>pi.II)' ,he monk> '"",ng ,hem. In d", 780>, ImI. , ruling ..
'<gen' fu, her 50" Con ... ntin. VI (780-97), workJ to mtOf'< imag<> ' o ,hei,
. ccu",o med pbcc of r...... nee .nd finally did on by m.. n, of an ecu,,...,nial
rou"",1 which .he ...<mbled. Ibei, <>nly with &=ot difficult}". in 787 in tht
hi.lOrially <VOCati. . .ioy of Niaca, At ,hat rouocil ,he ,'K-IOriou. iroooduia
decl ...! officially ,hat ,he ..,...,ro.ion of images ....... n ."ide of f.i,h, Gi .. ~
,hll ".. ~ .;de in ,he I..mg Ji,p0l< I. ;d cL>;m '0 .",hen,", ,...Jirion, i, Ius. in
"I<w of ,he ironophik triumph ,Iw W1I only fcmPOr::lfily in'errupred by. rc--
'a'-
"",ro
n..wed ouromok of iwnod .. m be[wo:cn So, .nd 841, betn "'-'}' to . S>ume th"
""'"oph;li. 'ep"""''''' ,he wI< .0"';""'" ,r>oli,ion ofd,", Eo".,n Chur<h. Th.
i>n<>::bsm of L:o III . nd hi< drn .. ty 'WC>". on the ront .... ty. to be. punling
. I><... ,ion.
Thi' ch. pter "''''<yO 'he '''iWn . co" .... "d ","0'< of llru",in< ia::modum. It.bo (On,ide" ,he , t<:iin' ofi(Onophili. th .. e'icnt""lIy triun,phed at
II Ni<aco. The .:Iup'. J.nt-hke. looks f" ....~,J . nd b;od<".,,J. Th" i.. i, .. kco
><COunt of the kind, of.rt ", [k th .. I h." alrculy diK'U....d fur ,he preico"o
d .. tic pe,i""..,d , bo 10010. lOr new "gumentl II", "os< in the eigh'h "nturr
.nd th.. ""<rc " .. it.bk the 0.wlingi.n, when ,hey t~ Mte <>f the """to<>, .... y. brieAy in the 7S'" .nd 7600 nd .' g'''' leng'h in ,he 7?O> In ",he,
wonk wh" acou,lIy h,ppened i" ,h. .,." and wh" imp"'" did ,h .. E.. " hove
011 ,he Wes'> I ..... 11 aplot-e , .. ,i o'" plusa of ,he eigh,h<enlU'Y <on"o"ny-no one den ... [hot ,he", ,,'", ' w"''''.'ny: di .. grcemen, .u,round. it>
inten.ity >.r><l .ignifi",n~to .. y liu l..
wh .. h.ppe'oed ."d '"""r i, h.p'
pened. Fin.!ly. I ",.11 wernpl' di<ccrn. amid a n",oriou.ly fractiow body of
...';Jon". ,hc :>Ctwl "gumen" used on .11 ,;J ...
s..oot..-.hip
in r=n' dccadct fu ndamentaUy .I toted our .i...... of tI,e so<;;illcd iron",I.. wn!<9"mY." The ~'r l' n"QIJ
~ ken <WQ forml.
In ,he li"'t pW:<. , he ""gnilUde of 'he ironod. <ti< (Ono,'. "!' itself Iu, been
d",m.. i""lly reJuced in proportio" OO ,he ,;[(,><ioo of i(Onocb "" wi,hin the
,oul rontat of eighth.ccntmy Brun.i~m h" been .h.",ly rdoc:o,ed. At the
beginning of ,hi; book I qUOted th..., ""hoi.... on the m.. "ing of io>nocwm.
II it impo"~nt to note that where .. Gco'K" FlolO'o'.ky . nd Ge,h. rt Ladner-"w
""nocwm in ,irtu,II)' '1"OC"Ip),ic ,ern-u. Avc,il 0."..,'00. > kade, in ,he mod
<1n ,..,hin king of ..rly llruntin. hi"o.,.. subtly ,hif" [he lOcus, FOf hor, icon".
c1 ..rn "", Is oche, clung<>. h w'"' no, i,,,,lf ,he ""jo' clung<. nor .vcn ,h.
mo.jo< cri,i . Tho sevcn,h "n,u<]l ..... CI.t>.OtJi",rily Jiflicuit lOt lIy,,,",iu,,,.'
p"""",ed bu, fi",II)' s"ccessful ""1"\ . gainSt Pel"\;' .rrorded not wcll ...arned
~ri1< 0 0> ,h. M""I~".mi>" f"""i bu, ",,,o>d a new ."d ... "'" d,n~."'o,
,,",l.ugh' h-om ,he fe<vcn' adhere"" .of ,he ,.rw f.i,h <>f IoLo ... , Tlo. !bIb"
rrontier w,", menaced b)' A,..... , 1I "lga", .nd SI . 110, l"e .n,ique """norny
waS .Iowly ni'hing ,oJ th .. CV<"ntwl ,h.pc of i", .l>CCcMo.Or "-... only Jimly
vi,;ble , 1he ,dmi"i<",,,,,,, >rr::ongcmenl, of J",,;n,m "'e'" evol,ing into new
lO,m., O"hodo. Ch,;"i. nit), was Iooillg fo ..,.r its con, rol of I.nd, ,,,-,, m>y
Iu,'c fomoed, "lIruntine c.:.mmonw=!th:' but whose J.cubite . nd No<to,ian
Chri" i.", h.J 1""8 looked " Con".nti nopl. with ,u'pici"n.' In.id .. tho "rri,.,.
rico ,lut r<",. ined m ,he <mpi'" poli . i",II)' .nd cccb;",K"lIy. wr<nching
pm<:es> of redolini,;"n ,,'., "ru:le"",y. lco"""""", m" ... ,h.odOr<, he..,.,n .. no
'0
'0
ru..
,:
,1,.-,,,,
",m,,1t
..
"""~ t1un one Link in ,he ma ...... ch.in ,h ....... d.-acPng R,...n,ium from the
1,,, n,iq .... "'odd ,nlO ,he fuUy ~ql<'d mid S,...",i ... pc,iod. WhcreuQl'
Ii... ..:tw.L..... w jc""""Lum .. 1Und.un ... uJly d;,n,pM. Gilbon Dagroo I'I<I'W
..)1 ,ha, ""'" 'I .... "'" "'~
did 1>01 .. pon .he .... p;rc. II ocromp>nio<d
it< ......tonn..ion... lconoclaun ..... """ cnW. but pcnod of lUi>iJiry =d
i"""""
roruoJid..ion aft .... en.;",
plaa. "'...........\ICc aI .... )" known ..... .m-. .u .... ~

lOr iconodaom. and .,....o.ny lOr If. nrliea .......... .... =d ........... N,,nthc
..... i...... long rd. t1u. if.n. _rca ............ pIoyN ... ,th d...
<hey
rouId be nudr ." yidd .d ..bk infot_ion. II i:t i~, ~, ,....
sourca _u ... in <ht nin,h unfUf)' f< v........ pnmanly lOr indicao'ng ,ho
o....look ~Iing in.he dtodeo ....... n ,hey ..........."".... ~bnT _ f a > . , C>"Cf1
,he ...... of II Nico<-a ,~ ... riddk.l ..ith i.....poIo.iont. .m.n.""r"" no< ,he
ptodllCf of ....... ;n ..",i(II'> ..... 'heir ...... lw:irdow in ,he ..
In .bon.
_ can now be- """" conl>dtn'
know ""'" Lo ico-nodul<o ... n,.,.{ "'"
.rory of "'->dum 10 be .<>Itt ,...... bou, ..... , OCIwlly lIappcn<d 0' how ,he
In
.h~ occond
ClU'"""
".me.
'N' "'"
ioono<l.1$" migh....... p"""n'N ,h.i, 0"" pooi.io .... W. mus, be >kept;"'1 of

..h ,h. SOUrU> Ny
<he ;.;o".,.J . ... and
,he ou,h"",k ,,{ ~
d m.
.bou,
.bou.
I n,oge< or O... h.,.do~y

To ... ,~. ,he _~ ~ ofO"hud",y .oday. 0' lOr mOl' of ,h ...... thou .. nd
J"I"". " .(} ... ("'" in calm of <:0:>10 Iigh., ."d ;""'8<' 'N' i. 01""". ind...:oil>.bly danling. D=ru,i(; mosala ~11 m.i..de 'p>CS. S,irring mouia .",1 frc:.cocs
<locu.. , ri umplW . r< ..... nd , ide
A m-i .. bk wall of pic."..... ,he >CO""".
wi" >q"'IC' 1M """"'Y from ,he
Whc" .lM- <ya of.he head and of
the _11u"", adju .. od '0 II,. .",,,,,,ndinro. ,hey """ tho. the im..,. .", arilcinslY
.like in dftign o.nd pc'haro non in o.en>.ion. 1"..,.. ". wmlOn'ng .. n........
" IK" look .... m. ....... he", 'her ~ Of ....... 'her ~ ........
8... ;, .......... .rIO")" 00. lIdOtc- ,Ioc OF of iconoclum ,be utiotic p rop2ftl>
of La,c. annu;'.. had noc 1ft ;oppeucd. 'The """-w;'" for i..........., did no<
achirw in ""1<OfIUf)' 1Orm. hd""", .he fuunc....,h an.u'l'.' M=r !pOCO tho.
"'"" richly .kcon.od in Io ,imo ...... vin...u,. ."iconic., ..... dno" of the
.igluh Uft""Y" Surpril.inslr . .... lup> he ""'" fa"""", d urd. of 8yuntium.
H";' Sophia. _ wi . ....... b,II""""1o pKl'U .... bcfon: 1M 1600. n.. icono<l"';'council of I~ icm.o--abou ..... ich [<or m""h """" ~
woll,.
"a"'.
rna. m=
ro.
no pIl)'a'
,ho coruor< .... ioo of an icon.' Tht 'tIII/'a-rUnl}' &ft.[o.._""' ~nd> no ~ 10. iaKn.. The ~,..rpc.I proml_ <>f icoru i> b,c.'
lrtS
p""""'" duptn ...., .herr
minlT i...... in. lOr

enmplo:, Armn" 00 AUymi,ium. li renry .nd :ut~ m:ntds 1"[h. "" .. ".,,"" of im.gn in ouch piKe> ,.. HOIim D.vid. So. ~ nJ St.
Dcm<uiu. in S. lonia; i~ ,h. Chu",h "f,hc Dorn",""''' Nicon;."d in Con
... nr;Ml'k', (hur.h .. of Sr. lI."ry" RUch<rn~.n<! St. F.. ..,,,.,., Th", w< ..,
I<f, 10 "",nde-r. h.ow rom"",n W<f< imag<> in ,hurch",~ H ow rommon "".e
pri ..... 'lid p"""naJ i.ugo Ilk< ,h. one of s. ~ CoIn.... nJ I).mi.n .I,.,
fdlow ",nitd "",uno! in . .. ek under h .... m~ G< ... r..Ji,ing fmm """ry <Vi.
don<t or ..suing fmm tht .iknee. of.he .ourea .. d..""'rntI~ Bu. ,hcr< mu!!
be 1<...... , queo.rion h<>u. oJ.. ""fl.' ." which """,,,,<ria) .n<! I"'blic ",wi"",
"""'" w< ... d.ron,td wim ,J,. kind> " f i"""" , ... , bamt '" funi!", in b.",
.imo."
Wbile i, ;., 'rue .lu[ ""T pi<lu... ""2!-, is. p"' ... ,UlIy .n """. ;. ;., no In. UU<
.M not :aU pinu ... bca .... 01 bca .... 'ecosni>,n! .. icon,. Som< of ~ "h.o,
~n d.. fou .. 11 anrul}' ond .he: x-...... h iwJ thc:j. --.-. ......, picwri.>J
""""",,n... ion. ..... y not
bren oO;errin~." icon. per 1< .. m..do ..." .nr
~!l'lalltpmnl{J,ion ,hll ~.o .;ob ,h. E.wdus prolub;.ion. And SOOW'
of ,...... ",1>0 """,icd about "'p"D.i,iow I'l3l'Io.:c-mOl' <>f which ""<re 'P'
""",cd . n<! ",,,n IO ....,im.. "",,,m.... udal in b.er C(n!tllio-h.d f\() qu..lm
I>om ..p.... n"'ion, ...uch. Th. <vid<nce. in 0.1. "'0..1<. nuke. i, ..om:!_
ingly difficult
fOr m cleor impr ... ion 01,1. nriqui,y . ..:al . inn.iry. or
m ning or ,he: ico""phili. '" "hich .he iconoph<>l>c. or.he: <igh,h ",n,ury (and
,h.ote of,he: nin.h cen,ury'o ... born I "",II [urn in Chop,er 6) ,001< acrption.
Ili'< n"'$1 .h."""" "",bark on ,he ptea<n. diocu",,", wi.h dear undorowrdlnK
objrioru
.dipouo ",.....".. noo ....... in .he elgh'h <n>.ury. J
....., .......-n.Iuot ...... .,I,jooaiono had no.- bren 'Y"em .. iclJlylO.muJ.,td in ur
lin " nfU'..". P-u.ay in ,hcage <>f ,he: qu.><td ...... icon. cudUJ onJ in.ello:cfU:oily <11"'"
>pi"" tdigiow an..- ~ ... ' .......... n in dcr:o~.nd with
rip;<. It ...... :do<> du""S ,hio ... me period thaI arzumrn .. in f."", of .tlipouo
... , .....".. ... ricul.i.cd .n .... yo [tw ..,.. mu;:h of d.. O .. ho.kn world. boeamt
norma.;""'. In (OCI .. "" sh.Il ....
00 bdWf of tdipous ...
in
fW",icul.ir on beh.!f of ;ro.... unde"""", 10"'" i"'pot"n. dcY.:lopmcnl> aero<>
We ..w in .ho
wn<
I"""
'0
,Iu,
'0
"'1""""'''
'<gII""'''''
" .n.!
.h.
";sh.h .nd nin'" <cn.una.. No one councilor ,hinker ."i.cd in 1 .ing!<

mo men t of blinJing in.ish' o[ .h. do""in. of im. go ,I... ".b><qu<n,ly htld
..... y in O"hOOu' Cln;"""i.y.
And yn .he:re aJ. po,cO! or...,m. in cu.ren. O"hod",
doctrine [h ..
ake.n ... mpanl. unh"'Ofic:d yr... The twcl>'C-hund.cd.h ,nniyenvy of tht
om..-
Strond Cotmeil ofNiClC>
S""",..,ed. 'P'"
of ,dlmion, on
,h., >uncil .nd
<>n im"l;. F,. Mich.d A'koul i. typical " ,hen h< ... ~ ,h.t irons "in the P[('J><.f
",n"," <xis,ed from ,he Ixginning, H <g1><O ,I"" i... WfQ"g for >chol>" ",
inm- from. Ixk of pc,.;,i"" <:Videnc.o ,h"
d.).;tnn .. of ,he im>ge ....... nOf
both wide.p<e><l .nd widdy h<ld Itum tho b<Wnoin~ " Archbishop Mhod""
"Y' wi,nou, h.. i... ,ion ,h .. [h. icon;1 met.:lpn)'lic:<I; t"'" i[ i. holy. kon, beo.
gift. tlu, belong to tho .upemalU",] """ld. An icon i, fundamenully [hrologi.
e>1 ...... nl(m. 1I="'e teo", ~-al ,he """,,,,,,ed,,...nee of tho f,ith. tho p.i<;ntff
"f iron. mu in thc n"t pi"" be gifted in spi.itu. lity." If these: .iew> migl"
... m
Iu ........ n .,... in , his p.i<"icul.. fo,m by mcn of ,he doth. ""mpare
.hem .o ,h. WOl ds of an .bl<: ..:cut.. sc.hola<, I).nid S.h"", "Tho icon i. "Of,
fOrm of ,i ....1 and ><>,ixtic an .., weh ; it is, p,im.rily. an exp<asion of ,he
'h""logic>1 pe,ion<:< and f.i. h of ,h. Chuh, and ........... no of i,. Thi, is
~ i, "'" been ,,,,,,,ed fomI ,I" o>,/irt' d.tp of ,IN CJn.T'(b (.m~i' mind."
Fina lJ~> kt ill h ,h. g<'" ,hrologi.n Lronid Oillpen,ky: " Sine< in ill """,ne<
'h< iron, like [he "",rd. is. liruegic:ol .cr, i, neve' ",,,'ed .. Iigion b.... lik. ,h.
word. Iu. alwoy ...... " .nd is an in[eg'oI pan of .. Iigion, ,><.. of ,he in>1 tu"",ntS
of the kno,,kdtle of Cod, """ of the It!C:on' of emnmuniation." And "Thc
Ch,,h..,.,. in itS holy im'S" "'" 'imply One "f,h. "peel> "ro"lnxIo. ,,,,,,h
ing, but ,he ClIp,,,,,i,," of Onhodo.y in ito 'ol:llil)', the upS>ion of Onhodo><y
.. "",h ," Like A<koul, M.. hodi .... md 5.>""', Ou.pen.ky beli .... ,Iu, ,uch
.""'~ a... 1'''' "f ,~. """",,,,n >lock of ...1, Chri""n .... ching. YSCU'l, who w"''' in ,h. 1 ond 70400 ..., ,h.
imag< qu:m,,], weI'< " .. II und .. w.ty. Mo,"':...... john'. '<>ching "-,,, .., I Jull
.egu., ddibet.. dy'" ""ide .. Nicx . Some of what eUlTent OnhOOo' "";11
.. y .ho", im . "" an i>e found in ,h. w,i,ing< ,,( ,h. nin,h-cen,uf)' ou,ho ..
P... "h 1'>:i<q>horu. of (".o"I:Inrin""l nd Abbot Th<odo "f Studion. J)u,
...,,,,,.,f .hi, h>d J"" been .. id . mb"""",,, .. ~ued. nt ,d;"ed wh<n 'm.g<:s ~"t
,,',1'< 1Ir.><kcJ. Robin Connack , .... " ,he oubjc.:o hi ..",ial!y wh<n h...~ ,h..
fte< icunod m "one could no, claim ,,, be On" o<Io>. .nd cri,ici.e <h< icon."
H. add.
0Il1)' . ft" 84) "'... "th. iron not jus< >. [ol"",@obj<co; i, "'as [h
ign md symbol of Onhodo,y, a di"ingu"hing f<:llU'" of ,h. full , agreed
doS"" of ,h ....... 'n <huh.""
Th ..... . f. ><inao;ng " o ry i>ehind booh ,he .his""ical i.' p..... ;""'..,
olttn .pplied '0 iron nd tht im.iguing .imil",it)l amf>1lg vin ....11y 011 ",is.ing
iron., In 8J9 Adolp/l. N.pol .... n Did,,,n .., ou, to diseo"," why 011 E.... m
",li190'" 'm'g.,. looked "" much oI 'ke. " Hi, '1u.,., f"' .n .n...... ,ook him '0
M, . Ath".. ",locI'< he d,,,,,,,,,,t<d ",in'''' w<ori<ing ..:co.ding '" m.n""l. H e h>d
<tumbled upon ,he I'~;~ ... i Mam.../ of Di"n)~iu' of Foum, (,67o-' H II6},
1",.,
,0
,Iu,
"";,,.n ;n ,h. '7JO< b~, ... minglr bo><:d "" 1'<'1)' oid n,.,erials, H. "ied in ,',in
'" acqu;", ,he book b." did <:>b,.in , Gtttk ,r."",';p,;"'n, r",m wh;eh he pre
",red , French ,,.o,J,,;on. The ,,'o,k COUwl quite' >liL 5<hol.... ",m.n,iCi,
.nd novcli",_ Didron dedic.,,,,, hi, wo,k tn Vi"o, Hu g<>---h<l~ ,h ,hey
h.d unlo<ked the <C<:"'t '0 Byuntine .n. Bu, the M~~""I"... ,cant .nd the ..
hod h<>on no lowli'" fOfmut"ion of ,he rub of Byuoti"" OR io [he "",wi
Byun. in. pctiod. "n,. wo,k W"'" the imp,... ion: .. ys Belting. "of being.
codi~CI,i"" of, ,,,Ji,;"n 1m long.' li.;ng ,nd ,h ... fore rndmgrred. "', iurn to
preven, ,he ,..,Ii ,ion f",m being ("nher diston"". " Th .. ,,,di,;on . !t~"gh
r=ntl~ in'"CIl,ed. h., been [<1roj<Ct"" into the ca,li .. t pcriotl. of Brunti"" . nd
Ch,;'ti. n h;'t0l)" much '0 .he coofu.inn of both. Som .mol.n, [<>gni,ing
,.... [he ,~i,;"n found in [he M~n"",I"'nno, he ,rxcd bo,k bcfo .. ,he ;cono'
d."i< pcriotl. auign to [he ",..;aIled ", n >l>1"I<" of II Nicod " 'CipOfl,iI,.lity
fo, Ii .ing both the them .. 10d .he Sr)1.. of Byz.aotine migio", . n." They "
... king.o pl.in 0,,,. 1 h. ura of IIp... nti,,. 1ft hiory. Wh),... ,he", SO
linle inno..,;"n' Why dOd min iconog... ph;ea] moo", emerge '" e.rly .nJ
defioitivdy? Bu, ,h. OR ,," Ul< i. in [... Ii,) no ' '''ute'' ,II" Th. f.. he ....
Nico'" WC", OIl ,!w: nov,i,' ide, rof",ing Hie",i nd. on ,he p"";,i s.idc .
ffi[ming .he ."di.innl of the f.. hers. Hi';. h,d 001 mod. ""emen" .oou,
.ni>tic them", . nJ "yies lI"'t Nico.. cuulJ h.-e rofutro. Mo,",,,, ... ,he 787
council meant b..i<:ally to uy tlut the . u.oo,ity of iams dc$ttndcd from the
fath." . nJ not from [he whim. nf p. inl<". On. mu>t, [hat i., l(}Ok [ 0 ' lime
I.... thon.he iconod ..,i, C". iod<cd I..", ,han ,h~ M;ddl. Age>, f(lf
1,;.
li..cd iron<>g" phy of [hose wo,k> of m tho, we ",II icon.
Receot thcoJog;.n pc~k mo .. of 'l'iritu.1 m ..n;ng [han ,hey do of ><yI .
He...goin , the vKv.1 ...h ich . hey 1I$O<i...... itb [h. ~~,Ii", .t.)'. of Ch,;',i. ni,),
... romp' .... i,.I) tcot ,nd, .... h.. i. mot<. Ru,.i.n in pro,.",n. In [he h[e
nineteenth ntul)' two p[~ ",lo"'" [0 imog<. led ' 0 [h bbo",ioo of
,,"'~t """" tnrb)" '" the
quo.:uion how. fo' [h. no,m:uiv. ,LN'. Th.
h'" unf(,ld..l brtw=n ,h. ,;m< whocn 8 ;.Mp [''''ph;,; U'p<n<ky o<qu;.-..! twO
;com fron, M . Ad"" in ,U4j .nJ '~50, ,,><!.n ", ,rudy [he R....... " ;"'".. M.ny;n Ru.,;. h.d ,irat ofth. E'''-opc:oni ...
,ion of Ru."i.n ,uhurc ,h., hod been '" marked. f..,,,,. of offic;.. llife ,;n
the 1,,< >cv<;n,n,h n, ury. Among m.ny .nemp" to "'""'" the .u.Mmic
origin! .nd .ho"",,,,,;,,;,,,, of I{u"i.n <uh"I<. [h.
W>.i d;",,,,,<red . nJ held
up" p<'ci.1 .nd .o~ic", Ru,.'.n ""h><vern..". The ..."nd p""""" inwdved
the fo.mubtion b)' Ro,.i.n Onhodolr <hrologi.", of. ""ic> of Nropl1lonic
aplo",nion. oficon. [h .. derived much from ,he ,hough, of John of D.Ol>.><,..
,h. ,..
.bov.
"'>I,
" 'hilt ."ribut,,,, .h... hougI. to the wtook cbronolocr of ........... daimod ..
th< .... ud>cn.;'; au"'''n <noli"""'>"
To ... m up. th<n. To und<<><:rnd wIu. h.>pptnN .n fI)'UII"um ,n II>< ';&,,,h
<cnrurr .... mUM ..-oid """'"",,,.ic ....,.,.. of bod. lI)'Un"1I< :on ~nd of the
rnc=inp
an It< .ttributed ro 00' ck,;-J f'tom
F", ~,;.",.
prokplic.1Id b,. kptic ",.dinp of ,he o,"'Uln ,DdJ,ion .. it .PJ>Iie> Kl act
h:tV<' ob,ru..,J .... nIp" ' 0 com< '0 griP" wi,h N.i< WI .... No oil< wi,h orcs '0
..., Col" .!tny ,ho: .. ren. ""di,ion.li>rn of d ... iai llyun'i .... rdigiou. ",,",<>gr.<_
phy, 8u. ,h ,,,",,i,ion ,001. i" . is. in ,,,," in, d lm" .1 h...,b of ,h igh ,h
ttn'u'J' .nd .. pru><ol i,.. tfin the on oft.. im .., Li~; ... no "n. can dmy
,h. prol'undi'J' of ,n. R....i>n contribu,ion '0 moJrlh O,thodo. inugc do<:'rina. 8u, ,he<- W<1'r no R......,.. ,n ,he 'igh'h a:n.u'J'.
,ba,
.ba, ....
Ou.brak of ,h. Controversy
H ... iI cornmon .ocroun. of the o...bn:alt .ond ... bocqu.m, """"" of Byun,in<
iconocwm, " II. liz<> 11I1"""! ,he dd<"",,;"" of ....... nobk ,m"8< of a.m,
. bovt: .N 8roruc- C.rc of th< 'mp<.;'1 ~. It ci.il
ucd
lu.ed,
from high '0 low.
B4l' im""' .... ",ino; n, ..
wi,h"u, number; .t..- d.
",,,ian of . Imoo 11 icon>; . nd finoUy ,ho: mOl' profound di..: .... 'on of.ht
.hCtJlogy of ;tath<" ... ,"''' Kcn, ' .... reh h.. Q U.d i,,,o ' Iuotion . Im"" tw'J'
"'pte, of ,hi. f.miliu fOITnub.ion. Tod..y. " " an"'" be <<<..in jUi' wha, 1.<0
did. l ikr;wi ....... do nO'< Imow CU<1ly wh.n ht "".cd, Mo,...,.,.",. hi, ,"",i""ion
bcrood our reach, In .".ning 'n Leo JlI _ . i, will be ...dl to odd.
fo,east that. ,n ... boojurn. O"tioru. J ~Iluw _
'0 ..... doubts abou,
"",iI
,y"
w" ....
,ba,
... .I..,..,
,.... civil .... , ""'" nwtyfdonu. .1Id """n ,he whoIcsaIt ckottuttion of ....,.ju
"'~.
Dccidinl ....... Leo III ao:naally did dq>c:nch <t't.irdy "" ....... ~ :ore
upon .. ""tnQIo to th< p<>Ui:bI< .....,,, of th< u.. ,100 .,..J ~ 7.10" 01
I"riup. on ,t.. ~j p< of t<>W_in~""" du, Iht ),i>' ..... n-chcf P1""'"I..... _rcn. ....h Niaphotw .nd 1~ h oft.., t:-n aoco<d<d
hi&'>
becauoc .h.,. .... m to p..,.idc: ,he '""" '",um ... mw aocoun". Con
,.m[>O,.ur -""n,.uch .. ,he <01re>pono.kn<:e of l'.,.uh c."m.nu, and , ~"
Ro'n," 1.11Hr f>"",';;"di>. at. ""'-Illy Cllpted to ..w fl ..."" .nd <010, '0 ,he
""';" di, h.. htc.o" .. 'h")' do <>0, provi<k a >:ali,fyiog ",.,I- .up[>O" a na.,.
,iV<-l'l' ,h ...... lvcs.
calkd
val".
Th. oI<k>, of ,h, !.'e ",ur=, in o,he. word! [I>< one do,CI' in ,im< '0 'he
""en" i,
,h. S;"',., H;"O? .,r Ni<:<phor"" rh~ fuml'< "".. i,reh of
Co",un,inupk who wro,. ,hi, "oc,,'" d. je"ncs.<" in
;rllos, A=rding
10 1"iecphoru., Leo h.. rd of volemic "uption. on ,I>< i,l. nds of Th.r. and
T h.r..i, .nd, ... king ,h... n. ,u ",1 diU<t<" '0 be 'ign. of Ji,-in. wr.. h, "h. took
up . pus",o" con,,,,,.,.. (0 ,ht 'ru< f.i,h .nd pb""eJ ,he 'nn""') of holy ico" .
. . . H. tti.,j 'u npounJ hi' 0"'" doc"i"e '0 ,h. pco!pI. ,"II Th. new.. of ,h.
b [. ",u".., ,h. Cbronuil of Thropluncs, prod"'" <:>f [he ~,,'IQund 8, S,
rcpea." ",me <:>f Niecphoru" infotm>tion , nd , dd.! O1h d.... i1<, Under ,Ix
~ ' 7U- '} ,I>< .h",,,id.. ,.11, ",.,k,hl. ,.1 . l"hoeopIu" .... Y' ,Iu" ,I<.... i,h
.... i..rd "",n' '0 Ca)iph Y""OJ (I,id) .nJ '0ld hi", ,h.. h. rould "'peel , "~,, of
forI)' Y"'" "if h. dcmoy<d 'h, hoi)' i""n. ,Iu, weI< v,n ...,eJ in Ch.i"i.n
church.. ,hroughou, hi, dom'nion . , Th...tlld .... Iz.id W:H per:",.<kd hy him
and dc<:....J gen.,,1 >n"itu,ion 'goin" ,h. holy im.gn." " Th. ElOpe""
leo," Th<opn.~ <:oo, inU<$, "p>" ook of ,h. same '[[0',' g,iC\'O'U.nd illicit
on . nd SO 1!CO.m< '<:<pOn,ibl. fu, ioftiaing m.ny ."iI, uPO" .", H. h",d
p.nn~. in [his boo,ishneu-J IIIln oiled B<Y.
B.c= of hi, phy>ial
""'''gti. ond )ike-mindeJnC'S, in ."ot. he ..... l",nou,eJ by ,h....n>< Leo....
Anmher of hi. wide<! """di"'o" w.,
hi,hop <:>f N, ,,,,ki. who W:H filbl
wi,h ...,.,.. kiod of impu.ity '0.1 livd in .imi!'. boo,;.hn ...... Th.n, .ft.. a
g.;orble<! . ccou", of ""'dopmcnr> in h aly th .. ><1,,-,11)' do from ,he ?SO> but
,bat l'hropb.nC'S ... igns ", 71)-'"4,
.:hronid.. rid" up hi' Ji"", ..;"n of leo
undc. [h. ye~. 7'"4-1\_ "Thi> yeo.," I>< ")~' ",I>< impiou, .mpc'''' Lou ",nl
m, king pronoun"'m.n" (l\o'fioO... ).6yov) abou, ,h. ",mo..1of ,h. holy .0.1
ven."bk icon,. \'('hcn G...go'l"'. ,he pop< of Rome, h.d been informed <:>f ,hi"
h. withheld the u . C'S of 1... ly,nd of Rome,nd wro leo. docftin,llctt.. '0
,hIf, [Iu, 1n .mp"'o. oug)" not 10 m,k< prono,,,,ccm<o,, ""n'fling [I><
f, i,h n..... ,... >ltc, ,h "ci.o' Joc,,; n.. of
Chuleh ,,'hich h.d been ..kroned
by ,h. ~ ... Ir (..1,<1'>: ' Und ,h< )'C 7'1- .6 n..:q,1",,,,. "'I'''''' .10. ,,,,,-,,n",
erup,ion. on Th .... . nd Th ........"d, like N'eepho,u dd, ,h.. leo ",hinkin~
,hOI G"d', wr.,h .... , in I,i. ('VOUf i""e.d ofb<i"g d',..,<:d 'g.>i"st h'nI , ..
.. irred up' m",c lU[hlcs> """ on
hoi)' and veo. .. hl. 'wn . " Apin ",i,hou,
goins in,,, .pecina;. Thoophanes men,ion. lieser, leo', 111)';n ,hi, .... ""'I....
n<," lhroplun<> go<'>
hcyond Niceph",u. in odding [Iu, ,h. "popu);,"
of ,h. imP<',i.1 ,i,y. ".,,,eh distressed by ,h. n...r.,,~.,j d"",r;n." pu",.,..J
'" ."uk L",,_ In ,Iu[ 'h<y we'" not , u o:n.ful, bur ,h<y dOt! kill ",m<' of ,h.
=,,,,0,,, ;,
,n.: Lt,.
,h.
,h,
,h.
,h.
f.,
empaot'. rnm
"...no had ,;tkn ",,",'n , ... iwn of ,... 1.<>1 ,ha, _ u-.: II><
6ronu G .. ~." A. a mull, " "",n1 of !hom '*CK puni>htd in .... "'.... of
.... ' .... f .. d. by m",!b!;"", Wha, bon .............. nd firco. np<riallr ...... ...no
,.<K pram ....... by bi"1'I and wh .. ~." H.api~ fu ....... ,t..... on 1.<0. Thcoplu.... ><I ofComl2J"inc. AI", .. n.... , ... rear 7.6 .nd
, .... "Pin ""dtt ,ht yn ... 7>8 ,0 no Th",!,h.ineo !'(I.d! I<nlpu by l<O to
g ,ht r, ..;'u th ofComt>ntinople Gc"n. nu.
along wi,h hi <.w., In an
_ n , brimn,inl; wi,h """Fu.iM. Theop .... n.. od ...
I...,. btaU.l<
had
Ge,m.M . und., hi< a m,"" . expdlro him from hi. office. M.. nwfti" Pope
G~ .... pro .... hin. oprnly i.. 1'Ii< widdy known
whi" Jobn
" Chrywr'''-'' (.hat i.. Jobn af O'muc .... wi, h ...hom I ,lull be mud. occu_
pi<d) .""ht....,iml ,... empem'. Nool'I"" do .. n,ro. leu IUm""",ro.,;Jnr_
{. ooItmn phori", of...,. imperial ~ ,ha, ....... ty had cer<mon;,,1 or
pc<I'
'0'"
,h"
h.
In,.,.'
judicial oiptilie.nu) "apMut .... .....,. and ..,ncrabk icoN" on J.nuuy ".
"')0.
To this mtni", uo ....... mot><d Ge,,,,,,n,,, ,o,..lt bim if ... .....aId....,..,ribe '0
,hot ,mpe .... ~ .nd...i>m he t</'used. Leo P'"m"'~ h"" to mite to t.is
.nco'ral ......... Gemull",dial inai" in 7)). On .... twe01.y-oca>nd ofJ.nowy
An .......... Cc-' .... n ....':1""-IIM(p. n.-, ~.'7) ...... n ......J ...,ri.",h . C~.
D'Y ,ma..J ,1> r"S""" A .... w.i"'. WYUte Ict'm conde-mning wha, had happenni, .nd O<J"l",ro Home: and 1t>ly f,om impe,;,,1 au,hority. Lro W21
infuri .. <d . nd " inn"fi<d ,II< ....ult on ,he holy icono," M'ny cl.rie&. mon ....
nd pioul byrn.n talnN [h. crown of martyrdom. Lro rtigrtrd un,il Jun. of
bu, 'fh",!,h. n.. 00..."", me:ncion hi, imap: pol ida. d u,ing ,t.. ..It .kv<n
1'"'" af hi. lif"."
Tn ,h;. .... ic "",lin . ,Iifl" mo .. m.ybc,MIJed"""' .... 5OUlC... The Ufo
~ th. Y.~"t"". ...~;"... in &00,1. "Y' that , ... ,n:rwd .... hich au:""Ui<f' d.~ lbcodoai.a." -n..
of
'ho .... n,nlh 11''''1, tq>au ,hot uk of 8ac..,.nd Con... n" ... ofNarokU',
7.'
.rs..
a"...
S), /.... V""'.,.....,..
&tU."'"""iud
""",ri....,....... nd .. y> .... , G~ "'P"iuod '11""'1.

,II< iconoda" . nd "",, cri,Ocionu '" Leo" 0nrIy tho..: .......nu of ,.... ""'Y had
bKome: fi .... ,n n..... "'Y.
1M ... iJ.nce tha, i< con .. mpot>'Y m~""""""",,, be ~"N in'o ,hi . ..... i<
..."Iin., 11,.
""u,"" i. ,II< Uvn af G f<ll"'Y II b'I" P) .nd G"'Il"'Y 111
11j'-4') in 'he U,," l'~~rifit~/;" Ch.p ..... ) 'hrough ,6
,II< Lifi' ajCi"X"?
ff """,,,m .. ruggl .. in ""n'nl lul)' ~n. on .11< on< .id . Loa" .nd lorn iwd< .nd. on
OIlI<r .id impcti.1 "&tht. mol I"rW <.>ffi<iab ... ho _Ie p .. -
nil,,,,
.h.
or
PO"!'''!' "'," "'i ""'!' '!'IJ. 'An> I'!WW! ~~, , ,y,. y!ri, , ..... .(o.o.y "ynUOjyn
.w" )~, ''''iu><>p 10<1 . , . " m'l '"<H,,,....,
"'i' ~,,~ ..... Ifl. J" ,',uwn' "1"'; ..,
~u"d, '~I U\ I""~. l"jV
,,~ ,no AU.,
I"~um 00l ....... .(0.0.",
,,'"0'''''''
"""""'1
1",
"""1
0,
''''''l'
,~,
vu"u""'U:> I"~">J ,"""',
"'1.1. ...."" "~J" 1'"'" "'i'
,o,>dW)~' ", .." '" In.> "1' 01 """1 ,U>I" III .(Jolb'9 ..... 1!1 ,~, ,-=~d
,,~ "In '''OOS>J''Ul P'"
>~, II' P'" "'I'rod. "1"'1 '~I "~,,,w AI"'I '.1"",)
'''!''D sn<>f 1""1 ,n,,)o .,g.W! fUl"'" '~')O "O!,,,,,,I<>!' I"'
,~, ro;
Fll'" .,,~, "OUllIl>d ,~, ~u,~.., ''''' )"~' <o 'I'q" (A) , U!,U." u"".) 1"'. 0>")"
<0
'''"I 'Y'
uo
<l"'"
I"""'''
ooY"Y ,.... "'"Sol,) "Y' '" 'II" 111 ....x..!) fo 111
,~, "!J""!/i'~'V
'''1''/ ,~, III ~~d""""'lIU""I'" "~'" '~.1. .. '>OI"h", "'i' ,,, ><>"Id",oo f'I" 'Sm
nmuv ~".""d M.>1J "'i' )~p.>I"""~J~ '" fUSlY'" ",olbl~
""1' fAts
pm U,,!,!SO<bp '.'n".IU'''91'' .u" "'1'4<'/ >ILL ' 1"'f'''M.>l,~ ... >J;M\ "~JJn~J
'~I U. ,.~, 'PI" so'l. '~I '" 1", .d>Jd "Iq'q<"d ""'"'''' V ,, '"'"''I''n'''
~q n!,d .~, p!.d ~w'" pu. ~~"'i "' ..." >w'" ', "'", " ~I ~"" UM>Jd "'>N.
"""'Indoo '.A'"
J" .Ill.", .I"'S .,(", '~'JO '11'1"'" ,~, '" "'''I' u,nq '"
'''O!,,,,W I~"!W '! '''I''' '1'''' '<>"!" "'I' 11'1"" "q'ow "I"q '!q ,no!,. s >'p
J" '""" ""~, ';),'>J'~," ~:n,u, """'f' ' ''I"' ", """.n"",1 P'" '" ""Iodw", 'I""l
Aq '100U!'U"'uo:) U! ~"!"!I ),,0.{,= uO A.." '!q 'JJ~
''''I' ,w"""'l JJ!'...,d
,~, ,,,.=>>d w,~
,,~, N>up.>, '!"" s,iOJ",hu'
.Its o. uo ,,..,s
4<7 'q' '6,L 1"" 8" 01 1""1' >q ,,0:> l.ql "u,wd"p.,p ~U!"IUI!P "IJ\'
'bi pu. hi "~ pou>o:l
'~I ", I"u~"', "'i II' "nu, ,,, ....1 ,,~, 01 dn p$<1O<'P <>u>A> "'1.1. .",,,t..:.o
I"~IOUOJ~~ q'iin< U! J>C"l!uriJo.! ~(" "I 1<q." JO 'sow q'ii""'l'I' .\lIoI""OJ~~
"p>Jd, """'I' ~u~'1 U! I"' <>J""! .(~'I""!UW ,Ou """ 'XlI '!~I JO ''''l,n. >'U
"'I'w" ~"'q"UI1lt ,0 .. ~"'J ,~, ,d,~" "~.,, '1dod 1"11"').1' "Iod "I' """"II'!:!
"'I ..... ""~I "W!"WOS " OJ;dw> ' q' 1..Aoi P""!""'" >u< >~, u" '''~'o >I!~'"
"",, "q pu. >doxl " 1' ~" ..... ~. ~1''1 "' '(0"," "~I '<;'1" " 'J 'p>A' I" "".~
.I,w , u""! " U!ri< .. "'~ .. '" ..'~"'.. _.'OJ;dIU> >ql """ '''I''' AI '>= ..,!,JJ>'q " ,~""
",,,m "! A"",.p'" I.!'><IW! 1" UO! ,~" I""!I!I"" '"1'''''''
'q' q'!-" pnU!'''OJ ,,,,d.q, '!'ll ..... p,.~ '!"I' YO "'I 0,
"'''!''!'~J
'" ~'"'''''' P'" .....,q "q lIuou"""'p .(w,,,> u. "",,,,. .. ,,,,><Iw, '~I ",,!r.t.
JI>lW!q I"IU'. "I MO" 1"" ',!"o rno~!I)JI! ' ,u!'d "I' 1""!d.>p.. P' '''' ''!
",oi>,~ 'I'~<"bp >q PI""""q "!-""q'" .{Idwoo '" ""'~ PI""""~ 10''"J''~
U!"" 0, ' . q' >doxl "I' PI'" " qUlY IOJ>dW' ''U ,:1""""" II' w>ql PO' ''''I'
'f.! ' ~JJn~J ' '" IJnr "I Plno~. 1;lI", ," I~'''''' '"".. .Iu'J" iii,,"! "U .. ~,
pJ"p iOJ><Iw, 'q' 'l"qJl~p uq 'ilu!",~ =P'O .. ." ",d'q> U! " .. "/~)
'!I."~~ ll</!"1 'q. 'u""",,"oo I"'!'!IOO 1"" "I""" AI"nd '!~l )O II' ~U!'llJ," J"
><P!W ,ql U! '1'''' AIJIUOO o. ><1....1 "'I' ;>:oJ '>l
u' "' .11"1 '>l <>,d.>I>f'
'''''r '"
I"''''w
0,
"q'
0,
'q' ""1..
>.'"'"
0,
"Y'
"-=1"""=
WW'"'
'''''!'.., 'u" IOJ><IW> "'U ",'''' '' S"!""'IIOJ WUlJ ")W '?lduu!,u.><"OJ SU!'"....
"
W>fj"""'1
"'!'o."""
1'1"".",.,..
in Sicily I:>y i"'pc ...1 >gen, .. In

of 7J ' G"1!O'Y kid ...,,,h.t """neil
,",'h"", pronoonccd .n.. hom. Ul"'n .ny.,n. who
henccf<mh dire." "re""'Y<O, d",,,oy. profane .nd bl .. pheme .poinn .hi> ""nat;"n of .... mJ i""'ga,"
M<>s<ngw beating n...... of the council', 1C'li"" W<'K ",n' to c"n,,:mtin"l'l.
bUl iiI:< ,he prc>';"'" "n. ,h.cy were held cap.i,. in Sicily, Propk from .11 0""
It. ly .Iso "5Om wtitings of '"ppli ... ,;"n to ,he p,inces fOt the "<fing up of
;m~" 1:>." ,h .... ''''' wet .. ;>1 by ,he .mpt"'t" hencbmen, On.
'ime.
the Lifo "Y" Grego.y wro<e to the empero <><1 to A......,iw;. No info.m.. i""
i, provided .bou. tbe nu,,,,,,.,. of thi' .tmpt, The mt or the Lifo 4G"l"'7
Ill, .ome th ... _founh. of tk whole, omi .. an)' funhcT men,ion of the "''', the
""",id
w.
''''f'C''''. 0' ",,,,,,,,,!.un,The"l'h ....... nd ,ho l.iht> (>O""fi'''& both ..y ""pli.;,ly ,h .. I'op<:> C"'f;ory
II ,nd Gregory III wro I." .... '" ,h. L", in .".mp" '" pe .... "'d. ,h. empe ... '
.nJ ,he p'"i.rch '0 ch" nge ,h<h \er ..... _IJ "" ;n,,,lu.ble oou","""
if ,hey ,,,,,,i"ed. The oUr.. of II Nic> do indml h"vc. ".nding rig)" .. ,hei,
h...d,
fWO
1<... purponing!O "" mi"ivn flOm Gregory II '" Lro. " SchoLt,1y
"ro;.,.. on ,h ulh.micity of Ih"", klt.n h.... Aip-Aopped """..I ,imes .in

,h. Lt .. "i"CT",,,,h nlUry. Todly. i, 50''''' ",IU, !O ..!mi, ,h"" eve" if ,h .... i,
in ,hem some 'ubm"u m <If 6';gi".1 m.,eri.I, the ,,,,,,;,ing ..... i"n. of G,<il""
'Y" I...."' ... '" t-Jly . ",""min"",J by Lt, .. ,h"..,;"n, ,nd ,,,rpol ..;,,,,. ,ha,
,hey .imply e>n",,' "" u><d. Likewi5O, .h, .I~ 10".. of G"'f;"f)' II '" G ..manU! mw;, be , .." cd .. f"rged ". dpIy con .. min .. ed,"
Th. _ "f Nie><> d" com.. in """'< perfrly genui"" 10"<,, of G<H1UJ1l1l
'0 ,h, Bi,hynian bi'hop.>. John of S~n.da, Tho""", of O.OO;0l"'li... nd ,ha,
'"CrY Con", n,in. ofN .. o/eia whom. numbe, of ,he Ltte ,,>uKe< ......,i.. ed wi,h
I"", Ill ." M,,,op<JI i,.,, John "f Syn.da " ."". 'n C m" .. , ['mh.hly in 7>1> '"
7'7, 'n .< ~ ..!,io; Oil how
hamll. 1I i<l>op Co"".",i.< 'If Nacol.i, who h>d
1>" :ogI.,uing >gli"" ;m>g<>. G.nrumu, wro'< h><k '0 John, fir>' 'o"y ,h", h.
h.d ,1<caJ~ in ..",iowed Con",,,';o< .nd, 5CCOnd, '0 ofk. "'m< f,irly ,,,",,i'K-n,1
,nd 1:.~11 I'"fu."" ",}, <kf<:""" of in,"I!'<", The p"" .. h .... ,,,1 john ,h ..
Con ... mi". Iud . beady ogrccd .o ""'l" ,be ,ndi.ion.ol ,eaching>,nd '0 C<3,.
IICOndali.ing prople, E,idently. ono: h< ~ ''''''1 from.!.e capi"l, Con, ... ",in
... umed hi. "PI"";';O" to ;m>go ,nd ,hi. "1'1"";';"" p,,,mptcd John ', lett ..,
I'un,,,n, '" Joh" '. I.u Ge.m.",,, .,ml"'1 '0 ",'''rc h;.nrchic diocipli""
He wro<' ' 0 c"n.un,ine "f", ,he hemy h.d begun wi,h him ." Ge.m.nu, urged
t"
CO"' .. n'i .... '" [,'''''01 ,hi.lcu.. '" John .<><1 t" ... hmi' '" hi< m.. rol"'li .. n i"
,II ' h in~. G<'",'nui. 1. oJ"'''Y'
Con".",i ... had in,i.<tcd
he hod
nm x,,,,,lIr .. ken "",ion agoi .... inug<:o bu, hod m.",ly poin'ed ou, ",.i[,fUnl
,I..,
,ho,
p.US>gC$ th.t pro/,ibitc.! the wu!lhip of crew:d (hing. Cormm,,; (hre>t<:nC'<.l

,dkv< Con,,,,n,,,,,, of h" olf> if he d i..! n(>C m<nd hi. waY',
(0
Germmus's third ktw U ", Bi!h,'P Th" ..... of CbuJ"'roli . It i. d ..rly

!i"le la"f ,/"n ,h< l<11en '" John .nd Con".",i"..'" . nd it may ~.I thot
"I'f"1",ion '0 im>g<. W. f growing in Bilhyn;', Grrmonu''')"1 m.t he had heud
tu mo" . bout Thorn... nd .h.. . hey .urpri'i! him beau .. ~, bd"Uff had
Thorn....i<ttl q"estiu" bou, im,ges. Ge.m.nu. Iea'ned ,h .. Thom .. was
,.. chin8 [hac if
>epublc In pmhibi, .nd ",,<n dewOJ' im"8<>' Ge[m. ",,,
:ol.w 11 tlut on """unt ,,/" this now t<",hing ,itin md plpl WI:!e b.:ins
thrown intu oonf".",,,. AI." G.",,,,,u. docs nUl n,me ,h.,.. ci,ies or peopl,
does nUl expl,in ,It<i. oonf"''''n. doe> nOt n.me .ny ,ddi,ion"" iconophobe o.
ironocl.a .. bi,hop> . nd docs not pro,ide .ny det. ils .bo", "t... may h>"e been
growing movement.
Th. "",den from Gelm.n,," letten i. ronfi[ml in twO chapte" that
,,..""'"u. addl, e;,I"" hef" .. hi. ,\ep<"k>n or during hi.)'<"I" in <>ile, '0 ,he
In these Getm.1"u. says ,hat.
;cvrn,h-.:c<ltUlY 'mltis< 0" HnnMl ~""
"'""in bi.hop of N.roki . litt l< bitty "'w" in Bi'hy"i.. .-he d..... nu' ..... en
""[her '" n, me him _ lookl on hi, own in,,, ,h< Scrip'u,,,,.nd f"und .niOn,
'0 rcj<'<' [he ,cachinp ~ <I" f.. hefl. " k infl.am~ ,
in ,he church,"' sap
the pa, ri.rch. 'What doe> 'hot mean' ik)."nd the><" twU clup.en~' G" .... n"',
, , hird ch.p''' w>.. added '0 ,he " ..,i.. by an .non)'mm" .,,[ho' wno ' rok
about impt,;'1 and "Aie;'1 fury .Dd p"nilhrncnt<. [OnufCl. and ail". Thi.
clupte, i. ",i.houf doub I"" in.etpol .. ion 50 it! .."imo"y i. wi,hou .,1""
for Grrmanu,', ,-invs o[ time_'" A> in his leuen. Germanul' ddi.io", to On
Hnnu-. ,,"" S" ,<x/< .uggcs. th.. he "'.. ci,k, di"""", or i~"u,.,,1t , o."".",io<
... virruaUy dUmi...,!: Tnom.lS ,u'r,iSl him: .nd ~ [here was. ..... f...
1....... i. 0"" ",he. ronmpo':"y ..,"'ce. [he ,hrtt Qr,.,j,>I1' (or ApoltJtin or
AAdft"fUj1 of St. John of D,ma5CUI Alaim' TIxu. \1"1.0. Atrar.t ,IN Dh';nr /""'l"',"
D .. ing ,h..., to" i, not <..y.'" Th< fi nt 'PPC:O" to have been ... rit",n in ,he
I... 7"''' re.h.po .J,,,,,ly .ft", Juhn got wind "f wh ......, gu;"S un i"
,;nuplc. Th. <ceond " ,.. <1 ... lr ~""." .fie, Get"'"'''"' ~.J boo." dq.o..-..l: ....
af.ot J,nu,ry of 7JO. The fin, . nd o<cond O.a';~", m.y II."" been PICI'.t<:d
. bol11 ,h< .. m< ,ime. ,It< IIOfId being ptc>Cn,I .. ,elarifi"uion of ,h< fi",.
Duing ,f.< ,hird Qr",;on i. <>pi.ll y difficuh_ h ouy h,Y< been w,inon .honly
.f", the othe,.wu '" uId mol': ",.",;:oJ.nd '" c),rify sum, lin"" of "gun,.n"
8m John m. )' ha .. W'titten [he ,hiro in ,t.., 7400 when h< "'" ""'i,ing m. ny of
hi, o:>,li", woth Tit. fin' No'O Ow;"", ,h<tcfurc "k u. [0 ,It< <>.rly da )~ of
iconod.. m.nd the thi[d m.y do '" o r m.~ ron" in ble' minion< by.n
ct.pge</ pony,
w.,
5,'"""."
w"
eo"".,,
~1 ICC [h. ChUlch of GOO . . J;..,,,cr! .. by [he .urgi ~g .... ",-,rwhelming

" wi,h w>y< upon ""'y<. [o..w ,bo", ,nd ""ubll by ,h. grievous , .... ul!
..,f wicked 'Pi,it<. nd Ch riST', tuni" W<W<'fl from "'P to OO<lOm. ren[. whi.h
the child", n of the ungodly ru"" artog..ntly ",usht to divide. and hi. body CUt
tu pie<.. which i. the p>pl. of God . nd the [~i.ion of ,he chufch:' >or>
John." He go<> on [0 y . Iu[ """mpdll '" .p<>k by, r." [h .. "',,"Of he
oome. I Iu,.. oom< fo.w:",1 .. . ro. [h. or><;Ula. p>noun<tm<n" of. king (1Wv
flo.<AA>W>v . Oe",..nl'6.t(~v) =n:i.. terro. 0 .... ' hiJ .ubj<cIS."" On other
OXQ>ion> John ~ aplicitl~ .., o. about leo. "It ;, DQt foremp<m1S to Iogiobte
,I>< <h,,<eh:~' John uk; 'hetorially. "Ar<;)"Ou ".,... goin~ ." ... rite the Co.pd
><cording 10 leo"'''' John nuk .. "" m.nnon of penon. who inRuc<><t<l '" coIbb0 .. ,1 wj. h .1>< ""1"'ro . John """,k> ClCpli<;dy only of Getn""u", trnubk:s,
"And "" ... [he bbscd Ge"""nu .... dian' in hi> lill: ..,d hi, words. i> Aogg!
and .<ent in .., "",I . nd nuny <>tn.-, b~ .nd r.the ... whusc n....... "'" do
no. lnuw:'" John addmkS h, ....df ,,, "the p>pk of GOO"" but docs not .eli
u, where o. when ,hoopk werc g.. her!. John WU , m<>nk " S" S,h.
"""ide J<TUW-m '" hi. w.i[ing>. like ,hoi< of ,he pop<>. indi"" . [hi, new, of
1.co, "",Wh' .ptc>d quite "idely, .,,01 f.idy q"ielly if.he ~ ... two o.~.iMs ar<
(0 h< .t.,<J .."",..! 7}o. W'h.o,. ",,,,,Iy. did Jul,,' ~nd ooj<ion>.lole------o.l'.n h om
impe.i.1 intfer<nce in <Iown'~ In '''''' pi..:.: Juhn
,hat "For cm.in h.Y<"
[iscn up. "yi,,!; [h .. it" no. nemf)' 10 make im.ga."" In a['OTh" phc<.
John off... ,h. intriguing fCm .. k thaI " Bu[ thrn they .. y ' nuke .n i"",go: <
Chris,.nd of~i, Mo,~er who V"" bi~ to> God, .nd I.. ,h.. suffice. .... John
dw"" to intetprct the I...., tcm.tk ... n .. tick on the rult of ..in".
rot
>0,..
le, u, gather in the banest flm th<l<" ,mall fiddi of <vidence. Our .im i.t to
an,we. [hi , qu=;on: Who, Iup1"'DI~ In ,bo", 7>\ or 7.6 E.rn1""or leo JI[
~ to ~t.te 'I\",n" iron~ Schol.r> h.v. debatl fur ~r> whethe, Of no.
1.." isoued f" ,m. 1 ~tivc doc=
icons." I do not bdKvc rru,. ~.
Jid. Th. ",,,,,:co"y he """pounded hi' v;"'~,"
he "'poke ,".nd Thcoph.nes a n find no be"" word .han """,. which i> no "",rd .. >.II fo law.
P-'I"I 'o" tCCS ....A of orde ..... nd of "d=" b", do 50 in ,he midst of.
rather oompli,,"<J aero,,", of im1""w m<mp" '0 co1'" wi[~ open reb<lIioo in
h. ly. No bter . mpero..... '<Kind'" d'C by Lro ,nd "" t. .... hurch
co"neil .,r.:.. unamb's,,(>u.ly "",h. tkc"", an.th.m ..;"" ... eh. dec .... , o r
demand, ,he ... mo ....1 of .uch. <1 ..... The lik"'io~ of 7JO W>.'! not .Iegisl..;,..
.i""
'0
.Iu,
11)'1""'''' 100",,<1...,
19
....,mbly, The ufo ofSuphm ,,,- Yon&" may impl)' thot (A)nsuntine V lo...
,un>! ,I'e ,;~"riM in,,, > !cg;,lu;.., """i(>n bu. i. w no. .h ;n Leo', .;m....
1n. m1ing that <kpo.cd Cernlan", .... , ro"",I, .. ion among roIIn; .... I.."
,he be no m i,,~k< .,,,u, i" Lro HI Jecitll r" """"'" ;n"g<>, G~ry II.
Gu-gory TIl. Jot,... of D. mo><u,. NiphOfll> . nd Th""ph." .. pbce It.., hi,,,".
"IU. My on Lro
W . . Leo in<;,1 [0 "k< "".i"n? [) id h. "ir up movement? G"nunu<.
displa)'ing , dil<rrtion <ntird~ 'pp""," '" ." the m.n who held , high .... d
sen.i,i" office. shifted ,he bl.me '" Con"'nti". of N.rol.i>. A cen,ury .nd
h.lf I.. er the SpodUun V"", tq>C"A<cd the ace"""i, .. , "g,in"
Ger .... n" ... correspond.n v<al. IUJp<!$r.nd di ....ppointmen' ,h,t Thorn.,
of CI.udiopoli. h.d g"'" over t" ,I.< hert,icr.. but that .. me ChrTe>t",nd,n
demon""",. th .. [he impomO! mClmpoli"n john "f S)'rud:r. main .. ined the
....:!it;.,"'1 f.i,h in iron . " In [he capit>.l. Germanu" "'Pla<cmen'. the Patri. ",h
A.... , .. i", t<imml hi ... ii,
tl.< 'mperial wind . S,ill, h. 'ool !:>road,;d..
nom ioonophil. wri' .... ror rtplacing the V<tro c..man",. no, fOr .ny .!'t<ific.
n.med ''';!, or rcaching> >gaio" im.ges. Germ.nm w,. ",I.",cd fur, perh.ps.
fuur. Ii... ,i~ yea .... quietly dcpoocd . nd pe,mi"cd...i<lendr." ho"""bIt
ret;rtmenl. The wtiN ;toria .oout
J<wilh wiz..ld. Caliph Yaid, .nd .he
m)~w;"u, I\ostr.,.., ,n Ia, .... [,h,1I h,,, <><ei"n to .. ""n '0 thenL For now.
let it he said only that thoy rq> ..... nt. ,,', .n ' ((eOlp' to "tu... d.. image
qU1r ..I, wi[hin [ho con .." of ,h. old Ch,in;'n .,Jowi.h deh.... km.",s of
which came up in Ch.ptot t) .nd ror><! n .ffort '0 C'><culp'" ,h. ",ling h""se
... time when a I.." member of ,h.t hou>c ..... ing in defcn>< of rtligiou.
i""g<>. None of [hi, lUgg<''' mOKh of 3 mo .. men!.
\1('hat kind< of wion did Leo ..ltd Ex.oly One deI,tO)...! mug< is men
tioned .nywh.,.: In. im.g< of Ch,i..- 0'''' .h. Bn::m'" Glf. of [h. impe,;,1
1"1"". Th. dc,;.ruction of th .. im'g< by ..,Idie... in 716 i, "'LUll)' I<'<n . , ,h.
in<<p<ion of iconoclasm in O<1ion. Bu. [he vivid ><:<n< .... y " ..II be [he I" "
lite"If tepracn .. ,ion of. J>Olemica l lcj;cr.d." Th, i., i, m.y nCVff have hoprc....J. '" i, ""y h.... h'I'I><nl d iffi:,~", ly ,h", I,,~, w,i .... d.imo.t . Th",~
ph,n .. >CeOu,", of L'. 'I~ dc,t<ue,ion of ,hi, in"1;< i, tloe f.mili .. o"e.
bu. it i. "'" .he fit ... The Lift o[S" Sp"-~ 11K y",,"t'T. ...-.,,1 )'"'' older than
Throph.ncs Clm>~;d~. tdb of
dcsu uct;"n of ,he image but pl.. it in the
time of P...ucch ....... "";u . [hi[ i,. aha ]JoY No sou,<. ><"",d, 10)' promi.
ncn '" ,hi. im.g. in ,he .i&I\l1> ,n."ry." and >!temp" by I.ter write ... to
fTC... . """,.. ble P' " for ,he image ar.. ,uifu..d wi[h legend. Germ, nu., in his
Th" ...... does mcn,ion ,n im"$< on ,h. f""" of ,ho 1"'1><:<:. but i, i,
n", ,hc f.mou, Ch,;" im>g<, Son,.,i"", bot""," 710 and .buu, 7'9 Leu himself
o.,,,,.,,,;n.
,0
,h.
,h.
I."" '0
60
C H . . . . . T"O
...r
~.d pIw:d an im_1\<

>f'O>.ks .nd p,oph<tS "in front of ,I.e impet;') p>!.rc ....
Th;' "",emen' is '<V<"aling. It .hows .h.. I.ro ..... not .1 .... ,.. .n H:onoplwbo:
. nd .hot. r<,h,p< . h.rt w<f< i",>f!C' ' hot I>< ..... prel"tc<l ", ",Iel>. Maybe ~e
"",,14nnl with ,ndi,i<:KL>l practia;, 14, a whil< ~n.il.h<y btpn '0 offend him.
In .0'1 .cc",on, ,h" ;; aI"""" h)~,<.iaI. , I>< Uk 1'9nliJi(~1is
Qf imagc>
.peak.
bo:ing ga,hem:l ~p .nd burned in C m """,inopl . Bu, ,his .... m.nt l.d. rot
rob"..... io" . nd i[ i> lurd [0 bel""" [ru.[ , I>< irotw)philro """,Id Iu"" o'"<,looked
such on opponunity [0 unear Leo. The point i. qui impl<: It i> iml"""ibk '"
n.u ne -.i,h c<rtainty 0 _rk of on dntroyl by I.ro '" dn,roycd in hi> ,iln<. Tht
o.igin ..", of ironodum mor hoy. """,, no n\<,r< .h." >I, . .d,", H:oMph""".
Thtophon .. k...,.... of pc........"iO<1.' b u. '1'''' from .h. hbtr 1'.~uji4'~-,.
OJn,.m"" ..,.,. ....
do no,. Grrm,n ..... ill hi' l<ttrt< .nd in tho ch.p"" b,
.d<.kd [0 Q" H""in ,,"" S~. m.kes no men, ion of (eUow . ufl<:r<rs. John of
D,nuscu . ..pile doc< no, how h..,... "'~ny poople m.y ru.ve sulfttc<l. S,tpfJen,
biogr:ophtr .nd Throplun ... w'iting long . n [h, <vtn .. [hey d""'til,...", CKa<f
';';,1 piC(u"" of ,he mob in Conmntinopk- .ntI
"""Ka''''e,,' by ,he
wkli.tS who <uppodly took down ,h. Chalki i""'g<. For ,h. lou ... 'he le..den
.n "",men. 10, ,he IOrmer. ,he ,,,,,lled...1.Ii,. of , I>< ,if)'. II", <>the, ..,..",,,,. do
""' rick ur ,hi> ""I} "d. gi.... n Ih. colorful hi!!o..,. of the Conltan,inorotin"
popo!.ce. i, i> Iu,d.o im>gine that .ignil>arnt incident> of POl'o!., in.u,r<etion
<$C>pcd .h< nOli of ~1I bu'!WI) w,il<l'I. Sur<1y [h. ironophil", ""uIJ ru. ... Iud
CV<'I' ,<oW"
.hou, f,om 'he
.bout 'he popou, dcfcruc of imagc=s.
No "'~fC< n."'''' namd.~' 10. ,I>< .t..dowy Thcod. .. i . We h"", of "iJ.,."
,"=
,1.6,
"""'"<>P'
'0
bu, OIn only addu (""'no .." ... .. on o;.",ple.

Krun,i.., ;';onocl"m go< off "'. <k<;;dedly ,,,,,",.. , .ntI muller "." .ru.n
.h. omal acCOlln" """,Id hd on< to bel""". All , 10.< oc,ioo> nll'" be pocked into
,he)tll> bnwc<:n 71\ .nJ 7)O ntI if .he,~ i n)"lhing .. all.o ,h. <:<)M:,ion
1,, Kd into ,h. ye." . fttr 717 0' 7,8. Following hi' ,i/rn,um of
~.. Iy 730. I..." lOok no ".her 'Clion ~i ..., inges .. f........ know. He died
in 74' .nd ,II< empit< WD d;!lurbed for. ,i me by civil "'ifc. EV<n.U>.lIy. Leo.
",n o,,,,,.,,,i, .. V <ccu ....
,hm"e. AltI""..gh hin"f)' w",,1d ,na.k him do ..'"
.. the .rch.iconod ..,. I>< ,ook no kn<>w" oction. agai .... i""lP bcfot< ,II< lot<
7......... ,I>< <>,1 ..... I" -",,,,,,,k,n,. J"h., of 1>.0'1"""" I'""WJeo no I,in, of new
"'"""d..,ic compoig-,,> in hi, ,hird
,ru., peth.ps do,es fron> ,h.
HOS. In R<,m< .he ""'" ccn yeor ""n,incol< of b<h.<y 17~J-\1) is ",!.,ed in 0
dc .. ilcd vi.. ru., ronni ... noc on. wo.d .bout on im>g< cnn.tOVe ..y_The pop<
ditl enter in,o ' .... io". of 50"'" 50" wi, h Con".n,i". V ."d """,i.-r<! from ,h.
I.""
o."lic., ,n;,
.....1"'_ [~,in of "'" ....... un. R.omt." All of [hit ".nd.........rp te

min<krth>[ llyun[i...,konacl .. m OI~ ...... .,,~ic.
contin-,>.
"'"
Byzantine k onod ", Under ConMan[ine V
Mm Auny of ....ill dnou",i1rioru of 1...0 III , ,ht ........ lIyun.i .... ch"",iekn.
Nicc-phoNs and ThtopIwI<>, co...., thri. _nU fQn,,-.rd"'" nuny Y""" "';,b
no men'''''' .. all of any con, ............ mating '0 illUfP- II ~ Ix-m rcnurl.t.;l
only .bo.n 10 p<ran[ of ,hoc ..,. .. '''''' .. ,lor inus< con"""....,..,. T"....
.... chronickn fOC"f\"< ,hei ....."... fo.cu..nd ..... ,... pro"'"
P''''V'
de>1;~ " .. ,b ie_bun, but ,bit '[m o.nd ha, a,,_ II< .~ 10 obocu",
m. fxt rIu. in reali.,.. tclfdcd ......... ";'[n, /fum dllputd "'-c- icon...... e
f.... . nd fat be .....ftn. n.. ......" of eo.,....",i ... V iH'-7!) ill ...... ,.. ,his
darty. "
,1Ia,
""'i,
rae,
m' eo.....
The ..,.,."..
nrin... ,.i5" n<.m\ i" qu,",i,y . nd quality 'h"", for [h.
,.ilV' " f hi' f.tI,e[. but they Of< no.we. ", i"..,I"'" I" oJJi,;m' to t!.t hi" ... ,;
on, Niccpho"" and Thooph.."",. th".. ''''It;...'' and .. .....;0 ..in,', lif... <01>'
nin i",I"'''' ''' info.ma[;"'n. \I;'h;o, i. ''''''0. ",,"'. f,..W',on" of Con ... ",; ".',
own W';';llS'' ' ""vi", .. do t!.t 1Nr.s.nd ,h n.,!.tlna from. ",.1 jot church
council !.tId unde, ,h.
xgi' in 7,..' Ii"'" hut",i.rn of Con,"nti",,',
",jp> it V',.li..l ,.,.. ro",,,,,,,i .... b"nd._ 01 ", ... ri.1. .he i. "<"'"Cnhdo.
,,)mi<d in ......".mp" '" .. ih t""the ~'" " ..",i, nd
WOfk "'"
d<t.;kd chror.olot;l-'.
"The vny IOn ofeon ... n,i",,,
by." .n<mp,I coup
''''1'''''''''
,0
"'.gn .... ,,,,.,hitd
d'k"
br A".I.-... 0"
uk! """'po,,;"" in .......... 1.... m who Iud t...,n ,.,..
...,dtd,.,.. hit Ioy.dty and...,.,.t ""0" wi,h high office..nd <"'"Cn ...itt. tho h;ond
of one of ,he anp<1"O'"', dough, .... Nk~ ns....!y implico Wt Amh .......
rnrorrd i .............ile- n-pha.... '""YO 'h>' the pn>pI< ""'l"1 tho ~bo
...... p<rnt rrtciody boouc: ~h. """ onhodox.mel. dckndor of d'" di ... nc doc
"i... : lndoed .~'" rnrorrd ,.,. holy orort> ,h.......,....,..! tht city ....... arl ... >ehoI.
1fI. _h ... o.."'B"'>ky, -... ,nclined '0 ..xq>t of... h;""rUn,' ...... of
Aoubosdoo," bu, i, _
""'"" lik...,. th.!, ,tq " ......."'1 Itg<n<b. <ng;agnl in
;'won,ion. or p.>....J ...... C .. un"'b!.t;.nt .. tl iconoptIik ....... y..... 6t
as;,
,t...,
""'y. [b<f~ i, no >:U[~ ""id<n [It" Co"." .."in< V oncoun ..red 0' p"''''p,ed
a di'I""~ ,,'<. i",.g<S >f the OUtkt of hi' reign,
In hi, >:oun, of ,he ~.. 745- 41> Th>ph.n.s """,,,. an ea"h~ ... k< in
P.lesli". jord.n, and S)',ia as .... 11 .. ~ pbS"< ,h., ...ached ,,,," B,lb", from
Sicily . nd G.lobri:o. Oddl)', h< ")" II... [hc.t di ... , ... '"= ",incd "'" flHY" 01
Con".",i"" >g>;n., leon, .nd ,h. church ..... Thi, .. CI";OU' for ,wo ,..""'..
~i ..... ;, .... ".I,l . pf'<'>' '" be"
of <I,. even" of 716-'7 wh<n. ,'olcanie
<rup,ion incited [.ro', w"uh >g>in" inug<1 s.cond. it con,Ddin, Nicrphoru.
who
th.ot the calomi'ics of 7~6- 47 provoled an otw:k on inuga." On
"!pin. i, occnu [Iu" yea .. I..." p>pk .:lid no' =1Iy how wI", h>tllul'P<"ncd
. nd thot they 1',It"hed ",!!",h.. hi.. ano:l piocts of v:nioIU StOtic$. $(1m< 01 which
..... ). Iu,,< ~ .,,[he"'ic mmpon<nlS. Sp~. fur =rnpl<, [hini<> ,Iu[ ,f[cr ,ho
nnhqu. kc . nd pc;ti1<1>C< CoM"n,in< nuy .<tu.Uy have begun removing im
>sa from ,he areas in chuI<1w:s ""ar [ho . Iw wh .... [hey miglo. I>:t ... been
dimx,ion fro m ,he cuelu. i"ic linHID'," "flu, is. d",, gu .... bm i, is no m"",
,h,n .h.u.
Whhcr '>f nm Con,..",;n. ,,~, k .nr "",ion in obo." 746 . ,he fi .... hin<.
of . nti.i .... go:: kli.i".. COm< fro m the tiln< iw.t bcfof< tho Council of Hi...... in
75.. , 11,<.< i. ""id, " . (lU[ jl> n,<",i"8 i, ""Y'hinS b~, <Int. P<fh.p. i, '<>ok
Cunmnt'''c It" 0' , .....1... )"0>." tu o.kvdup hi.
iconophobic. and rvcn
iG<>noclasric. f'<Iin, of ";cw. Plup>. in view of ci.il in>UIT'Iinn'. nat ur.1 disas
rer>. opportuni\li. camf"'igru >g>inst th< M~ im ' .. the Um .~ Caliplutc
cl">Ckd '1'''' bctwc<n 748 .~d 7\0. close w><ch on ,h iw>ys d:tnS"",,,.
fulk.m frontier . nd m.jor fin.no.1 fom... Const. ntine ;;mply did not pm
;m.!", ., ,hc 'OJ> of hi, ...... ki"f; ~nd . If ,hi, .... pl"""j"" i, ,.. liJ. ,hen it
h'!;hli!;h" the d<gltt to " ,I.id> icon<><h>m ""as .n dcm<nt of . nd not the d ri.ing
f,,<cc beh,nd <lrvcl""",."" .t (lyun,ium in the eighth cmrury. As W'< h,,'<
n<i,h" Conocam;ni. own .;....,. no, ,he .i....,. of '''r<>n< symf"',hcric '0 him .
W'< al'< rcdu<l ro ,casoned .puution.
1.., "u,i,. API;"" o,,,,un';"" <oys .h" . f,ct_i",",,,,li,,dy! me'dy ..
""". ,;n .. j~-ho came '"
.hlOn. ,he ''''pcro... nt au, "t co:Iict '0 tho
I'"",i,,,,.. ""dc, hi, ""h"ri.,. th" h<>\y image> ...ac t<> be <k'If"yco:I." The
oj,,,, Old M." (Nou,h""ia) sa)"' [lUI Cun,un[inc ~, QUI .. m....,nge .. of his cn.d,y"'" The 1_1' 4 S<q>hm
,hot Con".",i", got,htteJ the
peopl nd mod. tf.<.m ....<"Of nO, to ....... hip images and goo On ro .. y ,hal
m"""SC' ""'I'< s<m ,,,.11 pro"ine<> to mmmon official, .nd bishop< to. """n
,ii " Thoophanes ""i,es diocon!a", li"ny "f charges, H. "p ,he cmpcn"
d<>"i ...d mc .. u...... . ""~. ,ihtio~. pfOp.1t;.lndiud tho puhli . nd PI'<1'"ed
fi." 'compl". impi"y ," " NiC<'l'h",,,...,.. C.",,,~n, i"< "Nified bi'hup< "'ith
,,,,,.rs.l
<a,..
m'"''''
.h,
Ali""".,.,,,,,,
<a,..
ct..in" pri"m', .hmlS, .nJ innum ... bk o.h .. horrible ",:>.m.n"," tx.. h.
doc. no. n. m 'ing\< ",,<on .hu. l<IIOri....!, 10d no on< 01 "'" did .i.hCT."
RCTUming to .h. AtbMnilion. ilS mo>< im.res.ing <.ion con,i,,, of. ddu.,e
brrwn lh. oIJrrly Grorg< of Cypru' .nd an imp<t;'J ag.n. n.mrJ Co>ma'
cooo""ed., . 'Ynod eall.-.l by ,hi. Co.m. Th...'" m.y '" rnd .. imrl)'ing
,h>, .uch di'pu,.,iofl< W.I< common., d,,>u' ,hi< ,im<. Co.trulJI . 1", refct. ",
,he edi.". oomm.nd . 00 word, of ,h m",,,,r. " Th ... edict> rn.) rd. ",
.h. convrn;ng of th. couocil. .o.ho ptop>gond. v.surly m.ntioned by Throph>n. 0' .n .ctual ",onod.. m. S'oph.n. biogr.phr. ><em. '0 ",~, wi,h ,&,.
'n"'0 ,hi, pre-HiCT.i. p<, iod. ,h>. iougn wel< ..... roy<"d 10d whitened 0'"<"'"
A, II Ni""". r a,,;',ct. T.... iu. >oK! ,h>, ,h. Council of Hi<t,;. found.1I ,hr
im:ogc> des,royed ." Thi, i, a hug< '''''~''Oon hu, m.y refe, a<X" ..,dy ..,m,
icon<)Clas,i. ac,ivity l>efO ... 7H.
If w, . pply. bi, of in'>gin.,i," punk solv ing In ,he.. " ' ''nl<n", wt COn
..., ,h., ",riow I.,.. write" ,II had 1""" of ,hr ..."" ..oty. TI... >loty I\""'"
..... n<thing lik hi . Con"'n,in . J'<,h.ps in 7\1 0' 7j), J<cidcd It, call . ch urch
"""neil 10 <.1..1wi,h ,h. i"'ag<" q"..,ion , H. m.~ h. ,.. , .... ,ed ,h. 1"'1''')''' of
,h. copi,.1 In h>nngu.. on ,h...,hj:1. H. nu r h, ..... n, ,,, .. ,.-.I agen"
'hroughout hi< .rupi ... '0 whip up ,uppon , Som. W<}tk. of ... may h.v< bn
rem"""l. '" d.",,,eJ <0 ,h>, ,hey could no, be ,",ucheJ ,,' li>Sed. ," ""hi.ewo;hed_ Such >ction. ddini,dy ""uned in ,he 760 . nd ""< con"", be con~.
J.n. ,h., I.... ""ri" JHl no, "ttojct, ~.n " fi-om .h>. <.kcaJ. """ .h. p....;.,u.
one. If .ny individu.l ult<m:I p<""""lIy, wo helf n"'hing .bout it_ 1.10" lihly
Con." mi"" pu, hi. bi.nop o wo,k collecting ,n. .O!!. ,h>, """,. ci,ed .. Hi,,
ci._ A, ;om. poin, du'ing ,h"" yeo ..... Consta",i". wrote hi. Ih,m. hi. '""u;,
in. In <>.rI~ Fcbru.uy of 7j4 .h mpr"" conv.oetl. council of ,,8 bi.hop .
I.~,II ,u,n '" ,~. ,hco~caI.'l>'''n.'''' uIf.m:I., Hi .... ;, ,,, . 1.1<' ""i"n
"f , hi. ch.p,et. Fo. now i, .~flic
say .1... for ,hc ~f''' ,im ho" . ro
'),>'clIU,ic, ""h.... n' pr=m"Oon of ,h. COS< for opposing fig".,1 rdigiou n.
11l< JJ8 hi.hop. p""""'" ,h. """,,,,,.'" ""ny m" .. d"," ,h_ who .... n.kJ
.he Trullan Council 10d dx>u, ,he same numhr, .. ,ho>< who would mend 11
Nictea in )11 7. 1.<0 III .00 G.n .... n,in. V Iud Iud many )=" '0 ' proin,
bi.hops f.,,'oubl. '0 .h';, cou ... Th..... mbled bi.hop hould nm hr oe<n ..
imp<ti.ollackql tx., in"ead .. meo who Iud m,<.I. ,h.i, own ,h. ct.urch', loog
unding un . .. ina> abou, ,eligion n. Thel< i. 00 ~idcnce fo, viol.nce 0'
,h .... ,,_ Th. hi.hops ,inc<<<ly >ow <I"""Iv<." ... nding """hin ,h. <h urd',
go-'" ..adi,ion, . nd 'h<)l called .hei, council.hr v<n.h.o put i. ~'mly wi.hin
,b. lin. of ,h. fi", .i, <cu,nenieol council<. Th h.ir vi"," did nm prevoil in
,0
'0
Lo." tim .. ........J mo.. '" m>n&ins ~i"oriaJ <i~ tIun '" any n'
,riciry ,,( ,he ugumtn .. odv.nc:nl in 714.
The counc~
rook finn "<po "&Ii,.., ,dip..... >I, and it> p~ ...
Thc
"r .i it,.,. pt'I>"id< ,he ~DI cuncn:t< ."d offici.oI ~ for >n
icon
in ,lit 8Y"'n.il'l< 10m",,,,. 'n.. council named .00 .,..,....... Wn1
n.o<dy.1u ironophilc k~ Garnon .... ,lit pa,r\:udI <kpooed in no; jolon
of o.m-m. _ ....... 01 , hm: 0 . _ in dcfCm< t>f imag:>; and Gc<>tg.: t>f
'*""
""",ro.
.uo
Cypnu. m. kty fip'''' .n m. AJMniril ..." 1ftio io no! a ""'C'hy I;" of iwnopIo.
Ok.,,<min of m. ~ ",." ,he council obo ..ld
dccn:t: OA;lJl;'
m<KISIy ... tha, C"'a)" icon .....x of any""""" and of"", ki..d of g:>udi_ of
a>Ioun by pain ........ objta~, :aI~n , and """"""n, '" m. Chord> t>f!he
ChM .......... This dm: doa "'" all bplicidl
,ho dauuction of ico ....
" He ,,'00 fium now
yo ,he counal.
i'"
nuh an icon. or k>
.-. ..."', .-, or to "" one up in. ehllf"Ch or in. pn... .. bornt, of to hide on<.
if biIDop. prc>byt ... or <10(.,.,. Itt ~im b< un&odted; if monk or Lorman, I..
him ho . n.. hem.. W;d and ,ubj' '0 ,ho fOpi Lo_ ... n "PI"",e", 01 d><:
comm ..d ..... "" of God ,..d ' n .... my .,( ,I>< doctri .... of ,he F. d><: ... " Tn ..
po .. ion of ,he docrc< .... m. ' 0 V"" ..on of . mll<$ly '" penon. and lC.ioru. of
<he p"': "frum "".. on."' N.... phoJ ... I. ' ....iIl d..., <hey ..... down. prod..".
,ion of ,he deo.,,,,,,ion of ,he holy ko",:' bu Iu, &0<> beyond wh:o, ,h at
""'w.llr "yo." Then. in.n '''''''p' '" p,ov'n' ' he kinJ of ,.."d. li.m ,Iu, migh,
W.
ro.
M
.,..... '0
"n:' ..
Iu,'. follo ... rd f"'tn .. ta.i" ..., I in ob,.crving in dic,", ... , h. oounc,l fuf bod.
,he .lte.. ,"'" of oacrtd "",,,II 1.... '-'<:il,. 0' "..,,,,.. ,, wi,hou, 'he bl"'.,;cJ
.pp>v>1 of ,he patrio h .nJ ,h< empcto' . Mo...,..e" ,ho council /O,1<k I.y.
tnen ,,, 1"" ,,,",i.
Tni.lurdlr look> like ,he grimly d....
minN
of religiou . . ... r.d ' hc mtte,l ... pcn<:C<>';"" of ...', dcvor<e<
tha, irortOdul< SOUreft .nd nl(>d(rn
u.w.l1r port .. y. ~or ocycroi J'C'''
Hi ..... ,h. -"",tea >gain Dli ,ilm".part ffOm. bfid" f<nurk in
viu
of r.ul II (71'7-67) in ,t.. UM 1''''';fiuJ;. '0 ,he off, ,I... ,he pop< badg<mJ
h.oo .,., m",chu"
dot."",,,,,,
w,i,."
.ft.,
m. emp<tof '" "".<>: d.. ,......"'.ion of irno~....."
m.
~'. Iu,' boolutdy DO .... i-
.bou, ,h. impiem,,"u,,,,,, of Hit,.,., drco in 'h< .nc.m.oJ. of m.
mony
council.
Dwinr; ,he 7&:00 CtoruWl,i... V ,ool"""roI "<pi >pi .... indioidw.l """,It> ..d
opi ..., ,he ....,......;,:
in gmtul. t.., ... iconod .... ..,;.... in'pmal ......
....""" in COdIlt_ ... oJ. Conlul''';'''''' >n,i-;m. . policy and ,h .."um.,{ 'h>,
om..
policy intu onc ott<n<kd br ctU<:ll'<fS<CU,i",,,, In f2<', Conmn""c', h."hn..,

in ,I>< 760s ..., inde<d d,r=oo "&,i",, "",,,.,,k;,,,, ."d .t..:. .gai..... pc<:>plc
who had .ng;o.gro in on .".mp'od """I'. Bu, ,It ...
'u ~
h<-<n u"",n"",'oo w"h ..ch ",h.... nd n",II<, ~d .n) d<monm-.bl. ronn"'_
.ion w;,h ,II< ddt .... ofi .... gn.
Monb h.d bcao",.
,d, I",,,non.,,, i" ,Iv: Bru",i". """Id ,;n: ,h.
><ven,h c<n'u,)". Brun,ium 2<knowlodgcd nin.ty n...... ints bctwc<n the ....
emh ,.. mmy..,d '4H .nd <>f ,heo< ",,'cnry_fiv. """e mnnb. Between 701 . nd
"0+ fi:>tty-fi", of filty-$<V<n p>""",,h. wt:1'< monb. In ]00 :os much on._
,hird of .1I1.nd ,n ,h mpi ... w .! ,n ,h. lund, of ""o...,,,rio. Co"''''1)" ,uold.t
vi ..... ,Iu, monl, tended tu bc I,,,...,, ct... a"d u" ..h""ted, ,hc i"'<'1,n"O(ion
prcv:oiling ,,,.1.1' i, th.. tht), came f",m ,II ><>ci.1 d.S$<> onJ th .. th.i, in.1 of
culm'c ..... , imp'..,i"" ,,,,1 imp'w;"s. I" , "",.Id ,Iu, I'><e<loxl )'O" "S me" fo'
,h. armies and ulcmoxl men for ,II< c()Un. mo"",ic;'m WU on b)' Comumin.
:OS. d",in on ,he <em,. 1 human ' .... ur= of the '"!C.''' Con".",ine WU nO'
himl<lf oppo><d
mon."iei.m in principle. He " .. , a );1<'1' p>"'>o of .h.
mon ..,cty uf S,. Amhmia and II< n.moxl "n. of hi. d.ugh " .~ of ,hat
ho ..... In 771 I..,., IV . ppoime.J "","'0",1 n'guu,=n. '0 b'.h"",;", ... p,omin.",
monb ""'to ><ill "uunJ th.n, .nd the huS' numbct of monb octi", " II Ni"""
fKO"" ,Iu, ,he ",d., w.:t. nOf cr::tdic.,ed. Co",um;n< n,i_mo"",,;c polK)- .....
fucuu:J. P'W" ic. nd ,""i,u.ion.l,"
n.., policy
10" risen in .10. yea .... f,., Hie ... i., if NittphotuS',
no ..... 'oa-pf<:ci. >OO'J("" an he ndo m yidd h,r<l inf",m"ion . H... yo ,h.
holy ~mc", of monb w;u lawle>oly pe".ru,ed and 'h<< who wi,hed !O
"ding '0 ,heir tuhi," 0' who "<>pp<.I ,he ~nh"ly dQ<;!,inc o( 'ho>< mcn" werc
,ubjec,ed to ,onurt: and oU' '''gc, P...... n' could <Seape >uch ill "e"men' onlr
br I"",;ng off ,lI<i, mon ..,ic. g:..t. ""d acc,,!,<l. ", K.lybi.es in 76,. Throph ........ Y' o( An.hew only ,~ .. "10. had proved ~i. 10",,,.n.i,,,,,1 impirty
.nd ""lied him. ormnJ V.I,m .nJ , >rC<.,.J Juli ... :" Th"", ~h.'1I'" ro~ld. ,,(
cou. l< ....
'hc rouncil of 7H u, tt..y could I"'ruin tt> til< h. t:u;mcn, of
monk.;n g<ncr.J. Aoo.n And,ew h,modf .booIUld~ nothing i, known.. Tb..,.
ph,,,,,, ,w"p' him up in hi, gen ....1 eundem n"iun of e""".n ,;n<. "",;on. in
,he 760> In
h." ...., .." , .h.", i, no unin>peocluhle ..id.n", for h""il;ty
to monk. 0. to mon",ici,m hctwc<n 7~' .nd 766.
Th. mos, f,m", .. victim o( ,he .lIeged mo",,,i, I'<"," "iun or 'he ; 600 i,
S.. plv:" ,h. YuunSCt Hi, .';'4 .... ,;"." ,nu,. ,lun f"n, ,..,." 10,., und., &cl'ly
iooMphik i<tftu.nc. ;" ,ruei.1 but pfohl.,,,,,.;, IOu"' . It "')1 ,lut S,eph'n
ph.""",.". 'Pi><'"
i",,,,...
'0
_m' '"
1.,. '0
",.Ii,)"
"
<" .....
""0
and h .. f.mily lIN eoruta"ti...",.. in ,he 'i .... of l.oo III .nd xnk.. Ewidondy 8nhynu .......... all i"'l"""'ibit plao<
icooophib dnf>i CO,....",i .... of Na.roku. and. ~ ....... of hi> opiocopal
coIltaguco. So<pl><tr bca..,.. n'I<InI< on M,_ A..utll .... " ....... ,ho" .... nrions
eon ...".in" de"'uaion of i"'4'" . nd ..... O><!ncrl of 1M. Mony nKKtb'P!",.n,ly ,hoy "'<'" .bIt '" ".veI q .. fr<dy-"""" '0 5,.phon f",
,~ .... ttl him if ,h.,... wc'" .ny oaf. pt.::... . nd ho .. "ltd off.n imp'''';.'
Ii" du, d...,ri.... <>I<",... tly ,he fton'i .... of ,h. <"'pi ... p,""",. in 0' ....
whco< ,he i"'I'"''''1 w,i. did no! run. The .ml'"rof ,hor" .. n, . n i,npo'''''' nohl .
man '0 M,. Au ..."i ... II' gn S.<ph<n I<> , ill" ,h yn<><W A"A, Srrphon flUcl
.nd ...... pbced under t.ou ut"" bu, f .."j ....... k w., booo .... ~ broke au,
"';,h ,he Scy.h"n.~ 'The <"'1'"",,', minioru !\OW "ied ........ ,,,,,,Oc. n..y
indllCl monk n.amrd s.rg; ... '0 ciKtJ.l.a .. oil -.. of ........'" "oriel. abou,
S,tp/Ion. In,unrin",. [....... oriel. tu.d to do> "';,h ... ....,J impropnnic:o. not
with dmncl.nl ..... diopbyinl inuges- "The imp<tial ..... did cliscoooot ,hOI noobIc
...,.,...,. ..... ~i", rhrj. Know Ii ... to 1"01...... S,."....,. and ,hi> conduct
otnnl '" ..... powItd of... u[horirin. T ho
,hm drJl".d><d
to S.tpho'n. and th< <&in, icJ ", ........." tu",. "" aoopn-.. <.:I <"'I'""" ,hen
'""'.g,1S.<pio<n ,,, ,t.. ~itol, ~hr ... he _ k<pt uncle. t....- ......J . Hi, hiowrorher ")~
ho ktpt inuga in hi. COfl~ ..."",nl ond Ill .. mony f'<"'I'k co"..
ro.
"'.ic<.
i,.
_,d<.
S,....a. c...... _
,Iu.,
'" hin. ,.,.tunr; .d.icr. Secul... and ..,ioc' >jul . ... ho,i ..... It.p. "" .ryin~ '" go:>
S'eph.n .0 0<<<1" ,h. bo"" of 714. Ali .. ... rio ... <h.ng<> in hi' plo of COn_
~n.m."'. S.cpI .. " ...... fi nolly <JICCU,ttl, or n.."y...!. fo' h" .... .. nch opposi,;"",
Hie", .... Th",. hundred md forI)' '....0 of S,..,h.n, follo::rwno war ,ounded
'0
up. impr;..,..t<I, 'o""...!. nd mu,ilurd."

, .......... hen... K<ScS S'erh0n', ....r....tl ,,, oe<op' [t.. dr<, ... of 714 bu,
NiapIoorus.nd Thtop/>an<s ..n a cliff"",n. '!Of}'. They had ~ incrn.i>T..,
..uk< Srrphrn ... icooorhilo mutyr. Nic<pho<w"')"1 tha, whm S'ephrn ....
'I'P"M-ndo:d . ~Thoy broup' api.... tum ch.'F ...."i"'", rd.p.n (pnIu.ps
Bloyalrr") ..yi", in tho f""<"'" !ha. ..... dtcriYcd .... "1 film by .cadtiog
.... m to cIopoo< .... r;Io<y of "'" woot.l . '" d~ r>may .nd rduioeo. ' 0
.vood ,he 'mprrul COUl1. and '" adopt ,he """""ic lik. ... Thtopha .... says
,ha, S.tpho'n w puniot..d booo.... "t.. ao,Imoniot..d """Y J'<OI'Ir'" On'" ....
mo ........ lifo .nd haoJ prnua<kd .hem '0 scum i"'l'"rial digni,~:and money .....
ri
'0
.ha,
Tho ni",h.n,ury Lift of NimAJ ~f MrJ;ft",~ ;. inllrutti. . .,.,. It ")"I

Co"".n. in. IIOunJconl<, lIoaI!:ing ",me.nd 'rilling ,heir
(ho m<o,ion. S"ph.n .he Younger
he .. ), II ... in .hi, ....1>01. "',e,l",.tcJ ~ he")"1 nOlO .......or.! abou. ,n,~.'"
In 766 Coru ..",i"" ..~. public humili.1 t"'" fot ,ho tnO<Ik> in eon",,",i
su,,'
""I'1t- H. nude monk>
imo ,he hi~rom. h.nd in h.nd ,,ith ""men

whik the crowd '1"" upon ,hem," In T1" Micft.cI Ltkh. ood,. koo, '"4''1:''' of
,he Th",k<sion ,hem . "'tried 0111 bru",1 I"'rg< of ,h. mon .... ri'" in hi>
juri"'!iction. He ..i ...d monk> .nd lIun . ",on"'etio, 'cligiow l"-"pho.I'"
. nd boolu. All ,he>< he ",Id .nd ,,,,"o.m;III the p<0CC'I.-J. to ,he empcror, Some
monh he Ruggc<l .nd nthe" he dcg.-.d<-J by .... ting their heard. On nrc."
Ck:orly. Con"".n,in. se, OUt quite .y>t.m:oticaJly [0 .tt.ck the very 'Ymool<
of til< ,'",nas<ic 'mkr. their bnnJ.. thei' h.hi". th.i , cdi~ , ,h.i, brning.
He .ubject..! them to pub/ic , idirul. to dcmy:;ti/y ,heir pOOI .nd , .. tUI, Hut
h. ,lid . 11 thi> fO-J "'..",,. .-d.,..! to the >""ty of hi, ,,~t . ' m.go ploy..!
min", rok. if ' ''y rol . in.1I of ,h;~"
In ,he mid" of [h.i, n.... ''''n. of St<phen', ,,., .... ,', both N><q>ho"".nd
Thcophmco ). [h.. ",me offici.). Cmen '""ro with . u,hority") .nd ..,Idie"
we ,,",,<cd of vctlt""ing i<on nd wet< punished. All publi< official< " .....
"kro to plroge th .. thoy """ Id not , .. n",,,,, icon . A f..., days . ftot the abbot<
..... par.dl in the hippod",me. ",netccn """I., ofFici.l. ",'e'" <. crutro. In
76! Con.tao,ine mode the p>tri>t<h, . bo oaml Co",untitlt. hold up. eros<
. od 'WCO, ,Iu, no one "~ven .... i"g ;0""- The emp<n)t ,]", It,ed II' got him
(0
I"-~e
lNndon hi. mooanic "ate and adopt the lIat'" of a 5t'CUi>, d.,ic. H. rvrn
,tied to);rt " im
to ctt toctt .. the impc,i.l .. ble .od '0 join to rourtlycnteru.in.

men If," n.. rub Kern. ho[h '0 ft.,...... f>,ro , he I"-....,h', loyalty md [0
luve u ken . 0 opponuni,), '" bcli,,1c moo" ,ici,m 0"", 'll-'io. Shonly
[hesc
proo:cro iog<,
d.j><><.I
the p;"i.",h.. Con".n';n< h. d
'pp".-.ndy b.:cn ,he "'8'" of 0PI""',ion. and .hhoug/> ,h.. OPI",sitio" m.y
","" in,ol,-.d the de-k"se of 'm.g... i, k<to' f() h.v. b.:cn ... i", co, . ,,,,dit;on. 1
mililary, coullly. ,Id but .. "em;" ...... ngling."
l.coviog ",ide ,he ;sob",.! CO"" of And""" ,h. K>.lyb;.nd M'ch ..] l.adt.nod .. koo. it 'pf'C' " [h....,[K.I ""n[. ""n.piredl><<w<<n 7<>! . nd 767. Lo.[.,
write!) conn",'" [h .... n'< n" wi,h <kvo,it)n to im. g<> . nd wi, h moolu. ,I
. hough ,~d", nor ,1 .... )~ <>pli<"'Y y ,~" monk:s ,,'e.. pc.....:",'" IO, ,h.i,
<k-o.ion '0 im.s". Th. , .. Ii,y i, mo", ,,"mpic. . Th. , ... " 76) ..,d 7<S6 .... '"
. rcmendorniy cluUcnging fot Co"'''n ,i"" V, H. "1)n g.<>t mil,t")' ,,,,ori,,
'll-'io .. ",.,Its . od Slav. but .uff.,red d'ploou[ic ,<",<,.. I. wi.h [h. 1"-1"-'1' 10d
,h. C.mlingi.m, He .1", f.a-d prohle"" with the church. >0, .h'nJonmrnt ,of
,he ,eI ... 'vc ,h~1 q""" >in", Hi<:.-.ia, and. m... ivc plo, again .. hi. ,uk
W by both ci,jj .nd ecd",,,,'ic>1 di[",_ in putting S[.phen '0 ,s.,.. h. d<-po>ing
.od =,ing ,he I"-tfi. rcn. hOlnili. ting higoume .... nd bo,h humil i.. ing . nd
(UCOIing civil ""m",n,,,:' .<tt>C.ing n "",It of . 1I<sian", '0 Hi.,,-.od. ft _
n,lIy.;o ."",king """<monk> .nd .. i..ing ",me mon""i< P"'f'C"Y. Co"'IOm
Cu,,,,.,,,,,,.,..,,,
f"""
.r...
61
c ....... , .,
iM ..... "templin, '0 put hi> ......... ;" orda. I"""" pL.)'Cd onIy nuIl role- in
th .. ,U;ft,_ Mom>m- t.. ..13Ck "" .t.. monks ..... no< to m..da "" ..13Ck ""
_,.,...., i .... f .. . pm:;:.. carn~ ....-J >pi .... ~ who .... '" .......ifa,1y d~ ...ho ,hra.ened "'" N:iW. V...-;I \hroosh doe 1m. of ...,..
ironophile ,n.u, .ppeMOnccs .re .."ry &a-;.;", U\ ,~ (';,01 yeo ......
F.tap< (nt few "",K<Cd ",,,=~ ro ......Iu of on
....,..,./ nt
.....i'...... ht 'he I.., doad< of ConHa n';n<', "'iw' ......
i""idt",. _
'0 i''';II,od m ..... we ho"" _n. hi, "'IK""ion Of ,lit K<>brg< of ""nodules
i . .."Iy ,ugge..
Ona ,he monk' a.. ,""en off ,he Il" 01 "'ono<Iul.. whu
.ufl'tml pn><"tu,iun, ",nu", 0 ' ~n <k.,h .pifioJly bJo .... of , I,ci .."n...
00.. of ""n., ,he Ii .. of ,ho.< who d id ""oWly suffe' hon,a ""'Y ........ , iml<a!.
l""""Phile hi>ton.n. tr.i hapognphcn; hod CVO:'Y n:u>n.o n.ame n.a ...... Soch
wn,... "",,,,,,*1 no opportunity bomi..h ,he
of Leo JJI tr.i
,ho, ""'"
wi,,,,,,,,,
"',a1
,a1.
'0
repu""'""
m....c..
Coruc:"";M V. bu, cJ..r IOund "'"

ot. con,,", ,hril ~ ....
..... U""(hlnp wi'" I"nic.lb. ,iaims. S,eph<n. it is toUt. rtfu,...,J ,o>ign .... xu of
71--1 bu, """" of,be _fUll bb..... h.. d<.o,h .... , .... refWaI. A~ ,he KaI,.
biK nuy 1...." b<m .. tadrd for h" de>oooion <0 ........ bu, ,h.. is "'" dw-.
John, hpmm of M~ ...... ,h"""'.... in.., ,....... bu, ... ""'1 _u 1..""
,,"n
0"'"", of c;.,.,"'mi",,, ",mp"isn "Pi ....
monk... h ;, .. m... . lubk ,I."
"" mon ..,ie: ~gu .... an ... ,!>own ,,, Iu.....pok<n up for illUfiC> J urin, , ... 7"=>s.
.,1 ,I,c (une...1o...ion of ,he ""nophil. Pl.o,o of S. kioudiun ,how. Ih.. he
W1!I
oble 10"""" . bout qlli .. (""'!y ,nd ,hoo t I,c I,ckl offici.1 roo;,;"n, HOund m'In ,h. end. ,h.,. ,.. p"'iod of inn.., "ntimon .. ,jc " ,h'il)" t..-twn 76") .nd
767.nd , I,cn "Pin in nJ-71 in ,h. Throlc.. ion oJ .. me. N<>n< 0f,hi, .... ivi~"
obviowly or ncsw"ily COfInea..J ...i,h 'h< ""n<..'ioJo nt p>hibilion of icons.
The ,., .. of Socphm ,he rounga " moo'
Ahho"gh i.....tho. 1O..p.,
[0 pnMde long ",.oJoguc of WO<S, the Ct..fuJ ,...J,er an ..., ,Nt the roIln .....
con,ncd '0 win S,cpheto 0Vft and tried ...... y .....""",, .............. .Jw: ...!.
S,<plo.m ..... h.>ndl<d wi,h h:l gIova.'"
,,,,,,,,,,,i,,,.
I IOun.l .... """'''tI~ n"id<na fOr p ....I."ion in , ......... of Leo III . ond
"""" I "'I"'" ,..., ,line io ....,. link .mdrnct '" oM Iw-ryi", of ironop/Iila in
, ... , im. of Co.,...n, i... V. In 1.<0:0', rrij;n I de,..,...J pnood of iconapbcbic
"",i.i,y riBl1' ."",nd ,he yar 7,0 wirn. p<lOIibly. ",me
in the,...,..
betwccn 71\ ood 710. 0...';"8 oM rei", o(Con ... n';1I< V . ........... , ,ime of
in .. n.. icooophohi, in ,I>< ra' Of IWO preadlng ,I,c "" ..
of ~ .no! ,hen
pouibly in , he rnid7600 OJ , he .m",,'''' souW>' '" ooIidiry. hi. rule agoin .. ,.,.,.
.... "i(, oppo.ilion .nd C<III p '''<mP"'. In othe. wo,d.. ico,lOCl.. rn is "'" ,he
"0<}' of Ih, cigl"h o<n'u'Y in Byz.omium. I, i. on oo>;"n. l. Ilxi, m<mor.>bk.
in ,ho, >!ory.
..,,Im..
"",I
du,,,,,,..
Wh., iml'><t did icooocl .. m h~"" 00 ~It! Fo, ~II of ,h. "7~" brtwttn 7'j
.no 84' onl)' """my [0 ",enl}""fiv< works of.1t e>n be o:ruinl)' iden,ified ..
dc;"orcd o[ <ovcml over. We h.ve ~Irady -"'<n [h .. i, i. by no m",n' d""
wh .. , if 'nphing, h..pp<ned '0 [h. OulH im>g< in [he .i"", of Len III Tho
f.,h ... of II Niata ,.id ""'ni,hingly 1i.1I "","[ ,,,i,,ed ", work.. 0 ". ,pt".h,
mentioned . book with I"" im'g<" th" " ... ,h,n"'n into. fire.nd .nother
with p>g<> t/;"",,;"t irnogc< ,hat "'eTC Cut o"t_lthough the I..." book', Cffi.. "
with .i)... , im.w::< of ... in" ..crt unJ'nl"l;ed. A""th" .p.. kcr ,..01 tl,,, in hi'
ei!), ,hirty boolt ........ h,,,"ed_ ""p' cion.ly ,,,,,,,.J number ,,,.1 '''gtlC , .. t;
moo)" .. to whcrhcr the boob wet< bu'ned to <lm",y ,hei , ,m. g<'> or their .",u.
y., .t>Oth . pc:okcr ",id he h.d.n Old T.."ment with. Sf"hofium on im.gc<
,hOI hod """'0 erased .Ibei, "'" .IOcompletely ,h.. it ,ould 00' "ill be....w. Two
other 'I""'hr> ooml'loi"ed of boob f,om which I"'g<> hod bccn CUI com.ining
.....pcc'ivtiy. KCount> of the Grnol"'n. iron . nd the Abt;o' im'l;<. The 1"',,; .
rch him>df offt,cd in e,.. iJ<ncc. book from I,i. "".. lib,.!}' th.t ..... miS>ing
oJl . he PO&'" on im. g." Whe ... book. . ... oontt.ncJ, ,h.". i. ""'''''' II.,. ,t..
iconQciutl WC"' mn", UlloUI
",mo" ing im. gt' ,t'lIth;," th~y ""e.t , hom
,nipping im.g them",lvd.
The bestknown "'''''' of da.truction or rem",.. I . re in building< with which
tho cmr<mr> h.d impo"'''' """"i.,m",. ,.. Fo, in,,,oc<. , cyck of New Tes.,men. inuga in St, M.!}', church in BI",he,n.i w:u rcploccJ with IOli'S., .nd
on...r depiction. of lit< .i. rouncib Ln the Mil",n of the imperi.1 pobcc ,,~
plucd with ....... of durio, I'2C<S_ Only in 768/6<) did P",i.h Ni= ..
repi.a: mWlio", ofO"i... nd [he uiou with <roooc> in the ",,tum of ,he
p'''''-uch.1 p>Lou. '" J usti";.,, II 1",.1 I>"t the i"'>g< of CI,,;n 0" I,i. cuin.
" it..,... l.co Ill. Comuntin, V. nd Uo IV put .m. 1I c"""'" on .hei, roim.
Thi ...... I.... n ... of iron"d.. m. ht)WC>.. " ,h.n. ,eturn to <>rli.... h.m", of
",,,,,i,n,,,i, ico""U'phy_' .. Ni.:ct .. >.I"" sc .... j.cd "if ""n< "",.,<a . nd f""""""
in ,he p",i.,~h,1 1'.1""" ,<> ,he,~ . nJ in ,h. ",b ... m.ion. H~ m.y h." n",.cd <Om' im.J; ftom the golleCf b'd of H.g;.
Sc.phi . '... A, de' Itbl1',i Ius poin,cJ ""', mud> more.n ..... poin,cJ ov .h,,,
Jestn:>yN,. point . o"firmed by the fomou< ,mni.. ure ,n the <>rl)' nin.h-ccot"Cf
KhloJo. I'",her d.picting.n iconoc!." whi......,hing '" im.g<. ,,.
I" the pruvi",""" icon"cl..", ..... ~e'1' "~nlr .pplicJ. In the " oimi.
cl!u,<h to Ni<aca the .pse m""i< ...... <hipped out .nd "'l'1.ccd with. <",s.<,
Th. ",me "', . done 11 H.,.i", O..-;,J in S. I"n"". But .h. churehcs "fS . ()"m.,.
Itiul ",d S'- George in S:tlonic> were undisturbed ,,., u,,,rgical.n "'., <:<p,... ly
,bol"
,0
'l"n:d by ,he """ncil of 7!'" which .I.., flied p = ' vandali,,,,.'" W< ,..,.
.iud .hove
S. S.cph.n w.; .blo .lir! p>pl. to "",nf sof. "<2$.
Th. fO<l ,h..:o, (XImp.>n,i""ly linl. ~" . "noi."" r'm" .h. h<~nl.n'" of'M
Brun[in. Empire during [h. i""",:>cbs' ''''r:! m~" . m.<d"on:. Ix .",ib",abIc ' "
.Iu.
OIh... h..:o n ... nron d""'><1ion."'" Th. """" w:L!I oflicuUy iconoplw>bic
.~, I"'''''' ,of .<t. The oflie .. 1ehoo",h . h. church
of [h. bi>hops. w:u p<.fOf i"""OVOOhi,. M.ny """,,,,"'ion, must h, ,,, be."
I"". 1Oi> w:L!I .r.~, a tim. of <k>p< ... ", milit.ry ch.U.. "!;".. fr~u<nl n>tu ..1d;"'"
t." ......<II .. ma;O. fi",nciak kpI . nd admin; .. ",.iv< ,d"o".... Thc Sf' ''' w.u
<p<nding mont)" bu dd"", on
"f any ki nd-p.>lxn. church ... civic
>",,,,,iti,,. nl< foct 01 ... ioon ...d . ..
Put up hleri. and n"u .. listie
Ian .. ,ugg<>'> ,h..:o, .hey w.n: n.;,her op p,h .. ic bun,!'""
kin~ '.. Tht)" .imply opp<cJ imaga of Ch.i ... and p<,h..:oI"
of M>ry .nd
.he .. in". Bu,. m oonch,dc, II.... W;U no ... hoksal. destructio" of"n in .h<
.igh[h cen.ury. an)' more .h..:on ,he.e w;u .... n1On p<fKCUfion ofico"ophib.
Clwa
~,><l
,h. <uun ...,. .I.... yo
.,,,,,,,k<
<TTl""'. ."
'00
Emp.ess I'e ne . nd II Nic...
Arre, long reign wh .... m.ny
succcs.;cs
h..:o"" be.n oMcu,cd by irunophik
w.i ..... Con".n,i", V died in n! . He" ...... ua:dcd by hi>,.,., L..., IV.
,..!w,
rei~cd
only umil 780. from >om. rema.k. by Tlt<opru"to .nd fN. oth"
<Catttfed bi .. of i"foITm.ion. hi"on.n. h...., co nd..dcd [h>l Lro rel",ed cu""n,
pmhihi[i"... on ,h. cull "f M.ry .nd "",encd h .. f .. M.', .h..:o'l' "I'J"O'i.i"n [.,
,h. monk>. Why h. 'ook ,h... ''1" .. "'" d<>., I" ""Y .... , "., _ICc tq><>IU
.ny <"Oo<"T<IC "<f'$ k,""
im.g<>' '" .h<;. wonhip<" , 5om< monr.. ,...,,"
.ppoin,I ro key offices. indooing bi>hopri",. ,"d wlt<n ,b. ico'lOphobc p.>tti.h Ni"", .. dOc-d in fllo Lro 1<01 .. hi' .UCC>of [h. C),!,'OO[ P.ul woo
" .. ;.,.J ,,, ........... himlf o~ OCCOOnt of. he igning "",toy:' .<Co.d ing ro Throph.n .., \lihc,h., 1'.,,1 w.u . ct".lIy.n i<:unopbil< i. difficult
bu' Lro did
m.oh him -I>I'CIe ... ">lh 00' [0 w".-.hip im.ges''"
ago,....
''''''y
Irene from Rq:em
'0
8 ...,li..,.
Whcn Lro dil he left hehind. nin<. ~= """ld ",n, Con..",in. VI. ."d rem.rbbk wid"",. lreot. B=..,..Ire"" ."mmonl ,h. Nicen. COI,ncil.lu., PUt
.n . "d ' 0 e;gh,h-<.",,,'J' ,-,>,>ntI .,m ...... kco"",. he",,,,. cv<o kgcnd.uy. figure
.m<>08 1>.., Konophil. ",rittn. Thus i. i. 'mport>nt to undt""nd her si.uation
8)"<.>.n,il>< Iconocbom 7'

pri.tly .nd '" 00 .."'" try cotdUlly who, .he actu. lly did. fo, ins"n,e, Thc<>ph.ne .... Y' ,ha, .nc, r .ul w,.. consccr.u<d .. p.arri. rch lOrn< co"rr officiol.....",
di,mis"'" "'hen i, was di!Cowm,l ,hat ,hey had im.ges ,n thei[ f'O"C<'ion,
",h<le" 'he m""h 1:0.., Ccdren u hc" <Ire "Of}'10 [ha, in lou 'dling 1",,,< had
i"'"ll"" unde, her rillow>. '" '11><", i, "", ... lIy no ..,lid "",den:
]"'''e " ...
p>rrieul. rly iro!lOphile, .i,hcr befo" 0' ju>! .f.., ]80, h iI, .her .11. hard '0
heliOY< <I... , Gon". mi"" V wo,,1d luvt I"',miucd hi, ddes, .<on .nd I'>"ml"'.e
h.i, , h"" m. rried. k"o",,, im. g< "",,,hi peT, 5<:holo" haY< nOf emb[:occd che
ideo [ha, lreoe, ... worn.", was mOre indined '0 "'",lOphili. ,h.n. m.n "'(mid
ha b:n. 11>< old nOfion ,Iu, bea. .... ,he was on A,hen"" 1"',1< ", ..... Id h"'e
.uprone<! im. g<> cion ... from . n,iq"><cd jU><>f'O'i,ion, of "Htlkn"''' . nd
"A>,,,,c" ",n.,bil'tin tI.. , 1,0<1. lot of eulrency. ''''''m)' >go ioU! no 1':iI1""".1I
todor.''' Th. poin' i. ,h.., in ,h.)'a" ju>! .f.., 78<>. I,en. de<idcd to "'..""
official poiiq
hi Imoo, impossible '0 a ' !\IIero ,he J,Aimhy "f I... "c', po. i,i"" in 7lIo.
She "-;U 'egen, fo, h., IOn bu, had no independent powct b.s<: of her own , She
had ~vc broth ...... i,,-I.w. "'n' ofCom-tan,in. V by. I"" m.iog< ,lu.n [he fin!
o"e ",hieh had 1'><10>:<1 I..." IV, wh" h.d d"m. "n ,he ,hro.,. "Ie.., good
.. ,host "f h,,," ... " Com"'n,ine VI. 11>< .rmy .nd ci.il admini" ... io" h.d
b:n orefully ruhiv:ucd by Con".""", V .nJ owed I",ne "",hinS- Mili",y
,lore, ,, ",rroundcd
rOll"'" with ,hr t.,'a of ,lor oliph , ",host .nnu.1 in_
,I,,,
tI,.
COrne was pmhobl)' .iun <0 .;gl"",," ,;"' .. S>'" ,~'" llyunt,um'" ""''''"''''ing ,he dirQ' ,h. lleng<, 11>< OrrhOOo. Chun;h was S<p1"ucd (rom.1I OIh.,
Ch,i ...." romnmni. ies ..J, p. rricul .. ly owing '" "Aici.1 ""nod" m, had l>ocn
di.ided from C halcrdoo;'o Ch,u,u". k>,. half e<" '",),.'''
Fo,,), doY' oft coming '0 powe' lrenr f:occd >o'l'i",<:), led by ... riou.
p>u.:" d'g";""" who w....... iog on hehalf ofNi:phoru . ,b. rides, of hrnr',
bro[he,,;,,l:ow. Shc m,n>g<d co p"""il OV'c' I.. , opl"onrn".oo beg>" ]JUtting
hcr 0"'" peopk into Iy I""i,io," ufpowc" She 01 ... bcgon '0 rule mo", '" Ie"
in ~, own n,nl< .. b.>J;jiJu ond. ,n ,hi. cop><;'r. hr ."..hcd hr""lf [hr
mo" p<>,e", "'p<eI of ,hr m.","'}' of Con . ..",i,,,, V, She ini<i. ,cd ",iliu<),
compo,igns. In thr E.o5t 'he>< ,,,,,,I,cd in " .. ful [ru", in ;rti, where .., in ,he
B.llan. henc', k>''''f ><",. 11)' won n,*., .i"",';e> ."d ,ro;"..,cd ",,,ito,ies. In
;11' lreo .<en, .nVO)~ '0 " K.wul,,'" to .n~ui tr . bout' m. nioge .11;',,:, Onr
n y i"f., (,urn d,i. init""i"" ,h .. I",nr w. , <king rnd hcr diplo .... ,;., 0010
,ion from ",h.. Chn"i.n
\I,hil 110 .,,~m p, ing.'n p."ic"b" tu ..,d.
[he mm" of 1",ly, Th .. i. i, """,IJ 'P]>e>J' thot [",n. ,,'" prqrcd '" ttdr ,0
Ch. rI"" ond ' 0 hi, p.ap.al pm<<'gO, 1""""';"" of n" "I",,,, .,Id :"". 1 h.ly if thr
Fran"'oo ,he po,p>ey would. in fU m, gi,-. Ilyun,ium. (... lund in [it( lOUth ,
'0
1"""""
'0
7>
CHHH' TWO
P,.sum.bly ,he l..,mMrd dochy of Rc .....en,o ,",',", '0 .."'e .... kind of buffe.
In 'he midI' of this hn,je .ivitr, Throph>n.... )~. " T he pi"", ~n
t<) 'P<'".u. f-=ly:" " Aim"" minly ,h'" """',,, ,I" n~,nls ... ho Iud I:on ,h,..".
enl .nd "",,,i un.lIy r,t,Uiud in """,n, ytlrs. During ,h .... rurs. ha!iaJly
780 '0 78~ . ,he W1.I no' 1 word .oou, images.
In;14 'he "" n.rch 1'.,,1 fdl ill. "" itCd fmn. office .... ,I .."etCd mo"u'CT)'. On bcing ... kcd wh)' he ....d done th ... , P.ul ... id he " .... dply lI'ie-I ,\u.,
his mUlch w" ..",,,,,I from .11 mh" Ch,iMi, ... He inoi,tcd ,\u., ther< wo.
,>Otri.rd>al ' hrone in 71k> becou of ",he igoing
heresy" mud> ring< trite in the '<pO" of hi, """,n, in 78+'" On Pml" W""'iun. 1ncop1" .... "' ..... " . Th. que"i"" uf ,he holy icon. bogon '0 be di""",..,a
.nd dispu,I h) ...eryone ... '" Irene .nd Pml hod .ppointed known iconophila
bi<hupria. monks hod gutn , f.vo,....ble to, from ,h. gin,. . nd ,h.", hod
betn no h".,il. "",ions .g>ins< .i,h., .nu g.. '" inugc wo,.],ip"" io moof fC''''
Pe,h. ps, th.,dQ. ,.. id".1 """'ophil ... huhNI '" ,h. ",rf..u in ,h" mo f._
o",N~ . "vimnm.,,,. r.,\u.I'" '00. In<, .. n.ing. movement from which >h.
couk! pro~,. o. ""rh<. cv<o. which >h< c<>o,ld le.d. <"""" !;.,.j .he '""noph
,I ... " r ..... ibly. in the i"geni"", "'88<'1'iun "f M k Whitt""" Iren .....' ',,'0... ,ion of iconophil;' .. ,he "n<tt>'l' r~lu,iun" thot would <r~at< u, men'
gonuine , uP!"''' for h., in. wo,ld wher<: he, po<i,io" \u.d been plCC:iriOttl-'''
Ik ,h .... i, ""y. icolll wc bock 0fI ,he 8yz.ontinc Wn and ,inu p ... io",h Niu5
hod cov<rcJ up irn.go in ,he paui.teh, 1 1",1"" in ,he
760>, '''o,h
mind .. of j"" how infla1u<ntly i""go "'e topic of mojo, ""nnti"n in ,he
"A~ of I>noclm. "
But when ,he ci'CIOm.unca of r.u r bdica,ion 1 ... mined mo,~ d"",dy
SOme perulio.i,i.. cmetge. P.ulobdict,n1 on Aug" J'. 714. ThrophonC'S givt:<
us this dote . nd "Y' , hat when 'he I"",mcd o( Paul'...i'hJ"'....1 Ircr>< . Iong
with her .on. _n' '0
him , ask why he hod cione 'his. H. ,old he, of hi'
distfCU .. koJing. church ..,p.... 1 frum.1I o,helS. On hanng thi' Inc .. n,
fO, ,he "'chief men of rhe Sen. ,,"" so ,ha, ,hey could h"" r aul". word. and hi,
coli (or an oxumenicol rounciL '" Wh,u i, p<=1;', is. fifil of oJl, t\u.t [one \u.d
w.in<n '0 Pop" HuI,;,n on Aug"iI 19. 784 (the let",. bea .. the da", [V Kol.
Sq>,. Io>dicr. VII), Iom,,,,ing ,h. I.mg_ ... nd ing opposi.ion '" in"ge' .nd invi,
ing ,b.]>O]><.".n ecumenical council. '" Second. lr.ne ... Y' in her \0:"., ,\u.,
,he hod been .. Iking 'OOut ,hes< very "'>tt"" fut to IX.: wi,h 8;'1op Co"",nt.
in. of~ntine in Sicily """om ,he ..." now .. nding to I~odfi.n. The leI,e, .lso
wn<.
'0
,0
1..,.
rncntil)n; the bishop of N.pb in ""y th .. might imply tlut he tOO h.d
bc<n in",l,cd in .lICn di.,am"'n>. '" O"'''I\o<>l<y thought tn .. 1'.,,1 hod l>on
p<"ua<kd to .bd"" ... '" nu, i. """,illk. bu, i, mol' ,Iso be ,he c/o< ,h" Th .....
ph.n", Ius .imply comp r.....J """"" .nJ ",cord! .hem , ligh,ly ou, of order.
I'orlup> P.ml did W:ln' council 1I\J h< 1I\d I",ne migh' h,,'< hn .. Iking
"",oring im>gel. holding. cooncil. . nJ id<n,ifying ' n..... p.... i.. ch for
some ,,"Or.. or month, bdO", I'.ul vKi:ltcd hi. ,h,on.,
A, """. point .n 1'.,,1 died I","" go,hen:d ",11 ,he people" ",h. M'g_
n..". I',b", .nd told .he", tl.., it ..... n<a<sary t<J ~"J .... Ol.>"< ... ho i. ,hi.
to .end u' !il.e . Ihqoh.rd .nd t<, fonify the Church with hi. ""rd. ofinstruc,ion," The Jl<Opl< we .. uno"ionom in ""lLing fo' the chin itnl"''') "':""ry.
T..... i"'. )",n< <.lid th ... he too "i,hed fur T.",i ... to become p. uior.h bu,
h...... "heing diO<>beJi.", . Th u" ,h. put l ..... ,iw before ,he ,hl"<)"& ond
",ked him to <xpl.in himself. He ddi"C,ed long .pm:h in which he .. id .
p~i=blr. ,Iu, he ...... ""P"'l,,,ed . ltd ",,,.... ,,,hy .",t. mo,"'~'. ,h" h. """Id
"'" in good ronicnct .Cctp< the k.dcnl'ip of . chutch . h....... cu. "fT lTom
.11 ",her Ch,;n"", of ,II< world. Ag:tin .nd 'Vin he i",;,ted on ,he need fm
cedes,,1 uniry. Fin. lLy ,he people .r;reed th .. the"' ...... need lOt . <ouneil, Then .
, ifro rtmind .ltem (tnct mOle wl\o.t "llI . t ,take. T.ras;", said th.t l..ro 111 hod
d<mo)'ro ,he iron. 1I\d Iud u.,.., . n .neiem runom of ,he eh",eh. '''' On
Dro:mbcr Ij. ;84, neo" )' fu'" full mo",h ncr r,ul", . bdia,i"". Ta .... i"' .......
abo",
,ho,
,""':..1<.J
Onct .goin obi, n..... ,i,o i, decep,i,... ), i. ligni6",n, ,Iu, hene". hi, of
.hea'er" ,h. M'g"",,. WU no, ...oged un,iI .rtcr p,ul died? Why".... good
1<o<h . nd postor onl~ '0 bc fuund . mong the r.:.)' digni".i o( ,he 1"1au~
Giv." ,hOI T....;........ "being diO<>beJi,m. bow long h>tl he hn Ji ...... i,,&
'he I""i"elul office w;,h hone' Why"'" he ..1",lOm' Th. "<!I;on orT..... i" ...
pm:h <on .. incd in the I)'nodol ",ta of II NiC1<:il difl'cn from Throplton"'"
"""unt in ono interesting ,es(11: It ... }~ ,Iu, "some few" people in the crowd
",h< Mogn,,, ... di ...g...,ro wi,h ,he ;de~ "fholding' coo"ci1. '" ['lup. ), ...
,;'" h.d .. hc.I,hy f.,.", "r ,uch ~'pl< '" l"'rI"P' h< ... d I"<:n< ""''' ,,<ork; .. S ,,,
ov<rcome opl""i,ion . T.....;u, " .... bym' n .nd h>tl '" bc ""hed ,hrough ,h.
d.rial g.. des befOtc heing """"",.. ,<.1 p",;.tch. hen so, i, ,,,,,k. long ,;m.
'0 .",h"" .. him. The 0PI"";""" moy h.v< bee .. "iff ,h,,, .he ia ",upl,il.
"'~t"<"c! imply.
T.",iu. wr<>t< ' 0 Pop< Hodri.n '"~ ~nn"un<. hi. d,;"n ,nd.o pro("" hi,
M,h",lo'y. Thi, I.. ,.r i, ,,'" <m", ..... , ,h... ,,"';V< , frnm <kroI><, of ~5.
H.d,;,... ""ron"" '0 both h"ne .nd Con,un,ine VI . nd '0 T..... iu . ". f rom
'hese k " .n we Ic>rn th.ot H.d,ion " ... told tlut hoth the rulers .nd thc p>tri.reh
res,,'"
fO,.
wc'c planning
rollncil. "If," ",id ,hc p<>p<. hi, i. im""",il,rc.o
, he
ooly .nd ""n.",ble i/mg<S wi.hou, ,"",ncil. " ,hen kt On< "" hold
wiU. in
,h, p,.,..,nc. of [he I"'P" kg:>, ... . "",h ,,,,,,.i.., <he ~d<:>>un<iI of 7H Fo'
hi< kg:>' "'" I"'p" eho .. "" Ron,.n .rchpries, I'... r (ba,ically "'" he.d of ,he
ec:d<>i",ti",,1 p<""",,,,1 of <he Rom.n Chu,ch).1><1 . nothe, 1' ... [he .bbo[ of
[h. G,..,k mon""ic communiry ~(s,. S. b.>.''' It nuy he oigni~an, ,ho, H._
d,;,n did no[ .,,,><1 high. ranking o<o>Lar ck'iCl. /'of i..... ncc. one 0' """ of ,he
... bumi""ti." 1>1.,'1'<- It nuy .!w be in.l"'tu", ,ho[ H.d,i>n ",'" G_k
~ki ',& .n,O)'.'''' On
won<k .. jf i, i< coinciden,.1 ,ho, ,h. ''''''' "f I'....
",,,, '''''' "'en ,,,,m.,,!
h> "'p''''''' hin,
H..J .... n". kIte .. '''' in"iguing in o<"VC<>I =p<c... Given ,h.. '",ne ,",'ro
'" him in ,,",. Augu;r of ~. "'lry did Ire " .. it m"", ,hon ~, '" rnpond'
\1Vhr .... he cool '0 ,he ide. of. CO\InciJ? ,:r:r ~I i. bo ., .'tUm.n .. m.y provide
,he ...."". '" [I.;' '1t><><;'," , H.d .... n >l id i.... " emly ,ho, hi< p,cd<>OQ'" ';no:
Grq;ory II hod been entreating CoMt,,,,tintrple', tulen t" put ..id. the bctc<y
"f >co"""I,,,,, , In
,h. ""un.iI of rn ... '" compk-rdy ill<gi,im"" n" Iegi,i.
m ... w:1..""ic:o! forum Iu.! pronounced on inug. .nd .., ,here .... n""'\
only to rerum'" the ttu. f.i,h. Th. I"'P"', krte ... f< fi,1I <>f P." i", referenen.
lhey pc-" ally .,..... nd <mph ' ,h . .. "h."..,~ of ,he hi>hop "f Ron" ..
"...,', ."e<:eso<>'. H.d,"" W>.n" ,he C .... '0 >okn."..r<tlge 1,,,,1. hi, (>W~ .~ .
tho'it~ . ,><1 ,he ancien, ,~i,i",,-, which h. ,r><! hi! pled..".."" h, ,,,, 01..-.".
f.;thf"lI y 1", .. " Hadti." . 1.. , ,.,iJe"i o,h .. "."'.", T........ u... ho .. i"K been de.. texl w the p",tiarch.1 "fficc /i"m the I. ily: the f"" ,h .. ,I.e impetUl_'4 calls
T. ""i", '"ecumenical''; the mureh provinc", . nd revenues seized by Lro li t
p"1"1 ,igh" '0 ord'in .hbi.hop' .nd bi,h"!,, in .omh.,n 1.. lr. H>tltian .Iso
..,.. thot only i( the Eal'rn ",k.. hoW tightly to r .. ti"< te.ching." the great
King Ch ..... does, em ,hey
'0 ho""
Fi n.lIy, h. "')~ ,hot on.
thing hi, l<gotd will do i, mal him '" mo[e <:dt>in" .bou, the
onhodoxy
of ,he p". h on ... hieh Coo-""m inople 1m <:>'idently emb.>rlcd. H,drian', Wl)fds
on inuS'" PfOJ"'" '0 which T.h.1I .urn in d< ..iI in Ch,.,.., J nu,bbly
.... ".i"td. The By>~nri'", docun""n,, l.y p,im.ry"""" on ,r,. .... 'v~.,i"" "f
uni<r in rJ .. chICh whik the I"pal !er.. rn'ptwioc: palul ."thorit~, In~
ploy .n oddly "",""dory rok "",. in tl.e- dr.lma of which ,hey.re norm.lly .... n
the title r:horacrc". And the I"'PC .Irn' I<so than confident dr..t r..: .... II~
know> wh" i, going on in ,he wt.
The East ...n k.rning how ro .....Jk "" ~hell" A council ..... i"<ked
.ummontd to meet on Augu .. '. ]86. and. pc[ ...... jwt
heating from the
p<:>p<. I.CI.rs ....,'. disp .. ch.d [0 ,r..: w'" P",ri.or.. inoi,ins ,he", '0 COOl,. 0'
rel'l<$MIt.t; . .... he ... tJ'UCC of 781 wi,n ,r,. caliph ..... "ill in plaa .nd
th.,
r."
P.,
.h"",
r..
""pee'
''',o,ies.
"tI<
m..
'0"""
i, m'r !u."" bn pos<ibl. ", g<' m~<$ though. Unf(>ftu",",d). ,he 'ruct
,!I,ps! in]IJ~ ,nd ,h. E.>t"n ,burc h.. "..... l"<f'r<S<n,,,,j (>Illy by [W<) m""h
who ""'" u"co'w "i,h gl<"
~ hu,
wl..>s< offici.1 !t>nding is "'"
'00
01.,,'"
H"", ""my bishops Iud .... mbl<tl in c;.;",,,.n,inopic by b July of 786 is
"0, kn'...... n. hut ,hotely be/"o,"" ,he ,:""n,il co,,1J begin i" wo,k on A"8Ust 1,
T. ""i", leo,,,,,,! ,h., m,n)' bi,hop< ,nd .<Om. !.ym<n w<:'. "ill icon"d , $I, , ,,.1
t/u, 'h<y wert ",temp,ing '0 prc\"<m ,he council from mc<"{ing. , .. Th. p'uim:h
IQrhaJ< mmingo .mong ,uch
Th< bishop< h.d b<"<n calk<! to mm in
,I>< pol:K< bm weI< ,old '0 ....,mhk in tb< Church of th. Holy Al""'tics br ,h
pe,"'n'.
''''''P'
uk". No ""'"." hot! ,h. n,...,i"s b.gun ,lun local

il\,-ad<t! tlr< proc~.
ingo to bf"COk ,bern up. The iCQnophobo bi,ho!" 1<"1>0 did no< "":In, council
.hout!. "'\1:'. Iu,'c ,,on .
,old
..."mbly
di,b.nd 1>1" ;om. of
b ishops.nd thei, military 'rmpo,hi" ,tayl around long .""ugh to read . nd
.flirm the di,;.,o. of H i.i . Th.n """~....... won' hum .
10"<"<. ,><'>, roo ... ,,",I< impe,i.1 adminis",,,ion. '0 Thne< '0 pe"u:oJ. ,I>< ' roo!" ,h.I< '0 I><lp
1><, ,id ,I>< 'iry of ,h. d"loyn '1'OOfI>. Th.n. 'mOd rumors of.n Arab .>ok in
[hc Easr, ,he 5(n, [hc rtbelt>gm;uic [1'OOpS om of [he city, .no whcn [h<y had
I,.:n.
,h
,0
,h.
",,,1tcJ ,h. r. ..., impo"'''' ">ging 1""" ...., tho ",.d t<> the F.a<t<tn frun'i., .....
a.hi.kd th<m. W ith koy>l troop' in con,rol and th< dilloyal on .. di<mit.><d.
Irene h:oJ li"k '0 f.1t from
m,hop,. Aec.. ,d;ng]y. >h<- eoll<tl fu, n....
cuu,Kil '0 m<ct at Nica<, in Sopmbc:r of 787. Ni<:K:I ~ clos.: to Constmtin.,.
pl. ho, jus, f" eno" gh '''":Iy '0 , ...". > oense m lCCu,i,y. Nica<. "":l< in ,he
Op.ikion ,hem. ,,hoo< comnunde, ...... . 10)">1 '1'1""'"''''' of Irtf"\( '. Th. ciry
i,stlf hot! dp his,o,i",1 roon,nee> wi,h ,he ~rs, eo>lncil held th .... in J~S "td.
",,". inly 'lui corneio ... ly. I",n . in ch OO>.iog Ni=:o. "",an, fo, cv<~"n< to
d.. w ]..11.1. hetv," "n h<l-"'" .nd Con".ntin< , .... CI<">.' .nd betv.ttn h<lself
a nd ~Id . .... ,h. "'m<tl moth" of ,he lim Co ... ,.nti"", S'ill. ,he ..... n" of ;U
,rood .. , di<quicting .. m;nd .. of th. hl.lrdlcs th .. 1' ;n tho ], h of .ny .tt<mpl
IQ ......." ..... -"" ' ' ' n/:'y ," ,;" r ),.", oft <.>ffici.ll"'licy.
,h.
Th. ba,ic story of tb< 5<-rond Couocil of Nico<o Iu, bn ,old nun)' ,im<> ,nd
,h .... i, no f"COSOn '0 re .. 11 ,Iu, -,,0'Y.'" It
highlight b.,i. i....... The
.,,," ,, of 714, .Iong wi,h d .. ""di<tl dil'k",..,i< .mbigui,ies of Hodri.n .I<lt.......
pi", ,h. tum"I"IOU' cv<"" of 786 "ill h.,-. combi,t<tI ' 0 t".d, To .. ,i", ",.J
,,,Rica ,0
I",n. rlur rhq Iud ro rr=:l vel)' cm:fully-<t> if not ro br<~k ~Ir,clb. Th<
Lrym<n . nd d.ri" .... ho .houtl at T.... i... in 78 .. and "'bo di""ptl ,I>< COUncil of 786 we",' group ro I,. =koni wirh. lIur Iwno.' I>lge: ...... rl>< group' No
f\tMI,., Lry OJ>pQOirion <mergl , Iu fo' ,h< <>gnUr", rmops. ir st<ms lik<ly rl",
.hq "-'''' mur. 1oy.1 to ,he rrn:m<>ry of <:Onrlantin. V.<>o""I"m p<T se:.''' Whet. ,h. bishop<'r<: '''>no::rnl it i. w.1l to
be" in mind th. "",r.J."f on< of t ~<>k .... 100 .... fOC(O.OcilooJ in 787. After Iu";og
be<n . Ii<<<l whcth he: .nd ,h. othet iconoph<>bc b"hop. h.d be<n ,",,"'tained
r" . dopr rhcir herny. Hyp.ui". ofNia<:o ... id no bur "'we: ,.'e,.. born. lucated .
nd IV"'" up in rhi. h,rny ,,( """."" " Th< ~ !"'i" .. of ..,"..... i" h.. "<>:P'
fu,.n unknown nurnbe, of putati..,ly i",nopnik b"...,p.< "I'!",intal bctwcr:n
~o . "d 787.~"'"
in ,I,. llyumin< Empi'" was. " I""" officially. an
i",nopbolx. Some of ,hes< men wer< ptrh.p incrt< in ,hei, hdid"., Orh.A
wcr< .1....)" IuJ bn, 'luire prcpam! to rrim th<i,"'1$ to th.c pr<Vailing wind .
It i. in""ting th .. th."' .... n<V<'t. couoter paMy in tire ch,,,th. We )"'1f of
no otpniu:d or "um<tou, 0p!",,,,,n,, in ,he yea .. ~n no .nd 714. in ,he
y<' " .round Hi<:",; "r in the pt.iod ,J",i"8 and followin~ II Nicaa. !d'houp.
.... n,. pt<Jplo ""'''' willing '0 ,.1 mod"" " .nd fo< icorwd..m in 78 .. and
'!p ,n in 796, ,10,"' .... no la,S" I"rty , .... , wa< willinS ,,-, ,..:,iGee <V<'Y'hin5 ro
dden,1 ,he ........ of leo IJI ,nd Con ...",io< V'''' lIur, I.,. "'" rq>e>r, tl,.", was
nu diKc:mibk iconopl>ik pa " y in ,he u.u.-cl> .fr 7)0.' ~ It 'J>p<><> ,Iu, images
wer<: bs im!"'rt...,t I,.rwn 7)0 .nd 787 th.n they became: in lat<, Y<'" .mong
ironophik wri'<,,- 11M: <Keprion rn.) be tho p>pa<j'. bur it..."." fai, to
,Iu, '''''8'''' in ,h<rru<Iv.. were: bs impo.m to the pop<> .lun ,he Lrrg< . nd
compit> """" of papal . u,hor"i,),
Anlong the ironophik ... , i" ...... h" I"., dcnlC.ni..J ,h. ;.,)nOO.... , ,I,.
nlonlJ we """,,ially promi""" " W. Iu .. ...,n ,Iu, monk. d id .,,~, from ,I,.
~mc: o r Con.",,,;,,. V h," .11" ,Iu, ,hty p"",,"bly did nor .. ,w." p,im>l;ly
because: of ,hei, i<onophil;" Still. tho monks ""' ., . n!>')' in 787 .nd ",:>.n,cd a
pnund of ironod... R<sh
lre:"" pooi';on ..... 'ridry too. She: was " ill ",ling ... "'Il"m for. hoy wIIo
" .. , yowing old all the tim< , WhOK m.io.i')' """,Id rom< OOOn, .nd ... h_
.iews on ,he: grc>< i...... of ,he da)' "-.re: not publicly known. lr-.:n. may
h. 1'<: emb",e<d ,he: ironophiko '0 crcat< >om< d;,,,,= "'''''n h<nclr_ .nd
,I", h<. "",!-;>nd th.c Iq;u:y of Con".n,in< V, II", ,har ...... ",kuL.,ed II"m
bk. as rh. rro~ble ",used by ,hc 'mop! i n 7U mowed all too wdl, Iren. IuJ to
mol'<: "'Ul i"",ly.nd ,h< dam! no, indulge: in ,horoup.going
.... of t.." '",,'n .. >on'. <ly,"",y.
UM" ,he: baton of m..... O l '''''';u. "'')1 <li.<e<>nUn ' no .. w>s ",'oi,l.ecI.
h""""
.rgy.
",,,,,,,,,,i;, """"".
Hi,
d,=,,~n ~f
ti,. Scc""d
Co~"ci1
or N,caca i, ono of ,h. moif ..",n;.hing
fe." in tilt hi"o')' of Chri""n"y .nd d
BY"'",iunl
TI'e ",uncil opened w,tI, trne 1\' b,<!",p" l>t<r .... io". had .. " .. ,,~ .,
,6j . Thi, IUgge>U ,h., Ixtwn S<p<emlx, 1.4 .00 Oc,obe, 'J Tar. ,i", won
. nd monk 1", .<t<,>tIed,
1.'1;" ",,,sen,,,., One hundmJ ,nd thirty-o,1<
", ''''u.....Uy "i!;h " ""'...., . I,.".. "'red ',...y bu. w ,<p,,,..,,,ed by ]'1<",,,,
the ro.mt of the OJ>>ikion tneme &nd th", tI .. loal mili .. 'Y "'nl!n.nd. and
b)' Jonn, the m'li .. ~, ~Qthet<, ,rusted cunuch ,J>1 As ">on .. ,he """neil
f. ,h ... had . ""mbled in ,h. Chureh of S" Sophi. , ,h. bi.hop. of Sicily nomi
n.. ed Tar";... to "I'<n the 'rnod ~)." ~ This provided him with the legiti_
m... p<;,;on h. nrokd to m.n>.g< .If,; .., Th. p.n;',ch .. mindrd ,h.
,bbo1,
S",hcting of the .boned synod of 786 .nd (Of ,be mob tb .. n.d I""" ined up,
n. .. id, by "",,,,in bi,hops ",+rorn i, "'"uld be ..sy '0 identify hut wh.,.. n,mes
1 willingly p... O\'C'f"19WO-E), H. then "1<'Ml ,h .. the ruk-r. h.d ""mmoned
tI", Sj-nod. and h ..,ndudoJ hy in"i,ing in ''''' t.;.1>op< who Iud hocn ""pon.i_
1>1. 10, ,i><: prcvio", y " ,roubles (,oou\-C). Oh"iou.ly, ,he ''''' rn'imity of
u.rn bi,hops hod hocn >tIm,tted ...,ti, no qun,ion ... to thei, o!thod""".
Only' .... ,rouhkm:tl<cn of 786, .nd po.. ihly the .un-i'ing bi ..."", of Hi.reia, " ,
were oIudcJ f<Qm ,h. opening .i[... Tko< . moumed '0 [.n only, . nd 'no''''''
>ms ,,, h.. "i~...J, b;t 1... AI[..><Iy T..... i'" w.s di!pl'},ing mod .... tion.
Af[er h.. opening di""",roc, T....iu .nd [he o[h ... in~i[cJ [h< 0 exdudcJ
bi'hops to <nto'. Bdo.. w,ing tb.m .n y .h. n to .j><.k.l>w<vct. tbe rouneil
oo-d.mJ [h. ading of [h. imj><,i.1 iiU'nl, 0' b[~, of ",,,,,,,,,,,,.ion (,0010-
'0
tOO7<:). r ,h.1I re'um oft.n ,hi, ma[l-bl. docum.nt. Fo, 'M momrn' it i,
enough to > bow "nth the wcmhkd bi,hops .od [h. dubiou, newl)' admi"cJ
""'''' ""'00 [ 0 ' d . .. ...m.n[ ,Iu, [he rouncillud m with impc,ial .",oo,_
ioy. 11'0"" and Con. n,i". ,pc.k of h"'" ,hry w.re d<q>ly dima<cJ by ,h<
divi.ion, in the eh"",h , ll>ry deli,. to "hi"". "unity '00 concord. " '0 !CStore
"Iu. m"ny in t .... pric>tfto,.,J," tOt <:..-,hli,,, ,!S"'<nl<'" wi,b ,h. deci,ion. of to.:
old councils, '" "''''0'' the ,,,,i.n, ",I... ,,,d o'd ..... " 11>0 [ub..., th. , i, ,,-as
,h. f<><mer P",;,,,h 1', 01 who oJ,;,.,.! ,h<m of ,n.: I',obkm, 1><""";"5 'h<
ehreh, n.mrl)' tlut 0"" u n, inoplc .. <:><><! ot other"~ (<J~ VQ/)o\,
tLVU ),i;yQtl\Il) had botn hold [0 sub"," pic,ute> .nd im'g. l'.ullud .. Od [Iu[
council wu n='Y '0 ",,J,, ,Il< .un,,1I" ,,>tIh...i.... h" hi, p.M, would
only """"pt ,h. p' !fi.",lul oAi if .uch. <r'tOO wt '0 lot held. So . "'n"eil
h'" hocn Cliloo to b ting tb. d",t<h togbe, in tb. <taditio" oftbe foth.,,TIt... worn, having botn read 00[, ,h. of tho j",[ admiucJ bi,h,,!,>, 8 .. ,1
of An')..." Theodo,< "f My... . nd l1>eodosiu, of A"""ion , wer< l>rougl>, 10,
....1'<1. FWiI.poko ~"' . .. yirog ,h., he had .... rni....:! d,. i.... e bdO .. ,he COI"",I
and ""'" wished ' ' pp=ch , he C.,l>olic Church ('OO7O-,o" B) , fusil theo
"",d 0'" Ioog .od qui ...... di,iorul p""""ion of f.i,h ,,,,,,,,,rd ,I>< end of which
I>< emhnca! im>g<> of ,he inc.." .. e jc.~., of M.')'. mg<b. "P""i<s. I'f"ph",
m""y'" .nd .. inti , He ,hen deli ... ~1 ,he .rutl><,nu >vin .. ,h.osc wi", "d.,>dc.
Ch,ii. "," (,hot is., Ocooocb,;u) ... "..,11 as >pin" a series of ... ,hct demen",),
irooophobic .... """'. for iru""", that im.g are idols. n.: """<><il >ponded
'0 B.,il wi,h " Thank., be '0 G<><l who .... united w/u., had hem scp=oted ,"
8 .. il "'as ,hu. ",.dmiued '" full communion .nd Th""!"re 01 M,.... was
brougll! forw. rd. Hc tOO . lied to be reunirtd to the eh",eh and then '<od oot
d.. ,.mc !"'of.... ion of fai.h ,ha, B.;il had j,," .polocn (,oHG- D). Whcn T hrodOfe finimed . Euthymirn ofS.l'<li...id. "BI<SIoOd be G<><l who bas uni,ed him
'0 the Catholic Church." Nat Throdosiu he" ame forward ('0" 0-'015B).
H< . pologized fo, ..ying .nd '=hing "" much >vi"" im:ogcs lite m<n'ion, no
io.,,,,,,", ...... ) and ..id that lit had .:<n , .... e,mr oflli. ""'YO and""", wi.hed '0
he "'uni,ed "ith ".11 oth., Chri"wOl," In S<$S;"n fivt of tI>e council ,,'e lcam
,hat l'hrod",,;u, t-l been pr.... n'.' H ie;' (,,: ' 7)D). He ,hm procadcd ro
rcod fiiHU~, "'hich he himstlf had !",.rcd. He .ddc.l si . .... ,hem'" m ...h
lik< <10< """, hiJ pm:l~, hod ",,,,1,,,. Tlo. cum",il """, . g<rt<l ,h., T\,~ ...
d".i ........ wonhy 01 >dmi .. ion, .nd.1I ,h...,. bisho!" "'.".. bidden '0 !Ok ,hei,
......
-.
T he rouneil ,I><n mmed '0 ,ouchi., , ul>jo<" ~" m_ ),i,h<lpS

h.ill h<~,,,, ,he . ~.. ,,,hlr . nd T..... i". h.... ,,&',1 ,hcon fo' ,Ioe;, "",iei".. ,io"
in ,he prohlem. of;1l6 ( ,,>t5f~ '0'8A) , Tioe bi"'<IpS ,hen .bi<:crly .pologized rot
,,,",,i, co,>d""" .. yi,,! ,hat ,hey wo: ... deui.-.d by ,hei,
."J the p.""';li~!
condi,ion< of ,I..: church. Hoving.:<" t ho fully of their ... yo, they n<>w wished
,codmi'",n ft, the ehutch (tOtSA- 10f9 B). The council pfOn(HJ.nccd ' .... m wor
'hy of rca<!m;"';oo, hu, ,hen john. 00(0 of ,I>< rnm Iq;>,es, urged ,h .. ,I..:
eooneil """', the "~iting> of the f he .. to.:< exactly h""" tI>e church .hould
go iliou, r<admining t." .. ri<1 The coocilia,
now go "" for coln m". .nd
rolumn. ;n ,he " . nd.u d ed;,ion in dilig<m . Im"" f..s,idiou . ~i .. ,ion of
I"'"i"ic .nd coneil;', pro""~nmen .. on ,t." rcttp<ion of heretia (tOt9BtOjoC). The dca, imp"";on i, ptomot...! tt... ",e<)'thing is to he Jone accord
;og u,StriCt tub ond in ","",,,.. " ,nform;'y wi,h eo:ldia;ti.ool t..d;,ion,. On
.......1 ","""ion'. h.....<VCr. ,he mont.. opoke up "'ith KOious obi<:crio .... lhcy
-'J~ ronCC1n".) ,10 .., ......toni" ".) he,nie:! tOO, be >dmi"rtl '0 ,he pri<:!thood; ,hat
1""',>11, who cmb...cd h<ray w;lIingly "'" h< easily rndmi,,I; .nd ,ha, pc"
..,n, " ,,,,"ine<l by hc, ..ia n", h< p<,m;".,J '" =.cioc clerical min",,),, """'u
nd ,100 bi,hop> .killfully """rame ..cJo """""ic objection . nd. ~n.lly. ,he
,cache"
,=1.
6r<>ncin< Iwnod.. m
"";.f"",,,,',
;~
IIlO<lks agreed <I", ,lie proposed ...!",ion. ""fe

Tl>c ",",'en bi,hops
tt.:n . , k1 t" .",<1 th.i, '>n,.,i",,,. Thei' f,,11 recq>1i"" " ... , how.,.',
postponl to 1.. >e>sion of tho: council. prob.ahly to procuim that the-if
culp'biliry ..... S"''''' ,h,n ,h .. of [h. [h"", bUMps who were r<i"ro immcdi_
>!ely . ,'" [hei' """,,,,,[ion,.
Ai. ,ho: >ond .... Oon of thc rouncil "('<nN.n i"'r<n.1 ,=ng<' "n"ro
wi[h lIi,hop G, "ll"'Y of N""""",.", "'h,, wo bo _ki"g t'<C(>1tcili.,ion. G"ll"'1" ..... qucs.ionro ""1' clo,dy.nd [h~n hi, e< was """ponro uh[il ,rucu
..,..ioo hOSlD--lOS~D). Th. m.in bu,ih"" of tho """,nd ..".;"n ..... tho: odi,,);
cJ Pore H,dn",', It. to Ihe .nd Con".nti"" (tOjSJ\- 'Oj "D) .nd m T.,._
.i u. (t078C-l08.D j_M we: t...v. aloc:ody ""'n, H.drian, I." et to In<
rcad
in an exP"'lI"tcd vc"~'n ,hot ".<:<1 wdl to .voOd e<>ntrov."y. F_n,i.lly <I ..
P"f< affi<ml the ,u,hon'Y of St. Peter. of the p<tp(:u Potcr', vi(::lr.:rnJ of the
Ron.. " Cl,u",h. H. p,...,,;l Ioi, pic ..... "'" ,he d""g<: "f ho:,,, on ,he pot, of
B)'Z'tmium', rule ... And he bid out a good m'ny biNi",1 and I'"nic .ita[ion.
in drten", of irn:l~. Througho"" hi, Icc"" the POr< cmph"izes [he n<cc>,ity
of =1"';",i,,1 ""it), "ndtr hi. lcad<"hip. 0". "''' .>sa), ;",.gin. ,]'" tI,.
Bruntin would h>ve pr&rml I.tt." "'ith , little Ie "'... on 'he I"P><Y
b~" ., , he ~me ,ime. gi,..,n ,heif own Mr.. q;y of cmph"iling unity, ,he p<lp<'.j
word< wt .. wtlcome ..J ,<>lc ... bl<. Mtc. ,h. 1"-'r<',lct"" had lottn tca<l thc
')'nod off,ted m.ny .ffitm.,ion. of their ,..ching< (,oUC-llll). He was
.o",hcr pon[ 'ign of unif)'.
lne ,hird ..... iOOl <>p<" ..1 by .d,ni lt ing ,ht, hi, h"I" wh ......"'. h,el h<:cn
po;poncd '" ....h of the
twu ..... 'on . Th. bi<h"l" who h,d .I.'~)' _
canted ,,~ in" i[ro in .I"ns wi,h G[~'Y of N:><><ure:<. who ..." .. one
point 'n do< I'roca<linSS bbelro ,h. chi.f of the l",,,,i .. (lll8A). ,ltd ,ht, h.ad
(l;uQXo-> of tht, p='iou. ""nhol~" .ynod (l< ,SR). G""S"'Y ,cad hi. tcan,.,ion
and ,ht,n was qu<>,ioncd do.dy on whhel Or no< h. h>d caused . n)'Onc '"
.... lfe' on ><CO"'" of hi, cloy."io" '" in"SO'. G,<go'Y denied ,h .. h< hod iniuted
u)un . Ot t...el urdcted . nyone to be h"mcd hlls ll-llt9BI. Al no On. Orne
~> ..... ,~ '0 ".>"",.Ji<, him_,..., "''''Y'''''' ""ins d;o.;tC. ""'ct, f .... I_pic Icft
ftOln ,ht, 7\0., Ot," 1 .pt. were "'ry f.... J>C0pl .,.-.:r .u,lIy h.<med for
,heir iconophili,?_i, w:u d<c~led ,h., .u ,h. rt""ining bi'hops could be
.... ,ro. ,.. Abbo[ s . ba, of S",dion 11"" [h.nk> for the n"",I)' ,ato,I uoi'}" of
[h. church.
lIi,hop Con".o[inc of Con,un[;' in C)'l'rn .. who
acting .. m..,r of
cert",,,,,i.., ,h." .... 1 tl .. , To''';'''''' lett ,,, ,I,. f., s'Ctn ck~ be .-.-..J "ut
('"9D- m 7A) . Aft.. [he Ie" .. ,..:or, tcad ,h. pop<', I<g> ffirmcd [I. .. HuI .;'n
hod rro:i"ro ius' ..do , I."... , n,,", of ""me ionl'''' ''''> .i"" "]'",,;u"
we'"
w.'
fi",
w.,
...
C ... " . . , .. "
1m....0 Hod..w. ;. "'" OWl' (barring b .... ,n.tTpOI.. oo!U 0( W rcmrd" which
an_ bt <uk<! om). Tuui ... k<p< ro 1 'T'l' "iJI> I<'wcl 0( Il"ntr:diurion. u~
......,................ r~ Iud brough, tum. nm ,"""'" ~, '0 ,he
1"',ri..I<1ul dlgn"y: hoow ht IOund ....., 0( _d. ~n, in his ..... m: """. M
mu>, odht .. 10 "",om 1nd I>}' d<no..... proIftsion 0( f':,J.h. T1o.ttt IOUow. Ion&
.nd "'hoIly ,<odi,i<HuI ~~ foJn which <u<>duJ.. wi,h on inl<rarins se, 0(
. fIi,m.,;"n. 0( ,he- ... <rumrnical coulKil>. H~ ,IK" pren .. his ""II fo, an
"",'n~ka1 ",uneil ond <ksctihcs ,he comp~e ,ul'I"'" of ,he n,len fo, ,hi,
1,I,n. T.. asi ... asks for J.p, .. .., ,h.. ,he uni,y of ,he church .nd f. i,h an bt
''''0,1. ,ho, ,h. di.i<kJ be uni,ed. Th. , ,he ....,.,.nded be ht.kd. n.. .ynod
Then Ix-.. d ,I>< 10".. of The f=~m I"'tri..n:h<. wbo ..... "nahlo fO .".nd 'Col .... 0( Mu>lim oo..ilioy nd ,he .,...ooia.l let .., of
.~ of
}c1usal<m IUI)'C-u46Cl. 1......, docurnmlS e>p<a4sre";o,.
0 cooncil";U
be lKid 10 rcpoir ,1M: rift in dormurdo 100 ~ P<Ofaolon. of(,,,h. n...c uU
,he fo'm of. ctbl .u,....... , IOIlowod by an ..." ....... ,iort ..... affirmation of
,Ix- ... ccumomia.l CDUTK-it.. along with .:ondnnna,ion of ,ho pontdo-O<W1>th
coon<~ of 7!4. In'........ the dorumen .. ""',m <he ,rWi<1otu of d.. councit..
II.. cui, of ri>< ";nlS, :onol ,he cui. 0( ......... <n
on\o,. Aha ,1M: dt.:umn\..
I...l - . . ......t ,h~ boolo"l'" "",,/;,.,,1 ,hci, ,-'>i.....
The founh ....""' ...... "krn up "'ith tho radinS ..... 'I'I"'lval of . whole
.me. ofbibH",J. "....i"i,. ..... ~pbicol 'al> I"",..in;ng ' 0 inup. II <:<>nduJ.o wi,h r",r...;"n "ff"lh J:,y ,he- . ... mbll cl<'V If): 11SC-'JJA}. Th.
p",f..,inn hepn. wi,h crtt\l1ik.... " o,.n, of f.;,h. ",n,in ILtS ",i,h , condem... ,;"'n of ,lie ..J<"w"i .... Con n.ic\e .ho, "!wk<d" apin!! im,,,,". anJ
on
,,ith an .n;,m:.tlicm of.he culT of 1>1.'1 .nd ,lie .. inu .1>< culT .,r .h. "'''''", and
,hen tho cui. of imogu, n......;.,n mndodc. wi, h ,I>< wbscrip<iono of all <he
",u,.rch
Th.,
,Ito,
",,,ria
hip""'"'' p!'......,.
s..._ Gvc......u iu w.r .hrt:ough LontIl.. oI ....ion. ho:rnio.nd concluda J:,y ... x/ti", ic:onocIoom ro <he Ions 1... 01 mon. A ... of .....J,..,rw
biohups and
."'* """"
Kbuka
in any way Kj<a irn.oF' (fH A-to,E), Se.ion toiJ., .1><1onp
in ,1M: O><Inc:U. """..... of. r<ading om and I""n. ,by-poon ..,ru",ion of me
"""'"' of H...., .. ( >04A- J64D), In 1'" """,h<r nic~ 'f'l'C'm<n 0( m,lTOgnt'I"
T.....;... hod G'"I'>')' of NOOCICIII"<'>. "'ho had 1x<n I><... nl in 7!4> <ud OUT
<he /,0 ... pi:< by pi< ...he rouocill"'oaedi '" ,...f",~ il. 'n.. oesoio """dudes by """';ndin8 ,II< .n.,lIem pl"OllOl,nced in 714 >pinn I'.u;"th Ger
""oUS, c;..,,.- of Cypru r.d J<>hn of D.m""",. SeN;"n - . . ..... <lNot..d '0
....di"8 of ,1.. '-w of J1 NiCK .Jon, wi,h ..., of ",.,h.n". l!64E-~.}A).
M"" <>f ,h.... J< di,,,,,,,..d agoi"" ,hoo.< who .".. k im'ge<. hut .mong tllem
.......1 Jesc"" .po:c:iol ""'i.e<. fi,.. , ";nwlly .... "'h<lk hbmr for H ....... i.
pL.:cd "" til< h<ad, of ,h,tt long-<le;l</ bid,,,,,,, Tl>rodosius of Eph""" Sisin.
ni ... p..,ill.. , ."d R..a T,;<oc>b ~, (.."oA) . S<t<>nd. ",ndomn""'n f.lk on ,he
'hI<'< I",';.rchs of ,he ironoc!."i< etol: An ....,i .... Co""",ncin<. nd NicrtolS
(>OA). Third. Bi,h"". John of Nio,ml" (",he.wi$< dttpl)' oi:>scu) .nd Con. .. n,ine of N.""I.i <0 ""lied ,he herosi".h. (~ooB). Th, rouncil 'hen ..",
I",." U) Irene .nd (;o n,un,ine (400D - 4080) .nd '" ,h. cl<rgy of Ii,,!!i. Sophi nd "f Con.u nlin.>ple S"I",,,,II~ 14OIIb-il-4A). Th<s< I",." go OU' of ,heir
W>~ ,,, ptoli .. I",.'" ",I, in ""lIing ,he council ,nd
""""1' ,he collllcil",
;l</h,l'<"", to tf.. .n<~t .nd Mi""",! ,toIditioo., of tf.c church.
Schot.." h. ve long nmiccd thu. roml"rcd to .,Ii., <Cum.ni",,1 rouncil .
II Niacas
""""i n MI... Ii,,", d,o.~"I\)'. I" To that tho.,I"I\)' I , h. 1I tutTI
,ho.dr. For now i, is i.,po"".' m ... ,..hy ,dmini"""i," ,,,.,ngemenn ,001...u
"f 78 nd ]86, .oruiu" h. ndling of the rouncil must be SOn .~in" th ..

b..ckground.
Sool'<ly Ih., . "'C" ic""""hib .nw"'g Ihe bi,h"ps in )117 ho"
m.t<>,i,y
mu" " ill
bet" men .ppointed undo, the ico"""""i. time. Apl',rendr
they WCr. nO< f",,",,1 about image< but they "ill h;oJ to be rcroncilcd. The
mon"" in p.nirular,
kerr of ,hei, old foes, Thu" Tar.,;u, followro "",r.1
CO" ..... simuh,n..,,,sly ,0 ach~e hi, de>ircd ",,,con'e: church .. one .nd at
pcocc. A condem""io" of i""nod .. m, o.:on ,/Ii"".,i"" of ictmophil'" 1 11k
to he: li<Wr><bry ol*.,i,"<,-1IOf .n un;mpon .n1 on. 00, noc ,,,. imporun'
,h.
h'''''
""<t.
0""-'"
Fint. T.",,;u. ><cured 11\.1 bm.d"", .. lolldly .. he could both ;mperi. 1

"'ppon .nd the ,ul'pon of Ru,ne .nd ,f.. Ea.teJn I""i .. ch . By thi' mco.n. f..
could he: ... n 10 be -.e,ing with ,h. compl<IC .ppmv:ol of ,he lUI ..... poin' , ... ,
"'ill nO! h.... be<:n 1m, on thnse "."" ~ ..... pe'(ec,ly "'011 ,hat 1"" nile .. h,d
bern brgoly 'copon,;bl. fu, ironocWm , H. could.1so fulfill p.ur. wi.h ... . nd
hi, own. ,hOI ,he Onhnd". Church no longer f.. "I"..,,<d f,om ,11 o,her
<huhe<. Th" gow Ih_ " 'h" w.;", "ill iconocl.:urs in 7 ~ 7 ",me rove. '0 rejoin
,h. cho.-.:h . Th<")" ,(;,1 '"'' h,,,, '" "" ><en., """ns ,n '" ,he pm,.h .Ion. Or
to. fae,;on in the o.tl"""" Omrch i"df. Second, document .Ii.. docum.nt
tediollSly I<'<ite< the t...:hing> of the .i~ ecun",ni",,1 <,""""ils while .1", <i'ing
hibli",,1 .nd I",,;,,ic 'c," 1'<"",,1\, 10 in"ge<. H.", .g.>in ,h. Ihem. of uni,y " ...
",,,>dod. The ""Y".. rd "'C ""ing uk<! ,0 join, ,radi,ion. w ./Ii.m" f.i,h. A
td.."ivcly ,;ny n,,,,,be, "f 1><""''' WC'e "nsled 0 .. , fO, p" hlic """",.,",n,. At
In.,, """ of the>< Iud bn prn<n1" Hie" .00 r.cvcn ",he" had Ixrn 'ing_
",hj<aed '0 my <mb..rr:o"..
I<.do" in ,h. di,m,honccs of 786. No one .h.
W:oI><clum i,,,,lf ""'" """",,n<:<I--<llod I "'ill ro"" b.>ck ju"
ing ",n";,,y.
\1Vh.,.
w.,
below to ... h.:., II NiCK> .,iJ
.bu." lIy",,,,i,,,"', O:o"od.., ",Io<>-no "" 0 .1;..,
.. td prestn, was bbm..! IUr ;,. Con,,,,n,in. of N..,..,I.i ...... ,urn..! ;n,o ,I><ft"<iar<h .".1 rnftt o1nin.n~y fOf);<1,~bl. bi,hops ""'0 bl.",..! rut Hi.r<; .
'In,,,,, "",ri.rch.. [ht b.,[ o' ,htm de,d lOr more ,h.:.n I<V<'R yea ... "",. "",..d.
,nd [h"", O:on<>phil. he..,.. wet< rdubiliu,w. 1lu, i, . 11. Th..., " .... no hU Rt
h-., hemic>. Tht",....,r< no bhnk... coMem",,"''''' T..... iu. p....,.ie<:J tho, .i/ton .... ;., fu' which the 1I,.,."t;n< """Id i, justly f,moJ, the """""" ... prin<ipkd
reco",ili. tion of J i...,,,,,n, poi"t> of view. 'U Tu iu. had to find ..... ). to t._
mo.', O:onod."" "';thoot """ ".nently . li."",ioS the icono<l. "" H uc_
<:<:e<kJ.,..
l.n '" look. much
more bri<tl),> .. ,h .....y 1.....;'" dealt "'i ,h ,h. monks

in 78].'" lii'lOricaJly monks Iud nO! I>n o<cotdcd. promi"'''' rol. in <CII.
men;"",1 cnuJlcik "'....,iu' ;n"Olvd ... m.ny .. ')1 mooks in U Ni=>. H.
J><nniuw [h.m to .".nd . 11 =>ion . to 'J><.k on ~br bo.;". to q~n
.h. hi.hops who "'-.rc being ' <o>ncilw lO. ht church . nd '0 ming lO"h imw
t<s,imon;'" in "",ion> fuur .nd 'ix, T..... i'" .nd lren. m. y h.ve: ... n in .1><
monks. n.tural ,uppo" group for their pblLl..nd ..:>toting imag<> waJ 01><
effec.i.. way of winning ..... . "'-';oriry of .h. mo ..... '" ckrg> n-.:n .hough not
.11 monk.! ....,f< ;"-'n,.:Iol... Y T ... ,i ... k~ ~Iy wdl ,ho, he <""Id n " ,
oJ><, .... church wi.hou[ til< bishops .n d h< kn",,' [Of) [ho. , ",nicol,rl)' in ligh[
of.he .ulTering of [h. mOllks in .h. 7600 h.RO
bod f linS' htrwttn .h.
monks and ,ht bi<hop>, Thu,. the p.. ri.h JjJ OOt let the monks prC'Sl for
." .... m. m..,;u.n On
dmitt;ng h"rtia. but ht k, .he n>onb
h.. ";.ibk rok in the council ... hid> conde",,,w tht;,x,~ .. hich had
I>n , hollm:uk of .h< imperial . nd . piscop>l ~mc .ho. hod h. rried .htm
"'cil""ly 00" leas ..,me """'-""n,. I.;. .1", mp[i ng .o .""",1 . . link 00
,ho IWtn,y.wo <:>"0<>< [ho. 'r< .pp<nded '" ,ht .... of ,ht cnurocil. It i, "'"
known enctly wh .... o. ho..' ,he""" wt .. ,""P ...J. M.,.. of,hem de.i.. in " ",
.... y '" ..r,,~htr f...,,,, .. .li., concilias Iq;isI>ti"" (<><>Iy number> 1. of, 8. 9 nd '7
.rc new), '" Tl.cK hod not b<cn 'igni Ilea". council of ,ht 8yun,in< Church
in . Imo>[ n.u ry.., .he Ninc f.the .. may ho"" J><rcci.ed need '0 innodu
few discil'lin>!), " ...."[... S.iII. ",.ny o f ,h=.", J<ciJ..!ly in,.. ting in .. ,.,
,hey ,,,,h on ,he f.ith> m",aI . nd ecclesi ... ical conduC! of tht ,,;u.ops. P....... bly T. r.uiu, . nd , ht mOflU agr...J.o .dd .... <pisco",1 ronduct in th""" ",non.
i", ..ad of [ekntkMl)' .."eking CJ'iKoval bdid", in tht .C!"
"II'-,n,
Fin. lly. T.m;u,. ,nd J><rh..,. I "" '00. finc>o<d .h. impe,;"1 invol .. m.",
in ;"-'nocb.om. ,,' Tht coun did no. " .. ne ;,x,lIod"m labobl .n im"",;,,' h.~y
lren. ~ in the deli",[. """tion of >im uh.. r.rously embracing.oo di .... ncing
h ....,lffmm ,h. l.. u,i.n ""Ieg>cy. She eQuld no. J><.mi n ourrig],. "'mdem ...
w.".
.0<1, ................
0;""""",,,,
h,.,",
,ion of he' p,kc""" ... The o.m" .." "res< on

dni", '" pu, . igh, ,he
"~()ngs in 'he church migh' iuv< rung ~ li"l. hollow if Jrro. and Ta""i"" hod
ot .... ",lin. ,ime eu,ig"cd .,I~ inll.. tial "",i.i,i...
L>oking .. ,he coneil;...<co.d. i. ' "",,,cti,,, in "g'I.d '0 TaUl''''' pltn of
""';.,., . U .drian , k " ". in [he ,,,,,ion .h..[ "." f<".d 0 0 [. nn", ... mcs l<o Hl.
O m" .",i n< V. '" lLU IV. Th. pop< . ,... k, only of y<>o, s",..S"'nJf..h:
' yoo, S"'ndf"her: .00 ..YO'" f"h<," llOn<, lone, ~) Had,;.. ...,un dipl"""" .
ictlly [0 ',ho.. who rulcd bdo", 0,,, In ,he fiiih .... ioo John. one of [he
Eas'ern 1,,&,'''. mid.
~.I<
of on< myste";"u, Tcuo,()kon"phys. . J",i,h wi>
.ro woo p[omi.w ,he ",Iiph V....id cigo of 'hiny )."''' if h< "",,old dnlfO)
,m.go. Somehow ,h;., te""hing tnehe<l Con". n.i"" of N><oIei. who Iong
wi,1I hi, 'UPJ'IOI'. dos,royi im.g<"' (19711-1008). l<o i. not n.mcd. This
"01)' i 0'piciou.J y like 'h< on,
Theoph. ncs .dl> 110,1.. 'h< )'<11 71).'"
In .he h;".orian .telli ng. on unrutmcd ~i,h wiuro Went '0 Ya.id and p[omiscd
him a f"ny.yeo< ign if It. "",,old d " 'my in",g<"'. A Ch.i"i.n n.me<l !ko<
who h.d bc:en. cop,i," in Sy. i . common;".,e.d Con.",,,,;n, of
Noroleia .. an . Il ~. It ""m. cbl ,It" COII,n,on ",,,,k of ,",o[ies ><:oved a, a
,N.,
m.
:iO)Uf(C fm oolh lhe council
f~lll(Cr.I
alld T hrophancs. Bu. "he..... Iil< latler
n.med Leu. oo,h w<"Cd in pl><ing p.im.1)' bbme ()n a Jew. M o.lim . nd a
woyw. ro " i.hop .," A. W<c . h>1I ..., in Qllr di.!co .. ion of Ni"..,, [h,I<>g.v . Ito
wri,inp of John ofD.n<a<ru. Ue "" ngdy negl=ed in 787. One .... <On roulcl
wdl bo . hat JoItn ~ ...... g< in h;' eri.ici.m, of the rule". ~ntl h. ab<t .ttacked
[he rightS of , ny rub '0 inIVon< in ,h..,l<>sical mme". ,.,. Making "''' much
USC of John _uld h>", bt<n ,n . ffront 10 ,h, .. h,,1r Jyna;,y .ncl 50 he wo,
gingerly kep' O./l one .OJe. Con .... n,in. V ~ntl lro IV
explicitly n.med
nnly in "",ion
poinlS wh<'" ,h ...,"" of Hie"". ~ being qU01ed ('09D.
lIIE). The .. i. one patticu["ly .evcaling =mpl. of ,he ..ay In whi.h the rule"
w.o ,il<nd)' .,duded_ A, he ".". t=tiing i, nlll. G"'1\'>1)' of N>a.<s>I<> q""'cd
0'" I"-'"ion of ,he 1",.... as ....ying .h., Go.l h.d "isecl up "oor f.i.hful king>.
,he un .. ",[,,,I ,,, the ap"'d<>" ". kod ",><l ... h "oJ '0 .ooli,h .liabolic.tl cun
ning. When Dc.""n F.piph.ni",.cad oUt ,,,,, co"",i]". ",(uI>{ion of ,hi, "",ion
of tho 1",,,,, he ..id .. boc>" .. 'h< m<mbon of [hot counc;1 w~", bish"p,
hlID. llijq. One would no' know. from .h<so documents . h .. CO .... n.i ....
V h,d w<ltkcd h.. d ... l''''I'.n: flO, ,h. C"un,;1 .,f Hi.", .. Ot , I", <I" "",un,il
h.d taken iM() con,id-or.It"'n
wphi,,;a,ed .h<oI,>gial 'poe"I,,"'n ()n ,he
emperot'. pOI' . H.", i. how the council ... mmcd up its "ew of I.ene. anCCS'()n;
" Their p<" drro . ,he vi<roria S'in! OV<l . ... mi<>. ,he ."bi"S""'n of barba
IOUS o"i"",. ,he 5O);'i.ud<: ,hey ,h....vcJ f() h.it ... bjoct . ,he wil< me.. o...
",.r<
.i."
"'In<
"
CH . . ' . . TWO
,hey 'ook. ,h. ron,,;,u';om ,h.y promulg;nod . ,h.;r ci.;c ;n,,;'u,;orur. nd ,h.
in\pro.~m.m. clf"",od br ,lI<m in ,II< ci,;" .. .uch .. ,k ,i,l. o' ,he dead
. mp<rors '0 f"">e. tl ..., ... hU:h sccu"'" '0 ,h.", ,he lV",i,,,de of.1I ,n.,; "bjccn"
hJ: Jill." '" Thi, i. ",,;,h ,II< vicw no. the ling",!!" of rho 'hree midmury
trc:o,i!<S '" of til< Lift .fS~p- II.< Y
... np.
h ....iu hi ...od no<.bi. resul,. ,.... Ju.o, 1i II< h>d ra:oneikd ,he bi>hopo
, 00 .ppca.>l ,h.
h. ",hit~hod ,II< imptri.1 rok in iconocl.. m.
lcun""I"m ~ i", ... n to pi'" wi ..,d.. Muslim 1'<"<" ... ,.... ,,,d 0,,.. m;>guM!od bi.hop. Rulers """,e ",,,,.how infccr<d w;,h the ron .. gioo h", i, w:u not
,h.i. foul!. Hie .. i. w:u .n.ibmod '0 ,h,'" bi,hop<. not '0 ,h. whok q>!srop".
or '0 Cot ..... mi"" V. Th ...-hoI. poin, of II Nieu>. f""n one Oi'" of ,....... "'~
to uAdo ,he w.m>gc WlOUgh t~ 'hc council of;l ... "Tha, d",~,,~ ""rcfully
.rt,ihutod [0 $nUll oumi)(r of ""'~"I .. h"<2< iconox).um itIClf w:u lrWrrod on
k>n ... fmm ""i,hin 01 oddh:.lls fmm wid,o", ,I>< <mpif< , "';'< n ... ,1""Jy sn
th .. ,I>< .. n..y "...,. h, .. been
limn.1 iconocw.ic odic1 i" 7JO or " .ny
o[her ,im<, Bo: !lUll . . it "'"y. l reo. <;ould no' <2<ily i~u<. o odiet .bol;lhing
iomucl"", ",i, hou, ,h r:by ."""king rhe ""'~"' n,1 ,h u, ,h. ffi<m"ry of he,
prcdcccuo". T. mi", fuuoo. w.y nO<.., ",,,,,h to acull"'l< Lro!ll .nd Con".n,;n. V., <0 Ie..'< ,hen, .,," of <he "ory.
I.ool<ing hack, on. can.ay ,h>, II Ni""". i>cg.on br Itgirimi<ing;t>
I"'n". ,hen kgirimi.."j inuS'" ""i,h ."!\Um.n" d .. wn .Im"" ,,;rely fru m his,ory .nd ,Mirton. rhen JdeWri".i.."j ,he rou.,.;1 of 7H. JM'dy by .<M,<Cing
mo", " , U!h<n[ic" ,radi[ion nJ I"'nly by impugning <
or inrell'",n,ion.
uoed in 714. aiM! ,hen i"U!. /,.,,,,, ,1-.,,, i, .m,,;ngiy jej un< ......... m<n' of
im,1l" ,heulogy. Th, reuon. ". '0 be "',nd in ,he ..,h,. long Jisc""ion we
h>,,, ;un boxn p""u ;ng. The s.c.,.,d Council ofNW::.e.",,, . bou, n.. "y rhing>
All o' ,hose 'hing> ""'" >CUldy imp<>nant in ,hoe Byuot;n...."rId ,n ,he 7110<.
Onl~ SOm< of 'ho>< 'hing> .... '" ,h<m .. lvcs p,inurily .bou, ;m.g<~
""'til<.. '"
'''y
""';0-
="
I... U> .... ," li p ,hi, accouo< uf lIyu",;um ;" ,h, /; ... ,,, of ico,>I>C4sm, So"''
",;,ici.", W2.< I' rdg<d >vin" ;m"l\e< b)' 1.0:0 111 in .b<~" 7JO. W< do no r ",,111
know ",h.. he ..1M!. No,hin~ tI>< ....".i ning '0 im.8'=". " I.... ,h>, we lnow
. bo",. h'rrenod ""'il ,!>our 75' ,,hen Co"",,,,ine V h<gan , I>< 'giu,,,,,, ,I",
I<d '0 'he deeply ioroophok """,.cil of 714. In ,h. 7600 f.... prominen' """k,
"f.rt """, . ",movod ftom ron.picul~" I",bl;': pl>CcS. Sum< m.nusc,iplS_'"
muril"od. When P,ul w.. ..,I;t<d for [hc I"'trL:uch:ol offic<, h...~ ..ked. '0
off.. mun""" ,Iu, be woul" nor "",.. bip imn . Th .. i< ju" .bou, ,be "frok
h."ory of KonocJ.,m .. ,,"" e>n "",wily kn",",' i,. Ir i hi"ory wi,h .pi....!..
b", "" rim.

P. tfio,eh Ge,m,onu, p<'X<fully "epped .. ide , B'!!.0l" occq> .. bk ", ,ho:- io...
n"l'hobc ruk" Lro III. Co"".n,i"" V. and Lro IV wtft grodwlly PU' ,nw
"fIi. We
'If no. 1"'18"'. W. h",r 'If ...., ,Iu'l' opp<irion ro rhe n.cw h,,bo!",
In 75<1 'he b'lhopl g>,h<red ,n 'mOO ~nd ded, red ,hc" oPI"",',on to im'ge
wo,!h'p. W. he.. of no "I'1""",ion '0 ,hem. """"P' from p. p. 1 Rome, In 'he
7So. 'he old r.trio,m r.ul. if 'he ""uren can b.: b.:li",'ed, Iud. cri.i, of ron
K;'n hcc>UI<: he presided ov.r ehu"h divided from .11 ",her church... Obvi.
"",Iy ,he divi,ion ".,. o<ca>ior>ed hy ironod,, "m, bu, i, i. no'ew<>n hy ,h.. 'he
_'en do not <>.plie'tly '''Kh I'.ul', .trgu',b '0
By 78, Itenc .. > ' hey ""T< ""kul.. ing. Thet........ """,e "I'~,ion ,n
7114 ,nd .g:oin in 786. bn' i, ..... dro',ly o"'''''''''c... >d ,hen T,,,,,;u" '''porb
m","!;Cmen, of'he rouncil in 787 .11"",0<1 .11 f'>nic:!, ,tu ... in ,he n... I) ..'on
do",<>, ir: ,,.,nqu ili,y ."d =lc:.i,,,ial l"''''otry.
Thc dc'l!l' .hould 00. be ~n as 'pmcirn in"]l of 'his. No. mould they be
ittn .. ,he willing ,001. of. !ai.. of d"miru,ing lUI .... Ck'ID"nod ,ub. h>d
lI""'t '<>p<CI fOl <:aeh ,~h<,', mle. '" ,h. ' '''<Jo,h " ........ ,i"n <>f ,he "ni.....,1
Oui"ion rommonwe.lth ,h>' ,ioo:: Con"'ntine 'he C ..... J .."'nded on .. 0 ....
emp<ror. one .mpi .... on. f.i,h," 1-1,,1<1.. AJr",-.iI ... minds u. I"'intlly 'hat
"'C "He" .""".10" ""..,ropapi,m, ,h.. ,. rom<"'f"ibl< "..,Iogi,m."'" II is u",1eI..
.. . hi.""ial mtcrpt<ta,ion of <he rompliated ",,<ling "'>tioll!nip oo..-n
Byun,i"m 's ><,1" .nd 'pi,i"",1 ofFici.1<. The de'l;Y '" Byun,i"", ..-.'< .I"",yo
prcl',,0<1 ,0 "'PPO" .nd '0 coopcmo wi,h ,he ",I... "fren....er ,hey roI,ld ,,.. r n
,he .igb,h unrury 'h<y .Im"" .I,,",,)~ could. Thi. ,elli w no, ,h.. ,I>< cle,gy
we ... ,to<>g<:< but
,m. go> ......i, her not ,ueh big jo,ue-cenainly no'
"orrhodo.y .. ,u<h"--o, dK no< SO un.mbiguou,ly dcfjnl by ,he ,radi,ion
'" ""k< ,-" ... nd only,,, .. po .. i,ion p.la ..bl<, honorabk. It i. only in ,he ligh'
of ' .....
i",noJ"l. ~iC!ory ,h., ... ""
note.I.I ...... in ,hi, .. ody. io,n<>phobia wa.! m.d< '0 'ppo" bad in i""lf.nJ ou, of "ep ..ith con,inuo", Ch,i.
,i.n ",,,,hing
loonocl."" " ... iml"""nr in .igh,h-n,ury Byun'ium m.inly hcc>u ..
,wo empt"'''' bid ""ne ".-= On it on at ....., . f....
But iron .... I.. O\
i, nOf 'h< "ory of eigl"hun rury Byu",ium.
in An .. <:>Iio ..d th< B. llan,
"'C'" mOf< ,mp""'o', l.cpl . .J",ini",..~,Ovc . nJ ~sc>1 ,""',"" .... '" mo", im
pomn!. Th< kinds of ,.n,ion, ,h>, led '0 m up .".mp" in 7~" in ,he mid
h."
,m,....,
10 '''''0'''
,b.,
n"..
h,,,,,
W.,.
OGCa<""".
]6o> n.! prohobly "&lin in nf>.n.! 710. oIooZ wi,h ,II< <u, rrnU <ho, .. p<<d
,~.nud\lft in ,II< >bon .... , bru ...1a,...:k 011 ,II< """,In in ,h. ]60> on.! >pin in
on< ,h<mc: in ,II< c.rly nco. om< more .. p&o.i"" m..n ."y of ,II< fiK.,.. gena_
br ;"'....eI..." . Thi.
is oI ......:Iy ...... ,mptN"U<l' pin in I"', ..... <li ... fiJI" "'"
uhima,. '"'" '" .. pbini~ " .... , luppt:r><d in .he Weo(. W .....J MIl ro:ckoo
"';,h. or on< end of ,II< Mo:di'....... -... a d<adr..-Ions crioi> of <On$lOn, .n.!
in ..ru.icy and . ..
orh<, .nd. powe.11y _",. at 011.
.,1
m.
..an",
An Talk in Eigh,h-Cc,"ul)' R)"un[ium

H'.inA........,.......na' on ....' he all..;! ,ho ....,no! hiMOf}' of 8 yuntinc: icono>.
tiJhth etn,"I)'. i, is ,imo ,(> kx>II iruirk. '" > ,.fu, ltindo of thinp
_ .... id.oo.., rdipo........ '" 'WI> ,pin to ,be kinds of ......ds.n.! conctpU
"" on>wt,.,...j in 0..1"''' ,. Tho ,i"", ollto III is cri.icoI in m>Oy ~
bu, from I.ro ~im..,l( MIl won:! ........; ..... Qu, .....;.d....:c r.,.. ......oiy irooo-
cbom in
m.
pl>obo pooirion mus, II< infm<d (tom rho law<> of G.mwruo ro ,II< lIi,nynian
bi,l>opo. Ao...., ..w ... rlia. I""P'" wroo ...... ro.Ila,." but rl>cs< do tIOI
, ko" "'" in .....,i, ",i,inai Ii",,,. Ni\:"(I'Iw..... ;m~ l "hwr/J;u>a r~ly II..,...
m;t..,me .au... ", inhuma,ion hut ir i. h.rd ro ..-p;ar... tbei, embroidery f"""
tho pb;" <!..>th ... " wh ich ,hoy pu, It. G .",... "u, >Ion<. ,lI<tdO, . PC""''''''nt("
'''';!VIt ;'''0 how tho i.""opholxo "'S"...! their cut. Go"t.."",.110 I..... '"
dues '" tI, wi ... ,." ironopl,il. ",s"m.'" onw.t h Iookc-d li ke:. lIut it is
mtlly John of 0. ........... who p, ... n,,_ fOr the fi ... ,im< dc:t.ill. cogent
"''''0'<.
""m.
'<gU m, .. , fo' the icono!'hil. <:lOt. John'. writin" ,.",Iy PC"";' ink""","". how
=r . bout tile <nC' ..... ;,ion. ,II .. he mit>h' Ito ... bn rtbu,ti ng.
Some of .... ,nft1Wt"" pc,m,ned by C.." ...... " ... Ia'er> K<"m abtoiu,<ly~.
Fo< '''''''''''''''. G",,,anus told Joh .. of Synada (.ooC) rI,.. Con...",; ... of NiICO-
In. tu.d hK...- co:oncned .Ii.. ......:Ii .... E.ooo~. 10.., '"Th" .. tw.w "'" dc:&ndc:d
himidf." ...d .... pun.. ... h. In hi> lcotn to Constanti ... hirrudf. Gnmoa ....
rtp<>" tht bi!I>op of N..:okaa, 'n .... ma ,Itot no c"'"'to:d thi", be- toOOttipcd
(IOI D ) ...tUdo .. .-n,i,tIly ,It.c .. me p<><ht Gcmt.an ... tu.d modt in hi. IIft to
John. "rinK ,,,,," ,hat eo.....ntint had i~ ,hat _h"l ~rnod< by lund!."
" ....... by mm" (,ooC) ohot.tld be ...... ohopcd. In hi. Ions ""- to
of
n.o.n.
CbuJiopoIi> Gt .......... " ...........,. knphy dJe.... ............... of idolatry
(1"9I1-E. ,uC-D. 11711-1>10. I"-Ie) '''''' II< bdiewd 1<, k grounded in 0 poor
reading of rhe Scrip"' .... 0' bl'QUgh, fOnh .... iff",m ,he scrip,ur<$." ldol:ury.
,hen . und ...,ood .. , O'J<l,,,,venri o " of ,he M".,i c 1.:ow. of ,he E.od .. , prohibi.
'ion.,..... .. ,he t.- of wiulC'o'<r i""nophobi. eme,ged in ,h. 7'0>.
Dlhe, inferencc; d... """ f'o<n Gm.... " .... ' k".I'> 'rc' li"l. h,,,J .. '" If. . .
wi,h oon~dcocc. G e"""n .... I<I'" '" John ... l" ,I. .. i. il impos>ibk 10 J<pi
God. "' m,1 ,n i<lUg< of ,h. ;n"i,ihle Godh~ (lolA). II is p<>ibk , h.. ,he
io;mopl><>hco hod "gO>! ,hu>. Ago;n;n ,he 1<I.er.o John. Germ. nm 'PJ'C'l"'o
be refu'ing clurg< .Iu. he"in~ .nJ rtld;ng .1< '''retio, '0 "",i"l\. ... png
"b<c>.. >< w< ore m,d.: of Re.h ,00 1.1"""' ...... or. fo,crd '0 know more c<n.inly
,hOle ,hing' which 'h,oug/1 'igb' off...... 1""""'OCC '0 the "",I"' ('oI E), In hi,
I..,.. .0 Thorn ... G.. mrnu, ci,.. fusil f<) 'he <fI,
,I." p;c."",. ,how
,he cy<:
wiut ,he eOf he-, ". Sccing .nd h<>.ring I><>,h inciK '0 vinue .nd.re ",[ui,-.Ien<
[IIJB-,uiAI . P""ii:>ly. ,I.... ,he imn<>pboks h,d ... iscd ,he i"u . no"d in
Clupre, I. of ,he "'re,imi<y of re-...!ing ..,dlm h ,ing '0 "",ing. Bu. it m'J
, I", he
Ge,m,nu, .. ",," ,h. "gum.n, of ,h. Iui,',I<n<:< of th ... modes of
re,etp.ion. CVOfl rugacs,ing tho , ure,iorifJ' of ,igh, ... "ne demon, in hi, re',,,ire of dcfi:n> of i"'-'g<!. Tlu. i. he moy no, Iu", been ........ ,ing. clu'g<
(0
,I."
so much", odvoncing .n . rgumem or h i, 0 .." . In , b,ief p~e in 'he 1<11.. '0

Tho""" Cem..,,,.... f' ,Iu, i, i, n(l' ",.. ,h" bCI:;r, ... ,h.",.", ;m.g.. people
,i"". (1lY\). I'<,h,p> fOrne of ,1.01<

,I." ;""":
do nm h.v. ,n "'end "':!lui .. chureh <:<I<> hod ""n<t'''' .I><>u, inuses ",;.00

if ,hey did 10, ,hi. " new
cri. ie;"" ofimage<.
If linle new w" "id -Vi"" imoga " the outbreak of iconodum . litlle
new " .... dvonad "n beh,lf ofim 'g<>. (",e,m.nu, PrclCn" 6ve buic defen><>.
,I." ""
,I."
Firs" he ","
<:"",,-.l ,hing ;, """ ........hip! by Ch,,,,i,n,,
,rue
WCI"hip (4 ' T(>fln) i. , ...rveJ fOr G od .Ion. : ,hOI Ch,i";,,,, ne.... r make imag..
of ,he in"i,il>l< Godlle-...!: ",d ,I. .. C h,;" I... frnd .11 hi, f"n""", .. ft-om idolouy
(,00<:. E. ,0,A. mC-O). S=nd, he . rgu<J'
b<-coUI< Ch,i" 'I'!'Urro :os,
m,n. n< .." boo d<p;ct<J .cting in ,1.< .-.,ioo> hi"orico) ... "ings in ,,h;oh ,he
(",osp<1s plo<t him. 1.iI<N';"'. M.<y con be depicted ">;o,ding ro ,he fl.,h>O ..
wdl ... >I""',b, m. 'IJo'f>. prophet" and .. im. (,o,A_ D. "M). Thi,d, ~rm.n'"
im;'" ,h., d.:pict;on. of Ch,in ,>I of the gee>l 6gure. of ,h. Scriptum . nd rhe
,I."
ch " tCh iMpire i",i",i"" and u'Se pwplc '0 P'" glory to G ",l (10' D. "JS--u6A.
"711). In ",he, "",,,Is. imag<! ,to ,W)I ... i" fo' ,hemsel,,,,, fOl",h, ,he I""i.reh
re'urn, >g>in ro ,he argumen'
imag., "" of kmg . .... d ing in ,he c hurch
.nd ha", n<vc, been wndr:mnl by d.."";,,,1 .urho'i<y (r"9A. u6C-D,
,I."
1L4D-nsA. IlsA-E). Firully. Gcrnu nu, pl..d, wi.h hi, ron"l"'ndcn" no'
'0
C""TU
'w.,
<11Ibr.,,,, .he ~nu of,.,.~ ..... MuoIi.... ........., only olm .. Kl cko<roy God',
dmn:h uog8-E, ,,,.D-,,y,).
",.... .. obooiu.dy
in Gct_",,', dd'm.. of image> ,Iu, "" Iu"
_
I!KI oI.~..Jy. N ... in ,he 7100 "'... ,~ in..,l"" ...... ' of .... fflIptfOt . SchoIan
luve bbGotd rrodig.,.,oIy,., .. rUin Leo', >c''''''' Oft 011 IGndo of ground>; H
..,..~b, ", g;oin
w <hu,d, which h..J ""'" of ,he om,"&"" he oough,
'" Ji.c<, 1oy>1')' .nJ C"o".n
to the imp<. i.1 oIIia ..... hod '0 di"fC i,
f""n i"",g<Io' I,....... p romo' ing a .ul, of ,-ie,,,!)" and ",Id n", boa. cornpcciron:
h...... ""kin, """,...;on, '0 tho pop"l .. i"", of bi, E..... m P"";nc... '" I ...
_hi",
""".ro! ""'.
.cv<.=
or,.....
no ... lOn '0 ,uPPOO< ,Iu. any

""pl:uu.ion. luI 'M wl>ok ,,,,,h u' th ..
ony of .1>< ... locks ..-holly in , ... ,h . Fo. my !W" I on, indi....! '0 ...1'1'.... ,h.,
Leo ...... "nr< in bdicving th.., irru@.<> _'" idoLouOOl. ,.. L<t ... <em<mbe,
,Iu. i, ;. .... Iy in ........ of ,he ,,/U11W. viclcwy of ,n ".., ~;!ia ,Iut ,he
...hole hi<ro<y of Q.ruoion ......... lease in ,ho
been mmmcd 10 Ii,
on<" pm< .......... bnl of ;n~o,ion. V..... we luve ....... ,,,",,, ""'<ft in onriq-
u.......
"'')' ....." y pt<>pk ""'" Iud .....,.,.,"""" abou, Chricoian .......I:an .nd, in ,he
,w.,h ='''f)'. ....., of Onhod<>Iy',
"",-"cial<
""'''''''pocva eor;J,.,...,J ~
u.! .n. I...,', po><;1;"" doe. ""' ...... odd., .a. And hi> ;on~ ..., ""'<ft ~
F ' deal mort mode", .. ,haft hi< Ia .... alumniOlon ...-ould Iu.., '" bel ...... .
M ......., , if,t..)'<'O .. bO'Mo" me middk of
",h an'",), and ,he ... Iy
<kco<k< ..r tho .ipoth Iud ""'0 an up.u.-gc in act< ..r ",,,,,,,,ion ""nnled wi,h
imOS" .nd i,ing ... Iid in ,,,. mi"",o lo,,, pow<>'..r i",>gO' w",..I..,., if in
otho. wo.ds , 'hco< were ",Ia,i... ly f'<CCm ph.no",on, nJ t>ol ......." P""";:S.
,h.n it ""r he poMibl. 10 .cg;tnl \.,v, a",d Con .. on,i"" of NacoI.;a '00...
<O"....-v;t,iv<$ ... upOOld ... of ,r.Jition.
P..lul" in ,.;.,.- of tbe Ro""" eout>cll of 7JI. and obolotWy .r.cr 7!6.
tomconc In Rom. proptm.lo ..-.00... IIotilrgium of ironophik ."",,- f ...... Ia, ..
...... ion, of oom< of the n'oa<t> conuinl In .h.. Ronkpum, j , an be ohown
'" Iu.., Iud . , Inst ...-mcy-rn.... c1upocn. To _
of it, ,,,,;,,,,,,,, 1 oh.aIllUl1l
w .....
in Ouptcr ) in dioruuion of.n talk in , ... 'lIi'<>t. For ...--nl I"'.,-n it ;,

~,., .. y ,Iu, 1M ,anrolk<-kd in rn .. RoriIcpum "" 011 r.m.iliot ......... ,
chi-. >f>ific colItion doe. no< "I'\'C" to ~ Iud .ny inH""""" in ,II< E.nt
Ib.;, F~tn\ wti .......... >wan of anol ..,..,..;""" ' ... n' ...... , i,cd ~
fo..nd in
R...... n """orW, ''''
u..
s..fo: f", .., Byu ... ;"m , ..ad. in p, ks.;n<, John of D."....". ""k up hi. p<n.
like .......d, in '" , I>only .ft... no. Th. dot< i. p"",;drd by ...f~"'!K~ in ,b.
8yumin< lronoc:b,m '"

QI"'"ing KClioo <>f }ohn', ~ tlt OWiM ",h ieh " Ik.< about IIuth being Itf{)ng<r
thon . h. mig/lt of kings, . nd .bout the n.ru of good propk "" dilObcy evil
b,,~ of kings' " John ..Jd.....,d him>df", the Chri " i.n J><O!>k, hut jm, which
Ch,i"i.n cnmmunity he hul in mind w< do no, know, Evid<ntl)' hi. fi", OrA_
,;,,~ w.u c<>n,i<k,I imrene,,.,bl, by ',,,ne ."d '" JQIH'I q ~i<llr 1'''1",1 . "".
ond on . The.< Ii", [WO [<X!> . '" pol.mia of high in..",i,),. Thus i, i<
in,.ra,ing [0 not<
[h. [hird Orlit""" probably w,itten during the
when John ..... "",,,ing good
uf h" "..Ii., ",o.b. ,~, lik< ......,.,.,
. nd [hnial ,hoologial ,,,,,,i,,,," 'Q uS< ,It< W<)n\s of Jolon', Ii'Qf, Ilooif"i",
Kou.r,' " It m.y be ,h .. John l.l'" .n opportunity f<> p,ovido: 1 'Y' .. m.. i< <xpo"
of imag< ,ho"sh nJ i, ""y
be ,h~, ,he 740< """, b'gtlr wi,hou. ,ignin
a n, imllg< "'n'rm'''''i<>.., ,h" Jolon', Lu, WOld, on ,be .... hj1 could ,.kc on
"",ne . ir noubly . horn[ f""m hi. <>,1;", cnmmunia.ion., Ano.h.. prodUCI
of rhe ]40., John', fx,mi,wlt ~f ,iIt fisirh, " .. " im,s<' wi,ho'" ,h. polemia.1
'OtlC of th.Ii .. , <wo Or"';-','''' Wi,h hi, wri.ings John .honged forcv<or ,h.
,1,,1'" of ,he im.g< d;""",ion
John m.odo: ,hItt fund.ltnen ..1 ronrribmion. '0' diSC<mion ,h" had Ixcn
going on IpOrod;",U)' .ina: ,he fourt h cenlUty, Fif'>[, he uId,cucd hinuclf in on
wended. indctd ,Imou in, 'yuem,uic. "'lty to ,h. whok problem ofimltgfl in
,I.e d>u,cl... $ec.:mJ, as "'phinia,'" ,i>>Iog;'m .nd phito....,,!,e. , Joh .. refcc;"'''' ~."" in the .rgum.nt> for .nd . goin" im.g<>.rod prm;,ted fur ,I.e lir"
.ime. p.,fuund ",A""ioon on Chri"""
Thin!. john .nus>/ ,.. ",,,,",,,1
buJy of ",i.knee In ,uppo.r' of~i, view',
John ',Ii", two Ora,",,,, .'" ... th", Iik. ""'ny of the writing> we ho,,,, no,ed
.I ..-.df in 'hi< hook, Tho, i<, ,hey .. k< up. wide .my of 'opi<> in no ",,,icub.
ordet < ""lu<n, It is h.n! ,oil if John i< raf'Onding 'ats written by 'he
opp<><ition or .imply .. king up ",levan, >ubjt> " 'hey occurred.o him, In ,he
,hird Or.,U>~, however, JOOn i, gr ... ,ly mOl< 'ys .. n>1t;c.
John point> out tho, m.ny ..
":gul>rly used by Chri"im\-"Trinity,"
"co"",b... ,,,;.I."
".our< of tI,< Godh,-.d," """e.
"one ,"lSOn
w;,h [WQ n.""""'_,,, "n, fo",,,J ;" ,h. Sc';p,u.o bu, h..-. been i""'1're,ed
try. the ti.. he .... nd those ". an .. he""'ti"'" who ",fu '0 UCotp[ ,hem (pr), '"
So ' 00, John "')~' G od him>Clf romm.ndcd im'Ol" ' 0 be m.odo: .nd rh ... imag<>
hoY< long b<.:n ""'p,ed 1).,,) - In "[h,,, ",onl" John i<'<" prohibi,;"'n, b.sed
on whll h. vi""" ....i"'ph"ie ..-.d ing of Scril" ~"_ Then j<.o/l" .. h . "Wh.. is
. n im' ge'" Her. is hi, ,lefini,;"n: "An imag< i, ,h.t-efu",. lik,,, ...."d p,uter"
. nd inlpSSion of ",m<1hing. showing in i,lf " -h,, is depiCted: howcv. ,he
im>gc i< ccn.inly no, lik. 'he ",cheryl"', [h. , i., who, ;, depicted, in <VC!Y
<npt_fu, the im'll' "on. 'hing. .nd who, i, d<pias i< .n... hc,_.nd <cr
,h.,
H'"
m.nr
.1""
.n_
'0
"0,,.
'0
nn.
1""""":'
.. inly , di'""""" i, ...,n I><.....,.n ,hem, , in,," fh<jl 'rt no< idenfical"' U_,6)
Af.., ' ''<nlpling ". d.,ify "'" Mid of di""'''''''n, John uls wh)' im.g<> ...
m.d . He 'm ...... , "All im.og<> ,ev<>l.nd m,kc p<fccp<ilMe m.... fbin!;' ..,h;';h
.... hidd.n_" To ill ",,,... hi, poin. John say> .... , p<"",n con "", h,ve immcdi_
><. lrnow!Ig< of som.,hing du, is im'i,ibl<>-,h.e soul. fOr """"pl<-<>r of
thinS' th.. >Ie f., .w' y in.""", or time, [""'iP CIIi ... ,hen. '0 ""V'lIlU know!
Ig< by tevt.ling ,nJ m.king p<fC<:ptiblc sec ... , thinp- Imag<> ,1< helpful U.(7).
A. ,hi, poin' John m il" ro.n <n ~m.".,;"n of.1I fhe J>O$Sibk kinds of
imagcs. 'w '11,.......ix U,18- ,,). 1.... fin, i< .h. Son as. p<rtn im.g. of the
F. th ... Thi. is . n.... ",1 imag< ,nd mw" p,k all orb kind . The """nJ i.
(,...,d', fotclcnOW!Ig< of 'hings to com<, $i""" (,...,d', pun i, immu ..bk. His
&sign,"'r Hi, ",,,fi,,,, 'rt t"", Th. ,hird kind ofinug< is nun, nudo by ('...,d
as.n im. of Hi"""'' M.n ,toes "'" of <0" .... .<It .... in ,h. divine ....""" b, ..
i=g<> God b)' imi .. ,ion. Th< founh ~i nd ofinuge is the ...... dOWl . nd fOrm
nd 'YP"''' of invi,ibk ."d bOOil"" 'hinl\' which >I" m<fl(i""al in ,he xriptu .... Th. cumpk Job n gi.... ;. .ngel . But his mai" point he .. is to say rhat
we ul< " f:.mil;"., cvc'Y.d.y mal;"" to prod"", m.nM . nalogies th .. nr.aI:e it
p""'ibk fur US to con""'pIAt< hother . pi ntual ,...Jiti",. A fif. h kif..! of im.ge
pfiS',,...
ill h>l'P'"n , Hc," Jo"n me.on, 'YI"" in '''c ",,'W"k-.I X "><' So
,he bu,ning bu,h 0' the rod of Aaton wh;ch fo ...harlow ,he Throtolros. o. ,h.
dow!. .nd
of ,he sea ",hi'h point to b.pti<",.1 gr:occ. The .i.. h kind of
im. g< i. ""de for Kmemb .. nce of 1""" .... <n"'. John i. obvio...ly ..ding '0
"""whelm tho>< cri,ics ...-flo h.... fCj. I on< Of ,nother kind of i""g< in ,n
w<mpt '0 d;"',Iit all imogco. Th< matt i, ,'.ry rompla. John.<lt~
John ask> what may be d.~ and how >Ie images ro be m.d. {'J.4- 'j).
]>,1;.1:>1)" John saY' ,Iu. imag m.y be mad" of "'physicl ,hing. ,luf h. ",
.... p<, bodies ",h;';h >It circumS(fibcd and h>v< (01<')1," lIuf im.>J!<' con al.o be
nude of bei"g< , .... h>"" "" ph,..;.,.! ""'p<, of '''so:.'' f<,.. a.>mple. lIodily
im.g of the tan be f.. hioncrl. as Mosn m..J. 'mages of the ,h.rubim . Th_
who al< wonhy look upon .."h inuga .and p<fuivc "a bodil... ,nJ imdkcru.1
.ij;ht mode m'nir." throush phy>ical mcan,: ' john i. ~lIy -",ying ,h .. im>g<S
an be made of ,he proi=ion' of O.J< ,I.ouw.", . nd tlut .. , .,,,ive congt<SS
betw",n ,,~, ,houw." and ,uch imogcs produce> unde" ... nding of . he <k<per
I<..h,ies behind bo,h the i=g< and our ,houw." about i.
John ,h<n imi,., ,h .. it ..... God Hirruclf..-ho fi"" nude im.>g. beginning
... i,h hi. Son - ,h< '"n. m. j acob. M ....... j",hu., h ...... Inn;'l. and Pml . .. ho ..... in
some ....1 an im>g< of God, God did nOl t<VC>1 in ,hi, .... y Hi, divine IU"''''
but ,n .. i..... g< and ~gul<. All the p<"" ....... hu <ow .uch 'mages fell down . oJ
"'''A' ...
w:I""
wollhil""l Ihem, nol ~ if Iht)' Wtrc God bUI on tc$pI of
God ",h"", ,m,go:
'~"""<' 1"<>1'1. ,.,J'r ",n d" 1;1",...;"" John ",-yo Ip6). ''''
TIti, htingo< John ,,, hi. t." nuin <opic: wonhip.'" John dilfcn,i.. be
"'-.:cn tho ,l>$OIut< wut>I';p th .. ;1 d". ,,, (~,.j .I,,"e .n,1
t.,i ... ","O""'il'
Ih.. m'r b< paid ", cln,.d 'hinS'. John ', poim i u,ely ,..Iid on ,hrologic.l
ground. hUl, ... f'."y ""'... ,h. di"inc.i"n bcrwctn
md p""Irymi1'"i,.
purely n",,,i,,.! d;n;"<:Ii"" ,,h ich
d. di,.;I\K"i, h<d in pr><.k ."'" lAW'
den ""fl, this kind olngumem "woo:<.k b=<usc i, "'cquit<> (Very individ""f
Chtini ..
ob .. "" the ... btl< di"i,,;on ho,w<.n ......""il' and """...,ion ." '"
Amery, in he, ,ran,l .. i"n of ,he Lift 0{ Sufhm rIH Y~ung<'T. af ...,)~ " . n.lltes
p!Wry,...;" in .n)' lO,m, ... "p",-,t .. tion ' ..-. ... 10 m.I ck>, th .. ""ul p .. ices
and !to{ V<"tb.al .b.ttKti"m are .. i"" . '''' Some I..., iconopoobc. """e unc y
abou, this di"inction ."d, ... I .1..11 .how in Ioter chapt<f>, W"".,n .... 'ite ..
nded
be dubiow .bout it.
~'" John,
a.. ~v< kind. of
hip (p8- j,). F;"" ,h Jo ...
tion gi'-' " to Goo .lon . Stcond. ,h. a""", .nd r<>-tning ...'O h.", fur God b=<"",
ofl1i. giOlY, TIti,d , ,he thmksgiving w< f...1fo,.11 au, bl<ing>- Founh i. ,he
,n. ..
I.,,, ..
",1\,,.,,,
,!<,
'0
,n...
."""1,,,. _ ..
hopc "'" 1u.vt: th.. Goo will m .... W' n..Ms. Fifth is rcpcnune< , nd oonf<;"n.
Of rd..,ivt: womo.ip therr arc ,,",'On kind> (J ,H- )9). Firll is rrvcrencc for Ihe
holy pI"es .... here Goo 1.0< t<'StcJ. &cond i, the f<'\'etcOC< fu, ,he piKe! and
' hings by m<"On' of which God ha. dfOCtN ou' ..I.. tion. TIti,d i. the ..... e.. n
.I ... '0 objc<1. dcdic."ed '0 Goo .uch .. litorgical .......1. Founh COm ,he
iINg<> of fu m .. ,hingo _n by ,~. prophc<,. Fifr~ .,..nd. OUI ... n.,."ion f",
.. c~ ",I.... ,,,.....h """co,n, ,h. ,'<n< .. ,ion due
,.,.."IS '"
'0
,boo< woo rul. ovt:' ".
Se...nth i.,h. fClj><C' p.id by ..

,h.it """....
In few ' e!pt. W2$ John', ,hought O'iginai . P,im.o,ily h<- wu ""mpt<hen,i,'O
. nd otg;<ni>.cd .... het< hi. pmiecc:<so", on both ,ideo of the ioe, had .. lecn
nmow .""'~ oflimi,ed.,pt. of the ",hok pto~eon posed by imaga. Xottemi
t hrotigh Jobn', Q,,,,wn, .t< m.ny rommen" nn 'npi", ,hat \\" h..ve .Iread)'
enrount.mi. He .. )~ .igh, ;, ou, nobl .., ... n... ,'7), H. rompl.;n' ,bout ,h.o<e
w!. " I<:<' mmer '" wh<, ",nn", .bid. ,he
ofhu ",." h.n .... l . 'j- 'i, ,~,
11). H . iMistS that i/rulSC< C.m mind ul of p"" .I""", and hdp ul to emulate
,hem ( . '0, H). Chrii>n' .imply ' l< nOl idoi.,." aod those woo "'-y tru., thCJI
.re i"" do no< know how '" ,cad ,he Sip"''''' (1.4. I , 8, '--I: 1. 7, 8). In.1I
' hingo< 'he ,,.,di,i,,,,, "f ,he ch uICh ' IC '0 he m .. in"incd (,." ' j , ,6: 1.,6. >0) .
Finally, John .",,1 angrily .oou< ,h. e"'pc""', in,c,ren in dogm .. ic W,..,
1'1>, ,,..... mind tl .. , in l,i. ti""" 1..-0
, I, .. w.re n"". of hi. COne'''" i" tho
III wu <>pi.olly in effor (1.1: 1,4, 11, ,6: j . , )
Wri .. h,d '-n .. ~ins lOt Inns ,ime ,h" imag<> of Ch,;" "",,1.1 be
...,.l.,
1';",
9'
C HH"O TWO
p>.m'od bea .... Chri .. Iwl.waml .s . ..... ~ on.d Hi< hun,ani,!, ~ ",.,abl.
of dacription. Thi..... an old a'W' m. n ' br John's ,ime. 8 u, John " ... a good
,no<lgh ,h..,logi>n '0 know ,Iu, 0."" ....., "",. "m<', m.n , John ,.,Irud
ima~ of Chri" \I.... "'OK ,lun a .iepioion of Hi. humaniry, G h.n
Ladn., 011 . . id
,h. Gt,",i.n con""" of,l>< imag< w.. daooca,ed in ,h.
,.,jm "f ,h. mru, fundom<nt2l dognw .bou. COO.r>d m.n. ",.. P.,ri.k Hen.,.
argued 'hot
ico""cla." ic ron,,,,,"",,)" .... , <ss<n,i.l1r aoou, Chri""logy. '"
Hn", Breol,ltaml' in,iseed ,h" i, .... in.... i.. hl ..
,he ;m,g.:
should 'm<rg< in [he ""n["", of [h. Ch ""ol<>giul ""nllo'...;"'. P. Wh" ,h...
f. il '" rgni~ i,
i, ,.... n~"< ",her ,lun J<>hn .,r D.m"""" wh ...
m.d. ,I>< '<gum.n, 0Vd im.W" in,,, an al);um.n, abou, Chriscology in
first
,h., an
,Iu,
,h.
,Iu,
w",,
,Iu,
"""''''''<roy
,h.
1'1>".'"
Pno, ,n John'. ,im. propl. had often said 'hat on""Id poi", Otri
hum.n
V" 1....
""""",cd, ", i[hoo, q ui,. """"ng rh.< impli"'Hion, of
his ob .."""ion.
John .......
,n tcali~
tht key i.. u. '., ... not
n,,,,,c.
,Iu,
:1"",
,h. 6",
,h.,
"atUr< bu, ,II< rno'" fundon,,","1 q"""ion of hYJ"lSusi., '" John ..... ,h.. ,h.
'q>men'ation of ,h.< hypo,..,;, of , h.< <lInd ptfSOn "f [h. T'ini,!, .... , a very
compli""ed i.. u. '" h ..... no, I"""ibk '0 rq>me<>, ,I>< humani'y .10'" beau ..
,he hu",.n"l' .k", .I,d no'
.p>." f", m ,h. hYl"-"'"'" ..,f ,h. '-"II'-"" " ,..,"
.1><> '00 .implc t<> .. ).
no on. co uld depict .he di"n. n.. u
Chri
bta.... "" on. b;,d <''-'" <:n i" 0"", "I;>in. ,Ite key I~,in,,.... ,t.;" ,ho: di~i""
"""Ur< I,,,,, nil ,n,I<I",n",,,, .. i,,<nce 'j"" f,om ,h. 1~'Il"'. Th"j , Ch,i" h.d
.I'f'<"\ml .... n"n .nd h.J bc-cn ..... n. n .. k;"S who h.J ket' .... n """Id t:><
d<piaed lik< .IIY other t:><ing, 110' )<>u.t Ch,;" "'.,.. '"'' lik. any ot h.<t being, A.t
0"". di5(w, m<l.ph)"'i.,.1 bein!\- On. hypo<ta,i . Chri" hod tw<> na'u . 0fIt
hum.n .",1 0"" ,Ii.i"e. 11m ... ,h..., """''''' hod no indcp<ndon' o'"eno: >
,.. i,h .. " .. ,l.j b<- d'I';ctW ~~,n., b' "'f',,,,,dy. Any .!<pia;'-'~ ,,fO"'" ,he-,.fo.-. ..-v<a1cd, in >Om<" mrs'''';ow .... y. me .ing!<- I.ow><. To John ,hi, W1> no',
>on nf 'hrol<>gio.1 pm<. fO, an~ deni.1 tha, Ori" rould b<- depicted ,/"",,nw
<1>< ,,,,,Ii,)" of ,he incun .. ion.r>d [h", ""lied ;n,o qUc>'ion ,h.< cem,.,1 mrs'''1'
of til< Ch,;"i." f..i,h ."d 'h< ...-holt d' ... i"" <o><>omy "f .. k .. ,iOft. John hod
. "cit", ,Ii""""",,, in'o _
I.:or. He m>d< ,he- Jch,,~ ""'"
im. gcs int<>. Ch, .... ological .<>n,t<W<l!y.
John', ,hi,d con,ribu,ion
'he imag< con'rm'f'f>Y i, to b<- fOur>d in 'he
larg< collec,ion of .",ho,imiY< ""-'tee>
he apptr>ded t<> hi, Or~,itJ",. T he
,u",iving nunusc"p do no[ ...,h;, =r to pc'cei~e ,he orisin. 1 form of ,h.
Il""",i, Ul), coneil'" (ll. ,,'" lug:i<>gr:>rhir: {I)) ,,-,uteeS 'M' J<>hn .... n,b1cd.'''
John m.y h,y< 11""" .... ching
ju..
r<fn.ncn 0' he m.) h.Y< <n'''un
,Iu,
<x,"
"r
'''''''P''''''' ..,
'0
ro,
,Iu,
,n...-
[om! [hom in u.. COllfIC ofhi.long lifo and "Ok rndin~ One: nudmt <>fJolm',
""",,= __ "' [..... JoI>n...... ,~ O>I1lain. "" f<.o...:. ,h.n 7'" .i,... ion. of >j.l worb
by aud,o ... ,,, John "";OJ I KIlol.>t of formod.bk nudition. Writ... on images
"""'" John ,ondtd '"~ ci,~ r.... biblic".1 ~""'U' .00 IOmttin><> on. of ,he
cUs.icol i.... ,..... """' .. d......U.k""..... pauago from &.il Of G~ of
Nyssa. John ............... rulkd '''V' ....... n .. npr<Udm'..d <bo~ of .....nW'\lith clurv ...u.ic ""'''1 ........ ij c.mm", h....ud;.d ohc ...-ay in ..-hid>
...... bcc.amc .....lpOftI in d>t .my 8run""" pn1od. '... A> .my .. <he fifth
= ....,. pokmic:alli,.....~, oft... in diaiorc ""m.1xpn '0 proIi.......... At ,he
ti .... of the Fifth Uum<nic:al Cou...:il 1m) ..... IIorikpo of proof-te:<" bq;an
bcins odduml. In 610 ,he- Si" h Cou...:il.li.mowJy coiled by Adolf,,,,, H........,..
<0<1...:.1 of " antiquariQ and paiqnphi,,,:"- ...... ,~....J .boo, fobificd
and broupl, in ..'holt boob <lI\\k. lock and key. During d.. ...,.onth
~,u.,.. '" .... h",,~ ... n, ,he-~ .... ,. Ch.;..i.".,.... ... ><gIl"",n" abou, i""ll<>_
wi"""" Uort,i... of Nc.opoliJ.nd S,.,.hm of bra. 8dO~ John of Omuocu<
"".,.... hod "" ,ho .,....,.ly ...",tytJ ,he- O' '' .... n~' fOf ,t.. 'au tha, 100<. ""
imagoo . lthough ,hOff ..... tl,. nt.t>dnt .n,1>oIog P'" '<>gelhe-. in Rom< \xtwcal
7.6 and 7) '. R<an,ly. Akund Ab.ki, h.. dcmon..",od ,m, prqr.l!ion of
m....... icollophil. lIo.i~ ~"" p,ob;obly in Ronl<. in
770. l'hi. rolk<,ion...." 'hrn n~ndod in n . ". nl .nd. prob.bly in ill .hon" ...... ion. sent
by Hod,i." I '0 T".o$i", . Iong wi,h hi. kt,n "r 71,. Th"". John ', <ullcai"n,
pi ... . h. (>fit of no. pc.h. p. a. e",en<kd few ,...... I". ",,,,ro ,he- hui> ko.
,he ''''''' c;'ro .. Nicacll in 787.'"
In . 1l <OK., ",emp" '" pull '''I\<, h., cli nchi ng '<:>'imoni......... n "".r<i",
in OJ>propri .. i,,S ,rodi,ion. \l:'. h. ...... n , h., irunophilc. 1I>1I.1I) .. Kl ,h.. i",:oges "'0" of .nc;'n, us;agt .0<1 ,h., no churth council haJ .".r proh ibi,ro
,h.m. By .... mbling a body of nid,_ fr<)n, ,he- ...Ji,ioos nf ,he- church, john
bun.a><d ,his argUm<n, from ,...J;,"'" .......... bd'on:. In doing ,hi .. John
prnioully ",.;nly O"ilt<lologicol.
inocnro ;mag in,,, ,t.. ~
hod !:ott .. d..... od by ,a,ua) "",.. ing m. ..."- in ,t.. 1"""'...... rw(> or ,h"",
..s
"'I"OCU
.bou,
,n.,
"n....,..
Un''' .....
JOO" 01", PU'
OJ'I><>"'<n .. .,( iftUJ!<O in d,f\i.:ult I""i,;"". E~ i( ,hey
....... """ ..,i.r..d by hi! ttfu,,;[[ion of , ... w'l"" of idoLmy. by his P',itn,
diflflenti.1uon of ,he.viooul kind! of'map. .nd by hi. ddi ..... ion of d>t 'J"P<S
and objca. of """"'ip, ,hon ,......, ' 1'IWN"''''' ......' hod ' 0 oodIc his .chobrly
<IoWa. ",.,. hod to ciullo..., ti ..... tho
' icity or oM rdn:tn<t of his
ti ..,.......... doc they hod .u <on>< "I' ....'" ,u,""'i.;.. of their -... 11> "",al
~. ,he- p<riod ......." '" ,,,," arly ~ ........ for .. on be di... crr>c<l. qui.,
.... ohc JUbjca of i""PP< TIL"
would 1;(,.
.u' .....
w.1IC<
mv
of Con... nti"" V WI: ';",Ify F" oubot.nu.l. cOOtftn. n-idmc:~

.M icooophobt s-i.ion. The '-w of Hinria "'2> ..,..j OUt . , N"",," ill
~ along wi,h i" biblical .nd po'';'';': ~um. T!.io pocciouo "",r","
p<rnU" ... to h.c:u ,ho icoooduo. IpQki"K in .heir own voices (I ..... me this;
oth<n mis'n no<.l. Sim,br In de" .."., f-.. ... ~ bu. ~ .. ro
th.:;r proo'MoIlI<t..., .... p"""" (/..,..._) of Con.o ... ,i"" V,'" The .... ptrOI'
'pp"on,ly ddiv<rtd .. ...." y .. ,h"...." >p<ha on the !<>pi< ofinug<'O be, n
.bout 71. ..... 1J.1....1.hm ~ ............ of q..... ioou .. toeh he .ubmitted
to m. biohopI. lot se"nin, ....I coofinn ....,n. The op<hQ do """ $tiM>"< ODd
i. i, noc dnt ,It .. ,bey ..., i" any cas< idm,iaj '" ...bsunu or ugumm' <0 the
I'nans. t . . n.c LII", ........... only .. fngmm" a'rxtN by G<ocJ< Oocrngonl.,.
from ,Itt AM"rrNrii#i of I'."r\&n:h Niphorw.. n.c iT............. pn;>b>bIy
rtaSOOUbIy a<cUn.,<: ,ho tto:hniqut of qUOtin,.be ~ to be murcd h>virtg
long pN'l!= in O,,; ,,;,n ''I''mtI""ion. Mott<m: . noon 9 of N"",,"
(71.D-E) rcqui.N th>. ~ of ,ho iw...ophuboo books be pu' in ,ho rolli,,,
ehollihn.ry. N~ would h.... tw:I nor o<ca. to ,ho>< books. Bu . hm.
Duri"K the
rot
he ""',.. hi, A~,,,,'Mi/..,, be, ...." I .~ ~ nJ 0 .. kn k ..... in ",jk .,><1 '-'r

from hi,lib.ary. ~, ... ,ul'fl'O><' ,h>, hi. m.mot)' ..-as ~ 0' ,h>t h. Iud notes.
n......n..in. ,h. f.c< ,h., in Q"",in8 onlr
a ...... Niccphoru. dcpli.-<$
u.s of .ny >en ... of ,h. "'''''''' ""luone. o. d .I>o",.io .. of Cun.~.n,in .,gu_
m'nt>. $.ill. WI: 'ft j\I.d '0 h>vt 10m. of hi. '!,wi",; ...,./.t.'" Fin.!ly. ,h.
.htn,
"""i...
N~"thm4 h.
M",,,,,, CMsl''''''~''''' c",!>.JUin ..",. and .h. ,mo .... M
....,.,.'" 1..-"",,,,.'" .J'h<>Uglt ioon<>phik and pokmi.-..l. "'Wly ..,m ... l""bk
inf.,rmo.io ...
n......,.... compJ...- ..b.ion,hip Ixtwc.:n ,h. Pnnri, and ,h. 1,0,.,.,. Let
,.. begin ...-i,h the fOrma. n.c Ii", I'_i, <>pCN by ""nbling ,h" ,ho C.,hoiic
o.urcl\.nd all i" m<mlxn hold pu. CIt,.;,. '0 be on. I"'no<! in "''' n"Ute>.
I I" di vinity....l humonity .... "'"& t-n joino:d '.'00 "'ithou, """fUMOn (f'"l'
,). An image. Conwan,if\t uy.. mWl be one;n bc-in~...-ith ..... ' i, rq> .........
(frot- '41. >wi .i xW..W<; ~ (It"'; " d't\" t OO w.o..~). So
eon.....,;n. PU'" ,ho qut>tion of hoo. i ..ould bc po;to>ibk '" m.ok.o >II image of
t..;ns ",ho has """ ... , ....... on< lpIri....aI.nd on< .......w (fn.gs.. ,... -~ . No
image .. pouibk. the <mp<"" ")'>0 t..au>< .ny "'''''I'' '0 nukt on< ~Iy
in......'u "cimunocribintl'" .jw di.i........,.. f< and ,Iuo .. impo::oooibio (frogs. ,~
S,),'" L.I~ . ..... ttnt canncM nukt:an ,..,.. of tho AnI>.1one. If . pain .. ,
nuI<a.n ..... of ,Itt II..oh oIono ,It.m ... odds I feu"h 1"''-' '" the Trinity,I.,... d;.;........." ... . nrI human on. (j;-ot- '49). Tlou. i. is impoc<ibk to
'wu
dC'S(. ibc: in.n im.g< of one n" ~f<' po<non wl,o .. im in

""ulCO. Tl><r. i.
no im.g< "'1"'1>1. of ",h~ing ,hi, (frags. 'S6-S9).
The ><:rol,d Ih,;, <xplof<:! ",h<th.. 0 1 not til< euchari" c.1n be.n im'ge of
th< boJy-<Jf ,I>< hum.n n.. urr---ofChr' " (th,tt he' ns no I~ ""'hili'y mh.violS
. n im'll" of the divinity). Con'ton,it>< ttfort! '0 the b......J .nd win. of tho
.uch.. i..."d .. id rhor Chr;'r romnundall li, disciple> . nd
ro ",osmir
,bese . . . .i,ibl. ttmin<ler of Hi, kwe (fr>g:>. '<4 - 6S). Her. i. ,n inug< of
Ch.i .. bOOr ,ho, """'.. from Ch.i" Himself. Thi, i, ,I>< only proper ,nd
po<Sibk im.g< fur th< b.... d .nd win. arc tho bOOr . nd blood ofChri" (f"g:>.
'66- 67\. N",.II b.<ld ,od win< ~gure Ch,i", "f <;OU.". h", only rh".. CQn;<
.... ,aI hy ,he I"i .... Thu. who, h><l b<en m.Je by h"m>n h,nd, bc:<:om.. rh"
which,..., no' m,de by hum.n h.nd, (f.. g. 68) ,
Con",",i". m,y no, ho ... u<eJ Ch>l<>:d<>"i,n ,e.m inology qui .. <;omc,l y
bur his idw 1ft basically """,,, ... m with imponmt " ... in, in <cd"'; .."i,,1 ,mii, i",, ' " Wh<n ,he Co uncil "f Hi.tti, ,n"
uldr= ,he im.g< qu ..,"'" ..,.1 '"
r<$pond to Corn"ntine'. inquiri .., rhe b;.oop> f=ic;olly addal rigor .nd prcci .
ion to
idcao of ,I>< emr<m . '" The council did oor r>kc lip CAn.ton,inc',
ide' ,~,." im.1I< ""sIo' ,,, ...
;,1, " ,1", ;, "l'<e><nt>. ". I,,>,<>d,
the bi)hops developed CoR~'lO';nc 'I Chri\rologiul rdkoion). ThOle who milund<"""", Ch .. ,,, hum.:roity. ,hey ... id. wet< ,h. h.i" of Ari" nd of ,he
A..,...,I.i--< ... o;,,<m< Monoph~i'G--"'hil< thOl< ",ho "",-,,,1<1 ....1"' ..... ,he
diY,n< . ml hm:m o.. ura ,,"cr. dn<cr><L.nl> of Ne>t",i,,, (l-."F..- 14jE). FunJo
m.nlOll y 'h<)' .g.".,.j with eo"".mine .i><>m ,h. iml"""ibility of m.kins .n
imag< ,h .. <lid no, <i,h<r cirrumscribe- ,he uncir<Um>rrib.bk divinity o. 01""
><1"'''''' 111< huon.lti,y froon ,h. in><l"'"bl. ~nion of nature> (lSM- ,600A), ,OJ
Coo".n[in", id .. 'oo~ , ,he _ho,i" .. ,n im.:tge ..... ret.ined 1:><" '<hncJ
bit (,6'E-'6 ~C). " Obvioul,y the bi,h0l" " Hi.I<i. """fC nOl ,ub.crvienl. They
responded though.-full)" '" Con".min<'& "'lu... ioo ."
Bu[ ,h. bi,h"p' did morc ,ho" j''''
,I>< '"'pem' "'1'1..
.",1
reruncnt motif of ,he ","",." "YO St<p"'n G.IO. "i. [h. "gum.", [h .. Ch .. "i.:tn
;..... g< """hip ;, .n ."ihe< of <1 .. <1<.;1. .oJ 1'rncnl> =o'5"n <>1''''''10",..:'
'Thr council bcI"')~' hc go<> on, ". go:nuin< h."ed md fe:" of, poisonous
'<mn,n' of pog:oni' m."' " lIKif<,-, "nt of ~ . nd jcalou.,.., dc.:Nled ,o . lien ...
man from God by '<mpting him to wormip , ....[ioo i",'c.d "f [h. ,r",Uo.
(111E-><}A), '" J<>w ""'y ho.o ..,...J bum.n. from idolmy bur ,1.< &'"il h",
c.... erly tcin,rod...:c.1 it (.. 60--:1ID). P,soni,m . nd id(.t..,ry we.c iml",,,,n,
i...... fOr ,he iamophobc::s. Bu, ~n ",ott ,",,,,,,,.nt to ,hem "i'" t<jting ,I><
;m.~'d w... ",mol""" ",[',;V'.I.", to ""..J.'" 1h<y ""K,kj
, h.. , image> coul.! convey 'rue knowltdg< of ,hrological rc.l i,i. B,....ntium.
."""Ie>
,0
.10.
hom_,,,,, . .
"""",..! '"
iJ., ,Iu,
fi,.,
'''''""''I''
",k.. tI,.<di,t....."'bkd bi,hops to .,,,.... , ,he- SC,iptu .... fut "f,., th<)l "Y
.!,ou, ho... f..l;e
dr.tw the mind down I'mm pure 'l'iri,.w "",.hip '0 , he
~ w,,,,h ip of m... ,i. 1 c~'",n (u9I>-E). W,,"hl ... . nd J..d """.. ,imply
"'nOOl "'pl ur<: ,h. gIo<y ofGoJ 0 ' ,he vinu.c "f ,h. marty" . nd .. ints. Tan
..Jo"" an do ' his ('nC-D).,.. 0"" of the rouncil", . ".. h.m:u aco,;,'<> ,ho><
...ho 'hrough "m.t<,i.1 0010,.. ' '"""' '0 und ..... nd ,h. W"rd ,n Hi, hunun"y
!J;6E) . nd .noth., .n.. hem ...... g<:" tholt who .. tempt t<, rqoroduct in them
I.-eo til< .jttl><S
the .,ints by looking at inanimat< .nd >pc<Chlds ;a.n'
mo.Jc of nu,e,;.] 0010 .. when ,h~' could turn '0 hook.. '" " .nim.." "".....
!.HIC-D). An in,,,.,,ing ... m>tk sal" rh .. ,h .... i> no p .. ye, to <on"", ..... n
icun (.68C) . A pia,,,. is. ,nJ ,.,,"'i ..... ""rnmon.nd "",,,hless.
Much of ,hi. line of 1tgumen..,ion i, f..m~i .. '0 u, by """'. hu, '0 p/><:< i,
in Contat. one mU!t teaCh back 0'..,' ' he age of Leo III <0 atguments m"re
'ypia.1 of ,h. fo""h .nd ~f<h n tu,i"". I, i, 'ru< tlu, Hi" ...... I>ibliaJ Ro"I .
gium ... , ,hc >c'iptur.tll"0hibition.! of imogco . I,hough it ouy be <igni/i"'nt
,... , .00'" >0 . i, m;";ng. .... ing bct,n rqolaord b) Drutcronomy ~ .J1 . nd
j .8. Tllc bihlia.1 a" .... op,:r" wi,h John ....... :u>d mmin ..... "",h ,.,8. H7 . nd
(>.BoE-lAta. In oclt .. ""rd ny ",.ightfu"""rd .pplication of the Mu..'" p",,"il,ion ~ I>n , ... 'dl. rh,!" <hi, """" "",,,,,hing ", John of D._
muoa, ,heology. Ie Clnn'" be me ... roincidence t"', John iI .crotdcd
panicul .. ly p<""n.1 .nd IInt ..1.n."henu (J6\D): he cl ..,ly w. ,hink.. wi,~
whom ,h. Hi....;,n boo"", f.it , n=l to n:ckon. ""' i, m.y he
,ho<
.nces ,t> john, Gosp<1 m>e>1 w~" iI r.:all)' going on h..... nd ,h,ow'n .J..""",
in i<onopht>bc ,hough'. Th. '<pu,ed ~mph .. is OIl """"hip in .piri' .nd in
,ruth coupled with complain" aboot J"", ",",net ,ugg<"<" <hpIy fd, >Cnlt
,hot """"hip. 'u be .",hocn,". hod '" be runJ..men~lIy spi,i",..J . Nothi ng in
,his c~,..J _~d is rornmcn.!u"', "'i,h the Ul"><f<:I.tM <I;';o;oy. ~nd nothing
moJ. by ~um.n. on elevate hum.", '0.0 ""J.,.,.nJi"S ufGod. N",io: ho ....
in Iti' <uc .... is, .. ,hougl". Con " .m' n< ulko "f how ...... , hod I-n mo.d< ,urn,
infO ..,m.. hing u"m.od< (h. T{)~ XIQ<)" ....'Tt<ro ,,(IQ.; TO UXtl(J<).,"Wi'lTOV) .
O " ly i" thi, un,,,..ic " " e a n ,he <>>chari" fisu ,he Ixxly ofChn" . TIIe ..
PIa,oni,m h.,. of <;on ,h" Iud oevc douoo .bou, ...... ri. 1... Iioy .nd ,he
is lte%g). he .. ,h., ., p,ofo"u-.;lly ,nnocend.n,' " Th.", i. al",. ,heology
h.... 'h" ... Ii... ,hoc full impli""io" ' of John of D.mascu", Chn.,olosi",1
",~cc,ion' on imag<:". ". Whc"", John w:L!f d ...... n '0 ..y , ... , in ",me my... ,iou.
f",hiOfl .n im.g. of /<>u, hum.nity could reveal His d;vi nioy. ,hoc bj.oo", ...
"'mblcd at Hi.,"",.
J.;t<>' p. in, ,,,.how ,h .. ' his .imply could not be 'h<
"'<C. Fo, ,hoc ~'" .im. in ."h" ..
im>gc ,heologi.tns ar< ,colly gnoppling
wi.h ch ocit"', ide.
""10,,
...r
='9
,ho,
w,,<"'
",d<.
,ef.,-
l~
""",nd un l1i....;..... ndtd a bi. ~ Coru(lIl,i"". Th. <m.ptn><

.ha. h< had 1"1<">'<. oq>Mi"m hinudf I'm", tlx church .
Ind h< ~ a pa,ristic f\orilcsi .. m '0 his th,m, .. I .... Yof .....-ning I.i>
odhcrmct .0 .ndi.ion.'" A, ,he- council . bilhops "lked ",",... ndy ahom ,ndi.
" ..... 10...... pai n. ' 0 orgy<
,;"" . "Pin and >pin. the- biohopo '",m~N.Mi, fa"hfuJ ad ... Kft<C '0 .......
c:ummial councils 11t7A~D, 'nIl-InO. [n On adroi ...."...,. the- bUhopo .i,N
,... "''')' in which .... .;" council< >eIJ......-d ,.... pD' Trinoun... .nd
lop::ol iuun of .n.iq....,. ......... " - ,hey
'C'ft"d "'''h ,be- ~ndi"P
of ""- cour>cils. This rncwt .......... i" full ...."ni", whm i. io uUn in <0<>junction with .I>c counc,[', p<tfmly Ch.Iadon;"n (mD-E) pro/UI.ion of faich
a........
,homod_
ond CIu"'oIosied ''5'''''"n..,'''n :abou, "".... "fhc biohopo wet< . .yin, tha .
bcaw.c fOI><' .. l\\knundin8 of ,he Il"<:Ond pttWn .... ,hot T rinil}', """"y
,00", fot-bitl< iconJ, ,11m . 11 ...... ic. <CIIM<nial cou .... ib had >Ito fot-I>iddrn
icons beau.. ,hey roo h.>d ,h" Pf"I"" u......... ndirl of the bO", ol Ch .......
~ fac,
,Ix COUJ>C"iI >f>1>tr.<kd pa,,,,,ic ftorilcpum ~ """'he, .....y of
d . imi"l\ """idol il}' wi,h ,he church , 8m, .roidi.;.,., . oo " ,Ix ''''x 'i ..... of
di.puting Jolll, of Dant .." ..... ' M''''!'ti ..ion of that ,radi.ion on bch.Jf of im_
ogeo (,~,D-JW). Tbe- eou"C:1 of 1 [ie ..;.. WI> profa.Nly <Orn<",. . i"". HiP.
on iu lilt of aim! Wll ~n ,Utnlp' 10.how th~t the iconophilo Waf innol"ll'on.
And. '0 "1"''' ....... ... hi"", ....1 ,,,,,,t><!, fQ, .~u ing ,h., , radi,;"",I Konophili ...... , "J..,;..,Jy innov. ,i in ,II< """y be'o .. Hi..,..i .
Front the v"iou, leollol'hil< w,i.in!!, , .... , ... ("m om!"',.,y witft Con, .. m
in< V. i. i. !"'.. ibk '" ~",n .... m .. " .. or .... Cu.,,", 'hinking of thox ,..ho
tkfond<J i.... g>. Son,... n .. only: I:or I> wc h... only Nicephol\U, atnet>
(rom Coma""",,, /'... "'~ .., 'DI) " ...... , .. fro", ,II< icunophil<> n"inly 'hdr
atkmp" '" ",nil, Co"'''n,i",,', p",!,apnd. a"'poigl'. ,II< /'~ and
b#n. Much of ,hoi, 'hinki..g i. qui .. du. bu, .... do rtO. have, 1$ in .Iolm'$
co>< full.oJ .rue..... ,ic <.pool.ion.
N" t... tlwl too. "1'1":I1wnu. ,he iCOClOphila bid d.im to the
lIKl
uniV<1"lal ,radi.;"". of ,II< ch"",h. 1M .u,ho. of the- .""nix AJ.....'" I~
cried ",.. in ,,'S"iI-h ,ho, i..... h.od f-" hun......l ru. 74S f,Kj ,..... " and .......,
only now bd", .,ud<cd .... AI In in'C1"Oti"l\ ..... Y""taking "p tht pa'tUtic <Iud.
,be- .uthor of AJ_ c.",..~"~~,,, c..NIIt~~", "Y' i, ;, he" .. ,,, IOIIow fut.iI.
jobn Ch.,...,..om. t><! G.....,. Nuian:un ,..... ['$in.., T.icaocabou, ",d ......
""fOul pest~ tho po" ... ch Con... n.i"".."' [.I,,in8 h.>d prok.oion. of &i,h hu,W
., thonn. tho i<onoph,k, Au", thonn ,.h, bIt.. ,,. To ,he eN'S<"
a.mt d;d
not comm.;ond im:ogt'l 10 boo .......... he """."phiko .-..pt>ndcd ,...., ;"..,. ..... of
0"";"" ....".. and .......... m.ny 'hon8' in , ... <hurd. ..... idt IaCh tip., bKIr.
10 .... opooda evm if ON an"", find
Oori.. IN '" .1f'O"I< wmmlnd.d
,ha,
.h.
.ncirn,
,ha,
.tu,
,heir ~. ,.. Tt.n., u< ..." "",..-I .x-..Iopm<n.. 'n ;.:onoph,," :upm<fI':>,I0Il. Fin' ....,. bcpn awca!i", '0 <=ain ."".... , i....,.. Sprciliclly. ,t..y
ref.,r ..... '0 ,he I...,."
of M'l)" and '" ,he Ahpr ..... of Ch"".- .
"""it; <:alkd by Robin
"Of>< of lhe mon; dcptro .. OUSV',ion. g( m.
~ob '" ouPf"'"
a .. .nd ....... ,d ... ;""" ..nIT:... Second. in
,b.i. _ito''''n. of ,be .;, council,. '" whKh 'hrr prok..ot.l rornpkre .Ikp>roc<.
"""ni,
en..,.."'"
,bci.
tho iconophilel btpn <i.ing ,he e;gt.'Y"""""" 1"",II'n (:lllon. tht 0"" ,h.>.. com
",""dod tb. ",,,,........ion of Ch ,;.... 0 nun ..,b.. ,hon .. . .ym bol. for
in".n~e . lon\b. '"' Thi. to . no, "''1'ri.i"&l1' wu no' ci,td ., Hie",ia .lId
,*""IJ bt promi ....
II Nia.ca. On "",,,h.uln. ,b.n ... c
,ha. ,h....."Ic
"'-Cf im"B"' ..... btromi"l\' .... ,,'" fOr 'hc right to tk/int th< ,OOi.io", of ,IKchurch , '" ~ ,IK- church', mcmo.y.lOvaJiJat.;" h;'rory-un<kmood dwUy
ail ,100 ~ itodr.lr'Hl the rip" '" t<CO<d , .... , 1"'" IndoN. ,100 t...o ran 01 ,be
eighth crn,ury.nd ,ho< fin, ran 01 th. nin' h ..-.u neh in hiorotiaJ ""';,ing
and rcfIcoiom.:o/"""" .... irciy by iconopholcs. .... 8r m.okins ~ coorctl\f">'
c..,. "";,h 0..;.,. by i...... i~ <Iu, >II ... url;"- ~OaI O>uncik Iuod .ffi,.,...J
i<om. and by """"'''&
tho: wtbrnkt:rt tOOition of ,ho< church n1icbttd i<om.
,h< iconophiko rJY<k icont. ;an inscpat.tbk I"" of ,h< , ......;,. Th<y rooIr Io"ll
"..,.. """.n.! """""S' .."h 'bf'<C' to i.n .. ,"", ...... oflmmolMliry t/u, Iu> ...
Ion,; 11m> . ",ib.""d '0 Byuo,in< hi<to<y.
No, . ''''' k<>noph,b a.nicd <>0 wi.h ,IK- old ..S" ..... n' ,ho, ""'".. It:...! in
......nd .... not noso.ily ~il _ A('e' p"" ..,iog
.hty do "'" _"hip
m.no,f.. lU.tJ 'hings ,nd
,hey do not odo.., w.n .. rolo". (tf "",,, - ,h.
iro"""hil .. ",f"m'allt. ,heir """,lp., ~>"" n",,,, l""i, i.d1'" ,h<i, prka-..oo ..
hoJ "'''' do ..... Tha. ;., ,hey ..y , .... t m ony nunufo<.m<'ll,hinp Of. _,hy of
vcncr .. ion: ,100 emu. , IK- Goopd. ltIu., ;,.. boob). li,urgk:li .....k. the church.
Ih< .Im." A..... he. .a.<on fOr dcfnooding i""F" i. dw ,It.cy un hdp to lift
pc:opI< f..,.,., ,ho WUlIo:I of ..... ry.ioy ..,.]i1y to tho hip;hc< ....>1 .... ~ I"""",
an Jrow ,hOI, .tc-n up ~h<>m Kruibk minp 10 iovisobk ....... "ironopM........ ,hco. OPPOOk"" )u..,....., -r d,frctm. "1'1""""'.... to ,ho "",,10:1
of ..... .ro.J .nli.,.. If ,ho icooophobeo.~ Pla."" ...... ""'"' il. oem.: itt whiclt
,ho iconophila :u. Aristotni:lru. It ""OII1d lit luurdoo. in ,100 <Drnnt" '0 i......
t.... , ..,,,,,," amp or """,,,..;.,,...Jr 0.- aplici'ly foikno'in, <>n< of ,IK- Grni. mu" ... bu. ,ho ~ ... ra1 ,h....., of ,h.i. ,hough, i. unmill .... bIt ... '
~in:olJr. tfor d.r.nde ... of im>g<> Wd th .. p<in"'" nl<",ly p.in, "'N' ...,.;,."
pu, ;n,o h<><>h. "E..-.,. im>g< ,h., .... ..."J in <hvf'<h .~ >or> ,IK- .atho. of AJ.......
"oJ C.~"'IN'InM'" C.b.llinM
"'. """""tt>. like. 'p<.king im.g<', .nd op<n.l ,IKflingo.nd do< mind tho, w< migh ' cmuLtI< tIK-m " (my ''''plu.tio).* I''''!P
an indot<d "mind th.i. vi<wtt. of ,he .!d. ond nf 'M vi" .... of ,ho ..itt...
<,." ...
n'"
,Iu.
,lu,
,lu,
n..-
Cuing .. . ><CfIe o( ,h. ,ru,ifi. i"n em irtlpi,....orship .... Th. i",n''I'hib of

mid-c<mmy. lik< John of D.mucu, before , hem. hdicvd 'igh. '" be
no
,h.
,.f
bkzt sens<> .
..... f.. I C1n
Co","n,in.'
jd",
><C. no> imophilc 'h ink<, o>f .hi$ I"nirula. pc. iod tool< "P
,hot.n im~u.ould be "ne in I,,;n~ ... i,~ ... ~" it "I".><n<>
lik<Wise. <I" .uch..i"ic ,nching of ho,t, Con".min nd Hi.rn. ><tm, ,0>

h,"" gone "hr<m.rk<d. Th. Chri"ol"!\)" of t.h<>< "Ti,.", ., liul,: 1",1.1 ,,, s .... p.
T her ,<jtcd ,IK ch.'!;<' ,h>t ,h.y "",'e g.,iity (If ci """',,e.ihih~ God .. divi"i,y
,,' of "'I"m,ng Hi. """teS. but ,hoy did "'" .d,...,,: I""i,;,.. duettin. of
[h.i. GWn. If ,hey 'Iltttd oe di .. g~ wi.h John of D.maKU" ",,1, d.. ing
'IGIr''''' ' of ,h. Christiologial impli",'i"'" of in,'Il"". ,her did no, say..,.'"
The ironoph iles did objec, to ,h. >d .. ,I,.. Hie",i, ..... "menial, bo,h be
cuse it Iud no l""u,d",1 I<pra<m..ion .nd because i[ d<p.n<d (10m ,IK
,h. ,i.
"",neil..'" Thi, 1Igumenl,ni'>n ..... b.<cd (In pte

ancien' ,t..Ji,ion, of
... iling 'Y",><l.1 'hooty >nd mund ... ). :oo;q>.. nu >I Jl NiC><"> . It i, e) '0 ><C
why [h. hi,hop'" Hi";. weI<.., in,i>len, on C1l1ing ,h,,;, .ynod oc"mcnOI.
Th. "g""",n!>
,miition . bou, m.ttc< . nd
.igh, " .t< old .nd h.d
f<"C<ntiy betn t<'"".-.I by John of D.m<w. 1"hcy ''''' found Ke.p"n "
.boo,
.boo,
Nicae
y", just .. John hi", .. lf i.... I.... by"""'. ,Imo,"
.bco<,,,
f",m Ni"",, ,
I"tCONs. SO too ... ,h. irunophil. ",i,ings of m idntury. Th. reuon. I would
''lI'''". i. ,h...~< No",INti4 .. well .. tk
AJ,m", G>~,,,,,,,;~",,, ufu/
/I"",,, . nd Ad"",,,, /"'''''"'''''','' v...1< I<kntl ... in tIKi, rq>udio,ion of Co",,,n,
i.... v. In<k<-d ' he Adv=", G>"'f4n';n"m put . hom ,he ""ty ,b., ,he empc[o,
,,,,,,,i..,
go, his ni<klUm. Copronymt)u, (""I)u ng N.mW) h<c>u", h< had (""I.-.I hi,
""1,,,,,
b.pti,m,1 f"n, .'" The ideo> ,h"",

protTered we", oI ...d) ,ilo blc but
,her them",l"", """,W h.v. betn .. , itt'''nt to T.,,,, iu" ekganl oi/tonomi4.
In uddi,iun to 'IG,ing ' numbet of ,""'mdy "'n.i,i"" i........... 'h .. ,mobili ..,
ing iconophohc bishops . nd nO! ","i.iting ,he [eput"io,", of L<o III .nd Con
... n,ine V, II Nie><. ,I.., hud to add,ess ,he 'opi< of images. TIK .... mblW
did ' hi' prim"il) by <I;>,ion. 110.. i. ""her ,h.., <>ffmng, 'Y"t<m"ic .od
<;ompl<h.n,ive ...",mcn, .bou. im.S"' . :u bmh John of D.mucu,.nd Hiei.
Iud dOOle. Nic>o:" hi,J,<>1" ' ook tho: C1utiou. lin. "f devo,ing mm. of ,h";,
"'.n,ion
tI<I.il.-.l .. fu ..,ion of ,Io.c d;,ion, of Hict.i . Evcn ,n .dv.",ing
,h.i, .. ft. ..,ion. h........". ,IK bi>hops <onfin.-.l them",lvC$ m.only It> cTi,iciting
'0
I~iari.a, in'.'p.... ,;... I<Chniq .... .and ,.... , ""' ... ~ dq>.u, ..... from ,radi,;"".
In <Khn ...,..w, Nic:an Jq>CO,cdly $aid. "h is wro", '0 btl......
bu, 01_
........ wrn' on co ..,., "<and 10 i, .. ...........,. CO bd~ ....." From Nic.oea',
fI<I1'ion. i, is poosibk '0 fo<m "'..... bly dov """'" olwtw lho iconopbileo in
7f7 a."" '0 p<e>m' ... lhe chid' foul .. <If m. iconop!>obn bu, only. limitl
..,...... of wh.t tho icooophiks ,I><m""~ Xlwlly bd~ .bout images.
In ,I>< mido' of Kion 01><." bW,...,. B.o.il"; ""'1"" "Throdon: of My ....
nd Throdo>.iu. of "morioo ""',., admin.,J to the """... il, "",h bi ... op Iud.o
follow hi. pwro..ion "f f,i, h wi[h a >do of .n.. hem .. (IOI~IOlllJ). 1~
anathom... ,., r<p<1'.,J, .1""", vm,.,im.nd in .... rly ,he .. mt 0","',.[ ,I><
ond ,,; >e$I;"'" foOl' and 6",. ,I>< ....
which m-iownl ,ho: Bibk IlI'Hl ,he
churdo fo."",,, '" .,fll .. ,ho: """;,ings of ancien. I><,<tio (111JC..E, 101R-D). A,
,I><.nd of -'on In'rn n..- tho< '-'" ond sin.o''''''IJ9,c..-,<), ond >pin
in .......... right (4.AA..Q. <hot IOrnuI conclusion <If tho: (;OUJIo(i1 t.dd bacIr: in
ConJoan,inorit" ,he M"P""'" Pabtt. m. ....,bmw _ '<penal onU >pin.
n..x """,,"mn.o,iono .......! clc.oly tho< 1",,"1..11 .. NOaa ....uI>cd '0 tnm. it.
Nic:an ....,.......,i.aI
who apply P'" Ii' of Scnp<U'" >pi .... idol> to
il"lt.lf!">: , ...... who coli i"'"VI idoI.: t ....... who .. y ,iI< d>urdo ..... r ><Iminal
*,:
i",,,
""*
idol" ,,,,- who .. y , .... , 0.,;....... tqpt<l im"$'" .. rd', .hooo who _nbc
<1<1 ......11 from idoobt.,. .nyun< bu, Chriso , ,...,.. who odd ' 0 0, d<tr>Ct
from II>< ,.->ChinS' of ,he "J'O>'J.. and tiolh.<n: and 'M" ""ho inJlOfl". In on.
form or '''''''''''' ,h .".,"""'" .1", ,o-uch thooc who
'0 ..101 " (u.u. 11y
.."". form of o:lutovm 10 .,IUI" ~, . mb .c. , ki,,) tht It.olyand v<" . ... bl.
im>&,,>, Th< .n.. h.m in .... ioo right .1",
,IWK wlt.o .. fw.. to .cccp'
.11 ... ,;"t" .nd ~nwri".n tradi[ion. of ,he chucch ...... n .. ,ho who <'<;.a
Co.pc:. ..on.. ",preso<d 1' images.
'0
,.,ru..
.".d<
\l'hat .........., heK is
m. .n'.....' ~ ofidGbuy. Tl... . ....'F pIoj"<d .
'*.
rok On 71.... to I>< ...... h...

piau ....,., ......pi<k "'1" ...." .. . bou.l>ow
~ conl\utd 01 "P""',..d <hot ... ,uns of Ch .... and abou, [h< pAon'Y of
(<II <a<li"ll to ....",. 'The: La" .. IWO ...brr<" did indtN ro .... up
dorwhoot in Niaod, docu.....,n. ... r will show. Bu. 717" pri .... 'Y '>CW of.he
f.ulin5' of 71~ amou",aI '0 ......100 ocau.a.ion of idoIo"y. II ..."..."J no... is
pl.;n', . 0 be _n in ,he ..... m.m..: ;n...,...'ion. Niac;, claimed ,h.. .......,.
hear,,,,
infu""! ,ht procmlin5' in,~ precisely bea ~ .. ,h. b;,hop; ~,bertd ,he.. okp.tttal r..... m ,radi,;"" .nd, ;n >0 <loin&- in""""I..d, R...h".,J '0 ~n[w., [he
.~n"nt from "'P,;"n hold. rh.. in,,1!"" ohould be . mb....,..!. im.I!""'" " Of
idol.. n" "no .hould dop.t" from tho tcadi'iom of ,"" d"",h , Thi, .... rdly doe!
jU>li", .0 ,he .... phi ..i.... oJ .hinki"j! of Cor"' . n.i~ V .nd hi' billwp<. Niaco
.. ndo mort '0 ""kmic ' .... n [0 >p<>iogt''''
How did I'iCK> go, '0 ,hese: nog>,i,.. <ondu,ioo,~ Tht bi,!,ops uodc. Taraoi"" di,=iul\ p,uc=ll ;0 ...,h., in,.,.,,;ng ""y. In rho roollh ..,.,ion,
NOa<... bishop< ....",bll ,h. biblinl .nd "m;"i< ,..,imon;" ,l>td in 7H, In
,he fifih ",.. ioo Ni""", dmlgod up . in". lIy.1I imagio.bI. heresies. Aod in ,h.
,ix,h ..... iuo Ni<=> .i,oJ .nd r.uoJ ,he~ .... of Hieo"ri . III ca>< .ftet
Ni""",', hi,hop.> dcmon, ....,,l how p">go h,d hccn .. ken OUI of li'e,,')' or
hi"o<ial <On"''' .nd, in i",I"""n . I.od been ,.1"", "'. ~"e"" ,,,,,.men,- Ni
(2C> w.o , ..[><Ci.lly Iu"h in " .. ,king H ie"';,', w< of met. ex'rxu (;uno'"". ,,) .
nd ,he Nieeoe ('" hef> ""''' c"dul '0 u>< whok boob. """dy d.-awn from ,he
"",ti. ",IuI I;br''Y ,,1 ;n I<:w c>><:s ",..,..",ed hy p.nicip. n,,' " In.,,",. """'.
when H;rtc;, hod e;,oJ ""rrieu!'" p;$l'lgo fmm , work by church f"het.
Nie><> ,ired m h "" .... g<> fmm ,h", f:.. h '0 ,how th .. ,he pcepondcrar>e< of
. h" wri'er'. ,..,imony ,old tOr .nd no g:>in" imag<>. In lhe ..", of. ",riter
like u5<bill.'l, ,h. bi,ho", in 787 >gtd til" h. Iud ,,,,,ken .g:>in" im.g but
,hen ,hey di,mi.,.J him ...n Ari.n h",...ic; """" .bou, on< 'hing. wrong
.bou, eve<y<hing. Fioally. Ni= .dop'o:<C;'lIy in ,he ""'" of
(piph.niu, "r 5.>bm'" of denying rhe ~urhcn'l<:i'r of hi, ,ll<gcdly i",n<>poohe
wri. ingo. All "f ,his <><OS"'ial .nd hermencu,iu.ll.thor i, soph;',i",ul .nd im
p=iv . Sm i, hos ,ht 0 ...... 11 eff.." of "tg:l.ting ",h., 714 ~id by o;h.ntnWng
""". 7H wen' .bou, it> wurl<. '" It Joe> no' h.... 'he circa of .ul><"""in8
I""i,i.. doctrine fur erroorotU.
n .. ",",uncil .1..-. ""p~ i,,,df in .Ili,n.. ,i,.. ,orm, hrs' .nd foremos,. II
Ni= h.-c.me ,he ~ ... church counci1 to .ndOl>< im'se> .nd ,Ilt "n..... ioo
p'id to ,h<tn. In it> htmn NiClC> "Y"
=.
We dedor~ ,h... ne .. . o rhe .ign of rhe p",eOou, .nd liftgiving eros>.

"ne...bl. ond holy I<:on>--m.de of colouD, pebble>. 'Of .ny "'her mot.ri.1 ,h" i, fit- .",y be: ..., in ,he holy church.. of G...J. on holy ",<",;1,
, nd vco,mem., 00 W>.lb , nd ho.:r. ds. ;n hou"" .nd in "r<el'. '11><0<
m'r Ix i<.<>fl' of OUI 1.ord.nd God ,he $.viou, pu, Chri". '" of <>ur
1"'''' l... dy ,h. holy n..:o,okos. 0' of I,,,,,(ou <>bk '''g<r.. "' of '"y ",i",
or ooly rn.n. f or ,he mOf. ,h... .... kep, in Vtcw 'hrollsh t ~c;r i<onl<:
'<"!'rco<m. ,Oon. ,he mru. ,hn.. who I<>ok" ,hem or. li(,l up m ",.
m.mhtr .nd h",. a" e.,n .., desi",
,heir promtypes. AI", I.... <lcd . f< 1 ,h .. on< m.y tender ,,, them ,h. "ncr-.,i"n ofhonou~ nO< lh.
till< _"hip of our f.i. h ...!ri,h i, due only to ,he divine n"Uf<, hu,
,h~ .. me kiod of "",,,,,,100" i, offe",d '0 ,Ilt form of rllt p,iou,
.n,l li ~g;,;ng CtoS< , '0 ,I,. holy g"'I'",( ,h" on< m.y honour thcs< by bringing
r",
""
CHH'" ' ' ' 0
'0 wm i""" ......nd liyn, ....... II.. p;ow "'"om of ,i>< ..,Iy (O>,is,illUI; fO< ",lit to)<\o.", of ,lit icort i. ton-.yc;l to ,lit 1"""01)1..... Thus,
lit who vetl .... , .. ,I>< icort .............. h),!,,,,,,,,;, of .... r-oon dopitt..! on M. unDF~ """. s.tu .. p . 1791
,t... if......, -.. to Ix- i........

,hen dq >houId Ix-lip.nl """ "'" .ymbolic. Nicat. <lo:cIuu "'"'. '''''''''' ...,.
br P'" up on<! .ho< .lqo -.y "" ........... cd. I. ;. imt-un. 00 _ .t... w council
Tho
cich~ T NIt.....,..",
h.>d ......,...!t ..;.1
did no! '"'lui ... ,t.. ptnnlC< o(i..... and did no! ... fotu worship ( .....ruion)
'" """'.
s.r.- .....,...;n'
in """. dcui! ,hi< k.y...ction "' .... ___ 10. ... "", hot
,""e."... of ,t.. ..... IS ...no/t. ,.... ddj"M..... bcpru by ..yi"A .t... Chris!
ddivncd hi> propIc from idoh .,. """ ,hen """,,;.cd .0 Ix- wi.h ,I>tm fO< aU
" ..... Some people dev .. m:I (rom
m,nkin, """ from ,ndition:and int..,..
d...:cd he....,. by f..iL", to dJ .. i"'u.... I>erweon ,he .........t and ,he prof.ne.
f~ eon.ran,i". and h .... alltd ,"!".he council"" th..,. by O><tUOn
d.ltba..,;"n. ,he ,nci<n. ,radl.""" of ,he f.ilh migh' Ix- .... ffirmt<l. Ccn'r.oI ,.,
.hose ,.,.di,"""';' ,he f.i, h i... lf. TO .ffi.m which , br COIInal". ddini.ion ci ...
h. Niu ... C....,J. n .. <>.ou",il .he ........ I>cm .. i-.l .11 .ho..... hu. brgnni"6
with A. iu.. '1"'1 oq;>irur tl>c ..... hing> <>f ,h. rou,.eil" n"h of ... hKh mel TO
".nie,d , .... lting ,h h.d bun .It.d...!. TI>c bUhops ,hen say ,b.,.
in .... m. ,hey pme ..... . 11 ,I>< II.d;,ion. of ,I>< <hUTch ,b., .. ist in .. ,i"." o.
un""i".n fO,m. Only" ,hi, I",in,.
.,..,.,hi.,1. of .h....oy .hrough .I>c
/xwo" did ,I>< hi,hops >p<.k ,h. ,,orUs '1"",I~. 11,..... of ..."",,1,.
'ish'
n.....
,i,
.fIi,,,,.
;01"""
.br>u.
inus" i. fullowc<l hy)'C1 ."",1,., d.i n, of 11.....""".0 tr.di. K",.

n.. impof1''''''' of ad"',;nl '0 ,,><Ii.;"n;'.1>c ,hoolutdy ~n."" '<tum...,
of II NiacI.''' Th.... i.: "'l'> K.n,...m I'..,y.... ",II>< ;n which ,he em;re
.""'''''''Ny ...... ;m>v> rould ......HI ", ""',., <Oft .1>< 1'10... of ,radi,;"" in .h.
8yuntin< dmm.:'" Th. imperial W"T<f ,...d "". in ""';"n D<><"Y tho ......
rouMilt... h<.:-n ",Iltd '0 dccidt in il<"COrd .."h , .... .u "'.mc...... ilh the >q!ulo
ion, of tht fo,h.... and with ,he aMi.." ",les of ,he <hurd!. Only .Iuough
,...d..ion "'" .ho: t... un;,y ;n ,he chtU". h. John. ,I>< ~ .. of w E.u<. ~
C<H"ot:anal ,h>..... "",... il ..,.abI .. h .he odmia.ib;I;oy of fOnn<.r(y ir:onodast
bi<hopi "" imnueuLo.<fy ",.ti,io.... """"", 00 eI , w prac<t. roun<il",.....)d
he in p>d oro. . T......... ,old G.tt<")' ofN~rn .h..... ...-ouIJ b.,. befto
much bel,.. 011" b! he hdd Wt .0 'mlirioo """ noidc<l ptof~ in...,..., .....
rcit"" n..... <.'l bu. chan"", IU~ ''''0 'uu....ouMu;). When
Hadrian...., ... -..,eOJ ,hey ~ fO.I~ by. 1ft;" of alii."", ..,." TO the
df..cr .b.. the pope' ............ u wnt in oeconI with ,.,.ru.ion. rn writi"'.o ....
Eas, .... n bi.t.op.. Tamiw ci'N Trull.m canon eighty",,, ""d in ""';"n fum
fJw, 1M 1rchprie>< of nlocl>rr .... i. wd 'N' ... ty canon chanj;<d him from
p<..,ru.",.Q.........ip<r ofim.,.... ' ''. "hoi< of ocosion four,.... ~ to .
KnI,i ny of ,t.. holy bo<>Iu of ,t.. Qri"ia/I ,~i.ion. In .... ioo ~ Tarniw
..id tlUI dv", wn< 'Ufficiml ~
,he holy f.,h.., lo ....bI;J, ,ho, i<n<
~ of...cirnt Ii. . . . In It.. chUKh. Ap,n.nd "&I,n NicK. .......ed ...... he
~ n' .;. """001. ~ " ' - and . ....... ~ . ....... InS no all .., chalkn~
donn. TIlt I.... of the- council 'ppc>1. '" ,rodi".. n r<pCa,edly. In dv fi .... pix.: .
....... [I Nioe> w:u cblminl fOt "..-If """men;.... nlidity beau.., i ...... in
conlOnnity ";th .I.e ,,~.ion of It.. chun:h.
OIwioowJy Nic:>n
.....,tnll
of.1.e key tr.di.inns ..... cult
i ....... In-usc tDlin'lnllio Or< c ~ .obundondy in -"on /OO .nd in""';"n
~ on ."em?, is mod. '"
,hOI. in .11< pa>t. ooly ,,"r<tia t...l nudcJ
irNfP- In >nSion " ho: "'-"""il !oJ)'> , ''', lho: poin,in8 of imasa
bac~ .0
,t.. .poo<l...... (Ill<; CUI tell from IooI<in5 .. churd... . nd from ,<a<iins hwo....
(uoA).
council! of the- church p,C$C~ f,id.fully all .he ....-in... and
un ... ,i".n ,rodi,""" . nd """ of lhe..: .. ,ft. rain,ing of imago. loded. cvay
council a<q>t thc""" of,,~
images '" imag<:> m.... be: .Itigh. and
714 m ..... be ,,rollg. NO'I'o'hcrc in III of t his IIliumrnwion ~OO u:.timonr do .he
""on
_.Iou .
.now
,t... """
soa
-n.. m
.<apt'"
f.,.hc" of Nic>< ".nlp' '" iu"iIY im.sa <>AIr "" Ift.i, 0"'" '<.m . Alw:o)'> i. is
nu"., .. f ' .... i,i .. " fi n .
Bm i. i, no .... d",i.cly. m." .. .,( ,,.,d i,i<>n. ,,,.. is, im.W" or< . 1> .. lid
for n,in d id."ie muol\S.'" Th.y h.l p to ""II '0 mind .h. ocrn.. of ,he Bible,
,I>< "",g&I.. of ,I.. nwry .... nd .hl I,b" .. of.h< "in". Im>go> "",ngfh<n
helicf. 'They .waken.II.h< ........ Th~ lifr 1>OOf>lc ul' ' 0 1ft. gI"')' of God. "They
cncoungc <>nIin.'Y p>J>I< in ,fte;r wily Inv.il, (1;', ... mplc. lot~C- D. 9 D--E.
9-''''-' 17F.-wD. 'WF.-llIA, uy. ." B. lSIIC-D. JooC. JOIe. J.O.4A..

~IIC-D.)6o(:: ,,,",,, ..... menu or< "" common ,h .. it .......Jd Ix otio<c TO ci.,
"""" namplco). 1m.".. may be paniculul)' h<lpful fDr In"me.ing 'h< unln.
t<r<d (Iot~D, 9E). lm.gn .... ''f<"m 0I .... i'in8 .. ( to.~EJ. "They .... he "'lui .
Ir... of t/,..
"""d, "b,,,,,,,. w. it . ... o,,,,"';"n of j, II.,.... wC-D.
uoA.
.".! "" on)!" ~ 1It'. Iea.n .Ix """ thing>. tNl is. r..m;:al1
wIw. .... uhn piau" (u,A). 1""fP . r< ,h ... l~rio<uI bu .r..o mili .. ';'n.
~.ic. Tftcy an acnWly hdp '" I...ct. . 10 inculan- the..-.y .~ i.;"". of
..ru.:h they Me p>n.
'" It.. I.... "'Y'- imop Me holy in IaJ>t of wit .. thcy rq>l'ex.... not in
rnp<CI of ....... ,hey ar . Im..,..r< ..... teri. L. to .... "'~. bu, m.,l<f ohoWd no<
be """""'.-...!';mp!y oo.ho: pou ..... oii".r...........-wi,y_ h is impon.nt.o
aomain ..'Iu, matt .. i ....... fOt. S;ma..1y piinltng " ... i,h<. ~ 00' i:>3d
Wf""'"
",C.
'0
to<
ettA"" T .,
( ,B--C), If ", """'" >pin, m.tt<t of why tho painter I"'in" . nd wru.t he
I"i"". The <Dunc,1 .ffi.m, ",in"" ",Ii<:>, .nd im.g<o-in ,h., "rd.,. Tho: =,neil
d,. "" p. ",lIeb betwc<n im'g<' . nd the <rou, [he Go.p<b, veil nd .<s[menn,
. nd ""ml ,'~k BtQ>dly .p<uing. one On $Oy tt..t ironophilQ "".-.: ~ t.,
"""y ch."nd.. of divi,,,, S"'C<: . So,,, .,{,~ _'" "",,,,,;.1 . nd SOme "'C'"
hnun in ,h. IOtm of [he mooks , dm;u.,.J '0 , he "",uncil .od w.o"""ed wi,h
syml",hy fOr
",W<rings. The icQrw>pho!:...., on ,Ite oth., h,,'>d,
sough[ '0 limi[ r.uh """.-.:Iy ,he ch.nnd. . 10,,& ""'ich di.ine 1\"'" ,,",uld
flow' " F..... n,i.lly <hey Slopped .. ,he w<)Id of God md of .ppt<Wcd w';,..,., ..
,he con ...."ted bodi .. o( o"bined p,; ....... od bi.hop>. ,nd" ,he cud.... ,;" . It
i, impon." " to """, in mind, how= . ,h .. inugu ""'-':. <'"tn" Nic:te>, only
ooe me1O, of "o<li~co"oo . od 0", n:<>o>rily ,h< mos, '"'PO'''.' one.'" The
coun<il f"<)rd .. 1(" in ... n"" ref.. (ot mo'e freque",ly '" m'l">(ies p<,f~tmcd by
,he .. inlS ,hemoct..,. o. by ,hei, rdia d,.n by ,hei, im>teo, '"
J"" " N;"""', bi,hop.< ...."" ...,;ou; t<, .." blish t1ut im>go> w<te not
""".hired " toos' SO '00 ,he council""", I<,a,n 'n ,00-,. 'hot pu ... ""'lShip,
,..""hip " in ;pirit .,..t ',,"h:' w.u """,nkd only to GOO,""'or '0 on image. '"
M.I)'. n' '" the .. inlS. Images rtived the rebtive "",""ip uf hono<. In\Ojl<S 0 ",
.<"" 1, 00001."<1, ' pp,oad>I ... Im.l, kis.cd, <mbt-acl ""Iy I><=u .. of .1><,.
pro'0<YPC> .nd beco"", ,hey ",m,nd p>pi<.,f (hose P""0'YJ>CI .od .wU:.n d
for .hem (j6l\- 1I, 6g[)- 69A.
nll'o, 'j.C- D, ~oA 0J so ""J. In odd ...
,ion (0 f<r<"'tl di"' .... io.... in tho <<>un<;l'o .... iOft' (he.-.: i long di"l~i>iti()n
on worship in the co~nc~',lc"<f to I.-.:n< . nd u.n! .. ntin. 14"-lD-4oS D). Ni
=:0" t..... ' ment of tho .opic of ..... " hip .ppe. 1S to me '" be the onlr pI.c<
",he.-.: ,he ,,",i.ings of John of D.masc ~, we", ~<l i" . .. <iou. w.y.'" Ev""
h<fe, ho~,,'. John "'., no' ci,ed by !Urn . T he poin, of 011 ,h. """d" I.. i.hed
upon """.hip i, ""lIy t" ~ .. blish on . nd for ,II [ru.. i<rUg<> h..d . I" .. ys
1>:" occonJe,J .n ,pp,ul',i,,,, m<>Jt,,,, of tdf'CC' oncl Hi."i. hod pc<wndr
mi .... nde'''ood thi.
Wi[h ,hi< ,h. 1<;.; "h,ng of II Nic> .. "op>. I.." US "". ~ ,h. b.. ie
point.<. Traditio" 1",,,,,ilS, .In,,,,, <km. n"" irn.ges. ImOj;d .... functi<molly
C<juivak .. , '" words. Tex,. ....t pictUre< an , .. h .-.<all to memory 'he ... ,,,,,i..,.
'If [h. lIiblc. ,he kn,i.m of ,h. m'rT)-n, ,he .i,,,... of ,h. "',,..... ncl ,ho:
i"gs of .he r.. helS, Tho .. ",.. hing mpb .nd lili up.he
, ....... , ,'I (he conmpl"io" or tho higbet-, mO", gI<><iou. "",Ii,i.. of tho h....,nly
"",1m. [m.gt"S . ... owed clct:p . nd ("",,,,n' mp! beau.. o( [he ,,<Hi.. Or
PC"""" th<)l "'p'CKn .. Ac .. of 'ev<",na uodcn.kc" hd'o", on 'm.1\" . '" ",.
r<<r<<l '0 ,he p'o'''rype . In flUny .... po<:<!' ,h... ~e tdd id.... On. CO" ...u eh
the [",di.ioo (com , he (ouflh a muty to ,he .. ely eigJub .nd find. -IC>n".ed.1I
,Itc,. ",""'"
"c.
,,,;,d..
.c...... ,~ ..."""II.Msapc, .i"""II .. "''e~' demen, of ,hi, ,eaching. 1JIIh", w;u

_
ift ,h igJ"h ",n",'Y ..... ,h. ,i8"''''''' and comprchen,iv< ddini.ion . nd
. ffi rm .. iOl! of ,h... idns.
Yet ",me i"u ,ho, ...... in ,he ~ighth crntU<]l did not ""pp'" fully at
Ni=o. fu i..... ",isal by Co"",",ine V in hi. strood P~;I, ",rndy ,hot ,he
cuch"i" ""'" , he . uthorized >COn of Ch,;,,', body. w,. r<j<",~ in "". b,ief
I"""'g< of the ,iuh .... "'n" mUlOtion of Him .. (1640-1681\). It i. in .."", ing
to note thot "'i, , ,);um<", lthougl1 .:entr.1 to Con".nti,,". strond in~ ui<]l.
W;U Mt octually afFi ,med by Hiere". ThO! Nia<::t .dd:S<c<J it at . 11 .uggcs".
6"". thot the Pnnro ffi' Ita ... been .v.ilabk ot Kicaco and <ccond tho,. here
.g>in, ,he Ni",n< bi.t..,p. <li<l no, wi.h '" .ddmo ,he formt' empero, di<1ly.
Thu> ,hey kft ,hi, "~u"'en, .. ide.
More impomnt i. the .... y "i=. de.1t with
Chri"oIogial ' 'llum<!tt''
ti"n ,ho, 'I'n> ""nm.1 '" ,h. ,hough. of booh Con". nti",. .nd l-lie .." , h will b<:
rcnllcJ that in tho 7\0$ ,f.c ironophot... m. intoincJ thot . n) ,mag< of Chrilt
.i,her confi..cJ 0' di.idcJ Hi, divi,,, and h",,,,n n""res, 'Thi, line of ,hough,
m1l'ked conside" hle ><I .... """ "n .,rli" iconophobe .rgu me"" '0 .he
tho,. bcca"", "no one"'" eve, <cen God. ~ no One could make . n imag< of Him.
1.tgU"!
thot Constantine .nd Hi.m, dOl not introJ uce this Ch,i!tulogi
cal dime ... ion but i ... t<ad tltat they ,,'er< rcspon<ling to the it!<:>1 of John of
I),mucu . John \vaS n." ronten. ' " "y, wi. h .h. ",di.ion . ho. h.oc,os< Chris.
h><l .ppe>rcJ ... m.n Hi. hum.n "OIu could be depicrcd like .h. ltum.n
n, ,,,,. of .ny ",.n , Fur, .. J<>hn say Ch,i" ""'. n", mer. ",.n ," He,.......
ingle b<:i~g wi, h "'" nOlurn, Any im.g< ofCh ,;",,~ likely. in >Ome fo,kio~.
to ,..'~.J-and pe,h. p' too to <=11 to mind_ bo.h G<:>d and m. n, Mm..".., .
.<in", God IuJ hc<:ome hu""n p"",;..,ly .n n" ke i. I",,,ihle fur human. " ..
bocome more like G<:>d, .he wOOk :ooomy " f ..Iv.,i"n d<pcn<leJ in 10m .... y
on .he depict",n of Chri". To deny Hi, "t!<:p;c,abilily"'
in ;ume =y ''''
"tad .h. ,..,.lilY of H i, inamati",,, and I~U' I'" all i",,,, qu."i,," lhe poIOibili.y
of sal"",K,n. 11>< ""noel.." <cern.o Ita"" ond .... ood thi> ><gumem .nd ." h,y,
,h.
rtf.,.,
.00.-.
wa'
" i ..ll..nI " .. ",,,m .., i, .
Nicaea 'I>oke "n d,e "'''''' of Ch,i"uIot;y """y limes bo' i" ..... h..
t;""''''''' ""'y, AI,ho.ogh .te M,ff.; thin k h.. the ""i.ing< of J<>hn "'""", Out
e"1IIinuou.I)' from he",," .h. fOlds "f.he Couocil of Nic.c.:ilj i. <cem, '0
me .hoc Nia .. ",m,lIy bbnkela! John.., .. to m,k. hinl invi,ible. H. is ",mcd
,,,"cdy 0""""""'" 'he poin' whe .. hi na.hem. \vaS l<>eindeJ (l!7E1-C). On thi,
""""""n Jolt n i, I'"i;ed .. """
lif. a! up hi, ,'oice in
'lI" in" .host
,",'h .. ",,,,k Ch,iSt at'" Ch,i,,', peol'l bin n".hing i, ..;d '00'" J<>hn ', "" ",I
.eaching. In . 11 the p. tti,,;' ,cf,rencc:s-thirty-<>ne ... tho .. in fifty_"", to;t> plo.
"'I>,,
1''''''''
106
CHA"" ',.0
~nty., h ..., lugiogr.>pn'callOluccs-john i, not n.. ,,,ion<tl once, "" Th< On<
pix< wl>cr< J"~ n 's t=~ing ""'y ru.Y< made rnI rom. ibut"'n is in ,he """ion,
d I;ng ",;,h ,t.. kinds of ",,,,,,hip prope,ly ocro,J<tl to God and t" otbct ooly
thin!\"_ I ru.ve .rgu<tl ,ru., N~ did n<)' wi.<h '0 bting up John (or '0 ru.ve
dor>< SO """"Id hove aposcd hi' drtp Iw,,'ility '0 imperiol im<rfacncc in dogm. ,
lIur I ,h,nk ,h.,.. ..."",10.......,n. N'<:aeiI d,d noo .. ,.h to ",i,~ 1<>"<1 of
Ch,i.<oIogK.J 'p<Cut.,ion O<Cl>ionro by inug<'O. In. ml n. '~ "",,"';1 of
787 hdd '0 ,h< lin< , ho, had b<cn . nicut.,ed by G "",nu nd by m.ny bd'o..
hin> . lkau Ch,,,, had '1'1"",,1 ... "",n H. could b< <kpic,ed ""d ....,h
d<piction, ""'''' n<ither idol. ""w; not b!.sph<mous btcrw< ,!toy did nr:>< Bci,
",,,,rib<" Ch,is, ', di.ioity.""
Ika"", John, Co,m.""ine. nd IIier<" had .. i>l ,I>< b,d of Chr,,..,Iogi.
cal d<bat<. howcvo:r . nod b<ca,, NiCKa ch ..... ro p~ mor< by n"l""ion . nd
r<fu!O,ion ,lur by p<><"'v< .'Sum."",, '''''' rhe bishop< in 787 ... '" led in'o
some slighrly .ml:>iguom o..... en ron,ndierory , .. I<m..,,,. Th. onl)' <'<plici, 1y
Ch,i"olvgical , ...."'.". in ,Ix boroJ saY'- "Ix who vcnct <o tho iroa ..,,,,,"',<0
rho h)p<>S ..,i. of ,he P<""" <kp,cr<tl on
un[ ) If rh .. m,c",.nt ;, to b<
,d .. oJ to Clot"" ,hen i. might 'pp<.' to co.r<SpOnd with John', t<""hing. 11><
P"""" of my ..i", '" . poni ........... Id ,.-.1 ,,"Iy , .... , 1',,,..,"', hYl""'"'' .. .
hum.n .1I><i, ,I>< pietur< would. Ol' would nOl', d<p<nding on "" gene,.}
. "icud< '0 im>g<>, rcval ,10< "in .... of ,Iu, p<,..,n. nu, Chri" ...... uniqu.
",.,..,. ... i<,. "mqu< rct'On. in which twO din;n ""u,e! h.d bn <nhypo ....
,;:r.ed. Thu<. piut< tn .. m<e'. led Hil h)p<>S~... i. mi~' wdl be thoogh to rev<al
Hi. di.inity. Thi' go<" t><yond wh., "". m.nw had .. id . nd go<> '0 ,10< h",n
of w/u., Hi<,. .. lud . ri<tl '0 p~m.
&.ding this " ng\< line from ,he 1H>""
<a,li.,. ... m.n", ho~"
.... ~ .. i, link diffiath '0 .... o.actly wh>< ,t-.. Ni"'n< r.. h." inkr>d<tl. FOf
in" " . in ",;.c,ing "of,., Hi<",i. Iu.d '0 <or .bou, the Ntotim impliCit;'::",.
ohn im.g< of Chris<. Ni"", . .. id th.. rn", Chri,. .. ns nulr<.n inuge ",n SO f."
.. ,h. Word btcrm. AesJ, '_. h., is .,..rf. "",o_', tI,1 J"",lt .n>"o~ ..: God
,10< Word circum!<ribcd Ilim><lf when He Ci"'" '0 .. in ,h< A."JL N" M.
c<>uld I'<>""bly think of f<proJucing H i. divinity, h~<" b.w< 'no on.
Ir.. /:Vc. =n Cod: He i, u""i,<um""i"'bl<. i",i,ibl<..r><! inromp"'hemibk
hhough c;rcUtn",.,!,;.hI. '<CQ,d'''g to the h,un.nity"' (1A- B. t"'n'. S.h ... 1',
n). Thi' rass.oge ,mtn the cru.rg< of Nw-omni"" dk.;,i,.1y bur I... "", op<n
ju". li"k ,he p<nSihility ,Iu, ." inl3ge ~.!' ,he Wo,d who<> beam. fIoh in
m",. ,lun m.",lr H" h",,,,ut f,onn. lI"t .. tho x. go<> On tlu, doo, i. do...!
b,t f,,,t "'" oI>ut t'gh,. "' F,,' .... know Chris, to bc of!WO naru,,,, . nod in ,wo
""'ut",. ,ho, i, . d",n< .nd . I..,,,,." On<. with"u. division. Th< 6"", ,h=fOt.o.
,f"
W'''''
which i> unc;,cun'lCril>oblt and ,II< _ ,,'hich a n bt ci,curl\lCribcd ilrt " ' " in
the ..... C hrisc ImynnptoJis], 1l>t K'OfI ........ bIa the prow/YP<, "'" ..i.h rwrd
w "'" ....""". b." only wi,h rtprd t<, til< !WI>< and ,,, the p<>Ii.ion of the
manbtn which an bt d .......... ;,~' ("4411). Coo.in"in~ the ~ ..,.. .... ,
pai n.", ..ho dcpitu ...... n dooo noc oeek hi> "",I in the ckpiaion.nd t/u. no
oo<...too 1ooL .. ....do.n im'flt ...... body "'I"""~ from i<s _I. HietN ..
~ of ~IW,.opIi.ng. ~ n." is u . talnly mo ........ Ganun", J..d bttrt
..illi"$ '" ...y, bu. It:,. u.... John h.od ....,1.
A bit lu... in the .... h ......,.., .1It NIet ... D.II.: .. owroochcJ cY<f\ doot, 10
John. " If"'" di..i... ""'''''' .... ' ;......,"".ibN ' ....11.:, ",uh ,II.: human
by h.. bci",1..iJ oo..'n.nd ..-.4f'J'<d ,n ....<iJdlinl .I",.... ,nlid< a ....... "' ..
hi> uncirrum><riIuhJc diYini'}' in ,II< dep;ctcd im>g< of h.. hum.on "", ..... So it
i. (N .B. iI. noc "'"" ,he- td"trma" .. ,lin to .h. <1.rn. ll"a<na: ofthccrucifu.
ion 01 cH.: to .h. p>rtl(UL" p<a<ncc of
m, in an im .) on the '!<1M. If
the d;yi ... ""'ure ..... d",.......,,,bN ,," h ,II< hwrun .... 'u .... '" is his unci"",,,,,
crib>blc di';ni,}, ."S',II<. "';,h 'ht ~d im>fi< of .11< hu ...... ""IU ....
('UD-. 'WHo Soh.., pp. 86- 81). 11.i. ".'..... n' I,'P"''' '" """' '" door ope"
bit f.rt ..... bu. ,h.n rome> .nock... "u.lilia,""'. "They occ .... Chti", . ... of
d&ribing d,,, incomprchmlible and uuJl5Cribohlr
of Cn ri .... .. Cnri<... ,,. ... ico""ll" ph H'm in '" fa, II.! ',he: t.ogo. bearne Hnh'" (1\6C). "No
0I\c of ,""un..! mind," ,hey ""n,in"., "look> in any .... y '" ,he im.S' rot tI
quali'i .. of ,h. p""orype" (117 1 . l',,,tn ,hi'p"i", on .h. Nice .. , f.th." turn
", a demo""""io .. ,h., ,h. in"" .nd it< I""''''r,''' Jiff.. in "...,,'"" (,60f,..
26ID). lIy mifling ,~~ dilCU .. ion '0 ,h. on,oIogy of i~. by "ring ,h" ,t..i=ge i, "'" on. in bting ... i,h i"p""" """ .nJ Ch,i" i,,,n< in h<,ng ... i.h Hi ,
D,he" ,he: co~ncil n..",wed once- agoi" ,t..- door'. or<"ing hut ,hey did not
dooe it. n,., is, 'hor did no' ~".ur. definj'i.... ly .. y ,,-Ju,.t..- image ............. ,
wha, i. rn=\ . NOI did ,hey"r ~'" an imas< KV<"~I1. N.... did they"1 "'ho,
In inug< is.
Niaa ,ook .. iu.I< . he: ,efura,lon of ~t;",..;". Chri"oiopal 'IJUI"<f"
,ha, on im.8" of Chn" n .h.ct <.... f.......t ,,. ..,." Hi, """",". 'n thi, .dUt>,;"n
Nic;oea ..... qui,. "",lid",,,. Bu, ,he ......, ,imo;, .1It C<>U"'~ did not ..... m.
fa""".it)i!i,}, lOt ""n;ns .he- ""''''''' .. f .he h)"f"""U''' <Jtp<:oed on ... ,~ of
Ch ..... n.. wuncillichm _n, ranhrt ,1wI Grona..",.nd ,he ".,di,inn had
gont, bu, lao (.. ,han Jobn had.,..... Only ,n thc nin.h """H,)"
"ill >tp><
in a..""" 6. did ,he ....... iDIt "",n.-., IUlk, apiic:..."n . n... Nican kfi
rlunp on I .<Iis1nly ambiguous pWw i. only'" b< 0l""'~' n.. wunci' ... iohc:d
feCtn' n.....-lt ... . nd '" .... n Di<hfU1M>< '" .M onci<n, ,-"inp of
"'" mUlch. Gnnd <p<rub'iotU:about i.....,. would IKM h..~........J n ...... ""'
""fU"
,ha, ..
""U'.
as'
,,,,q.a
, ...
C HU . . . . . . . "
Th .. may be: why N .... " did ,,'" " k. "P John. "",dill diikrem i."ion
tlun H ierei. had done fO. Thi,..,. of
i~ wu "'" pm of 11K '...di'ion. The.. is . 1..,. fi",lIy, ,h. profoundly p"'",..1
dim<nsiOfl of ll Nia... ,hat ... h.ve "". cd .Irndr in mhe. >mau. The >Iln
cil "f 787 wished only '0 uy '" 'he roum,il of 7H ... You d.l"'"cd f,..,rn ,...di,ion.
I..<t 11 g. '0 put ,hinp back .. ,hey ,I .....ys we",. n., Collncil of 787 did
nOf w"h '0 .. y. ulrr '" , II 'g,ee ,n something n....... "ThO! migh, h ..., hr. ..
ry difficlllt '0 aa;omplish in 'he n>o< circum"',nccs of ,Itt: mid711t><_ On.
Ita< ,h. imp'''''''''': .. ys ScMn"",",
,h. f."bc: .. wished to . .oid.1I .Ii..
pll'cd quc<,io .... H U7 Or. in ,h. d<g>n' fOrn\uL.,ion of Aid,n N",oob. Niaeo
d i.rhy<:d .. , cernin in,dl<c,u.al cI,..';ry
po><.-
of the
m.nr kind. of im.ge> .ny more
,Iu,
.H'"
Conclusion
Thi. long ""d d< .. ilcd d'i<Il .. ion Ita< .".mp,I '0 identil}- the mN' crucial
'hing> ,hat wt:ro done .nd said durinll. lIyt>n,illm . "Vuh.,;.mllry enro,m .
wi,h images. Th. follo ....ing cllap'''' "'ill "'m In ,h. W.., OIl ,he 1:... of.n
u".I<."""d;"g <If wh .. ;d.., we ;n ,h. ,i.
Id .... ,boll' ,h. ploe< of iroo. hal'< Ixcome Ii. ed in O"hOOo. 'hinking. bu,
h.ve Jon .., in w.ys ,It .. ",ok. i, ""m '" ,hough booh ,,,,,,,odllii. a"d i,.
,htologicol deftn ... are 1"'''' of ,he rn<>;;' ancient ,tadi,io"" of ,h. church. A. we
1<. IOen. ,here wu ... Ilm ai><>Il' ... hich i, was f'Owbl. tu 'rg'" in .h igh,h
c<n1Ury priKl)" benwc wid .. p.-e>td i""noduli ....... ""h.. ",m and "0 ro~
""i~' pa'""" had .... hr." /i:",,,,,I,,ed On ,hi. cl",ge-d topic. La"" ironopltik
wri .... dcpK"l<d the iconophobcs . nd , h. iro,w>clas< ... p'''''''''' who b rol< wi,h
'he .uthe"rie ,...ditio". of d.. church. I n fact, ,h"", who opf"'-"'d ,he p<IC$Sion
o ...,,,uoo of ico". vi<:wod ,ho *"""0'" '0 w~ ich ,hoo< obi" were inc ....
i"slr . uhj<C1" innova,ion.md ... a fotm ofidob,ry, Wo.,J,'p. th.,.. uid ......
10 be 'in 'pi.i, .nd in tru,h :' .nd couW not be ret.~ '" God ot '0 ,,,.,
"';n", ,h.ough mate.ial 00;":'" .. od .ho"ld n<V<' be di"",<1 to ,h .... ooju
,hem""I .... _
lronopltik "',i .... dd~,.ded inlag" .. >n."'" wi,h 'he m""
,tadi"on. of ,h. church. F.""" with ,he ch~ th .. neithe, ,h. Se';p"".. nOf
,h. rath .... 'f'Oke Il". mbiguomly .bout imag... let ,long .booll irons (in ,h.
!<n>< in which I ha,.., hr.n u,ing
~rm). rn. ieol>Ophii<> .th.. ,,1 '0
un""iuen ,tadition, i" . .. rue '0 .rgum... " fronl ,ilen , On bo,h .ido. ,here
.... , keen doire to I'r ebi ,n ", . t:><li,;"'n . n., imag< q .... 'rel "'-:11 fundamen .. lly
Nul< fur ,r.Ji'">n. h:t 'igh' reuli n~ of h"u)f)", But that hi,,,,,}" louls diffe,
.nci<".
"U"""
,Iu,
e~t
now than it did to the vi''''11 i~ 787: " Th. SonJ Cou~cil "f NiQ<.> did
"'" t=t.bI"h , I>< cult of iro .. " it at.bli,hcd it."'"
0"" ironophik ... ,i,e,. John of Dam.!CW. brough, the futl W<igln of ~i,
rnai", bm ing to be" on im.ge<. He devdopcJ funhe, th..n anyone bcfur<:
him . n in!fic... k1 of dill"efC1lti.. ion< among f(mm of _r>hip .nd . mong typ<O
of irnagcs. One migl>! )' ,h .. for John ,h'r<: ..",cd,,.,,, hie .... "hyofim'sa
,h, bog.:tn wi,h Jnu. OJ.n imogc of ,he: F.. her .nd ,ho, ... cnded downward '0
. ny ioon , In .hi. view, iRUg<> wae ho,h C"o'Klcno for .nd panKipam' in the
"'hole """nom)' of di"ine ... I".. i"n. wh id> wu i"df <"')ted in the incam.tion,
,he
ic>1 ><:!
in. ""Y, kW'imi.ro im'S'" in ,he fit>< pl"""}nus ..... .
m>n . nd ronld b< depicoed li ke my m.n. Yet john. ide.. wer<: tOO bold.
nmod. 100 difficul. '0 he fully emb",""" in ,he eigh,h century.
john', ... ';t;n5 ,n~ "".nophobc. ,,, m;, ... ,bei, trc'. t me"t of d", ,ubjeco
of idoI"'Y .od to
for ,hemICI"c> the ontology of im>gn. For the ioo
h"" ..
,h.. ,
odd,,,,,
'00
,h"
""phib i, wa. .. ... m .. '"

i"". gao .... '. kW,i"" .. just b.:e>u!C ,hoy we:
different ftom ,he penon they rep .... nt..!, F", ie<>""phobc$.n im>go hod '"
bc like. no, ju" look like. itS , uhioc<. Wi,h ,h ingle rxccp,ion of ,hecuchari...
"" " bc like" i/rUg< emt"!. Mo,cov<'. irunophil wac r<:btivdy oj><n to m . ..
ri,l.;"ihk dllnn<1tt:d ""Iy """"i"",lIy .nd in ;""b,ed con
te"' .... in ,he eighth ccntucy g"hetcd together . nd . i,cd quit< fully. Ru, in
,he end ... N"""" , ,,,cli,ion.1 p""i,ion, .... '" .dop,I. n.. holcks, , binket,
Jobn o f Dom"""" . ..." def,ly ,,"U"II .,;<1< itu, u , i"'e""t;n~y . ""ugh , ,he
".".. "ri19",1 ico""l'h,obc. Emp<'''' (".<}nmn,i" . V, ...." <> ..f"lIy ,~btq>p<J
by ,I.e biJhop> .. NiQ<.>. TIti." ,he intdloc ....1 backgrouncl ..g.i"" ,,-hich the
We" mUSt bc ""' ,
l". i(:01lod .... ic co",mv.,,)', " ,ul'f><>'o<dly ,,"'ning fro'" ,h. 7.00 '0 ,he
7800, " ... 01",
I"...! .hou,ing, I""""'ution, hu..""",n, of monks. .nd [h.
dco,ruc,ion of .n , I\em.lly.,he", """ ... onl)'. few Mid j><riod, of :ocri.. h""iliry
'" j""'g<>' ,he ~, ... ju" .,unJ 7JO. ,I>c ,,<li<XI. ,.,.,g/>Ir. 7" ". lH . nd ,he
ye~ ... from 76j to 76 7. n..1..t "fth..., pctiod, was >CtwJly '" romplic>ted in
,boo,
i" :>C!~"U .nJ ",miv..i"", ,h.., i, " h.. ... ,J"'.. '" ""Y ...1.,,, l""I"""'~'n i<u,~'ph ....
bi> '" ""moeh."" po......d wid ,," tit. tonlity "f ... h., took place, lconodo.sm,
wIt .. cvcr cau.cd it . ncl wh ..cva i, mcam. hoppcned ",tel)' and """'" ><CtruI '0
have .b50rhcd ,h. full .nergi.. "f ,he llyun'ine .",,,.
It i, difficul, '" fi nd m.ny vie.im. of ieOftocl .. , p<tO>,;"n. Gcrnunu, ......
f"",cd '" ''';gr'. b ut he """, I.. tdly d .. only p;o,,;,,.h ...1." f,i!cd t" get >lung
wi,". reigning "".j><ror. It" imp""'ibl. '" n.me .noth.. ,iet;nt in tne ti",e of
110
eMAH . . , .. "
1,.<0111. Vic,i .... in .he Y"" iuS! ,"'u ~d Hi,r<i, ~'" Iu.d.o d"",,,,,. _Th"",
""'''' pl,my "f ,ini",.. in lhc mid76o> . nd ,hcn in .oou. n'. tn., i, i, ... ,dy
<2Sl' ,o"y wi.h confidence ,Iu, ,1.0>< vicum> wffc,ro bccame of ,hcir .".ch
mcnt 10 ioon . no m.ue' ,,-\u, I.,., .00"""," mi~. Iu,'...id or impli ro .
It i. iiouJly. 'imply n", the a .. llu. P,,...,,,dum '. p.",imo"y ,n ",!igloo'"''
w.o. d..,~ _ N i, lupl"'.... ,I., f.. mili ...nd aubtr:m, dceo"";'" ",h<mer of
"'yun,;"e church"'r< ,he produc" of ,he I"",.ioor.och..-ic .", Some of ,I..,
~n' for thi< bet will
OuI ... <ntion in laid , h.pten. Wc mUS! "'"
,uppo><, h~, .Iu. iQ)flod... " had ~ ... ibbl< <0 ,hem 'h< innumc,.,bl, fOpcrt";.., of ml;<" that it i< .11 ''''' easy to i....gin<. Sum. ' m.ll<" ","";,ed rigt"
. h"",~ .h. I"'r;oo. ",wIly 0<1<0 ,Iu, _ .... fely 0'" of raeh. But surely i, i<
,,'iking ,Iu, ,ho....ch ""n"d,." l.eo IIl ,nd
"n, i"" V .ol<,.,ed f<> ..,
long.., m'''r .,/fending pictu"," in .he p>Ja.:.:. .nd .hoJh.. of Co ..... n,i"',ple
n." I.n kw),!:>" of tl.. 7600 ><con'o h,.e letn .he Je.;'ruc<ion """,,ting'''p
of n,,,,,,.n ,lun ,he ,,'hoI< 'os' of.1>< ic<>r.oct."ic pe,iod "k.on >gerher. 1"1><",
w.o. d",ruction. But it was not <y>tema<i. 1''''1'1 nd an w,,,, not runtinuou<iy
in g"" -' pe,il in .is!>th-<tntul}' Bytantium.
Fin.ny. ,he .,;ghth-cen,,,1}' ''''''' di"",Ukd hen: '''5',L,ly u.w: ,he ",-"d ,;Iron.
,,'I,i.h,. I .. OJ in Ch.. P'''' can ,<fe, ,,, ."~ itn.S". I.. i,. ~ '" "",..;" "' .
porubl. p. nd pain'ing. On. ""p ti,ing .km.", in all ,h. te .... h","""",. i, ,h.
",I..;""
of rcfc"""C! '" ,he kind. of p",,-,rn I dilCWS<:d io Ch.pt .. '.
to i",no proper. N;<=> dH.! .uthori.. the ""n,,, .. ion ofin,.gn. Th. bid..,p, ..;d
<lu, ..""",ion u"-"'Il)' .ook ,h. fotm of
k;"ing. 'ouching. h. ili"g.
en>hr><ing.
.he "'0ge of p~'io:s .Iu, wpp<>!i!:dly prol;~r.lIed in ,he period
hrwn .bou. ~.nd 'fOO .re co"'l';.;-uou, b~ ,hei' absence. TI>< .urviving
or)"""", .!fun! limi,ed """'" '0 ,I>< objec.ion. "f
ioonnphoo... Sc>nlJl
though i, i., none of ,Iu, ""ido""", I""""'P .nyon< remiling i" ho.ror bcf"ore
of p>plc b.:"hillS irons, scr.oping ,hei, surf..",..o OO",in h<>ling I,.",--d.,.
Or ba"ging them {lutlido that .OOps. 00 the {I,h.. 'ido. iroo<>philc!...,,,, mOO
e in <I..:ir cbim. Of( belulf of iron . h i. Iurd 10 find ~"y apl;"i, d<fe",,, of
,he kin,!, of pru:rH:o ,Iu, rn" l.:i"'"I;<' ,,,,,k '0 be ch'T><:f<,iu", of iron
pnc.ic<s in the ''',h .nd ...... n,h cenlu,ies. It m.y "'011 be ,hal ... I .rgu<d in
Chapte' ,. the iro" was .. ill ,.lot;""ly ...,.. . nd m. in the .is!>th ee:mu<y. Th ..e-IV,., """"ph""'" objected '" imag<> of . ny sorr .nd iCOflophiJc, did DO' ''''''
icon . '"' c<nml '0 ,t..: , .. di,ion . I'Cfh.p. Nic...'. li",i,ed .UI<rn<n... bo", cuI<
pnc.icc:s ....,.i"ed wi.h religiou rr uld up '0 one "",re in ... nce of .h. >v"id .
nee: of no .. I'Y'
",,:oct
eo...
,)f
.""'0C<
II,,,
"'IM-
.1..
""IT"
C H AP TE R THREE
An and An Talk in the West in the

First Age of Iconoclasm
TIwo.~, tiN ,.~dJ, ~
0,"""""1} ;, '" ;., food
~ "''' 404 4" ~ by"jj tht foirhfol,.
,~hoIy j"..
rho, by . ",i,;1>Nll 'Jfi<r ,
_.,,,"'''',, '" in"",." -;.
m,04 ""'l;" ",",,,J "'~ tht ""i~

,I.<
~~ tiN ",,","""n' oftiN fiF"" i'""'P ot'""""1
to tiN fo<h .-hirh tiN <0. ofC"" J.i",.N '"
fr , ..I""",.
_ Pop< H:oJ,w, 1,1<"" '" Ch .. km>gn<. 7~1
"" oftiN
",,,i.i,,
"'*'".
fl"".,
II~'QU t",u
boa.m< invol""" wi.h .h e im.:lg<' comm" ",y, . h. eigh.h
e<:o<ury in .he "IXb.,.... bnck .. ed b)' tw<> .utoon who .. lkcd . bout >It in t<nn,
b.ning ",1",a mi,1 .imilari,!, .0 .hOK wi.h which we ru.v< bome f.milia, in
"''''eying I, t< . ntiquity . nd ",.Iy Byzantium . On. of th ... i. ,he Angl<>-Suon
Ik-<le and the ot'-<, i. Pop< H,dri, n r. Fu. m<t of the .ight h e<:ntmy. the
"'Y'"
...id.1Ict i. ,p..... nd unfonhcohling; i, i. """I)'

m.ke .It"i< of wh.,
p-copk 'housl" . .. id. ,nd did during''''' p<,iOO wh.n lI)"l.lntium w:... ddr=ing
the p,oblelI\Jl.OO po .. ibilitie> poocd by im'g", Th. p''''''"' .ru.p.cr .... . (W()
fOld .im:.o ", .., Out . hi""ry of W."c<n .., .. lk in .h igh.h ""ntu~' and. o
"'t the ""I!" fOr thc ."cn,iv< F.."ki,h di",u<>;"'n, of 'he 7'JO',
W...... in Ch. plot 1 thar, .p.n from >omc m . nge doi ng> in Seren""
M.... ilJ .. . nd oome .mhiguou, ,nd , I i",i"ed , .rypial p
in Gn;og0'l' of
'l"u", ,he..
1 di",umon of . n, ."J .,.n" nly no argu n"m, . bou, " ,
before .h ighth .,.mury_ Ik-<l< ""'" " ....." of.he ",.. l;e .. 'UJle> of B)"l.ln'in<
iconophobi. tld b)' 'he 'NO' ,he F",,,k. "'<tt .,.cu,iating ,h" "' 00gu' c"un,il
w,.. "" ...
..,ge.
o( [h. Gr.d,.: ,h., i" II NicK>.. So i[ .tan'" to tnSOn ,h>, ,hc Western dio<m"~,," wa.! '''!Iend'tot<! by ,h. W tdn ""c. Th., thc WC>l<rn di><:us.sion wa.! nor
indigenou. i In=l) "It< impo"'''' poin, to eoo,bli.<h. Mor< imJ>OC" m. how
"".r. i..... bli'hing wh .. pcopk in the Wen know, when ,h<)' know it . nd!>ow
'h"" ""'P',ndcJ in ,he d<Oldcs bdQr< Throd~lf W",[c . h. Op", c,,,,Ji.
Pu, link diff"trrnolr. ,hi. dldf"cr .nd the ""'" th .. I<:>lIow rgue .Iong
.mical . nd hOfizon ....1pl.n"". T h. , .. "ical ' 'l!"m..u Os t:.....ially chronological.
It aplm how the po$ition. "".nm,lIy 'dopred in ,he F..,"ki,I, """Id W.r<
huill up from pr=ding d"""I"pm.n". T he hori ...mtal ''l!um.nt foil",,", rwo
p;otalld t~. On. in.tip[" the a tcnt to which .... h>, [h. Frank< .."I w".
.pund by. In>u.em wi.h, 0. opp<><! to W\U. wa< bting .. Hl in [he f..<t. The
",h.. nplm .. how wh>. ,he Ff"1nk, .. iJ ,I,,,,,, .., ,hed< li#lt On what they ..id
,bout mh .. ,opi",. nd via: , .......
Art T.Jk in Bro World

Th. firs,
of the qu.r,d <>'>'<. im>gQ $Oundot<! f:u (.om ,h. M.di_

in N""humb"; . ll><y .. ng in ,he w,i,ing> of lied. (671- 73SI
.mob, of imme .... !earning ,nd wid, connOCti"n . Bcd< "'",m.nd, at""tion
no, only beca",," h. is the fi,,[ tnm. lpinc wi,,,... .o .he new ""n."" .. ..,. ,,,-.f
in"ll<'_ bu, .1.., benu,," h. provides ",me him bour wh>, wu bting .. >d in
Y:l";ou, plOCQ in [he ca"y ... gco of .h" In,,,,,,,,..,.. H. himself act", lIy had.
good 001 '''''y . bo", >It ,nd ,h,.. f",. p,... ides at I".,,, on. gauge ofWc.tcrn
vi ..... on th.. gener.rI ,,,bjc< . Fin. lly. hi. wri.ing> <ircul .."j widely .",1 "-ere
high I) ;nRu<n'''!'
Chop' > m.mionl in p... ing ,he liltk ,h., [h. liM Po~tifttiZli' ..".
,bout ",,<>crete i>sues in the .. ,Iy d.orp of the im:og< qu",,,'- II is irnJk-""f"n, ",
h..~ ,n mind what the Librr POlftiji",/i, ..id hcca",e Ilede i. btli ...d !U h.....
Iud, "",.king cop)' of ,h. 1.1bn- p.",ijir4/i, containing on .. ycI unhni.bd lift
of Gregory II .' Iktwccn 729 .nd 7,t . nd prol:hIy d.,..r."
B<:.l. interrupted hi.< .lIcgorical cugcoi' of .I>c Old T.,,,m.n", description of
Solomon', Tempi.
say ,his: ' T h.t<.t< pcopk wbo think"", ,rc pmhibi[..!
by God,I.w {tom ",,,,jng or p;ointins- in . ch urcl> Ot .ny other piKe. tq>~n.
u[ion. of ,i,h.. hunun. ,,,
0' objo:ts of wh ....... r kind. on the ground<
th., H. said in the Ten Commandmem, 'You ""II not ",.k,:""' Thi, explici,
,detcn 10 ,he E..od ... pmhihi'i"" doco no' appa' in .h< LiM P""'ifo.J" and
th., wotk spco.!u onJ~ of. prohibition of image> of Je.us. Mary. ,h. ,]>0<<1...
nd ,h...in ..: it does no< .pea\; of ,nimal. 0' ob;"""o. The..... rwo iM"" h... .
\1('.... "'..chon
'''.''''''.
,h. I.".. ,.....;
,0
,n'm.1.<
At1.nd At1 Talk
"J
on. relev.n, '0 ,h= i"""Ii,,. ci rcu,,,, .. n= and one impot,.", rot ,he " ,hol<
hi'lOtial con",.. of ,he ."Iy ph . .. of ,h. inug< co",""""y. TI>< fiat point ;.
whe .. dtd \\cd. gel hi, inronn,uion~ Th. Librr POlfliji,a/is docs !.ly ,hOI Gr.go!)'
II w"',. Ch,i"i.", ""'rywho,.' c"n<;civ:>hly ..,me ,,,,,h 1<"., ,... chl En
gland. MOl<likdy, tI.<k k.on"! ",I,., W>.! SOing on in !W,ne .. >J o,n",,,,,io<>pI< from hi> ,no,!), info,m,n, on RomM ,If,i", No,hdm.' .... I'rg<"m! mol<
impo"'m' point i, 'hOI E\k', inrotm~nt. whhtt Nod."!m o. ",,,,,... ,,,. d ....
,old him only of ,he <:OJ'>d,mn.,ion of i m,S"> on ,he "",i, of f..>tlu, "1.4. "I1,i,
...... ,he V",".men of ,he ch.eg<'I ,h .. eif"'I.,..! .mong [h. Bi[hyni.n bi,J,op>
.nd bctwcrn ,hem . nd the imperUl <OUl'. B..!. ,hu. pro"ide> . n inrnting
""'~'m>.[ion of ,I>< rd>liv<ly mod ... in.<lI[",1 fQc", of [he mn,m"<t.y" i"
[ocepnon .
Ik<k 1=1. dil<eming .y k",n int.rnt in m' rUl rulture . nd.n . bility
W <"""0 beau'iful wurJ pinu,,,, .... ny tud., of hi. 0,. ,I,.
o[ 0" ""
Tal"",,,," could not r<.ibly ovtrlook the 'hT delight \\cd. took in doctibing
."d then .lIegOli,ing 8"ld, ,il",[. b"",<.<, o;cohT.m! oli", wood. 'i<h colo... nd
[hick ",. ,u,.. in wool, linen, ,m! ,nim.1 ,kin,. tI.<k . 1"",)", [hough, ,hat only
[he ~o ..[ ,bioS' W<f< wonh)' of ,ymboli,ing God. on ,he one h. nd, .m! of
honoting Him, on ,he oth c . Hc ",in= .b.olu[ely no [~of ,he ,eodoncy we
00"'" in , .. ,iom 1. '"';que .m! .1", <igluh>c<n,ury Il)""o[in< w,i.ct, '0
.<Ok of d,,, .. n...1 OS ,ntrin.ico.lly unsuited to looly porI>""<'. Such m.lt"
",,~Id he .Lu.w::J, of >u .... bu. P"'perly ~"'I'I"yed it _
I~ .. i,i.dr b.nmcial,
H. ")'S <xpli<itly
'" [<lh. m. king of obj<Ct, O[ .nim . k i. not fu[bidd.n.
Ro[h... wh" i, ~n'irdt, p.ohil>i.ed i, m~king ,hem f<>, ,he purpose of iOOI"I)','"'
He ci,.. b,...j". 10.)- \'" <1..., ".men! .f",." i",,11"" of .l ien~, mod. by
,he ge",il .. for cult ."11 ...""hip.
Il<dc', ",i,ud. OS l(, why <ul, '" i. p<,mi"ed i, "'onh quoting. ",,,n [hough
i[ i, n Of o,igi..,1. He "'t~, ,gain in 0" II,. Tml~ "They (,he U;onophobn)
would no, "'y .ny .,,,h ,hing if ,hey Cllkd '0 mind .i,h" ,he wo.k of Solomon
. .. 0' if ,h<r ron.idcrl ,he wo,k, "f M,,~ . '" 11< I!'''''' on '0 "Y, "'1f i. i,
pclmi"ibk '0 .. i" up ,he bm.n "<pCn' On 't ,h .. the 1<"",li,.. m.y Ii ..
by Iooki~g at
wl,y i, ;, 'Wt pc,mi"ibk ,h.,
",,,It,,,,,n or 01... l.o.d "'''
S iou .... n ,he CtO hc .ccolkd.o tl .. mind, "f 01 f,i,hf,,1 piC!o<i.lly.">I
even Hi, mi""b . nd <u[e. . . ,in~ ,he oigh' of ,h.... hinS' offen ,ends '0
<Ii.i, gr<>[ cumpuniO!'l i" .h. behold .... . nd ,I"" [0 n" it< .... il.bl. '" [boo<who >r" illi[e" .. ' I;ving "'''''';''' of
"o'Y of [h. I."d. Fo[ in G,k ''''''.
pointing is ",Ikd ~uryQU<;>ia. [h .. i, IWing wnting:" Ju;t. li,tI. funhe, on. in
de.t;,;bing ,h. grt", purifica'ion N.in in 'he T.mpl< .nJ it> ,J""' .... i,. ,1c,.;I,.
,0
r""p"
,n..
i,.
,I..,
,h.
'"
CH , . . lH . . .
he asks why. if "",Ip,ut no .Iong lhil !:win '0 a kngt"h of !en cubi .......
c m ",,' ""a,,"c Of ""in"' " "",i.,. of ,he ... ints and m.rtyn?
AI! of ,~i, "'" by ,~,n f. ",ili" .nd ,r:oJi'iorui. 'm e Bible i<Klf "...rnn"
[he m. ki"l\ of im:os<> . nd ~ribcs ""'ny of them. Im. g h.ve ,he np.cily
move people in """,,,,enlb ble "-'Y'. And i"",goo an ,eacJ, ,he i[[i, ..... wh:u
[he Ii",,,, .. b in in orh waY'. If ,he i< .nythi ng at .ll new he, i, i. Bede',
p..,ing ........ ,k ,"", inugoo "'igll. he ""ull"~ .. well .. ""in [~. As f" .. I
know, llede n<vc, "p~ [he '"ref.n, i. l"" def.nl< of i"",w:-the Odea t""t
an on of _ "" ip pcm.,mcd befo , .. im~ i, ,efe ,m;[ to the pc,..., .. "'1'", .
.. n'~. No, ~ he ...'" olft, ChrislOlogie>1 defrnoc: of i""'ga. The ...fe.rn,i. 1
d.I<:" .. t..J <k<h~ IOngl.nd 0'
f. iled ro ..100 roor tba-e. Ch,;'[ologie.1 '<gU mem., .. I . <gU<d in Ch'p'er 1.
mu" primarily he . nribmro 10 John of DamasruJ who "'" in Bede', ,ime
uttmy utl kno",n in ,1.0 W ... {.nd "'hooc Ii", rwo (ftJ , tqm _r< w.i"en ""'.
[he very end of !kdc', lif.). lher< ""d long ci.<>tl.tcd w/u[ I ""... called the
rd"ively ,imple "ioc,,,na,ional"" deftn.. of imap-j.. u, "'" a man .nd could
he ""int~ like . rn.'.........t,.,' lkdc ~ nOf n'e"tion this dd"cn ...
Bed< ""m..lly did ",Ik good .;Inl .bou[ . n, . nd h;'tOf;'''' of.n 10d
.",hi'",,'mc .'" dd;w.,.,J '" ""..., h;" <ko<np';"'" .nd ""mmen ..,'" 1:>=0,_
much of ,)..: n... , .. ia.I .... idcncc: h>' ,he vi< ....1 "'. in Ikde', _.Id ..... v.n;'hcd.
I h.", mentioned .I..... dy hi. I"'u.i .... " """"'" .. of ,he Te " ' ple . ,,J T>bc"...::k.
Such d<.ICrip[ion. ar. ubiquilOU' in Bed aegaiClI ..... ,ks. 1'..",,1" ..... mem.
in hi, more obviomly hi"",ial hooks can ......."pan ~
mpko "f.he
kind, of thins< Bede i. likely 10 M"" .. ,d.
In ilie Ii.. t hook of hi, u,v,i..J';ral Hill"'] Bcd. ,<roun" [h...,iv.1 in
Engl.nd of Augustin nd hi, ""mpani""" di'l"",hed to.he
of. he ....I.
by P<>p< G'gOry I. The im'<f'id m;,.,io .... ri .. l>ndcd on the ;'1. of "Than.. jlLS'
off ,h. <:<5' of k en', .nd when [hq. infQrml King )E,hdbcrh[ of ,hei, a"ink
h. ord.m;[ ,hen> '0 "'y ",'1.,,,, .h<jl """'. AFr., f"",' d.Y' .he king him,df came
to
,nd ot<k.~ Allgu,,;n "d hi, e"t .... "ot< 10 .pt>ruach hi",. Th<jl
<:omplil '"be. ring .. thei, . .. mlard . .. h .. , <lo ... nd.n imag< of ()u, Lord .nd
Soviou. ""in.~ on [>'nel. Thq e""noed li1:lOi", . nd u"".cd pro).. n '" .he
Lord for thoi. OWn ...." .I ..!,.... i"" .. Id the gjv.,"'n of ,hose fOf "'ho", .nd '0
,,hom 'h<jl t..J rome. The aerou", ,hm rom.i",,,,,, ... i<llOu, f",lI,er men, iOfl
of .h. cro .. 0. p.nd ""i",ing. Ono .. n... in .hi,
h.. gnnd lirurgoal
ploe<:ion Je<ign.<d both to ""pl<S> .nd to t<:aU K . )Ethdbe.ht hod i"... ted ""
m<rting [he m;"'iona,i", in ,he open
fo, k .. ,""" in.n rnclo.al buildins.
,hey migh[ ... bi' him '0 10m. nugic." The ~."", .od p.nd p. in,ing will bOIl.
h."" come from Rome. 'm , CT1)f!1 i.."lf will h.v, bcen like ,he pro<CSIional
'0
'AAJ," ....
.od.
n...,.,
>CeO,,"' .....
.i,
<ro>O<1 th" . r< m<l r.p<>totll)" in !Wrn>.n ""'r<c:>. 11K p.inting is m..." intct""
ing. but it i. iml"' .. ihl. '" say .n)"thing
it: where it wa> m.de. wh.,
ir loolotl like. where ir Iud hn bcfm. Aug ...... ine 1I\d <""'I"'"Y acquim:l it.
N..." "hd"", Bod. does "or say rh., ir ..... .<ome kind of p>1I><Iium or rh.,
. n)"Un ...... <lIpttt...! ro "'netot. it. In<k...t. he Sm' unint.""t"'! in its tkttik
E.,ly in hi' Ii;;",?"
A/>Hi, (of We .. n",u,h ."d J>ftQw) Redc e"ume'
" .. thing> th., Ren...!io Bi>>p brough. h..ek from !Wme. 10 Iif[h .ndl.." phct
hr men[K"'" p.iming> of fmj). irn.S"S ..hieh hr hroc.tght h..ck [0 ><lorn ,hr
<"uKh of bl<>S<"<l Pet" <h. Apo>,k which h. Iud huilt; .nd . 1", .n im.g< nf thr
bb>l mot""," of God md .... er virgin M.ry md likcwioc of 'hr twel", ' 1"',,1<$
... I,ich h " .. Ired pi,,!<>< by pl,'I<>< <0 .... tCh .... be-o .., in ,he ntot ufthe n, .e
"rc!<hing from w, 1I to ".,11, .nd irru~ of rho GO>I'lyp.. of hkss<J
Joho ",i[h whKh he ) .... lIy adorned [he nofth .... 11 .., th..[ .... ryone ... ho did
whi<h """Y ,h<"y 1,.... Led. wo"I,1 ,tw.y> be ,ble
"'" know Ie".,"" ""
(OnmpU.[, Oft ,h. lo""bl. light of Chri<t .nd of hi ...inti . hhough in .n
in~. " II lil. fu"hrt on he I., .. ,h ...f, hi> ,i"h vi';t ,,, Rome Renediet
bmugllt h..ck numerou, bouk "d. onC< "Pin. im. g. The induded I"'int.
.00.."
of''''
,0
n,."..
iogs of ,ht lord, !1Ory: ... j,h ,,hich h ncirelt'll ,h. church of M~ry in ,h.
mo"",!Of)': p. in.ing> in [he "",n..,[.ry of S,. Pml illu.mlli"ll .he <01<rord of the
Old .nd New T","m.nt<, 1"", <anying ,he wuod wi,h whK~ ~e ..... have
1>. immol .. ed, ,n<;( 0 corre;l"'nding p>inting of ,he I..,rd "",tying hi. el'OlS:
. nothrr p. ir of hi"", holding up .he b",.. n ><I]><n. and of the c"""' holding
)<:su . "
Wh., I\edc .... u.lly "Y> .bout di"' ..... illl'g in hi. oWn m ... "",')" ><Co.d.
well wi.h his more , hrorc.i<;>l " ....n,,,,,,. The>< im.ge< ..~ hr.miful .od en_
hon"" ","rship. They help ,h. unle"er~ ,t> b" . I" .",1 nf th,", ... I~, ,hty
"'P"''''''' """&i><f""""rd rcp'escn",io'" of hiblie>l '""" .... f o' RorJ . rh .. i,
.nough. He doe. not <k>ctibc ,he im.ge< in d.",il. Joe. no' .. y wh .. thty
1ooI<~ lilre, who p.in,ed 'hem. 0' whe ... hty ""me from in ,he 6.., plo (if
"'~ Rr>m<) . ' 1< ''''V<' men ........ hon. ~g;o;". H e ". ;,,11 "<VO' 'f'<"'k> of .n r
ut of "ncr>ti"n oonnled with ,h<&< im.ga or of .ny mi,...b >Un<i,,,ed wi,b
'0
.j,e,,"Th Ilcd. dc<li .... ,n <"<pli<i, ."ribmion ro inug<> of.he f>OW<' '0 do
mOrc ,h.n in.pi .. ond ,each nur j ..., bt- ,,!;,,;f<am in .i.... of hi. , ... tm.n, or
...,,' which he kn ..... well: Adorn ... ", O~ "" IhIJ {'W,,- Suppo>cdly Adorn ... n
Iud m oPl"'ftuni'l-"'" intCrrog> 1 .h ipwr<eked pilgrim ,..ho h..d m><le. pil_
Stirn,s<." .h. HQly bnd .nd who,.....n eyewi. n"" to ,hr mirn:ulou. puni.h .
men, of 1""0:0"' who had desc<;",,~ im,8'" of S, . G,,"~ and of Mory."
,,,1<
Adomn.n, /Or hi< p. n, ' .. n<mi" 'hi' "'''y withoo, .:omment. H< ...
bdO,n<><:J:um ."d, .. far:u "'" can roll, ex~ no vi ...... on .rr,.ucred or ",1..._
<nJ of ',i. &-rini4J,.... / Hill"']. m<n,i ..... Adornn.n
wi..,. Bu, Ikd. n,:;"
.nd hn informer Ar<u.f .nd then
K>~ J>2$I"gt> from
11M] Pl.ua
deoctihing son", 1<)' ,i,to in ,h. lif. uf ","us. " Th< &<ksi",,;(~1 Hi/tory ~
fini.hed in 731 , n'" long .ft.. Ikde wrote the lir>es " "",cd .b."e rom:.. mir>g
Byun'ine """""h<>hi . Argu"",n" , silntriIJ ... aIw'Y' d''''gerow.. b." i, is
wonh ,hinking ,.bou, wbrther Bode mi!;h' h.v< men'ioned the mi=ulou. chas....",.,.n, of.1to$<
who dam.ged imag<:> if .... eh """ ...... nceo ... ..."j f,_
milial, or ~ 1;""Jy. to hi",.
8<f<t<" '''''''ing Ikdo, i, is ....,nh poin'ing
ju. I."", widely h.. """I<.<
ci.cul .. cd.r.J 1.0... inR""ntial he ...... 0"" h.u only '0"'0 the p>g<:> of ui<t n
d. flJ..J-UII
&tk ,\f~n""",,, to ! wh. . . m.so'''' pr<ScnC< Bede .....
/0, Ute, mcJi<V' r>J>k. " c.:oen'i... ,ion, >p>n .......~" Bed., rou""y"'en
P'.Yl . decisive m'e in ,he .... isi"'" . .. d in,dkc.,.. l 'ife or C<'>",ine"," F.tt top<
io duo cig)"h nlU'Y' Willib""d, <he "Apc>ode of F,io,," who h,'e<! ... mil 739,
"-.. , f<U.,... Nonh,,,,,h,,,n , Bonifocc /OunJN eh"",h.:o. "'on... eri ... .nd
" h""Is . 1l ""cr what iI nOW ",n,raJ Gennany. Ute in his lift h. "'as osIcing /Or
work. hy 1Icd<. " In <he 7- ' in . i,,,,,,,,,.n,,,,,, ,I. .. wjll l;>< CQn,i<leml l., .. jn
,I..
ci,,,
o.r ,,,.
P''''''''''
"m
4'
,hi, ch>p<<I. Lull ui Main>. I\onifa", ', SUCCCSWI. <t"""e<!. <up}' of Ik<k', 0"
tI" 1impk f,om Wea, mou.h. " Alruin ..mo " ., or>< "fCh...<nugn<', key ad.i..
kn..... nd ""mired Ikdo . nd ,,-0.<, in .nsc. ,he grea' Nonh~mbri.n ',
intelke' .... g.. n<lson. Throdulf knew Bcde, Indeed . he eite<! him in the ap..,
Ct~ and dt<W ;n'pi""ion from him in d<co' '''ing hi, own clup<' .. Gmogny.
To ,~m uP' In B<dc, .nd pc,h. !" by nICn,ion in Bode', ...:oders. ,,'e con
I":<<:<i,,, ,he ini,'" dimen,ion, of wru.[ me W", kn.... a'" "" ,he E. .., .nd of
wh... ,he W= i"elf W>i ' h inking. 0.. [he ~rs< po;n, . ,he ,",,'est kncw ""'),-i,
"",,,,o-that SOme people ... nk",ooJ the b od"" prohibition in atr=ely.r.J
un'<p"blr littt ,<rm . On ,he !Ond poin'. God wa; wonhy ofbcautirul
[hing>: m...,e, w:u creo,I by God .nd ,hen:foRO "'" quin' .... n'"lIy M, .tt
rou.d ilUpin:, .n<lan rould ,each.
ct,.
8<,",n the 7W' anJ ,he mid'71'" [he politico' and in"i.... ,ional lift of Rome
apcticrtttd crucia' chang<:> ., th( P"I"" ,;",,,"1 tImKh"Q from ,he Syz.:on_
titt< Empi, nd al'i! wi[h ,he F.. nb. .x....1 f,,,Ot> ""''' ofbit;h >igni~",,,,,"
in , hi\- prl)Ca<: B,.....ntinc Wi polici<1, ""moly dwns by the oJmmi ... otion in
('.on,un,inoplc '0 .. i", monry in h.ly for us< in defending An ..oli nd 'he
B. lb "" CQntinuong lomb>.rd ."emp" to Clt",nJ ,h~r holding< in ccnt",lll21~
. nd ,,, join .ogrthcr ,h. kingdom pwpcr in tit. ,,,,,,h wi,h ,II. Ouch"" of
Spolcto .nd Benev.nto ,h.. loy ."ride . nd to the lOuth of the bnd, in cent..1
1121)' d.im..a by the POP<": . nd the rciigiou, policic< of the imp<ri.1 t"'<mment.
",,,icowl,' icnnocwm " W"h ,h. in"""'n of lomlxndy h)' Pippin 111 in 7S1
.R<! 716 'he Fr.mko-I"'I"' I .lIion"" commenced in p"""ial ''''''', ... hik doc
~... bo-tv.... n ,h. I... ~ and ,h.l .. e 760s ,,i,lIC:S>ed. complia'M ,ri.ngllhr
diplom.q . mo" g pop::>. Fr."k>., ,,>ction, '" .nd ""n,inning ;nt<<eo' in Rrumi ...
iconocwm ,
Nomullr. wl><n invco,ig,ning ,I>< p. pocy in ,h. <>rI~ MOddk Ag.., ,I><
h'non.n "'"., blend t~hef ti", ~i"".lCC ,,f the p.p.1 ""'f<>Il'.>l1d.n"" with
.h.t of .be, LibtT hnliji'<1fu. For pn:scnt pu""' .....
ct. tl>< I.. ",,, a", uIta. On ,h. one h. nd. ,he Ict, ... of G~<r lJ .1I<g<dly reid .. 11 Ni<=> ''''
10 cotrupt
thq COn"'" be: put in tl>< dock . nd inlroga.M. On
o.hcr
h.nd . 1>< , ,,,..i.ing .nd .."hen,i. p.p.IIct, ... y .Imoo, "<}fhing"""," images
or . nr C<)m"""" y C<)nccming ,h.m umil ;66167." Thi, fxt m.y j"" he of
",me ,ignilican_ If we CJ)mp.:uc .he k"." pcr.. ining '0 ,I>< 760s. no< . nd
780< with those: th .. .!UM" frum .he period dO" 'n to about
mid-71O<, on.
' hing is ,,,iking Jn ,he I.... Ie".". no ....".r wrun ,h. pope hoJ on hi. mind
1>< time. h Im"" . Iw.ys m . ... gcd '0 <or ""'''''hing . bou. lomb.-.rd dep ....
d". i"", .nd ,hon . ft.r .h~ (,11 of .ho ,-"mb.rd kingdom .h,,~. his prop<niQ
in July, Th. fd .. il'Cly few .urviving l<n." from ,he period ,,6'0710 oJdrc>s
""i."" o;o"c.:m, b,It n....'" ... ,'" ,~< iss" .. of im'ge>, 11)7.>n,i ... I><, ..y. Of ",,,,I
M.n .. of .1.. f.;,h ." If .h.,.. ...... cen ....1i~.o ,h. POP<>, in .i.her penon.1
Of poliry ,.rm . i, i, odd ,I... ,h<], nevcr com. ~p. I would nOf ca ... o .~ggcst
w, ,Ite Popes
unin'''''''N in o. un,,,,,, .. of
;m'g< ron,,,,,,... y in
l:Ip"m,ium. hu, I do ,hink i, wonh cl:ing whether. "n ,he 1>.-.>.. of ,I>< ,un'iving
ro .-epond"""". w< .houl.J .it-- ,t" i .. u< uf ;",.~" .. r. nking "'~<f luw '-'''
,I>< priMi')'Ii ..
The t.,.btT r.~,iji("Ii, h.. mort to .. y . nd i """,k of "''''i .... llie;.1 cI", .>Ct~'
.h... mged (,"'" ,he p. p.1 .em i"i",.,i"n i,..lf" It p""''''' ' diffe'" pi<.
,,, dun ,h. I,,, ... h," ,h''''r< ""Y' in which ,he CWO kind> of <"iden .S....
wi.h ..:h ",h...
In .!up, '7 of ,h. Lifo ofG"1I"rr It figh' in ,I>< middl. of.n <xndcd
di .." .. inn of in",,><: po<>Ii' ical squ.>hbli"g ",,,,, ,h-< ''''f''<'Or', meml'" '0 nil<
...... in Italy . nd to impose: hi. will .I><rt, .... .d: "Itt .h. m.nd .... h.I .....
Ro:",,"
no.......
.1..
.h....
.1..
w,,,
,h.
HI ' .... H. T" " ,
.. n" 'he eml'<"'" hod tkcm:d ,h.. nO church i""'g< of any ... in'. m.nyr or
angcl mould Ix kep' . .. he ded.,ed ,bern .11
if ,be I"'miff "",,uld .~
he would Inve.be emp<'or', f'VO<lr. if he p,<ven,ed ,hi. heing ",rried om ..
,,"eU II< would he ~ded f,,,,n hi'
So 'he piow man d"piKd the
p,inoo', I"0f..e mond;ue . nd n"'" "" . rmed himself'l\"in" ,he emperor ..
ag.ain ..." enemy. de""uneing hi. h.crny and ,,~i'ing ,h.. Ch,i<tion' .-.'e'Y"''''c
muSt guard 'I\"i"" ,he iml'Otr) <I"" had .,i",n."" Th. "".."d..... do no<
'''IViv< , But i, '1'1''''' from ,hn ocmun, , h.. ,hey invol...,d mo~"., wdl",h.n ju" 'he iso". of in, agO$. Inciml, G,<t;Oty had led."" ,nol, and ,hw:oncd
,be will of a sc, ia of impe,iaj offi..,n.
G><g<:>ty II". '-if o>,,,in,,. on.inly n.rt,"in~ 'he ong<>inpttifc in h.ly. and.
,torn in chop,.. 1,.!;ty> th., the empero, """ at'empting to rotC<: hi . will ""
<Y<'tyOJ>< in Con". n, in"pl. to toke down im;tgco "wt.crcvc:r ,hey .... f... _ in
ch' p'ef '7 onl)' im. g<' in ch u h"'J< men,ioned-to burn ,hem in ,he n'er
of ,he ci,y, and to ..... i'.....,w, I"in,ed <h,,hco. CIup'er,... >n,im,., ,h.c ,h=d
by "ring ,Iu , m."y people opp.U! ,j,c ''''1''''''' and ,Iu ..,me we m.. ,ib,ed
. nd ",he" bchadcd. The d.cposition of Gmanwo is .Iso memi"nni.long wi,h
G"S"'Y" ... f" ..1 ,,, "",tnte""" hi, SI,.."...,', An ..,osi"" ,,,,1m he .... u"...:1 '0
,he c"h"l;e f.i,h. n.. l.ifo ,hen oo""I.,.J"", 'I";'" ,.-..Ii,ion.lly. wi,h I;", ,,'
G"'g<>ty', <\on"ion. '" R"",.n <huhe> ,nd his ordin"ions." 1",=
ate dc.:idedly .. ingy wi,h det.ik
Th. I.if of Gregoty 11 117J '- 4' ) is nOl nlud. diff...:n" From 'hot teJ<t. from
tcf"etonccs in ,h. pontly '''~.mined """,rds of, Rom,~ Synod of 769." .nd
f,om ,e/"rn:nCd to GtcgOf)' '...... '" in 'he rorrnl"'nd.cn<c of Hulr;'n I (nl9j)." w<: kno ... ' hot he beld council. to condemn ..,,m im.ogc policy 71'."
The ><COII ty", Lifo.-...d ... "I""'~: "' H. ,",'os bishop in , he
,imo of 'M .mperon L..:o.nd Con"an(int. while ,he", "'>! raging (h. p<n<"C"
i"" ,ltoy ", .. ed fO, ,he ,.""'.~ ,,,d <Ies,,,,,,,ion of 'he s..ct<:J imag.... , . On
beh. lf of thcoc:. just ... hi. pm!<tt>sot: of...,m! memory Iud d""., thi. holy
m. n "'n' w, incn ..... rningo. wi,h the .... 'h",.;ty "f ,he al"'"ol;,; ...,. ,,,,,,,hing.
fo' ,hem '" ,Iu ose ,hoi, mind< .nd quit ,hei, ro,,"" We .... in Chaptet ,
,h.. Ggt>r/. em .... 'i .... '" unabk: ". pt"OCO<tl '0 Const>minopk. G"'E"ty
n(Ow called 'he lug.., synod '0 h.ve mot in Rome .ina: ,he middle of , he
....... mh n'utr- ."vrn,).nint hishopo acconl ing to "ne "'ufO: (H,d,i>.n. Icttef), nint,)' ,h,,,,, """,r<!;ng '" ,"O(h., (Lik< l',mrijiatlji)-....,.Iong wi,h the
pfia, nd deaco", of Rome . nd ,h. Inca! nobility. Th. f~M l'~",jfo"'i, ''''......
(Iu, , his .ynod tkc,eed, "'If ,n),one (heneefunh, despising ,he faithful " .. of
,00..: who held ,he ancOcn, c,"'om of the '-I""""lie church, dtould temO>"<,
dc,;'roy" ptofme.nd bLuphem. 'Vin" ,hi, venomion of ,he ..,m! im>ges ...
"""r><d,
"iii..,.
>CO>u""
1 him he d';""8 fonh from d>e body.oo hlood "f our u"d pu. Chri" , nd
fnlm ,he uni,y ,nd men,he,..hip of .h.. e".if( church, "" T he d",,,,,, of ,hi.
council or 1 .un,,"ary of its I';.w. .... '" .. nl 10 0mmnl;nopl. btu once "{;Oi"
1M emperor'. propie p,evcnla\ tI .. docunl<nrs frum ,ni.ing. A li"k I"or. Ihe
Lifo ""y>. r>r1.,11 "'.., It.ly f('S< up in J<.kns< ufim~ .nd tl .. I"'''' w'ot<
yet .nolhc, I.",,, 'f) .he em.,."" ,00 'f) ,he l""inchaL ;",rudor, An<2Siu,
G~,y hdJ . nu,hor ')'noo in 7)' . '0 ..-hich we will
,i><"'ly. but with the
pOn of.hoe .ynod. of n. ,he Lifo'. " ..,men, of G'egory'. invol,.. men' wi.h
the im.ge <ontrove"y break, off. Abuut th=--qu,<te ... of the Lift i, <ilent On
, he .. ,hi""" Bu, ,h. ,,,,,hem. iu>< ",i!Vo' he h.lpful
" pl.""io" of why
1"1"1 oou","" .uhsoq ... n.l y "'Y ", link ,0."" ,he irruge <o"'rov<I', I'e.n,p'
IWm. ', ,,......... th", once the ico""Phobes h:od been arommunicoted, .nd
siven ,ha t , hey ind..Jed in ,I"i, numk, rI" ,ml><'O' .nd rI" p",i"eh, ,he
coS< ..... do..0.1 until the Bruntin .. decided to ch, nge rou"'.
from bter ""ido",e< ...ebrn ,h" Grtgory,...",,0.1 eo<,neil in 7J' prep.ted
p>tristic Ao,ilrgium in defense of im.ga." As "'e obS<f"V<'d in Ch.pter 1. ba"l.
by Aonlegium w:o, by the eighth n'",y ....,Ii.,..,<o;/ m<Th<:><l in the E.'n
Ch,",;"n world. lIld i, Iud been used " ,he Itonun Synod of 649. I, il no,
""p,j,jng
Gregory pu, locol "'),01 .... '0 work collring ...1=", r..,im ....
n"', 1"1"1 "ffic;"ls pmb>bly kn .... Greek ,..,j h:od """"" '" key ,.." . lito..,.,... .
,here ....... Luge G.k religiou. community in Rome." G.cgory, 'csporu.e '0
the ;...... po;cd by i~ we,. , littk prerociou.< .ntlsuggCSt. high., degree
of ""nOOm . bout inugc> <lun hi. kn.,.. 11", ;. 0 ...., '-'''' in Ch.p''' ,. Em
PC"" l<o 111 colll no <oun<il, ",d. u f... .. w. <:.On ,ell. John of D. m, ,,,",,
..,ing in pnvate ul""tr. fit>t .<.u, bled do<si in f .." of ,m'g" ,n the
F"",. " Hierei. then p,<:><Iucl 'he fi ..., dossi<f .gorin" im.s... Gregory d<m. nded th .. the iconophobn return '" the true f:.ith, Pertup< to dinch , ny
'.-gumen" ,Il,,,,, ... h,t the f,i.h ...,.. whieh n.... '" ... I"t tl,. ""ditio", held, he
h..J hi. Aonlrgium pr<p,ml.
U"f"" " n,l y. only . few f"~"'e"'" <of ,I... Ru,;leg;um ore .... ,,' , . nd tire"
only in I".. ",';,ing>. Th. f"'llmen" ,h" con bt: r<CQ"ed giv< " Ie..., ",me
i<k. of ... tu, kind. "f 'rg"""'''' ...... "sod ;n G"'S"'r', R"n"" '1". hi,h"f'"
who .... mhll in 769 ",Kl th .. ,II 'hei, p<od<ces><> .. had defended , he hono,
. nd '''peet due ro im' g" .ntI .h.. im>g.. we .. u..rul '0 the memory ,nJ
elicited rompunion ." From the woruing of the ~. ",d from it> cont.. t.
it .... m. ccft.in .hot ,hoe Ilorikgium pr~,ed in ronn.ion with.he council of
731 i. m",nl here. With. liuk Jet.i,'e wock. i, .. po"ible to rcronstruct ..
Ic>sl ",me o( Ihot !Iorilrgium.'"' T....,Ive uui"",n;". r),ree hihlie>l.nd nine 1",,;,.
'u'n
'"
.ha.
uo " " ..... '" ...
,;e. can wi.h ""'.00"" _u=><:< be

Rihlictl
on. C>CIUociI <IE no. On

of n' con,';....! ,...... ,dim"<",,,
~ to
corutt'Y2Ii.~ 'ofKIruaion. "'" IIorikgi um
>
.,.,,_w,
. uoolw 'J.'-U; Dc:scriptioo of"'" .d",nrnrn, of'M Trmpk.

II"",;.,,,~ ...... II. p. 9.
I. ) Kings 6.').)1: Da-triptl<>n of'M cherubim on ,h. An: ICUlp.al
(ron. oli .. W<><XI .nd ,he cherubim CI~ in", 'M doo.. of ,he
Tempi .
Hll<lrUt,,~ ....
. II. p. 9.
"gn.
). Numbers >I.S-1l: M ........... inS up 'M br...... ""pt"''''

114</';''''''''.1. >6. p. '7.
Puri ..", ~_i.t:
. I\cudo-Adun2>i .... Qtt-........ .J A".....-m... J.rn.r. 'iII'hy. if .....
.... nd li~ ~ noo adored, i..... ut. n.. ""POW ;, ,lu,
' ........ re noo adooro
on. ...., ........ of 'M p.ag.on ..... "". or
,,,,.,..,,,, .... .. J+ PI'.
00._,.
,.-,1; Cone. Rom. P. ']' BGhringc., pp.
. I'.. udo-Oi<my>iw ,be: A~.e, Efu""" X d ,""",,_ Y",bk

.hins> an lad on< '0 invioibk ohinll"
1/.uI,u""m, . )6. p. ) .
J. p.IaJdoI)~"')~iuJ on. A~tc. n. ",,/n.' h,",,""i~ 1",>1\"> can
"IcY.... mind. from.he co'P",.,.j '" ,he inco"", 1.
I {,u/";"""",. 1. j.6. pp.
. Cpil of Alo:.nd,u.
"".(1"" "'", ...."...tWi Tri"j",,,,
looi<ing ... carefulJy tn><k imagr of'M "mpt'lOl' Ie>dI admi ....
,ion f<w .h..... p<>r. noo ("" ,he i .....: and ,he ....... ;,. ,n.o i.,
"-n.
n....,,"'''
recogniz.i"K _
'0
', . ' " " "
fI..._"...., . )7. p.)).

,. Gn-so<J' N..wu .... 0",,;. 4. I" 5.0_ .. r~ (",c,.l a:>mnuood<d
MOta 10 nW. cveoydIing: i...... 'hing:> h.od b<.n ......." ro him on
1M ..-on.. i". Apin. tMmc: of risi .... and inviooblc thinp.
JUJrI.""", . . -47. p. lb.
6. G.nnodi u. of M~"";lb. UM "'..
=In;"',~",~.
lJ: On the ' w'''!''';',,, bono, due to .. liQ.
flII<I,umu", . 19. p_ . " Cone. Ron." p. S] (1).
7. f>r.rr, ,Imu", ... 1'1 _""",*",,,, "" /"J,." "" "'~I"'~/jOM,.tj,,,,,U"':
Ac"""n1 (If ,,,. conciliar cotulc",,,1t;"n of . ~.mic "00
"'''' ';0'.
"iffi"'n.
,.m<Wtd
An....t Art l:.Jk '"
gold .nd ,il,'", inugo of doves.M ..+'o .. id i, "'.... nOf nee .... ry (0
",U holy Ihe H"I)' Spi,i, in ,h. fQ,m of, dov<
!i.JJ";"n~m. '- 19. pp. 4 ' - 4'.
8. Ps=do.John Ch'!"""tom (Sn-.,rimu, "fG, b.b). s.mw i" 'f~i",a

frrW /""cb..: [>ro(><, uOOmt.nding of the hono, be f'olid ) imp<"
,i>.l im,go.
If,"''';"~~,,,. ,. 'J, p. 47.
9. Gl"<'gOry l. ';;"'''' "d ~num; Unl .. ,.f'OiJ ""d in pi",...... h.. Ih.
kttem:l n:ad in I>oob.
H""";"num. _ I, pp. 4:<-4J
.0
h mu" be ",membe,ed , ... , rcron,(1uning ,he ""'teriat. used in 7) 1 from Ltt

,=,d" ~;'II)' from lbdn.n, km:TS. ;. ,isky bcc.wc I-bd,i,n had OCC1Sion
'0 cit< only th""" ,ars whim h. n:<led in 78j ",d 79). ,nd "0' , whole
florilcgium. rut diffen,ly. i, i. u"likef)' tt..l "'< h,ve m'"'' th." f..... >On of
the ' at> conuincd in [he 7)1 Ao,ilcgium.
I.oo/<ing ",,,,!o,,,I), ., ,he ",'idonee " " "' <ii'pol I"'""i" , few in'igh"
inm wh. , ...... diocu.,ro in Rome in n '. Th. bihlical ~ uldoccd ,here,U
peruin 10 inlllnces whe't God t;Omm;>nda! im,ges 10 be m,de. Thl'l(' , re
wholly '",<iitio",,1 in ,hi. context . nd. as nOled .ho... ,hey ,<cord with Bcdc'.
",m"k ,h" I"">pl. woold 110' oh;.c, 'n imase' if ,hey (01)' CO<t,id.reoJ COO',
wonil '0 Moses. Jk.'ing in mind , ... , Bcd. "",m, '0 hove h""d ",mhing
.bout an ..cnsivdy rigid 'pplic)(ion " f the f.xod ... prohihition " Byz.;tn,ium
, nd , ben ei,a! ,h. Bible i"df", .u,h<"i>.ing im,g.:>, i[ i. in ...... ing ro nt) ,h"
in Rom. ,he .. mt: pooi'ion ..... being ...lop,ed ,,,d, with 'he f'ol"'"'l\< on Mo.".
h"",:n "'1"''''' ,he very .. mt: p>SS2g< ""'" being .ited . But W<' h". ""n ,Iu[
I""f"g< ,urn up in m.nr ""me" m:' , be J="" . 1....)'> wi,h.t.... mt: ..... ''llY:
If WIIKOI>< 'it E..odu> 10,4 Wi"Sf i",,,go ,h.n cit< b.d win" him o,he,
p"' .. gcs ",-he" God oontm.nded itn.gc. '0 be m.d..
"The I>.",i" i, p>ss>g.:> bro~ghl fQrw:trd in 7,' , I", ,.i.cd If...!i,;"n.1 ,rgo _
me"". n,,,,,, m.)' b.: Y"ureJ im(> 5<".",1 a,'ll"''''"' In ... ,;o~ . war> the "'pic
of impcrial imag.. rum .. up .... ui"hle """logy f", thinking . bout Ou;'t;.n
i""g<>, The old 1'<>"" i. "'.... , ... , " "'J.< "'" ,he ''''''S' " f ,he en,pc"" ,h ..
...... honma! nUl ,he em(><m' wh"", 'm>g< i, w>,. Although ~ onl)' know of
R"m" ..,iog Ih" point Ji=l)' by m",,,. of ,he l>oli", p.."do-A, ... "",i,o I."
.nd indi.-.:cdy by .~ a'",C' from C)'Iil, i, "",' . n old . rgumrnt 'hot a,"ld h.",
bn huumocd by ""'"r .. Ie",m p. ""P G,egory'OO Cyril. .hhough in qui
JilT.""" .... y>, .. y tt .., im.gcs can .=11 '0 mil><l biblial .."ri,., in tht 0'"
in".ncr ,od peopl. in ,II< o,h ... A philosophical 'rgUn,.OI i, . ,1>.,0,1 Ih.,
inug<> h,,,, [he .hili'!' '" dov." h""",,, dU)" w>IS from [hu W<I,1d '" ,h ...... ,.
11, i, ,h. poin, of ,h. <i",i,," fro m a" alleged 1.." ... "f D;':my>i", me "'''''pog_
i'e '" -"'1m the ova"lI"li". O ioonY'i", usuI , tu.t inuogcs an: mcn:ly ';';bl, "".
,i"" , or invui bk 'hings. ,t.., "fl. n
"iovUibl. ""hon," ale poimed with
,h.
""Iof"&, i, u """,ihl< fOr 0'" minds U) gra>p [hen" Pm . liftle d iff<",,,lIy , m..... i.>l
'0
0_ ,,,
(vi,ibld 'bings pc.mi, '"

pti!
im"",ri. 1 (invi,ibkl 'hing>. Thel'<
mWl luv:rn SOme d;.c.,,,,ioon "f ,he on'oIogy of i~.., h ,h",.. weI< ci[ro
'" sh<>w
inl1g<s ,henuclveo weI< "'" hooly 1><couse.,r ..-h., 'hq weI< made
of and ,lu , ,hey d id no, .<lu in ,he being <>f ,h. 1"'''''''' whom 'hey '<P~
..-n,ro. An An,Kx:.he"< .II<-g<dly >.,1<.1 A,h"Uli", whr , if he ,lid ,,,.. ><Inn:
and li~. he did ador< imag<>o Att..lU>i", '<$p<>nd. that ' he f,i,hful
d" no< >do", im.ge< >.' if ,hey we", god..... h.- I"lI"tlJ do. I"" ""h" fOt luvc
of the pc"",n depictro. H e ,h.c" "P 'h at if [hel'< W<1'< "nee an ;nug< on ..,me
wood bm that 'he imagt had bn dF"ad. ,hen , h.c wood could be b"!nro ,
A. halUii" " pt><><lly "id ,h,,, Jacob adored [h.
<>f Jo><ph no< fur .nr
quali!)' of ,ho:
t,." 1><co""" of whose i, wu. All of the;. ki!t<h of ... gurnrn ..
"""Id p<. hap> haY< httn .dv.ncnl wi[h be..e. [""IS t,." .11 .,r ,h. ''1\,,,,,,,n,,
them!dvc< on: f.mili,,, '0 U! by now. Mom>v< ,he littl ..... On know fOf
""".i" .hoo, u<.... ,I,." COn.n . .. 1I)'.<...."ium '0M"''' <I"" 'h"", kind.< <>f "'1\umen" n, "..II in,,, ,h.ci. hi"oric>l.rid <h",nological ""n">I.
T"", <>the, pU
Ih. ddibo:"uio n, in Rome or< a liuk d iff<l'<nt aoo
require
comidc""ion. The", U. dighd y obscu", fWS'Ig< from Gen nad
ius <>fM ..... illes whid, m,in";n' th .. rdia uuQt. to be honored if th<)l we'"
"'mmtb'<l amm" '" ...11 .. builicas dtdi",,<d in the 111"'" of .,in" . nd p!.oos
dtvoted U) .....,rmip. Two <>the. fngmcn .. [ha, ' PP"" in Wetm;n&hoff'. ooi,;"n
..i th",,, ."ril>."i.,,, ...,'" to me to bo: ,<1"00 to thi, "ne .oJ the
mar
origin. lly have f".m<d pon of. Ionll'" p....g< ,h" mode 01",,,.. sense, This
1''''5'''<"' ")'0' ,It:.t . i, m",. I>< o .. full~ gu,rded >g>in" ,hat. on """,,n. "f ""'n .
'" 1""I"p> bca.~1e of du.:us..;.,n <>f ,hem. a bad .i.... t;.,n does nut grow WOlle
. "d sonl<"UlOC p",hibit. 1>< "<"","",, ion of ,dies ;0"" ,he ...mob o-.,./" ate
ven=>[oo. The " ... , m gme". "Y' "if we " ish '" luve ,ho: o>ml"n~ of the .,i" ...
,hen we ,.,lIy "ush' ,0 vene", .. II", .dia ,"" "oly of , ho:i, bodies b~t .Iso of
thei, clo,hes. me buili".. dtdic:"oo in ,heir !'11m.., and ,lteir inugn.rid ,hei,
<IIun"",nC". whercs<>cV<r pointed. wi,h ,he mQ>t ~ ... n[ marks of r<>f"'<' ."'
Tlli, " .. ng.... of "., impl"',ha, .he", "'.. d i'<c<''''''n o/" inugn ""d ",Iia.
t" be: .... n:, bu. al", of the locus of the holy: al ktit that is ho .... 1 mink 0"" mWl
"k. ,h. ,""ement> obo~" basilicas ""I places deojiat<d ' 0 _r<hip, I< i, not
",herwi xn<>wn ,ha, .hi, ~ of ''''''''' ".... di>cusscd in Brun,iom.., pe ..... !>'
the: 'Cltt! opc:n up, V1<v>' On 0" i ..... unatt .... 1 In aUnt Us .. '" $OU.as. Yet
,h"
,ta,,,,,
",Ir
",If
><P''''''
"r
tI,,,,,,
ct,
An . oU1d
,:.u. ")
h..,. m.,m&r<d olf down ,hi. pa,h
wi,,,,,,,, I'fo ..,.,.,ion.

no.. SWlnd i""" <I,., all. fOr a bi, of in<kp<rI<lcn. disru..ion pcruin' " ,
miFolrul<>~,
or wh., "'" mighr all "",[i",," im. ge>. Pseudo-A,h. ni", ..Y' [har
a demon promi"'" [0 "or rorm.ming
peopl. if [h0' would ce:ue honoring
. n im.ge of.los<" a.,J Mary, This only.how. ,h.. in Jerusalem. ""he", ,h ......,,"
allegedly ,ook ploce . IIOme peopk honom:! .n imoge of Mary h"'ding pu. on
her 1.1',
don not ,.II u' .he end uf .he ''''')" bu. docs go 0" to lay
[ha. if im"!\", did "'" ha in .hem .h. po",., of God .hey would nor 00": holy
oil .od wouk! no. blc<d if pierced by a m; .. ile. Th;. i. fo.. as I con ..., he
fin , in". n<r of "ooi",," im.ge> ruming up in [h. War in . n .orh",i,,,;,.
(papal. """cili..) ront<llt which e"end. b<yond ,he .rubiS""u. him. in G"'8"ry
of T""" .,J Veom,i", Formn"." , ''. "",ed in O"r,e, > ,h" miroa,Io",
ima!;C>. despi,e wh.t I"e, iconodub .. iJ .bou hem. wet< rumpaFolti,..,ly t<.
<rnt .,J no. very n~m<ro",. Still. ,he top'" may haY< h.d jun enough currency
arou.,J il ' that .ueh imag...irh .. h.d.o he defended Of dse ,hem,d,"CO .. rvcd
... dcfen", . g.>in" ico""phooi .
Two fin.1 poin .. ro.), be made .bo", .he <,'idenee
det,v.. from ,he
Rom.n G.ouncil of 7)'. Fir:; . it "'"' the Roman Gluoe;1 of 7)'. and nor Jl
Nico .... ,h., ("r .he fin. inre tcquiml .he venetation of image> unJOT pain of
1O.,hem. Thi, will he well '0 l>car in mind :IS we cun,ide, I.. e, 1"1'.1 .nJ
F.. nki.h I""i,iom ;n ,he image conrr"'........ Second. ,h. lansuage in ,,,,,",,
(taSmen, ... "n .he very oubjec, uf what SO" of ml' "'"' ofr.m:! to imag<>. i.
complcrdy inromi".n" Th. """d. ,&,,,,,,, . nd ,'m",m.re u..,J i,,, ...I,.III;<'
. bly, .nd .re mi.ed wi,h ~. JiliX'". nd "'h.... Thi, dese", ... mph",i,
bocau>< Ausus,ine much ... Ii<l, John oll).mU01" bi, I"e' in .h. eiiVrtl'
""rI 'Y,), nd Thcodulf In the Op~, 6<roJi all tried to maim.in h.,p d;'tinc_
tion bcrwa:n ".do.. tOon " .nd "venemion" bm if "",m. ,h ... ., I.,,, in Rome,
nO .uch di"incrion w .. oo><rved.
Tu,ning bu); to the Libn I'onrifi<~lii. onc "'" [0 "",i, un,il ch.pIC'.o (of
>91 "fbel",),, !.if (H'; f~, ","n' hin' "f'ho im.ge """'''''''''y. Ar>d i,
;. only a loin . W. rcad .hat he I<n'.n """hodo ynodic Iw .." to ,h. "dru,dr
ofCon""n,inopl'" . nJ .norhct ,,,
"1'<'" pti nct."" Nonnally I",ti.,ch,.
O[ ,h. ,ime of [hei, own in".lla[ion. ><n, <hei, J>" .ynod i. kn ..... mrnhin.
<ion 8,..,ing. ill",.d""i" ... 'IIJ profcs.<i"" "ff.;,h . Sima.r Icrt<'" w.t< u, .... lIy
.. n, emperon .. well . 111",,,1;1, 'his m."., i bi, mo.c rompliated boca ....
in at k ... "'m. C2k> .mpero" in.isted on p,ior tiiVr' of appro,..1 before .n
.kc.ed candido ..
o>n>:ro,cr! .nd i",,,Hcr!. In .ny co ... I.."dr.ry wro o
,he mrs,,/' of Co,,,,.n.i,,,,pl . if til< [.iIK. f'qn.ifi<ali. i. occu""c. nJ nO 0
""me
"Il,. ""'1':K1
tI,,,
.he
,0
wa.
'4 e" . .... H""

An..s.".i~.,
11.10=. he no.i~ed .he cmpcro. "fhi. eltion_he,,~.h.c la<.

""pc '0 do ><>. Bm ,h. Lifo indulge> in no .hct()nc on ,hi> <><"",i"no not. word
.boll' i_ go:<: ,w, in,o.;lc ch.~ .,r k<e<y; ,~" moe pc",,, .. 1 "'ock on tloe
empero, '" !".n.h, .hhOllgh Zachry', f.ilu,", .0 n.m he patti. h ".;gh. ho:
.n impliei. cri.ic;"m. O nce 'I\"in. iudj;ing only from .hi> Lifo One WQuld have
conclude
imap "",,", nO h. p,irn.tty isrue on.h.c ""pe' genda.
The Lifo "fS.ephen II 1711-\7) h.:u no .di:. en<c n '" .he image COntrove~. This i> panicularly .<Inking in vi"", of .he f.... that .he Council ofHi,.ci.
n.... in 7H. To ho: .u,",. S' ephen r.o:d acute l.omhood
in h.ly and he
ini,;"ed compk:< diplom .. ic m. n.n" .... ~ .. , wi.h ,h. Bytan.ilK"O .nd ,hen wi,h
.he F... nks..o.ry ' 0 alb"." .he ..... in nd '" reclaim 100, p,ope,., .... S.cphen
ligula promincnrly in ,h. gen....1 hi,,<>fY of Europe bccau,"" in 714 h. , ..,<led
." F.."r;'. concluded . form.1 .11;'0 wi.h ,he Frmks..nd crowned Pippi n ..
,heir king, Th""' ....... im""nan,.nd !'....ing """"ro' bu, .urcly i, ;, .triking
rh" ,he Lifo Ius not > word '" .pa.. abonr h.reti<al Byzamincs "r .Ix>u, Hi<m...
The Lifo of Pml 1 (717-67) is unu" ... Uy ,h"n. F..>.rly "" ;, saY'. ",;,h"m
com .. ,,,,,,. " He ..... bi.oor in ,h. ,in", of ,h mpc"''' '",,,,,.mir>< (V) .nd
I"" (lV) ," T he'" i> "r>< ",her ,Jefen"" ,,, B)...."',inm .nd .I",,!O image>: "He
m"nl>Oy,ly dckndcJ ,he ""h.....,. f.i,h. which i, why he f'luc"dy .,"" hi,
en,oyo ...;,h 'I",,,oli<; In .." '0 entr.... nd warn .h e empe"''', . to 1a'0
..l<l .... blish in ,I>ci, .rstWh il.... m, of ... n.... tim> ,he oac.-.:d images."" Bu.
,h,, no npliei. m.nri"n of H i... i. or ,he alkgcd bru ..1 pc<K<mion. of ,he
760& i,he, in ,hi. {.ifo O! in ,he 0'" I..... '0 Pippin
dio<wscs. b,ieRy, , h.
cIfo .., on khalf or im"S""'7 As "'" will _ below, !',ul "'.. con""n.,.j
Byun,ium. h. hi> COn""n' wnl: p<inw-ily co~noacd wi,h .he. to him,
. L.. ming p,o.pee' "f ~ F.... ko. Bytan.inc .ntentt th .. migh' h.a"" left him de
fcrucko. again " ,h. beaten hut unbo,...,d Lomh:.rd~
'0
.Iu..
pr"''''''
,h:.,
""pe',
.bou,
Visual Evidence in Ten.. from Rome
'0
In oddi.ion
,..1." ,I., Lim Po~tifi(,.'i' sa"" .bou he b..ie hi>,ori",1 i<Sud
inl'Ol~ in .he iconocl ... ic comrovctsy. ,he papalliva .1", provide .igni6am
.... idence . bou. p.pal pallon>&e "f work> <>f.II ~nd dc.cnk some ""Oft.. of.n
in rying d~ of d".il , Qui olion ,he . n WI"k, ,hem ... l= and
pi""""
.. h ..., 'M ""I'" put ,hem "",,,,I im""tUn< "-'porn of the !"PKY', 'OPO" to
Byzantine iconod.. m. h i, ,rue ,h... he Rc.m.n =""m~ "'~ imp""ing """"'"
,he .igh,h "~''''Y .nd .h.. , ,h ....ro... so","in;e cnd"".o,. "",re """ible
,ho. which would t., "cceded ,h. me>rt. of ""'" ""', ,n,h-an'uty ""pes,
.1.,
An ""J An Toll
'"
S,ill, ,h<; rc>1 =I>Omi, """m of ,h. n'''f)' foll"",'1 ,he dim in.. ion of .h.
lomb...l kingdom in n j - 74 . nd m.ni(.ou ielf mO" ~i'iblr in ,he I>on,i~a, ..
f.om Hod. i." 1'1 '0 LlIV, (nt- 8n) .... Th n ,.Ik of ,t.. POP<:! of ,h.
h.lf of ,h igh, h ern,ury am. I... in "",,rd. d,." in dtt;ll_ ..Id th ..... <k<-d<
,ook ,h. f(lfnl of imp,,,,,i .... . nd .,1'OV<>CO,i wntl. of.n ,h., may " .. II .....
<q>m<n,ro scoou. d""", on limi,ro nu,,,i. 1 '<>O<ITCC>,
G ~ry III held . 'yood on r.lm Sunday (Ap,il 11), 7 to insci,u. new
"",uory in S,_ !'d. ,nd ,t..n '" provid. d"""""ion, ,nd h""s'al " .. ngo_
mom, 1(" , h. , o....ory. T t.. o""ory W1! imcnJI '0 hon'" ,hc S>.vi",. Hi, hoi)'
moth ... , ,he holy 'J>O>d .., . nd . 11 'h< holy m".)' ... nd ron(...., ... ",..,ing in
pcocc ,hfOug/>ou, ,he wndd:' Th. f..", of ,he p',,"'n' ,h.f< romm<mo.-.,ro
""' ... '0 be ",kb""ro "';,h .igil> ~ ." by ,h. monk. of the IoaI mon. " ....... "d
m"""," w<,. ", be ,d.b,.."ro on ,h.;, "",ali,iA, tI,., iI_ ,h. day> of ,h.i, d<>d"
whcn ,hey WCf< "00"''' imo, n"", lifc in h..,vc n. 11m, (" ,hc only "'iking
'h ing
,hi. unwry is ,h. brcaJd, of it< droi, .. inn: ,,, .n ...;""
rem.ps ,h. P"I" .... d . iming , ... , '" h"J .. ken c"''l!' oflooking aft 11 'he
... in" j... , as, in hi. OIronlmunic,,,iun. ,he p... i""" NM<",be., I... Iud ... him.. If up os gu.rdi,n of ,h. (ai,h "",!)'Wh'f< ,
1010 ,hi, o""' ''ry, oow<V<', ,h. Pope imroducro m imag< of M,ry .nd he
ado.ned ,h. ,m'g< wi,h <to" ",,, j.......1cd ,,,,,kl.cc .nd .,rings, . oJ ,il,-..
cove. (0' f.. m,). Thi, ""ido",,,, .Ione n' igh' bJ us 1<, infor. ddibe ..",
uln, . nd oolcmn denial of impe,;,,1 ioonocwm. bm ,h. i, mOf< ",id.n
,.." ieh mIn> infeftn into ,.,'my_ The ufo, in det.iling ,he IiIU<gial.n-:ong<_
n)Cn" ,,,,,i,u ,ro by th. I'op< ", m.i"" i" ~ult in ~i, " .... """",.,.. -")~ ,ho< ,he;.:
...... ";""tibeJ On "on. p. n.I<." ~ A .ub<..",i..ol f"'sm.m of , ... , i.... rip' ion
,un'i"",_ Mof<OV<'. nin,h-o;nmry rru.nusc,ip<> ,,,,,,-,,,,I, ,he ... non. of ,he ['.Im
Sunday """ncil WIlcn m.rbk .nd ",n::hmcm . f< ju... p<><! i. 'PP<>" 'h" , in
1 asc .Imo>' unique in ..... Iy mroi.",1 Rome, ,he fO"Is of, ,hun::h ,,,,,neil
" " .. i"rib! .nd hu,,& in public. It i. f...,inoting ob,,--. 'h" ,h. roneili"
f<O>M f< da,ro by indiction y<>r only."d flO' b)' ,h. '"11",1 )"''' ofl.> Ill."
In lJ' C""S"ry III h.od <;<:>n.1<mnc.' L.ro .".1 hi., ;m'g< .,.,11. 1" "''''y 7J' ,"<
I"'P" ""'ro ,nd ron>r."",1 wi,h
ftmonr .n ol",l,n,!y decor:u~ 1 new " ....wry dcdie:uro 10 ,h. 0>1<, of lh, S.v"". M.f]o. >nd ,'" ... in"
whose imogn Loo ..... prohihi'ing: imrodoccd.n inugc of II-hry io", , ... , 0 ...
' ory, .nd pxIo imro, I"'blidy .ncI ,'i.ihl)' h" ,h. empero" ."ho,if)' .....
"0 Iongo...lid in Rom,. T.ken '<>geth ,h ynod . nd o .... ory
,h.
impkmrn .. ,ion in Rome of ,he <;<:>ocil .." doci,ion ... k<n in 7J'-" tn "''''"g<,
1.> ..". , A..., '0 ~.'-.ge .he Ad,i"ic ",,>t ."d
rrd ",I".bl, I""' n",ni",
. nd chu"h pmviOCQ in $Qu,"'m 1.. ly. Sicily. >nd o.lrn.a,i. our of ' h< pnp<'.
fi,,,
.buu,
o.ryw"'''.
.pert"'.
'0
""<,,,.,io.,.
"P'''''''
,,,,,,,f..
<on",~. Bullying and ,;u goupn, by iml""w <>ffiWls plu, ialnodasm Iud
co mbined '" df<'C, a >pIi. in ,I>< ~ ,ies ~ Ro"", and Co.uurllilW>pIr." G"W>'Y _rru '" h..,~ I""" 0" an imlflO-Occoming can,p.U1" in Rorn~
" .. h.,.. .oonly brIO.. , .... ,nlUlb"on of hi. _ 0 ..,"'Y. be B'" ... <Wist<d
on)" "umn. from ..... uuclt of R>wnou. Euoychi .... n..... I>< anang<d nar
........~ of S, . ..... r in coni"n,,,,," "";'h ,.... .u simil.. "umns 00 ... ,1
,.... bail"", by Cononn,j ... and
.........J ..hro Coq;o<y I rnrronp:d .....
p<Uby<nium. On <Of! of .........urn ... ho pIac<d bn.........ich Ix """...I ..ith
,,!vtr on ..... ich ,....'" ..,,'" "drpococJ in rdid" doc Sa .."..nd .,.,.u.s on ~
sid< and ~boy and holy virp ... on , ....... hn. In , ........ ''''l' dod"",...1 to m..
B<thkhcm coib . . . . . M .... ad"~ (b'n M~). t.. pl><ed a "sold
im.v 01 Go,f. """hn .mb.-.a". OUr lord and Savioour, ..;m .... rious;...-d>.
~i"l ! Ibs." H~ n<llwm,l an _o<n. imac< 01 God ', holy I'I'><)thn and '-_
ned i, ..;.h~ ... ..In' .... ""illl 50 Ibo. " n.. imog< in~ .. M., .. sound. lik.:
lIlUll1UfUt .. hik ,I>< unk_n 0 ... ,Iu, _ ""t.ntd" nuy...:ll Iu... bec-n.
p.Unting ,Iu, "".. ~ ...n a mo", il\an, f .. me . nd C01'r no! unlik.:. say. ,I>< 0".
ofr nnon, III . hal ,,;11 "",on.n. La ......, icon <>fChri" k'f" in ,I>< dupel of
S._ uwnC<c (,ho s."..", S.,.,.111",,,,) ., ,n. 'ap of , ... Sab San ... The L;1Hr
w....
"""",,<1
'0
,II< <huh of S.n Cri~"" .,><1 inoulkd

"paintin,," there." Th<>< are "",.. bt ruund. in," .,I>-,,,,cd "",. of decoy.
in the mutch ,h. , i. bduw ,,.,, Icvcl of ,he: and "'"ny... Thi. 'fIWO,k. '00, 01'1'""" to Iuvc
btt" ...Jcu J.,ro .frlOn, ,II ,,.,, .ml'~rut', policies." lie IC>.o,cd and "pa imed"
Mari. in Mjuiro. H. buill . "d p. in,cd tho .......bi_pmb. bly ,h. "".
S,.
f in.oUy. he ..... in,cd the .po< and
commoda,ion 10, ,h.
do""fro gold imag<. I"'ha .... a",,,,,,,, ...,.... '0 S" AnJ",w, .t So. P.t......
G~ 111'. W<),k w.u COII,in,ocd by hi. !It...........,. 7~haoy buil,. new
triclillium-4 bo"'1UC1ing ~...J .....'1"ion Iull--c. ,t.. "',.. an and 0'0.-..1 i,
So.lIfO
poor_.
1'.,..'.
";th moun.nd pUn,i" ... H. boil' a - . ...... I......... pIactd in fron, of

if " figu"," 01 ,t.. Sa.';",. p<rh0P' a ..., ..... ..Kl dccontcd 011< r<:w:>m wim an
'*"
imag< of ,t.. ",,"Id. Th .., !.as

$Om< ...,...,....j >p<tNlollOtl .. to ,,-bc<he:,
.t.. imag< 01 ..... Saoio, WOO d<lj"",",~ p<-.c<>tion oo:aoion<d by I..e<>', aJlq;.nI
IC1JI<IY1II 01 ,h. CJuJki imac< in Coouun,i"",*, Thi. io poooibk. but j, ohonId
t.. IC'fII<mbcml ..... ,""" i, ron,,,,...,.,,. """........ t.a u., attuoIl, ~
icon 110m ..... PO" '0 .... j"'l""iaI pabc>c 00 <q>bcm ouch on icon";!h.
noss. Th,
~ . OfOUnd the ...u<i....!y a... do .. fot ,t..
.........,.. tha, "'flO<' ..... ~. Thu .. j, ;. diflicuJ, to kncr.. """"' Z-twy k.ntw.
St.fficc i. to <My tha, .... ,m,.. _ ~i .... f", inoan<r. ,fZadwy', imag<
rcfnrrd to ,I>< lar:<nn f""iKium 01' Om.. oJ.m ,t.. I"'P" "'"l' .....~ bec-n .I.....
o.n..
"""t,.,......, "".... '"
An,nJ ,,", Talk
"7
ing.o impli,i[ <omp>.;"'n lx:<Wt(n , good .ml"'.o., Con", ",i"", .nd hod
empero" leo li t It i, oCU'>$>ry to kavc on [he m.~in the qucot"m of wheIhe.
Zachary', pmvt>a.tion ~ . direct tnponlC to a 'pific act on leo', pa .. ,
Zad,.ry'. image of the ",,[Id h... betn pLIU,ibly int.[p""cJ ,.. cuim to uoiYCT_
.. Iiry." He.l$o .d"mcJ St, SyI"<S[tr', .nd the ",mico with ..... ,red im'g<>."
Z"",fury', ,"cn,ion [0 [hc in" i,,,[iorul ",,"fc'. '0 ,hc s"....nn.. n' o/fi<:<:s . of ,hc
L:uer:>n i ignihoOl U' !<S[u .. for ,h<>e we .. [he fifO[ ..-.mpl.. (or mo .. [hoo
a ccomry of new coo",uc[ion io ,h...co of [he L.r<r:>n. Pl.eing im'g<> in ,h<>c
v<ry I"'hlic phccs-'he new "idinium ...... p"""'b-Iy ~sed fOr [he Itc"n.n Council ...f 7'l1----an hatdlr h. ,-. c<capcJ the ,ttcntiun of ,oyon. who " ... .",ore of
m:cnt hi"<><r. ZKhary .1", go" , 1<>, do[n; 10 St . Peta'. bearing i""'g<> of the
o i,iry:T h. Uf' of Stoph." II pf<Wid.-. only One ... mpl. of. n.... im.g< which h.
caused to Ix: m,de . nd pl><cd io . IWmm church. He pu,.o "i""'t"" of M. ry
i" S.nt> M.,i. :"h~n: d.piCfi,,~ Mary .... . ed 0" a tl""" ....J i>oldinl>J<:s""
on her knees. He adon>l i, wi,h je-w.:l< and piKed i, be,,,,-..:,, t"",olde. im.gn
of M.ry in
h. gildt<!. Thi. panicol.. im'g<, ",i ,ich 'W"." to h.....
betn a "Mari. Regini' ')"lX", "'",, I...... been. painting ... ith.n eI.borate fram.,
I will om .. h.,,1 to tl .. im>ge of ~1.ry" qll<'<o . But unde, St<"p h'n II .nother
kind of im. g. appco. .. for the Ii"t tim< . nd wi,h i, .no,h.. uput af Romc'.
in> ...!.."",nt ",-i th im. g.... 10 71' Ai"~lf " .. , thre.tening Rome, S.ephen "held
a procn<ion .00 lir:>Dr in [he u....1 "")' .... i,h ,he holy jm.ogo: of "'" Lord .nJ
Saviou. alit<! the 4<1"",,p';I~." Th~ ,at g<'" on '" .. y [h... v[ p"""",ioo
P[oett<led [0 San .. Mui. M'll8ia .. ,,00 [ho, ,he pup< co,ried ,he im' l\< a"
hi, 0""11 ,hould."" The ("''' nujor ~hri.n (eam-I'urilicuion, Annunci.,ion,
...... ump[ion, N1Iivi ty- h:td been or-gani,.e-d by POl'" Xt-gi"" [ (687""70')" Thi.
p..... g< ;, [he G"" "'j,n... '0 ,he proo:l>ion ,h." .... h Y">I. IC' "u, 'n' ,I-.< .igil
of the ",",,,mption for the fumm regM'" where, , flC" ,"",;" in tho old C~rW
s.-.'~I. by ,hcn ,he ch,"ch and de>conry ofS,,,,Mn. no, tI", p"""",;"n pro-a.Jcd 'hroogi, 01 .. "'[""r:> '0 S.n .. M.,i. fo, ",,,,,,i"E m. ... Th. im.1l" "no,
m>de by hond." i, m<ntioned h. .. (or til< fir>, ,im< '00, Almo" n ainly 'hi>
i> [hc r,mnu, \.>."",,, ;Wn
,,,b....-..I.o
Im"ll"" " I"" ""d, by
hum'" ha"d." h>d '1'l'<ared fmn, ,ime '0 ,i",. in &:0 ..", ""'ten br 75' bu,
[his is ,h.ir ~ ... , 0(' p<>5iib!y """,nd, "",h m<n,ia" in Rome. " \v., th. im.g<
"",n as p>1I.dium' The Li~ hntiji'''{;' doe. lnn"'" thi. pcocc .. iun wi.h [h.
image to Ai""I,. d<"predation' in ,It< ct>un'ry>>d . Bu. this might be . cainci
den<c:. n", i.
Latc",,, ico n "'-.. callied in I'~n ."nu,Ur 00 A"go"
'~- '\ which prob.My p'ovide; a d ... for Ai"uir..... ck bu, co nno. be token [0
,iI,." ,.....
oro"",
,I.,
."',..e"
,,,.
e H., . . . TH . . .,
indk:>'~ <ha, d>t ico<o .... pu.o<kd 'h""'!h Rome', ........ only bea""" ,ho:
lomb.nJ kinK W ,hm'onine ,he city. "Therr;, no ",lin OCCO<In, ~I:.t .his one.
Tht Lift of 1'0.,1 ] .,ribu... a n"mM of;map ,a him, H< tr2n1l.tl d>t
body of 5<. ".,,,,,,ala. oJi<FdIY 50. "', .t..o+,... from a m<f"'Y ......0.1<
Rom.
ba",ifi.d]y rofurt.iol>l chopd juM ......ick 5<. r., .. on .he, "",tit
siole. Into ,hi. cn.pd he pIactd M..ondrou.iy bt .,tiful picru.....MAbo near s..
~ .... ho: rrmocIckd ..,w1 dourd! dnJic:a,od ... M.I)', San .. M..u ad Grad.\.
:and "doco""od it mw>ik<nrly.M ]n ,,,,,"J,., chard near 5<. ~ .... dtdic:atod
'0 MM}' he, in'rod...,."j ..,.,..iQ :and ... .Aiv of MM}' Moundint uphslo., of
pIded.a.n ~,nK'SO Ibs. ~ Th .. is undauti<odly a ........ Uu. bt.utnI his
.... n ........ in,a. """""'"'Y. San Si~ ..", in Capi.~ . and bt in ...><I00crd "'-,
ia." tn.'ing Midt ,he WOtk on his a.... n hooK, "~'. ororI. on> "-rlr t.tki"ll
pUc.... d>t J<p<>n of 5<. Pn.. an un. "';,h proiound mipoo>. <e<:1eoioIopeo],
.-..1 ido<:.IoP:oJ "",ilia"",. Thit ..... ,J... prim< .Inti....ion ofRom.n pilginu.
and oJ.. gcn<r:Il vicini.,. of ,he, ,C$idcn,i,oI
lOr fOni&n= I'",mi.,.".
Fnnb 1'O""".ly visiu:d 5<. ~.r',:and l'il'!'in', oIlicial, pI.>ad ,1>< ....,....." s..
I'..or'. gnv . copies of.1>< F.."k... lotnh."d pua ".>ties .nd m:ords of the
.. tbm"'''''' of ""'''y of r..ly, cit'" .a Rame .nd ,he pop<. n.. <topel of Pc<"".. ill. bean .. !...;':'Ily C"... roI'n~.n p';,..... < <h.op<l 'n It.,.... _ The pbm<n.
of imi ge> in ,his 'ogWn is in .... y coon "",,, to z..c ... .,.', work in .1><
'0
"""to,..
L...... n R'gIOn."
Som ..Jdi,iorul 'n,.,I"~"'"'''' ... n bt ....d oUt of """" often "guo< ..ttt<nee> in .h. LiMo ''omljir,,'iJ. fin' of . 11.
Th. liM f'ontifU"'u doa not
"'" ,h. wo,d i<. .... hefo,. ,he middl. o( .h. n' n,h centu<y. Notm. I1)' tl>< UM
',On'ifo.1iJ ...... tl>< ,",'ot<!. i_po
o.r ,,,,,, ...." Anyon< of thQc w."do
mi&ht .ip>ify on ;...,., bu, . .. IkltiAK ~mpha.i..,. . n k .... ;. a mo,... bIc .nd
aut<)n(>lJI(>W iJ1U3< ,,kick ",... lIy (<a.um a .i..po figu .. O! small group of
fi!" ...... h
,he ......... , '" on, .. inn> """ic..J.,lr 'n,; .... t. ",4,;"n, wi,h "
.u>d ill pltyoi<:al"''''o>cc' i, .1 .......... ,01 ...... n it I"'t into moIion. " Apon from
.he ~;'" mm'ion<d in .bt ufo of S.cphrn II in ron"""';"" with tho:
Asoumption P"'"""'" of ~., .... hi.. no ovldon<c of an ''''"F <Iu, _ atried
"""d,.
1firn.
I"',m',.
uaund from 0""' pbu to .notbtt. M OI'lO< Lz"" -"":and moo,.,. "'" "'"
""""~ '0 i",imacr. Om ......",. t .... LikT p."rij.cJu mmooru ...... ' ~
prohIbIy ""'- ~n<.....
and ....r wdI t<fet to tho: b<.utiful
PJdine.u>d fnm'nt oil... appl...J '0 plClura. Not once "on ;.... dacribcd
in det.;I." II'. on: ................. <old ...tu. ..... of them 100I<..:I li~. 'XO...... ,,,",
I"'P" tcbuil. <w <m,,",Udhod. dourch ,...,. on: wid to ....., ~d"".. od ~ it "" to
ha,... M
..........,Mi" ~ " bt.....fully" "" '.~ :. o...aoily pncm<s
i<>r .-..1 p<idc in d""Lzr. "'" ~n]i1o.
...hid> Dominic J..... uI<eo <0 be
,,,,,,,poout
,ha,
,h.,=~ri"ic ofb.t~
.ntique church &col'ltio" .od i" ....,.,ioted W-4", of ~ing,

k<hng. .1><1 thinking," On. <ncounte" h.", 1"1"'1 ,h",ori<: .1><1 ...,h",ic ,hat
.hp" . I>e iml""i.1 "muni~ccncc" .nd ".bund.ncc' of 1> antiquity." Not
ooc<o finally. do<>.n ifrulg< M .ny,h ing. E n.I>< ",,,,,"P,;14 f:.ilul '0 ".m ,he
lomba,d Ilood_ if . h., is w"', it wo, ""'ed to do--and it> ""Ii..,}" 'ppc-.",n<e
matks the onl~ ""'" where "'mhing~. pe,h. p" exp,ed of an itNj;<.
Visual
E\'id~nce
from Rome, Physial Rem.ins
This is no< the 1'1> to .ttemp" hi story of 1"'1',1 .fti"ie p",on'g< in .igh,h_
century Rom<, mw;h k.. n' .... rvq ,he an i, .. lf My !"im.ry fixus 1><", will n:st
on the p. pacy', .dop,ion of ,I>< '"M"ia Rgin.>" i""'ge in ,he eighth century .nd
on wh" ,h" im.g... y> .bottt Rom nd ,he pope. in ,It<'ge of iconocl .. m, r
.... 11 .1.<0 i",..,iS'1< $(Ime vel .. , i,,,,!!,, of M.ry
Rome .. <tl ""rne vf ,he
p.inting:< in ,he TI.rodotUS Chapel in Son'" Motia An'iqw in .n cfFon [0 un _
tk" "'nd the u.... to which imag<> truly"''''' Ixcn pu, in eighth-ntury Rome.
In o,h wn<d., I .m g<>in~ to "tidy l",h,ical.nJ o;kvo,ion.1 'mages.
Ikginning with Jolm VII (701-7).
pon,ifica,e f.1I befor. ,he ico.....
d ... ie conlfo .... ,,)' but """" hod POO' .. ut;" ... with B)"'.>mium, ,h. p>p><y P'omoted . n expk"ion of M ...un im:tg.ry in Rom._ Some of ,h""" Mari.n im.g<>
took, very >pific fQ,m-the s<>--nlled '"M"i. Rcgina"'-al><l . Imo" ""'ry
pope of ,ht eighth century put up hi< Own im,&e in conncaion with, "bri.
Rq;in. image. This prolifc"ttion of tcgal M.t)1 in a>soeiat;'-'n with popes ...
quit<> an expun .. ion.
What. =e,ly. i '"M.ri. Rq;ina'" im>ge ~ This i. an imag< of. crowned
,1><1 <n,hroned M.ry. In 'he pot<h of S.nto Maria in Co,rncdin there i, .n
in><. ip,ion who< im .. ge h.. Ji.uppc>=I . It ....,k '''-/''", ";'l" rMiilli, , _".,.
""'/1414"
d,,,,,i,,,, ""~ Oti t<'~
H.d,;.n J in'tolled in S.nta
M.ri, An,iqw Mafi. Regin. wi,h ,he in""iption MARIA RECINA, hence
,h. "",me (0' ,he im.ge_ In ,hi, ;m.ge. M.ry ,....,," ,,,,h dmhing. "" .... p> .;<h.,
even ,"'n ["'t of a Nsifiw, and cupious jrn'cl<, The fam ili .. im"Se vfThcorJo ....
fmm S.o V;ule in Rove"", proviJ .. . n n ed Ie", "'''''' of whO( ,hi. i'n'ge I.,.des
like. " do. in . nother medium. the coi ... of Lieini. Eudoxia fmm ,he filih
centut) The J>iaUf Iottffi '0 h he<:n ,ak.n <We' from imperi,].rt not only
in 'ppc>",ncc bo[.1>0 in compo.i,ion. n ... i., M.ry i, olim Honked b)' .ogel,
who.rc like the ",ldim [hat !lank ;mpe,i.1 pon",i", Morro,.. , . nJ ,hi, ....
no< bn emphosi,.cd b}' ..,h ",hob", the "h,ia R<"gin. ;m.s...,.. .,,,,,,,in,,,
tkpicted holding in ,h';r id, h. "d< the ""'Pf'J lor ""'ppuIJ) ''"' 'n ;mpcn..1."ri
f",,,,
woo..:
tw""'"
""'It,."
I,.,
0 .... ' . . , ......
but. ,hat was I.rcf tnn..motd '0 ,,,.. COt .... k
n...
the little ruplOn tha[ ...as
dropped ... ,,>It fateI '" ~.
0...""
the . , b untu'Y MofU IVgIn& inuga we pUad ,n St, P....'..

San.. M .... in Trast~, San.. Maria Anliqua. San a.......,., San LotrtUO
fuori Ie MuD, and San.. Susatuu.... It ;......alIy.fIU<'d that d>r M ..... Regina
... n cspW1y Itonun i....... U.... I. Nilport coils it d.. ~ .....Jonna ,,[ thot
popoo. ~ 1M fi ... ptlOIoibk nampk .ppe.m to mtnt I'rorn .... triwrtplul ardt of
San.. M .... M...... and can bt conlidet,,1y dated to ,,,.. tlUfd '" I'outth dec
D of d>r filih at"uf)'. 0... depict;"., of MI.,. on ,ho ardt ...,rn..,,,,, &'ma.."icil"'t. in a ony publit pbu ..,.... I'n<u"," of ,!,. ..... Maria Regi .....,
n.. fi ... unque>tionabk Maria Itt>gitu ..... painted ..... hot ~ pilimpoat
....u in San .. M..u. An'iquo In thc ~.rfy dradeo of ,,,.. "',h un.Uf)'. By 171
,.... " .... had ~ po.inotd .,..... 10 ;.. i"... was _ _ ibN< ;a a modd to
John \11. W1ut .. _ . thc M.n. Rqi... was pIxed in ,h" buildin, ~ it
beam. a . ...."'... It nuy haw ~ trtul .. oIIW::U.h ..ho -..: IQp<>n>ibI< lOr ;.,
1M ~n.h crnfU.,. _ no """he, M., t. ROJi ... i""F' in Rumc, Tho .. i>.
PY' from Grado .....,.. cow. bnn ,h~ image ~OO an iJol.,cd cumpk from
Du"a (.",ion, DyTf-..:hiumj ." The p",&,. m on San .. M .... Maggio .. ,,;um
ph;.I .",h ..,.....lIr cmph.o.t"", Ch. i>" I""","",. no< Ma.,..' MOI'<Of, Ro"",
did Ito[ h.. a "rong ",It of rho Virgin bdof< .he .ish,h an, ...,.." I'<:>pr Boni.
f""" IV (6<>8 ~ I I) did ....... ,h. 1'.",,,,",,,, in !Wm. f",m Emp<"" Ph""" and
rlcdieatcd it ... hcchurch ofM,.,. an d All the M"'y~t<. S.n .. M..i. ad
M.ttyrfl." Pop< Se's'''' I ("7-7<>1) ' <j!ul .. iU<! in 11.0"1< ,h. fOur .... in Mori,"
li.urpal f.........
i., ,h... ftm. >o.ne.hi", unmwl , bou. ,h<.ooICQ nude
by John . nd hi> wca<sO<'.
n....
In ,he .... h.oo ~[h un, urin f.he cuI, of .he Virgin .. ~! "",<Op<t<!ing
"pre><rt",ion, of ~"ry bea .... m<IK lrod """" prominen, in IJrumium. 'Th ...
"''Y ..... bn " in' re,;;.)" i " , . ofM.,y in eon ... n.inoplc fo<, lon, urn.,"
A. about the umt: ,un..
,Iw: M.ri:o Rtgi ... irrugc ...AI p.lin,..! in s"n .. M.rio
An,iq .... ,t.. po<! Cwil'l"''' in PU><&l'ri< odd........! ." J.... in [I . Ip<>l- of
.Iu.
'ori. "'....
.. Vi .........
ri . ..... ' iJoirna mundi. oed .. rep ... poIi" (M_ !loIy
\ ' irgin. motlw:r ,.,. rho WO<!d'>eIC2'<><. <1""" of t.c.-..;n on high),'" n.. Virgin
ame 10 t.. ... n .. ,he
of,1w " OY "nd Iw:r in rcc::tNon..u.t.. ciry',
pri ....'Y .,Iv..ion: ln ...... , "'" ,ho em ... _ ~~ intTOduood [he &... of
[he """'"P''''''.'' 1'1t.t rok pbyl by Muy', '''''F' ,rod inroa>oon aI thc
.m.. of ,he "'~ ""I'< .,/c-...n.inopIe in 6.6 .ppean ... h.a... bern thc.x.:u;...
momm, in MIt)" , ."",,,,,ncr .. d>r capi"", .hid" p.a'fUn.
Sun;n, wi,h Phn \11 """'" b.pn pIAoi",
0WfI i..... 11"" in RootUn
1""'''''''''
.t..;.
. btitcha m..rn """"
r...q...ndJo ,han ,hoi. P~ had do....~ }olt.n pus
"! "'''' '1",,!,.,,Iww "',... "!'~:l J" ~nur ",'''UI",) .u' I~ '''U~:l :.. 'I"w'~, .
r>U""~ 'p"''''''''v Plo,,,V
"~'I """"" ',,00<1:>1 ""~p!..,
'''' '4'OZ P"o 'lod'4' '!~ ~U!"u"" JF""'!~ ... ,,'"
"""u 'I,d,'f' '!4' r>'''''FI' ,ml""'ll '''Q~'' 0' ",.W " ''''!l''f I"" '''''!'!'ib
",,!n w'''<:=1 '4'--<'J'!PI"" MJ r>~u'ij 'OJodw, ''I.' '""Iwow:>] "1-1"' " pu,
''lI'''~U"H .u,~}!
'puy >110 '>lIn,,,")o "" ~'l '''I' 4'<>11]
""I'>Su"", '4')0 'I"'I"'"".~ FI'""''''''' '"I """y!,nn ,s,'I' . 04 II"" '!'lI.
pd' 4> '!U0f'W'U ''I.' J" II""
DldwflOl "l' " 0 'j/.hun> ,~ .."i>nuV
"1"1'1 ''''rs UI .... "'~'" """1"'-': -""",I In,,,!'!p'" "'"'' U! "'''!~ 'P!'" "'p'
-w'4' P>'"!>' <xIoJ '''"'''-4'qS" '''l'O ,i"!""'4'" '0 .(I"'"'~ '"mlly AUo
"":P'I ,,,,,rod, 4,n, y, r>J:Kd\ JI"""'4 1'''1 "":P'I , .." 1"'1 xlod "N .:.olIo:)
"""1'1 .' '4"U)[ "1',." ,,<><Idt "4"[ "! ",d l>"f'<"1 I'J>~ <v -.,.. ,~ "I"H
J" '0 '1"'~ JO "4'ol~ ''I.' JO ., ,,, .......... "l' .. "",ld. <XII' .(U"'" ' H ' ~" 'J'[
, ..url'l "$",[>,,,, ><Iod ' 'I.' '! "l ">'II' "."4<>( '! "11"->1 """,w'IJ "II' oU<J()P
,0W ''I.' J[ .. ,.'n'i''''-'lo~e SI}l nO"i'~~ no""90[" . 1'''" .."'!'r' lI'I: ,or'I,["oIS
I' I""""S ''''''"4''r.. .(F'... ,,~I<>.l -$'''11<>' ''''''~ f'I" '''''''1 '1""-1 u, ,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,
,h, ",'.)
!>(] ""'''' .. gU!p." ""!,d!,,,,,! '" p.><1" u4<>( '.""" "S U! ...
'!4 " I
-g",,,,,w
q'!,,, 'I.>!' "1I'!'u~,OO ...... QOl ,~ , ,g,W! ,.uqo( '..,11 "l'.I" I'U" 'W,,}!
U'!'S'IIqJJo l"'lw,(, ,.",j ''I.' " 1"" , ....
"S '~g 'qJonqJ (l'~l"'q'c ,."uO}[
''''''''''1 u4"[ "S ""![!'''I U'!"!''''><'''':) ''I.' "w 1'''1 ."Ol'!~ JO '">PI'''''
"V ...:,woll J" 421"~J ,~, ,(q Awournn, J" w'~p U! ...." 0 ~I',.U! .. .(1'-''''
pm ..:>JUl';)y!ull!, 1"'!'!I,><>'I'!'" >q ,ou""" .. >J"l' ~.,.,! ,~, ,na ... ~
' !4 J" I"""" u'4' pu. "'Iur "4.1
u~
OJ"'" ,m .... ">lll
-.n,.,,"!) <un J """"J '4' ,,,rodd,, pm wn", wolf Will":! "'I' " ! "''''S "11\
>~'.II" "nl $O!I 4''''4' "4.L ''''''I,d 1,,!,>dW! "'[, '" '''''''''lU' >q' J" ul ~J""
, .... "'1"')0 ,00!].IOO U! I"">.IJ "q I'"'~ ,,~, 4"'''~' ''''b!'''v '!" I'! "D'S
'" >.In,,!" D,"" "4 m" "-'1M.! 1"1' "4<>( ,nil ''''''''"1
"'Id,"", IU'WW'.uS
"l,g"!P"I,,, pm ....!'I'!'I'''P')O """"",d guol ''I.' u-.fu.:t " ' 4JOZ '''''''l' r>'ou
<1: '1'''' u'l" "4')0 >ruC gU!~'ON .. '11'1 1 "'!"I',] 'q' "" <r,d 1,!",dw! ' q' OJ
u"! " ",,!"!wp< 111 ,~, liu!""w r>" ldw"uo> oqo( "q' ~, .. ,!/~J!I."u." P</!7
'4L ,jU!u",w 'I.'!'" 4J~ >.I, uO!I!"odwOJ '!'4' puo ",li,w! =q' j<l u,,!,~
>~l 4"'1:1 ~.'""" -'S 1'10 J" 1'''oJ P""I'4li!, '4' '!'''! ""! "'0''''''' u"! .. ,~
,,,",,, '!4 "! >i,w, "'l,n" "'I' "qo( ,,'II"" n,ltu"y "!"~ "''''S U! .,g,W!
'!'4' r>",td I "'!, p'H PUt '11"'" ''''4JOZ ., .."",,,,w'lJ '11'1' . 0u"l" l-'; " ''I.'
~''''''~.l.
""I~ "'u'S "' ",,-"u lIuu",,,,,1 l,uI (10 ,g.w, u'''"f'! "l<>Iow
"! pu. ... It!'''y ""[011 "'''<$ '" O>,""ow "4U") """ u, '(,u>JUri! ""'!"'\ ''I.' '"
.U! ..... " '! J" ,"'w~J .)
-'S U! '\'0'''''' """u '!q U! J!<SOw 0' ~! "q
;0""
'"'+"
""'1'1:
I'''''''L
,n
w'"..,
0"""
,.m,,,
'''''''lI """I" ..""u"'lI ..
'4' '"
'"
'.'>!""
,I, '1'.l"V P'"
"V
.......us
rich,h-anfUry Rome bu, inug<:< of Mary ""'.., p., ."..., .me... In...
and .m"S'" 'f'O".... ,ho La~ of ;n,.,""",,". San.. M>ri.a Anu'lw .... iudf ~
deoconry food d .... ribution
,Iu, diJpm...l ,ho prod"", of "'" ",pol
",'rimon;"''' BoWnninK...ith GKKOry 11 pop<> PI'Ofl..! ,ho Romans from till
=.<1
rosin" .....rodcn.y . ...d lomOO.rdo who ....... poooihlt. By cLaimi", Mary ""
R.nrut and ,bm by UIOCi:uing " .. modus wi,h I.a in ... il>lc ... y>. ,ho pop<>
""'''' .ory publicly ,"ing tho mali va.ilal>lc 'n ,hom '0 ,(II ,he R""",n. ,h_
.hingo. Fin,. M.ry..,.. n,ad< the p. ""ne.. of R"mc and. by .... n.i"". Com... n,in<>pl . ..... d<ni! this d.im upon he'- N.ith tho Iton .. ", ",,, tho pop
an",.. "'" ,n 'ny " hly rub. bu ..... Iy II} the q_n of hea .. n. Se<:ond. ,ho
I"'P< .... R<>"",', in ml.i.ory bcr-,va,n Mary...d Goo. , f.c. u!tim ... IIOtI= of
.11
blc..inp. Th. p")'<I"' rlu, ,,"'.., .i<.l un .aeh of thc M.n.n
ic-u<, """.inually . m"..... ... i",,,=Woon." n.... piau,a _'" idroIop<:aI. rab", ,~.r.J
adu.toIog:iaI ,_ That;" if tho R'ns.o ......i' ,hom .... to ,ntrod"", ohcm
into. ....... n." Third. d.. cmpcto,', p..,hibicion of ........... ... th<>u. fore. in
f.""" .r.J
.......
fWi,a-Jews,
.Iu,
~-
1>1.,;.
Th.
Rqina im;oga .f< lug< . nd rub/ic. Thor "" ROC l>CCa4>,ily
in.p;'" (ttlin'
intinu.cy and ..,..,,,,ne. b", ... h, ... n,i""," .. of .....nd
.1I<gianc<. Thor Of. no "'Rnomo..... nd ,My do "'" pc,mi, ... 'ing\< "'dench
bIe"' in'<'1'"".,i08." n,or On: no, win"""" In,o ."",... , ....,.,Id 00 much as
Olmnl.nta,;., .... ,hi. world. AI Oilto,d Germ. obocrva. ;mpo<tant ronnl:Cl;"n<
.ith....in 0< ""'" bo crco..ro"""""'n ,t-.. _ial ....Ii' ;.. of POW<' .nd .he:
')"mbolic fonn. of nprc:ss.ion ..."hid. tIu, powt: . ....y ... ~ 0 .... lhoolcl nor d...,.,
..... t II .... bn..~ tIK symbol.. or ' .... ppings of rulo ntI iu ,.,]iry. ;u sub""""." 1,.. ....S"'t>c.... M...-w. i ..... oi <Ulr~r;h'h-an,W)" Rom< op<n 00.... vi" .. ".., .me'&i"K.nd chatIgi"t po ..... od.tionshi .....nd 10m< of.t-.. ""2)'5
du . ..... lOund to ""';"ub ... ,t-.. ...... .; .... ,ion. C"Slidmo M."JoiK..,.... ynn
>flO mad< ,t-.. .. mplc bu, imporun' poin'
Rom<. p .... tho C.~
"adi'lon of ,.... didactic n1... of an. i, ", noy fi." ,.b,imy st. . .Iipous
do muh,pIc """"'. Th iI. d><y could do:o>o-... and pIoaso.. but thcy
could .ho ,....It. In ."""lting. .hey <nU1cl """,muniat. bihlial ou, ... 'ivQ bu,
'My <",,'d ,Iou .. k. 1"'" in
''''cub,ion of gen ui.... poli,;"] pn:>gr:>ou."
Molt t<cntlr o.n'oI Russo has .rgu..!, wi,h ",," Ocula, ..r.ltncc to tho M.. n.n
in<>g<I undo, d,,,,union licit.
,h .... im"fP "',.,...! '0 d . i", legi,i",KY for
,h. ruler, .."",i....! wi,h ,hem ond !O m.rk "'" tIK oo.",do,id of.t-.. .."i.o . .....
""'h pl.Y'ial.nd 'ym bolic. ""'" which tho rulc-n cl.i....,j autl..,,,ity."
"r
'0
,ha, ..
'masn '"
.n.:
,ha,
.tl
From politicol im>gel of Mary. I.. US t~rn

d ...."tiotul i..... ga. Sam.
M"i , A''';q", I, .. ',H.th., i",~ uf M.<y tl,,, i. dilft ...", t~m the R<gin.
im;ogcs we h,~ hocn disc""ing, In 'mall ni.he '" 'he righ , of the n ,h ....
i ,m.lI.nd ",""utiful M>rian fr<SCU at <}'< k~.1. Thi' image i. intim ....
im'g< ."nd. ,10'" .nd M.<y i10"< in it , The ""fo= .round the im.ge . ...
pocbruul=! in w. y. ,Iu. ,ugges' ,Iu. p<ti.io", or ,h,nk.)'O\" ""... on"" ,ffi,.d
the",." Thi' migh, weil he . n icon in ,I""", ,II ",n>co of that .erm. But i.
anno. be <I"ed >OCUl'dy tu tho .ighth ""mury, """"pt un .t}li"i.c grounds,"
0"" "'p' of .hat iflUg< is ,n..,ing. h",,'e~"'. The scyI. of ,h. M'l}' de
picrtJ the ... i impl nd dq;:rnt. She wc:rr< only, ""'phorion." no roha.
"TO"'O" or jewel.. If ,he i, enthTOr><d. " " do no')CC .his. Thi, imag< of M,ry
h... lI"''' de.1 in rommon with the 5<"'ern ,u",i.ing Rom. n icon. of ~ "l}'
,lut ""'" schob" ,hink d ... from ,he liftb .0 ,he ,i.. h em",ry ""'" if .lIey
h,,,. btt".10 d""n .. i""lIy . 1t.rtJ <>v<, the emturi.. tlut w< ""nnot ronfidentl)
" )' 00... mud> Ii"" .he 0. i5io.1s ,he .."'" v.rsi"", "." n,,,.. ' ... the im,S
of , he I'.nth..,o, of the MO""'t<ti um Tempuli, of S.n .. i-h,i. No ... (S. n ...
Fc.,"= RumAna). nd "fS. nu M" i, M;oggiore (.he S. lu. Populi Rom,ni).
To ,hi. ,m.1I !II0up may b.: .dded the <nth,oned hut no, regal !\l. ry. of the
.. Tunu ..... p>inting f'om the c:UKOm h of Comm"dilb" ,nd ,h. f,e>o> from
,h. 10..... church of an Ckmen. '11>= M.ri.n icon re ""ry much lik< 101i",
and in the Ponthm. for "",mplc, ,hO}' m,y h,~. funcunncJ ... ubs,i,u, .. fol'
telic>. They '00 'pe.k ,he l.nS"ag< of ;010,0",100." Thor wet< .it<> of pri~.. e
,nd pe"",n. 11'''''''1' ."d do",io" .nd .... m to lack 'he politi""l.nd cceJcsjologi.
cal ro"" ...... tion. ~i.tl with the Regi"". No .......ce tdt. m if ,h... iJrulgt>
were
if ","dl... nd ince"", we .. oIl<tcd to ,h<m. but it i........ n.bl.
to "'1'1"'''' 'hat th ... kind, of devotion, WeT< known in Rom .
n .. l ......d.,tu, ch.pel '" an .. M.,i, Ant;qu' p'""id .. funh<-r hint< .bout
the mconing of Rumc'. irrurgt>;n ,he ...1)' d.:r)'> of 8Y''>OIi ... iconocu,m . Thi,
pri ...... <1uf><1 "'" i", .. I11 in .he nonhco" co'oer of thc huilding by, """I, hy
b)'m,n ... hilo ".....It,'}". ,,'1 '0 i. d<f'ictl with , ;quore nimbus indiating ,hot he
...... . Ii><. ,..., " ill I~.pe-l>tr().., 71:, tim is .... Thc<.>Jotu> ...-. . ,ho Jis/K""''''.
chief odminiltf"o,. of thc dcomnry Hc w.. ,I", the undo of ,h. fu,,,rc, !,l,...
hlood pope H,dri.n L According '" ,ho most rectnt , romp",hon,i". . nd per.u.,i... intcrp"'tation of the <yele of paiming> thor rove. ,II IOu. ,,-. 11, of ,hc
ch.pd. 1'heooo.u, .. COt"! hi' chapd ." m'm()tial to hi. d.:od d.:rught<r ,nd
wir.:." A< intctus..", h< "h"", the Eo"em ",in" Qui.icu. ' nd Juli .... Th"..
W<c1O Cili<;ian .. i"ts ..... 0 ><,!f",l du,ing Diod ... i.n'. ""T>OCUti()n. Quirirus ".,.,
the tnr.)",,-oId m.rtyrl ,on of Juli, ... . Their ";'4 w., known in Rnme hy
,be co rly righth century when ,he .. ints were in",ned into ,h. ",Icnd"." It
no<
ki..oo ".
IJ<
C II H . , H . . .
"""". ,lu, Thro<lo'... choK ,hem ao "",,h emblem. of and in..""""", f<>r hi.<
,,,",,dy <Iro.:u<d ..ife.nd .bu""e.
"The nonh .... U ..~ deocrlb<d >bov . h. brzo . nodfi...,., 1<t1'IC ...... r rq>r<_
..... , an ~ .u'...... n'
Rome was con,in"ing '0 praJ .... inuga. in ;pj'.
ofB)'W'u,.. poohi!>i,;.,n,.. .. 8u, 00'1 ,he ,.,."h wall there,;. I"'nicubrly ;", ........
ing K ..... H ... __ find l"hrodot ... himsoolf kn<ding and holding in his Iw>d.
....., _~ Iompo. He io ....... n In fton, of l ol;II" a o.rn' ch.iLd. and Qniriruo..
llwodo. ..... r_ ... ~, ,wO! b.>ck. ao if ,......,..j ,he.w--r. bu. arnWIy
..,.....rd .ht cruciIi.ion JaIIC .... ,ho OfIPO'i.. ..-.II aaou the mom. "Throdot...
... in other """d.. oppaIl"IlO O"i" ,,, ,ho ...w. of hio <lead wif' and __ ond
d""";", upon .ht inte,"""", of the .. in .. in the i..... h .. impolt3t>' '0
emp/wiu
Throdot ... II "'" ......""ing ,t.. imag< of the "';n ... H. and
,hey _ wi,kin ,ho ,.,.... p""ur< fr.,,,.,. "IlIrodotu. .. hunonnS tht ~ of
Ct..;" wi,h hi> lamp<. proI:uhIy in imi,.,ion of ..nuI li, wpc.i . i.<o cdcbr~,<d
;n Rome durin! ,t.. E.a.~ .igiL ,.
Tht llwodo. ... chapel , ,ht.tf""" ;" n'id.:"'c for ~ inr .... ity of ,he ""I, of
,J.,. .. in .. in Ro_. Thu. I COn"'" >gItt ... i,h No,d...".". ~u....." tlu, San ..
,\ 1..;. i\n.iqw . . . ~~ '<o,ifi.. '0 ,ht in,.""'ty of the cult of im.;gt::1 in
,Iu,
,Iu,
Rome. '"
I.. ccn,r.<l """"" .... "hin .nd ..
i,""", ,I._l"hcudo,... '''''p,d ''n: ~
I...cd '0 the Ih.roIogy of inl'''''''''n in quil' ,.. dition.al .... y>. The inel ... io" of
Pope Za<h.ry ...... y Ix taken.s an ind"""i"n
,h nWC)rk in ,h. dupd was
. c:c<p<;tble to the Ron"n ChUlCh. The p.inling;! in ,he ch'I"'I'r< bea,,,if,,1 .nd
m,'" h... I>n "qui,i .. when n...... T hey will Iu.. b.cn moving no' I~,
beau... hey ro,nme,no'''N ,Ktnt (V<nlj and "",min.n. prople. II,,, none of
tJ..... i.... g<. i. ,ulon"""", .
cl<>isnedli>r intimKy. Ind.:-td . ,t.. ,..hole cyck
of ",,'n,ing> .round .11 fou, ,..,.11. m~" bt gnope<l in o.de. to maluo .. nsc of ,he
disue.. d... il. of '''1 one pot;",i,,! within ,I>< cyck. It=. l"'.h.1" mo<~ fully
,I..,
II",
,,,",,
.nywhcr~
d", in ,"",iy d&hlh_n,,,,.,. IWmc, .,
Ie.,., '0
i~
by wlut
>u,.,..;.n, ..... '" the ruin, ."d power of imos<>. Thcy .odorn<d, ,hey beau,ifitd,
.hey ..ugh .-.I ,hey reminded. llwy nude f"'W""'1UI poii'ical ... t<....," ... "They
ronfinntd the form~l..: God, Muy, S.io". And ,hey ..... Iicit.
n..: Wtst in ,he !::Irly F.i1;h,h Untury

From tht "" ... em world '" ,hc eatly dccaJeo. of the- <ish'" :nlUry. ~""" from
Anslo-Suon Enp.nd.1Id Romt, ,J;~.t.o.,.,,. ,hcK""";'e oNy few 1'."1\'
men!> of <Vidcna ",h..h pt"O"i<k "'y inoi&h' ;n.o ,J.c pi:. .....ich i""'l;<O m~tn
hue occupied Of ....... pJpk 'housh, .nd ..1I,N abou, ' mos<>. While: i t _
..f. to OUW". on ,I\( ~ij of Ellmarit KnOg<f. in""n""" of 1.78 m&ru du,
m.",M>ntd """"",-f><... in a li, ..._1)' 'J< doru,,,,,n ..1)' '0."." from u.. pniod
710 1... "'" M ..ooingian world WlJ ri<:h in.;".w cldigi" .. i. mUIf also
be admiucd du, ,-;"Ullly ..... hing ,u""ivn. F", in,.'P"""""" ~ ~ reduced
art
~.o
'" cd...,.,cd CU<>'....,&..
P.... I .ho Dncon. "'110 . pon' """'" a..,~'. COlI" .nd ""110..,."..
I... Hu-y -1m. L-tIw"" 'n
eiFn" o.n,,,I)'. tdb on< JfOI)' .bom 11>
i ........, is in.." ..,,"1 fiom ,1._ cliA'nm, poin .. of ....... Tho otOI)': I>uI..:
AW.i. _ in oevn. "niP " 'lfh Kine Cun'ncpcn (679- 100) :and JID' .. dori.
ronllie. " ..... boo, 10 be ,aoI.. d by 1..",. Ahhi. relw.d .., uk. tho:: Iidd
beau......."""'" Cu"inqxn ', ooIdim 11> i.... ofS.. Michael on which. or
like ........... .,., which. "" ..... ...."n ~Iesi,nu .., .... kin&- ,OJ Tho Ii... poi'" 10
be made ... ha, ,h" is ,t.. only "01')' ~ke ,hi. ,n pour, ..,bn IonS h... "'Y. Ju.d
to. ,db ,he ...1e .. i,boo, rom"",n,. He P"<> hi, .""""'..... opponuni<y 10 doc:id.
if ,hi. si,,,,,.ion " .... "",m, 1 Of h;g.!y un .......!. The: >coon<! poin' ;, ,ha, I'oul
does provido on u.... mbiguow ,n,imOlly:abou,.n i.... .ru, ..... rudfo.-...,.
' hing ",hr. "'.n .i",. 1 oclolnmtn,. An ,..,1. w::u ... iokntly $WtlIn "" ,hi, i.,uge.
Th;, ."'mru ........ 10k. ,hr "'" O(,hing ,run ........ Id 'I'P"'" in. Ryun,;n. 00II=.
Tho .hird poin, i, li ,, 1e h."k. '0 wo,k <>I". h i. 00< poooii>k '" w'mi ... ,
from Pml" "'lIi ng of ,h. ""'Y. if AI.h i..... 'hr ><"".1im.ge on wh ich h.l.. cl
,wo.n hi> .,.,h 0 ...-1\(,1\(. h" 101" in II,,: rAnk. of hi ".mi... n 'f'I'l.i,ion of
S. , M iclo.d ,h.. hogni u:d boa" .. of ' he i".. go on ,,-hieh h. hod ,worn hi,
" .. h, If ,h. ~"m .. I""'ibili,y;, '0 be .",.".iued. ,10." w< h.... htf unique
CO>t of,,,,, l.on>h.rd. "'(I)'ing an in>'llt of S., MichKI in,o h.... I... a f"lladi ~m.
Thi . "8"il> . ..,.,nd, llyun'iuc. If ,h. I.. ,.. I..... ibili'y i. '0 be coruide.cd. ,h.n
we ha,.. h unique "'.. in ,h. W<$' of'n inugo ~,ifying . ~,h.n,iati"g, a
';'ion even ,bough ,"" " (1)' ...... 0M in ,b. 7Il00
an ... n, ,h. , .llcg..Jly
occw. ed 0 <am,,)" rlie . S.II 0 ... >T. known in llyun,in< _n;a, and "i ll
U'OJ' ~P "8"in;n ,hr \1:'....fr... 769. bu,.~ t1n." ... ed in 'M W... in "'" early
,"'10,.
.boo"
~I"h
o.n."I)'.
. .! , """n'!}' ...." . And..,., Ag><11_ odd kw ;""gh...
.boo, 8J'
B<pnnins in
t.. ........ hi> ....tory of ,"" buhopo of IU~"" frnm ,IK- bepnni"i\ of
tho:: ... do",,, 10 h" - " " .......... It is flOC .!w.p <y '0 ....,.\c 0'" 'w'dh....
canon ofioowion ....... d",ion. I wuh '0 cl ........... , ion to twO uporu ofll"
Ion&- mf<,wning 12k. Fim. ,o .he ..ndyi"8 lV"utud. of.n .nd
lU"oriaJu,. Agndlu. LlIb at
and ;n deni! .bout tho an;,Uc
of
,"" .",bbiohop> of RoW'ftlU.nd he t".,sh ......."10" on Opi6c .. 0 .... of .....
Agnello< ..110 ....0 ........ ,ha, migi'll br <igno of "'" .dor,uioo of ionogn. tha,
mis''' poi", m irons. Bill ,hen iJ Il0l. won!:abou, IIrun,;". ironocWn> in h;,
1m""
"""'' ..,...,raJ
p""""
Long ,nd .ub".mi.llrellmem of R:ovenru du,ing ,he <wo p<rioo., of Brun'ine

irollOCla'''I. Agndl".". In"'t t<Crnt " u.knt believes tl..........unch .nti
R<>m.n he ,",'"
"I"'" hy ,he f>cr thot ,he I"'tri.rchs of R.'CTtn. ftJ\Ulady <iJed ""ith the POpc$ (On the im.ge qutionl and thCTd"o", didod '0 >void
the whuk i!.;uc. ' ..
The ~ .. , of Agndlu", ',",'0 ,w,i.. an bt <btod 10 the period 7'"" 10 7."
bc.:a",", it ,.,1..<:1 to the episco".t< of John V. A dcsc:n hC"mit pl<>dod with
Ch,i" ..... '"1 <by ",h" He miglH.<how him ,he fom, <>fhi, ",arnot;"n."' One
<ligh' Christ ' ppcated,o him ,nd told him to go to
to the Iwilia PCTri
, n. '"lbcl'<." G,i>t .. K1, )'><'< me dcpicood on ,he w.J!. .. I ...... in Ihe
!Ioh in ,h. ,",'o,ld ,'" lbc he,mi, ,",'cn'
,",'en, " .""nn . ><C<)mp. nied by
lion., ,nd on finding ,he im,&< "fell down prone on ,he g'O<tlld .nd, wrq>ing.
,doted ("""",,,;,) it." The I;"n. , hen killod him ,nd I.,CT all ,hr W<I'< buriod
"'ll",h. ,., Th. ,""",od "0'"1 ann", be d.. I, but i, doe> fOllow ,he W>ry
,:<>un'od in Agndlu'-, work. '" it ""y be: ia" Two men. one the godf.,hcr
of the otho" ,,000.1 kfute . n im.g< (p<rhaps. mosaic or f,coco) ofCh,i" wit"
,ppeoted wi,h Hi. 'ight hond extended. Th. im.g< of Gri" wu H. nkod hy
,m. ges of Peter ,nd P.ul , The god>on lent hi. godf.uh<f )QQ ..,Iidi ,00 ..1=1
Ch,;" ". " ."d ., ~""".. "ot i,foki",,,,,) lin
k>.u, whll. POlO' "." d P.ul we",
'0 funioo .. wi, n<w:> ("''''I , Aft .. ,ome ,im< h>d ~ .nd ,he I"," h..d
oot been rqid, ,h< lo,n prlYod be~ ,he i""g< ,h" Ch,i" m.ke good on
Hi> p,omi",. Th. recipient of ,h. I", n. then in t..r-o/f COn .... ntinople (.nd
hoving t..ted well io hi> bu.in< <k>.li ng>1 Iud d .... m, ,..tu,n.,J '0 R:o~nn>,
,nd rcp>id h;' debt. '" Both of ,h....toci .. depeoo onolde,. E...,e,n pnm,.ypes,
II i, difficull know how Agndl '" cam< hy ,hem, Pemap. 'h<y " .. ,e common
knowl.,Jg< in R.,'con . And in .dling ,he ",)!'Ieo. ~dlus i. unlikdy '0
",-ml<"pped the bQuoo..,i<$ of hi, fellow citi>.<n,' i""gin." inn . '" ~ arch
bi ..... p "f R. "" " n. wh" "",OOed , .... Roman Synod of 769 .. id ,hot "holy
images <>ugh, to be ,,,,,.wed b)- .11 G,;'ri1n. wi,h g'<>' di'l""i,i"" of
hono,. "". NC\lcnhde.., Agndl'" do><> not ..y
the im>.g< of Ch,i" wi,h H i,
'igh' "m ..,e"ded """indy gu'I'1n,eed debt1----O' did 'n)'tJti"g .I.., fOf 11...
m."c,_,od ,h. i.,,"1;< ...f Ch,i"" C~ th" "'.... adored by > dexn bermi.
doe< not. on Agncllu" ,elling. "",i.e .""h Jevu<i"" " ."1 "tI,,,, time ftom
.nyone elso:. S""'ter" " )'$ "one .hould " ot. an. inly. =UCr:ol< the impon. n
of ,he ,,",'0 "o,i.,.""
Th. ",odd of the A"gI<>-Saw" mi"ion.ry Boniface provideo > few mol'<
clue< .nd hin'>. Bonifxc kncw w\u." n idol ...... In hi, mi..;., ... '"1 <od..",.. in
", ...1 G<mun)- ,od in S.. ony he "pe><edly <n<Ounl...-.,J " 'h" h. ",11 ..1 idol,
,nd idola,'"I' '' He ocv<, rei!. u. in d.cuil jus, who, he m<>", hy ,h... word.
..,,,,,,,,,ho,
CI.""
,0
'0
'wo
j,,,,
,It.
'0
hov.
,ho,
A, ,he Icuo. hi< "",d. arc probobly a,clo.lI. IUr ,he ~n I'tligio.... prxticn of
,he people> ",,1>00> he ."""'n"'....d. ",.. ..,... i.... n:Iy 'rue In< 8o<.i(""". uiy.tly
<>Ido. COfIl'tmpon.,. WiIl,bro<d .... ho al$o ... coun,.....! idol!. .nd
in
Frio... 8o<.if..cto Iud. "'.. p ...... oft.- It< m,y., du.k hi. I'W" con<anporIDn. H. <>nee.....,.. to hi, fnmd Eadhorga and..lud .... ,o..".j him. ropy
ofS<. r ... r'. qww. ,,"',i,tc1I in """ In, ... '" ,10 .. 1M: coukl ~imf"C hono. and
~ In< [h. _~ 0<"1""'" 'iWbly UP<'" ,ho C,JJn.ohy minded IO ..-hom I
preach."'" N<H. w, i, ..... o<riptulU "'''U''' in g<tId, "'" an i""E" of any
kind. ,ha, 80<.<1'""" rcq .... ,ed. Wh ... Aup<"'''''
and hi.
_
..,.. ~ irnaga.. 8o<.ir.c. did ...... PerNp. out in ,ho mi..oon..y..;!d. of
Gor ...."y"" raliud ,..., .ny .... of im., ,,-.. I,kdy '" Ix m.... ndcnmod. '"
Bode dncribc<. in Iovi", <loui. , ...
<mlxll .... mm[ of W...1IInoo,,,h .00
J"'""" bu. in .II ,... '"""',," of lIonif"",,', elIu"h ro..n.h,i<Ku ,bert " flO
......,"'" of pictUl'tS of .ny lind. Surely prudtncc .., ..., lI",n iconophobl.o-.
:II...."k h.... ",. abson~ nf .. idontt (rom ,ho.wm of8o<.if><eo....,. om....
remindc, ,10 .. ,ho WCf< iml'''''''"' Chri .... " commu";' ... ...no ortwu<k .....
u"imp'''''''' .nd pe. h.po "".....
Ic:u, for. whik. Somnhi"l\ olIO ..... n'
fI'Qm ,ho ""'1'Cc> pc".ininS '0 Ilonif..: ... "",,,loy uf " .. n,ion. So",f""" ..... ,l ed
.. ,ho .pcci.1 agem of ,h. pttp.>Cy, H. had long. d.,.,kd, .nd h.. rn""iou., tkoI
ing> with C ..gory II .nd III. ."d Z"""y. "hny of hi, k"." '0 [..... pop<>
survive a> do "'m' of ,fl.i. k".,-s '0 him. lIooi(= .i,i,..J Rom. ,h.et ,im",,Ikmifa~ W"U detply .lnu.n..J wi,h ,he intCS'ity of ,h. f.i,h .nd ho roo<ed ""[
......y. quite ""''' fronl I'lgl-ni,n,. "n ....... r.. l O<n>i"n . Y., from , ... Bonif.. i>.n
...",ea i, would be imp<K;ihl~ '<) I.,," ,h., an i."modu,i< .,'""'("'''y ..;"ed.
AI"" from Bonif",.. """Id w. h ..., ,he HDtI~"",w ofhi. ki",men Willi
IWd .nd Wyn r><lWd ""i".n by Jiun.bert of Jiridt:nh.im,
rnuo:u'~'
found! by lX/ynn.but '" Bot,"""n 7U.OO 7'9 Willib.1d and Wyn ...1Wd
undertook ...... joulnry OCtoU Eumpt'. down 'hrough holy, """"" l:Iynn,ium,
.nd then on
lIo1y land br .... y of A>., />Ii"",. Som<1;mc in. prob.blr,
"'" ;boo. th. brotllon
,hoi, ,ok ,0 H u...t><n: '00 .....<'CO.ded i, in
""",id<,.bI< .!to..;1. 1lt" "'-"1 ""''' """[ " rik;"l M who[;[ d.... no! . . y. Tho
bro...... ";",ed tflt ,omb$ of ..... ny ~., figu ... in au"'''n hisrory ..... ,hqailed <HI ~n.in ~.in~ holy men. we!> ... poi. ofSt}-ii',"" In tilt Holy Laoo
,hey .... ,ed virn.Wly.....-ry pIoor
Iud .ny amntion ..;th 0.";"', lik. llxy
~ in,., ... in .... n fdiQ: ,he , rue ( ............. of ,..., wi""
from
Caru..nd ~. elI .."h .. Emcu ,t... Iud onu. ulq;roly .......K'f<'II [IM: ..."'"
of JoItn the 1101";'" In 'h ................,.,ion ..., bro. ..........n'''''' <netly one
....... While ,hq- _ ... in Con ... n.inopic. ,bey tkcidcd '0 vi .. , Niac> ..... ~
,h. 1'1"" church council hlod b..n !odd . nd ,..... ,hry ot....-rv.J ,... pontaiu of
idoIa,.,.
m. """"'" '" ""no ""
,I""''''
i".,,'...
,,,elf.
t,
'0 [...
m..,cJ
,h.o,
' '8'
,~
c" .. no ,,,n.
.,,~oooo ,he o> .. ""il.'" B.. , let us back "p' bi,_ Th.
b,-mh." ,....:I. in C,.on . .. ntin<>ple. In f:oct. they .i,itoo thcre from 7'7 to 7"9. just
when icotlod .. m "'-.. 'u~ly "'Sing. W1u, i, more, ,hey , ... ""Ill<k from
Con.u"ri"""I. [0 Rome with papal . nd impcri.1 cnvuys. And yd. ,!.cy either
told Hu,,<bc:f<" nothing
Ocon""I ... ", 0'
..,m,how "~'l '" remrd
whot .he h.,..rJ. In . nr cak. the bmthe" """, "'" 'I.> know 'nY'hin~ . !,.m,
Ocon.! Of i""Dod... m. One dor; not loom from this 'ex' that th.re w" . ny.t<Cb
[hiog .. i""n"do,m. On. km no.hing of ,h. """ ruion of im'W" OT of ,h.
p"oi,hm,m of i"ug< worsh ipc", 0= hoo" of no mi.. culo ... imoga. Thi, ""'y,
.g. in. be obliq", ~i<kn fut th< ..ther modo! . ,Ill'pisodic ">H'f< of Brun'
,i"e ieooocwm , Or i, moy be <>I:>liq".... ide"", Slll'l"",ing d,,: vi ....... of tho.!<
.. hob" wh" invi", u. '0 qu"",io" how wid"'prm im.g< v.",,,,,ion "",,,,,Uy
vm in the pt<.00 only ironocl .. tic pcrioJ . 0. i, moy be oblique ... ide""" /0,
,h, ,1'8''''' '" whOt:1. """'<tncr, j",' did no' no,ic< or [hink .bour [he .. me
,hi~ ,Iu, """,!flen did_
A"",her ,,",',k'. :tCCOUn, of ""'IS PIm.;.;!" mol'< n<g>tivc (Viden",,_ In
nin,h .""ntmy m.nu ... ipt from Ein.ieddo th.I'< i piIKrin, ', i,i"e"''Y fo' ,he
Cil y of Rom, .nd , ""Iker ioo of ,,,,oKriptio,," of mooume" ..1 inscription, [h ..
""'''' "iI) .i.ibl< il< ,h. d,y. '" Th. ,e;" of ,toe ;""""'Y c.o p,,",,,,bly "" ,lo,cd '0
,h, <iU"h """IU'Y. bu, th.re.re nnnr probkn" ,mfounding il. I onl)' wish [0
d" .... en,ion '0 ,ht rae, ,h .. ..:,1)' 00<;<, in Rome I which cnl(m:l Rom~ ..
th< G.t< of 51. P~r' nd """,,,d th...,..,gI, the ,it)' h> the I[h, of lnj.n, does
. h. wmpiler of the itinerary m.ntion iJrutgc<. Th. ninth ",,,,p" on this tou' is
S.na A&"ho----now s.."to AS'to in S"bo'l'r>. 0' S. n... AS'" d.i Goti-,:rOO , ht
i,in~"''Y "Y' "jbi i~fK> P~~/i" Sc<. MaM. "" This itin.f'uy pt<'id ..
t..-<:I,.. rou,es ,hrough Rom. , I)o-,,:n, .nd <Iouns of ,hurch... nd .nciem mon_
Ume""'1( n.ml. frnm tht t..,imon), of the Lhtr Po~Iifi<.u.'1 " .. know lIu,
<run)' of ,hos< churcoo Iud be-.utiful imag<> both .ncien' . nd com.mp""''Y,
Noth ; n~ i, "",,,,lIy I n<}Wn 'OOu[ ,ht in,'W".,r P.ul .nd M.'Y in s..nto AS' .. ,
W. will prob.bly n<vcr know why the .uthor of the in,ild" itin.",1)' ci>o
[0 mention them. Bu, the fo 'hat he me"';On' no "'hen
'hat [wnh.m
vi,it"" to R"me .... re "'" <>pct:i>lIy i,,,,~,l in [he <i,y', ",i"ie [<=OU","
ci.h forkSlhic Or fur <>al....,.,n'. P<Of'le wtm '0 Ron"", "i.i,
lOmho
.,r .. im, . nd m.yr>, no' th<i[ im'll<>rmm ,h. Fnnkish world in g<n .....1 in the ... Iy drcooo of the eigb[h con
'UI)', 'Mre !urvi"", nei,h ... p"moblc: im.ge tim migl be colll .n icon oor
.n~ [.r."n to M1Ch . n imOW' lncn: .re nO "ofi.. of ""th. being $WOrn ""
imag<>. of J>>Pk heing o=ognibl, in d"",m"M .i,ion, bcc:ru,", ' h<y 1001=1
lik<, ,heir im. gc.o. or of im.;oSC' before ..... ieb propl< p")'<'<I, In fa, "<'Y few
th< "S bi,h"", who had
.bou,
,I.,
"'W<"
,I.,
im. gcs of .ny kind rurvi.'. from ,h. arly ciyuh century. Some ...... n<krful ,mag......,'. pm i~ ,o boob.,
pl>> .. E,hrrmuh, md ,hey 1ft impmunt
to . n hi" ",ion' in thei, qllG' to undm .. nJ ... h.. o~< ""hoi.. h... ,,,,,<,,tly oolleJ
"cultut.1 intcrvloy"' in tt.. eighth cen.ury. ,n Bu. I .tn un.W<lft of .ny ""ufCC
... h;eh saY' th., p<Opl< prosu.tcJ th<mselva bc{",. ,..do im,Se:., ", ~iS>c<l ,hem,
0' 'pp,u>docd tb<m ",i. h a,odle. ., ...1 ince"" .
There m. y ju;t I'<>$$ibl)' be:l 'ingle exception. In tbe third ye., of Pippin',
""I.
",ign. probobly 7.4 bm. if hi. "'ign .... '" d"cJ f", m h" p>p>1 """,,,"<On in
7H . ,hen 7j7. t now uni<lcntilUhk ploce alleJ VO<n'io. . . .ribc nomeJ
Gundoninu, produced. Gus",,) buok with imag... '" Compared wi,h. say, ,1.0
Trie, Gospel. produced.t Echt<m..:h. <Ix Cunodohinu. C o<rd'.<cem ch, m'Y
.nJ .m... uri.h. But !hcy do h." ..,m. intriguing ftltuta., Th.book runt.in,
M~i"wl im.S. "S"'" th .. W>i '0 luve brigh'
in C. roling.> in .",
Th. M4;"W imag< of Ch,iS! i, H. nkcJ by (W() .ng<h lob.kd "'.,.'",bi" ," F.u:i"S
tb< Ma;"w, image .'" p<cu<lo.Hi.,..,nyn,i.n ...... "" tho Trini,y. Ci.." ,h.. the
d ..",bim of ,h. ark figum! in pro- oml anti-imOj;< 0'1>u.n<n .. from ,he ~n
ning ond &,v<" [hot the i..... g< of Chri" in m. j.. ~ ooupkd wi[h p><udo .
.Ie",,,,,,', Trini,.,;'n ' .... migh[ Ix ..,lid .ffi. m.,;"n of Ch,i,,-, full hu",:miry
.nd divinity .nd di.,.n, bill vag'" h" of ,he ddibcr.,"'n. Of Hie",i., one
oould finJ. pj, .. , ible oon,.., for thi' hook in ,he yeo ... j Ust .""md the """neil
of754. Th. F.. ~k> ond P'>r<' hod bccn in in .... '" cont"'" In the years f,on)
7\1 to 75 4 I() they ",)Old ho"" le.",.,j .oout ",..nt C"o.nts .. By..",;um. If the:
bool', d>.tc <.I""i 00" I", tc><l 7S7 ",,,cad of7H. ,h.:" ,h.." i, ""en mot< of ,n
opening fo. ,h. hook '0 he. ""I'""'$< '0 """n, &w,hpmen" in Byun,i"m. '"
TIx book" all1>O<t ( . ... inl~ 1>..scd on an .,Ilier model. I() it i, po<.Iibk [hot i"
m.... (o) wasJWCI<. like Irooophii<s in t~. F..... . .... ninS th.. im.S<> t..d .I .... Y'
b<-cn' p. n of t~. church'. tr>di[ion , Still, in [h born of CQrrobo"'ting <Vi<lena: it wuuld Ix d>.ngou. to ins;" on the Gundohin", Gmpd, .. ""idena:
fu' ,n <.,j~ F",nki,h '<Op<>"" ,,> Byu',,;,,< i,,,,,,,d ,,,"
111. w.., b<y"nd 11.0",<. ,h<",ful'<, .h.,..., 1;"le im<",,, in in"g<' " ,,,,,h .
,h... "'"' . ny con,,,,,,,,,y
,lxm. and nOl mIlCh
linle " ......"",,,
<leno:: f",
in which imag........ ,0>1 0' 1"''''<;'''';\' NOVt;,.. "";<Ie"",,, 0,
"'gu"'."" fru m ,ile""", .hould .1 .... ,.. Ix tl<'Otl " 'ith ...... m< .,u,ioll. Bu, in
[h .,..<o<m ci,cum . ... n= I [hink i, Ius b<-cn ""nhwhil. [" d.<>il [h. ,em1l'b hl.
"""""'S""'" of ...... h ,he "",my .-..onh [ho, do ,o",'i"" . nJ ,h. kinJ, of [hings
thot .11 ..... rccs ignore. Put diff.... ntly. the \'('.... rn <viden...Ion. would n.ither
signal ,ho, ",ri",,", h>t1b.,.., 'elision' on h,d bee" 1>,, ,;l\g on nor .0U.., ,ho,
'0 h ..,k "''' in Fronki,h Ell",!""
oon,,,,,,.,,y ""'.
fu,,,,,,
wa,..
,1>"
,ho,,,
.boo,
",i
roO
C HAr'" 'HO"
'n.. enll>' for
.M rea']67 .n .M &Jot! F..~i";' A~...Js ttads. In part: "Then

the Ion! t.:inB Pippin in.M.1otw< ..... n.o.:...:.I ..ulelGonl'lly) held. gmllsynod
betwttn the Rom,,"" and 'M Grttb
the Ii00T Tnn;,y. 01" ( ",,,, >hou. 'M
' ...... of.M sainI" n.. oo-alkd .. .....uod" vtnion of ,t.. A ...Js is slightly
dilkkor: KA dnpu~ obou, thc holy Tn",,), .nd (...) .bout the i.....,.. of <he
sainu luvillft """'" bnwttn .... <2StttT\ and WDI<"m ct.u .....[.. ). d...,;. bnwttn
thc RDmano and 'M G<Ub, IG", Pippin. Iu<i", p.MmI rognMt an -.nbIy
in Gonlilly. held ,ynod COIIU'ninB dll> dQpu'~' "I" ~ ..mnp<i", .0 un_
d<nund ill>! ...Iu. i. pnl nn "'""" In ... ""'. -... m.um of cl>d< CWO
",""",,,. The In,...! ... "'Y' OI"Ily .1.., Pippin, ......... I>< ,ji,"",nd ....... <01"1 .....
;"" 1:><",.." C ... b.nJ R.oon . ......... h"'h an ""Ir ......n eM ilyun.;"" and <ht
popel. held. >ynod 10 nplo< ............ 'iI:'ha, ;,. _ . Pippin _
holding 0
JI""C'''' >l4anhly. "",,,,,I ann....! ~' . wt.rn he dccid<d ru Ntn j, inlO. Of ru
.&l .0 i . rynod, <1cWoI. io.l mling. ~ origi".J ao:oun. IpCak, only of
"grn," (""'t"~ ..) synod while ,... ~ ,'(.lion"'Y' , h.. , .... ~ _ .., ;.ucm.
bly .... hich b<came ynnd. Grn. (QUid ...... " 1. 1)1< .... j, cuuld " .... n "i ml"'"
n.: Fin.lly, Ih. ",ji>pl" '" in .1>< {o."",. "' >nU.n<d.1I< Ttini,y "" im.g..
wh ik in .he '-'net i....... . boo. bo.h. The migi .... l . n ....I..... ~ compootd in thc
",.n figh' "'.... nd 7~ dIe f'C'I;...J .nnl h d". from.he I... yan of Ch.rlc.
m.gn<. ",ign_ m",c rh.n twen,y y. . .. ia.er h., is. 8y the end of Ch. rI.
nugn.', reign .here hId Ix-c n fierc. """'..,.;on ...... ' im>!\<, . nd d .. p""""iun
"f the HnIy Spi';, . Ii indJigh t m. y Iu.. improved ,,(fi.,i.ol "'<mo,i.. of ,..Iu,
h. """ned.t Cc", illy.'"
I nl ... t uk .. Ie.. t th, ... qUdf~,n" WI", ""....!If ""'PI.. ned~ Why did .~.
i....., ufim>v> come up in.he Fnnki,h """ k! in ]67! WhO! is the meaning of
diopulC ""M Tn";,",,,"! An ....... tu the
ond ocwnd ufthcs< q .... tions .... m
to lie within the at ... n>cly ""'mplio;:" ........"""'" of dipiom.o." ini,i.,; ....."",,
"''''''e .ogether .Ire imp<r"l, P~' .nd f .. nu", cuum in the )'eat1 fOllowing
Pippin', holi ... <:oml"ogn' in .he mid1SOO. An anOW<! '0 .he .hinl quarOon
nuy lie in .Iu...me diplorN,,,, na ..... Of " ""y lie. bit later in """" <nObtt
......"ipulotion of .M hi"oOoal rca>nl
JUgtdy Of .....,....,.. tM judsmtn' ufh"'''''' h.. .J.."r> ~.ed amnins.
..... n dcviou.. diplomacy with Syun .. " .... In .he ", 7SOO the emp'" .t
.cmp<! ..... w i .... <0 win the popa """ 10 """" kind of cfI"on .pi.... tM
L.>mbonl ,Uf!PPIUU' of t.:i", Aio,yJ(. The Dj"Untincs ....,. ~ Iu", &lim""'"
<he~;,y ,ha. "" rop<., ..... ~ . tl>< " "",lor. (QUid be won.,..., .0 an
.n....... of __ kind. Ali...n. th.w ,..;111u,.. been h...,>hcaI rec:o<d. ....OIJbk
.bou,
0<
.n
fi",
in Coruwuinoplt t(l ""mind tilt CUr""nt rt&m< that, in rht Ioinh ""nrury.....
pt""" had ...1;,,1 F,..nkUll htlp ,n haly. In .nyax. I'ippin .Ilil hinudf ,",'i[h
rh< popel .nd thtn <:>mpa;gn..l ,n h.ly ~. in 7H and 7)6. [0 compt1 ,h<
~ to h.nd .,..~, '0 p.>plI Rom. ...,;.,.,. m' ori<> which ,h< Lombard.
had .cantly.om! from ,ho <mpi",,'" lIonu.. ,he popes had ben> bying claim
fO . " ' - wcry bad. '" oom< dr<:adn. Pippin n:gatclcd ,h< lomtNt<l confua.ioru
.. havi"&co ...... ,I,. ~'. """"" .... As ripp,n W10 had"'8 for Italy fo, hi>
occontl Clmpatpt B)U",i... kption all..! on ,h< pap< in Ron>< and then
h<adal noM to m.o:e< Pipp.n. Tht Gn:db.. jooncd by. ~ <miaury. uik<! '0
l>b rxilln who", rhey levncd ,Iw Pippin Iud alrcody <..,....! th< AI", .".J
cntnal lomlwcly, 'The Brun""" en"")" app>",,,tly I'd. m.. rht pope >nI
doOne .11 h< "",,1<1 ..., I'"'"nt th.tm (""" m.o:e<i", ..,,1, Pippin. 0... of rhac
envoys. Gcotgc:.
to h.ly. met Pippin, .nd oITeml him many ind".,...
m<nu to hand Of '0 ,I,. ....I... or B. ,'en"" .".J ",her ci' te> of luly. Pippin
,old ~ th" h< had .Irndy Ii..n ,I,. I,nd. ,,, St. Pc"" for tho ...... of ....
laint .nd for ,,," rcmi";"" ofh" ,in . G.otst t..:-adal for Rome and .lxn t..ck
ro Conotanrioopk w,. N,pb. ,,hil< ,lit ,,,ho' n,.rnllt, of ,he <klcp,,,,", J"hn.
,ruined in 'h< \1('<>,; h. """ "ill in Fr.nci. in 717.'"
Tilt onu)' in ,kr R.,.,I Fr.~.illt A~",,1r for 717 0;\1' .h.. "Empewt Con
.... n.in ....'" King Pippin
,if... induJing '" o<pn." " n...., gif".nd
,ho.< who bro~gh, ,hcm, ..,;vtJ during. go ...,,1 .... mbly., Compiep,c. Of
th .. "rgan Mich.eI McCo,n,k k "Y', "M",. ,h. n .i mply . ymhol;.ing ' ''ptrior
tc.chnology. Byun.in< "<pn "' "'k,ly ><cui" in>!rumonr ,,>I chi.fly in
co'cmoni .. glorifying ,h mp<ror. h. O>l<n,.,;,;,," pr...,,, ..
,kr "''' 'ptr
king .t tho ....,.,bly of hi, "nruly rn>gIU'" ,ul\&cu th .. ,ho B)'UIltin<> CWTi..!
my;tl fHOU' by .ul>p1ying tho ..... n. '" magnify a n.OCtn, mon.",hy:'" IIranti ... rd.,ion, wi,h ,h. p.p.ocy bod Iwn .lmO>l unrtli."...Jly OOU' fo< """c [birty
)'tars. Brun, iu", .. ill h>d imp'",.n, in, .... u in h.ly .nd. bcaurc of scriou<
[hm1l> in [h. s..lbn,.nd An .. oIl1. f...... rat)<>'cn to 'P'''' in adv.ncing , lItrn_
A Fnnki&l. alli=u moy ....," h..... ruck II.... uthoriti<> in Con.uminop1c ...
I""'ibl< n.... " of .. ~li"n8 ,he " , ,,,,,,,,n in 1" ly and p<rh"l" <">'Cn of "Pf'i,~
the balance b..clt in I!yun,ium', for. Tht F.a.nJ.o.pajW ollw..:. " ... n<W nd
.. I ha,.. ju" .rp><d. ,....., " ... "",..,...,., fo. 8y>.>ntitIC bIcn '" think that tilt
F....,ko had any v~ on ,Ix porcn, ..Uy divtHY<: ... t.,.<, ofi"....
0 .... ,Ix ..... dtcad< It...... ....... f<>irly Ii-oq,..." diplr ..... 'ic cno>Un'C" bc....ft1I BfU'I,ium.nd the Fnonb, In adWrion to ,he lIIttting at Compi<&n< in
711. [..... 'PPC>' to ha,.. bcm cnntX'lJ '" ]lie. 7'J-N . ....d ]66-'1.'" M<Co,mOck thinlu ,jU[ Byun"... atm"" to .... n ,I,. Franko '0 tl.ci, ..... of rht
ltoli ... on< ,,= :ill",;ne and Auttpy ob... ... ,h.t. mlOCh to tho con>I'cnu,ion
"."*'.1
''''''f
,io" '"
of I'op< I'.ul I. Pippin rcbuffnl .11 "'empt> go-< him to tum ro ItaI~ or to
bring nnd"" p""'u,.,." b<>r on.ho now l"mb.,J kinS Dnidnius. '" It i> true
tlur PipJ>in had Dlhtr priOfitia in rht )"60<. He co.mp.igned ..... '1' )=r f",,,.
760 tn 763 in Aqui .. ine . nJ then returned tltt'" fm m 766 rn 768. Bu. ~i>
r<fu.,l '" '<Sf">,><1 '" Pml', noq'''''''' for help m'r ..<II ~""C bc-cn ,<.tIt of
."",<>4u1 B).... n'in. diplom.cy. In<kcd. fur UIUrp<" li~ the Cuolingim . rho
Bruntin.... mp of.pp.oval mu .. ~ bttn. weko<n< kgi.inu.ion. Som,.i<n<
in the 760<. 1'<<I,aps "ounJ -,66. Pippin K' iously entt. incd the pro>p' of
m.urying hi. daughter Gisela ." ~ [V. CO,.. .. ntinc V. daign.>red ~<ir'" If
,h. FFoink. knew o. co....J '''y<hinS .bo" t lI)"Un,in, iconucl ... m. thcn oth.,
:odr.mu gcs of. Brun.in. all"nu m"" h1,.. curied m,,,,, ...igh, . B". ,he
snun:<S. ""hKh or dmiu.-dly oant~ throughout thi> period . re ,il.nt .bou.
the "'pic ofim.gc-s un.il the year of. nd the yea. befo... the .mod 11 G<n[ ;II~.
Thonl<> [0 Mid>ui McCo.mick, brilli.n< .,.lysi, of t,,... a it;.",IIet .." in
the G,Ja c,,,,/i,,UI. numh<:t1 J6 md J7. it is nnw p<>54ib-k fO form. much
ok .."
of wh .. hoppmcd "Gentilly .t><l why.r .. With""t en .. ring infO
. 11 of the <kt.ils of hi. rcronltruction of .... n". ht ..... the <>Sent"!>.
}6 .nd J7 ..... ,., d"td b~ .... i, edito,. Wilhelm GundL.ch. to tho yeall 764-66,
In ,h;, ht foll~ Philipp J.m. O,h~, >< hol ... ""m<,;m<> tip",""" douL"
pia,,,.
Len."
.bout th .... d..t" h", no one rried oerio",ly '0 Itogges' .hern.,i<>. 0" tire
ba.i> of Gundl><h', chror>t)logy on. hod ";g.ni~co.nt F",nkiohp,ap,aJ-Srumine
diplomatic ini ..."i,.., in ,he)'d" 76~-,;,; hu, ,hen. Il"p;n ,he ~""" whid>
roud< Cen<illy Ay;n o~' of t~ bJ"" in 767. That .10"< need no[ ha"" .rotucd
""picion boa .... ,he,., h.d bttn fairly in .. n.i .... F,.nko.B).... ntint: =<Oun"ll
.inec 75j , But McCormick pe"tu>i"eiy ttVC .... [he order of ,ht let .." .. ><1
,i, ... , .. numbo. J7 in Ia .. 766 .ud n~mbo'}6 ,no pe,h.aps. Match of;67. What
i. mo,." he do .... Contill)' to febru. ry of 767. In ",h.. worth. MMnnick
bracket> ,,,,n,ill)' wi.h twO impot"'"' I." ... ,h>t. "'ge<h... p",,,;dc ;mp"rtom
d... iI, .rout th. 6", rcrordnl in.unce of the Fr.mki.do <oun'. h ing :odd,essed
,ht
of im.ge>.
W. now know tho, in 766 . n <mn...y t1u, probably h:od i" Qrigi ... in ,he
F,.nkish court . nd ,h.. nuy hoe bc-cn connected wi,h ,he I',,,]><>ood ",omage
all;'"c< = OUt lOr Byu".ium . Mo.""" .., ,,', how t ~" p,ap,al <n""r> ""COl
. I""g '00. In oddi.ion. we . ,., ",Id , h., ,1><: VOl'" h.J bc:en pr ... ing the Ryun_
.in.. CO<ltin,,.Uy ... n ,~image qw:stion . nd. ~.wly. w. heo. th .. ('.onSf.min.
V compbine;l ,h.t hi' .i~ -..tt< being m i>rcpr<><n.ed by the Rfim.n .moori_
,; ... Ttli m~ ,hen <<<umed '0 Pippin', ... Im lot< in 766 .nJ ,ho ki"~
wroce '0 ,h. VOl'< .0 .. II hi",
it. letter numh<:r 17 i. P.u!". respons<.
From it .... I..,n ,hOt the ]><>pe gr.n'~ petmi"ion for ,ht mem",," of ,he
,h."
i.""
.bu."
cmhwy '0 m.oin ...lIh Pippin ,h'oug/! ,ht win,., and fur ,,,," lin" hi. bi<hop;..
and hi. rnagn>'" ' 0 drN, bou, ..'hat I'I:<jlOIU<" ohauld be Kivrn ,,, tho 'nfu.-m .
,ion ,hey Iud~. I' .... m>bly. ,hi, ...... wf1a( ,!>c}. had In,ncd in Con
.untinopk.
n.... foIJo-..tJ. di,pu'< ".abou[ ,ht i~of ,h...in,," in, "V"" synod"
,I"" ..... an ad;..nc, to. ~, .... li'" pn<nt........,Iy. Ai... ,ht .... mbly . .. Ie" ..
numb.. }6 indica,... ,ht I"'f'" op......F ...
ion <It ,be 0U<mIJIC of [ht,J.r..
lut.. in Pippin', I"""""'" brtwctn his propk and tho <TI'f"",,'...nd he [lunk.:d
Pippin lOt ....dinK him dtuiled R'COfd. Of ,hoot deb:",,, ~ Ict~ J6
..yo OIIly ..... , ,hey 'ou<htd " ,iI< ..... n,""""'" of ,ht o"ho'Io:;.. f>i[h" and ",he
holy ,Ddi,ion of ,he f.o' hm.M ''hilt ""~ bc .... nlP"'" to <ad '00 m..a.
in", , hest ~ wonls,
_rn pouibk '0 wg;ac ,ho in 76-.he fundi
mental "'uc .. ". ~ ..... wil< ...... ,he Gt'Cvr Iud in hmd ,II< I"'" ... ic ...,..." P"'I"'te<i in 7)' whilt ,h. GnUs "'"Y
h. vr put.he do..ic, of 71i un ,iI<
Only ,b. ou''''''", p<'fIIl;" '" [0 CM"
":' '''''I":.,,i,.. lig/!' on .. II .. fullowtd .11< .... mbly of Grn,illy.
McCo'mic~ hel"'''
,h" deb..c ~ bdd befor. ,he F.. nlcioh .I;,,, 1:00:.
a ....
wu. of ,II< m."jag< .lI i,n('<C wos .. ,he 'np of ,he 'gc",b. "t" pu' ohi.
1;,,1. diff... n,Iy. ,1",[. woul.J 10:. betn "" '''''''n '0 d."". ,,:.:olld'.. m.",,,
of ,heology . 10.... in 0 f"nki,h Vn ... J Ul<mbly ,h.. " ... i, .. If being held un
,.ble.
,h.
,Iu,
u,u. I' y . ..Iy in ,h. )'f" owing '0 ,he p,cning n...f.o go. on wi.h , comp,iS"
in Aqu; ;" . II,,, if ,h. F.. nlu ,nJ lIy,.n[i""" h..!!>ftn dr.ling ",roi,lIy wi,h
<och ", he, fo,. okta.l . n.d if .hey h>d "",ct\ far <no>ugh . lon8 in thei r [<I," ion
0 Ji.."". ""'MUg. .lIi'n. ,~ .. i, i, .. ry d,fficult ." "'1'f'O'" ,h .. ~ilh .. of
,hem pu. the ru,i,,;vr i ..... ,,( imitj;<>. '" ,he , .. di,ion. of ,he chmch. Of[ [h.
tobl . h 'i mply mUM h.... .....,n 1'.. ,1 1 !If hi. <n'roy> ..... 0 .hnat ,hi, i ..... on ,h
I""in. For. dc<:o<k 0/ ""'r< ,he pop<> hod bern worritd ~bom [he
pru<ibiliry
F....1Wh oIi",men, "';th 8yuntium mTU bo d..maging to
;,ori.t in ........ in holy. hn.lly. R.oone ..iocd mipous is..... and ....,.
t<Unlf'<'l ",h.. """'kk,.' ....... The: n.",,,...11,..... d,d "'"
pt..c<....I. if
m.
do 1>01 ~,. <1$. Ihffl- ""'"' 110 I'"dw. conmrl> brtwttn Con.un.
'i.... V and.he Fr.onk>.
If Brun,;.... l"tCOI"i,iott ~ .,.ncoivr 00 ,iI< F.. nk>. ,..... in the end
,hey mUll h.>'t ..... itn!
[hty onlly _"" , .... , <",.... n in tho Ii... platt to
I"'paI :o"- un , ...... bdWf. $~ .ht ,i"", of 00..... M .,e! ,he- Co..,!ing;..n
family haJ bttn roIlobor";"Il wilh mipouo official ...do '" lIonifl to pc<>moo. ooouwJ <100:.".........J cK.;.., ...,......,..,.. OI'&"'iuli<>n. If lIonir- and
hi< ~ Willihrord opened "p ,..., dun ..... of mmmuni=ion bmr.=>
....,,,,bIed
.Iu,
,hti, ,...
"""!'ttl
to""
.Iu,
Rome . nd franc .. , [hen [ho>< dunn<l. w..., I<n""" in I'iwin ', ,ime by "",h
prom i"en' "'en". Ch'od<g>ng "f M.,." .nd h,I"'" oJ S" Den;" McCo'mick
.h...... ,h ..
~f ,he
who "'".., in""lved in ,he complico",d dipl"""""" oJ ,ho 710< .nd 760< turn up .g>in .nd 'g>;n, 110<)' w<re: old
h.o.nd . n..,. mull ha'e known jus, '"'hieh wues """"Id >Unet ,he m"" a"en,ion. The frank< who, >om;m. in [he 7<>0., re",ued [ho S>.lic Low wi,h i" ""'"
colW"Sxond Prolog ..." _re ;nd<l""rong;n [he f.oi,h"'.nd "un",;n,I by
"",,,,y." 110.. ,heme of ol(hodn.:y ""',,uld be oounJ.:J "S"i" .nd ' g>;n ,h' ... ugh
"m [he u,oIinym p<,iod. It m.tteted. 11>< 1"'1"" kn<w ,haL Bu" .. ill, who,
the h on k< kn<w Of cared .bou, im. ges 1!Tin<. "."'~ i.h.o.td ,odmninc.
Tha[ I",,,,,, [he m.tt.. "f [h. debu bout [h. Trinity [h . .. uppoo.<dly took
1'1> .. Gon,jlly. In .ho pas' mos, och"I .... h.1'< ... uml ,ho, ,hu vgt",><n,
rqn<nll the fim appea"""" in ,,," W"" of ,h. fili"'ll con,ro ...",y. the
p<Oblem oJ [he p[<>soi"" "f <I.... Holy Sri,i, in ,ho fi"" pi"", and "f ,ho wo,d;ng
of ,I><
of lho ct<:o:<l in ,h ....::ond pb<:e. 'lni, i"\le 'ppea'" in ,ho Op'" CtttNi
.nd [h.,....... );,-dy con,,,,,,,,,,,y 0'.,;' in 808.nd 809 (,"which .... ...-ill rom.
in Ch.p''' I). In ,ho middk of ,he ni n,h ""n'uty Ado of VieM e bdi<Yed,
p<,hl" relkct;ng w;d"I'[cad bdicf. [ho, [he filiMt~, h.o.J bccn .. i..... in
767. '" Jlu, McCo'mick ro;nu "''' . ,he jilw.,,,, d.",,, h.d no, been odop,e<lupll tht:te until
[he ""cly <lcv<nth century--and i, w.. ncv< .001',1 in ISyz.:on. ium. hi., ,hofore, ptetty h.,d to im. gine: pap.>lly 'ronsorcd d.bot. wi,h Byz:ontines <>Y<:r
the filiMtJ<r in 767. [" I ><C IW<) p""ibilitics for apl>ining the: "'m<wh~t .noma
J.,.u rel"'" "f ,h< . "n.1.<. Fi,., ."d bt:.ri"S in n,i",j [ho, Co, .. ,.."in" V c,,",
ploinl .bout miSf<prdo<n .. tion. of hi iews. it could be thot "'me of the
Ch';"ol<>gic:>1 ",Aee,i"", fm m Hierei' .... re uid bt:fo.. [h" Fn"ki,h . ... n,l)It1
Iynod in .....y s..hllenough to h,,,,, left ht:hind onl)'.n .. igm .. ie tract when
,h. ann"'. "",reo ...[i".n down moreo ,h.n [wen!), Y<-"" 1>, .od rn-i>r:d """nty
or SO """.... f,., [h>< . [ r_~h. T,ini,.,;'t\ ",u, in ,he Gu,idohin[J' CO.tP<U
"p,...,n[ ",me IOn "f Fnnki.<lo response '" wI",
p<r<:<ivcd ,n he d"biou.
By..,,,,,in< Ch,;,,,,I"IlY' ,h,,, ,hi, ".,.. wouk! bt: " renWhe" N _$"",,,<1, .nd ba,ing in mind [hot the &pI FrIl~1fflh An",", we preoparcd in ,ho li", ;rut>na:
in do>< coIl.bomion wi,h Choclem. gn<. coUrt >t<>Und 7'1'>, ,hen i[ rould bt:
th .. the bu.i ...... bo", d.h..te "rb "'''''II Trin;'llu" in 767 is I. te, confection
designed '0 :uId hi.!Ocicol pr=dcn' [" ,he [heologicol ""no:tn. "f Ute, ,im . '
In 'urn. in the mid .. of . Fr.mk"h Ul<mb1r that ...... d" ling ...ith imrorunt
nl1t ..... of diplom.cy con""ming ,h~ Byumin... p. pal env")'> roised the issue
of inugco .nd po.. iblr '00 ,h. "'uc of ,h. Trini!)'. 0 . of ,he procasion of ,he
Holy Spiri' ........ y of reining the bond bctwcr:n the F.. nk<.nd the Byun_
""'n'
",,,.,,,,,,,,1 "",II.;des
'a'
w,.
,ill<>
,Iu., hod i,..:lf been 'igh'ening fQ( more ,hm ,dead. Tmi,Q(w intctcm
in It.Jy wotc imron . nt
to
the roI"" . nJ ""ten,i.lly "" mplic;ueJ by. fronko-
Byun,ine .lIi'lI bu. tcligiou. issur< Wff. 'igniOOn' too.
The Rom.n Synod of 769

[firruogc> ""me up ... ,h.. unapcc,eJl,' in 767 'h<)l did no' hove '0 w. i, long to
he di>cu.,eJ .lI"in. Pippin dieJ in 768 .nd " ...... ucettdeJ by hi, ,wo ",n .
amb.nd c..~omm . The b tle. died In 77' but f", "'"t. th.)"<"O.rS thet< .....
b.d blood he",,,,," ,hc bro,h ... ,nd iniguo that retched .0 FIa,..,ri" l.ornban:ly nd Rom . In Rome i... lf. 1'.,,11 died in . he e..lf .umm.. <:>f -;(>7 . nd
fOf mnre thm , yc><
ci,y w ,he $"" olbitte, md hloody ""li,i(;>1 , ,,if.:. m
When Pop< S'ephen [II (768- 7') ~n.II) go, <u,. Vip On 'he papa<)'. he
calleJ 0 cltutch ""uncil. ' .k The rruojuti,y of tI ... council". ,itne ..... <fc"",eJ to
invQ,ig>,ing
<e<rm 1luhla..nd fO propo>ing som< new ''llul.. ion. go,'em_
i"S p;p;1 dcai"" . Rut the ""unci l .1 .... odJ,<cd i""~",,. II",! on imp,..,.,i,.
del'll.,ion of Fr.m k. w ptt:><n<.
T he 4n<1 of ,he COtlncil <:>f 769 ><. ,... n.minN only in poor ,en . , The Lift
of Stephen !II in ,I.e Li/xT 1',,~tiji(41;, pnwid.. "'(0" of ,hoc b"ie ..k~.;I, .od
,l.en, OS wi,h ,I.e Roman Council of 7J t, On< mu" 'urn ro 'he H..driJfl'Jw", to
fill in few hl...,ks. T h.t< . t< ,hing< wc juSf do no. kMW. Of k""",' ,'cty im!"",
!'toly. V:'hy were F... ni.:s in"i,OO' """ore i~ .1 .... )"' mc.... '0 be. [>'R of ,he
.genda of 'he council 'in ,I.e .. rife of767-68 wos 'he prim. !}" iuue! Rq;a,J_
kss of whether o. not imogc: wet< On the Wnd. ftom ,he bq;inning, how
moch . nd cue<l)' wlu,. woo ..id .bout ,hemr
The LiM P""'ifUali. ")~ ,ha, immedia,eI~ .f,.. hi. elec,ion . ed ron!ct: ...
,ion S,eph.n III ",n, Sergi"" ,h. It'rI'..aiffl'i., .nd 1Iom,nt'/"'01'-,n imp .... i""I),
hi&,> offieul-.o Pippin .nd hi, """ . In ,he m""", ime. I'ippin h.d .JiOO '"
~u, p.<><n.ed let .. '0 hi. <Ohl urging ,hem '0 . . nd "som< bi .... opt who
w<o'" k""",kdg<.ble \(tuI"") in.1I ,he di.ino ><.ip""'" . nJ dply kunN (..".tii",,) .nd widely a[,<.iencctl ~.i"i"'''') In ,he ",[.,. "f ,he I,oly can~",:' '''
The ~ge go "" t" $,iy ,h. ,. """neil ..... to be held '0 add .... tlte ac,i"n.
of the [>'[>'1 ""u.[,<,, Co",,,,n,ine. It doe> nt), . .y ,Iu, im,gc> wet< '0 be d"
cusocd. o.
,he Fronk> wetc ",formed "f . nr [,<"ding d....... i"n "f im.gc>.
,he Fflm lu theml"", in';',OO un Ji>rus<ing im>g<$. The p."'!;e ,hen
",mcs the F... "kbh bUitop. who wen' ro Rome .. >c, ip,um md in ,he PlOP<' ob",,,,,,nc<o of ,he hoi)' ""non.
(","""",m ,4"",,~m em",,,,,i;,)," Gi,.... ,ho, delicate m.nets . uch .. ,he , .... ,.
,h.
,h.
", ,ha,
,n..
men' of . nUn ...ho Iud botn eketal pop< In qO>Q'iOn>ble ,ircumsnn,... nd

'he i"sti,utio" of now rules rot p'p.1 denions ....= handkd in ,he .::ooneil. nd
ind<l o;nn"i,U!al ,he ...."k n( ,ho ""'<neil which i, bes, .nd mns, (ully ,,,,u,ni,_
,al. ,hen i, m.y be rossi!>le to f<od ,hesoo na'em<nt> ,"""u"ho F... nkish I"'rtK;'
I"",s in 1 "'<JI specific woy. Th.:" is. ,I>< <mphui. i. Qn ,heir p rudot> .nd
""p<rien .nd on ,hei, knowlalgc o( sound anollial proct<!ut<. St<pt,.n. i,
...,nl>, ...,mal '0 b< " ,," ,h" h. g<>< Ilood od"~ bu, .Iso ,hot the Fr.nks WO<Ild
ur><!e""nd ,he lirulIion in Rome and sec 'hings the pol'i. '.,ay.
The rouncil itself met in ,hoc latenn Iwilia in (ou. ""OOn. 'I'tood 0''''
four W}" Arril " - '1 _ lIy cri'eri ... I i, . i>.c, ,h. di"ini"" of i .. I""icir.n, ..
nd
g>g ... phia l nng< of itS . nrodce., ,hi, ..... p<,h.po ,h. mos, impomnt
Rom." cou"cil of the cit;l>'h century. ' " The fin' twO w Y'dealt with v.n".nt
ini. a.st . r><! the ,hird wy proposed now ruks for .lccr i,,!> 1"'1"". D.y four
oddr<>kd im.g. Th. u,," f'(ffIriji,,,liJ "Y' that "d i"Cf<C tatimonin of the
holy ("h .... roncc,nins ,h. <aacd im:w:o of the L...ro Gnd and S iot J..'"
Ofilt . od ofM'<JI , I>< ""Iy. slo. iou . and ....... ,irgin mo,h., of our Lord, .nd
of ,he bla<! 'I""tt.. . nd .11 tho .. int> "nd prophro .nd marty.. ,nd ronfnorn-.
(KS. ,h. "formul>") "'efid btfO.. ,hat .::ooncil." In. teJ!, goes on '0 "'y
d .. ,.11 do< 1"'1'" ."d r.. I"".~ d ... , i.... ~ -'''' to bo: >.n.n.,cJ .t.... hey
.. t"Y<d mcml>ry . OO c.-oked rompun<fi on . nd that the recent .::ooncil. ,hat i.
Hinci . ,,'os <0 be .nath.,n,ltjud "/0. ""'ing down ..."cd irnagn. ~w Warning.
h<:>lf, ,he cdi'Q' ol,h. oo""il"" '<cords. belie"", ,Iu, ...."hing ..... lIy n ............. iJ
.ho~" images b<a,,,.. only . 'insk day ...... Jcw,tcd ,,, the '<>pic. F"nwm.ntolly,
h. think. ,h .. the Jeer ..... <>f 7)' "'ef< ",i ..
"ith ;"'t. fi:w =ptio" , tlu,
m: (.i,ly easy to opbin_ '-" In ,hnn. i, I<)f)ks ... ,hough, IfQm rho I'.pal poin' of
,.i<-w. im>g<;
not ,h. cri,ic:aI iSkl<" in 71i9. lni. n'ight otc:m odd if it ..."
p.pal .. p ..... n'.,i, .. who fO<Ced ,he i"e <>f im~ ""to ,he ag<:',w " Ge",illy.
1\.", it may b< ,h .. , JI ,he pop< .... "'ro
do "
,;me "" 5<1"'''''. B)-..n,;um
.00 F... n," .nd ';gn.>1 d.,rly ro ,h. F.. nks ,ha, ,h. BY'"'mincs WCf. he,.,.,ic>_
llt" .. i, otc:m, li~dy ,h" i, ...... ,he F"'nks ... oo bid im>g<S Qn , he .. bIc 1'<"
di<ru",ion in Rome. '" Thm: is additional ",,<knee: ,lut point> to ,hi< c""d "
.ion. Soortly be(Of. ,Il. Rom. n wun,il Lull of M.in> "''''te '<) W... m"u,h ... J
a ropy of ikdi, 0.. Ik r""pk.' .. .... Miclu.cI McCo:midr.
"'r>. the timing of Lult'. lett<l is unli kely '0 be ruinciJ<n ..I.'" On. Qf ,h.
r-..nki,h bishop< " Rom<. Erlolf of LanS',,", 1'''' imo ,be <o.d kite. of
Grcgo<JI1 to Scrundin .. , in.n .Irc:ody imcrpob,cd "",.ion.'" It i. , ignifi",n,
,ha, I:n.nki ... bishop .ppc-. rcd in Rome: "'i,h .n image mit in his b.1l" .nd
,Ii.. ,h. ,,,,,, ,n quos'ion ..... . ,Ir>rn>rcd ,-."ion of leu.. <>fGrtgOry I. Pcrhap
... <ked t1... doc""i ng ..... f,itly .<tJ:nt. Ii..! ,.l.n pl.a: ,n F,.n,i . nd betokn.
,h.
"",1
--=
'0
J"""" ,,, rt<j''''''
,ha,
a ccnain F',mkiJ. int<r~t in the whole iSlll(: of im.gcs_ Finally. 8i.ool' C... ,'llC
of o.ti . who hull:><mme ,h. "",h",, of Amien ...... , problbly p"""m in both
Gentilly .nd Rome. '"
Why would ,he F... nk.< h.... W:ln,e.l
images '''' the
.~,.J.~
r nhapl he",,,,,,, .he synod of Gen'illy whe .... .. f.. as ... e kII,,.,.. ,he Frank>
<<>count.ml the in,.ge ron."".....y for the fi.,;t time in an)' kind of official
.00 ,m,1I . nd Locil '0 .. ule ,
th" . f....11. hul dti, .. n a
"",,'ing
wc<I~ bctwn ,he Frank"h and Brumine courts and ...... kn(1Wn. or ..." by
Ilmt kn(1Wn. to h.,.. o""ned a gop bctwctn p.pal Rome and impc-ri.al COn .... nti_
n""le. Morro .. r. as I ,holl arg ... in mo ... dco-.il in I..r ch.ptc .... rhe Fr>Olk>
generally did n", "It< SO I""iri .... "iow of irn,ges " Ron .. did ,Old ccn,inly
h.>d "'" worked out
theology of SKmlart. Thu Lnge roun<il. in Rom .
unJc, p' p. II..d ... hip. w"h Fr-",b I"""'nt. m,g1" h. ve been ..... oring to all
panies. The fr-mks gtH an opportunity to lc.rn in some det.il .bou, ,he i"u ..
involved in .he imnod.,,;, di,pute. and [he pop< W1> .hle 10 p, ... m [he R"m.n
as< mo ... fl\lIy th." would h".. been po",ibl. at Gentilly.
What d,d 'he cuuncil .. yon the ,ubject af imag<>.' Fi.., of .11. it 'ppc>IJ
[ha, [h. pani"ic pass>g<:s ,dJ,,,,ed in 7J' ""'.. b.... ught fo .....,rd . nd affinncJ.
S<-oond. an .n"hem........ hUlled" ,he Co.,,,,,iI of H ...... i.:t. Third . (""'. ,,,-..11
birs <>f ,... imony "", .. .dJed ftom lIew source<: fwm a <ynodiul ktr of thl
Eastom p. tti.teh, .. nt [0 r.ull:. mOOcst ... mark fram Am!:> ...... <>f MiI,n pu,
in[n .he record by s.rgius, ,h. d ron <>f the patti.ateh of R:" .. nna: the intcrp<>la,ed Ian .. of Gr<g<>ry I menli,m<d .M," ",.j a tn, ,h.t. ,"ording to I....
m.nu..,rip... rupc Stephen him!<:lf con. tibUla!. In full ""rsp<criY<. ,hen . [he
rouncil of i6<J O:m! to ha"" .dded linle [0 [h. ongoing di"",.;"n <>f im'ge>_
111.: kClet ,,( the tl"", F... tcrn p>tti.,ch. hrinp forth no[hing ...... but don
.dJ '0 ,h. Western Ji..:""ion On< point thot had ""t betn , he .. beforc.'" The
.",hOl <>f [he lenet . fr .. ~",,'ing ,,,," end of j<.h,,, G'''I>g;or of Ed....
and hi, m;ra.;:ulo", imoS' of Chri". The IogK: of ,he p.... ~ """IJ ...,m ,,, be
. hat if $t>moone W<rC to .... n ,h.. ,h.llibl. did not m,mion im.ge. then. well.
,he Bible did not mention lots of thing<. ,.. John him .. lf .. id. Among , ho ..
hings. p,,,,,,m.bly ......' ,h. imag< ,h., Jesus Him!<:lf ..", ta Abg.t. 1 nota! III
Ch.ptcr 1 th .. pri.dy this kind <>f '.-gum<",... ion " .", :ut.. nctd .. Nican. in
787. Th. Fnnkioh bi,ho!" "",,uhl h,,,, <""""n.e.ed il fot Ihe /;'" time in 769.
The I"""~ from Am!:>..,.. ,dis <>f hi, bein~ w""k and ,I<'<PI ... owing to f."ing
.nd ...rhi ...-ing' .i.ion of P. ul . ha[ he recognized to he ['.ul prcc"'ly Ix<au ..
nf ,n inugc ,h" h.1ud _n. t" 1d<> not Im""'a( ~notl'<f text like this from the
'0'"
""'It"
w.,
'''r
'0
11.0,,,.,,
'..
CHArT . . THO . .
'\1:'0' ., ,IW ,imo--unk&, P.ul ,ho ~' ...,.,. .boo, ,he .nsol Michael i,
,ok-.. nl--Ot.t, ,n.. bnic poin, and ,home ho~.~ f..mili., to WI by _ , 1'1><
in",rpnb,cd kt, .. of G'8"'Y i",u., 'N' im..,. .ne _ d><ri>Ilcd .. j f ,b<y
~ God. bu, dc.imi bc.::o_ lhoy bring God', binlt. paoioo. Of po.,. bod",
mind. '" n..... the: Iet.er .. yo, GIt'fP')' 11m, Sm.altdinWl IWO >hiclds "" ___)
wi,h ''''''''' on ,I><m of,...... ~h<y. P.-, and P.u!. .1..... opin Ih~ i> nominE
_ . "JW" from .he dubiout ",'cmcn,
G~ .... , fOft'Kot"I. oct ..........
on shiclds.1td <hi> an afd:r .... 1m aoid.:. There KmiUR> .... O>f[lriOOUon of
Sttp/><n h.i......!f. if m., i> ....... ;, ..'''' Ali .. t.llkillA .boo. how .he ark. bku
of.1>< Ia.... and pltn wn (' 0 pn""",. thc: manna) wrn: ,I>< wodt of hwtl2n
Nrwl. and ye< """,hy of ... n......... , ,I>< tat .... on to dd.nd inus<> wbiot:h
.~ "I ... madt by hu"...... Prt<!iCIob!y. ,he teU thm ddrod,; .hinp madt of
,ha,
m..... in .... m ",hid< ...~n.n,cd. Th. """"

good <1>mpIc but .hen on ". bond. ""'t>C, and oil. H...., Stephen',
poin. I ha. pcrl'ec.ly oroino')' .hin" an .... ron...,,,,,",, to boIy pUfp<>O<> and
thu. bcwm. """'hy of. "'p"" hey could ncvn d.im in .heir ..... nu1
There .f< two point>
in..J frum .1>< Rom. n J)"TIOd. Thyood said
l\O.hing new on .... ntrs of doer,; ........ ile in,rndu<ing, Of d<.:pcning"~ funil _
;"';'r of doun Fnnkiol' b1oh"l'" '" ,h. i....... involvro in ,he ;"'"'S" <on,,,,""
drno.o ....It.. hca .... i, ..
.. ci."" "'.
I'IOt ....
'UI'.
'0 ..........
..... y.
Th"", i. one cu.iou. tOo.no 0 .h. di~" .. ion of in,.),'tI in 769. On. of
.1>< ",inor figu'" in .h. poli,i""l ...if. of 767"-68 wao p,ies, nam"" W.ldi""ft ,
Wh.n ,h ",ho.i,ie; w.n' looking 1<:>. hi", .hey h"und hin, in .h. "h"reh of
S.. , M"Lo ..I Mmy..... h. ["""'., )'.",h""". He wa> holding> pic.u", of
~bl)'."lkfor. j~"'l'in~ '0
",,,d... ,,,,, lh... hi. ><'lion OJ[ W.Jdi""ft, pon
,ignilin ,he ~>< ofim..,. .. p;tlbdi. in Ron ... ,1>< .. i . .. w"h<f. m"'< I'I,,,,ihlc
in.~rl',,"'inn (0 ron.idct.
m.inly W.Id;pc" ..... no, holding . portt_
bIc i"'"'ll'" b", ",d,., .,.Adi"8 ....,. pnh.", ",.",hin" ,he P,n"""'n icon of
M.ry. H. w:u claiming .. ylum .Ad '.,(",". '" .. hidl d.inu ~ .ummarily
ignored. The point ..
apan from thc: '"'')' of ,he Abps image. of the
im"S<' ,h ... mi,,~ blood Of ";1 (ttpon~ x...v., '" connection "';,h 7J' )' and
.... ~.>ehcropsita." ,h~ " ........ I><
at lhi< early d.a .. fo. mir.:ulowt
i...."... in Rome.
By7fi9. .I><n. the F..nko ,nd.he popes h.J be.... b<o.ogh, in.o ,he Mcdi,............. di....""'" of 'mage< .. t211r", pon ....... For ,he 1I'IOfn<11t, ;, sum...
hough ,he ByunUnei ho,.. <locI
,t.. occ- .......... potcn.w allico for
thc: F.anb Of" . . po/i,ic>I. m~iWJ' and ,hcoIopcaI >paning pann<rS fo. the
popes. Th.rdactwinn ofi .......... fu .. it had 1""'. _ pm')' bnic. No .ip"
had ye< 'pp""mI of a "",.,..I wi,hin ,he W".. iutlf.
"'~ af ,I><
.1..
AI""",
w.,
...o.nc.
m....
n...p;...uc ....
Ea.rn 'l",m d which W2> d.ikd in Clupr 1 5ttml to luI'<" btcn r<pliomd
in ,h. \1:'.... "Ill., is. some kin,/.< of oc,ion .o""hing on imoges ..,.m '0 Iu,'.
bc-<n .. k.n in [he !"te i 'OO, in i l', ill , 767, .nd 769, In bt',",een there were,
"" Hod,,,,,,, 1.. t""in-"",y , I.".f'> f""" ,h. I~'pes 1(' [h "'1"''''''' . nd,h.
p",dtKtion of . good <1<.1 of ......wk, <om" of " ,hieh...., "" n.;nly pol.mical in
in",n. , 11m im.ge< W<'C' nm. C<)mnunding i.,ue .00 [hey Iud n<vcr .ltr>C[ed
the bnt mi..w and moot ronccned '"''[gi''' of the popes '" ,"" frankl.. 11ut
would chmgt: in th.I ... 71loo .nd ""rly 79"',
1'opc H.d"." I.n d the Dcfcnleoflmagcs

N f.r:u I an...,. im.gt:> .".-.aed w<"tion "nly ""C< in the p'lul w F"",ki, h
",wl,t. ktw""" the Run,." S,..,....t of i69 '00 H.d,i,,,', in't,,1 I'par",,,,, '"
]1/1 f.... the Second c.,urtcil of Nica.:., ht .bout n o, in RonlC', i n ."onymou,
compile, prod"ced
;"'nophile Horilegiom . nd in n 4 or 771 ,h"
compiler, or posoihly SOmeone elso, rcvi,cd [h.t [<xt ",,,,,, ,,tu.lly, Either 01 both
of thO$< t""" may
I>ccn pl.ced ,n ,h., 1"11 I'b",.,.. .nd. as ,,'. S>W in
Ch'p'er ., .h.... ;. !"O"'ibili'J-' .h" Hulri.n .. n, one of ,hem. prohohly ,he
o"!>io,, from 770> to Con".nti""pl Iong "'ith hi..... pon .. to the ih,-itat;"n
of I""", ,nd ('An".m'ne ' 0 ."end. church <ooneil dding w"h 'm.gt:O. 'Ill.
p.i n",king ,.... rch of Ab.ki, h.. id.n,ifo.,J
wlke,;':"" of m';mMiA '"
the mO>! likely ;.,uto< fo' the "",m.,," on im.gt:O con tained in Hod,i." ', 1<It
[0 . he Ea"crn rule" .00 , I"" in hi, lot"" '0 a ,.rlem.gne of ;"9).'' ' Tho>< kHe,.
provide.n =dlen. v:on"'S< point for ...... ing the ~utb"ri .. ti.. papal vic.... on
im.gt:O on the ;-8os .nd 790S, lIu, tit. florilegi. ,1t<tru<1,... m.k<- no knuwn
'l'p.. ",ncn in ,he papal
/0, >orne ,. n '" ~liecn t'""
,h.i, ppa".
tion .nd tlKy do not 5ttm to h ..., ";,eul .. ed in the rr:mki'h realm , The pop<>
~OO f"'nlu dealt with e.eh (tIhet in'en, ively in thi; I"'riOO. the Frmlu initi"ed
new diplomatic COnt"'''
lI),mi"",. ,nd the 1"'1"" ""Hched ..... rily .. the
D,....",'"'' ",<oJ u,"< o. ""-,,It poli,icol ,,' ",ii".!), ,n"" " n h.ly.''' S,iII, ""' .
word was "",ken
imil!lO.
In p...,..",ing Had';",', "'~~ <.>" in"h'O i, i, ",-.11 m bet, ,n ",ind,h.. , on
(WQ .l<paw. ,,",,-,ion', h. apm>! [ho.< view< in 'PO"'" [0 initi .. i,'" by
othcr peopl., lnc .nd c.,""'ntin. im'i,ed him t<.>. COlJneil , con';dct im.ges,
. 00 CIu'km:tgnc "'''' him. long docum<n. [Iu, . [,.cked ,he W<)[k .nd cond"_
,;nn, o' II Ni= , Fo' p'oscn, purposes o"r d,,,,,,,,;no of Hod,i.n ', view> on
,mages will be confined '0 wh ...... a n Ieo,n from hi' I." .. '0 Iren. and C<.> " , untine.oo '[om the Libn I'cntifi<4Iil. The Imer ..,utCC ' I"'.k, g<""",lIy . bou,
m.,.,1'<"
h.,..
,m..
>0"'=
",i,"
.bot"
.Ii.,
'I<'
C HAO'"~
,,,
dcvdopm<n" throUghOU' Hul.;'n', pon,ific, .nd it> inform""'n ><COl.!

widcl~ .pplicable '0 m inv.,tig,uion of .he pope, ..;.".,. 11>< forme. SOUK<
wu w.itt.n in i 8,. before Nit::lc:o. Mo""' .... ,here is no.hi"l\ in Irene . nd
Cons .. n.ine. in.i ... ion ro H.drian .ha. called fut . p;op. I.ru..em<n. on ima!p!t i. ' .. ..,n.~.
,he,,.(o ....
H.dri.n id ~ially "-N' ~' ....",ed
'0.<><1 ",run h. fd. n.eded )ing. W1xn. eigh' "'" "" yea" La.er, h. w,u'e ,he
HaJriltwn. he did SO against .he b.ckground olNiaeI ' , _ and in .he immedi ..c com<>., of ........ ivc Caroling;.....n oel Of( Nicaca, The H.d.i.num. aI'
"'~ in eighty-five ehap.en. is .0 cuct """"".. ' cit9>' ylivc ubj<ctiu" . ...
Nica ....' image do.:,rincs d<veiopcd a he F nki.t. COUrt. Th" I....... in ",he,
....,,<1>. i. I"" likely.o ,epre..,n. H.dri.n, "",,;idem! views (In im.ges 'M"
1"'1'''' "'e",rial and polemical """<gJI in > vct)' 'en.., .im.. i"n. T h" .. d ... ill
di!<u",io" of
kucr will .ppc:or in CMP"" ~ wile ,he >mou<1 of ,ha
itua.;"n can be lim,,l.
Th. gre>' !lUjo.i')' of .. rly med i"",l p;op;oll.".... rc rescript,' " ThO! i.,
. p. n fro m some .hoc,orical . nd often idrological in.roductory m. ttcr.nd .pi';
" ....1 do$ing m>.ttc
"'C m. y tty...d as w et.n boilc.pl .... . Ix: cor< of.he
Ime<1 con .. i.u... n,"'er>." ques.ion.
com<
pope from ..,m. o" "ide
"'urec. Such I."", c-. ,,"'" be .... d . , 6""...1.."'.",.,, " of p' l"'ll"'li'1" Cc",u_
.;"1.,.. canon bW)'C1"S ofton g.,hcrcd up such SI;;ucmenfS.nd <>'1;mittd .hem
'l"'It,ru,ic>lly "' ... '" <= ,he '1'1'.,..,1\" "f policy, of p,edem, of Ii, ..! bw
Bu ha, w" late . H.d"'n, l<IIet.u lren< .nd COnst.n.i"" ...... ro he .ure. &n
. n....'C' to. Ie,." he h.J <.i....d. But i, does (tOt hav~ ,he distingu;.hing n"rL
of. fC>Cfip" It con be 'c>d '" fundamen 1 "',,,<men' by Hul.i. " of ~is
.... n';.1 viows. H,drian', "icws on irruogn ..c much in <vid<n"" in this 1....0.,
b~. he .. lkJ abou, ",he, key ,opiel mo. lr i. irnpon.n, nQC only,,, ... ,he full
F.lngc of i"lid add......d by H.drian bu M to note .he ord., in which he
.. i>t<l.nem.
H.d,i.n I:q;ins b)' aprcssing his ddigln ... h<- ".01" which B,...n.i~m.
rule .. "'C'" .. king '0 'c:s>re ilrulgn '0 ,heir o<ru.roml 1'00 of hono,. Hc.lIo
.. p.<>k:S hi. wi" ... ,h .. the .nc..,,,,, of ,he P''''''' rule,. h>d f.ll en inm
h,,,,.y. Th,,, he p... i.., COn.um.ine VI .nd l",ne . . . new Cofl>{:lo.in nd.
n<w H~I.n .. , .nd docs ><> while ~mph .. iz.ing ,Iu, ,he Ii... Cofl5uJUine .n<! hi,
m",hcr h.d ho".,m! P<>p< Sylveo,et. Thi, ",,,,co ., H,Jri.ns point of d"uf<
ft>r di"lui.irion on S. Pet ... ,he pop< . nd hi. pn".;,..,,,,. he .bsolutc nett<
,i.y "f ,et,..ding .Ju, Rom.n Ch .. ",h . , .h~ ""'/~' omniu, <<<<",,,,m." .nd cI.e
obliga.ion fo. all Chri"i.n, '0
the "'powe,"'.nd '".mho,;,y" of the bilh0ps of Rom . '" Obyiowly Hadri. n ,..... up",. by 'he kmg..... <><Iing he ... y of
ironocwm, Bu. hi. 6.. , !XIic in add""'ingthi' heresy ...... osay ,ha, it ,c>uI.ed
'" ."um.
,h.,
.h.
'M'
n..
,n..
'''pea
'0 ,h,
roy
prinwilr from f.iluu in ,he Eo.. '0

.Ill< .".n,Oon ". tho poptS. It i.
~;"Iy in ,hi. 0>1"'" ,ho, Had,;'n ;tICo<pO",'a hi. fin, i-sc , .. ,. He ,i,,,,
,hor old >t"')' 0( eo.. ..an"ni. dlttm in "'hich h< ...'" S... 1'.... ond I'.ul. In
,he- ""')'. tho:: <tTIi'C"" .... mmot"lll'op< Sri ........ . ""'" ~ him. picrurt of
Pntr.nd P.uI. ",hom eo.u....."i ... immcd ... dy """""iud. Bm .h<n. th< Itory
SO'" on. S)~_ct Npliud Co...un,i"". cur..! him ofltprooy ..nd 1tHI..! him
on hi> C>fftf " ' . du,ilUl ..... of
H>drion ..... not ,dl this ""')' as.
p<O<i.tn.! '" '''''&<'' bu, mhct- .....idmn II.. ""'- .nd tc:>ptCI th.a. is '0
h< """",dod '0 1'..... nd Poul ..nd to I'.. ct', vM::ior-1.< UIC> ohi>."ft)' ''''0''1.
110m hor SO'" on
y ,.... , under ~ pudana II... <hUKh has k<pt to ,he
;opootoIi< , ..Jitioru ro. oJl ,~crn,,,rieo un,il ~ ond eon...n,;"" (V) J.ps<d
inm h<rur. In ~y ,hi> place ,n ,ho let ... H.Jrian ,ita hi. oond i~
''''. tumdy C''W''Y', lot..., '0 Sttrn .... ~I~ "Y' tho, ",he ,,!be of pag>ru-.
fI.";n! On ,I.< dn-in<.mry poin,ed. an h< ,ut1l<d from ,he cui, of idols and
.nc ""un of demon . ius' .. au, d... ,,,,,,Wted f"", .nd _,hy pt<><hc:.
G'<"F'Y. bishop of ,hi. 'p4loli< _ ... iJ: ' ,,,,- ""'" 00 _ ...,... let, ..... an
a' 1c... . =1 by Lookin, or. wall ... ha. ,hey an_ ,.-ad in boob.-" In OIhct....,.-d Had';. n h...."fully 'um. ,I.< .. ory of Co",u".i"" ,nd S)'v=:a imo
proof of ,he 1"""'" of inugco '" ,nch ,I.< uninitiated ,nd
mak< .bem in'"
good
of ,be Rom,n Chu.ch.
H ad,;'n ,h.n , u,n, '0 ,h ubi< ,,( im. go. bu... fin, in vory g.n.m
... y. Th" i . h. by. ou" ""i.. of 'I'<cifi.c dct.n ... ofim>ga witho,,' .labor._
.ion. H. ,ello how hi. P'~" goinS back ,,, Gre-gory II .nd II I h:><l rq><>t_
edly '''''''pled 10'0' . im.ge> '" ,bei. I""'''' pi"", of oonu, and '''']>1. H.
'"Y'
-","u. an be I"-i,,,ed ":>e<oNing '0 hi, ino.nu'~ human fotm." He .. yo
tho, whe.cv<, ,he.e i. Ch,i"i.ni,y" (",,,;m,.~illll) ,here .rc i"'-'l'" and ,ltit
,hey.f< OOtKMM b~ .11 tht f.oj,hful. EV<tJ"' hc .. im>sa ""'. "vioibk "",,",en.net" (,,;n.ilml ,...1",...) '0 nul<-< p..... n' ",he in_Uibk ..... ;C.. y "f God" (i ~,,;n_
,,,,,mu,,",,,.
ro.
'0 ..
'0
""'0""
,Iti,
'0
IhIMr "'';~Il4'"
_~
'0.
...... ). God. i" Ita,,,,,.
i> ......-.hip!
ao. >pi,;,.
Hadrian
IX'. mal<-< imago> ,Iotn. b.nu", }cow If>P<'.mI 0" .-.nh .00
'" p in __ "1Mr- ",f ,lot ul" ..... .., h~~ ... nl, .... 1<1)'. II", ...~ do """ <lc-ify ,,,,,,,=
inugef ..... .....,., '"Y:' God.....:k 1tWt . ali ...U, in H"OW1\ i-sc.nd likrn.:>o..
M~. God I""m .. ,.-.,I H,morif '0 h< honored ,00 &k>nh<-d by .11 soru of
... , ....... nd ltWtufaau.td ,hinp. Hadrian (t)rl,inUQ by :..-gui", , ...... on ,h<
ont lund. it is nn'tt ,bt ...... trul au, of ..... ich i...."... .rt madt du., is woru.y
ofhonot . nd , ..... . on ,ho: othct- hand. GodII,.....-I{ comnund..J <nuln ......
or )ikmes.ocs." bt made. "Oh......., rnui ..... oI.h......in....- i, i>.o drny.1w:
" , . . . at< ..... 10 h< mod< 01 ~l . . ed. " If .... bel,.... ,...., "'" l.....-lila ...~
A.-.:d (.am Ioomin, al.",;I)' by ,t.. ..;r;h. of.he br..... "'1"""" do wr Joul>o:
lOy>.
citin8 John
'I_
.0 " . . " . ,,, . . .
,ha,..., or...vnl by &","'g or and ',,".n,ing ,he-I,kntoeMo ofau;......, Lord

and .1....inlS!" H. condudQ tllio ot<:fion
Ij, 16.
God.
_.uwI '"
011
by c;unK I..ia!. '9
,I>< bea ...,. ..... God.
In'" Jbd.w. "'yo, io
~,.e"y
..-hr .....
on<! how
ck.:ora,.
out"
VI" PJalnu 6, '9,
,ha, bea",y """-
chu.rd.a.
Tho he-an of HaJ ..... ', HI""""" io bu,lt up "" ....... 00 ... ~ni"B papal
.... thori.,. and it. ......001 oC ,he- chwm', "aditlOlU.. Sam.
fat this .....1
ofin,npm'ns liaJri.on ', ............... fi.oon hi> ............ in.he- Inn i'Mnjiat/iL
Oflbdrian'. con,ribu.ion '0 II ~ian, me biog>ph<t ..T" ,imply that H..:;!.w.
""', h io ......,.. and a ....... "to ... "p..o.:d i ........ '" th<y .... o"h"doo.ly
......... ~ in .t.. holy, a.""';" and .poo.<>Ii< Romm Church by 'h< "">IT;III' of
the .mpoura .and .he- ....:;!i.ion of 'h< ~ h,t..n ftom olden li..... '0 cht
ptaotn .... ' '"' ' ....d''ion had """ [... >r< of all d~ of i""B'" ftorn 'h<
founh , ....",)". Si_ .. bot [t.. prchrnilWia '0 .hot Council of Chaittdon
(41' ), the pope> IW horn ..anti", [M' >pma/ rok OJ kp.....and suardi.... of
:u"...
.raJillOll. Wha, is ...... in HaJn..n', k"... i1 mrtcIr.ho: I"'\'<', ~
i"SJO (Of~llyon bthal{of ,ndi.Oon .. i, I"'tuintd to i..... 8u, i, m:or ...<11
bt tha, Ibdrian ...... ""i ........."i"g no, claiming:my ""'''' than hio pmlc=-
""PI"'"
".ic
""" going Nck to Gr<"S<"T II ...... n q........ d 0'"'' .n,"W" ;tppc;utd "" dl<"
POpKY, Mril'," (or ,h< Ii", ,i". AI<
hi, .......1 f<n ... o f ;m_ .'"
concerned, ,hcy.", ..-h"lIy ... di.lo"ol, I",'P 'f'..,h. In .. go. d i"""" in,i,ibk
",.! .. ia. Ch,i" WI>. m.., ""d could ,h.m;,,,, II<" de-poe.<:d. Gud hi", .. lf e<,"'m.>nd.d i"'age '" b< ",.d. on
""calion . Ilc:.u,iful d<CQr.uion. o(Goo',
00u1<" ..e mta", of hOllorillg God . lin, .. lf QOt o( .. tling "P m.ri;ol. mo.nu
f><;,urcd ri,.. to [0 Ilim. AI ,I,~ Rom.n Synud. of 7)' .nd 769 had dono. I lad ...,
r....
"""Y
,1,., i..,.ga.rc to b< ~""""od.

,radi,,,,,,,
says
H.drian 'h<n .tt""hcd hio 1",.;",< /\O'ikgium ... if.u d"ploy ,... ""'1
Oft whidl'" t.. Itndy huil, up hi. 'rgumc:n'. '" Ibdrian', Anrile_
r;iun' i, "', .... modc:I" run ..;ning o,dy .!tou, .!o~n ""<a<'t nd while i.
bull[ ......nd even ""pond. ul_ <och p<>in. m.de: in "'" CI,I;'" >tions of cht
Ie" ... ;, dot; "'" folk>w , ...
onle. '"
pK>C:n"'ion. !
<kr<e<
.n ohviou
in ,hot ....'ruction of 'h< fIorikpum ilXlf. N~ i ..
",me
,"'m.,,,,
con"'"
bnic poin...'" ....Iy gntp<d.

HaJrian !hili. from 1.11 Fotni rdl.",iom fO .... IIon.m with an in' ...
""'ns device. lic .. ,.. , ....."" em.""n, pruphe< ();Md. in .,."""nci", "'" Mm,nil of cht s..-ior .and Iii, inasna.ioft . .... rnod ~ .Iu[ Hi, "r..,." (some
IOrm of , ..Inu .. Ihdrion quoo .. , ... PuInu bu, somnimts IOrm ofjMu> in
'M Vo4fttl>') " xcoo:iins '0 ,hot d ........ 'ion of H i. hununity"lhwld be "",glu.
n.... hot ei'a 'hm< p...rnu (" .1: ~ \Ou' (ooe. 0 l.n<d. >lull I .....~: ..... 'J: "All
[be rich .monK 'M peopIe .... U...,...... i""" coun, .........~: 4.'" ~Tho ligl.. of
An >lid At< Tolk
'li
0 lord.
i, l'igr>td upon .u" : in [.... , onkf) and 10110..$ "'i,h

nom " blcuro A"I""''''' ,I>< ""'" dUllnpilih! f.llhrf and bon,
[taCh ...: " Wha. ;. .t.. ilN&t of God <lIct"p, the: fa of God in wt.idI .1>pk
of God ;.~ " In rICO . .. hula" Iuo,,, no, bc.n.bk!O U'XC" ,hu ~ in
",""".in", wo.k.. BUI H..Jr...,,, ""n of ,hou&h' u 110< diffi<'ul< II) ...,. D .;d
p!'<'diatd au;"' .
nun """ I. humUl r.a.nd God', pcopI< h3d
I<>n& been ocdunr; .... .. r...... of God . ....'" I> i .... of ,... F....... . nd
hwnom
in ..... 'lN8".nd 1Ik<neu of God. H>dri>n couJd 110< irn'C.
j .... i6a,.", ofim ......
H.od.i>.n ohm , i":1 Grq;orr of Nyst:o twi, 1M ~n. cian"" is ,t.. familiar
on< about Gregory', WpInS <'O'C1)' " .... t.. ICe> .... i ..... of ,he: ~ and
.... ..."...j .... bI;.tw.d , .... ICO' of uYn.n~ brfoK on i""", _ ~ '0 ....
p""oryp<. 0...... U[""'" uouaJly "lin 10 !Wil [0 IN'" .hi. poin. bu. Hadrim
.i... s..il on .... .. >di,ion. of .t.. . hurch wi, h rapc< o " honoting, .oorin~
and VftIo<1'>.inS" i,.,.. and on [h< ~ .",[om .nl'. inringchur< ..... H
.... n dto"" . nothcr ... f2C1 from !luil [0 ~(.>bli!b [he .........1 equi ... kocc of
",in.'" or wri".n ."'..... John Chl')"'O'lom ;. , ...... quotcJ twice in <<>nn<<tion
with impai.ol im.ag<'>. The ~". quUl.'iof, m.L:. [he point [loa! .ny h."" don<
I(> .n impcti.1 ;n>as< ..... u. lly mJound. '"~ ,h. O",PO"" and ..... '"~
im>s<
i,>elf and ,he oond quo.. ,wn laY" ,h.. wh<n imporial imoS" <n.", ,own
<",,,'ds gift. , hem 1>0' '(j hollOr ,he im.ge bu, ra[h, . '0 honor ,he emperor.
Cy.il or Akn"d.i. i. ,h.n ci ,,.J foro,
,h., i, ;' I><>ibl< 10 p. in, 'h< Wo.d
,hOI hecamc Ah .,Id """",.I ,n
im.g .. help ." make ,he inois;hle
vi.ibk. A,hana.iu. il ,hen qumc.l '" ,II If.." .h., im~ con b< m..d< .nJ
tUlladc: ,he n"".,i,l. of .. hkh ,My ron.i" .... "'" import.n,. Amb."",
Milan and Epiphanim ofs..I"",~ ... ,hen ej.I '(j P"'''' ,h.. ,,-ben you h,vcan
jm>g< of".. empo"" )'OU do 110< 'hcrd>y h.... two e",I"""" ....
in ",.king
an imog .n CIt,;" Y"" do IlOl ",I;, I I.. humani.,. .nd d i,;nily.rnd 'h=l>y
c..... """ "''''''',. oong<.
of Il00< ... in H.odrian, Ionp quo,",;"".
"Y" [ha, nerythi"ll made in.'" n.".... of(;Qd is p><>d.
imag<" is <>II<
,hinS wh i!c "" ... ~iMTo. ... " " ... n .. ,h i,'!\ 01 .. <n,i!'dr . .... , th< "' ...;.J. of
...t.ich inur;a .... mode ... Itrdevan, . 0 ,he rapca ",,,, ' 0 ......... and th..
yow a>Un[~IWlCt.
q""''';''''
""""'! ...
.n
...,,,,,,,,.1
i...,. """'G'"
,10,
(Q"r
"'r ,ha,
or
,Iu,
s..pt..n
""""'."'0........
qu<JI"_
,lu,..,
i",,", ""''' '"

po ....... <q> .... n'I "" ,I><m. H>drian 00I'I_
dude. ..;,h.
from}<rom< uI'.Jo<ruI<m ,,hich .......a ,ha, God wm
m.nded M..... w moL: i",.,...
liadri>n........ . hnd"ort_r.i .. ;n'o ....., ....... In .... 6 ... and Ions<r 0;,;.,., he dcvclopo ... ",umen1 ....... on p>f'IoI.",horny...d ~;"'I ,.....i
rion
<aT .Iut ,... <mp<n>n of ,t.. Ea .no..Id ............" oIT",,,,I ,he ...,m;t
,...:Itinp of,h< Churdl ond IN , ... poupk of God imo 1>cresy. In thi. """ion
'0
of ,... In,... ;magn ... '"" '" ,h< fO<c. Any "'ray coolJ MY< bttn inYOlvod.
1M critical ....... wu luthofil)'. In ,h. scrond ...:tion of t,," 1m.. HoJ..w.
q""''' ;",." . Itt ..."h,;"n ." say ........ ,h~ lud,oriu. iy< pooi.ion on i~ oogh,
." be. G;ven
h . .... y of tc:>1>
cooJd h. ", bent ott<! by )'fIS. indoa:l
.Ig.
m.
no r.-w.. ....11 In i" ,he ico""f'hik lIori.m w, AltuI<iIo btl......,. '0 ~

bent in 1M popaIlibr.uy, K is perM!" ... opriti", that l-Iod';"n W2>..,...tm-~
in hi> IV'8" of CIUlie>n . I I< ...... odcaie>n of ~ from 71' ...d 761.
M......,..".. Itt often noska. fO ci .. ,t.. ~ ..... _1<1 MY<: ",pcacd <V<"rt
on m. ","n .. Itt do<. rail<. The: o:umpl< of ....'" G~ of Nr- ;""ad of
&.a on Iyp<...d protO<)"p< i. ~ pd OM.
I "'""" ..... 1M ... ,bet 'P'...... thane.e. of the ...wnd >"lion of ..... Irttn
is in. critical ....y rdoted '0 ,Itt G, ..
Th.a, is. HoJ.u.. borpn by uri",
,M, if p>pIt in ,Itt Us, had po'" ..
,0 the """",, . nd hod xI<ncrwIcdgtd
.... , 1M """"" .,. ,Itt p .J ;"" of au, hen,ic .l3dirion. ,hen notI< of ,hex ,nri.
ble pmbknu would hal'< em<,p in ,h 6n' pIa. Bu.
did ign<W be>th
""""" .nd ,h. anc;'n. , .... hinp of ,"'" .hu..,h and .... fQlJlt. plungr<! in",
~y. T"'scrond ... , ion "f .... k'te ...."" '0 mr.o mOl.'" H :>d,w ICtUc
of ,he temll of .... "" ..y. I[e idrn,ificd ,he old Ot ri,,~ ...r l on i""'tjQ
_.ton.
tal,,,,,,,
"""'*
in both ito lO.m" Th<~ . .. uW ... "" i ....... '" (""..,.J brn .... HNQ
.,.,< h... ""'
...." GOO .nd . ny im>g<: of Ch,i" "dcd 10 ",Ii, Iii. d",in< .nJ hurnan
na' ura. H.- .kn,ifiro Ih. prob[<nt of mat .. ialil)' . nd ,he dUl<ly ,d.ted ilOU< of
idola,ry. In hi> I." '0 r. ,..,i .... .." i ... n .. ,he .am. ci" ......he ,,". t" ,It"
<11\1"<>< "nJ h.. son. Ih d,i, n .. lJ ",,,licitly
he "', ntni C()ndemcu,ion of
,lL,u "'""""~ which w.., Ittld intprol... ly withoo, tho 1"".1> and illogi.
,Iu,
ally (i~).''"
n..
f. i,ly n' ''CYoY ''''~ of t-t :>dri.n , ". "i,,;.: doooiCf
rnay be rnd ... carefully "nkut,.w St1 of inm"e,;"n. un ..h., "",i<ion; or

argum~~ .. we~
b< mndtn,ncd . , .he ..... COCIncil .11.. was g<>ing '0 b< called.
In ><1m. Hod.ian W=lni hi> aUII\C>ri,y.o b< rccosni...,j and he wan ttd ... luc he
,001< w be ,h ....,., mo,,,,,,,,,,
of iconocl..m to be dimin,u ed. If ,his
way of in'<I"J'Ii", IhJ,;"', I." .. i> <KI'I oII" . he nt ..1e., ,hen iii WU<fU and
rdat~ brevil)' rnak ........... point fft>OnIb/y ""'" . n... pope ..... no, png to
be d...... n in'o .....""..,.,.. ow. i ...... HoJ';"o . lUnd casu . ... <O$f'<'cri>..,
ligln OIl ,Itt ..,Itt ...00... po.ri ..", IIorDcgi. p<a<entul In Rom.- in HI . nd
769.'" Gran' W IlI.t .... _tceo Pfovide ......ith . ... ry im~ ...... of ...... t
_ Wd :urd dc>ne in ,I>< IWO Rom.t.n counctb. the fxt rcmoins w, the limited
... of ....,;.uc "'''_''' pO<nttd ...... raernble l.. oJ,.;.,,, , let... in ...pili.
an ....-.y. Iconur:I.osm _ noo rcfuc<d roln, by poin . I ~ .. _
told 10
"... bad; on ,....... th of tradition. Tho rda.iv<-/y ~ po ........ m n _ wn<ti.
til ........ n ""i"""'n .....
ttun .... of poin,ni ..;ea...... of the ~
,0
It'''''
i,...,.
of ,he i<onod .. t.<. Alw.~. ,hen. 'hr POp<' ",fu.. '0 '<};U< wi,h hrrc,,,,- 11...
,tlU"'] b)' the pop<',o dignil)' ,!.oi , opponrn" hy
ing thri, .in.~ full)' . nd
in dct.o.il n,.~ aplain tho t<L"i"" . b.."c< of apli.;, ".,.mrnt.< :>bo", KoIIOCI.,m
.fr [h n .. hem .. "I' 7jl.
It m.y hc ..... ltt. mrntioning ,he kinJ. of 'hing> H. J,i.n did not "'y. Hr
mrn,ionoJ no mi~lo", or "K,i"r im.ses: Tr"". he m.n,ionrd thr im.gr
,h., prrminrd COn .... ntiroe 10 r<WSni,.., ,h. m,n he h2d on in hi. dr",m . 11m
I,. did in
..nrt< thr im.og<: i,lf i 1010" inrb.n t to ,he ory,
Hadri.n said noth ing about im.ga """t m><lr by IlUm.n
n .. only
time ,I... such ,tory IUmed up in R"nun IiO"rer
when ,he Ea,[,,"
""ri. rch, pm ,I., "ory of Abpr of Ed ..... on [he ubi. in [hr 760<. Bu, ,h.ir
kt, .. . 1,., .. >"'" of ,h.... holr East to tho
.",ch;ngs of ,h. ,i, "","eii>. Hadri. " cit<. "nl)' church f.,h .... no, hoS;<>s"'ph; .
cal t",t.< , H. "II<.< 2j;O.in .nd
. bou, ,br deco""ion of chulCh .. bUI nm: '
mrn,ion' port. bl, im.gr. Hr nn.. r mrntion, .n im. gr ,Iu., """ uord ...
",Iladiom or .. . ph)i>Clrry. l.i~. Gr<gnry IJ .nd Ih. ""uncil f"h .... in 71i;J.
Hadri.n "'Y' ,h." i!IUges Of, [0 he v.n,r.,ed . Bu, h. docs not descrihc ,he f",m,
th .. <ud, ' .n.... ion miglll tak< .nd h. d"" "'" .. ~ which i""'gn a" '0 br
,'.n.""ed. JUSt" "hoi .., Iu."" d<"",d ",min "ch",iry" in ,h. work of II
NiCK" "" tOO tbr ... i, p.lp.abkc ..... rve in 'hr vi .... of th ighth-antury
"c..
SO
"'''''XI
w"
),.,><1.:'
'!I"'"
""'"
Thi, di"".. ion of Had,;,n m.)' condud. wi,h an ""..,,,',,,n, of wI. .. ,he
Lilxr hmlij(a/;' ")~ . bou, hi. im.ge> .nd hi' idr"'. Hadri.n w.<.< ,he
pop<
to profi' fron, thr C. roling.. n ,mp<>Si Pax Jill/iN, Khirvcd .f", Ch.tJr..
nugne. delini,i,.. dof"" of 'he lombard. in nj-'74, l1w: mo" immedi .., con
""'lucn", of [hi, ne'" ,im.."''' in haly IV><. rexc and prosprriry o"m.,chod
,;n", 1. '''';'lU;ty, Am:",lin~y H.d,;." praided """ b.lilding boo", m
Rome 'h" con,inued inoo ,he nimh c<n'my and that w,"" unriv:;oled un,il ,he
Rrn>. .... nC<. '" I ~ i, ,'il~ i, ,brltfor. filled wi,h de,.ib on hi, buildinS projoc-. .
If Gregory Ill,
in"'n"'. ferm. to h.ve drlibrmd)' undrrtakcn .n im>g<
c>ml""gn ... -=pono< '0 B)',,-,n"n. p",hih"ion" Hod,i , ",i"n ., little
mOl' dillicul! to ime,p"" , Hod,i." ', .il4 trnJ, to ....... tho valor of thr im>j;<>
.nd d..:o""ion. he imroducrd imo Rome. church",. I'", in".n..,. H.dri",
don .. ed!O Rom." church .. at leas, ,6j,ilk >'oi1> wi,h im.go .
to.1I the 'itl,
church .., deaconlit:s . nd ,",o"",,,,i... vei], ",ith cw<~'" H.
and
drcon[.,.j for ,11< pro; .. of God . 11 God', cllorch.,. botll i",ide ",d ",,,,id. ,IIi,
city of Rom.:"" H, in".lIed im.g.. ,i,h.. m..Jr from ,iI... ,h.... 01 ",ith
'il"" """'ing> in man)' pI"",, in Romr. H. placed 'v.riou. rrpfcxnmion,'
.m",m,ing '" ,hr.., hundred pOItnd, of gold, in S,. Pete,', (~"f"'w, H, pu,
Ii",
ro,
.,><1
"",,,,red
inug<'l of ,h. Crupcl>-j .. ", wh" ,h<s< w<1'< i, to in'p' ... ihk to .. y---in S,. Pa"l'.
,nd S,. u,..",ncc, (o""id, ,h, ..,.11.). H, rd2$hiono:<! .n im>go of P'''' Mary.
Pc<tf, r ...1. and "'nd,rw ., S,. I'<t.< oo h, P'" r<pt<><nmion, of
kind
on ,he d""" ofS, . P",I'. ,., \l;'h" ... find hrf<, in .I>on, i m...... J>f"ll",m
of dtw, .. ion . Givrn H>d,i,n', OW" ,..,;mo.,y in his I.... , !O If<n,.nd Con
,I,i." ju" wh .. W<" ough, "'p!. Th< ,nd;,ion Iud .1",,)"> pcrmi,.
,rd. i..dud <n"",,,,gt<l. 'hr roornm,,,, of
ho .... Now th .. he had tho
m,,,n, m do 00, H>dri. n ynd<nook th .. ,do'nm,n' on' gnnd $COIr. H, octrd
on , mo", ""j""ie l",eI beaUlt h, had ,h. pracc. rutbility . nd fi""oc;"1 ",.
""""'" '0 do "'_ Proud Rom.n ,h" h. was. Hadri ., ,,,hancrd ,hr branl)' aDd
.ppeal "fhi. city. Tndirion had <riumphrd." I.... , .. f.r .. ,har ,ndi,;",n ......
unde",ood in Ron ... Whef< .n ...... COflccrnrd. ,hot ,,,diti,,,, """, ,,"ighr
[Qck to Crq;ory I. Wh.,. R<>mc i""lf .......""""nrd, ,h" ,<adi,ion I'<.chrd
bad . millrnnium.
..,m,
.,.",i""
'0
Goo',
Conclusion
From Brdr to H>drnn. pcopl' in ,h. W.., took cry con,;,n, ... of pos it;"n.
on the topic of ;ng<>_I.",,~ em """r ,h<:ir ';<We". They can dici, compunction . Thry can d<v:o tho mind f,"m thi, "'mid tn ,he no. Thry can ""...1.
I>o"""'er in'p<rf..,ly, in.isihl, mii,i.,.. nl<y ,each. dpc-cially the unlm,red.
The Bibl< ilSClf .U!hn,i= inuV"_ 1...., i, an 'Nulu dill',f<n he!v....,n ,hr
mmer of whieh im,S'" '''' mad ,he p<nonh) trpf<:S<nred by tho inugr.
Hono, f"id '0 an imag< immrdoudy P"'<" 'n ,h. p<,.nn I" ..."tl. Art
m,kcs ,h. <".ito"m<HI braUfiful .nd if ,h .. ,nyi'onm,nt fuI'P'"'' to hr
ehuh . pi> of """hip. ,hen ,he braury off.red .kl'< ;,. gift
Cod, ~n
. ncmpt to hol>O' Him . ,h.nbgi.ing_ lm.ges con I:.: .. n.~'rrd. ac.::orJin8 to
f"f"1 >ources. All or ,hi" i, will I:.: """,Ikd, i. m.tko.bly .imi),,, to the fi",,1
decision' of 'hr hom ofNicar.. In m.ny =pu. Ea., . nJ W.. r ""' ...
f." 'I"n in 787Th". aro .Isore"',,,n, ,imi!.ali,ia in W<strm ",. it.ts and ohurch couoci!s
wi,h
,n 'hing> 50id r.o,dr 0. c.U!ioudy . od '0 mings 1>0' .. iJ " .11 . It
i. juSt p""ibl< ,h .. ,hr,....... some ""Iing ,hat .. , im.g< might confirm a vi.ion
h," ",h,,,,,i,,, mir;a,lu .... ,>t ..,ivc: imag<> maio . Im"" no '1'1'<""'''''_ l<n
ages do nO! "",m '0 h,,.!,..n usrd '" potlladi . Brdr mentions f"nrl p. inting>
hOlt (~hr"..-j .. only the Lib.T Ponlift<~Ji' d"",,, <>l'li.idy ",d ,hen ,~,Iy on
frw occ>,iOft~ Act; .. im>g... p.oilacli . phyUct,li<$. .nd pomohk p.nd p.in,ings
oo
'0
""''''Y
"'P'
An ,,>hly leu prev:.knr in the F"" th,n here,ofore ..."mc<I. so F.... , and
w.., n,.~ "0' h.v< :.t:<:rn<Xl >0 difk'en' on ,h. <V< ofH Ni<:K:i.
In the \'('es, as in ,h. E. st, im.ges ... me up onl~ <Xa>i<>n.lly and even ,hon
did "0' !Cern to dnmina .. dilcuuinn. Modcs' flu"i", of :tetivity em Ix id.n,ili<d
itl ,h. U,. 7'''' .tld < .-1 y 7JOS . n the ]60< . mI in 'he mid-790>. Apm from
rhe oovious <:.e of ,he Co,"""il of HOe,.i" thi, "'plia,.. ,h. chronolOSJl ....
..... in the East in Ch'pter,.
The h..."l" burdon of Chap ... 4 will be to .hov,. hov,. uch limited "'w
materi." ,...." ...,.,mbl<Xl in,o '" huge. oonrrov<"y in rhe 7')OS"' ,he F",,,ki,h
coun.
C H A I'TER FOUR
The Franks and N icaea: Op/lJ Caroli
R~J
fJ/."""'" "" _ Jm.MtI
If" .... ~"" _ <f- J.., J.J/
i_ . " '"
""........... """" _"."jJ. ...Uif "" ~ ~"" "" _
..w
" .... ""_ J _ "" ..~ m.. ..~ <fan" ......

... 011 .... w- _ ..100".,,. th."",-,_ o/hIwp &.h"-/J if
~ .... ,1. PO'
n.'''.........""..... ~"J:""""'" .. "" ""-.
, ... _ .. -'" 'h- '"'" ""'" "'-""'.

ThruJ..Jr viCM/o.n" 0,.", c-.Ji !I't~
SIIo"n, Af'rU nu Cl>clu.ion of ,ho prorttdln!l' at Nleu p<><>r Latin

t.. n,J.tioo of tI,. """oeil'. ,...,rd, ..",hod Ch.,lom.gn . Although Rom. mu>t
ha .. botn tho p ....... n...... fo, .ht do<umtnu ,hot ""nIC in." Owkn.'!;"
p<i< ....... it i, "'" ck j",t how,,, why ht rteeivol ,ho,n. H. ",n. tho rcmnh.
'" ""Pr of ,hom. TO ~ ;. ,,,,,,,cd wlUbon,,,.. AIeu'n . .... ho .... th<o ;0 Engbnd
nd he m><k ano,lIt. r.opy .v. ibbk. or !.o .,.!!"" 1>< ""ginal <XlI'l' " ........
mem"", ,,/'hi. <DUn cire". l'htndtM. lit ... ,ho b..hop of Orio'aru. Aleuin "'''''.
IOm<thin& in ""I"""< '" N""",,', _ bu, hi> ........ d. do no! IOrvi..,. Tltrodulf
pn>due<d nuun'.
r"'.IClly knoom II tho Lim Q,...u..i bu, now mort
cornnIy .,,,id.d ,ho
Q,,fi, &tu (Mfr. ~.,.,. The 1""'"'" dupe ...
di<cwso dot pJ>I ..,ion of ,.... 0,... and ..,m......i:lo " . ron.onu. Shonly :diu
the 0,... ..... """"Iud<d ,.... Frank>. Loy tli"" ...J dory oIikc..... mbkd
Funkfun....l, among ...... y ow, conJcm....t I[ Nioc.o in:lll odd ... d "",bip._
..... .....r. Thi.....1".. abo plocn Tltrodulr. """k in'" tho f'nflKWO-orl <mI,a!
b,. Fr2r.i.fun.
n.. FnnL had nude oomc conltibu,,,,,, '" the ri&hth.cnuu')' imoge con-
,,,,It...,
o,.s
troveny through the pmieip .. i<>ll of """Iv< h,"ki,h biolt"!" ill the Romm
Synod of 76<1. Bu, in the yea ... fter 769 thert i. no ..:.lid <'"iden /(" allYfunhe,
F... nkiolt invol,ement with ,he di;put<. A! I h. .. shown. 'he I"',iod frQm 'he
miJ760s t" ,he m;.j-;rl/<>s witnessed 1;"le diocu"Oon of 'm.ges in the F~. In
the 780/;. Charlcm'W'< embarked on 1 mmplicu<d diplomK)" wi,h ,he Brun,ines rhot I"r.lld. in ..... m .... yo the ",btinn, ... hich hi, f.,her had ..",.illro
with Con".n,inople in th. yea .. 716 '" 767. Like hi' pmJ<crs<or r . ul I. POl'"
Hadri.n ....... brmro ..
P""I""" of. Fr:ollko-Rl"""rino "'pp"",hem.n, ,nJ
hi< rort<crtlS prirrur'ily fucu!cd "n h. l;"n te"i<ori.1 ..... ngem<n ... Link in the
inten,,,ion.1 COntext. ,herdo ... help, to "' pl.in the .ppca... n of Nicoc", rt_
COld. in ,he W.., Of ,he ,ilUlendr n<-g>,i,o ".>CIion which rhe~ "",ked.
O tl< ",USt 'urn", the f ..."ki.h context /(" tn'ights into the F... nki.h tc:IC_
,ion '0 nyumiums ''l''"''1 of ico"""l ... rn. The yea .. 1><" ...... 11 '00'" 78\ .nd 7')1!
weI< fill<d with mili"ry 5OC=><> for ,he Fr:onko. Thi< ...... ,he ,im< when ,he
ruo>< .ignifiCln, of Ch"lem"I\Ms ""'tn ""hoi . ... g:"h<f.-.1 in ,he n.... ly emerg;ng
copi,,1 a, Mehen and began '0 producc ,heir mo" ..... ml< .nd impo""'" wo,ko.
The fi ..., of the be.utiful
">allu'"'tipts ,,c rt produced. <Om< of the "un_
ning :ochiev<:mrnl> of Carolingi.n architecmre weI< buil,. and m.jor 1<-g>1. ad_
mini""";,,,. insti' '''inn. l."d ..10",,,;,,,,,1 r"'m' we .... i""itll<cd. In this
j><1"iod the F... " ki.h world encounterro. in odop,ioni.rn. a .ignifiCln, home_
grown he,.. )" wh ich dicitro thrologd reA1ion of unprccroe",ro fervor . nd
rigor_ In ,hon . he ."i... 1of.he .~, ,,fU Nicae> .",t ,he ~ '.nkj.Jt fCSl",n..,
to them took pl.cc in ,im< or inten><. dyn.mic . nd cr<.,ive aeri,i" ...
<I,.
c"""
From NiCJea {o frankfurt. 787----94

Th. COu .... of ev<:llt> be'wt<n II Nic:oca .. ><1 the Council of F... nkfun i. <keeptively .... y to .eli. H.d,ian' en,'",... rt1umro in triumph from, rouncil (II
Nie>< th .. r<SIO'N ."de.... , ic:ol uniry, . fIi,mro rhe pope., nugi"QC)" in tho
ch,,h . nd .n;,m<d ,h< 1"'1'...... ,nc< ,,,, ,n"I\<" Th. "ffiei.{ ........d. ,.rNi .... ,
w<re placed in ,he plplilibr:ory .nd a u, in ,,,,,,I.oon ........ nt '" Chark"'"!;,,e.
Nic:><::l" ..<",d. ,,".t<: d;>Cll1l<cning'o t~e C.tuli"gian coon. Dcopitc h"ing
di"",....! im>gc> on .... n'ially Roman ,erm<" G<n'iU~ in 767 . nd >gOin ><
Rome in 769. ,he Fr.mks hod now como fO , ,u mnlia . Iong II'hOd> ,hcy in,i ...:d
th .. booh destroying .nd ,,-orShiping image> weI< forbidden. Cha'kmagn< "t
[W(I of hi, most t"'!ted tltcologic-.l .d" ;",,. the Anglo-Saxon Alruin .nd ,he
Goth Throdulf. to "udy ,he Nine .uta. The r"",l" of a prelimi"'tr)" Fr-ankiolt
....,.,men, of NiCll" I"'rcci"cd ,""o" mming:>. ,he Capi"''''''
,,,'Mum,
,,,I,,",,,,
,Oo c ....... ,O u o
...... n, to Rome in 79'. M .. n",hil< . ., ,Ite O>lm, l"htodulf con,inual '0 """rI<
ott his 0pIu c..t.. /Uti, ....lTi Sptt>Ju". . ",...;"" ai,iql.lt of Nioc:... In 79) . .".
pos.>tbiy 794. I'""" Ihd,w Ien~hy .nd den...
....;..:non of tht Copt""""
~ awlo"'"g:n<. N~ Fntlkiol! pbn.con"nU<d .~.r.... nujor.
indeed uniV<nal, dourdo ".."ol. Tha, council. tht t..'JP'" and moM.U>piciow
ofCharlt""ll<"' lrip '" fot . ..... II F....!Wn and t..u..lkd lengthy "UJ>d.l
of ..:dc.i...ia1 an<! -w,., buoO ...... On .t... ..,..t.o. <ondoctft! in .1>< 1"'""_
of I'"~ lop........ I """""" .",boguow.. limited coodcmnarion of II Nic.oea.
"n,
1M immtdi:l., oIinmarn of Nieo<:a is ct.. n-. "'r>i&h'furwudl.SpOCl of tht

hmOl}' of ,hoot yeo ... Su, i. i. /lOll wi,ltou, punks. ~hdrian, ,n'...,.. 10 Nic.oea.
I'nn .he A.dopn... of .1It Rom,n Church .nd 1'.... Iht abbm of 5< . &.h.&.
lOlumcd in ,lit IUlUmn of 717 b,..inl lht _ of .he council I nd imperia.!
In,.... H.,jrian ~ ,ho _ ...,,01..1 in,o La,in ..,d pla"<nlQria.! of th, ..."hodo. fai,h:' A. ,1It.bbo! of ,ho
1....,..
G-'o m" ... "k~mn,uni'f n( St. ~. P....e . . . . . .

c<rt. inly billn,u.!. h
""Y h ..., lxtn ,hi. >kill
.o",m.nded him 0 ... of .h. two 1"1"1 I<s>",.
to Nia<o ..Jun&,id. a ..,ry higl' I."king nocn,bn of the 1"1"1 .dmin;"",;"n.
,Iu,
Nevenhd .... ,h. Lo,in ,.. n<l" Kon ..-'"' hI.i.,.. and poo.orly don . It ..."' h
",m""n. wi. h
l<' .h. 1-1"1 roun, I ",oon. lnowllll" of C ......k.
""d gI.....,i.. on his d.. k p"l""d lh. La.in ""..ion.' Why mu .... >killed
."",oIor " ......... ockc,I will neve, hoe no.... n. Un'!'. Pop< John VllI (87'~2) . Aruo,"';\U 8'bI",,""'riu. fK"<J"rM n<W I... in
;"n.' While Iho.
ro"...."w ...
,,=0.1..
,.nioo ..."',...,. intaC only (,."'....ms 01 ,he original, HlwN
La.in vtrsion
1r<
afl", ill ,he wri, ings of ",nl< l).",,,1< ""'" . ;.1 iL Tho imperial 1m... vanished
",!bou, a '1"XIt.
Un<kr "'rntI\lu, m1M"';"'" <;, cunu toncn du. La.in ,<ninn wound up in
Clurkmognr, lund,. po. hops as eMly .. 711t bu, ~bly. link I"et. An en.ry
un<kr .IIt ynr 79 1 in tilt Nor<hu",brian t ..,. A~....t. .. yo, Kin, CharIn of
,II< f",nb ><11 1>< .,.nodaI booIr '0 Briuin t1w had b.cn ...... '0 him from
eonotmrinoplc.M, W, will ""urn
n' , .... Owl.. .. n. the: hook
'0 Briwn. !'or hOW. " .. in,"",ung ro """ ,hot in Engj.>nd. ...,.,.. Chana,
doooe - U k Al<u.in , ......... ..;."'.... ,hn-c ..... I bdi<f tIu., CIurko had
8"''"' h is doc"""",,, .."',.." from ,I>< ' mporial coun in ,lit Eaot.. N Ann
to."" ".,.....
to """,, mpon<Ini.o tht ....
f .......... n Iw u.o..n . he F~ do ,ndeed S<m"I

"""'king "',h In official ~ No
as if dt.ty _
_ott ""'03)'> tlr.r 01+,...
'''''''gI"
loin, ,10., , be F",nb

,hey we'" wotkinl> wi,),. 'r.n<b,ion ,' Why i, di.J
not <>ut to ..,rnrone " 'he Comlingian coun ,h .. a Brun,in' council ...,mld
Iu"" mndUCI...J;" ""'in"" in C .... k i, iml"'"ib\.
y. In ,h. m"-ldle of ,h.
ninth c<n'u']I Hinrm>r "f Rei"" ..id [lut Clurlcs go, 'he Jll'l;l from Rome.'
Thi> i
c<""inl~ 'rue, but Hin<m.. don no'''y wh)' he fdi<>"C'<! this to
be ,he ."..,. h i. qui'e possihle tim Hadr;,,, hinu<lf forw:..dl [lor documen"
'" Chademas,\<. But it i.
iml'<lS<ibir ,h,It
01 in Rome n, ,hem.
10m<:<>"" who might have kn ...... " th" ,1.< F",,,Ju ""I<... ,h. prnrn' ,ime.
unlikely '0 b<: pk..<d ... i,h [he ' nuh, of Nie.c:o, drli""""i"",
If Had,;,,, him .elf ..", ,he J.xumrnt<. i, i. ,u",<i,inS tI.. t ""
1<11<1
>un-iv<> . nd ,Iu[ no men' ion of
d",umem. apl'"" in [he romin, F",nko1"1,,1 '''tTC>f>'>ndenc< p.....r.od in ,Iv: G>Ja G".lin~l. Pod"p> Had,;," >imply
... umro ,Iu[ hi> ond<m<mem of II ~ic><a would Iu,.. n>;"oo f ranki,h (fl .
Olr,..nc<. All...11, ,he r",,,Ju had " ,;tncssed. drb.. .. "n imagn u c"ntilly in
767 nd "",Iv< Fr::lnki.h bi,h"!,, Md I':micil'''ro in [he IWman Synod of 769
whne ,he ,hen reigning Byuntine ironol'l,obi ...... condemnro and ,he , .. oc ...
'",n of imag<' ...... allirmro . S,ill . .. [he Op~J c.roJi and ruin .lJiro docu
ments m.ke drat, the Franki,h vi ... "n image< had 'hitted J .. m:ui<olly in
twenty y..... If HadtUn kn ... ,hi . i, migh' II< possibl. '" ''luo th.t be ......
nu' him .. lf rnl"'n;ible fur .. nding ,he NiC<nr
ro Ch.rla becamc he
did 00' ... ,n ' 0 .. i. up .leba.. wi,h hi lIy. fti.nJ. and pro,<Cto,.
S", did Uadrim know ,hii' And wlu, did ,he Fr:onl<s know
Brunti.
urn', ",ltc-fa<:< on irnagc>~ H.re i. whct~ rhe nen" . flC. Ni""" gr[ "<']1 murky.
One can ""Iy
r""",nro $p<"cuLuion,. Th ... ,!,ului"". tum . "",,,.1 who
knew wh .... nd when 'hey knew ir. C harkmagne had . nr<rro ul"'n. rnaIf;,g<
.lIi.,ICC with ,he Byzantinn in ;81 when he .lIioneW hi, .bugh", ROIrud 'u
the young Con". n,ino VI : Thi, "'pg<nlen, W1.< !>mken olf in 'fi7 h... fOf.
frw )...,.. ,100 will h.ve b<rn r....,n.bl~ f""llKn' communica,io", ..rou, i,.
Wh .. i, m.... < B).... n'ine ruu"iu w .. XOI ro I:"mc;, '0 in"ruer ,he lU,u",
I'nn<n>.' In 786 lIyun'inc <n",)~ /Qund Clurl.. in "",rhorn h.ly whe'e Iv:
...... con'I" 'gn,nS '''''~" rh< I\c"~",""n ..n' ."d ,,;.-J '" gr' hin> ,,, ... 00 R.offUJ
b.ck wi,h ,hem. He rcfulCd '" do su' In 788 ,be Syuntin<$ .tt.<I<1 I'rmkish
in"",, in .... "'h.. n h.I)', al!egily
by ,hi, ,im<: Ch.,k> had d./ini,i,.. ly
,0..
1""",
"',,1<0,,'
'IO'
oov.,
,I.,
,,,,,,,rd,
.00."
off.,
bcco",,,
broken off [he cng>grm<m o Thi, ""]ue1l of ..... n" ><lUCS" ,h" ,here " .. '"
f.i rly C()n,i nuou< r... nk". Syun,ine C()n"'<t> b<twn 786 .nd ;&8. '~e very
yea ... whon Nicoco was hcitlg pl.""ro and .uo.lly took place. " An entty ,n ,he
Rop! F",n*;'}' An",,[' fur 7~ ... y. rha, in ,lur ).... CMrl<> s",mro S"inni",.
,k b""her of P,ui ..,h h""i,,,. I.."" In go ho"o<. He h.d ["",n c>pwtc.:l in
1",ly i4m .u.m,m."" ". k>ng ,inl< ago:' in . 11 probabilil)' .mid the d<irmishing
i" 788_ " If Si,inniu, we .. . . the Cuoling;.n roUrt, wit .." so ominent ~ ho'!a);<
h,..., bn kepi, fur ne>rl)' 1 ~<. he <:<)uld mY< been a .... I""bl.
10. wlu. hod bn going on in Co",u n.in""I . ell.tlcs ."d H od.;",
wert in rtgular ron!OCI .hro~ ,he 7fios .nd Ch:ulcs h;m$Clf vi;i,o;J Rom. in
,87 _In 7fi6 a p>p>lleg.1fion <ro....J Fl>ncia on ilS .... y '0 EnsJ>.nd who .. i, hdtl
a ... rics of kp..in .:oon<;1o. 0 ... key "",mho. of .Iu, lega.i"" ..... Georg< of
0..; . ,h. bi,hop of Ami<tU who had resided tn Fl>ncia sin", 7H.nd who W>!.,
.u.dy. one of ,he I... li'ing J";,:ipan,, in the Itoman S)...oo of]6<>. I-I. rook!
ru.ve bn a ",-I"able ..... "'" of inlOnna.ion." Finally...h"La .. detC'Cl Akuin',
hand in ,he dr.n ing of,ho kg>,ine "'po,," of %6-" If, .. Don. ld SuUough ....
"'Ilt...ed, Akuin bee>",.. fUll .ime merube. of Clurlemogn., ro"n cirde only
after JU. and 00' fro m 71'" i. u......lIy ....,med," ,nd ,inee Alwin did indeed
m"", wi,h C""'W of Os ... in Engbnd in ;86. ,hen he tOO m.gt.. be ken .. a
",-1""hI<: info.nunt about Byun.in< and p>p>laffaiB ",hen he ...,kd in Fl>nc;,_
Mich,d McCo.mick, prodigiously dWliled demon" .... ;"n "f the (.C<!u.ncy
and inmiry of u.,..Medi ..... "..,n "'n'OC" in ,II< ",.I y Middle Ages pmviJcs
~ mot< I"'.en.ial ron''''''. '' On. an malt< ,n ;mp .... i"" "'-'" .Iu, ,II I"n i..
in .h e lit< 780< ough, '0 Iu,'. known each ".h..', vi",~ and w:. ivi,i .. qui,.
fullr, And ye h.", ""'. C<\nf..u~>n ."",,,, h"w ,k F"'n ko 80' ,hci. ""py <>f ,he
Nicen< "cu, and .. riou. diffcrtn:! h>d .n"", bo:-twn tho 1"1,,1,.00 fnnki,h
_kw> o n images wi.h,m. propl. in <i.he. RDm< 0' F.-.nci. kn"wi ~S o. ad",;,
.ing .ha hOk diffcteneo aied .
mig" ""II
_if',.
7 /",,...,,,1;'111 ~f'ht Opu> Caroli

Iln.Jl tQChcd ,he fnnkislt coon ;,. no, dear
ci'h." In.i>< p.-cf..ce 'Q ,he Op"i C",,1i The.:.d"lf cdc,. ,,,. council ,h .. " .ook
place roughly .ht )-ca,. ~."" ftm,n bell...,. ,Iu, .his .. mock da' a .he
ptef"", to 790 o. 7')1,." So ,h. ,h ..." of .h. ""ry em be picked up in Francia
. Iready goins on
in .hc dawning 7']0>. Some of ,he ...-o.k of .-cfuting Nicac.
fo. Thrutlulf h.d begun dnning ,he Op", Ot",/; under unkn<>wn circum'
, .. ncn. " But .he en.'!' for 7'1' in.he y..... An ... /s ci.ed abov",.)'O 'hat Ch,.-l .
m>gn< ",n' .h. ",fa '0 E"gbnd. E""" if we "'ppose ,h" ,hi, .,mock is ft'''', ir
d"", no. II u, when .he docum.n" were di'pa.ched '" Engbnd : ...." only kn ......
th .. the .."'",..,"'", Y"rk """,Ii,, rho.< '0 record .hi, infQcnu.ion undc. ,he
yeo. 7'1'. \Vhy would Ch. tI.mognc Iu"" <cn. Nicxa', te.:or<L. ,,, Engbnd? Be
","us< Alcuin, hi, mo ... ru,tft! advi ... and i".elke ....1 j. ck..,{"I1.""d. ,,"" in
Engl, nd d".ing .h e period 790'"9 )." The .. me p.~ in ,he V"'* An ... /s does
f.u.:d)' wh.t hapl"'ned when 'he
w"
""r th.t Alruin submittctl lOme IOn of written reponlt to the Niet"e m.. eri.l>
b~t, unfonumtcir, th.t """U",..,,, va",,~ctl ~I"l "'" ..I" '"'' kroow ,""h.n h.
it, Wh Cfl he scnt i" if it "rivctl, 0' wh<r ~ it. "
lfThrodulf
.Ir..ady wu'kinS in 790 '" 79' .nJ if .. ",m. 1""'" ... ,,,dy
,he,,,,,ft., d", ....,nri,1
.re "'"
Ensbnd. what ...... Tltrodulf "'Ofk
in~ wi. h Wore AI"'tin', reu",' in 79J' It h.. he<:n .u~.ctl [hat [ho F,.,nk.,
.;<il'<'<>d
,h. ront<xt or",,,,,, or th<- ".men" in <i,. d"~, hi, .".. .... 11 le",i,,,,,,,~.oo
d ... ilctl ."d thorough .0 "'PI"''' on "gumo'" [h .. he nnHT h:td mo", .h.n
... m e" to wut\ "'th. Bu, =emly. in light of the York .nnaii,,, ..... me"t,
F"",m.n h.... uCW"tctl th .. Throdylf moy have wo.kctllO,. whil. ",-;,h ,he full
Niet"e ,ex . m.de ""1'><1< of hi, ow" hdorc 'he fuJI
of r:Iocu"",n" ..... ",n,
.0 Airuin in Engbnd,.nd [hen one< .gain gnpplctl with the rompl<tc t<xt . fte,
Alruin ', return:" Thi, i. plm.ibk. Bu. i .lCcm' unlikely to Ill h.. the """,,',
prim.,y ' ..pond.",.o II Nicae. """'tid )""" been fon;ed to wo.k from Ott"....
00 tha[ !I.e only full
w'u om, acto [he 5a..
Li.d. COn
be ",id eonlid.mly .hout how [he F,.,nki,h "",un ",.
",cd fU Nicao nd the im.g< qu ..,i<>n in 790---'Jt. The identi,;'" ",d tOl", of
th.1.:cy 1"'1'OO".li,i... re nO I... i"'riguing ,h" [h. "",',,,,' ,hem",I=. Akuin',
idlOOlh""", n.me. 'l"rodulf, i. "",," He ....... Guth, I'<'*"P' fron' S....
gou>. o. m.rho from SO!"i .... "i who w" bo[n ,round 760 . nd who ,uddcnly
.p]lC>. ... in .h. Carolingi,n
in .round 790. In .ddi,i"" .0 '""'i'ing ,h.
Op", 0.",/;, he " ..,. superb bibli",1 ",hob,., giftctl thcoiop>.n,.oo.1>< fin ...
poe' of 'he C.rolingl.1" .g. h i. nO! ...11 ""I'."i"g ,h .. .., .. kn,ctl m,n
",me '0 a"rlem'Sn.-, """,ion 0' ,h .. hi, ulen" w.tO '1'I'1;c.J [0 ,h. rompli.
",-ted "",n.. of ,<>ponding to By"mtium, Th. probkm 1<>[ "'hoi . ... i. th ... "
(or .. i, known, 'Throdulf .ppe>red ou, of no"'~.re .nd immctli"d)' , .."mctl.
l...ding col." ,h. Cuoliogl.1n roun, It .hould not bo: forgon.n tho. the .... d,
oW}' p lOS<na: "f Alruin ho,.., ... 0 . . ' .he rI~ month. of tho .ighth e<"tuty,I .. t
w"".
wo'
"'U,= ..
[0
Me'"
s,,,
,ot,
"",,,,fO,,,
"""ret.
J"",dt .
An .. ,h. yeo, 79' ,h. web of ""ide"", gro"', rno", d,n"" 00, no "",ie,.o
i"I<'1""'" In the """""" of
yeor , 1'"" ;,;..,,,,1 .... .-..;on of ,h. F..."ki,h
court', . n""", '0 Ni""" W.H ><m '0 U.d,;'n in Rom . ,,,. Op,,-, Gz."Jj ..... !
r:v.n""lIy ..... mblctl in fo". hook< 'Q(.>li"g tlo ,h,!" ..... Th'I'",,'o,ioool work.
which is "'S'"itctl differently, Iw . ishtyr. .. <hap,"" in tWO ""ies, 0", of ';"Y
.~ ,pt<" . nd ,,,.. of ..... n".fi,..,. Wh.n .h ighty.fi.-...<h.p, C....,I;ngi.n d"f,
,."hctl Rome, it "",oked. howl of 1"01<>1 , H:td,;,n [pOndctl_ he ... f, the
Hnl"'ns~_.o ",h" he ,,-,-lIctl ,h, Copi,."'" "",,",us ""Mum in Oil< of ,he
,It"
long<:>[ p' p.I I[eJl of [he <"Iy Middle Ages." Th CltP;III".,. i"elf does nO'
IUNive. ItS ,0n1<01S em be pa<1;.lIy t:OnSlruClcd from ,he ~P'"tS~'''_''' '!lu[
ii, [he pop< O[es .><1< ehap[ ,i,k .f"" .n .... her . ["j ,hen ,..h,m .I.., impliei[
or ClIpl;,;i[ critiCism of Nicaca ,ugj;<O,<II by <Kh ,i,k. Hadri,n', 10,, Ixp
.n un .............bl. q.... tion; W.. ,I.e Cltpil~/""' 'fCO[i .. 0' "",..Iy , Ii" of 00j-"lion:ible Nic<:". ~ ,hot l"hcod"lf-and oo.h< .. ' _ hod ;d.n,i~cd and
wi,W t(' coli '0 ,he POI"", >II,n.ion? W. wililUm '0 [he .nival ofth. ~po~
,~'" ill. prob.hly, 793 iu>' below. For now. I men,;"n i, only .. cviden .. for tl><
Cltpi""/"" of 792_
As [hey WO[W 'hr<>U{;h 'he Nicen. """ ,he F.. "iIS m,d. who, mu" h.~
I:>n , d iStrrt<ing di.",.,ny . nd ,h, .....y ,hey rex,<II indi"", .. [hat 'hey wi<hcd
to .-001 p""ul, n5 ,he pope . S"nding nea, [h. heod of the Nin. m" .. ial
..... Had,i .... lei, .. of 78j '0 Con,,,n, in. VI ,nd l ren. UE 14-!8: ,h. H"dM"~,,,), Thi. let<e, ..... reod om during Ni= 's """,nd ..... ioo. Some ,,,,,.men!>
r<<t.ining '0 im.gcs ,hat ,he r .. nks <k<m<ll ""'" obj<ctionabk 'Pr<. red pI<',i,<ly in ,hi, let'. T he F.. nb had no desi", '0 .,,,,ck H"dri>n ",""0.>11)' SO
,hey uIop,I [he .ubterfuge of looking hard fU, references [0 [hesc pa;s>g<>
e~he,.. in ,he Ninc """'. "mally in /U"ti(} IV. nd ,hen ... i""cd ,he 01f,ndin5
I<moth to th ..
On a ~ """",ion, [hey ,i mply made vag,.. ,efete"...
wi,h"", 'p:ifyinS an acriD, Somimd .... hen H.. lri.n h..1 .ircd one ",. , by.n
aUlho. lhe F.. nks. tefred '0 , ",bsequcn, N;';'nc ,i".ion of. c<>mpl<ly
difl<-ten, 'e," hy ,h" .,me .u[hm. Thi. ,ook .kill , nd is . fi", poin,,' ,... Tftc,.,.
,J"lr. <:ompl ... ,00 imi"" .. f.. mili. rity wi [h [he ""'4. In o,her ..."<1,, Theodulf
"""ct.
h" """'"..
.nd
had no inten,ion of .. ",iho[ing d;=rly '" H.. drim who[ [hey
,ook 10 l>c dubious ci,.,ion nd qu<>[ion, blc ,cachinif<. " Th'" .s ,h. CIt".","'''
..... being dnf,I ,he Fnnlu knew beyond a dollbt 'h" they ."J ,he P"r<
di"'l>rted on ,he ' Ubjecl of im>gc< ,nd on ,!tc <,. idence tho, >uIJ l>c ci,<II in
d,ren ... of im>ga. Givcn [h. infU.m" ion .... mbl..d .00..- bout ,he nll m<ro",
con""".l>crw<-'Cn 10d .mong Co", ..",i""pl . Ron .... nd f .. nci>. in ,he ;110<,
i, is diffic"h '0 und, .... nd how , h. Frank. could h.vc. fur ...." ..1 years, bad!y
mi<calruJ.,I ,he ,ubs .." .. "wi iml>Ol1 of rhe pope', ><-CCJ'"n.. of II Nic.ta,
Or. '0 ligh. "f ,1Ios< <:o n, "., ond ofGen'illy (767) and Rom. (769). "".hops
'he Fnnl< Iud "u' .I .. rt<! [heir own view> on inuga umil 'he 'ally 790>. Aftc..Jl. onoor of ,he pass::ogc< in [he
of 78j rei .... tl ci"';un' fro nl [h<Rom'n Synods of711 and 769 , The F...,,,k.< Iud .",,,dl ,he Synod of 769 .nd
,10 .. synod', sl><:ciiiaU y .... Airmed ,I>< 'nching of ,h. Synod of 7)" Onc< ,hc-y
$;>W ,he N;';'ne ""'4. h<>W<'Ve<. [hey p<~ivl. much more .. ,i"", problem in
Nic. .. "'mptehen,i"" defc"", of im,S" wonhip_ Th< nugoi",d. and ""h ...
"JUI""m,,,,
ru.,.
"",nee of ,t.. Rnp'''IS~m may

botn st.nling to <II< frank<. bu, 'h<)l should
h>v~ been ... <11 for ,....", .:1''''11"1<1''.
Anoth., d<vdopm<nt in 792 .hcds ligh[ on ,h... n.ion bcJw"cn Huhi.n
.00 ,hoe h.nks. h ,h""ld be nored . hoowove" ,hot non< of 'he ,,,,,,i.ing n. ,,,,,ivc
'0,",= from ,t.. F~.t\ki,h world "'nt.i",. "",n.! .bour Thtodulf. ,h. C.pill<o
or , he 0,,,, C.roIi. From ,hose oourcet, :IS indeed from Einh.nl". b,e,
hiog"'phy of o,,,l<m'g"<. one woutd no' know ,h... discll.\Sion of imago w..
undt""'r. Th. Ino,;, inf",m1li,. ",uret, for ,he Y'" 79'''Y
whil. ,he king
..... , "';n'<"Iing (,h .. i.<. ,he winlf' of 79'~') with hi' <ou rt .. Regen,bu'l\' Felix.
,h. bi.<hop of U'l\d in [he Spmi,h M ..ch. was rondemned for his .lIegedlr
d"bio'" ChtiSlologial rC>ooning. H" ror Iu, long been I.btl.d <.dop[ion _
"m." Suppooedly h. "",inuined [h" J<>u> W1.> .dopred ... .on by (;00 rho
hd"" at the mom.n' of hi, hapti.m in tho Ri,'" Jord," by John ,he B' p,ist-"
W. will mt Fdi. md hi. ",he","' EJip:tnd", of Toledo .go;n .honl). for
no ... i, i, imp", .. n, to n(~< ',..0 f""IS' the F",,,ki,h ",,"Cd ",.l. i, 'I're" th ..
..!optioni,,,, W1.> the ...U1 >criou, thrologial problem .[ thi. tim., .nd Fdix
......... nt to IW"", with Angilbert, on< "fCrulfl<m'gn<', mo" uu""d ",unscl_
10". The /&'p"",,,m .. ys pli'itly tI", An);ilbe" b'~"sht the C.,i.~".., to
Rom . '" T hi, p<rmi... oecure d", of 79' for ,hi, prdimi<\ary
of """k un
,he resl>on",!O N"" ... n,,'e i. nO .. iden fu, how long Angilbe" .....yed in
Rom . Siner Angilbert d id h,,. ron~.<t wi,h the pop< in the C..e ofFoIi., md
,iner on [hot m"l<r , h< Fr.mks,nd ,he pop< ,..." in p<rf"", ""ron.!. i, is. f,i,
h)"J,Qth"i. th., Anglibtn .Iso di",o..."j ,he C.pi,."'" wirh H,.J,i,,, . The ... i,
n<> e-id."o: to pro .. 0' Ji.ptoV< th .. he brought b.d H.dr;'n, Inpo ...... \1:"""
heleorned, who,
if .nr he hod on the pope. '" wlu, p<""",1 m~
the pope might ho"e givcn him arc .11 gon< beyond r;OV<ty. Wh .. i. mo...
em ful p1OloOpogrophial r.... "'h ......1. ,h.. Chorl.n,,,!>"e h.d with him ..
R.q;tn.bu'l\ virtu. lly all of hi, k<y Rom.n md BY'.. min< ..Iv.",,,, ""'" ",i,h
"'p<tie"" r<"O<hing back 1 d=<k or mo ... " Thi> di,,,,",..(1)' .Jds '0 the my.lnY
,urroonding ,he ,li'I',,<h of the C.,i'""'" to Rome. Did thi, group of wily
diplom." d.... i'" ,he ,<>1u.1 ~n.!em.i" tlt.>t ,,'" ",cd ,,, doH"" cri,;,ism (",m
Hod,i.n him, lfl If ,h. ,.."ful .pproa<h of ,h. UpilU"'" ...... Throduir. wu,k,
... we to .uppu;t th .. no on< hootheml t<ll ,h. ><mbkd "old hond, ' [ho,
",ri"u, problem Iw.I ,ti",n. or th.t they ".-elf 00 mfo,med but t<"COmm.ndcd
[ho, ,h. C.,i ",,,, be
."yw.y?
The ,ceo rd. of ,he P"i, Colloqu)' of8,\ provide' du. ,h... hed. runh ..
lish' on ....en" in 79' ,nd ,hI will help to nu".. tlt< n. ,,,,,i,, . Iong '0 79;1.
The bi'hop> who ..... mblcd ., I'.,,, und ,he ><gi< of Cho,lcm.gn", ,ucceOr,
I-"<ti. the Piou. " .... addressing ,he n""'ed ou,b~k "f iconophooi. in B).,.n_
"'n.
,ru.,
"'S'
,",p.c<
'0
,,..01,,,,,,,1
[ium . 1"h<y "y, .. fmi"g
,I., m....i.1 .,'"
read
,,~,
[0
[h. ~,.. di,f'<".' ,h., ., , m=ing of JOIT>O kind
fo[ Ch.rI.nI"!;".', .pprov.I. " Th.,.. [<c<>.ds :octwll)'
""""i. 1< [h. publi. d ....... ion wi!h [he CApinJ.r", [hal Angilbert lOok [0 Ro"",_
If ,h .. [ ..... mem is .. .-icIly
,ben ,h. l'I,blic =men, '"by ~im!<lf Ii....
Ch.,lesl ,nd hi, me""'
h.... ,. ken 1'1..... R<g<n'burg in 792 ,
Th. V. ,jcan manwcril'[ of [he 0P'" .hro, .ddi.iolUlligh, "" [hi, po.ioJ
",hik ck.pon ing ,h. mYSl<na d..., .urround i,. V. cicmu; La,inu; 7107 i. [be
:tCm.1 """king nunu",.ip' of ,he 0,1# c"rW_ h is ,,"'que due"",e",, AI[ho ugh thi. trulnu",[ip[ now u.:b [h.c.. [he ol"'ning of book o"e , .nd ,II
ofbool f"".,," it .. ill displays a' k.., J,iOO ",,,,ccciorn.." Som< of 'h<lC .moun '
<0 no mOl< ,h' n ,h I"",io" of. I." .. Of twO within ingle word. Som.,.
[im"" how"",," whole P>"'SC', mnning '0 dro~n, oflin .., ...... e;,be, cro><cd
ou!, <,.. ..-d, or <r.<d . od replac.ed_ In g<n<r:oI 'erm' .... "''' -'"y du' ,be "edi
to,..." ""rtccted ThroduiJ. H isp>ni.m" trphr.<d p>M>gc<. odded rd.:crnca, 0'
IOn<r.! (. ndlo bon<ned) [h. [('X[" vieio", criticism._ F"",m.n di",.rns "
I.... , four h."d< .mong the cofT<c[o"" None an be Kl.ncilKd. Th. ovc.-.Il
im pcr:ssion """vryrd by the V" icon m~uscript i. of. "tram" rtfort .. tbe mrt
<>'<n if... F... man', "",[i,ulo", J<Se>l<h .. ha"e demon".-.,ed. l,..."I"lf was
p.im>fily rcspon,iblr f.,,- ,h. ,h.p< and ''11""",n, of ,II< 0,.... Sr,io, ...u<nti"n
was Ia.ished on !hi, work. Th. Vat ican manuK.ip< r<VC1h a major ,"'labor... ion
.",ong Charlemagne. b",in [rU",
In the margin. of ,h. mon u".ipt F,<Cm1" ~nd nd d.>cipbe,... " Ie...
<igh<y-on<. and pos>ibly <igh')'_d...... nor".;n T iron;,n ,hor.h.nd . In. further
twcntr-righ. cases .he detectS ,,idrncc fur ,hor ",i.tence of. note thot an no
long be rad. As. 'QUlt of. arch.> rebindi ng of [h. hook in tbe ni .... ,.,.n,h
ce~ "'')' ~ m.,,)' m<n. no ... Wef< sliced off.be roW" of the !"g<>, Som< of
,h.m h" T kft ju;, hi"t . hat 'hC)' we" once th.""." That not .., virnwiy
,Iw>ys one 0' ,....-. ",btl!,.<uclt '-' M", b-... , ("rJ",&" P<~"" "'pi,n"" o. ""'''''
~,reco.d .ith [he ><;Iwl <eKtio'" ofCh"I.m>gn< OS .he .m.k was ..-..l in
hi.! pmcn or [he colloqivc """'io .... of hi. kC)' o>uni."" We m.y be ''''', in
Oth "'<>rd" .hat bo.h ,he "",rk ... whok .nd doten. "fit> individ ...1 . rgu_
rnen" had !h. king', rxpr<><cd apl'[o ... l, Indeed, [h. w<>.k .. "",ibed [0 Ch ..b
himSrlf- TiK W~"" of Owrkt RK~i"" 'M SrwJ-. foct oomrwha[ oo.rured by
the fo,,,,,,. ,itle. 7;' c,,~iM &x>1H.
II,,, "",he,, did it g<t hi. 'pprov,l? Th ..... icst
is '0 oay"'at Res''''''
burg." Th". i. no doub< tha, mch.n ......."<. """Id be .rue_ Ilu. i. n,>gh[ n.o,
be ,<>mpltte_ Th, is. wh.<n ,be
00 '" Rome it con ... ined ...
nored, <jgh')'.~"" chap .... in tw<) Sr. i", of ,i x')'.nd "...n'l~'-'. The ~<>I 0;"'1
,h.p'= of the UP;",,,,".t< no, ..... ngrd ...,d)'lik. the ~"t .i. ty dupt." of
XCI''''''
m""
''''we'
up;"""''' """' ..
,n.....
,he 0,,,,, bY<

i, .n ""~,,,II ,imil,n,y .nd both IOcw h.,.ily, in ,h...,
>cai",,,, on m. Uer< of biblic:ol in'P,,,ion. The c..,ilMt..rh >-ond <c.i"" of
dup'." [(co. , wide <:lng< of i.,,,,,,, in no ,)~m .. i. ord ... Ev<n,u.lIy m.>n) of
,hruc i..""" mund ,hei, ""y imo b.::>ok> ,h= ,nd fom of ,I>< Op"'. Book mm
Cin<>Ol be inro'P"""ed .. ,hi. point in'"
p><n' disc""ion bca.UI< i. i,
only known from ,he nimh-mmy P,n, "..,nu,,,,ip" n.., m.nusc,ip' mihi"
neith 'he eo,="ion; by ~ulf .nd o,her<
'he origin,1 1<,,, no, the
Tirooi,n 001<>. Bu, book ,h,ce .... mmy OO'<1ion . Ibei, few." rh. n book>
one .nd ""'" ind<cd. book!WO. ,he .hon<>, in ,I- Op",. i< ,he m"', m... i.ely
O>rf<C,ed. Book ,h.cc .1 .... h", ,hinccn Ti",,,i,"
, nd fr"",," has been
abl. 10 iden'ify k,ur cases ,..I><'e ,hel"< "... , on , nme ,h., i, no longe' 1<1I'ble.
Th. poin,. qui,. ,imply. i, , h.. ",",k ""n,inued ,II ,he while on ,I><
.nd
,ha, ..... h w<>,k pmhably ..nded well i",o 79)'oJ f'OS'il,ly in,o 794
8o<h ,he
of .he o,..,.nd.1>< V.. ican m'nuscnp' rlO.ide evidence for
.... n!S in rh. CO",,", of 79) . Concc",ing ,he '''' of ,he Up'" ,wo poi", m,y he
m",k Fin'. ,I.< ",riou, i...... of ad"",ioni,rn. ",hid> fo' ",,..iou, ~fU Iud
ph~ .h",I" ,ciy n" .01<" ~i=>. imp<:! i""lf on
in >cv<n1 pl>eca
Such td".... nca m.y h,v< been inw'P"""od :II K<g<o,h"'l1 Of ....,y hav< been
inw'P"", ..d I....... reo,,!, of .he con",lr .. ion, on ado!""'.i,m .h......... k ph
Such rcfc,.n= m'gh. well ha,.. 1x.:n ;"","ro during .h. cou"" o( 79) o.
7'J . .. pl. ... wt:re unde ....... y (0 he Council o( " .. nkfull wl><<< .h., i"" o(
adoptioni<m li ..... I1) .opped .1>< age"'!.. Sond. in ju< few pbca in book
four .he i"nu.""" of Alcuin has bee" d<t=cd. ~ II is ,,0< irnpu<>ibk .h., .",ne
",m. nho.,.ion, r.om Alcuih, kI. f,om Engl.nd hmJ ,h.,i, "'''y ''''0 "",,,k. ""e
.nd twO which arc 1>rgdy de...otcd '" cri,ici,ing Nic.'" bibli",1 rd"crcncn.
Almi o
him<clf . formidahk bi"'i",1 ",holor.nd hi' letter. or ."",il<. """'
b.u..J n. ,h ",ho.i.y nf ,h. di.i". ",.ip,,,,..,.:
poi". ,h" boo .. re
OlCmbenng i,
Ale"in did no. roourn from Engl.nd ",,,,I -",me.in ..
in
the fits. h.lf "f 79j . Too. i. i, hard." belie'''.
Ch'fl<m'gn< would n.... h.o""
"",hcd ,,, h<" Aku",.. "',;.,., on ,,,,,Uet <I"" Iud I,...." J;>cu...,J '" hi ...... '"
.nd ,h .. Iud been "'fitt<n iooo" m""i"" If.>li<<
i..<1( ..... ,he ,..ork of.
gre schour.oJ , lfOUp< o( eolbhon.o ... Whil< we c:mno ...y for ccruin ju>.
wh" ..." g<>ing on in 79'. 'he
,nJ ,I>< m:onu"'fipt> "f.1>< 0,. ,.10 poin' ",
.... n.inued , .. i>ion.
,h.
'0
no.""
0,,,,
,ex,
,h. 0,,,,
th.,,,,,.
wa'
it," ,h.
.Iu,
,h.,
I".
.Iu,
'a'
n" .....rrttion. in tI V..icon m'n"""ip' ..II .... 1... " ..,i... Eve" .1o""gI,
'''' con"",.
""""1,,.;,,,,1) ,,Iu ..... go: ,he Op", h.d ",,,,hcd ,,"I.<n Angilbe ..
d<p"'cd (". R.>",e in 79'. i. >:m, ~ Ie>. ,h.. [he V.. i<:>n m.nu>c,ip[ h..J noc
)"<' been begun. So on. ,rory ,old by ,h. m.nmcnp, i, ,h .. i, " ... ,,nfl.n
,w.
.n.ll,,~ 79) or ~.rly

in Frm.n, """ds,
bm<'<cn A"gilbert', d"J''"u"
,ht manu"rip' i.5 bes,
~tvd
7~, Ano,~ ..... ory
,old by
lb.: i.5 a curious d.m.,,,,,,i,,,, in ,h. V.tican m.nu!Cl'ip' ... htr< prodUCli"" . .. nduds ,uddenly ,nd markedlyda:line. Up '0 LC li_e_. Lilni
Gm,uni. " i, "'.,. ,l.en ",lIedJ ) ,J! [h. scriptOriu m u.oo it< lin[ palm_
men, . nd .upplied fine, L.ug< ,n" tais lOr ""o;h d u r 'o<, .11 of which wt,~
""i"en in an <I<1\o'n' "", Iy auoli "" minuscule; ..-hen di""",ion of tl.e
ron",nl< ..... h<d in mi,"' .... [h ... wtl< accompli.htd wi,h S=' "'I<
Aner LC }-[J [he dUf2<,er of [h. K[ip' de,io"" ... hc:coming 1000<,
. nd roo ...... m"" of the initi.! . ... .<m>J1 .nd me.". hob .ppcor in
,I.e I"'",hmem. ,nd wh"le pog<> al< roughly <TOUl out. i.... <>d of
being ",refully <...ro and rcwr'".n, .. before. II "I'pur> [... , ..,mc_
'hing h .. "'pp<n<d by which ,h-r .m<rprise .... b<ro hligilled. h", fI()f
h.lted. "
F~m>n h<1~ .nd I 'hink ohe mus' be righ'. , ... , ,h. "ri.,.,1 of ,I.e Rn,.",u",
>howed ,he Fr.lnb just how ",Mle chasm "'P"tated ,hem from 1"1'.1 Rome:.
The 0,,,,
W>.I
brough' ,,, romploti"", '" ..
'"r n" V...
Lo ,. 7107 w rom _
pined lu.tily. wi,h"", ,he 0 ......1 polill!. lhc: ....rio .. 'uch could no' be "'hi to
, he I"'P<. 0' d' ... m,,, .. <d J!<" ..... lI y, "'i,h"", ad ...."i.,,,g .Jurp diiJ. be,...,.,n
the pop< .nJ Cb.rlcs. Gi,-.n the d& nri. 1 tone of 0,,,, ,.6. ,he ""'" rigorously pro-papal in the: whol. tr<at"' . Iongside many o,l.er m.rh of rnp'
p,iJ '0 ,he POi> .,><1 '0 papal
,h. idcn,inc.,ion of
di,id. " ...
no douM disconc<ning but .n .d",,,isemm' of i, was un,hinkabl . w. will
n.....,r kno ... wh." /i""I. mi.5<d . nd co,,~,<d ",... iOll of ,he ap.u mig)" Iu~
looked lik. as. book, . nd "... anno< '" "',. ,Iu, .n of i" '<gUm.m, woold
h.v<: ,,""" "">cdr .. ~ "",",' [.-ad ,hem.
1.... Votic.n ",.n."""p< ,dJ. )..... n",her ""'Y, I" tbe course of i" ongoing
1p~ wtr< ' .... ri".n'~ condem" odop<'oni.<m , " I.. "~,, from
Eiipandu. ofTokdo.nd hi. fellow Sp>.ni.5h bi.hops .. pbin' ng ,heir ItlChings
'0 Charles . nd to dr. F.. nki!lt bi.5hOf>S arri.-.d in Franci. in 79> '" N )'" In...
ku." mme ..... !>ern sober ".,rning th .. Feli condem",,,ion .. Rr-geruburg
In N1,.... no, guing to ru,.Ft end to. serious doc,ri".1 qu.anel ,b.,
, he ' '''Y pc""n of ju' Ch,i ... ru:rordingl)', ,d'<ren<c< 10 Chri,,', con",I,..",_
, i,lily ,,,.1 Mel'''''ty wi,h ,ho Father. o. to Hi, bcin~ trn;"'s' "'" " """pi;"","
"",. ,ybtl), in,roduced into ,h. Op~,. It i. p""il>le ,h .. Akuin ,.... 'ommooed
from Enp.nd p[<ci.d~ ro deal ... i,1! ,no .dop,ioni<t 'ISU< fOr h. ,<n:.inl)' WfOl<
, 8'''''' .1<.1 on ,he .uhi<c' in ,he n.,,,, fow "",..." If ,hi. i, ,rue ,hon [hi, .rory
,,..,j"'on.,
"Id>.
.....i,,"", .......
,,,,,,,hod
COIlnU ,..,ua1 .nd m>n~lCrip' NidCflCt wh ilt .1", """",ling how Thcodulr.
book "" imag<:> ...... """",irnn mA,......:cd by ",h., 1""'J'1 nd i.......
And ,1><1.;'.~"'" ory. B<au... it d.."" '"' ~ from book fOur i,;,
.. mo;ch. ",n'" ... ' m.nwcrip" ""'Y. b." tho:", it cood "'""'" ,,, "'_
if .... hod ,.... V.. ican nunw.r"pt' """"'n of book four """ ...,..1<1 br . bk
.0
m. Ii'o<",1 m'ni"ri<>n. ,bo,.n: ,he .......Ktcn 10 ohio 1m uk. It
otnru .... , 0,... ~"l. whICh eti'iaud 'M cbu... of II Ntca<"> '0 un;'<n>Ii,y.
W10 OIi" .....1y me2fI' '0 br ,ho: 0,... . WI c/upt .... &0, th< <nd of ,h. b<Jok ..
_ ""'" k - n. ~. :11 . .. a cbopt ,hot by> oot new d>roty rq;ardins m.
univcnolicy of cou.nc~l- 'n..- d,ffn.ncn ~ ,100 .... <Iupt.n will br ditcu....-d
10.... bu, f<x ........ i,;' ""ir import.nt to uy that ... pI:rn. IQr F,.."kfun mn. in
uN, m. F nks ....... buiklin, a n..it ' 0 be univ....! council.nd .hoi,
dclibcn, ..... on ,hi> rna,, found ,ho:i ....., i.. to tho: Opws. All of th ... "orin
ho:lp ... to .it\la,. tl>t 0,1OJ .nd ,he- ,m.- oon'''''""'y wi.h ... the ~n" of the
yar 791 .. pianni", (Onllnucd fo, Fnn~fU"."
..
,ha,
.UwoI"'"
ro,
11>< ",+0,,10 .i,u. ,i"" " ,,,ounding ,h. Council of ""mkfU" UU!1< 79~) i .....,
. nigm,.. ic. This i. '"'' d,. pl.lCC" fOr . full.unom.n, of ,h. p.obkm. ,u""Kmd.
ing.oo .he occom pli' hmcn" of ' h" cooneil." I ,h.II p!o h ..... ' ' ' <s. How
d id ,h. cooncil " ... , ,h. ,ubi:< of II Nico.. . nd of im'lId? \1('h" ""'" .h.
roundl , .......1
Cbo,lemagno, .. Io,io'll ,..i,), 1''-'1''" H-.d.ian? \I('h" ki"d of
.boo,
council ...... i.?

in 79J 1'-'1'-'1 e'''"", ",.h.> wt ... "p"""'n,...! wi.h 8"''' ~ifu" n.., Ourk.
nugnt in ..... 'hwfi' '''n Gfrm. ny .......,Iy bcf",. ho: .... n' fO S' . tGlli:rn, in Wan
burs f", Chri ...ru. ... ou....""""" .hen mo"ed r-,.nkfu" ...-he... ho: >p<n' 'M
winter of 7'jH. II.. F.... ,.......... (F..... n "'"211 lo.h od> oJ) . nd ,he ,im. ,Jo..n '0
,he ,......,a1 uocmbly of .11. !'rank> appo;n.ed "" Frankfun "" Jun ." 10 tho:
mid" 01 ,,,,,,- .... mbly <..""ho. k. ho:Id ""a, .ynod ;11<1...1;,,& " ,he bDhupo
from hi> ..i>oIc klngdom:' am)t<i"" to 0"" I0Il<, or ,ho: Hbilhops of <d,,1.
Ganuny. ond luly.M>mKtli", ,0 .""'..... n.. .)-nod "'2> held in th< procna
of the ~ icp'<> Throphy\a<t ond S,cphcn." I. iolikdy th .. thn.t ......, the
............ kp, ............., ....,h Charb 10.. '" ,he ~ ynr. But i, i>
1..>,.
'0
D<W kption w'" ..... , br Hadri.n.

n.. 0,"' ..... already..-cy fat ><h-anced br 1.... if}- "The ~u. ohould
~ " .., a
prob.Iblr be- . ttribu,ed
'0 ,he I'"'JW ""''''"''1 ., . he <nd of ,ho, yeo . FtcettU"
<e>oJs tho: key ~ on
"fu '0 ....... bo. the en...,.. bi-oogIt. the "fu to
Cha.icm>&n< '" IOfttn ,ht blow." I ""od tht L"in ,he OIhe. w. y ...... nd.nd
m.in .. in
011 ,he con".,)', ,Itt to"..".. SO' ~fn from Charkmagnc. p.m.!"
,lti> was peKe offe,;n, on hill"''' ,n<1 he ,.al,=I
hio C.,i~ Iud
m:ci~.in. ,Jw. ~ rep<i<.n in RDmc. Ie i, unl;kdy .... , p>p>lIcp""
WCK ,nipU"Il :obou, Alcnunnu ,n ,he- tare ... ,um" IooIung fOr a..rlemagnt
10M - . .... nn' h" h"", a .... J>fOit- PooNbiy they tn<1 him at S,A'~Iim.
01. mG", lik.!y ., F.. nkfu" atly in 794. AJ u..";"1 of 79-4 P"'1I'ased, and
.. ~,ioru '" ,he ......bIy .nd >unc~ of Frank/Un connnuni >fNC'<, the
Fronb now Jt- lOr am,n
Hod,ian had rcjecttd thei. condtrruu.tiun of
II Nieac-. and d,ci ........ 011 ,mar;<t- VOII don S,cinm bdiocval.
he """Id
Gc.ca
01 .....,;"",. '" ,"'" 1i",,1 ..,., of ,"'" ~<bigncd ,,, bring i
li,dt n-. in", ti~ wim ,he p"p", vicwo. FrtmWI i> .l.q>licaI." Who, .....
""n ...no,;"""
~ ,he Franlu and .he P>l"licptd. the ap.s .....
has.ily conc:l...Jc.l and .il<ntlr lit..! ...... y in the ruraI.w.;....,..
prime . " n. lio.ie .,,'"'''' lOt .h. eooMil of F..
JOys only !hat i,
w.. hdd '" condtn>", fOr.he . hird ,in ... ,he hcTay of Foli. The
,hen
di'r<'tly '0 ,he ""',h anoJ bUlw of
wik f ..,r><b.. A
u.a konoJ ,hen in'p<>ia,coJ in,o ,he <1,(1)' fOr i"14, ., in end, " The pocudosynod
of ,h. G, ... t... which .I"')" .... Id (,,' , I,. . cl_"ion of i"..11""
hid> ,I>ry
fal ..ly call ,he ..... ", h. was rejt<'N by ,he bUh"",,"" The I., tnioN ""f>;""
of ,he hpJ mdi,h iI~",," .10" .... n,ion Fel,,', cond.",".,jo", ' h<n >tid!,
"Thy,,,,,t ' '''''. ",h"""'.oJ _mblN 0 kw
ogo in Con ... n,inopk und ..
I",n. and h ""n c,n".n,i .... nd called by ,h.m "m o nly ,he ...... mh b",
~n uni",,~, .... <ai, asitlt by NCty<MI< .. ""mpk.dy .nd tot:oIly lU<bo ""
i. _Id nOl he ronsid<-tcoJ '" aIled ..... n,h or uniwnal."" N.i,h., of
,t-.... lOUIe", "",n,ion. Theodulf. Ak~i b. ,., ,~.
Th. ac.ual anon. of F",nUiJn ..... in pe<ftc. ocrord ..:i,h .he anrulistic
IOUI'U< i" on< I<ry ,t<p<'CI: Fc-li., ."Mlcmn .. ion ... nd, lin. Then crr.on """
odd, ..... im:ogn .nd Niea<a bu, Joe. >0 in . n ...""i>hing "-.y. Th~ canon
rod.: "n..- """"ion of ,h. '<"n rnod of the G...-lu, "-hidl __ held in
Con""IIi<><>pic fot ..... do< .. ion of imil(;< _ mt<t<d in'" the diocuWon,
.,... lind. wriftm ,her...... 'htr wbo do r'IOt I"r to ,he imoga of ,he ";nu.he
~ I<1Yict 01 ado ..""" as '" , .... tfuoi". Trinity ue bound by .............. 0/1'
>bow "",".ioncd __ hnly r.........." .-1y ...;..:.~ ...do odon.ion 1nd ,",,'Ocr,
kolt i. and."... i" oondnnning it. ~" l"" 1.:0,;" OJ ....."'" bu. , .... txric >dopd
heK is <Yen ...:on .....
A, Nieat~ 8ishop
ofCono..."u in Cyprus had copIici,ly:and
eutfuUy oaid
i ............ "'" '" b. poid the I<1Yict 01 . . . .tiun p>id '"
the ...,.,. Trinity." Somcho.. his ..., ....." ..... ptblcd in .h"""",isoion,
.ko.,
,ko,
,ha,
,ko,
_......x..
,.....u
"kfu"
o..n.m'W"',
n..
movn ""
fC1'
.,oJ ..
)'f"'"
,ko,
o,.u.
.ha,
eon...n,i ...
I',"bobl), in ,he I"J<" La,in YC'~"" of .he _ dut CJv.rkm"W'< rca,.'<\!, and
carne ""' wi.h him in,ining .hat "1 rctti ... and emlmoee h"""l>bly .h. holy and
mO<. ",,,enbl. i"",go occording ",.he ""Mo<.,{ adowion ..hich ' I"'Y'o ,he
oon$u!"",",1 ar><! lifc_gi'ing 'Iiini'}' .~, Thi, ,"'ernen, w ... ",,-erd~ ~ri,;<i7;:d
by Throdu.f. hu, "" mo'" ..,. ...,..ny. ,h.n doun, of o,h ..... In ,he R"p"",,,m
Hadrian .ddr<tJ thi, p.a<~ by s>ying .iu.t .b. Grtt'" bad OtrugglcJ with all
. hei, might to men from he,<">y.nd .h... fu, ,h.ir . wl vi....." on imag<>o on
houlJ (U'n 10 the &/ini.ion of .hynod as wh"k." H. did no< dirccdy
add...,.. the d\argc it\<lf. [>.rlup. ,h. Fl>n'" rta>Of!c-d ,ho. ,h i, one , ..,.m"",
would be _n by .h. papal ic-g;r.<> ., SO ou, "ndi.h . nd 00 indckn.ibk. ,Iu,
,hey would arncur in it> roooemn ion. If .h..,.. Iud lookc-d .h. f.ult), Latin
...,nion of ,h.,uu .h..,.. would h..,. been .bl. to <o. i.fy .hem!<lva .h .. Om_
".n,inc had. in"..-d ... iJ .hi,. A look
C,ttk """ mi);ht I..", ",. ightcncJ
them ""t. but no on<.ICc"" (0 ho .. wed. the C,eel "<I$ion throug:h all ,hu<
Y"' .... Wha he Fr>"k. gut. ,he"....... vcry q\".i~I .",,,-,,,mna, i,,,, " f "ne
.... ement all<g<>lly u".,..! .. Nie>n.. 11m "'''' of ,ho .m.. ingly amhiguou.
Lo,;n .,{ conon """,1 The las, d .... can be rnJ ... I did .1,,,,,<. ,,, ",,,,n ,h.,
at
at.""
one Mat.n>rn' . nd "ne ,,,-,,men' only. """ ""ndcm...ro. II", ,he panici[>l.. in
,,",, .nrc""e.rc plul>land <oulJ be ,id .. , nominoti ... 0' """"'.; .... either ,h
uhj<c1> '" d,. ohi.." of ,he "'" m.in ' erb,. ,,, adjccri ... modifying ,he holy
father! . lu t;. ,he hi.h0l" .... mhl<d >< Fr;rnkfu". The dOl,'" ,",uld be rnJ as
... j:,;...., "fNiocac. ",," "'Mft." It i. hard '" beli<v< ,I"" p. p>II<p"" would
h.1'< accep<c-d ,h., . " the ambiguiry innoccn.?
Some dues ,,, .n .n'....er '" ,Iu, 'lues,ion 1>','" memioncJ .bo""." '111.
k4pl f",nwh An""". "hith .. ",.J el<> .. in ,im. .he <v<n" ,hey <bc. ihcJ.
m... ,Oo,,I ""Iy ,h. <<In<k,,,n,,;on of Fd ix. Lo.<I, at .
th .. s;mply Cinno'
be dc<wnir><d, someone in'apol 1 > , .. temen' ,,-j.h '1>'0 fundomen."! cIe_
me"'" Nica", ..... , " I""""""ynod " Nieaca was f.lsdy ",Ikd ,he .ICV<n, h."
w. also <ow .h.. tloc ~i.d anrul5, which <;ctt>inlf polol-dl,. F...nkli.,,, br
!!O<'. ..... ,he ...."nch "",,,nie>! couudl of ,I"
dltlh 0' a unive",,1 co~ncil , T_ mh .. annalis,;c SOurcr$ .Im .n: ne.,ly ""n_
,em"., ry wi,h FranH"" .Iso ,""",I wme o( ,,,= .h..... ,.""ies. 111, /Anth
Ann~h "",l e ,10 ,n'n,ion ...11 of Nieaca, im"!le<. 0' .be Gr b. provide an
unWlually long, .I".ill hrip'ion of Fdi,. ""ndem n1<;"n . nd call F"'nk~,"
un;" ....,. "",meil ."
M"Xi""",,," An ....1r do no. ",II F..nkfun " n; ....... I.
t"" like ,hoc /bqt>/ Fr.mti,h An_Is, .hey . nume ..1< all ,he 1'1.. ,h.. b"h"",
Cime fro m, even add ing 11.,.><;' '0 .h, Ii" . 111" ..-.""", .1", u,.. ,he ,...,..d
pi<t>dorynOO" fo, Nieaca .nd ",jcc" numbcring i, .. ,he- .lCV<n,h rouncil, "
H,
.".1
1"""
do,.
Pulling lh ... di,!,' '':''c >QUrttI l<>g<"thcI pclmit<. kw infrrtnccs . bout au

tbotitati .... Franki'h thinkins, They ,hem.dv.. ,,;.,oed Ni",,".nd .cfu~ ro
1 i[ bec..Jled ">n'enth" or "uni""... I," But thcydi<l n'" go '" for .. '0 I~" ,hi,
"i'ion on 'he remrd ., F"nkli,1'l in ,h. p' ... n~ of ".".) kptcO_ At I.,..t
. hey did rwt do .... if un. si"""' m ;nim.li" ,..,ding '"
h,,,,,,, ph"-ling of
,h.lu, 1"" of ",lOon two. Gi,= th .. .<orne "r the bc;, mind, of the F... nki,h
wo,kj h.d boccn .ddr=ing 1M ing< q ..... i"" .nd )) Nicao. for some iQur '"
~,-c )""""' nd given ,Iu, .. Ie:o" "nee .nd m.ybe twio:
image i..... ,,~
.. guro out in Charlemagoc', ptence. i, im li"k odd ,lut '" mw::h eflOn
pruduC<'d .""h mode.. "'01" .. F.." kfult . nd ,h., 'k 0"" ,.... .., q uiekly
fOrgo".n , Bu, ,here,.... n"'" t" .void . n OUtright b,cak with R<.m., I>y
looking du .. ly at how ,h. F",,1cs . nd 'M pop< dodgtd ,he inug< qUC>[Oon, .nd
by <om!",ins ,ki. ''''"tmeht of lho, ' I><cilic"''''' wi,h ..,me ",k. iuc> ,Iu,
W<rC tkn being dilCU>Jcd by the Caruli nsi.n .nd pap.1 COUrt.,
will bc ,bl.
[0 ICC more pri5<Jy how [0 un<kr<t.nd wk .. tk i""F <on'"",."y~" in ,he
I>rger ft-amcwu. k of the hi"o!}' of ,hi, p'llicul" ('<riod
Lal<' Sttlioru of ,hi< ch'p'<1 ""'ill U'c:t, F"nl;trp>p.l I.,ion, in ",,,,. detoi1. For now, I wi.<h ,0 fucu. (On ,k yeo" I><:<w:" .f..:o<" 790 ."d 79~ .M If'
I"ok doly .. ,h<c twO i.. u<> ,h .. h.ve: ""m< ." 0\11 , "<n,ion .I.cady. Ni<>c>
.nd ><lop,;oni,m, .nd ,h.n ",..Jd 0'" more i",u nomdy [he p'<lS>Km of the
Holy Spi.it_ Tht ""')'1 in whieh the iss'*<> weI< tt".ted in the fOur 0' fi,-. yea ..
Ilnd~, "",jew illumin ... cach ",hocr, hdp [0 d arify the ""'y:l in ,,-hieh Charles
~nd Hod.i." deal. w;,h ,k problem ~ by Nica.o> . M .Md I,gh[ on [h<c
wo,k of the Council of F"'nkfurt ;,self
Kigh' .w>~, one roin[ nero. 'I<r>ti"" .nd ex!"n.ion. We ","W
.h..
in p"'l"ring ,h. C.pitwu .. T hcodulf .nd hi, as""';"'" wc'" c"'m<iy careful
no' '0 ."rih,u. [0 H ulri. n himidf mr ltol<m.nt thot they ml<ndctl to
Obvi"."ly they did n", ... i,h '0 p,o....-.kc '" '" impugn ,he orthodoxy of ,hoc
pop< whooe .... m [hO)' WC'C "",king, O f""' .... tbey did nut know, .. k.SI nOl
In de,.;I. wh .. Hod".,, ', =ion wo" 'd be umill..c in 79.1 or pcrluJ" ",'Cn
'-'"Y in 794. We Iuve .1so _n thot it i. ""'!' diffirul, to discern octu..J ch.nges
in ,he
of [he Op,,-, !IU[ ..,c,e <><=.<i""ro by Hulri.n', 1"1. But"" can
look., otb .. lCC,ion' of tb. Op,,-,. ",n,. of ,,-hi.:h ouy h.ve: boccn nni,he<l in
79' when the Urp;"'''''' ",as compkted but I f...- of which Ivt defini,ely
co"'posedl .... in 79' 01 in 79.1.
Seve ...1 tino<:< in ,k COurst of
Opus Thcod",. . i,h., <"ed d ir<aly 0<
. lIuded indi,<Ctly [0 [h<c Dm~", G<"'sian~"' . work composed ..... ,,""k,. in
nlUl)'.nd long "",hOlro to POJ>< Gcb,;u. I
north",n holy in ,h. early
(. 9>----96).'" Thi, book ,.... .. Ii" of
deemed .00h cn ,;': .nd 'OIhoriu[i"".
,h.
,h.
w.
.',.,-ad,
.".ck.
,a,
,b.
""It
,,,,n.
a!ks<d1y by!l~ .ut"".i!)' of tM l"'f'<.1Iy \U.nin~ (0". number of (ima ~'M'

'" bun""" the rdilbili!)' "f hi. own v~umo:nu o. '" mack 'M c.m.ibili!), of
Byun';nnel<imonia. Thcodulfimrh",lr ~ '0 the pafW oundmI" ~
i,. aruin 'rony Mre. " ' -. 0,... , ,6. ,lot ""'" . ;,;.......,Jy pt<>-papal ch.pIn
in , .... book. did "'" 'Pf'<"1 ;"
c.,.l~!.'" and Iftm. "'" '" Iu .... ben.
n....dull'. """,k in 'M Ii... 'n'..." . ... h, ,ndu,ion in "'" Ii...! vcniooJ of "'"
~
aall.." n..ompk of ,IK ""Ol'<.nd impact of ,lot ptOCI!SI of
~ ., ,IK c-,tinpan (OUn , Tho:doulf. an IMri.ln Goth. Iud ~,
""My ."iludt ,...... ..1 on",1 p>p>I J'OWft ,lid 'n' ........ ';.".. Tau .... , _
in
Spooi .. ;n tht ~rliaI . . . of tho: odopoiooiol con."... ny berny ..... pm< .r:wn;o.
nan.
Rornt." I I.......... ....."ion. 'M flOP' in ,he: p~
tM 0,-.
hu.in, 'n",.d "" ,... rW<' .nd ,.,.".,...,bil,.,. of"~ k;"I '" look
churd! and;,. fai,h. At tho CuolinJim""'1t ,~ ...... >I.., VI
of the k;n!', I'"""'&'.i_ bu, ... 'M ...... ,im . , """.ofoJ fIin~ ,1>;" authentic
,ndi,;"", "'.... from IWmc .nd Iud '" be Inmnl .nd implcm.... aI in >II
I"'"il:>lt casa. In "'" ... th .nd >eV<n.h anwria. tho F.. nk>, >I,hough br no
mea ... hooIilc or ind,IT.nt '0 1Wmo:. .lid "'" Iu,.., this ....... oiu'l' p<fcq>rion
of ,h. RomN:<""rcdncu of tl>< (,1th and ,hutel,." h .... m. '0 n.. ,h.. i, ......
tho Anglo-S "" mi..;.,...rin and ",hoI.! ... ",h" maintained e~"" ....:>CUt;.,n.
wit h 'M Ca.nlingi . .., goi .. g .igh' bo.:k to Cl".k,napto'. "'''''1V''ndf.. h. rif>""
pin 1I. who .Iowly ..... t ... rely in,inw,cd ,hi, Ron,." p<nJl"<'i .... inro
thinking,.: lie Ih .. '" it m. y, .... ,",n .... ,h., whil.
was hoing compo<!
ll>rodulf him .. lf hod 1 M'''Y resJl"<' for R"",.n tr.Jition . if not l\<co...,,;I)'
for tl>< aut ho.ity of 1M re'glling 1"'1><... hil< ",,,",,,, .. COI.Irt hod pco(ou" d
J ........ ion t" p>p>1 .u,ho.ity.
Thi' i""" of how '" dnl"';,h Ro .... only.rne. in the fi .., platt 1>:>_
of.n agr-olcltcndcncy in rh. ochol.r>hip "n ,hi'p<riad
. ith tM 0,..,
or ,n ..."nd f .. nk(un anon ....... jc:>I ;., ...,<m..... ufChariemagno'.
t;on of tl><dmrth and of,,,," p.pacy. Some...cn ~ ofhi. Iu';ng humili .. aI
,I,. pop csc:
~ .'" ....,h""'i .. i<. W"h .... - . . ,hey .'" o<, ... l1y oo" ....t .... <d by the
0,... it""f 1nd br ,,,," ""hok COLt"" of ..en ...utr".",Jing F.. nkfun. Bu, i, ;.
imporun' DOl
toO fas ,n ,Iot~" dirtion. TlUI is. """ can"", ugu<
,ha, ... Ioral "'n of , .... <hu"h Ourl<tn.<t\n< Ndcd dawn " ....... the: pop<
jnfotmood him of,nis ditoap<"h,,,,. F.......... ,hink>, fOr ........ pI<. tlu, ctwk.............. di.....dal from ~publi"',"8 ,.... 0,... ... I ,hink i. i. ha,d '0'" ju..
"'- tht: work modo, Iu ... ben. diwcmin;ucd in the: Ii.., platt. II is.uy ~
4~ qlW"l" .,.."... .n fftt"""", odill"" ~. lOIiot in ,he: incompl<t. Vatia:l
m.
o,..s
.,.
.hau,
'0
"",10. "'"
n.-.-.,..J .......
,h. 0,,,,
'0'"
h.n.i'"
dum,,,,,.
"' II"
lIWI...mpt nd 44
folIO!
,n
,I.: r.n. nunusaipt. CJr:my. "'" boo!< rouId "'"
' 1<
CN. . 'U , ... U '
h... been 1'itJ ilI'NI d,,,,""",ed widely. I.. wealc 'nanlUCripo ,,...ji,;"" i< >bou,
.. '''''''IIi .. ,Iu. or the unq .....,;".,abIy imponant and ...tOOri...,,,,, Council of

FrnklUn." And __ it .. minded of famous Ii ..... .,. ta ..... y &.....Jf 0< fA
" " ' _ '" IW61f1.. .. !tidl an: ...... kly ...ooed by .......ning copia. Th< lin:ol
.=ioo of.1ot 0,... .... CIu,~'$ na"", proudlr uod prominmd)' on irs
Ii", P'fF in bcau.iful ..:rip<: ~INCII'IT O PUS INlUST'RISS I.\t I E'T EXCf.Lu:..vnSSIMI SW Sl'crABI U S VllU C'l IIOU . NlFrU DEI REGIS
FRANCORUM . GAWAS. Gf.II.\lANIAM ATQUE l1i1.LlAMQUE SIVE
HARUM FINITIMAS PROVlNTIAS DOMINO OPrrtJUl'ITE RECENTIS. COJ<.'TRA SYNODUM. QUE IN PARTIBUS GRAE'TIAE PRO
AOORAN01S IMAGIN IBUS STOLIOE SIVE ARRQGA1>,'TER GESTA
EST. - 11IiI iI ,lot only ' ....., ... from CIu~. lo:mg ~gn ,h", 1:><:0" 10 ..
~. H. Iud no u".n,ion of humili,n,n& .ho pap< uod ho did not in """'"
"".......i .. from ,ho (0<1'''''=1' CIu,k ....... and H.dri.n did not dcaI .... ,h
net. O<het "' .... y. and wI, ........... ) popn did ..... )'Of h" .... :and rm:1y ..... o
claimed. ,ho ri~t 10 in,poK
ill in ""wna- WIu. ,ho Ft2I1b wan,,,.! /rom
Rom< "'.. kss ,1>0 'mit" of.1tt cu, ...." pop< ,han ,ho :w......... ,hal th<y wt ..
adhering f.ithlUlly 10 ,~. living Rom.n ..,\";,,.,."'
'I'M n..,,;.I. ""i,1o ... hkn ... 10.,.. I>n dc.Jin8 p"widc on in .... ""11 1",.
'Jl'C<.iv. on the ,d.. ionl bt,wtfn ,Itt F.. nlu ..Ill ,h. pup wi,h r<:Ipt to
dogm.,k ........ , On tI, "nj' of adoption ..",. ,he.. w-. . co'''pk1. 'gt<'<n><n'
0" ,h. hal .. poin' ,h", I'oli . !;Iipond .... 'n,1 ,lori, fol io,,",," .,"". wrong. Coo!"
...,ion in d.>ling wi,h ,hi, i"uo ...... ~.'y. But tho i""" WU no' hrought '"
Hadrian ', . " on,;"" in tho fi"t pi .... by ,t.. F.. nb, R.:.,h... Had,i." <=i,,,.!
""'... in tho mid'7Soo di=rly f""" Sp.in, .nd he wro to tlte Span,,,, bi,J,op.,
dr.pit< hning .,. li,,10 KCU .. ' . infotm.,ion . to .. jut .. h.t h. had b,n.,J of
th.i, "'>ching on ,h. lubjr-ct of 0,1$,', ""vi", IJo:.rn "_!,j,,,,,;' .nd h. rrf<:rrrd
in gct><,:d .... y '" ,t.. doc ....... of ,hot: Council of Epb .....
hod <X><Idemnrd
Nestori ...... It...,.. ,Itt 1:.. n4 who ...,.!ly
,t.. k.od in comh..ning:adoption.
i1m. Fdix WU .pp..n<n<kd and intort0l'''".!'' b.c 'h<nO .i ...... In ,I>< runup
'0 F.. nkfun ..,.,'em major 'tnti ... _u ...." en "P' .... ..Jop<_ ....... Akuin
,hei, ..
,n.,
''''*
comr--! .......:ol..."b tihi>.,...n "",in.. the odoprioni .... in addition ,,, p~

paring Ck"lt",""",'.In,.. to 1M SI""'U, bWq.. :and, pem..p... th.lnter of
th~ F.. nlOoh " " ' - to SpaIn. AI,hougt> the ....... Franko-I"poi ronru,rcnce.
it 1ooIu .. .t.ougt. ,Iv: F.. nlu tlot""""'" real!}" tooIt ,ho: lad i" OOIing .... ,10
..Jop<ion.. m. Su, ,~io ...... he. inltip"", 10m'
Ff2I<kUh .do,...... ,..;,10
flomc,. JoI>n c.....din' .... brill;""l)' "" .nco".! tho 0C1'IIa1 te",h.inp of oM ad0ption;.., !Tom ,Iv: doo:,ri" .. :ucnbnl ' 0 , ...... by ,lot.. onus-u.s. H.,Jrio.n. ..
"",rd. ocruotd ,lot adopt_; .... ..-. hJ impl ..... ion ,h;u. br dn.i]rd "'$" ...."t.
.bou.
of ~irs of Nco,i.onism, \Vhcn the Fronk.!.. .nd Alcuin in l"'rticui.or, od

dfOkd .ooptionism thoy "e.. 1 it ....S'io . kind or Nrsrori."i'm. It would
l>< inre"""i"g '0 know if ,h"
i"dtp<ndcnr in,dk<w.1 ..... 1,
>t.
I<mpt to COme in'o line wi,h Rm",m. p>p>1 t.. ching. Ei,her ""')'. the hcic ]<vd
or coopc",,;"n "m. in. i",><1.
We Iu"c 10 th:u on im.ge< th<- ]' ",nks .nd the p<>pCI. on the hroodrst
]"-,,,,ible .ding of the .. Odenee, .grtl to di .. ptt. Neither fin.Jly impo;cd
"cw 0 0 the other. There i, .noch<-. C2>< "f the "'me kin.! from roughly ,he
",me I",iod which yi<ld. a lik. cond",ion. Th" Ii ... ch'p1er of ,he C.pi,.u"
C2>,iS',I ,h. profa.ion of f." h wbi.h T. ... iu, prol>Ouncrd .. N"=:o becom.
he .. id ,he "'Hoi)' Spi,i, ptoccW' from ,h" F.,he, th~ulh ,he Son" (emph.,;,
:tddl). Hod,.;,"'. rq>ly, 0'>< of ,he I.:"'S"'[ in ,he H4po",um, defend< ,he Brun,ine ro,i,i,," " " [he .uth",i~' of numerouS p. ";,,i< orne point
rhe Fr.,"". h.d i"",,,ed ioro ,heif fcc; .. ,;"n of ,he .rood- ,h e '"Nin'> Crtt<!
w., "O. yn ,i.I o. <'Y<:t"f -kb ... ,ion of Mo----,he w",d fiNINf'" which pro-ducecl ,hi, ph..,,,,, IX Pal" filioq., p_Mi, Spi,i,,,,
In ,hi. f",",ub.io"
"'".,.n
or ,n
5.0""""
fi'''''
.he H oly Spirit pn><<<<i. nor .hroulh the .on hut fro'" [he F:uh., "nti
[h.
Son . b" ,nd Wcs' ho,h :u:ccp,I ,h. '"<Im,hle p~n'" of .he Holy Spiri'
but ".irul.tcd .hei. umk" nding diffel<ntly. Rome ~ no. ""op.I .he word
fili"'flU .nd did no. do SO un.il .h. dn"'nth century. " Thcodulf. mconwhil<,
rq><:t,eJl)' ,,1'2dt<.1 ,ho: Grco:b f,,, 0 f."I,y "n,kr;""J,tI~ of ,h" ....", "'1 doo'~n". "
There ,be m." .. ICS,I u",il in 809 """ne;1 ..... held in .h. fr.>nki,h
" 'or(d bea.u>< ;ome Ft.nki,h Fnonkl on .h. Moun, ofOli,'" n.., J.ru .. lem
Iud hom <ri,ieJ by G"",k monk> rOf reci,i"8' c ....-d w"hfili",!1U ,n i,. The
fr.>nlU,h mo"kl wrote to I'opc Lc<> III, ,,1=1 him '" .."k the m>ll<,. ,nd ,old
h,m th" ,hey Iud h<>-rd fili",!", reci[ed ;n Ch>,ktn'gn,,', d"'pel. Le.) tn<rel)'
I<fe, red .h.....
the F.. nu Chub. " ..... hi. CUStOm, .sought >od """ivcd
'he vi ...... of .........1ofhi, mos, "Ii.ble t heologiC'-1 ><Ivisc". Scv.:r.>I ,....,i"" we",
ptm.I defendi ng ,h. F.. nkish .... ion of ,h. crtt<!,n.! of the ,heology 'h"
'0
ulI<I<,prdcd i, .".1.
d<"" ..,;.,,, .... , ..,,,, '" Ron", '" "'et"I"
'0 1........ <1< 1".-,
of [he <;01fln"", of ,h. C.rolingj.n "iocw, " Leo would no. hudge. In o.h ..
_,do, ami =Iy "-' in the i.... go conlfO".,,.}', th< pope .nd th. Frank grtt<!
.n di"'ST, N<i.her ,ide im]>05':d i, .. lf on ,he o,hcr. Thel< weI< ,10 ch .. gn of
hefCSjl. Cord",ll<btion! 1".... ,1_
Th" .. compo,;;on' an l>< dm"" out, little mOI<"''' to make: ,hem "
deor .no telling .. """,ihle. I", u, ,hink b.o<k '" ,he leu., w"lfcn hy Ale";,,
.nd Jr.>wn ftom " .he .utho,it~ of ,h<- di,'me scriptura.'" Th .. migh' Iu .. bn
a >'Ct}' pc",,",1 I<.ction b y him
the Council of Nic><>. Bu, gi"cn Akuin',
'0
fom . """"ea;"". "d ;"""Ivenl,,,, wi,h 01 .. leg;o,;,,,, ,Icc"",~ of :;!I6. ;, migh,

havc b<-cn. mOre '" b officiol pronouncement On behalf of ,h. church in
"gI:t"d. Th<fc w 100 thc C.pituJ,m, prelimi .... ry ,nco 0' ,he o.... li"" f",
<>nc. igotou. disru",;"", on onc 0' nlOn:: occ:L<io", ,n the FlOnki <h court, .nd
,he 0"., i,...lf. If the "'.... i>.l, I"'",i ... n, '0 ,he im.ge con,"""''')' . ... "~ in
, hi< w.y. the" they rom"" ... f."",.,bly. in oo.h qu.miry and circumll''''''''' of
roml""'ition. tn the setS of ,,<>ti>n produced hefon:: .nd .fie, Fr,,,,kru,, in
conDC<,ioo with adoptioni.m and .round 80jI in connecrion with the fili"'fw
di,pu,c
n,. way All",,, W.""i"sJu>If pri"rnI tho F",,,kfutt ",..
on the MG H
crcota.",,, of optial iIIusinn. Tl:ut "~, on. find. in hi> lition ,i. coll.o<>.1
'In,i..,. or 'pi><l... nd ,hen ,he ""nciiUr canon. " 1bi< "1'1'''''' to b< . closed
group of m.o"i.l. rd""""t ", annn on. and creota the imp"",ion th .. a nOn
cwo, deoling with Nic.<>, i, fimd.rn.nall) diffa,nt . poor... ~kcr $<Im,how.
Vc< 'W) " ""u\lC'lip' "f the Fr.n kfi" , can",,, ,,,,,,.mi,, 'hi'l>oJy of ",.......1 .. _
",<I)'" We. mingholt printed it . nd only twO man .... rip.. at""b even one <of
,he , .... ,i>u. ,h.:" of Pmlinu. of Aquile;'. '" the c"'on~'" The =",;'1. prod u<cJ in 80<) at< likcwi<c n....." " , ,,,m; ,,ed .. , dosed group and ofio" <In .... t
' Pr<" in m. nu",.ip" cont.inins ti>< canon , of , I>< council of8O<)." V~ in
thi. w.y. ,he Frankfun "","rial, do not ' ppear to "ight the i"",go: qUQrion or
tit< Opus.
Ch,,,lem'g"" .nd hi, <km>' ...,.;>e;.,.. K<rn '0 ha" had 011. """''''ent
n""hoJ for deoling "i,h doctrin.1 problem . \l'hc""", , p'"N.m W>$ .. " " " " .
eml. it W>$ brought to Cha~a <tUition, H. thon <ummoned tho people
",hom h.e h.eli.,...,.j '0 he moo, cop,hl. of d.,ling wi,h ,he i"" . He . 1><> nmilied
Romo th., probl.m h.J .nn . nJ .pdled o u' his pl'n! for <k.tling wi,h il.
Work ,11<" p~. of" llong ....'e<>.l fron ... im ul<on<Ou.si)'. Two dues in
,10: F"ml fi .., m,,,,i;o.l . ..... ,,1 how ~n~1 d""";,,o , wo" " .:hcd. Fi .... COnon'
on nJ ,wo .. f ~",,,kfurt we ... i",ued wi, h til. following ,h'l""'i,i", I.ng"'!\";
.150
.,,,,1,
Conon 0,,", '",n",i"imi pat"" ___con,ruli..",,,, "que . _.

run," C,h~ mos, holy f"h.e" <:O ,,'~'" and . <ibre'')
"'''IC-
unon T""; ".. nc<i"'mi pat"" nomi ... conm"""",n' "quo . . .

mndcmpn,,,,,runt" Cour mOl' holy f.,h." ___ dcopi .nd ___ ""n_
.k,n"').'"
Tlretcaft ,1.0 <li.pusiti,.. I.ongwge oith.r 'b, .... rnpon =mpb will
. uffice:
Co""" f """ "SUluit piis.;inlus oomnus OOIm

Io.d king <1-.1").
ro;" ("Our nlOSI
piow
Co""" SiJc: "S""'t"m <)l' dumr"lO...".. ...."",a synodo" ("It was

da:idc.l hr the: Io<tl king and ,.... .....
y'r"""'."
Lone >gO Han, B>rion wndudo:d .h.. dopn..ic '''lID WCK boring ind<pon_
dend,. dcridal kpIly hr ,h< boobopo.. .. .,. &cond. in t .... Fr>nkfun doooKr ,~
io. Ie<= cl
to , .... Sp.om>h "'.hop!.. prob"bIy "".",.n hr Aku'n.'"'
Charla ,db ,h< bU.hops ,hM 'hty .... 11 find in ,III. inleT II.. onhodol Imh:as i,
loa. t-n .... oWt' hr c"'" >po>t<>lie ,.... hno. k<pl "r ,.... <hutch. and now bid OUI
by hi, m.... H. u'll"' ,t..m to ..u.,.,.., '''' i. H. ,..... ,ells them
had
","",mbl.cl <""I'I<il from :oil ,ho .. cal utldo. hi. conc rn! to dio<a .. ",he: """.
u... nimitycl .....,..,...:' H. npially .mplwi... ,ho,),. ..nt """,",'0 Rom<
th,ae or rour ,i..... '" In,n ,,ha.
"adi."",
on ,ho nuc, ..
hand. II. conducld hr ..ri ng ,ha, .lthough .1>. Sp:rni'" ~ 1u...,.pj><2k ad),.,. c" ,he un.nimity" ,h .. he h... dioaw<:M:!.
H. uy. ,h.. he h.oId, ... ith ....1)" .ffort cl my mind. wi.h all II ~,...,.. "f
n.y ..... "., to the t<aching> cl.1 papacy and ..,( . he anco.nt church. And he .. ,..
tha, he: h.oIds " without duubl" to wha,ev..
will ~nd "ti,,... in the boob
tha, ... nt from .ha, IUS"" .t..liti<>n." Thi, ....~rlr lik. II ..;"',,', j..dS"t<nt
"'ith
,0 F..
"'''0'''' ,h. ch\lreh , ..die> .ntl decide> and Charles
:ulh.rn to and ."fo.. ,h. deci.i"".
The 1.0" >1ion, t>f
&v<>~,~,., ill .. , ,,.,. the Jirlom:uic dim.... "''1'
w.U. Ali h"'ing """"'cd pag<
page of. long d<.IC"Un'.n, 10 t.ru,ing t),.
FrankiJ, .ri,iei.m. of II Nic-.... , H><.I.i ... 1'1. ,.-...1 ,wo inig..ing g:tmhi.. in d .... ing. f in. h< pni..-d a.rIco., ,he "official"' .... ho. of the C4!"Jl/,,,,. for ci' ing
the kt.Cf of G,,,&,,,,. r '0 Scmou. of M .... il\n. 'n... k.,,, ..... ci,..! in ,he
C4p;tflf4,. b.. , in. Itu",,",..! fuhi<>n .h~t omi lt..! G..-go<)'' t~h;ng
,he
didaaic value of im""". Unde< rnI by d....i1,. H.odti.n pr.ti..-d 0..00 for
Idi~,
G,9I"'r',
"'IIP,od ,,,-,, ,hi . ~d thi, ~. _
a.......
,J.., ....
"1""'''''''
,,<>gil,
'0
"'<r
"k("" .
'''1''
,It.
.Ii.,
.bou.
. . ,,,
,<do,", ....,
.ho,
Ow... real v;""" and

tho ..... of ,ho u,,,,,f4,. rdI<'CI..! tl>< "'"" of
",ben ..."hid> 0..00 could ..(ely .>b.ontlon. '0.... Had.i... Did t/u, if ..... By,,...Ii.... did "'" soon ',""un f ..,.,..,k dodoion "" ,I>< _"Cf nf hi> "'" p.>trimoo .... pt'O""inao. and t<V<tl ..... I>< m<p<, )'ft deW ... ,""'" IKmia. H. hdd
out ,he Fnnks ..... hope
,hty m<Sh' )'ft .d"ev.. r..,... the: P"P'"' condnn... ti<>h of ..... Byuntinc:>, if"",. "joe,;"" of II No.x..." \10'. will "'" in ........
dn:W hdo...
,Iw. pfUtlcn' """"""'""'" ..... 11><.1,;"", .......... n'~dy ,..I ....
bIe to
Franks. For ,I>< pnwn . K io C1>OtJ&h to .... pIt.a.iu t/u. on .... "1'1<
,ha,
'0
me
,ho.
1;>1
c~
, .. ,,, 10 0
lund. tho ... "'... no Nl"urr in F.. nko-pop.ti
01"'"
om,ion. b<a.us< 0( <l>t iJTUP' 'lues.
"""'t....
tion .nd. on 'M

Iund.1"'J'<' and Fnn'" could """"'
<lftaMly
.nc! pn;... _h <>III<, 10 tM hip hea,~.... ";,holll >grr<i", on .... crythin&
Fin..dly. dotn, who, "'" II", Fr>nkOIo';" o(F,,"Uun? Th is not an nty
'I ....,"'" to an."'"". 1".1wic _I'M _IOOC .....,...rily be btougIIt into rdMion
10 """ ............ 1". f'<'W<do of F...ru.n.n... published by W.... minglloff .,..
~n,itkd Y"uJ.w F"......fo_. As 'M an.wiotic oouras ""y. ~
htId.t Fnnkfun. r;cn<nI ~... mbl, In ,II< mid" of ",-hid> """" ....., . """ftciI_
N."..,..I1y OIl .... mbly iwurd caplruUneo. booictlly k&iJI,o.jq documm. di
rid.d in.o cIupm ........",inJ.o. ..II<"", III< ~ """neil mutd can<>n<.
n..: F...ru.n.n docu"""'" ...... Iu.., tl>crn oWl with purdy ~ nu."",
..wi dotn tum to ~ ''''y of bOIh """,1... and <"Cdo:. ....icaI buoi ....... These
hybrid rrwnh .... """ ullprra-donll.n .11< CaroIin~" ogt' bu, F... nkfuns do
Om ullu...wly ",mpla. foo II", pru<II 1<t ... Dy only ,ha, .. 'M prodllCl of
gonomJ .... mbly I'... nkfu" , cn.ICI""" " , woold anai"ly ",pea' to ha ... ,lot
... mp of "ffid. 1>wrO'-.l.
W. lun !ln ,h", 'M 0,... .1><oI",el, . tfwc.J '0 ",n';do. Nicoea .. uni ...
,..J .nd rrfus<J .0 <nu ........ '. it .. <l>t _ "d, <CUm<nkai eotJrtcil of tho eh,,"'h.
W~
h."" aJ ...... n ,''', I...... "'uo<a. in kto~;nl i><ad 100> N~. I;~ ... u., ",JU,...j
'" coli i, "ni..,,,,,I.,, O<\.",h. He.e we , hw\.l odd th no "'lOra call. F... "kfu"
,h ....... ",h councIl, iltdC<"d. the
eo",in ... II, """e ... '"
It" council< (Ni a Jlj. Conlt.n,inopl. )81. F.p hal" ~J" Clul~n 411. Con'tan,inopl. 51}.
Con ... ntinopk 610).nd i",i", "" .. ria. lii.hful FcrnkUh ..Jh... na II> ,hose
council . E""" ""hen .... bn.f in mind ,hI' 'M fi ....ix umenia.] ",uneib only
p><l ... Uy ..,quirrd whal ..... might call "numlx""" ... ".., ,n., within th.
chur<h ... ,..hol.. i, look .lon8 Ii",. 10, N;"". II '" ,rc'; i,. uflici.ol nu",bcf .
00 ,Il.. m.ny Chf;"i.n ,rodj,ions, C$p<C;"lIy in til< Em. ,*",1 onc o. In
... he, of'M ...... n counel"- .. ,he Konun C.,hoIic .nd Onhodo. world ...... ,U
ally onum<",1 ,linn. i, i... ,ik;ng .h", no "ccurncnical" ew", _ ..-Ie fo.
Ft1nkful1 ." Do.. .hi, mean, ,M""""", Iu, .... """ftciI ..... not ccum<ni.:aI;
0,,,,
tI,.
,/u., ;, ..... "Iox-.,"?'!
It UO<d '" be orx...d contidcndy th .. tho F....... ~ ' 0 oo:q>I Nic:oc,,',

Wnmiciry bcou",
II<N ;n';.od." bccau.. "each and ""''1 PO" of
,,,- eh"",h " had nO< t-n """wi,..!.... Thio view is tlUC". bu. ;, io only hc<ioa
.h<y......,
of 'M ' Nth. 1"'.tnriM, diu,"", hod buij, up. conciIju theory tko, Iud bod>
" nial " .nd "h"""", ..,I" d,mm .." .... n..: >Cffoal """" in...hod .u,hori...
,i. ><prod teach;." ,Iu, tndt..d b.dr. 'hmush tho ehuh
to ,lot
Bibk. n..: hot, .......I _ .....11. '<f"U<nI.,x... and ~b,r ,II< ~pa>"''''
dl y~ of 0"";""
(}tru..km. Akundn.. A",ioch. eo.....lHinopio.
f.,,,,,,,
po,,;....,,,....
RoIIl<') and .he thur.:!'Q .he)' .. ~n,rd." In lhe Opa<S <>lie find. ~bund.m
~ that l'hcQJul( ...... COn"" ..,.. wi'" ..... " of tn.... pu;nl> of "i<w. He
co","ntly ,ckr. '" ,ht 8il ... and ,ht f.. ~ "'nually .ho."}~ to orgu< tlut , ....
FI2f1h. Ind ..... Iht llyunt'n ... ale , .... '0 , .... " ''mial'' mdi,ion. ln
4.JJ.,
orip ... lly inl<nd<d '0 I>< ,I>< 1"""1. ...... or~ o_I~'K>n ,,, ,ht ...... k Throdulf
tpdlN "'" "'hy II Niaeo (;QUid ..... boo O><np.u<d ,,,I Niac:a; ,he)' .haml only
.1>< nan>< of ,he pIoa .mrn, ,hty ...... All of ,It .... <on ......Ion>l. ~ i>
_hing new, 1>0 " . Sitbn! d<tt< ... F..nlcioh inuodUCIion of m. ptinci
pia; of ,""".i.M.,..j "''' . On ,h .. """" ,he FI2P ....
ctny ~
odd",,llud [0 I>< .. udit-d c.ucfully. fuUr 10 > ."",, "dod ind<cd <><a>rd ..;m
,he ..di,ion. Thcodulf 0 ... ,h..,.. tlm...ach "'v !>ibid ~ ..... bar on
mi> thtrn<: n.n..loniMu P ' , " Su, ,....11 ,hi",,; kp ....., which;. good"'
(4.8. 4.'0. 4.11) n<! ',IoI>n 4. ' ... lId ........... "'et)' 'Pi';" hut U)' ctny 'Pi';, '0
.... if thry ... of GoJ" (1.17. ,.16. 4. U). Sum. ~n ..,i<< ~ dcmonThrodulr. ~ommi" ...", d""'.imi .... '.,.,. In 1. ' 7 he obj<rto to .I.. ~i ...
I;"n of . pnugc he doe. "'" k"""" (",p, Gtry of NY"-'.nd A)" it mu" I><
,cst"!.ml .hen he <ita k Poul, i".",ing
hc thu. 1Ct. """'''''/''", In ,.11
he A)~ [I>< G......... houlJ h, " in"<>'i~'I" wh.t .;,ch p;tn of [M eIluh
though, ,I""" 'nt.g... In PI h. in,i", on t.... no:..J to "di. rimin"." .mong
o,..s
,"""'P, .....
"Iaf.
I"
,Iu,
.ign. In ).16 h. I"",J.. ''''de' ,,"d.....d, "",.d, . , ;"""g,";.
n l.roJ"lr. pr<fc.en. i....mo). '~''''''l~.i. '" ,.". will [.....1 qui,. d ... ly
hi. ""going co ncrrn fot , ..,ing d .. tJU.It of .ny I'",),,,,i,ion i..,,<><1 of """"y
ICC<pt;n~ i. bro. .... it I<'<m. 10 I>< "IJ.'
Bu. Op~14.11. ,hc I.. t ch'l't<l in ,he ....,rk II i, nuw ... n..h.. cun in,. bold
new <)""><i.ll [10""'Y.
cIt'I"" iutlf;. bncf .nd il> k<y >,ion m'r he q_l:
n..
I( ,h. hi>hopo of",,, o. ,h.... p"",i...:a rum. '''IIfth<r. aim'" wi'" ,he
hody oflnching found in , .... oncl<nt ao"""' . <><1 "",obIi,h..,..,. roin.
of ,aching ... dosrn' ..... ich 00n ..... d,Vg< from 'M OOa.i"" ul "'"
.nd..... f.,ht", ,,,", ,he I""n, ' he)' .... bli>h .. "".hoIic and a.n ind<cd
he called un.....
oI,hotagIt i,..-.. "'" eoub)j.n..J by "'" biohop.
of [I>< un, ... ,...) _.Id . ........,hdcos i, """" "'" d,,'c rV from m. un;.....,
... f:oith.,..j tOOi.ion. \t'. kn<no> ,,,",, ,hi.1w ~lIC1Idy ~ in
m.ny po ... ,of Iht "",,1.1 . ... . i ".n"'......,. "",,,,, mjUirnl. fOr many
""'.1Or
(;QUncib ..........." hdd .h.....go ..no.un ion, ,I>< hoIrChurch i. bod!

drfrndcd and "rm&,I><...d."
On ,It.- bu;> of ,h" ..."men., .n,1 irod~ on .helusi. of .he wh.::>1c ..gumen.
d"",lopt<l in ,lte Of"" ,he e.ed,,; h.d r=ntly dcP<'"ed from
,eachings of
.he . nclen. f hen md ,herefo,. ",Iu, ,hey did wo ..... i'her a.boli. "0' "nivc...I. Th ...... nial " 'rgumen, in ,he Op~, i, leli much '" 'mi,!ui~' had 1:><.
,!"eo,hed i,. Bu, 'he "I>oriron,.I' ''l)" men, h.u b<cn .1t<~1 ,ignifi""n,l y , Now
,he pcn,ord".rc lef, ou, of .ce.",n,. Ei,her or both of twO npb""ti",,, "'-')' I:><
,de.-.n'. Pe,h.pI ThroJulfh.d "'me "~cni""I" <="""io" bou, Hadri.n .nd
T..... iu. (md '" we "",11 .1<'< .bou, Nicaei, kg. from ,he F"",.. n pmi.",h.)
'" morb< he ,eoliU<! ,h ,he Mus lim CO""...... of .he """"mh cenmry Iud
perm,nemly ,Iu".m:l ,h. pcnt.m:hy. In ,he "''''''''' ci":um,,,,ncc> ~o m.y I",vc
doub,.,J ",hher ,he J>OIl'" could funaion .Ione .. " ~'.... rn I"'"i>rch" H,ving
Ief, pcn.uchy ",i<i< .. 'he ''',,''u,< of" ho"wn,.J'" I<gj.i,nuy, .he Fnnk. fUrn
.0 ",h .. migh' I:>< ""lied a '"Iocolly hori"",,,I" .heory , .... , tcq"i,,:<I. 'ish' bond
[0 ,he vertical throry. In o,he[
when 'he "bimops of ''''' or
p""'.
ine"," come 'og<thcr .nd 'e""h ",It.. ,h. Quholic Ch"",h h...I.... ys '""sh',
,hen ""h.,<,,<, ,h.,.. bj,lIop' 00::0011'1;,10 ...... 11 .nd ,",Iy """,lIoli," .nd "uni
VCT$'J." ~'. neeJ '0 be., in minJ ,hat ,he annalistic oourccs strcs>e<l ,hi, vc')"
""J>t of F"nkfun "" did CharlentOj;l'e>
,he bisllops ofSp:t'n . " "'ri<Ty
of r<''I'le from diff.t<n, I""",;"ru diocuod im>&. ><lop.ioni.m, .nd [h. fil;.
"'11K. In e""h i,,,,.n,,,. according 10 ,he emeryng "lew of ,he 7')00, ,he Ff':tnkish
"".io", W~ uoi~1. ThW!. rod oocr . gain, i, i> 00' ." im pon.n', 'eolly.
whhe, ,h. 0,... ..... in ""',. .1<0.1< "'publi.n.d."
",hich i[ ""nrained
repr<>e:n,ed 'he most "P-'o-4o tI,i oki,,!; of
F",,,ki,h ""urr
,It.
"""d"
,h,..
.1,,, '"
,j,.
Th<."'"
Of'" Cd",/; NW" A Summ.ry.,f lu Cont.n('i ~"J 0'1\'''''''''on

In rhe ~ .. I:><tw..," Nic:.ter .nd F"mktUrt ,h. Carolingi.ru h;oJ .n opportunity
uke .[()Ck of wru.. had b<cn don, " Nicaea, '0 rt:~ec, 00 ocver.ol .moW!
dog",-"ie i.. u, to deal " 'i,h the popc on v<ry .l<n,i, iv~ " nd con,...,...."ed pmhlemo,." ,hink .bo", ,hei, pb", ""ithin .h, church . nd '0 proo"",. ,<m.. bble
book. Th., book is , ,,,,nning ><hi""emen. in biblico.l e' rgn'" pcoCfra.i"g
[hrologico.l """"'men' of. whol ....ie:< of m,reb,.,J p,obl .. n" .nd ,he ~n,
W.... eto d;",,,ui,m of." .nd aes,he,ic< .<in'" ,o'''-I''''y.
'0
TIt. Op.., i,. work of dcq> learning ' hat rcopond.,J in 10'"'';'''' do"il .0 .h.
of II Nieoc . It i, .I>o" polemie of whi .... h<>t iotcn,ilY, The au,bor . nd hi.
4<14
opponuni<y 10 ~t<, ,h,', =m to, "inu.II)' e<<y'hing

<oid .nd done O[ Nio:=o. Here;" "pre",n",[i,'C .. mple of [he kind, oour
no,es ""j[h ""hich Throdulf scored hi' ",,,,,,,rous ron'posi,io,,: .b:!u,d, childi,h,
dderiou>, dememcd, dcpnvcd . f,,,uou>, irnpnukn[. inc:m[iom. L.ugh.ble. mirod_
I..., ob,u ... P"ve .... poind ..., mh, rep .. hen,ibk ridiculou,. ,i.ibl., .iU)" ",u_
pid. upeKiliou . nd u",I<:.. To b.: .urc. [he 0p"' g"'ppb. rigorou,ty .nd
,cnaciou,.]y, p..gc . ft .. ~c. wi,h profound ,hrological problem>. Bu, onc muS!
wonder abou, Throdutr. rhetoric of di'pu ..,ion. Wh)' i. hio IOn, 00 bincr. '"
.. kn,t..,Jy ,ktt""c"'ory! Th"""h,lf .... acid"lou, in o,h., w,i,ing:;." p.,hap.
[hi, W1$. person.1 qui'k N "" will_ in Ch.p", 7. Cb...d iu, of Turin .nd
Agob ....] of 1.)'00. Go,h, like Throdulf. cuukl.l .... writ< wi,h I"'isoncd pen . It
nuy he ,h.. . """",.. Ii" in Vi,igo,ioic Lotin rould d,,,,,,,;,,. whcth .. O[ no<
hru"l inyC(.iv<
di>!ingui,J,ing ,h.rac,.,i,,'o:. Nev.,,],..]...,. o~ gelS th. imp"",io" ,h morc i, invol,-cd hen: .h.n merdy ,he ,ofu ... ion of one or mOJ<
.rgom<n.. wi.h which ,ho .u[ho' di~re",. One can ... "'hy W.h.. Sch",,,>d,
called ,hi, work . "poli,ical ,raa. "" Among Our tal ... an iml"'rt."t one will b.:
=P' [he im<j!ri<)l ofThrodulr. 'heological """""tn" ", dis""", hi, w.y "f
<.bli nS wid, ,hom, ...d, .00.,.< all. to u"dem.nd ,10< poli'i""l dimen.ion> d..,
.... !fused hi.< ,,,,,,,i,,,.
Wh' ''-' <f kind of tcx' Th<odulf w",t<, ra'[ och<,J."hip fo" .. me [0 . . k if
llr .....I"lf >c,..aJlr ""de",ooJ ,h. m.."i.1< '0 which h< w;U =J>Onding, ~'<
10""" . heady "",n [b., Thcodulf .... ""mpellw work wi,h. 1""" L.,in ''''''''
J.[inn of ,he Ni""ne ~"". The i, d",>c<: ,h.. , fo, ""me ""riod in 'he very
~.. Iy 790<. he 10",1 only 1:><""<
"cody. prohobly hi, own. There ar< only.
few ~ in tho
,ha[ krod .upport '0 [he '<gumo", ,10 .. 'llrrodulf n,,",cr
had more ,hao e.. rae,," Th"", <;ORarn .,:,e,..1
wi", .. Throdulf >m' not
unde" .. nd ,10 .. , .. Ni" .. , O.. roR [piplt.niu, "'.,. fotc<d
'<od 0"' ,i><
1M"" of Hie .. i. 10
tho NiCC!>< f... hm could mcd i, wi,h ,heir ohi<:<.ion,.
'llrcoJ"lf "',"''-' >urnim .. to h.Y< .uribu,w Hi,,<;'" ... men" dirccrly to
Nic:>o . The", >t< "'" ''''' m'''r ",d, cas.. and beau "'C do no' h;,,,, tho had
La,i" ,<,,, f,om which h< ...."k,:J-hoW<'V Ions h< w",k,:J wi,h i,_1 [hink i,
i. J.ngcrous
""ihut<
Thcod"lf mi.underst.ndi"gs ,h., m.y h.ve bc<-n
prump'w by hi. "",,-en, B< ,ha, '" i, m.)', mhers h.ve .uggcs[W ,10. [ [he whol.:
h. di,1 ,,'" " " de ..... nd ,he Rruntir><
a"" .. ofThcoJulf". "gum<R' "'ggo:>f>
.rgomen.. com.i,..,.j in ,he Nicene """,,,b .nd th" hi' pmbl<m. m.y be ."ribunJ,,u.. ble ei[hcr to ,,,,,,,,,,1 "i'm of the ""~. to ptni"'"' f,ilur<
... nd ,h. Gck di>tinc<ion b"wn p.-rui:y>t";' .nd "''''... both of which he 01
hio IOU"'" regularly read .. """'~I;O, .od to. 1\<oe.. I1)' 10"", I...cl of ,hwlogi",,1
IOphii"",ion '" ,he W<$' '\L:IO pl'C'-.ilw in ,he F... , " If T'hrod"lf ,imply did
...oci"", m'''''!
00
i,.
'0
'0
'0
0""
'0
,It.,
'0
'0
'0
tI",
'0
no . o. cuuld nm. uMelS '~M wh;" ,,~ \OKl., N;"'ClI . hen i. /Oil.,..... ,... , ,Ile
p<>lemicaJ .i<.! .,f I,i ....... ,k ",ould "ill be of ...1", '0 hiswri'M .nd , ... , the
O".,i. <h" ...< S"",,,,,lmft would d.im prinuq in . ny in'(f~, .. iv.
"heme_ lIU! if Iltwdulf .."jly did .. nd ..... nd " .... , b,pf'<ncd " Nicac. then
.he p<>li.ial p<ru of hi> ","Ork , .. ume .ignific.nct dons-ide ,he 'hllogial,
.M Throdulf, bbon provide u, wi,b. p,i.il<gd look in,o ,h. _rld ...reaMingi>n lcorning md culmre in .he 790>- A good ""'I i, ...",k. h.re_
K=nd)' (W() distinguished Ryumini" .. M.. i.... f nct Aclpy aM H.n.
G<Oog Th~mmd"M' younge. Fren"" ""h"b . K,;"in. Mi .. l.it . h..,,,, duh
<kv>.!wing blo .... to "most <"cry o.<pcct...r the tndit;"n.Uy invidious compari.
oon. befW<'Cn Throdulf.ad hi. E:...tcm "'ntern!""",i..... ....'. h,, ..,.,n .I,..".jy
in .hi, .wdy .Iu, in bo,h f.... te'n .nd Westen, ." " Ik thett: ...... "'m,id"",bl.
'mbigui,y coflC<rr>ing ,Ile u<c of prodtyMfis.M ",,,n,,. vnu-Tali nd """",,"'.
A, NiCK. ''''' ,he"' ...... ",me .mbigui'Jo in ,he 'pplio,,;"n of ,hese ".m, .nd
in the o .... rvation of c..dUl distinctio", bet'olon ,hem. J<>Itn of D.nu"", h:wJ
WOf!tcd om ,he differences in con,ide ... bl. d... ,II.." , ... wi,h '" many of Jobn'.
ida,. his contribu,ion on ,his "'1'i<:. .. k2s. hi, d.. p pbilosophie>1 ,,!)Um.n,.
tion. " .. , neglected at t-.:iCK>. On ,h. on. h.nd. , hen. ,h. E:.......... good ""'I
1<>< co",i><." , "" ,hi, iml""""" '''piC ,h,o" h,o. u . .... liy bee" ... umcd . On ,h.
oth., b.nd. nd .ogor<ll... of wh.ot ,,00.1 on tbe p. gcs of ,Ile ,,,,,,,la.;"n .Iu,
Th .. >d"lf ...... 'caJin!\> otv<:r.1 p..... "... in the
.bow .... , Throdulf did
und.m. nd ,he di"inCTion. He .imply fel Iu. ,he lIyuntin .. f.iled '00"",""
it." Throdulf ,1<0 saw .h,o . .... oy biblic:tl ~ addOC<"d .. N""", ""re i.relev:om
,he m. , ..,,, hond." \X'e will discus> hi< CUg<fie>1 in'e""... nd ...... ogO ..
i"" hd~w. bt" f~, now we mu.. in,i", ,I.. t he knew tnaly wh.. """ going on
in .he <i ... ion ofScriptu, . NOI'. Throdulf understood pc. fectly well wlu. \'nO
"i..... ""hen. gy. R.. il of Ancyn .,111 ThruJo<iu, of Amorion <onfcs<M 1 f.ti.h
mention .he ferni .."'n of .i..... he fCSurm:'U)n of ,h<
in imag bu. f.tiled
dead . .."J life ~,la<'ing lOp", J.6j. T he F",,,ks understood ,he dilr..en~ b.t'oIon bonming a pc""n .ad honoring .0 iaug<, they Iud wdl """bl;,/t.cd
vi ..... on ,he lirni.cd 'ifCUm .... ncc> "nd., which
could be .,id '" be holy,
a'"J '~'"Y kit .h.t 'he G. ks h:od ,00 unen c.-.......d .h< Ii ...... Fin. II)'. beco ....
of ,h. ,cl.,i.cly ,ntenloe diplomaq of.he 7\"" and 760.. nd hocousc of ,he
Fnnl , u"<I<,,,<><>nocbsm. :oau.lly
emb",ccd. ~ d.,.,1 of i. In both Eas. and W..t. i....... II Niota tha' ...... ",
",.; hIe <=<>I",ion.'''" All'in .nd og>in , ... O,..,oI'j<Cted to the i" trod, ... i""
of" nt)VClr;"'. "., Th< " Io .. ,i,," of i",>gtS "'.. cc ... inl)' ;,reh novcl'Jo' and Throd"tf under.;,ood .hi, pcrfectly _II. The.. is onl)' 0 problem if 0"" ,uo;:umbs ,0
0,..,
'0
'0
m."
,h.
...' '"'I' <uuw "!'U ~pIIl 'nc>j "! '1I1>CWO,. ,110 iu!-'9 ' diI""'I <Wd"'f'
~"""!~':>R> l"o "! '! ~"!11"..wo >11'1' <a>od"'P >If',noop-~, ........... "'"
"'l"I.14"J >"9''''~!-> "'lL " ""J """" "! ,~w."" puo ._~,
P"""'" SlfOO<I'" ...... .u.!~'NO >p:>q "1.u.1~' 'P!'"" .mol.,!' JO , ... wn"""
In,!'~ <II In! >p:>q ~:>Q p""!uwp .... IOU""" '"'I' ,~, "!I 'IXJ " 1
...,><1"'1' .u.'q' PU" ""'pill " ..."10. >r>""l ~_ JOj ~ "tld Iru~KI .... ' "'I'
,w_1! "" u>..mp.,." WOj ~ ........... '''I'''''I'OOj "':I JUI[E) ......'" '1'_ ... ' "':I
"ord "I' '"'f' P"P"p"<O"'''ow '! ,,~, """~ 'l"ru","'J .... p 'l'V "'I' y. fK""'
JO '1"'"
"">~,
' 1'IOj
1"'< ........ ~ . n.,';! "~.) '''''J .... ,1' .. 1 jQ '''''1' ""':I ""'"1 9,,!-'"'I
'..........<Kfd...... JO ~ 0 '''ids Jlnl"""U '''''J '1"""1 01 ~~ "I' "1

...... '>pi''''
' Y,,!I~Wwnf
M'u.>p "I"~' .'0
.~
"'I' "u"",nlIJ. "'OW!.HI ' JI"po.>tUJQ'~I"'" "t ,,' >f'1I1>Jd
, ~ ',(~U!I"<=V ' p"'"!Jddo API'!" uq IOIi ,.~ >iftI>W II<J:>AO "! "~I -<os
0' "'J w .... ""'!' '! mq '''_'I''n I! Jpn! , ..,." "1' J! II )Q" '! ' I """!"""!p
I"!"'''!~ JO 'P"" m""'A ", '! w"'J ;\I.P!-'-' >1J!<h u.....p .... Y'u ,'0111 >Y' JO
'U01I "'!"''''''J'~' P"P!""d .... ~ "TI"Y" ,(u,"" '""" "'I 01. '''!I!w,) .I1. 1>!"' '0"
"U"o:> pur '''''!''''''''''o 'nl:)"", "! '''''I''I'u", " ! p"
"A> ... tIj
..,.IJ.
,J<
"u,wj" J lI0w, .11"0 ~ >!~NI J" ~"'.. P"' ""!ld wO P"" ilu"l o '! I~"O "'I' "'''''->\1
,ndo "I' /0 iU"'~IS HfJ.
0,
.. dP""! ~J" h!~,>w"" 1u.uJ "1'"'1:)

!=!niJ 'P"".,un< ~,,!~u":1 "I' '~P"I HJI""W!~ J" ...!'........ """'If
.U<O ."''"'1:), ~"'Y'" ", A..oo,!i<'" " ......... p , ... uo",y 1~~~q<ntH ".
"! 'f">M '!H "1''''0 ....... '"I J! ~ iu!~.><k ~ Jlnr-t.L "'11 ."'" "'l" ..... w 1
"'II """'I" 'iluPlI'" ..,.. >Y '"I'" "'>Ul\ '"I '"'1' ""!odw ..... ,u>l":l""" "'I' IJO'I"""
'JI"p<U\U JO 1JO!' ..... wns ~ '" ~ "'OP""" " .... l,y" .. , 'vr:>mI""!P"~
"'I' JO pu> ""'''' "'I' .. ~UUlll<O .~, ... ~ns "<t "'"'1 IJM'I ""'"
JI"f"'U l~!1 ~, ..,,' P'" ''''!f'''''1''''I "" ~ ~I"u' JO PI"""
" .......... Jf"l! """"!N '"'I' ...,. "'I' U! "J!I I""Ift"'U! KlJ -II poq "<t
P"Y AmlUlO ~''f8!> "'" 'tIj' 'w f'U<' -n. PW"'II'U ... w """>1"1"" p" ........'"
n! w.~ Pu< """"!N II JO IJO!I<llllUlnin: .Y' JO a",," "'I'''~ poowopun
1.!!ti"J ." 1'1 "I' JO ""I,no "'I' .",.... l\I' ...[O[H '"'f' <>pnPIJOO Odpnv
"liY' J" II' """'IJI"f"'U
....JJI. "'I' U! """"'~"n ..'>",dw<o ....... ''''''''lI JO ""!~ >If' Y'!"' "'"'f,;d
'pU" ...." "'I' u! ,u>J 'lint. "11""'" ~ .." ~ ~,.,. .".... "'"'f .... 'V
"pmlf' >q' U! ",,!,!p<l1 rru>-,!"n I(i!...U.... put ,~. "t ..... Dinu! J" .""!'
..,.w., "'" ,0 .UO! .... OV" "'I' '"'1' 'J:I> -"I' '" DQoN II l ' 1JO!'~I...,,,,nin: .>II'
f"
<><>!N Pu< "".. ~ >Ill.
C.',i'.I.0" ..... not only. p,dimin. ry d..f, bm .1", tlla, i.. o'Pni.,,,ion .nd
con,,,,,,, pro'o'ide f.w clu ..
Th.oo,l<,lf. inn,i"", frn ,he cv~'wl 0,.."
Whcn ""d><d co"f\OlIy, the Op.., """,.b. tighdy ""'tl'OlI..1....t " " "'" ",!wI.:
Iogia l 0'8'IOil,.. ion [hl<,ugh booh one ond <wo. Book [hrtC is kill [ighdy ,[fUC
,urd, .hhO<lgh I. i, IOler:obly co"-'rem down [h",,,sh ,Ilapre. I'our=n .nd,
",'en
. h.., lhe.." ofi" m..enal i. comi".nt with whot Pf<cro<>
if
""... n... ,ly lIr>nge<! . Thi. ,i.w.ion .o:;o.d, well ",i[h F."",n', derminoti""
that thc '1 ..... liry of walk on thc V.. icon m.nwctipt I<mo;n.... high level down
to },I}, Book fou( i, much Ilard.,
unde"tond. The" i. It<)
d eIopmen' o[ p~on in it, M.ny uri" ,opia had been dnJ, wi,h p[..,iously,
Ofn ,he chore." in book fOur =nl only [0 expond on a problem .J, <>d y
d~, Flttman', .""Iysi. of the lmgu.g< in thc OpMI as a whole demon
,,1O[n pc"lI2>i.dy [ I u [ i[ i. fundam.nully lbrodulf. WOfk. Two hypo[h<>a
may he offcrd fu, the r"", th .. ,he second !..If of book ,hI<'< ."d ,11 of book
fOur I.ck ,he [igh[.nd [,.,n'l"m 0'8"n;",[;"n ofbool<> on nd [WO ""d [h.
fin[ h.:tlf of book [hr= Fint, the ."Iicr >1ion.,.nd c<pi.lly boob Onc .nd
<wo which dcol
dirII)' ... i,h hiblial ~, ""')' t..", betn cumpo;cJ
1,
while Th..-..!"Ir .... d ,he full [<>-, .. hi, di'J>O$>I, or et.. ..,uh<d
from hi, h intl "'" th,ough ,hc Nio:nc """ Win .,.",f"Uy, be:f.,,,, ,ho _
" -Cl< <cnt to EngLond (if ,bey . ually .... ~. ", ,lOt< ,he hiblial ~&<" thai
he "'.flIro to 'rg"" .bout, Sc.:onJ, whcn tt.c full <ct of _ " -Cl< onc< >goin
.,..ilable in 79), Theodulf l>es>"
wo.k more cLos.ly wirh p.. ri"ic P"'''''W''',
thwlOf;icol con",,,.., ..... 'nS '" do wi,h ''''''8''', .~d "I>fed problems ,ho, ~11 ~p
book.< [hltt.nJ fQu., Or, os. mrollo.,. to thi. 1""'ibility, .n.. Throdulf h.d
m. ,ked ou' tI,e mol< poni<ubrly theological ~ for discuosion .nd had
hoeg,," dr:>.f'ing hi, ''''1'''"'''' fQ"ch ;"11<, ,he &'"""",m ~"i.ro . nd ",nJ.rd
fNid ... 0 fin.l o,dcri~g of d,. 10>, ,hird of ,h.
In ,urn, while
an
be: ,uin th ...... ". , .. dins. book ,,~ ittcn by ~,M, ~;<cd by 001, ..
u~id.n,ifi.bl. 1";"" pcrlups conu-;bu,ro 10 by Alm;n, ow. inly .rgued ove,
.igorou>!)'" kos[ once 0' twice .. [hr COUrt, and .ppro.ed. by Ch.rI.m.gne
himself, W< "'~"'" be ,ut< , ....[ we know jus< how [h. work would ho,,, looI<cd
hod i, bc-on fini,hed with ,he .. me .i,,;" .nd in,dlec,ua/ preci,;"" wi,h which
it h.d betn bcw-m,
.oo."
.ncr
even
,0
.. ,n ... '''l!''
ob."''''
mo.'
,0
0,..,_
w.
The ,"'/""" '" book 0 ... " ' " ,h. ,on nd in,rodoccs ,h. m.jor [hem .. of ,he
work os. whol . 'o, God gran" rul. to ,hose ... ho will p''''''''''' uniry and dcftnd
the foith. Ptopk ..+.o de"... from r=i>..,J ,f'3dition....+.o.1wK\on ,he f... hm.
'n,rod....,
'''..-rogan'
,.00 refme to 'e>ell ,",'Iu, ,hey ..........""". who

""''CI'i...
mel .mbi,iou.. Solnt ~'f'I :ago dlf Crtdu held """ncil in 1Ii,lIyn;' "bod!
...yill""'ly .Dd '" indiw,,,,i,..,c i"'~" (r. 99) ..i>c... " 'h<y .boIiohni
iorup PU' up Iiw ,... >do<nm..." of chun:.....nd fOf the corn ...."''',.'ion of
<hinp don< hy ,,-,< in "'""". ,i..... " (p. 99). Itrndy they Iu", Itdd _'
council <Yen """"" .... n ,he fO.~ Of><' boa".. "E... I)""'httt. ",-t.nhcr in .,.....
<>rP of <Ii,i"" ","",un: Dt in ,ht wm .....nlil.io of the holy f:othe ... wbcoo:va
they fouDd ...... n'ion '" i....,.. ,hey ,u,ncJ i. in." a j~. r.,. adon<ion"
(p. too). " We. ~." ThtoduJf ..yo.. M.",cont<n, with th.prop/><u. =nvIi<u. and .pl>Il& 1II'f1""p- .nd .'" imbued with .he lDching> '" the .,.,IWXIOJ:
f:othocn....!to de. "'" dcri ... in d,.j, taCh,n" from tlu. wbich it ',he .... y he
,ruth. md ,ht m.. (John ,~.6). ''. ac'pf ,h.... holy and unittnal .ynod<
..... ich ""'" htld by ,he holy ond ........ bk f.,htn '0 deal ..; ,11 >-aric' y uf
hernial .."",h, and .... f<'jcc. II! ... rb.J novd,io .nd "upid inven, ions. .nd
not <KIlr Jo "'" ..... . re.;'" 'htm bu, we ""Iy
_It fil,h a.
rynod whidt
.... held in the .q;ion nf lIi,;'yn;'" on . (eoun, of ' M 0>0" ' o>p.udrn, t~i,ioo
of oJOIin~ im>g<>. n.. 'eu of it> w';<i"g>. I.dtin~ in <Iotj<><ncr and ocru<. h..
~ed u." (p. '0'). H. cond.odt:< hy "yin~ ,h. , h ing &ilth.rcd d", eoneurrena of ' he biohop> in ,ht " kingdoo> g",,,,1 ,,, u. by God " m<Odulf 'Jl'<"k.
in G arb', ,..<n.) ."d hav,ng aucmbl.d ,ftc, , ..,in",ni.. of ,h. ",rip""", md
f:a,he", W<.I< (On'pd led '" objm '0 ,hi. heray coming fmm ,ftc, E,." ' 0 ,he
W"", .. Ch."I.... coOlp;t'" hi", .. lf '" I) id in ,h. nro:d '0 P'" to flight the
eo,np. ny of ,he "';"ked .
IIook """ op<'n, by picking up "II< p;trti.rul.. ,hrad in ,he l"'fou, ,he .....
luvin, '0 do wi,h God', ,,,,d,u,;"n uI
of .. h" P"'!'<' rule, >houkl
he. a...p..n """ ,n (oor'" dlOw from ,he Ie" .....-hich eomtantinc and Ir<n<
.... , to H..Jn.n in ;I\ ....nd ....d .... , he ,ule" on ..n.. uI rd. ,od grounds.
0.",.., Of><' i. add,......J '0 t~ ...Iffl who .. y ", htoogh Him. God ... ho
wi, h o~"''' l'h<odulf .. ~ 'hi >Wt of onmi. ignl uroganot and
Iu,.
,Iu.
,,,Ie,,.nJ
.:oms...
"Y" ,hlo, "'" C..,n, .i.uIa , .... prin<ipl< 0' hun"li,y. Th<y 00 "'" .wi"".he
<lu<m ,Iu, ~t .. God from " . 0 ..;,,). he .. ,.., ........ dated '0 Uttc' ...cIt
... , ......... H 1>0
Ion& d,lICUMioo of ,ime ftIt<1'llpot;.ria and a ~nur boon on rh<
nrioua meaning> .nd imp/iearion, of H_.M(,"'" .... i'h "). In chapt ....." Tbrodulf .nxb a ...K ....... ' hy .he- G....... dut .. boca ......... """"'. h;, s/ory He .....
w. . No, lhrooJulf ..ys. ,hei ttopncc f"O"<>
they vdt only ......
own s/ory. M.,...,...., ht conllnua, if.t..,"", won.hipin~ '<rUt!'" >nd wd<i~
'" im...,.. ,lut """""iT< on m. ..-hoi. . huw. hen they Ole nor ...."..,ipi~ God.
provm.
a.-..
,Iu,
,iii
CMAn . . r OUt
woo
no< following )110,

Aid He w.. the ""'"Y, the tfUth, .ncl the life," ~n.J
th .... fu ... the,.' .... root "",king the glory of God, H. pfm'ida. tidy discu"",n
of wru.t . n imag....nd 'I\"in ""me gnom .... r lessons .nd "Arctions on the
meoning of """oJ., Clup .. , 'ht tadles ,It< "'"Y the 1I),",in..... f., '0 thei,
Ie"".. C'Ji,..tu.") .od 10 thcn ..clva Cdi""il Ckarly Throdulf docs ""t rccog_
ni .. he,. ",me perfcr;rly , ,,,di,io,,,,1 R""",n clurn~ry prn:r~, H" ..lees [h ...
a ptOSi"". to mran th .. ,h. CteeL h.... the t<m.rity 10 "I""t< ,hem<clvn wi. h
God, '" wi[h [h. god,. Am id ""'... s.. mm.>r lessons, Throdulf ..yo th" i, <'"dIe<> ar\;ty" ... ,1 "Ro',,"," "'[''''''''''n '''0'' ,n>.J' .1.....,010. ,ruI;'ion." Chlp ..,
fou, .nocl ~ in the impe ... II ..,,,[ of 78j ",ncr. ,he rul." .. id, "We as!<
your parnity, .nd eop:i. lly God ..b." Prcdic.. bly, Throdulf w<s , hi. ro
me>n th .. the G ...... k.s, in .ddirio" 10 king ""'I\,n" .i mply dv not k,""w how
begins with
to .. Ibbou. God. God doc. not "",k, " T hroJulf .. )~. So the
.<e>,iog coooenlll.>r;,," of llrunrium', ruk ...
H.-ing ""-.bl .... ed r" hi, ..[i.f..",ion rrun the Byz..;omium, rulcr t< un~[
'0 ........ , Throdulf ,urn, ." four ,,,,o,ir;",,,,1 ch.p[.... (1-j-8) ,ru., kuI him on
from. m. jot ,hem. in the ptrf.~ to .h. ""n...1 ,,,bjrct mot.er of b<rok 0""
,he int<tpr<lOliOl1 of ,he Bible. Ch.p .. ' ~yc mu.s ,he ';mpk poi", th .. Scrip' .... mu" n,,' be inrc'P""e.l willfully, m~" "", be .ub.'ertcd '" d", ,,~, of d ..
momen,. Th ... i. , ,ndi,ion of in'<lpn,.. t;"n th .. m,,,, he .. ricdy oo.ctval
C h.. pret , i<, which W2S n,,, 00< of Theodulr. origin.1 on<>. ..... our the . rgu_
m.m ,ru.[ on all difficul" dispu'od man",. Rom. m,," be ",.ulted. Onlr thOk
"ri,iog> tru.t Iuve ba:n .pprovro br ,he popes or th ...." fuund in .uch boob
.. Gd.. iu" lHt-w,~", .... '" be conouirro. Peter P'eded :ill the ' po"l<>. Throdulf .. y> ..-. rhe hi.<hop of Rome pm:cd...11 orh ... "0"'. jero"'., "no of ,h.
~t .., of ,he <h"reI> f.. he ... did "or h.. i",. '" ",,,-,,,I, I'op< 1)''''1<u, .nd
m"", .-.ccntl) Pippin getly sough t
on m",.", of ....,"hip. "nd
.ft<. Cod ru.ndcd It.Jy to "us'" ..... h...., rnlUlted H.dn.n on [h . .. me problem" In.1I [hinS" [h ..,. of P.,.r m",. b< fOlI"""ed. eop:i .. ll r by '" who ho.,.
ba:n givcn by GOO the ",t. ofC.ul. Getm.ny, l!>.Iy nd ,IK Suon . Ch.pr
><ven inundue<> ,he Ii.., bibli",,1 p.... gc cxplicidy odd...-.I by Thcodulf bu[
001 >0 much to refute. particul .. lin. of imap, ...,ion .. to <:>ubli.<h lIN lin.
of in,e"""... ,;"n. ' [l,codulf ""mm.n" on Gencoi, ,-,MC '"For God .... "," '"
in hi. own im.t;<, ...'".o ..y th.t ,hi. Scripture mW< nOt be un<kt"ood in.
li",1 selll< '" havinS to do wi[h inuga wh.o, in f..cr, it ,hould be .. ken in
",iri.ual ........ Th.n Thcodulf .ites Ambrose', tr.. ti!C. 0... Failh. to .how ,hot
,he oobl. inrerio, of m.o. rhe IOUI. bc.n [h. im"!!,, 100 lihne of GOO. 11.
")~ ,h .. rhe "",I bc." in iu<lf . ",,,.,in inug< of ,he T,ini<y in ,h .. i, is
"" n,po<! of und ..... oding. will, .nd m.mory: '" F", juS< .. ,h. Son i, s.n<",,;1
Or'"
Rom., .cl"'c.
from "" FUM . mol 00, of 1M Fa,Mt aoo'M Son p~ tM Holy Spirit. '"
"" .~ "'ill i> F ... ~"I from un<l<"wklin5'00 memory p,,,x<'i> from t~
"",," (p . ,,). Man .. fu"h('fmot~ .11< i"""F ufGod in I>i> n.........,.. f().nd
dupby of r:odIy vi"ueo--Ic1>,.. j....;u, .......f>tt. mildn ..... "ncrno.ity. mcy.
"l'I>>dulf ...." ci,n AUf;U>li ... ton !>ow .ho ..,... <an be ~ ond """'.br ~
Ofl .Iiltma. ' 0 God ,,'hilt dtJuning from oi".nd .ab.ondoning in fOJm<'t likf() A<Wn. 10k con1inue> wid, Augwti... ~,ion ,....., "" liknlc:u
...hid. .hr Son bean K> .be I'.d... i. ditf....." from ,II< likrnno. tIu., the hunun
ooul CUI bt2t '" God. God, IIoul..nd vin ........ l"'Orpornl. llItoduif iruioa.
and III< C.ocb ar . ....0". ,.. j'u, bern "";,h .... nufxrufft! .hinp;o. ....... is
.,..;th '111>ea. Th,. pn>vid<> Throdulf in (hopt'"
"";.h an oppununity ' 0
dioctm i""'S", lik........ nd j,w"y. II. bdk>-c> ........ It.. GICd. ,hi"" , ...... f()
be .....,.i>l1y jui..",,,, bu, .hey mUll be d;"' ngui.htd .. """"......... 'Y'hing
.. hid. i. >J\ imag< ... lih1x:l.l
"'"tf)1hing ,ha, ;, Ii"""" .. an imag<
.inc n imag. ~r Ix'" Ii ........ bu like ..... ofn I..d".n im>g< and qui
of,... i>oth an ;m... and 0 lih ......... known .0 Ixk j.wity'" (pp. 146- 47).
To npl.in <I,i ...."" .b>c",.. p<>in< TI......J"lf si ..... on ..... n'pk: " Evny <f;I; is
.i mih.
",hr. <go in "" f.... i. i. an <JQIi. 8u . .....nid,,. <'GIl. in "" fa,
OS i. i, .n egg. is .imil..." hm', egg, b", i. n..... nh .."", "'" in im.;a" """""'"
i. ;., no, .. prco>cJ by i. nd i. i,"", i., "'lu.1 beau.. i, i. , m.II., a"d co .....
frOlll. dilf....", ki".d "f onim.I" (pI" '47- 48) . In >il"tt, Thwdulf "')~ ,h.. ,h.
Bibl. mU>l b< noad """"'lly. ,10" tI .....fa, gui.d. '0 "'...,,' fading i. ,he
Rom.n , ...IiI inn, ,h.. IU""t\"' <tOO'N by ,h< C rttb .Multl Ix .....0 .pirim,lIy,
OS ,h. f.. h.r> h>Y .100'" . nd "'" li.... lIy . nd ,h i, j, e,;,"",ll" undo,,,and
wh .. ;. ",<>nl by imago in fix
1'1>. l la,in...' forth ,h. ruk,. h. "')~' we
CUI now ru,n 10 >(rip'u",I .."", qUotN by ,h. C"",b. 1.." <>fhi> ruin .-.quire
.mplwi . n.. >piri,,,,,1 meaning i I..... )'> mot<" i",I"""o' ,h.n 1M li ..",1 and
,,,," "ndc",.nd in.
fNl(' . ". . . .1'" '" dM from ..... ' m",,, be in~,
..;th ...ha, ,It.. fo,,,,",, ..... ,,. oIT<>dy ..id.,..
1x:I.I
.;yo.
I.", .....
'''...-.ry
fi",
,t.:.,
n......, """'..." ' ..... ptn. (,.,_, u) e';l ;";"., 'f'O"N, Okll~men' ......
""&C> ,h.. ,Ix Nice ...
quor<d in <kko .. 01 Im'l\...... W. -.:l nollUmnurizc _ h " ... h<roo. 1t"";11 be ......p. to si... r... cnmp .... ond '0 d.ocrib<
llu:od"If'. i,ial It, ........ W. <an _l,...,..ulflQl ...... ~ ~ .. i,h "" ....
and .haflO.. ptO<ftding book by book lhroug, ,II< Old Tc...rn. .... So Ix
"""""" ." and ..;.n.... ,.....n.. quo<N .. Nicar. ...... , Ah ...... m xIotN ,he
p<opI< 01 ,Ix und (Go...... '),1) and .h., Mooo.dor<d Jnhro, the prin. of
Mid.... (E.odw .t.6-7). ~( . 01", "'1' ' .....1Jacob did no( adoK p ..... ""'" {Gcncsis
47.,..,,,) .nd ,ha. o..n... did noo.oo.., Ncbuchod""'LUr (Doni<! ' .46). 1I'''r>
......, JacoI:t bIcucd plw<uh bu, did no. ....... him (c.....u 47.0) .nd ' .....1
f.,.....
,a c.... ".
"'~.
N.,h.n', ""..... 'ion of D.vid io "'" 10k< , .... ><lo."';Ofl of.... 'mage ...t l1x-odulf.
'OPOOI< '0
ci ... ,iolU >howJ 0 ... of lu, w...:,.,io,ic .....ys of......tUng. Fif>C .
.... .:on,.ruh on ..... li, ..a1 ......1 bu, .. )'> ,hoo ...... C .....1u so< i, '""""& n..., is.
, .... ...'nlup" of on< ra- fo, ........... iI. ",",B of'apI Of """",.nd h.u
.b.oIu!dy ..... hing to do ....... -t,'p p..td .., things ,hoo, la<;k m<W<me<o'. ooicc.
or ...... ( p _ 149). It ......"
r.... Ll7. ~""'" 1"'" b.oth.<,.~ and quipo
dw. p.,.. did _ ..y ~ ... bmi, )'OUI'JtIf lo", im>gl':' AI for , ......orics of Jacob
rn...
'I"""'"
.n<! Ihnicl, he ..,.. d.., he an_ ~nd ........ in I .... ~I<btew or in.l<"""" (i..",
..... \'ylp .) (W '1'-1'), "T"htn hr U)'> lhool Jxob did _ .'odot. . pluroah. hr
"bIcsocd~ him, difl"nml ... ins ahOfllthn . ........ baidto. ......yo.. ........ if .... had
ado=! h im he """"Id ""~ dono. "' .... , of hummty ..... 'O!a' p<.-cro.-.., 10<
,.,..,.,J,ipins imorp (p. Ill). Tlott!, .... ""'" un, ,.... Gr<du uuli word. in th.i,
of .... .oc,iptulO-. 'hcr ozeh.1"flC' ~ fo, ~ O>-Ij). AI for N.,
.h... .......hip,ng o...id Ij Kings '.IJ). he did Ih" .. . mark of.-...p<CI ror.
nun pUc.,.f in P"""" by God. H . ,hen <il". on ,ho poin,. P.uI (Ro ..... ,p)
......111"""-" co",.. itom God . O><I Ti, .... (j.,) "n dlC"eed for humbk ",bmio.ion. In 01 .... ' w,,,ill. I.. ,.11. ,he G,,,,,1u ,hoo''''oy COnno< rnd ,ho pt.in word.
.... fo,.....m .nd do "OI know Iww '0 rnd ,ho Old T...."'.". in liplt of ,ho
"".tm<1\,
n.
N_.
."J
H. 'hm ",.",ion, )",,,1.', pi llow "on.,

t.....,.. he .noin,..! i, ... ,;,k
(G.""" >S.n_,I). J""ob', ""<'<Ping " ..' J<<ph'. co;o, (G."coi. )7.j>-)4). hi,
.doting ,h. 'ip of Joo<ph' ",ff (G.n ..i. ~7. ),).n' . nd ,h. "of)' of Mosco and
,h. bu,.n "''1''""' (Numb... 11.1"""'9).'" 1"hwdu lr, c.i,id.nu of ...... ~ga
lake o<v<n l fou ru. H...,.. ,h., J",,,b', >1011< h ,h,.., Infl. of m.rni ng and
,h non< of ,h... uthotiu ,nug-t>. H. N,.. ,~., ,t.. " Of)' of Jos<ph', roa,
p ... 6gu'Ci tho ...,.. men .. . ...1 ..... , .he b ... <n ><'1"""' I'fdipuo ,t.. rrdtcm ...
,..t..... an ..... If be """" WI,h It.. mind', <J"" ("'i~"""1J KoJiI'). R,,' .... oho moc.lu
,ho Cr<du No. "'Ying , h.. Jacob PU' )oKph', co;o, ,...." hi, ..,... and ki>oaI i nd
"" ..yi~ .h., J-.b ......hipl ,ho lip of Joo<ph', lUff in"tad of ., .he foot of
hio hod. 'llooooJulf"""", ,he G...,1uo "" "mutib,ing" tho Scrip<ll= liunl
...... ninp .... """'" <t>OUBh. he btl ....... bu, ........ <1 of i,,'.'1' ......""" is poooibio
if d... ''''' IS quot~ ilKOfR'Ct",. AI fOr- joooph', coa,. ho sa,.. ..... com if tho
""'Y we ... -....'" ,lot -...y ,lot G_b .u it, 'hI> ........Jd .....,. "",nl .... pen.... '"
hu ...... XI"", by.
bd;.."..t his boIoo<J - . '" bo"" bct-n &vo..d
by bns... 11K IS...,. """". Iw "")'flUng II) do ""... i~ mud! .... wi,h
kiuis Do" ............, '" , ...... . M.... I"" up hi, bnun "''P'"'' II) ...nl oK .ouk-bi ...... Thnloulf ..yo.. bca .... tho lin,.,..... ....,... no< .. fUns enough to place- th.i.
f.,.... ""'"
hope in ",hing. not ""n" (Rom.n. 8."..). The bl">ltn "'I"n, i, .. lf "'os m"".,
of indiff<tcnee: Ha.dci. h
des, royed it.
,imes (r.tj. t9. 10) Th..ooulf :tdcl,c<sc< Ark of
,h.
.00 i" cheruhim . Th..ooulf "'pc-:t" in =h i"""nee 11"" ,hd<
thing> """e r=dc on God', CIIprn>! o.de .... nd ,h .. they Clnnot f>< comp. mJ
....;,h im.s<' m:td. h)' h" m.n . He .1", "'Y'
,h. A.k . od the ch.",bim ""''''
oe.e-.:! ... . . mo" holr pf<Ggur.. ion of fum" my"e.;.. (p. '69). In chapter
M,cen Thcodulf d...1s .. length wi,h ,h. ,ypologi ...1,ignifianee of ,h. cherubim
.00 draw. hcavil~ on Augu"in" Qw>'i~'" "" ,IN I/,p"",m, Ipp. ,6<;/-7)) . But
his funodamtnul poi'" i, ....11 <:<prasc-.:l in ctup''' nin .....,n ; We.... ho folio ...
.he dead lett.. bot ,he living .pi.i'. ...-ho . f< no. ,!.c c;"nal but .he .piritu.1
1,....1. who h.ving "i'e-.:! ,hing; IC<n com<-mp"'t< .hing; no' IC<n .ejoice in
h,.ing w:cpte-.:! S""'" mysccri .. not only ,han int"ll"' .... hieh lad.1I mY"'I)".
bu, .1>0 grc:ot< r.J mo,e di"ingoi>he-.:! sign. of mY'tc';'" than .hOk ubku
0' """ eh..... bim (pp. '9J~) Chap'" lWCI1'y aI", co",.;n, Theodulf. fi ... ,
""",.ine-.:! a ttack on l'atr;',ch T.,....u. wloo ",oold "orne in (,,, rcp<">te-.:! "'"g""
Ihing> in 'he ... Iy ....-.;"n. of book ,hr. This time. T..... io' i. criticized
l>e<:au .. !.c was n!.lhcd '" quidl)' from
I.~
'he ck.ial ..... "";,ho", due
e-.:!uc:,,;"n in ,h",,1ogy .nd .he p,i ... hood
he did nOf know .oy hencr ,h.n
l"-=
eo.,..,m
"'te,
,ha,
no'
,h. '0
.ha,
.0 lead hi, I""'PIc in.o ,h,lOoli,h "",.hip
of mat .. i.1 .hing;.
Wi,h chap. ",,,n,y.,h,,,,, Thcodulf in",!;"",,, .<C,ic< of /if, .. n ch, pt .., .

running d<>Wfl to 1.8. that deal " 'ith the pulnu, Thi' .<C,ies ;. broken onl)' for
,.,0 ",-b i<h . mong <><1>< hings. CIIplom .he d iffi,,,,nce I" "wn ""ing .od
h... ,;og.'.,J for ,heprcfa.~ book ,wo_ In .11. n,"""~lf ""I"'nd, '0 oa-<n"'''n
.<pirn: psalm ~ .... quo,ed at Nicoo. " " W. nee-.:! no' go th,ough them . 11. bu,
we m'r oboe",e ",me of hi, technique> fo, interp,eting .hem, In citing .he
p.o.alm "'...., q u,m ed ;n ,I>< HId, .nd in ci,i ng ... 1><, ' ...., ""hieh b"",....,j
hi' quibble:< 01 rtn.t.tion . Throdul f wed ",,1m ,'et<ion' from me Mou .. bic
.n,iphon' l)". Th i. discovc'Y h., ,eI... n..., to .n)' u nd ......,J'ng of the .. XI of
.he Op~, b,,, was .1", , 01';0' ' ' '01' ''' in F"",m",', ,I"mon,,,,,,ioo tha, 'Ihc<~
dulf .... , in f.., .1 outi,,,, <>f ,he Up"" "
,ha,
1hcodulf de.l,....;m , hc ",,1m, in much ,he .,me "")'

I>< ok.1I " 'i'h
,he o,h .. Old l .... m. n' P"""-g<O, for CII.mp\e. he >gain urges 'ypological rtad
in g<. \I.'lhcn .he Greek. cite 1'.. lm 4.] ("The ligh. of )'OU. coontenmcc i. 'igncd
upon u"). Throd"lf ..y>. ~ .. " ,h .. ,h. "I igh, of Gnd'" i, ,he Son of GOO
'hmugh wh"", it ;, l"""i),l" ti> have. gli",p'" "f dii"ity , B"t then. he ~ on,
the ligh' of ,I>< lord .igne-.:! upon", i, "no' ." I>< ","ught in materi.1 i"",g<O
which lack. like ".her qu.li,i. light. but in .he !:>.anner of the <IOU hccau .. "''''
!u~ :w:ep,<:d b.p.;,m ,h ..."gh ,he m.,., holy How of ,..oi",i"g ;n,p"""'" 0"
"."
CN . . . . . . , , " "
our ro,.hads" (I'. ,,,1. In Otll<, ...... d. II<- .data ,hio ~ '" tIK gcr.unrnl>
and denies ,lut i, ha, .nph ing '0 do ...ith 1m,*". Similar i, hn "..,.tm.", of
I'Alm 1\.1 ("1..00:1 . I h.v.1oved til< baury of)'OU' I>owc "): "The IIous.. of the:
Lord io o<rordins '" llkpy ,II< dr.urclo. otO:I<dins to anasosY.
cortIing to t~. 1M ...... of man" (I" ....1. H. "Y' , ... , IIous.. of God
m.... bt und.........d <pint"'!ly. PIOI m.......IIy. Som."..... l"h<odulf :oJ,..... '"
m<DpIror. Wh ... ,IK Grub ci t< I'Alm +-I.') ("All tt.: rich among the: pcopI<
haY< -.gr, ,.,.... F..t.-") n..oJuif SOY'
nomi"lllO do wid> im>geo and
in
,Ir.< " fro" rekn t" ,Ir.< .pIr;.ual .eochi"ll 01 ,Ir.< dr..uch .nd Lh< " rich"
........... who Iu p"ftl "" ...-ayrh.ng to foIkrw.t.: 1.01. Lik.wio< ... hm Lh<
Grub bring fDrw:r.,d I'~m .,.u r' You 1\0"" lUll,..! my ,oan in.o jor"). Th<orllilf inl<"fJ'ft'. th .. ~ ~Ur "",h .h.. !<"an "'"*' tht p.;tinful_
01 ,hio li~ and jor mUM hc:aV<n. Occasi<>Nlly Tlrotodulf ...... ru. ""f"""<S '"
Gtftk pAlm in.. rp ...... "'" '" p<O"idc: Ieuoru on 5"'m""".nd dioquioi.iom ""
.rope< ...J f;gura of If''<h. 11><:1< pod PI often .. ril;., ,t.. radrr .. pomp<> ...;dr pt:olm (iutton . hio duple< .nd 11K immali_
heo.....,. '" ""-
r.:..
,h" "-
,wo ......01 'Il><udulf ... ki~ d vi rl><ro";a.!I"'''"''

in ,IK miJdlt of his .".I)1io of dr. llyun'inc p!-Ilm ci ... ion. in Inc IU"'. In t.jQ
.,dy fOllo"';n! I'",fo<c ", bovk
"Il..oo.ulf ,akes up 1'..1", 47.9 CA. ~ ..... hom! to we Iu"" on) . II. fim
<>boo"", ,ho. ,hi. ho. ""'hing '0 do wi,h .. on,.",foctu,t<.! im. g... .nd .,b w","",
,hoy h."" ..... It.<:lfd I"lfiucN. proph .... '" 'I""tI.....y .ny luch thing. . Whot
.... h.-c hc"d ... "",,,.1 " hr "-Y'. "w< ,...;11_ .. ;mm",ul," (I" .).). W< ho,"
" heard"' aboul ,he coming .,( C!r.";" in ,h. L>.w .nd " .. h........ n
in ,he
conGo.p"'u, For ,ho fir... im ,hen. Thcodulr.",. .... rhen .. ,Mot....;11
..... ,Iy I..., in ,It.< Op..t:.he ou",. iorj,y of"'" Sc.ip'UfCO to imap. But. opin.
n.codulf.<1'C'" .h.. tht Sc";I""ra. ny ..,.;1"" ..... mOl"],."~ IJJ!'iu."'
lbc Prwfon.o book ....... Y' oimply ,hoc. MoYing brough, funh ...J c:omho"ed
",n.. p.us>g<s ,hot ,I><y ci .. '0 prop u p thtit v.mry. now -= mwt contin ....
:odd mort """~. and th<n 'urn to "'.... 0p,n;"". of ,ho holy fot .......
Alt.. drvooing 1.1 '" '0 odd"kono] poalm Clution .. TI>codulf turru to
.h.... m<>'" Old T........ n' pauaga ..-hich. t.: in,;.... poo>< &cp opirinul
..... ninp Ind 1\0..... nominl~' 011 .odo "";th;rIUgQ- In c:ommrnlingon J Kinp
7.'9. """"'" s.:.komon ;. ~cd '0 1\0,.. put im>geo of OJIen ...d lion> in tht
T..... pk, hoe"Y' """ ............. by If>( lUng M"I)l'" Iigu .... ...d .... rej. thc:i<
...d __ ....... ,har ....... "'p"'",i.iow odontioon. vrIoich ... can_
PIOI discover ....... ,,, 1\0 ... bHn i ..... lUtcd br
proph<u. "P"',b. ...
M
opoo<oIic mcn (p. '14). The I . . . . . . hoM thc rypo 010.,.;,. .nd sip>ify tlu. H.
,hi.
.<cu'
......' ,nookn,.
"",,w.bs.
woukl all ,,,," >JlO',b wh". in ,hoi, p,onI mini.,'Y. would dUplar ct!m...
"'" K<nd..,..,..of """ . nd "nco ......... ,h< fi.tc< ...... o(1ion . \"/10 ... ,h<G,crla
quo<N Can,ida I..J4 ("Shnw .... ),"II! r"",,") Thmdulr ..)'1 II...
i ..... rinul
toO! c.otpot<:>land ,,,,", Cu"icl .u. wOOk .&.. '" ,h< dll",:h .. <he.".... ..
Ch, .... \II:'hcn h< ",n,. '" I....... ' 9.'9 . 1lon.- .. ill be an oJ ... in m. lmd of
Eg.".~) h< ''P'''' ,Iw. ,hio i, proph<qo abou, ,h< ",IIin, of ,h< t'""iks. ,,,,",
II", proph<cy ..... fulfilled in Ch,iM . nd
tIx ~ mWl Ix in'npm~
~";';....,/i"" .M nor . ~,~ This lonl...n.. afbiblial p .... ,.. then md;
r.cc
or
,fu,
with M,,,,,hcw PI (~N",,,,,, do ""'" lish" ",nd... nd PU'" undtr. bwhd")

..-f>m, Theodulf~ ..
,hislw ..... hint at.1I to do wi,h i""F' bu, tIu.,
,fu,
i, do.. rck, ' 0 Chri... nd to ,h< apo<tlc. ..+.om H" I<n, into ,h. ,..,..Id to
rod .... Hislish'.

In <umm.l)'. 1'hcodulf ocann ,hot G~1u of fail,ng '" und<nrand "'"
.nd ......"rial ..,ifica of,,,",, Old T.......... ,. H. , ......... dy :atXUS<S
,........ of h,.inS p<JOf. <v<n ' hild, .... und.nunding of ,,,",, Old T...,m.n,
hcau>< ,kry '~l" .... n.
,..kt li",,,I1)' """"gcs ,fu, most """ undcr.cood
>piriru.dly. alkzorio.lI),. ')1"'tog;nll),. Apin .nd '&,in 'Throdulf <I,,,, .i,,,",,.
N.... Tn"m<n, Of Pil,ri,,;.
or booh. , h.. ~ til<' """ .. n.. of , ny
Ji ... n Old T""'m<n' ...... (Kooion.Uy h (ft:\Ou bcwikk,m.n,. of,.n h< i.
" . ,kly .."""ie. _,.,im.. h. is lik n illll",i.n' JC ......
wi,h ,low
pupit but his Io.o,i...,..n. 1"f ,ech"i",... of ' 'lum.n,. ,ion i, .1,...)'1 ,h...m.
""i,h 1.1) ,[,h><lulf " " nl ... h. p'omi!l in 'h"
to !"u.i"i, "', ..
ci,~ .. I"ic-.... Hi.
O"''''pl. p<'mi,,~ hi",
n,,1to numh<, of ",10,..1
point>. ~I i, .. ,h. ' 101)' ' h" Pop< 5)1'''''''' h,oush' im. get' of Prt .nd Pml
' 0 Con"' n,in. 10 ,h """ rould I'KO\In'" .h<m .. ,I,. "1)' ligu,,, It" had .....
in d.... m. TIIi, Pil"""'!..' P""'II" i. Oil< or ,,,,,," ,h.. "".u.U), dori....! from
H.dri:on, k,m .nd which lock< on)' .. ("",nco '" il> ",iJin. H. Ic.d< .. ith ..
b.uic point: " \1(' ", of... rnmp<lkp'io! "...,tit on i""gc><
,,,,", i, i, "'" IOrbidJ.n ," US '0 ~ .... ,h<m. bu, '" odo<. ,I><rrt. nor mu>t .....
.hrink from -'"I .... m ..
fo.. <hu,dta. ur>O<;, is .do... ,ion which
;, "..,.. in ..... n........ ",-<, ,ul""mdy ""p<... i,;.".," (p . )y). TIo"" he p " on ' 0
.. y ,h.. SyIvnr.. brough, d>OM' PIC"'''' fo,. eo.."'n';".. '0 look .. "'" '0 adore.
I-k ....my ..-i>hcd fo,. ,hot .....
'm>Il\u ,h< 1'0.-0, .. hom h. had ......
in h" dJnJft>,. ",. 1"'1'" did 10 ' 0 ......... ,,,",, <mpcror', mind from thin&,
koown ", ,hi"", unknown . from .hi"l> ";>ibk to ,hint' ;,.. i>ibk. fo,. Com, ... ,
in< was
at <he kwI of v;.;bk ,hins>- 11.. prot:aO " ... r.. hn like- ..ki",
Ccttu.un,in< from miUt '" ootid fOod. em.. nly S)"........ had no in .. n.ion 0(
d,..ng <he ......,....,.. fn)n't invisibk 'hinp '" .tsibIc 0 ..... ~"in.lly. l~u1f
..yo. i, is cbnK<"'W .0 d,.w tcsIimony (rom doi. "01)' btou>< it io "'" to be:
~m ..ict!
,0
p......,..
Ii",
,0
dor.,IOI\.
.,...0< '"
",U "....
m.".'
''"flf.
192
CHAPTER fOUR
found among the approved books "i n the book of blessed Gelasius" (p. 261).
After his long preoccupation with bibl ical tens, this story gave Theodulf an
opportu nity to signal several themes that would be with him th roughour the
rest of the Opus.
Chapters fourteen to twenty of book twO contai n Theodulf's rejection of
patristic texts cited from Athanasi us, Ambrose, Augustine. Gregory of Nyssa,
John C hrysostom, and Cyril of Alexandria, with a chapter on the Sixth Ecumenical Council (2.18) in their midst. He accuses the G reeks offaili ng to understand
the texts and of citing the m inaccurately. His (Cnu al point, as always, is that
these tcxrs bring no support to the adoration of images. The Augusti ne passage,
incidentally, is the only citation of this father at N icaea and its text cannot now
be traced in any known wo rk of the saint. Having some knowledge of John
Chrysostom, T heodulf voices a doubt that the opinion (2.19) cited by the Greeks
could have come from this church father. With respect to Cyril (2.20), Theodulf
says that he does not know the book in question. Chapter seventeen is a particularly revealing one. The Greeks had cited a passage from Gregory of Nyssa and
Theodulf says that his life and teaching are unknown to us. Then he says, with
Paul, that everything m ust be tested to see if it comes from God. H e continues
by saying that he is not sure if such a passage should or should not have been
brought forward but that, for now, he plans to leave it on one side with other
teachings about wh ich "we" are ignorant. Moreover, he expresses contentment
with the Latin doctors whose lives and teachings arc known to us and with the
Greek doctors whose writings have been translated into our language. H is specific reason for rejecting this passage may have been that he could not trace it in
the DtcrtNlm GtMsianum. In T he fathers of the Sixth Counci l mentioned images
depicti ng John the Baptist pointing to the Lamb. T heodulf dismisses this as yet
ano ther ite m in their "accumulation of triAes" and he also complains abom the
appalling Latin of the text he has before him.
With 2.21 Theodulf rums away from his direct critique of Nicaea's patristic
citatio ns to what might be called systematic problems. In 2.21 he rejects the
proposition that it is against the Christian faith to refuse to wo rship images. He
says that it would take him TOO long to enumerate all the instruments that bu ild
up the fa ith, that Strengthen the love of God and of neighbor, bur that no
matter how long he went on, he wo uld neve r get to the wo rship of images. No
ancient text supporrs thei r position and the Scriprures always say that God alone
must be wors hiped. When they bring in the worship of images they do irreparable damage to the worship or God. Every form of cult, he says, is strictly denied
to images. He concludes that he has no intention of saying whether or not you
ought to have images for decoration and commemoration, but that if you have
. t..nt i. conno. b. for >do".. ioo. In , .n Th<Od~lf add= <lirectly .ho ,ory
.opi< of memory .h.. t.. h.. '" oftcn ... i.ro. H.... )~ .h.. he Jo:x::o no. W,n'
.ny<>n< '0
hi> t<m"k5 "" memory luck t<, him . Wot<hip. h. main ... in .
con only b. in .<pi,i nd in "".h ; i. con n""e' t.. cor""l. Tim. imag<> are
m.tter of indiffa.n<.o<. II".. r. i. "". .hi"S to h.ve them f", fo" of ""to,;"n
.nd . no,h., to ~"" the m fo r Ir",: of ",..men" one thing Ii" ..-iii nothe, for
r><i; one .hing.o look rO keep from f,,'S.tting God . ".1 hi, ni " " ",u h,Y< ro h.Y< picm m '0 kp from forge tting
God.
Thcodulf u",," ch.p.... twcrny.tht: '" twcmy-fiY< .., I.y down .t.. .pus
olie .raJ i .~>n. He begin, wi,h hi. only ci... ~>n of Gregory ,t.. G,."r, Iw '0
Serenu, of M.""ilk . docum<nt .h.. w nor cirro " Nic>eo but rrult did
aPf><>' in .h. C:pir~"''' . nd RponrMffl. Thcodulf uS<:< .hi, let ... ' 0 build .. ,
argument .h... on imr<=Ne lOrhori.,.. Gr<"gory forh>d. h",h rho dcotructioo
and .t.. """",.i"" of imaga. O"pr." tw=ty.four . nd twonty.five then d",w
heovilyon ",,,1.0 ,h",, .h .. God alone i,.o t,., worshiped .nd rh ... t,., gre>"'"
of Ch";"iani t)", .... h... .. id no'hing ...11 . bou. imag<>. Throdulf .ho uS<:<
.hi. oppo,mnity.o .. y . h.. . he kind, of g=.ing'. or roken. of mpr. rhat ....
poid to li'ing prople "e not.o be cqu1[cd bonor. paid ro m>nu~urro im.ga
and;ol", .0 say .h.. if .h. af'O'.l refU>! to b. "",.. hiped i. i, inco""".,blo
,h" thoy ""'old h,ve
..J tI "",,,h,p of , hoi. in"S"
Ch'ptcn twc:nty.ji. ro .hi, ty dC>"tlop .p<ci~c .opio in w.ry> ,h., i re """",1_
' nS "n"" h Th .. .,j"I'. ,lee!"", "" ."",n, ."d rl'<fo,Oc<.I ,],ill,. n.... <h,I""". in
brid", untquiw,.,.Uy deny ,he poo"b;[ity of d",,,ing cornp"i..,n, bcrwn im_
ag... nd ,t,., A,k of .he Covencn' (>6), .he cueh.,i" ('71. ,he ero .. (z.lI). ,""",red
,...... 1> (i~ ) nd.he Sc,iprure> llo). It i, odd rh .. ,he .ubi< of ,di", did not
come "pin .h', ""IlI<n<.o< of ch.p,.",. Rdia figure pmminen,ly in n od"lI,
dioc~ .. ion. in book, .ht: and /ou<. and .hi. ,,ould h... been.he lU.u,..1 plKc
'0 inr..,duo: rho ' ''Pic. Throdulf did >dd . rhitty_fi ... eh'I"<I.O book """. hut
it ' '1!ucs .h.. the Dyun.ind.re un.h .. itablo .owonJ .heir paren" ,nd . n>tors
when ' her ",II .hem hcr",i",. In '"y <:2."'. rhe eent ....1,ubi' mart .. of clup ....
tw<nty-'" ro ' hirty i. t~ ~ut< inromm<n,"",bility btlW"n imag.. and
ot he' obi..:" ,h...... .. PUt ' n,o .... id.nee .. Ni=. On m.nyoa:asion, .Irudy
in tt.. O'M
. Thcodulfhad put hi. logieol power> on di'pi>y by .Ii.ing through
Ni<.o<ne .rgun... n" ,,i.h ,..,w ,like 'rilogi.n.... ,. Ho ....J t"'<t """. it> .h i, .."t~)O
(..,6. '.'7) bu. the "'ill whi"" h....lly pu" on di;play in rhc<c pag<S i, hi'
knock 10, d ...",ing coOl!""i",n. rlur .,. ".eurie. iron 'c. ngry. ,,,rhally adroit.
,nJ J f"VU".ingly <1f..:,iv< . In ' l"',kinS of rh. Ark. fo' .umpl. he "l"' i.
q"""
''ll''''
,bo,,,
'l'p,,,
wo,
commanded b~ the '-0"" of God. not In",,,,,d by doc ..,jfi", of SOme ani ...
h1l i. "'>" huilt by. holy m. ". nOf nude by ..,m<body o.her, !lu, i, <k.iva!
from 'he I'~~<f no, fron' paint.r. ,t.., i, had mY'tc.i<:>. '"'" ",1,,1>. In di ..
c.... ing .he e"d"fiS!. Th..,.!"lf ",.lIy "'>1m. '0 hi> ... k. Firs. he , ... n, .he
"f
difl'<"o>cc be, ..... " ,t..: e"ch.riS! ."d im~ Th." toe "Y' 'hot bt..d ""d "iroc
.",mf.::,.ma! by .he ron...,<",-,;"n o f.toe pr"", wherea, imag<> rcui", no
ron"""""'n. l'hcn he ,,,n, hi, comb.>. of rompari""n" ,toe Lord romnund<d
ro cat H i> aesh .nd <lrink Hi> hlooo. nO' ' 0 .dore inugcs; ,toe ~h.trist p<>c<sa
,I>< >pin, of God, an irnW only ,I>< skill of ,h. I"'im.r. He .hen concludes .hi>
eh,!,," ,",'i.h , b.>rha! ques.;"n: If .h"", who do not .....,.. hip i""ll'" "'ill .11
pc,,,,, , ",Iu, i. to be said .bo",
childn who ..-t hap,i"d in ,h. Lord
but who ha", no. )'Cl h.d dunce to "",,,hip .n im>g<~ In .puking of .he
.rc
,,,wi
"",0:< ,Iu,
.ro. l h""!"lf
.toe devil """ oonq"cta! by ,h, cro<>. nO' by .n
im.ge; ,h.. h"nu.n' Wen: tal:n<l by ,he cro, no< by . .. image. In 'he eh.ptc,
on _tal <1,. in addi.;"n to "'king .norh.. "" ....1 '''';pc at Ton,;u. Throdulf ..Y' ,h...11 'hrough ,h, script ...... on. fin'" ClIp/iei' ,es,in",ny
,h.
n~i'y uf "oving ,....1. dedia,a! '" .he d; .;roc cult hu 1",. on ,h. cun,rvy,
(Ie ne-.-cf find. > ""luiI'Cmcn. <I,. n im.S" I:>< ".00 in ..<via:>. h<ry.hin-g con
I:>< done wi,ho", 'nuga. lie "Y'. bu, "o.hi"S wi,ho .. , ,"..d . The "0 ,,1 Him
..1(." hi, w." $upp<r. <o<>k up a cup. no< an i<n>g<. The prophet (lso;'h 1'.")
,h,1 no< " y "Be y"" d n yo" who corry ,he im.ges of .he I--<><d"' but .. Be you
dcan. you who "'tTY 'he """,I, of ,h~ Lord" (po )0. Chap' .r thirty i> .h.
longes' i" ,he 0,,,,, .... nding some """''''y~. Jus ... l"'..,d "lf .nda! I:>ook
On. wi,h > "'''m.n'
'he suJ><.i . .. i,y of he,. ,ing-which by im p~<a''''n
me"', reading- .o sccing. 50 ' 00 here, cl<:>pi .. ,Ite .",W<m ciup.er , hirty..,ne.
!Kl on. in h... udien", will
'I"'>dulfbrings up. he volu me ofhi, mu,ie SO
""f 1(,tg<1
i,n..,,,,, . nd .Ite s<:nptu"", . t< .bonlutdy in"""'p.",ble . H. "'"
a c","",no.lo of q"iek. p',nehy ""n'p.ariso,,-,- as hefore. r .ul did not "y
' l ,i) '"Whate-.-cr i> p.a in, .,.j"
'" Wh.o.,e-.-cr i, ,,riu.n ", .nd h. did not .. y (.
T imothy ,.,6) B<Vfi}' pi""' '' bu. B<very sc.ip.u"." />1"", dOd
r=i...
piun: bu, ,h. [..,w. And SO on", sre'" leng,h. Near ,he end of ,h. chop,.r,
,lie", i rom p ison ,hat;, d",wn" much grea'" I'ng,h .nd ,ha'.I<rVd" ,h.
grea, .umm.. io" of bnoks uroc and 'woo Fim TI,roJ"lf repco." tl .. , im.gcs.n:
wi,b",,, mJ"'cry. IiI<:, ..,,>e . ..-..on . nd kgi ';n>uy .nd ,h." hc g""" on to " Y
th .. ,he Bibk J><'<"'" e-.-crytbin-g
one need o 1m"", h..."ry. poetic m<"n. ,h, rul .. of gramm ... doq"en",. 'igh' reasoning. . rithmetic. music, 1;00""t ry. " '''''''''''1. H,c>< ,loi"S'- . U ,he libe",1 .... "'" n"1 Mtc .... not .lw.Y'
pro,,,,,,, Ii.. rally or CJb...io",ly. but .hey .t< ,het< iu" .h... ,ne .nd e n he di,
"".na! hy .he ft.d.. wi.h .he fight >piri".,1 di>I"',i,lon.
.oo"t
.bou,
.Iu.
.Iu.
(1/.,,,,,,,,,
"'It
no'
.Iu.
n.c
I'rt[." 10 booIt Ih ..... ~noonc'" Th.oouJr. i~!<~lion to dmoonnr.llc

how "'" N""'n< (.. hen ..... r><lontd ,he f.. hen of ,hoc church. H. 00a Ihi> in
boo!< ,h .... b..... in realiI)'. ,hi. boo!< ;, In. cosmdy o""niud ,han boolu Me
.nod twO. nu" i.. l"hcodul f dc.al. wi,h _largt 'hcolosial p<ubIcmt. with me
opocif.c ,op;.: of l'Iin,en ond im.,.. .nd ",id "",her "'" o(f.ul.y compui>o<u..
Bu. he.oo include:. .,i,,,,ionu of
P""""I!I'" tho, mi,;I" ba.., fi, bet.., in
boo/< ,....." ""TIt oboocmo,IOf\' .... .,......t.. _
com"bm" mout
Byuntin<
""" of ....~ lik.- ,hooc fOund ao: ,hc !:><pnn'", ofboo!< ont. funh<r com ......"
"" "'" unmi:.lbiJil)' of Byun,i ... _'on, and 0100.., ............ rondom wpic>
d.., _ both bani to tha,"""cri .. and difficult ,,, G,
to identify
ochcmt in boo!< ,hon.
The G", duprcr of boo/< ,It .......1"""" fi"" """" lone. iJ a proIn<ion of
(.i,h. T...... ,hi",,:ur .. matbblt .bour i,. Fint. Throdulf'. "'i&i",,1 dr:ili. p ........_
bIy ..me. of p...,u".;.,n. dr..... n ffOr'll
(.,he .... r><! V<I)' much in k<q>in8
,,';,h hi> " .. cd in.. n,ion of adhe"", '0 I'"","i. tnching. >nO cn.ro .nd r<pIx<
";<h ...,, 'Jt lin", Ionl ,h.. i profcsoion ,hen believed '" ba.. lxco Jcrom<.'
bu, """. k_n .0 ba.. I>c<" f'cI.gi".... Sond. ,he eh.nF OK"" ro bave b<rn
<><a>ioncd by. <lni .. "''1'''''. ' ,e" ,h roukl be tnJ ... n npliei' ,cfu ;.",
o f adop,ioni,m. The [lOin, of.1>< inclusion of. prof"';"n ...11 "",m. '0 h.v<
bn '0 ..",bli.h ,h. C.,oIin"'''
Ma. In oth.. ""rd . cvtf}1hinS tbat
prtadn ,he pro&.$ion nd .hen tv .,.,hing .h.. fullow. it. J>U" urolingian
onh""""1 "n."",iI.hly on ,h. cord . lIy in'pl""ion. the pcnon. ,,hom the
C.rolingian<.re ,".ba"ing'" un""hodo .
1'I,,,,,it
,t..
,..t... '" ..
v.""".
' 'In.
T..... iu. hod com, in for d irca anJ pc""",,1 aitici>m . I... dy in 1.10 and
bu, in J.l Thcod"lfft.ycd him. H. ,,"uOC> I..... i". of h.vi ng in>cnocd "'"
whole jd,." of "",.hiping im.~ '" d,.. .... uen,ion ...... y from hi, own irrcgul..
~""',ion from the
,,>I 0 .ht p.. " .. th ... (. poin, ...hieh ht hod .I.....ty
1.19
uy
mod< in ...0). Th.n Th.oouJf'l""''' 1'",1 Oft .... ba. kin<! of.,.....,.. .hou1d b<
~cr. ncopioyt . "....." l p,oud nun . nd on th~ ox-cd for
due dciit.cn,"", I, lim.... hy ).' . p.). ll,>dulf ",..r.cluda " i,,,"
from Greptl)' ,I>< G .... ,. f'-' lI.k .... ,he:
fOr any "",,.or or
II. .ny bisI>op-co ba,.. ~ through .II ,he ccclniasrial grad<s
in d ... onIer. In ).J TIorod~lf B''''' ,I>< ...... of rh.fi/~ and >or> .ba, . ......
~. '" iI "'" ... <prioi"l\ ,ba, pmon like Tlt.a.iw ......Jd ... m;""nd<nund
I>..i< O".U.WO .coa.ing. ,lot V<I)' kind of ,.-aching. by "'" wily. ,h., _ ..pdlcd
.... , in "'" Optm"l\ 1''''' 'Wn of fa"h Iw- ht _101. in o/Jt-rin8 hil ~
.. NO<.. .. y tho, ,he ~loly Sp";' p<UCft\J. from the Father ""-Kh rhc Son.
In .....y. T..... ,... ;,. a foil txa....c ....."'... ,hon "' cig'" .I. deal wi"',~
.nd .II "pi one: of.hem 0.61 deal aplicidy wi,h T"ni,arian ;........ For CUm
chosen;u. bishop.
,cachn- do.,
""""''''1
'I""'.,....,
plt. in H n...odo<c of Jc'u .. ~m is ~n",k<d (Of _ undcn<>nding the ....

... mity of "'" F.,ho, .nd ,h. Son. In )., T.rui ... o:omt< "ndot. fi", apin r.,.
.. ying .... , .ho Holy SP"" ;. twtm",,,,,, (I"n. ",lau",,) of.t.. Fnl><r and Son.
Ruil of AhC)'n d" ... &n . "..,k;" J-' 10. ""';"11 m.odt.n ao::epIobic """,fasioo,
but. mer ...... odding ,.... he .... fai,h ;n ' ......nd tdia without taI""~
.bOII, ....."ilKa.ri<>n. ,hot r<miuion of ........ ()< the IDW~ of ,ho <blln J.7
Throdolf bWts ~ ... of Amorion lOt bci,,! sikn' "108"'00 abou, his
faith in ,ho Trinity whik a..... 'ng ..1 ..... ta. . ndl prom;". and I 0<'0<;"'. 2nd
nploody '" .ho ili#ttw
I ..... i....... (p. )&7). CIuptct tish. ,hal
ptot.km.. In .......,. haI . J.I ." -'"' cnnsist of I.,...,.......,. and an anti-pr<>k.>ion. The
is mod. "I'
of "'"' bod .nn'''''';''n .1>eoIov pu. on display
by thr Clfth. BUI ... to "".n :dmody in tho 0,.... Thrododf uk. Irp<lItcdIy
how .n,.....,. an <Omrun' f.i,h in ('.od with fai,h in ' ' ' ' ' ' and -...-t.cK =)<>0<
Iw n"tt mod
inur;n .'" 00 ... wo..l>ipcd.
Cluplo .. ).9 and ).10 """,,,i.u, .sm.ll Oct,... . . Pu'f'O'< i, k> mah two
reb.", poin .... Fin ...... '" ....y ... nuny mot< .. ro .. 1.. t1ting in .he Ni;: .....
docum.nu bill ,t.. is no tim< '0 find , ....... 011. This milY>' ... an tIpljci.
COmmen' OIl how Thcodulf ",kN .." . ~i]e,J ..r.-r.n to his non-<oo,inuous
'""" t<> ,he ...... ceo. 5.:.:onJ ...... ,. n,,,,.
of 8 yun.;"... "",I .. hil;'1.
II, ..""P Th<Odo<. (> "'" i<\nnifird) OOm\U
~<JQ in ,ud> ~y
.. ''' '''WO' ,h .. ,hey '''' co",i"ooo' ......" in ("'" ,hoy com. fro m 'WO <n.; ,ely
Jifl".",", rulm . I,low...... , ptd"" i;: .h;' ,n. y ... m. i, .. rvcd Thtodulf wdl ...
rhetorical dop,t" ..rt ft()n. , ... 'hovlogieol d",,,,,;,,i,,,.. con'.'nro in ,h. Ii....
igh. ch.pt... of book ,h...,.
Ch.1rl ... dn"n '0 /Qu""n cotU< "u" ... . " ""k OJ> ,h)-'nod of Niaca
i"df. Ch..p,er e ...... n rq' .... n .. 0 .... loy c~men' in Tbrodulf. otip .... . yno><l.ol
.heoty I:>cfo", .h. i""J... ion of 4.1li oI'f...... i" bold ...... in..'1' ..... 'ion. Httc
TI.ooiJ .. lf AJ'> 1h.1, il wa> .... h fQr N...... 1<) ..... Io.cno."U' people fo< ""I WOf.hiring ,ntagft ...n..n no cffo" had Iw" m..!. 1<) dct,"""i ... ,ho .,.;".... of "e><h
v><l cYn"f
of ,he: .:hurd.. (p. mI. He ,hen 11''''''' ........ .,.""",1 advice:
\II'hen. b",,"', ......... I"'" him ..,."""y nd thrn ornd, othc: ... or .... ybt
_'';''1\>. So.Icp ..,,,,, ~ h.1"" Iwn >Cn' '" ""'W>boring churcheo '" O<>Imd
0......... Ih.n~i"," ..". """'... f., ...... <houId Iu"" ~.o ,t.. ,ach;Ap of
,he- f.,~
of d..- churd<. r.,he-, tIu.n ,ty '" imp> 'M' novd and
un....mn..... ....,.... <HI C>'fl)'O"'" rik. If ,hoy had ........... to JIO<I<I <each."@: ,hoy
......Jd ..... !"n ","""td ' 0 .....teo. and ottapon<ib!c" <uuncib.. a..p..,.....-dw
aHHin .... 'n 0 .,mib< "";n.
,he- C=b:uc c1wriood for aso::i"'ll..ox
lUnd ...... nd paci<ntt. '" not boldin, , ..... ''''''''''"' ond fo< >paki"f; in
diootdtft.d w'y. H. lrp<lIu dw ,...... ..., .ight .... J'> '" call """""ils ond <>H"r=
"""mo
",In
""''''y
,ha,
= ",.."
,wv """'"
.,.If
,n
m,., """ .....
n", 'ime
Th~
Franks and
Nia~a
197
issues for them to address. But of their council he says, "J ust as light from
darkness, life from death, sight from blindness, probity from improbity, purity
from impurity health from sickness, so their teaching differs from the teachings
of the holy fathers" (p. 380). It is amusing to watch Theodulf administer a
tongue-lashing in the midst of a discourse on kindness and patience. Chapter
thineen remrns to Empress Irene for th~ first rime since the beginning of the
Opus. Theodulf expostulates on the reporr that the Greeks have perm itted a
woman to teach in their midst. H e must have deduced this from the imperial
sacra because there is no evidence that he would have known that I rene presided
at the final session of the council in the Magnaura Palace. II I Then he helpfully
provides a disquisition on the "proper" roles for females. Chapter fourteen provoked Theodulf as "divos," " diva/ia," and "cortgnam" already had done. That
is, he objects to their saying rhat they "cooperate" with God and that God caUed
them into council in order to establish H is will. Predictably, T heodulf calls this
arrogance. He then gives a short lesson on the rhetoric of persuasion so that he
can conclude that God, who is omnipotent , can not be persuaded. Besides that,
God always said tha t He and He alone should be worshiped and now they are
introducing the novel idea that images are to be worshiped, so it is perfectly
obvious that they do not cooperate with God. Surely their foolish synod will
not make God change His mind.
Theodulf uses chapters fifteen to twenty-one to establish particular instances
of bad BYLantine teaching on images. Not all of th~ chapters in th is section
seem equally relevant to this main theme. Moreover, woven through [his senion
is another powerful argument: Rome is the heir of Babylon.
In ,.20 Theodulf criticizes a ciration from John Chtysostom on the meaning
of the story (4 Kings [9.35) that rhe angel of the Lord killed 18),000 Assyrians.
Chapter twenty-one challenges the authenticity of a Story that an image of St.
Polemon prevented someone from committing adulrery. As with his earlier
treatment of a, to him, dubious story from Gregory of Nyssa, so tOO here Theodulf says this story can not be found in any authentic book. ChapIer sixteen
takes up one of [he oldest chestnuts in the iconophile repertoire, namely the
argument that worship conducted before an image is referred to the person
whose imag~ it is. Theodulf's rhetorical sabre was especiaUy sharp {his time:
"Do the saints, who on their merits were able to rise to the heavenly kingdom.
and whose images they then plan to ado re by irresponsible devotion, solicit these
superstitious or irrelevant honors? Do they permit themselves to be adored?"
(pp. 407-8). H ad the saints been keen for honors while they were alive, they
would nOt be in heaven now. They enjoy the l ord's honor, of what other kind
have they n~ed? Many saints spurned honors while alive so how can anyone
.". eM"",_ . ,,~.

bd~ tlu.t they would ~ ddigltttd by Iu.vinS their ,~..Jottd! SiOtt im
.,.... ~rc nut!. by ,he ,,"h,m, of V, .... ond, ,~.efuu, .."". arc bnuliful ond
_
..., ugly, how do they know "'hich ones ~ ...-c like the .<ainu .hey
wf'P""'dlr rep ......,? Arc moK valtUhk imaga moK """'''1'''hono. tlw! bs
valuable ones! How frn.-m. cu> devtt<1OII b< .Iu.. io "trXttd by the >kill of ....
uti>! Of , ... val ... of .... m.. trUh in. pinu...? If.n i.... ;, po<>tIy rrudr, Of is
m..x of ""'" .....crUk, dcta " dat"", .... devtt<ion? aup... orven...... drew
........on, ion <allier ,n connocriort with FnnU'un. I. io th< on< in ""'Kh Conoanrinc of Con.w.... >ll<vdlr <lid th .. tho ..............ip ...... to b< paJd to
ionaga .. to tI... Tn n;',_ a...1""" "P''''''' t~t> E."himi ... of Sudi.. .. hoot
........ l'h<odulf ..,.,.. " only o.Iis"dr ..... tIu.n Con.un';nc'.. ~ he .... nu to
pbc< hio ..t.oIr hope 'n inufp. Chap'''' lU.......,n. 6....1y. is a ....diN bit of
irony in which Thtodulf a,udJ ,... Greou IUr rm.tins to MOLl. holy ornpoura M
and :o00: "'''p'U' ow ,"'nt.e. f ", tho: Ii"" bu. "'" ,It.. w., ,ime n.-lulf
he", <n"",n, ... ,he "'u< <>f im!""';'1 ' .. uga. Ite writ .. "ag>in" ,hose ""'" ..r'"
wi.lwu< n>minlS ""'.c<. Wh ...h<y .. y i Iu, .. h<" in'p..' >1 ''''''IS'''' 0'"
b.,mght into' ,own. 1'<"1'10 Utel ,hem , of, .... ... i,h andl .. and ;nco".., '" , !>ow
rc>p<Ct ,,, ,h n,I"'IO" l "1l u. i, " I"',fo<tly kgi'im ...
b< in .hu.d,,,,
pie,u ... nf je., .... M.,y, . lId 'h< .. i"", Be.. in mind ,h.. Throdulf will ~
,he '"refe",n,i,l"' 'rg""",n, in ,Iw "''' chap. Fur now hi. targtt i, diffet< n'
.nd ....Iw.y..... pu"",um i, with .h.'u of ilOny and QI""m. 11~ ..1' .h.
G""ko mUl' bt dlunk. or r.i<k. If.... -"y> hq ot< goin~ ,,, take arg~m~n"
fn>m ,h. COIl" or ,he forum 'v ,uppon imago """"'ip. then why dorI . ,hey
tok hem ftom ,he , .... ,... 0' glodi, tori.I,Mws? Nowhere, in.h< s<.il"ufOS.,..
we inHrucrM ." wo ..... ip in.. get "f ,Iw nnpa<>" .., I,ow do> ...~ ~ from imp<' ;.,]
iflU&<' '" rdigi<>ul on<>? They claim ,tu, 'Rq "",""ip.he en,I"''''' in his image
boa ........ ann<)! be Crt'Y"""'''' bu, how = rh.oy ...""hip Gc>d in on i .....
<iD<.I~~ is Crtrywl>ert.nd
bt.:l"",m.mbtd in a paniru .... pIact! Gc>d',
I"""~' and ~ ... '0 b< ..,..,g., in pure be.ru ...d pieJua mindo nor in picrurcs.
'The only propI<,,~ tu,~"..... ,.",.. abou, "'M acoool d> .. war ot< ,Iw fubyIortiam
and the Ro...."., .nd perlta,," ,... poopk conquom:d by ........ n..x kingdomo.
n....dulf arrinon,.", k........ to """" '-n copoci>lIy ptonc '0 th< ......... p of
idol.. 'Then. parophm.", Orosi .... Thcodul( .. rikl to tho hun of ,be: maner.
" Fo... ,lot h...or ... ..y. tlw Roman Em"; .. ~ .Iot...-t.ok inhniunu of
1bbyIoon nd be ............... ......, .in~, .. bcrwttn ... old f,nher ""'" ""'"
a1.....Jy Ioo.in, hi,
>nod hi. )'OlOnl ."n. who Iud ""'" ,.,.. ""Iuired ,...
a"""..
,Ita, ,''''''
=-
"raw"
'M Fronk..n.! NOcooI
'9't
power of domina,ion, m"''' ..... '1'2lIlmlltcd by ''''0 0100 kingdom.- .. rut"'"

Wt i. Maoodon and Pm .." (p. 404). T he O>m'II, of Chri .. u.o..ld """" ondi,
co",'11 ..u .ucIo
AI ,lit !wi" of _,-oIic ,<achi~ ,he", ;. no I'<>llOII
'" ... .., .do.~ ,he inuga nf dad kinp. Cauin "'ins> arc implil .bou,
Owkmagnt ,,;,uolt ,(>WHI! B),um iu m in book on'" ol'<"ning~'" aitnl
I I II'<m >nd Comt.n,;"". In ,h;' ch.f"ct ,he full fo~ of .h" St-tncImfr begins
' 0 ct>IC'fII'. 1X'hnI 'M . . - . dr....... f..,m 0..".;.... bou, Rom<', bring the hei.
'0 Ibby\o<l w:u,nJ ..... i.. a..rlcmagnot, ptocna., ><ribc rKOfokd hi> IUC,ion: " \l'oodtrfu~"
prX!"''''
a.ap.... twrn.r-...... .., ,h"'y ............ ;1IU&"> undo,~..J djlfc.rn, ""..t,

inp. Wi,hoo, .n.. rin, ;n.o ct>dku quibbi<> .bout "Thtodulr. in ..."ion. in til ..
lOCIion, it an .....rdr ..id ....., lit odoJ~ ""n...... on the """ ...11<1 .nd .he
authmticity of ",ilk""" >boo, '. . . . on ,he ... t.c . AI .. the <t>tl of book rwo.
"Th.r:udulf $pin ...,,1In ... uf..;n".., .nd dTmM corn"",ioom .. the .nd of
book .h..... He oJ", oflt .. ",,,,, of II .. n_. d.... ilcd. con,i<kt<tl .iew. 011 . . .
nd .... t..,ia.
C ... p .... twrnty ....... Ind .....1I,yh. oddfQ4 In ;"'1,10 di,,!)', In <I...
fOr",." , ThcudYlf)!Of bi. ronf,,1CJ in ..-..tinS h" IOUre.,.nd i.1mN!tcd <I..
Creek. for .. )'ing ,II"
Fa.IIt, had ailed poin.en piow ... lItn """"II)' i, h.d
been, ehw'eh f.. h,., lIid",p N iu. of A",.~ . who hod .. it! ,hi . N...'enhe
I.... The<>Julf ..iu .. Iu, i. uni~ue .1,011 h,.11 of.he I"'n .,. Why i, .he.n
of.1It painte' ",me piou. ,h. 1I ,h., "f .h.
""ylp'o., brOIl fO"nd., .
ng ..""., "0"""""'". woodwotk~l, farmer. or maker ...r '"J"hillg d..-:' None of
.h.... m i.;n .nd "f ;".If piou. 0, impiou . ol.hough , hei. I'...."' ;..,"N. may
Ix ei.IIt . In ).1) The<>J~lf udda .h. l""I""i,ion .h.. "pic<ura do no. ~"II''''
die, .t.. ocrip'ula." A, .h. pbilwopllt" haw: .. id. ocrunIinS '0 l1.rodYlf. paim.
en can load .t.. vi....." from 'ou, h '0 f.l$clwod, 01 from f.I ..1oood '" .ruth. "They
Cm poin ......, ""', 01 ..'ha, ~r ..... ........ will be. o. n", ....ill be, r.in ....
con po;n. nuny .hing> .h...... no< in ,h< Scrif"ura. 1X'!u, do ,hoy
h<
..k<. of pictur.. of ,ho .. nh and .1It 1C1, Mc( ,he ... n &nd the """"' ... hu'lWU~
Or "'nd. ond n"""k~ Or """"'" .nd Ro-..1 1I<a.... SehI"U'~ """,...... ""'"
of t~;" ....dy "'..., ~. ron,raokIion 1><..-. M.ny ' hings round in the "rn;ngl
ofd.. s<n.ib .... ""n'..! bu ..... "<II fuund .n,...herc;n the lIi1>k. H~ Thoodulf rccira a long I;" c( mJ"""'" K<nd. I"'in,;np ..nidi Ix might I..."'!I<'CR.
tI,.
""1'<"'''.
..w.-...
'" he-mI .bou., "r ...........,., .. l liol>asic arg<>tn<1I, nuy Ix iUffitnl up in h"
own......u: '" In ,he- ..,.;"' ......10...,;, "",h,"II .iciou.. "",hi", i""l'Propri;t.~ .
.-hin, imp" .... ..."hi"l\ fabc. n<rp< pcr""fIO . 'h.n .M hQIy ><riptu ... mrd
......, .,.;cUd poopk Wd <If did, in ""n""Po ...,........,. thtt. .... nwoy tII,Itp
,10..... I'abe. <If '''''WroprU '' (p. ~. H. con<ludn br ..king how con ,My
"'Y
.Iu. ".he ",in'N> >Iww ,.Iu,....., , ..:nl~ura <or"!
How do)'O" <kpic"
"" "'1nlS '" know, Dno'.f<)oomy 6.... "He.. 0 1..-...1, .It. lord )'OUr God is
"",,"1 (p. ,,",,). Con'~'''Il wha, ,t.. LonJ Iw ..id i> ,lie- work of...,;..... not or
P"iM'= .. P,.;n ..... ~ in "'".. way .... i"ll .t.. "orin of paso nenu back '0
mmIOf)' bu hin", W. art only f'<"C"'i....d by.lIt .. rua tJtd btoug.. forth by
"",rd. .no compf><ndcd "'" by ",in,... bo" by ..,.;...." (PI'. +"-H).
aup... "'"eft!)"-IOw ........ ou, nI" pba- hen. 1t;UJU<S ...., imap art not
Iih rdia. On< mo&h' "-,,, a:pmcd '" ~nd .lIn..m,ca <ovrtcd in "'" "i""'F
.u "'" li~ ..." ehaJM<'" ,hat oo..dude booIc ....... H...., TIK"Odufr ~ [!W"'".. tlti"" ... nude hofy by (;oJ II[.-If tJtd,.,..,. by ,t.. wnoe<:n<ion of.
pri<>o: tlti> ~u """', ht "Y' ....10.. abou, ....m..
~. into n<itt...
a,qpry. Rd;"' :1t< holy....".... ,hty ~,. ,ht bodies. or pi"" of ,t.. bodies, of
,ht ... nu or dst i,om . liltt dooh[n" ,fut .. in ..
o' u!cd.. H. then Ii"'"
,hrough. f..irfy Iongthy ~" oI'bibllc:al ~. htpnning,..;tIt Ab ... h.m, burial
of S... h. to.how tha, the II ..... <W$ .. ndcd arefufl y 10 ,he """,:of ...nui ... of
,he do-.od. H. conclude. by ..yin. ,h.. ouch ... ""im .. ill b< rcmn1cd but Wt
inugn will
1:>..
Chop ..... <>m>.,..~
nd .....nty.;~ ... bon .fgtlmcnu.o .h tft.:t tho, mi,
",I<. (lU .;yu) m d.m ..-1. ,1 w;,h ;" ........ ""rd ... bk S" ....... 'u <
,ru,h. AI; for .igru. ThNdulr "Y" h. can find roo such """,,nil in ,I>c Bible."d
he dout.u th., . ny m"" .,,""" >hould I:>. I:>.li......!. H. q""'eo Gr<goty and
Augu"i". on ,ho d.ng... or .ign. 1\", h I"" ..Y' ,h... ny . ign. in.., f.".t it
i. roo[ d iabolical. ",.nif,... ,ho powc. of Go.!. So .... n if ign ,,',r< to II ..
bc.:n prod...:c.1 by.n imago, ,hi. io no "roof of ,h< pow<tof [h< imag< i...,lf .nd
no 'UXln to .Jof. ,h., in or any o(h.r 0 .... ~I. ,h." h... 1;,,10
,he
C ...h' "P''''''' Beau.. God '1"'1tt ' 0 M<<> from. bmnitlK fIy,h, Uoould
buJ.h .. bc mortJ~ The I.ord was circumcill with .....'l'
.thoold ..
h< _ .. h;p<d~ M""," "",.. t>td b",.. ""'tm ..;,h wood, '" >hoWd wood I:>.
odo,I! GMlrun.:otko<t:od mo;"UI. 'n a ae<............IJ I\t..:n be- adortJ? H.
gi,,,. ~rly <Ioun .,..",pI liu .h..... A, for ~. T!x.;.dulf N)~ 'hey
Glonot he .....oUy If'I'W"<"I or d iQI"J"<'ftd. for God did ........ j,........ mm""j
a., .hrough ,htm. H ...... nd2r"""
.. hid. ,hcy """"cy m",' atWtd pcrfdy wi,h "'-N' ,h< Saipo"'" and ,h<
dourch .ncb. So j ( p<n<>nlud dr ...... '''''''''''''I him to M>nhip = i,...,...., if: " '..... i ., ;...,...n ,foe, Nicnoor ~ ,Iu< h< ... In hi> ..p.o-<hm .....
""fIb, imt"l><'di.atdy '" ,cprd ",.t ... duboow.. phap< <'tm ~ic, dr=nIn the rout>< of thio dionuooon Tlt.oodulf pullo jolt.. (rum ,he dcd:. Aft".
ho"inK .h........ ,he Dyun" .... in _Ii.. . lupton lOr ..u.nj", .., I"V" oundoni>. ...d
luvi"l.l>own ,ha. <kpi< ....... of ......., r""" p.ilo li, ..... u
lmoses
,,,,,,htd
no'
.....
'1"'''''
"0'" ..,
an..
0....
do 110( :agrrt wilh I~ 6;1*. ~ ci,a On 11K unmiability of drnm. 1 ~

from the (r.n.J..) f);lI,m,.
IUgl" ...",.~, I>c ")~ llul if aJ1)","e
....... W
10 aitiM him for <loin, lO, ht i, in fXl "lUIlowi ng in the foot .
.. cpoMof J<rom< .nd A",II>"'" ....... <>lien .II..! ~.ik .utboro ". ~ their
poi"'" Iii> 1-", poin. i> ........... he, """ not dmonu an be tru>f..!.
c.,.,.".
,,'all'
a.apc..,
rwcn ly-S<>'<fI .nd "".. nl)' ninc 1f< ';miLa 0 neh othcr.nd .t.o
., , _ .hrad. in ,he ........ ""'..... of ).Ij. The ~n' of ...... ul<oo up.he Nicen<
.... ,cmm. ,Ius i""F' .~ '" he adot<d "like ,he ploc:< .,( God." P""","blr [....
G....,1a. mean. "'" boIy sild in l'~i". b.II Thcudulf prof.....! '0 be pua.kJ
abou. iust ..-ha,.hoy mnn . MYW.y, he ~ God is ...'Y"'hcR. H.Ius ....
"pLau." If. ..... yo. ,hey mnn chu"""'" . ...... ,hty 1~ """"" bcn..... en"mo ....
ies and pn~n >f" 01Ft.....:! in <hUlchca.. not in i........ If ,hey """,n "'" h.. man
........ ,hen they on: l<rribly """"I bcn..... ,he Rcd.n:mcr Clrnc to ...... ><KIk. no<
im.ageo. n...I<COfId of ,...... <""1"<0) ...... 'n .., impo.;,,1 im;gcs, """ .0 ,IX<
Rome', Ilobyloni. n "" .....Iof:y bu 0 fCjcc. ,he notion
,he.., i> ..,.!UIor;y
bctwan ...... hipinS ,he i ....... of 1n ab>cn. empo"" .rnd .In im.>g< of Christ
who an no 1"...8"''''' _n in .11< IIdh. He "'1''''''
God;, = ' )..........nd
odd<
Ue anno< hc "",.hipod in ... nscIo..lifdno ...... "ufKlUl..! inugu.
CluplC. """"ty-ci",. i. h..d ", oIign wi[h ,h. 0_ around i,. U..... Throd"lf obj,. !O .n .... nion Ih.. . he f... of ,h. l.<>nI i. Ii..... he oJu ... ion of
im.gn. U c ")1 be II .. n<:vC' ""ard .ny ..",h Ihing and .hcn ,i'<:$ "ume'ou.
bi blical paJUlI'" on , h. f.... of ,h. I.o.d '0 J' mon" ...... Iu[ ,h... i, n" c<>o>"'
,ion be~n rc-ing God and adoring in ..g...
Clul~.n ,hiny and .hiny-<>nc h.... ,...,.,,, """"",,,, .kmu". nd .h.,.. ,h ..,
m,i<2) 1"'''1''.." i,. "'i,h l,lj ."d ).,6. In ,hiny. Throd ~lf ,\ue,;'" 'poel)1'h. 1
..on... H~ " ' U'N 10 ,..., I'okn_ "0')' ,Iu, he oIraoJy dilC\l....d in J.11.
In I'l;o., ,h....-os ~t..al, he.J", ..;..:,..! ,h. ""'Y of A\>pt of F.<kua. to
..... i<h hc woukl mum in 4.10, In ,.j! Throdulf IUndo in<~ul"". bcl'OI<' ,he
.."". of .. 10 him . c""y obbu, .. h., hoJ ... fittc.d demoni, "';r.u.. and 1".. ",jJ
ti", he.....,..!J ..,hc, ... , <"ay brothel in ,.-.wn ,h,n rdU .. ,n adore im.gn.
Here ThcoduJf;. .... in ......... in .~u colorful du..:IClCf Wn ..., is. ~ ogoin.
of ,he "on.. ,...., ..., Brun,;.... brough, f........d in
in ,he dull ......
dcfrnk of i"".....
Rook fOu, i> lUll of ...", and puuIn. II> r..jMr bnng> ~mi,..! . uoco< .0 an
&On 10 und .... and ... Thoodulf b.>MaIly ..yo ,........Yins dwlcnsd thei.
,a,;",.",;.,..nd .. t1Chd ,..... """.hia. he...,.. nc.d> ,,, 'urn'" "'Y ran.aining
bin of """"""..
con iden.ify in ........... i,inp;o. F.it ."""",: bu, "'''''''
of ......, is in booIt ~ is lik. in ........ na. ,hemes,.nd moOn of ... gurnm ....
ion, tha. which ..... oJ.~ .pp:ami i" boob on< thlt'C. Ff<'CJn1fl .... .no.m
.n.,
.Iu.
,ho,
""re
n."u"
,ha, ...,
'0
w"
fh ...p j
Ofiginoll~ in,.t><kd '0 be II.. ,",'ork', gnnJ fin.k, with ilS <yt>O<ioI
' h<ory [h", i, in h>rmony wi,h ,Iv: i,b .... p.-....::d in J.u. Then 4.UI ,,;,h its
bold, new ')'flo,bl thoory wound up" , he end of ,ho Opu This .I ..... dy poin ..
[0 $Orne Ji",,,'b.n of ,,,," m"<ri,1. The i!><lividu,1 ch>p .... in book four em
oorn<lirna I>< . rbi"",ily group! inm id"" dus .. , b... ,Iv: unl .. "f ,ho:i. 'ppa'_
.nee in [he book i, inrohcrem in [ho .... reme. r.rhl" 'k .,ri..1of ,h. RnpM
""" led Throdulf .., unload hi. rem, ining mate,w in no 'pi,J order. Qui,.
possibly w< h>vc here.n unpolishl d,ol.
BuoI< four ope'" with . $eMu of rdlcoion. on ,he "'fUre of God and of
,he ....,..hip ,h", i,
'0 H im . nd ro H im .1",... n.- .re. of cout><. fOpiC!!
,h.t l brodulf .. iSd repeatedly, and he .loa "," ..y much ,Iu[ is n.... here
Mor>V<f , ' muth I., .. thal'', 4~J. rides up the .. me t...ic them . In 4.'
Throdulf obj" ", pc"",n', .. ying fh .. "" an oJOf'< ." i,"lIS<". all i, Chri .
nd aw:oid .in. If .nyon...,.. th ... piclUre ofCh[i " is ,ho son ofGnd, "" I....
if ho I.... he does idly: if he docs b>Jly. h i" . It was nOO piaure tlu[ was
Ik,gged, crucified, tQS< fmn' ,t.., .teood . "t .... n<kd into hnv<n. "Sin no image
can be coml"'red to ChriSt in natu,e, non.c can """,ibly ho coml"'red ro him in
... mc" (I'. i90). ThroJ"lf tho .u,oolmalt<. thon ex""t;"[a on ,he meaning< of
n.rna. (lupter twO mxb tbe ideo that through" cokmd inuge 'he p~
ofCh,i" ..... o wo. upon ,ho ..fl h comes hack m mind. ThroJu lf roun.." ,h ..
thc "<l<'Oti.. pow<, of God (Hi, foni"""") i, ineffable.<><I cannoo be p<".i..d
with 0010 ... He then nama .11""" ofbihlial cl.."".... who .dored ,he, po ....,
of God ,..i[hau[ ,ho.id of imoS"'. God mo" be ~",k.1 fb, in ,h. ho.n . nOt
wi[h [h< ca,n,1 q'<O but wi,h ,ho .,...,. of fh. mind. It i .ad to tbink th ...
p<,sun cannot im.gin. Ch, ,,,', p><n<e .... i,hoUl .n image. Oup. ,hrtoO e>rri..
" .. ,h. Jioc,..,i"" by .t.nying the ''lS''mcnt th .. peopk give 1>0 =ond.t.1 when
,hoy bring andl ... ltd inee"", to images. 5"...d, 1 in fxt ocru .. whon things
,h>[ Qugh, 10 I>< offered '0 God .re off.....1 to I,,,,..,k:s> things. If 'her object
<Iu[ w< offi" lightS . nd i"""tl. in ch .. ",h... ,I><n ... t"'f'Ond lb.t church arc
very .Jiff.... " t. <kdicatl... they "c. to [h. divinc cui . Ch>p'c' ........ ryd. rtoO
~" into the CUota' of this d""" .. ion
bocau .. " <lC Throdulf crifiei ... ,ho
.... niun th .. k... i"" (0. <mbrxing) .nd .doting .... .,...mi.lly ,he .. m nd
,h" ,his i Ifi.ml by tlKi. old ,cadr<n. U.i ng al>Oth<l clo"'oom Icyon on
diffi,rcn.cn.<>codulf ..,.. "God i, odored. bUl hc ;" nOf
kiooal. The .. intS, who left ,his worlJ wi,h ,ht vielOry of their metit. ". v<nrt
.. I. but ther ough t n," <0 ho .dored wi[h fho divine cuh..nd thoy cannot be
kisseJ. On ,he OIht. h>nd. wive>. chiklren. .nd .1".... are ki<S<d. bu, , hoy.rc
IlOf adored'" (I" l+4)
> careful ditT..... t'''io"' between tth", .nJ Ji/jp,
,I".
'00
Af,.,
The Fr.lnks and Nicaea
103
Theodulf concl udes with an explicit statement about how the dialectical art has
aided his argument.
One gro up of chapters extends some earlier criticisms of Byzantium's rulers.
1n 4.7, 4.8, and 4.22 Theodulf severely censures the current regime for declaring
heretical the previous one. H e says that the Bible teaches us to honor our parents, nOt [0 vilify them and call them heretics. We noted earlier that the re appea r
to be instances where Theodulf did not realize [hat some statements made at
Nicaea were actually Hiereian theses quoted for refutation. Here, howeve r, it is
clear that Theodulf did unde rstand that Nicaea was addressing itself explicitly
[0 Hie reia. The implication of these criticisms is that the Franks pay due respect
to their parents and ancestors. Chapter five tells the story of an alleged letter of
Symeon the Stylite to J ustinia n urging him to exercise extreme severity with
some persons who have destroyed images. Theodulfs special parry is here aimed
at the idea [hat anyo ne would advise an emperor to be cruel, merciless, relentless,
to "return evil for evil." Theodulf insists that, on the contrary, rulers should be
mild and gentle, should recall sinners from their offenses, should lead the wayward OntO [he path of righteousness. Finally, in 4.20 T heodulf treats as ludicrous
the idea that the emperor and his mother are like the apostles. The first three
chapters, on due reverence for parents, are echoes of many others (Pufou, 1.2,
1.27, 1.28, 2.23, 2.31). The re maining rwo chapters are re miniscent or earlier ones
tOO (1.1-4, 3.13, and 3.15) . Apart from working in a few new wisecracks, T heodulf
really did not advance his argument much here.
At least four chapters address dubious sources. Chapter five was JUSt mentioned for its account of bad advice given to the emperor, but Theodulf also
queries Symeon's letter itself. Chapter ten rejects the whole Story of Abgar or
Edessa. Chapter cleven professes igno rance of a certain book of Du ds of tht
Fathtrs. And chapter nineteen raises doubts abom some stories pertaining to
Epiphanius of Salamis and his pupils. These chapters are much like 3.21 and
not to mention a good many others, whe re Theodulf objects to sources
that arc unknown, suspect, or both. Very similar are twO chapters that again
}.}O,
reject stories about miraculous images. In one case (4.12) Theodulf tosses o ut of
COUf( a story by Dionysius of Ascalon that a certain mon k put a light before an
image of Mary and it continued burning for six months. In another (4.1 5) Theodulf refuses to accept a story that grass grew miraculously around a statue of
Jesus healing [he woman with a Row of blood. H is rejections are like those we
met
}.25.
A gro up of six chapters, in many ways the most interesting and original in
book four, treat painters, works of an, and aestheties. Theodulf begi ns chapter
sixteen with ye t another refutation of the refere-mial argumem on behalf of imIn
'8'" (d'. ) . 6)~....! .h,on .u. n. to ,he ""u~ oI.be in"l!<" thcm ..!v.:s. Surf""<.
he NY'. you ft...,....., pau ... ul"bn..,iful wotnm. 0...;. .~t to be Mary
md <h< odIC, V_nllL Now)'OU put nnm.s Q powa to rdn I""r<" to tbe M","" of
God, bof"", it 8'" nnohty. ' .... ....... d>cmc""" _
oUt.m corn< up in dupler
,........y-ono:. He.. . he main point is '0 rdU", t/u, idr. [....[ !:><au", "'""" bad
b<cn prnphtqo ,,,-, '"''lin would -.mv< """ bat dr.ild. "" one o;:ouId
mist -..Itipi", an
01 M:uy l>Oidi"l
boby po... Fi... , "l'h<ooJuIf ..)"
~ .~ .0> be IOu....! in ,,.. IIttS of <Itc !tan .....
,..... the "',,'" of
in nwtuf.aurl ....... Bu,. be .... on '''tar, suppooc """ ";puWc oo;I.;mo:ion.
H .... do ..... Iu.nw ........ pia"", i. ~ W"h..a. place do """ :ooconl 10 .... .!tiD of
,Ite ....Ut .nd ,ho qoui,ty of ,be ....,..i ... which be .....t? p~ ,be.. ;, no
Ii",,,",, Now, m.oybt th ..... piau,," of Sora!> hoIJi .. 1-.:, Of of Rd>t>oc.. and
.Ja<ob. Of of I\.o................! SoIotnotl, Of of El;..bnh and )<>hn .,. m.orb< ;....
lOme wo ...... Of " ' ..... and. b..by. How would one know? Lik ... iI< mayhe
Ven ... boIJinS Ae-. or Akmt". hoIdi", Hm:ula.. or And"""""'" hoidi"t
As<pn... Ilt'ooldn', i, be ctuy "';\dono ...... 'hi "8 wh ile think,,,,, it oQ>:mothc..!
The " "'Y of ,be A'It-u in.o F.gpt Iw beat pain,..! ",any.im<> be ..,... And i,
"I'm" "" .h,,,",,,, ..... I1 !>.o, oJ .., "" J rinkins -.d . .;Ik." 11'''.....", ... ot......,
carpets. A.. Ib .... . hing> to be odornl? And if any ;""s< of. WO"''''' holding
It chil.! i. [0 I._ ..tor!. how
' he . "inon, ill tbe pic." .. ? Th i. Ic.... '0
.he di,,,,,,,i,,,, in ( h'p'tt .,,"Cn[y..,....n whe .. Throdulf NY' <lu. people can be
led o.<'''Y by badly p. in,..! I'ic""... Th . , i. ' h. R" .... v.. tfy d ilk ... n, o.kgr= of
. kill.nd undcr... ndi"S "'<>nS." im. T h u. "'noc ... ill m;ok p.ttty p ietu ,,", .nd
<>the.. uglier ...... n perlI" ' h<><oo&hly ugly. on ... Sine< people ..ill .d"... m....
cagtriy .he pr ty pic,u .. , ;. j he __ ,I>:" holin ...
fune."'" 01 be.u ".? If
,h.. ,. ,he ClI< . ........ "'pp<nl if IOmeI>n. ;. ,empt..! to
on ugly pietUR"'
And ....bar is to I>< uid .,r.be poor who. if ,hey an aIfurd i""P" .. aU. will only
l><.bIe 10 buy ugly ....... 00 ,hci, piclu .... lotk hoIi....... "l'h<ooJulf:lppfOOdl<>
,hi> ~ from.noth<t .... &k" in du", ......""1)""".;". Hcrt he., if~ ....
truly holy. wlty do the G",,*, put .hem in ,be fOOl, poilu,..! .. ....-u? Don' , holy
obj.cct. ~ bet'er Irt>,mcn. ~ .so.... of ,w..".., -.... b.,,:dto ...... """"
"f'J><"' ,n c!up< ni..... I I... n.....iulf is dcaJi"K wi,h Nianc """'-'* ,.....
io>nod.ut. bad ru . ....... r... wllh isn.p;n 110m book ond [ho d<-oron.
Demetrius. daimeJ "' ...............Iva pbqu<> with ' ...... on ,be <>;W<t of the
booJt.. Pmlicubly. ",."....Jf did,..,. m .... <."ftantt OCt tar ...... .,.....,. .... G .......
....... hcrttia fur
''''"'F' .nd now .My .... h....ia ..... """"'ipi,,!:
,hem.
he ru .... di.caly ,o.he .m...... Such ''''"'F' he ~ mish' >ppa>"
aImoor mywh.w. uy on...-Is. ..... , he oi",,*" 1"''1''- ofbe2>ot~ .bom, Su.
u...c
me
...a.
i, "
.!>ou.
i, .
n..n
dt:>c""".,.
.dot.
..Iu. ,hen of >ilk>. clorhing.
d"d.. nwk for hum ... w< >nd odo,rw:d "i,h

im2ga> Are ,hont '" he od<>mJ ,O<>! The 1m ch'l"e, in ,bis 11"""1' to be diocu.sa:I.. ~'a:n . ;' mainly concCfrw:d '0 1'10'" th" tht g=. ng.,'01 of ,f... Old
T.........., did no< ;"'1"'" "n,il< pt.",..c.. ,nd <n&'P' in , .... W<><>hil' ofidob.
Both ,I>< NK.- f." ..... and Th.....tul( ..'Ott hen- ,,"f'I'Iins...;th th< ililkl<'nO<O
Of
I><..... n imagt> and i.Iok. II", ,,~zo .. Niaa .11< G,b rd, ,hey IW
uochrd 2ft undmundl", ,... , ..... im. . . .kIy in . oq>Ult. ,,"~. n.."Julf
dr.w "JIOfl JJOdoo, '0
,,",Of}' of ,he '"'''11''''''' of idols in ,II< ~ ... place.
This dupttt iI ",.hc'r like j..'S, ,he ...... compori", Rome:u>d s..byIon .nd ....
dou..ds to th< ~ d~"F of ,hot- 1Iy<... ,,1><>. n.."JuIf. maio< ~""
;. . hat .11 manufxrun:d ;....... OK eM'I\rially Idols and ma, ..,m ,he roming of
a...;.. >II ,toeh .... "\c: p.4Ct>Cn >hould ...... bn loid"""'.
The .. m.;nint; clupu .. Of. "''1 difficult to X-I'. F.... in"."", ..... nrr-lOur ."..b IUfffII<n, '" ,he <If<<, ,..., ,he Grb IW co .... 'ogcmn and
n>ad. Ch. iI, ,he h..d of ,he,. cou",il. Of >Un<. Th..,Julf w)... ,he C ......
could do "" ,uch ,hine ben_ Ch,; ..... G<>tl. iI .lre>tly ,t.. had. ,t.. ttflk"r.
,he Inde. of.1I ,Iu, Hi, pe<>pk <In. 0 .... u.p<CtI , ... , l"hoodulf hod ,imply
f"'l"tt." '0 .. ke up , hi, poin . .. t..n h< ..." dlmni"Z ,I>.: G ...iu fu, d nmi"g
'0 ".ejgn "'j,h God" (,.,1. I>< "cl>osfn by God" {uI. I>< ait... nd i,..", diWlIi4
(t.jl. 0 ....... "dl,;n. ra .... (4.\). ChAp'", (""netn i. full of 8",mm., Iaooo.
benu .. TnroJulf emnO' undt .... "d tI,. " in flOn. ofhim. ,0,1 chop.c. """0
,,,,,n i, ",,,ked by COm;' err",. n",...,],M ""y h,,. ",i.und... tood ,Iu. >Om<'One" N;':'" "AI .or."i"8 '0 ""m"'lIt ,I ... " H"' .... ",ho ... d "'.<p<>kto "''' of
hi, ""'0 I><lIy." Tbo poi", "'~ ""'...... Iy ,h.. ",,,,e..,,,. ~ being """->.I of
r'
nuking ,hiD!\, up. or h,,;ng hi, <>"'n <>rinion . T .. ..,J,>If. """...... ,. I"'icntly
np";ru ,hot funa""" of III< variom PO"' of .he body OIId ' " ul"C$ hi, reulcrs
,Iu, ,I><lly c:m"", ,>lk. 0 ... ""'.., ,i.... I>< >uld no< re"U" .n ul'P""uniry.o
make d... llyun' i..... look fooIi ....

'<X'......, .h... dy discu...J ,I><.,.".,.t>I d .." .. rs. ,hinccn.nd ",oo,y..-;gh.,
....... m.y """"I"de he.., ,hi, k-ng<by ... mmo'ion <of T1.rodulr . ........ bbIc:.
I<-......d. ,"'y. .....J PU"F'" , ...... , ... In ,A inS b"" ,oF..,., " ..,i,. .<><If. I ......
to nuk "'" poin". In ,II< fi,.. ,h,.., chop .... of .hi> booIr. I '1""'" lor of .i....
d.i.o<tuoinl ,I>< .u-gumonu ,bo< Iud bc<n ..,J ... """" f;, nd >pin .. .nip>w..--.
f ....... ,ho, fDunh ttfI''''Y '0 , .... ..g.,h. My fin. point iI '0 cmphaoiu how
thoroug/>ly n..-od"lf Iud rn>",...d .... , in 1Io:aw1 ht-n,"F. It ;, no< a5J' to
Ji.nd'"nIIe "Pn... o, wim ,,'hich he _ unf.... t!;.". My ><aIfId poi .... iI .Iu.
ThruJulf .....1.... compc.......",..1y ..." h , .... _ of I[ Nian du, ,hrn-.hould
no
be OIly quntion ............ 01 001 .... hod "'"'" '0 "'" , . .1>--p<tIup.
ron,jl>U01l<.
,n'.rmi".n,_nd ..-h ... hn Of ...,. .... could und.nund .he
Ion.,
1"""'' '
puin ..'ord, ,rod profourod implic'''io ... ,Iu, he lOund on 'k pag.. 1><10.. hin>_
I M'cJ ,h. handful of in",.nces whe .. ci,h.. ,rom.pI ,.., '" M, own mi,.,nOO
. nnding k<l him "''''y. 11><:>< UJ>O<'l do no, d., .... from hi. ""hiev<m.m.
Conclusion
~ prohkm' <><e.>sionod hy .digiou, i mog<> hul romc up only imerminemly
during ,h ighth .<"tury. Aft.r 769 thc",""" """. wutk ,n Rom< On. Rotil.gium of im'g<'-.cbtcJ
,,><I in 780 inugn nl.1y h figured in discu"",,,,
about tk .1Ke..,ion to the I"lriar<hal ,,1Ii in B,.-..mium, During the 7701 the
fru\k. .nd Byz.amin h.d no ..';"us deali,,&, ..i,h one ,notk" re,h.1" as.
ro"'""'l""n<c of the diplom,.. i" rup''''' ,.. ound the ,ime of ,he synod and ....Inbjr of Gen'illy_ Ch"lem.gne. m.. nwhile. e>ml"igncJ in hair .nd op<roeJ
do..,. prod""'i"" .. lations ...-ith Pop< Had'''n I. In the;-8o< the """ ... 11 ,itu.tion
<lunged in. numl><r of impo,,:om ""yo. Th. F"",I<> .nd ny...mi~ ,.in!l."'cJ
,.b,ion, .nd t .... n broke t .... m off .gain. Byz.antium dunged """,I" .nd =hi .
..,i""ll.ode.. and hdd new """neil to und<> the work of H i.",ia. Cb.lkmagn
nd Hod,i .:on,in ....1 '" inle'-""" on ", ...... y of ."bj... , .nd ,h. 1""1'" wd
com! ,h."ew IIY"'"'-;"' .d;s">'" ",OeM" "'"
Again" ,hi. ~kground. Ch"lem .gne and hi, kc)' advi .... k.rnl of II
Nica ... obuincJ it>
nd .mbarW upon a m.",ivc ,<futa,ion of the """neil', deci,ion,. C,uolingi. n vi ..... on BY".anrium and images tonk firm oIup<
be\w<:<:" .hour 79'" , n,l 79i. Ck:uly ,he F",,,ki'" .i..... of ;n,.geI' in ,It< 790'
"'" diffi:.en, from the .i..... to whKh they had lUb.<ribcd in 769. It i, iml"""'ible
,o .. y ju" when ,he clunge em<'!Ied or h;amc eviden, _ P.odu<,i,.. 'nd ge""r'
.11)' cordi. 1 reu,ion. bctwccn the Ca,olingians ~nd Brun,ium in thc 7600 ~nd
78", ",ere ""changed for h""'iliry and bitter .ctimon), E,.. li... nd unifurmly
cordial reu,ion, ho""""n f r:>nc;" .nd p'p.1 Iton......"" endangered hu, """..
h.ndoned in ,he 790>A f.i,ly wid, .n.)' of IIOU",", perm;, in,ish" inco .11 ,h"", "",",.mow
changes. Th"", &QUrces help Co unde .. c. nd 'k Opm C.""i -Tt ",n"~ """"~",,
.nd ,Iu, " ..,"" PUl> tho>< ",mCD imo con,n;t. Th. Opw. h~> a produ<1
of councils. """no, .nJ ,he prodigi"", inlke, of Throdulf of O,lbn" i, ,h.
prime eviden~ for <1i" ,hough, on images .nd mu<h d .. " decisiv< ,i"", in
Ch"lcm'gnc"' long ",igo . In thi. chapr. I have de;cribed both ho.. tha, ....
m"bble , .... ,i.. ""me in,,, hoinS and ....,Iu,;, "Y'. In ,he "<"<, ch.pI"" I ,h.1I
look 'oo .. closely Of i.. ,hem"ic
><1 th .... , ~ ,h"", ',&"",.n"
,<I. .. '" bding id,:.. in ",,,iv<, dyn.mic ocgn>cn, ofC.roling;"" hi"O<), I
shaU .Iso investiga Carolingian ~n tllk.
""u,
1"'.
argutn,,,,,, ...
C H A PTE R F I VE
Tradilion, Order, and Worship In , he

Age of C harlemagne
F... "" J. _1 ..... . - _hm, _ ... ~ tJ.n, .... ".I'~....", "'..,.
_Mcuin. Api"" f-.w.
No .unu o. ,he 0,,01 CO" p<>!oJihly miu 'W<) I\.nd.m.",.1 poi"" ,hOI """"
con".ndy. F'm .
BY""""" ...... wrong '0 cl<>'I0~ imo.g<> . nd wlOng >ga,n
TO com",,,,cl ,h.i. ,,,, .. hip, Sow"d. i","U"
p<. mittcd only for dceo",'",n
. nd comm.m" .... ion.' rOt ,h. pol<mical
of ,h.c "'h,,l. _tk. and .he wide
rn ...",insiy di,par.t< "gumen" .IUI info.m i,> "u,hu.i.., q""" for
oddi,,,,,,,,1 My .h.m... In my ~iew 'he r<" .h ..... n.. .".n,i"" =<1<. will Iu""
"",.iced Th.odulf.. co""""n. al ....... rod;.;..",. o,de nd wor,J,ip ..,. .>1 ,imn
in m. p.<erding "tn,n,,'Y of ,he o"..s. Thei. idcnufico,ion help> 10 di<play 'M
co"""""" of 'M work ",hnit .nd, in .M ~...J ...:tion of <hi> r.h>P'<f. will
p<ltni. II> to . i...... llKodull" n".1 CO,,"m' wi,hin ,I>. bto.Kk. COn'ClI' of
Clurl ........, ........ Th i. -'M>" .. ill i....!, n<! di ...... , ..... ,Jr.rm." fotd.riry
.nd m>phlJiL Of COU~ .1It..,;. modi in ,I>. OpItJ .bou n. Who. lboodu'(
.. ,.. un1;"'" '" <hit.
chapc ... lbood..Jf. ~ft. ~ ... u not .' its ~ about .rt, Fi...Jly.
dUo chapc<r....tll pba n.eodulf. idea. .bout .radi,;"". order. ODd.......nip into
con .... by looking .. wila, con,.m"...- .,. "',,'en Iud to '"', on me..: Mack.
Akuin ', ......... quoocd ........ indOCl, ....... ,lit Catolinpan. roup., ,ooricm
withi" ,.-..I;,,,,,, .....t ...... (On"""'.I, ""'" believed tha, ,hey could
do.., indepmdt".Iy.
,h.
'R'
,,,II<
""I!'"
,..,.,oJ
,hem""""
Tr:ldition, Ordu. and WOMip in tk 0,101 C.roli Rt:U
Tradition, .. ndtntood in~...t d!l:r. .. nt w,,)'S....u C<><l>Untly on TloeoduW.

mind .. ho _ . What ho _)'" ur"Kk< .... heod of tr:Idi<ion....,. b< dinooJ inm
hi<toriaol and pr=ic:>l ........ a,. hi>lOl"ial. I man ,ho ""'Y Th.odulf himsc!f
undtntood hisro<y .nd how ho ~"cd hi< own 11.... into tho cnM ..-p. By
pr:ICricaI. [ ....." how Thtodulf..;...-..I """
inq>ming tho ScriptUn:s
and f."hcn.
Thtodulf'. hiJtoricol ................ 'h-sh _ ckMly in 1.17.' ~ in
",hid> ho _ dn-dopinK 0 ... of his .... of bul.,. <Om~, mu ti .... inotning
t/u, i"""" rould _ b< """puc.! .0 ,ho .... hu .... H. "'l"'"
th.t...man..
pr-od""" .ffi.,:u ,n., ~ flf into .ho furuK while ""y tIf.:<-t tha, .n
intag<" m.y ha.., i> <pIt..... caI. Fo< i"" ..ce, M .. y> 'Nt tho <u<1wi .. " food
. nd
lOr Ike ,.,..1, ""h ik on ,n,.;' food fot .... "Y"'".Io"" (p. ''}1").
In 'M mid.. of ,hi. dilC\U$ion he .. y> " <1... coofi.m. Iht _ ,mn.p.ity .,.. Iht
.N"ttlll "'wUy, .. hilt. rutten <>kl "6" will Jocroy th .. <ompk,dy" (p. '91, my
"'uo ..
,h",
""""'1'
"""ri>Iuncn.
<mr'-"1. F", ThroJulf ,II of h;.K>tj' 1,./0.", ,h. ",'",i"~ "feh ..... ..... n"""'"
""'"III.
antl everylhing ';nee Ih. i,.;:,unI,k>n.

Ikfo .. II>< Ch,iSli.m na ,hen 01;,,1 an ."ci.nt 1"""('1< of b,..1.nd tho kingdom. of the ""tid ",,nding f...,,,,
Babylon !O Rome. N"", ,hn. i. a "..,.. ptopk of b ....1 .tld I n<!W kind of
ki ngdom . E""rything In 'h" old ,lut (o.",hadownl ,h. new ..... "M'U,"" "",,;W
whik.1l in tht 0.... ,10 .. h , k.... back '0 ,h. old i,
.~,;'1wi"". 10 .oon.
h;,,,,ry i, a long """in uom wi,h d""i,i"" b..al. "' illl mMlpoin'.'
Seve,.1 of ,h. "pro<,ical " m.nifn ..
of Th..,doJr. '~i,k:m>.li" ,hink
ing illu" .... how hi. hi"orinJ ...... ~ ~ .... y> .f 'M ~n, .. of hi' thinking.
Aw<i~ .00 again I>< ..y>. in tdU'ing 0""' p<>in, Of tooth ... tho, w< luve n...,
I>ca,d 0( 1"',,.;,,,,,1> P"'I"'"" .... n~i .... ."...,1<0. pootolic .... n. Of chutch
fltMn .. yinK.ny ....h 'h inS-' In I"'ft. ,his ~.",..,1>odoIogicaI ugwn<n . It
t"""hed ,It< .-;...1q .......... of how ...,....d 'M Scrip1UfD:rnd i, 1Tames, ~ly
in boo.b Oil< and ,.,..." the Ions .me. of ~'''' deYoccd prccisdy '0 ~
manns. II add. ...~"', I., Throdulr, r..q...n, ..m.rkub....' Wlkoown 0' dubiow boob. B... it also " ..... ""'"' thromlCOl quc><ion . Si ...... hr implic:otion
Thtodulfis AY'ng
f~.nb""'..J""'" to ,It< mcxn . ... d uni,~ ,eadtinop ~ ,he l'Iyun"""" do _ . ,hen ....Iy 'M F..... tu <an be 1M b l1>eodulf'.
tcmMk in J." , .... " ,he Rom.Jn Empi~ ~ ,t....-hoIe inhaiCll> of &by.
Ion" (p. _ ). n.. 8,Ylan'itK. thcnu<lves ch imed '" be ,hoi, M;n of Rome. In
M'"
,ioo.
,ha, ....
n,,,
DtIC WoIy. ,... , ;. unfi>nw..... In anoIhn ..... y. i, .. plairu a 101, Tbo:odulf. peri_
odioc OltCUnioN in,,, llrun,i ... poI""",1 .,,,,hoIism .nd rq><n<nt...ioo penni'
him '0 HI'fO"<" [h ... ".t..rn. ;n [.... Chn..;'., <r.I .11 rulen ,hauld ba, til< type
of o.ri ... 1I)'UII,ium. rukn .......... n, and ..;.,&m,. s..byIonw.. in ilion.
11>< """" '''Y US""",n, i, ,10m nliood npliutly. 1"., lI,....n'; ....... lik , ...
mba of Iteubm. C><I.nd M.......... " ..... Kl"R'cd tllc:rrud.", from l<nd and
bua, alun of ,....., own (Joo. 11."" " ......,.. a...,I<~ io 100: D"iII.' and
.... FnnL ..e. _ cJt,o,..n people.' Alonpi<lo .h;, biblical ugum<n. " .. can
pba: .1It ""'" Thtodulf o:bdops pm.;n,ng 1<'> churd! councill. ~'htfns , .....,
"'ve t-n >ill council>. and ". oIont.nd only ,lot Frank> ad ....., '" ,"""',
on. Brun,;.......... cmo,ttl. _,..,d Mmocd...,..ia: Rimi,,;, Hi<m. nd II
Ni<:aea-I'" 10".. ol .... hioch >lwn wi.h I Nic:on only. nMn<.'
FOi' Thtodulf. ,htn, .~i.ioo f'<,mincd ,ht <1..1.0..''''''' of ...... lUnd. of
~". A.cco.di",.o 0 .... ,I>< _'" (nu,,, I..:l>niq ...... nd guidcii .... for
und.nundl", ,h. 1v.,,>8" of , ... chureh. 11>< Now Tn ..mcn. unltxkcd ....
on:. ru of til. Old .nd ,... OIJ p<~ d .....'-'t ,,'k., would'" found in
,he New. 11>< chureh f.then. "'" 1"'1"'" and ,n. Ii, """ncils ... ,.,nh booh
.ulhoti ...,vc ,,,,,,hing<.nd 'fU,,,,,,,,,,hy 'Khniq .... 1O.. ",,,.e,ing m<'..,ing ITom
,he ,n" ofS",ip'm" ~:..ch g< ...... ion W1.I tu fuel> ,h. ""'" only wh., i, hod
i!!,<li 1.....1. N~I,y f'<, ........ gto'" oIT<n><.' Acco'ding ,,, 'he ", ... , .. gumen'. , ... ",mc dply polcmicol .nd poi;.;al of .h. ,wo, hu",.., h;,wl)' COII.... cd nf on ""folding ,eI., ion,hip l>rtwNn end .nd I-Ii, propl<. God ... d
... b ..... m Olncludcd 1 o".n"" . Cnd in.pirttl proph.n o ",II I ii. propl. bock
.0 ,he law. Gnd I'linudfbtt.m< inCl' ...... 10 ,u"h I-Ii, p<Ol'l. ,h. way .nd '0
call .,ill ...,". p>pk , Ev'"Vlim _re <n'tcd ...-i,h ,he ... k of anying a
m~ to the end.of , hennh. A ch .. ",h wa> bu,l< to oon ...... and " i...", i... ,.
the mcwgc. l' .... ntly. only ,he '''''nb-"',he ,piri",. 1 no< ,he amoJ I>ratl"'
(l"?r"'fl' {,;,hful '0 ,hot "'braham;': 'r><iouon. Clwk~ ........ new
Dovid- ...,..."";'~J_nd ... bnh.m bamc.n old f ...nk_ M . ""'';IIU.
"In. Byun';.........., ""i"." <>tI, of h;""I}'. a, Ie.., ou' of .... his,Of}' of God',
p>pIc, n...::.dolr ... nd, .... w-dy in , ... p."vi<lcn,;'l "oidi.;.". of Aupuin<',
Ci.,
bu. hot IOund ...... y .o .... his,O<)'... hid> mcaru; on. r-. pr<>rn'.
and futu ..... "'" only a f'1'h
hruol ....... ion ..... aloo ... ~rimi""ing
SUiJc.o.ht propI< ,,'ho """,LJ or """,LJ no< "" ,....d. SuAtririft. inrJct.d.
-rc.J
'0
ThO! . ..tire. "M h..J 10 <>tJcml ....... of h,,,"'Y ...... kI ...A"I on ord in
otha rnpcru is hardly .... rpril.on~ v.... is ~ ..001 ""h a ...;.x t.ngo of .......,"".
,,0
CH . . ' . . " . .
II <:an m<>.n ~hodieal.rnngcmen" or p>C<Iin& in ,"" rigll' onk.. or bdu.v_

ing and/or 'hinking in ,h. 'ich' "".y. or ","'nging IOffiCfhinK properly. or main
.. inint .."Ie.. "",ion. and hicr.or<h1 . "". 1i ...11y. uliog aom ..... O>d, In variow
_,.. n...odulf ,ouchtd <NI all of m.:.. poooibit rlltal\inp of !he.-on! "orda. 0... of 'M i...... in ~_nun '.. pptndi. of"Oo.fXI.rittic u p'o.;o.... ;. "010
ap<>oci" : 110;, ""..... 1j>ra".-kwn "me> in !he 0,... . Every ri"", i,.ppcan
1'hrndulfin....ri"ll hi. rude< d.., ,Io.t Byun,inco ~ foik<! rodo ...... , "'ordn
n.. O""- ....
~""""'-
,,,,,_of.
of .........
....obIy oJdrwcd ro
synod: II Nian.Aa:ord;nf:ly,1'hrndu1f rtpC2tcdJy
I"
q......",
and.oynooh." W.
h:....: Wndy -.. ,1121 ho i ......cd on ,hc:n: ..... ng bcuo w.. and only w.. <01'
""'nial councils. So ... obio..! mwnily '" Byunl;um', hovtng!he ,(TnC1"i1}'
,,, bbd Nion :u In'eft,h. <OI...... icol. Of "n;....aI. 1lW _ con~ Iion
of "".d... "' of rho ord., Iw>dtd down " ..." ..obIy from ,'''' I""'In ,Iv .. me m n. 11w:o<h>1f (.i,id..-.J l:lrun,;"m
and "",lcsi.. rial
bdo .... In allin, , ........,ivQ "J;ow~ .nd
acU "Ji,~" ,....mptro. and
his mothn off.n.JN viol<ndy .g.oin" &<><>d ord. . They displayed ' Rom ... "", .
,,,mod ,h.
'.ICCuIa.
,"'i,
.. n",. ion" (I.<, 1.)).1" pt.mi,,;ng I WO",,"n to t<>ch tl>.: 8 yzantina ron,f<l<iiacd
.... bli>hcJ ",d" ("'))' If in d.imi"l ''''' much for ,"'rnoftv,:o ,Ivy >howd
."os"'u, ,lI<n in .n..ing to $how on(T()' >nd >mpuoion (4.") ,hty on< >gain
faikd to imi .. ,. Cit,i", '" btu I Ii> '~. II "'.. ",,,,moly pompous of,h,m ""
compo'. , lI<n ...
,hr ' 1"",1 .. 14,1.01. Throdulf h..pcd . bu .. on T.~i",
fur vi"l .. i08 0.1 in .11..,,,. of ""Y'. H. ll,.. ,hat " Iii' i, no~)I m,,,or ,h"
T.... iu, (.. ,hry ..y)
pron""..! from ,hrl. y .",.to ",.1a<t,doul wmmit.
(,om mili".,.. lI",b '0 .. Iigious. ftom ,b~ c;,em
tho .1 .. ,. from tho ",muir of
.11< """moon, ,,, ",<aching. fton' ,I,. cl .~ of u,"" ' 0 01,. I"rfo.tm.ncc of...,tetl
my... ' ... " .nd in ooru<qucou "I>t """pdled ,lI<poopic .ubjt to hi, .utho,il}'
'" bpi< from . ho ",iri,u.>! lho 0,..,.1. fro m tho in.;"bk: ,Iv vUibk. from
tho lrulh to'n i""",. from .... body '0' o./uduw, from ,h. livi", ",iri, to a
dad
from Ii", ",i,;, of ad<.>p<ion ,,, !he ""ri. of In,." All th;, "'ppened
brau.. ,,,,,," .hi"", .ha......, "".m;n..! ...d ~I. ' 0 him ... loym.n
..,.... .. nhtlpfuj '0 him oft .. h.. ilb(i, prornorion 10 ,I,. cktgy." r .. ~. n..o.
doalf ><g<IU. T..~. ,n.,.","" ,II< ......... ip a( im>p I" dim_ _ ic from IW
-.. irrezul>' pooi."", . fka ..... T......"'. CUm:nt ......ion ..;.,u,.. ,"" " norm of
e1coi.ut;a.J ",It," bra" ... M .... Cotto< '" hio ofIiu " 'rongjy, he: con"", lead
comedy." For
luv In:aty Kat, T .-w 1101 only ........ """'_
.m>Od ,Io.t """". 1 doCIri .... of ,"" Tn"il}' br.o, aho promod ,ho ......... ip of
inuga and I.d ~'''.y , , - ,n h.. t2<~." On ~ boo twO< nc:cuit>n l'hrodoalf
bil of d"lt(oieo! ....... wj,h ,t.. Gm.. H . laY' ..... if tl.t CUITrn.
I," '0
w"
'0
,0
""<I.
,h" ............ _
rLol'"
'0
gtnt.,uiOll wi"," [0 . ",uhem:uiz<; [hc plC"~"" onc, [hcn none of [h.i. ordi",,[io", .nd ronl<'C""io", ' 1<" ... Iid . nd they ""~"o' tightly "le ,he ..:[io", Ihoy
'[( "'king" Although Thcodulf <i, .. G.ego'Y'$ I'AI",ral Ruk only twice, ~nd
"'" in the """neaion' we
juSl "",,"0 d.""",illg. ,h. 'pinl of [lu, ,",'o.k
.... ffu ... ,h.
Humili!)" duty. ,.M-Ji",ipli" . " .. ><1 .. e. ike are the h,ll.
nu.,ks of IIuc kaden. Ch. ,I<mat;ne 1""""'" . 11 tI .... " ....Ii,ia in . bund. nc.
and By",",;um', bde" I..k ,hcm,
In a .d.. ed ... in, Thcodulf heeto .. ,h. G=ks a, 1<-... , nine ,imes for con
dtrnning [h.i. ""m I',"<n".,. Thc Ihhk ,=:h.. , he "Y', [Iu[ ",renn md m<eo10"'[( '0 hc honored. V.. ,he G"",k< d>."i"" .nd .n"hem"i .. 'hei, ",,,n..
ThruJ"lf ... )~. in mo<~ .. nou,nes . ,hOI ,hcl<" i probl<m bcca".. ,he G.eel,
of
p..... io'" go" ... ,inn ... '" di'g,,,,ing h.... i"". 1\", ,hi, S"nc .. ,ion would
keep q"iet ,bout 'h" and p .. y fur ,hem , In ,ny ca><:. i, "iol.... /lO<>.<pee' "f "rder i, .igh, r<:2SOning. Thc,,,hM 'I'pnu<h.. ,hi, .,uo
obliqudy on ",. ny ocasion. when h. a<""s.es [h. B)"z..1,,,in of poor o. mud
died l'tl>Ofling. or when hc iaml,u, .. Ihem wi,h hi, ,cuhing ,h .."ric .!:>ou,
heing u" ...."'n. ble, illogicol, imprudent, incau, i<KU. .nd $I) fonh . Bur [here i$
.nothe, tn'c.ling ..... y in which h. rn.u. the ... mc point. He don it by"""mpk.
SO to sf><O-k. No f<wet CUt< .yllngi>tio; ,.,.,.,ning. " Hi, firs, .yllogj,om 'Pf><O-rs in 1.1
". ~ .. h" i, .... "'I"illg '" di'p'""",~ G, .. k ,,,Ie,,' claim ,h., ,hey "Heign"
with Gud. He "'Y':
0,,,,.
I.,,..
,h.
Fo, if we a .. <till in thi. wo, ld, we.rc "ill.Ii..:
If wc a .... ill .Ii",_ we do not y reign with God:

$illCC ,ho:rcf"", "" .,,, "ill '" thil wo,ld ..... d" "'" ,.,,,ig" wi,h Cool."
He cani .. [he .rgum,,", IhfOugh .., ....1 mo .. i.... ,ion' of his m. jo. ",d mino'
premi,.. '0 pn::w< ,h .. i, i, logically imp<>S>iNe [0 .-guc [Iu, we "co_reign" wi,h
C..d. Thi. ;, f",mid.hk '""'''' ;" hi' ",,,.1 ...,01'" "'-"'P' ;S" Wi, ... Bru"';'"
[hough,
I'or Th<odulf onl .. is in"",ricol>ly oound "p wi,h !,nSU'gt. b'en all.,
acknowledging ,h .. he "...., "",.king wi, h poor La,in [.-.n,l .. ion, w. can...,[
.vnitl bring mllck by [h. IIUmCIO'" ';0><>-1 <ount """nty-o"'''-whcn T hrodulf 11'''' the Greek> gr. m""r Ioon . Somctimc:o hc rompb ined that they
did ...,t ,,,,dt,,,,nd ,h. n,,-,"il'g< of "", ..,k Soonim.. th.i,
",1I.l'std.
Somim 'hey f.iled [" undt .... nd thc propct uk of figu"", "f 'p<h :" On
......r.1 <><CI.\ion . bllt n""" m"t< eif,ivd)' ,lun in ~. ,6, Theod,1If ."phin.
'Y"'"
how.he " <uk> of ~"",," ""n <lor$&"'1 Grttk a.gumo .. ..; 0 ... may.nmion
him .mi'king. H. _ ,!,"",kin, or ,hei' ....."",n, ,h.., im. . an: ""'r bu '"
ncv<:nhe .... pu, in.., ...... , .." and
prof.ont pixel. H...1' .h.., the tuIn
,coch on< ...... , '0 jw<>POOO .fUlh "';,h falomootl. pUyful ..... ,..;,h.....,...nc>o.
imm<><k>ty ... "h mod.str. "........ i,y wi,h cn...ity .
"';,h <ad, Of pro&n.
Of"'"
,It,.
wi.h rdipoua. n. ... ,he Gfftb shooId not jot" I"'u and iml"''''' Throdulf i>
cq...lly
in J..'~ ",hen ... apw,.. .... tuIn 01 dd,b.n,i ... rhetoric and ....
an 01 pmu:otion ><> :as '" p...... ,........ Grub ""nnOl p<1SIIado God. Th.ooJulf
an como off as, pompou> bono Of .. a p<dm .. .... , IUo poi". ;, ......Y' ...iou..
Tho Gtttb ;.... do 11m .....dmI..wI .... 8;bk Of , . . . .radirions 01 .... church.
Thei.""""in,,, 10 d<ftai .... 00 .... ' 01 ookt....., ,hey h .... no hope 01 rrd<mp-
''''''11
\1t'onhip;" on< k<y P""o<!"W,. '0 'kmption .... 100 como ' " l~ulf'. ,hird
..... j.o. ,h ....... Amid Th<OduJr. n.J'If"'ion.oI.ngt" irony .n<! u.C..m I dot..,..
an <k" """ of bolll ..,.n,. 'l'h ...... , """ oc"",;",.N by l1><odulf'. 'n.bility '0
rump'chcncl ,be .ub,k,ju of G...,k .[,ouglu bu, by
wid ...cynJ ... roni!h ..
men ... wh .. h. round un ,h, ~ b"fu.. him. The G...,b ><.u.ally "",..hipcd
im.ge> ancl.n."h.,n:uiud.~ ",h" re/'....d ". do .... U,..]e. one "p,ic. The<>Julf. ron f... ion m.y be .",ibm..t
ch .. m 'hatlwJ opcn..t be<wn E'.:u,
.nd West un ,h ..... bj.'" of ,cliglou. ,,' ." Unck "",h.. opti<:, , ... one ,devan.
he"" Thcotl"lf . :tb<olutc runtn,;,me ... '0 pt",ly ",i,i,,,,,] ....,<>hip ltd him '"
condemn wi,J.ou, ..,......,.,ion
m.."n. li,y he p'rai.....J in Brunti". """ ..... ,p.
",~I .igna''' .... of ,he ...:>.k i<
m..ti .. ion J>nw..en God . nd
hum .... i, 'hrough Ch,ill aJon.. !ly mw. king .nt hropoiosy fOr .hcoI<>gy. ,h.
Grab "Iud put th ...."u of hu"..." ~ 'ind ..wi ...nd. ., ,he: nte' of liLi.h ... ..
Cdi. Cluulk c ... raa ....a l'Mod ulf ..;.w dFec,; .. Iy: ",Jd,ough , .........
r<rial world i. ~. i, 0 .....ftmdy ~ ... c from ,... opiri,,,w raIm. JO that
,he: """'" ,,"'ho ,....n" '0 "f'P"'O"h God mill' ~.wly 'Ulft ...-ay from "...,<riaI
thinp in ordn KI dirra hi, or ....."cn,iott cornplncly ,ow:ud< .... <piri,...,] .. Ml}
Indd. Th.ooJulf ..Y"...iy ..,.j oIUn ,.... ("oOd olotO< ..." b. wonhip<d ..,.j
..... H... KI b. .........,f""I in ... ..i,;' and In ,ru,h'" (John 4 .... c<f'.
n", Gn:eIu..mbed '0 im"fP ,hc: qua!io ............;r., ......,. ,........ f'mtng-....,
...ruy li"';"1 beinp con """"'"" In fan . i .......r< fOUlly m........ and, ,h ....
mull,. likkss. Again :uw:I opn hc: .. ikd "Pi"" .... wonhip of .. in...... tc
no li"';"1 bctn8 ""n hc: wonhif""l ,"';,h ,I>< ,i,..k .uqorion
"""'t.
",.he
n..
,he
,ho.
o,..s ... ,,). ..

M
"'........" n.... '-'
ofGo<!. By faili .., 10 rnliK II... rompl<1< nuriali.yofimap. ,.... Crcdt, p;.id
'0 , ....... a ...."..j,ip ,h." "' , .. r.,"k .. i' ...... bI.>f'IIC"_."
Throdulf .Ii<! _ build up hi< 01"\,"'lIItn. abou, ,II<" n,.. rriali,y of images
Iiom m<nph)"'ial ,,,,,,,,,,ing. In ....d ... """ndc-d him ..1f in po>i';"" term. <Nt
INblicoI ~ ...d in "'P';"" ' ....., <Nt , ..... pplia .."" of ,II<" li.<rary .Ii",;
plines ''"''''C ,lot ~btnl OIIl '0 ..... 0I"0,,1s of ,lot 8rz.onu..... n.. ,"",,:oJity of
the Bible.o n.ro.J~lr, .hou&h' m.ka cInl why he iNi1d ~,c-dly on the
lUpc-rioriry of s.:npturn 10 i....... 11.. Bi .......... un"'....y Cool', .....ru"ion KI
Hi< people. God, ....... ........t... 0.. ,ho .,....Iwwl. ,lot Bibk p'..... id<d
tuidatlC< 10 .:01.".;"". On the "'M lund. ,he 8ib&.
ip oiGod
....... ...d fIC"W"t .... Mruc-d the ......u.ipof.trUF" "" ,ha, .....,... n<Wf ...,ho<'
Iud , ho wonhip of ...,....... or ... )"\hlns <>-cope God.1lw:odulf sa,.. II<" doeo not
can: if people h.,.., im>&<> 01 nor ~" ,he ( ';,ical " ..... ion ;, whctho:. ,hey ...,....
'u""
,,,,,,mmdrd ..............
<rib",. 10 sah.. <ion. H. condlXb .h.. ,hey do DOl." Bea"", Thtodulr. und..-
,,,nding of ,be on'oIosr of im>g" <ltnM:<! ,hom .ny li,ins '<">Iiry or.J"";gncd
.hom "oluc only inoof.. as .hq' wert moJt by okilltd arti", Of compriscJ of
val,...J,k .......i.ls, t.o diJ n,,,.-d ttl ,kv<k>p. " 8ildm<upbl"i~" ofbi< _n.'"
Thw.. he rotln<c-d him..-lf wi,h Jccon,uue.ingllyun.in< .<.>Ching on gnom
...... ial, ,h.. otiol ... wl Jt.Ic<,ial ,"ounJ . Th<re i1"". po.i.ive ,i<lt.o Thco
J"I" .'XU''''' ..... A, 0"" I~,int ...... yo ,h" i. would tol<. him ''''' long '"
<n"IIIt... .1I , he .hing> ,h.,. build up f.i,h '1'.1.1>0 love of God .nd ""ighbor
bu, ,h .. no n.. "or how I,'ng hi,li .. "'igh. be ............. 1.1 neve. ge' '0 im.ga."
Ofn. then. Throdulf de",,;I><> p=i<dy ,ho"" fo'm' uf cu i nJ ",,,,ict wh;.h
IeoJ th. beli ....., 10 God. ThooJ"lf Im, ,... h I"'".i"",
",h, di ..i"~",
aod ",I"" ;""':in~ ... _ ... cnnc<p" of.he .. nt. order bu, he !"C&',dcd ' .... m ..
mu.ually ""du,;,... For ,"" Brunt in .. ,he latter cnh.nttd ,he form.,. Fot
l lw:odulf th.c /O,m., u,ludc-d , .... 10"" , 11>i< ;.)'ft
;n".ncc ,,he...
Throdulf u...Jcn.QO<! , .... 8),"lOn,inc .rgullltn. l"'rft.ctly ...-.l1 bu u,n.cd i, upoide
down io ro:jcaing i<.
n"",d"lf "'.,' nO< igoonn. of ,.... phik..opll.laI .. pt>.nd implia,ion. of
""'.. ofhi, ,,,,,n,,,nn. W<"'n _no f<, ..... mpk. th." 1.e ...... 1<1 d;..:",.....;th
subtkty the ilifl"crtnr:<S amons ilNS'<' hkmcso..nd ...... Ii.)'. In th. l'rtfo 10
book <>nO" he Cli,idud ,II<" C...,tu "" hil,,,, ft, .. ndcnund .h< iliffrrrna ~
I'<O"tfl\ l""-m., i<. i~ond .,..........-.h." ... idols: ....." idol i.... i ....
but _ cvny '. . . . ;. an i<k>I. t ..at<f he bom>wcd . .... th full compt<hefloion>
Augu>1.n'" ~I analop be", ... n the Tnn,ry and ,he humalt mind ..-hid>
.... t.no..icdgc ...;u nd """""'Y'" Ih...... Wft>t< . . . thcoIosi .... _ ...
plti""""""'. l1>u, h;. >rrun"I' ,1u1 God ..... ~'Y"""re . nd could _ be
citrunucrihtd .n)""''''re. WI> DOl rem.tIt .hou, ,he mtt.IpIt,..icaI duract ....
.ha.
.!IOt"",
'''' CH,""
>t V<
,ie> of ,be being "G<.>d," bm a ",nu,k groUl..!cd in f.im and <XI'fC>Od in ,h.
1'''gu.S'' of f.i[h. " %..., Th<Odulf sa)'> ,h., ,be only w:ly in which hum.",
""" inuge (".od i, in ,h.i, "",I, 0' in ,hei, vinUOll' Ii"",. be i, saying ",m,,,hing
.bout ,he utt" ",mlUnd..ncc "f ,he deit)' .nd .bou, the imJ>""ibilit)' of . ny
.. , ...... image of. pu,dy 'l'i,im.1 I><ing. Simil"ly. a piem", of a ",in. ""nn",
reveal ,he powct of God', 11'''' ..".kin!,; ' htuuQI ,h. I'<tsOn depiCtt'd. lilcwi,.\
.n image ,hat i< alkgcd '0 h.ve ",i....:u lo ... qwli,i if, if i, i, not di.bolial,
m...<ly a nuniks ..,ion of ,he PO""" of G<.>d. lmogn ,he"""l ..... arc ,ul'<.8u"" .
Goo .uRices.
TIocoJulf, "'iginali,y .nd ,iSO' of .ho"gh, ... ,gh, ,,, I>< o<knuwlc<!ged . N01
. in I" ",iquiry had . ny Ch,i,,"," ,hink" u<klc<! '" ..,no", a prol:>lcm in <0
indcpenJen' "'''y. ~ lh<Odulf ",,-cd I", to Augu"iM. bu, finally hi' ronnuJa'ioo\. 00\ ,h. , ul>;o<' of W<lrship .. nd f" boyooJ 'n)"hing ,h. eh",d. f"h ..
h:td .. id" When I looIr cI,,,dy at ,he fn, and pri ,ion ofTh<Odulr. '10'men. of . pi.i" ...1and ",,,.n.1 """"'ip. I an"", hdp ..,... ing ..ith Au><py and
Thummd .boot . he relotivc ;upctioti<y of ff"OJt ki,h to Bynmine ,""ug/n on
thi' .opic at k .. t.
Th ...Julr WU .1", .. n;i,i '" ,h. r..." ,ha, _ .. m".,i.1 ,hings d.J ha .. .
pl.c< i" Ch,i"i," ... .,..hip: "",,..I .. .,..el.<. ,di",. ,h. Sc, ip"u""" ,he CW"," . ,he
""",h"is< \n.o", p:u,icul .. ly . h. cleme" " which hcc>me ,he eucha'is<J.,h. Ark
of tho Ctwtn." . nd church ..... W. ha'" oc<:n tl"'t n, ..... lulf devu<eJ ...... .-..1
knS'hy di<cu"",,,, to ~h of.n... topics. He <:>,s,mi:r.cd hi, COmment< .he
.,m. ".'y <very .ime. Thcs< ,hing> '1'< holy. 01 can 1><. p=iody bcc:msc G<.>d
comn .. ndcd .hen, tu he mad ,,,J ,,.... '" 01 .. hcc>,,-,< ,i>cy~ ... nC1'!;cJ by
,he ron..,<"","'n of. p'icu. ~liCJ ,rc holy bcca .... th<)l"~ .he phy>icol remain.
of. 0< objca< j>U......d by. I'<,sons ,,oo.re"OW ... ;,h God Mo'<O'''. in SO r"
.. co'ponl relics.1'< p/ly,iru renui"" .hey will bc n::<urrn:,eJ . I m~ are ..'"
now wi,h Goo .nd wiU no, .ha", in the fCOu'<1ion. V.... I,.r< ronof'1fcd '0
holy pu."., .... Im~ 0", "". ronowod. Th ...... i"'" of the ch urch can"", bc
"",,mpli,hod wi,hou ... seIs. but im'g<"f< unn<C<SS1ry and i,,,,levan'. Ma ..
at"! p!":l)'Cn "r< off.red in b.si1iC15 but ""'hinS of ",I". i, off."", in.n image.
ft.... a
God Himsclf cum,n ...d<d />I""", . build .t.. A,k and i, stood
p,cGgur1non ofCh,i" . nd ,he church. And so on. Mm i< nOf innin.icallr
evil. nd ",me 'YJ'C" of nunc<, in Jkular ~ifcum ... nC<J. h.", hccome holy.
lnugeo.t< "0' '"",ng ,hose t)'i><'Le. u. ;urn up. God mad. a p,om;.. Abr.tham. Fo. an'une. .ha. prom
... W,", COn5<fVtd am<'lOg' chosen po<>pk. God c(><l.inwlly = Icd Him .. lf ...
,hose I""'P/<:. "ught ,Io .. n Hi> ""Y" . .."I ",UeJ ,hen' buk ..h<n <1'<)1 "",ytd.
Firutlly. G<.>d ..nt Hi< <On imo the world .. a ""'" '0 modd ,he lif nd liti./t
,It.,..
'0
...... would lCCu", mkmp.i<ln, return .0 Co,l [""ngtlt", .uld tI.c "o!)' of .h..
Son . nd 'l""',oIic mcn built hi, churrh ro gouhc,. Mpli"" .nd tcoch th~ propk
of Goo. Rome kd ,hc ,hurrh .r.d point"'! ,he w>y ro m,hcn,;, ,eaching. Fi
""II)" <>nly the I',..nk; wc'"
.hc . ncitn' ,=li.ionl. Thc ,,",,i.io", <ould
he known, und."tood, ",d di<min>ted . Bm doing .nr of ,hcs< thing! d.
pen<kd nn foHowing [hc ru .... The>< ru'" wcre d"">ted hy .ncicnt undet"$und_
ing>. by good p~icc . nd by ",,,,lUI 'pplia,,;'," of ,he imdlce,wJ [00" ,h.[
m.y ~y be: called ,h. libet.1
.lthough 'h")' "'e'" .nciently .pdkJ Out in
.h. SCTip.mcs. Thc God who i. [h. beginning .nd .nd of [hi, >t"'y i, ,Ite only
lteing in .he uni,..... ro whom rul, . nd ><["Vice m'f be: ",nd.m.!. n.roJulf ,os<
in dokn of ,h. unique wo"hip. tteompli ....... in the <x>nt w>y. of
God
who hod once ,pokn 'Q ,h.,.,/d "Fr,,,l" Ah,.h.", .. "I wh .. n.. ,.. suidrd ,he
Ipl of.h. new "'Jew:' ,h. ncw D"id. Ch .. knugnc.
'rue '0
at"
,h.
An and Art Talk in the Age of ,ht 0P'" G.roli
'0
In ,Iw: prtttding "".i"" of ,hi> ,h. pI 1 .ke"h'" wh" I tak be [he cen,..1
'rgumentS of .h e Ot'" Go,",;. In ,he p'eding <h.p[,,, of ,hi, 1:>00\:, I included
"",ion,,)O wr..[ I h" e bn COIlling ..... ulk:' meaning.he ~ .nd concept.!
which w,i" emplo)..J '0 ul ~ .bou, .It. From ,he founh cen,u!), ,hro.. gh , ....
.;gIl,h, I Iu'e .hown. 'I..., .... 0 .... ' ..... "'.. ' im.oges, ovcr icon" " .... ofren
I"" .hout .ft prope' [h.n .hom .hoologic:ll. w;1.,;"'[i",l , poli,;"'I, .nd ",'en
ideolusial i<sues, N... <tthekss. it """ tll<" rise and profusion of fig" .. I.ft wi,hin
[he Chri""n ch .. h ,har promp.ed [h. ;ndividu.1 reAooio ... 0' ",,,u. 1
...."ia. c;..,n"'lu.n,ly. i, is impo<'.n' to form .10m, O<nl< of how ,h. C. .... ing;
'B" T""""ulf.nd hi. oontCmpora,i<>, ,.lkJ .bouft.
."".m-
ThroJulf. po'i. i.... as.sc<smcn. "f Ch,;',i.n .ft 'pp<>r1 man~ ,imes in ,h. 0t""
bu. """.. mu .. cl .... ty of .lICcinctl~ ,han in th .... words: "We do "'" <p<>k
Wim[ im. gn for [h. mcmol}' of pm dred. and [hc i:>camr of ,huh .... ,in
we know .Iu, .hey WeTc mod. ,hul by Moses . nd Solomon, .Itht>ugb .. type
~g~ ..... bu. w< 'ejc<, ,hei, moo, insolent o .... h.. mo .. >I'pen,i,;"u. ,do""ion
which W< Gin",,[ discover to Iu," bn i""i[uoed by ,he f';u';'rch. P[ophw"
'1"""1.., o. 'l""',oIic m<n,"' To ,hi. p.... ge Ch"\cm'gne .... ponded. "p".
f;,c,!'" r H. ,,'< > Thcodulf exp ..... ing him .. lf .. once un "odi''''n . o.J.,.
.nd ........... ip. But .... abo nac. that I>< Iw .... objtctoon to J;pu:.1 on p<r...:. In
,his I><
from ,I>< rirUtS of do< iwnophob< pcnod ,n B)"UI'ti ...... nd in
amiquioy. But i. is.a.o impon2l1t to nac< duo llKod .. If.-\opt pot .....
of Ituditd ,ndifl"u.n<e.o mipom Mt. H. no .."""'..,.. tN' 'h.... ""f/!< '" I><
.,t in <h .. ",,,,,,. boob. ".
duo H ...)'O lin'pIy tN' . in ...... kind. of
dr< ....... WOI n ;, p<rmiosibk .. lonK .. illici, pn<Iioeo d<> not cot ... to I><
wi,h i,. AI Free""n
it, ThroJulf ..... . "mi nim;.),"."
I.,.
"'...
""ywIt.
.-",<11
r'"'
llK-oduif and ,I>< Franko Iud DrIly on< ;n.... Ion".,.. in .1>0: p<riod ..hrn th. Op..s
..... being ptoductd: Pop< Hadrim I. n.. bca ..... rot lOr hiJ ........ i, do<~ ...
,. bu. _ should bc.or in mind t/u . in.he Ninc _,.Ito< Fronh Iud Hod';
.,,'. kI ..... to
and I......... nd.o Tor.ui .... H><I"." too
<~ ......
............ p<np<cth.. on i ....... but his ........ ......, cntlinly .. ode< tIun n...,.
dul,.... N...... I>dcoo. llKoduif ~nd the: Frank> d<> no< ...m to ....... ukrn II.
dr .... ' .........
:oo;oun. in .hoi, con,in"ins ...... k on
0,.... It is _It
poin ..", 0...
,I>< c.,;"""". IW,-s... , 00 o,....s oft~n 'f>p<"" ,,, r<:pn:><nt
""",,"IS of. di.aloj;u< of ,Ito< dc-:of. I, ...mbe ttall<d Uut ,1M: F<1nlu ,"",rely
ch..,istd ,I>< C ....1u for rudi,,!! ,h. Bihle...p;'lIy ,h. Old
lit<"dly
WMII,1to<y "ush' '0 1t...... >p<ei6c Nicen. readil\g> .. bti", inco.r<:Ct on lit.ral
srou,>d. (i, mU>I be "''''''mbor<:<l .ha, the 0.";,.1,, ..... Ii>< of mor<: or ku
JetIDe.l dup... ,i,ko, not a rull ,e,n j. H.d';'" rou,inely .n..... r<:<l br <;.ins
Augu";nt, O. p...... p> .nothot church r.....,. '0
dftct .hat Nian', .. <gCoio
,ool.
eor..."""n<
,h.
in."
,Iu,
T""""'nt,
m.
..... pICctly xcq><;Ibk on
I)~
ground<. To tau Iwt twOeumrl<>: Tho
m.
FtanQ compLoincd .bou, Nn... im.'1'rct.I, ion of Joo<ph', ,uff and of

bm... IJl<nt...yit1f\ du. or:id.... of these pnuinod '0," ltP'inu.<II i .......
~I><l" ........... r<:<l ,Iu.t that P''''V'' can be ",.,J in .......
bt:arit1f\ 01"1
,I>< ....,..... ip '" Ch.i><, ",,"- I)-P< , ......ff and ~IJ>'C'I' bon." H<>eI H<>eIrion
.... n ,Ito< full Franki.h ' .....""'n. of .h.... pH' ,U in .IM: 0,...
1) OIl<
_don how h. """,Id Iu.. r<3Ctro '0
f:oct 'N' he .nd ,he Fr.n),. both
.nod ,Ito< .. P"'''"P ,~Ir ,,hile de.i';t1f\ """...Iu. dilktn.. m<aninp
from ,h ..... On oth.r oa;::uMm. <he fn nko obi<c"t<ll '0 llyun.ine ... ><Iings of
....1010, psaln, J'U"lg<>, d.iming .h.. , ... p.u<aga. in q"a.ion muM DO. be
rd ... d '" thoo< who r<ru><'<i ,o "", .. hip im.gco. In """i",,Ior, ,he F",,,)" ci,<:tl
twO ...... from r .. lm 7) on ,hi, conn"",ion: vnK I., " how much evil i. there
in the ~my of your .. in ..:'.nd ..... ~, ",h... is..,... "" r"'l'l><. and he will
"'"")'I"
m.
(t.,,. .
rKOpIi'" ... no mort." Hodri,n. '&>in ci';ng Augu>'i .... ")~ ,h.. ,hoe '"eneS
h.... >I",,).. bttn rnd as .... rming '" "" .....10 ,nd ,h., lxa".. J...., .nd Con.unun< .... ,~ "n,inly "" ... ,10. NOcan. ..... conca in cinng thoe~ .. 11M:
FI2RIu :01.0 rompbincd ,1>.>, "ruin 'hillp could "'" b.- found in ,he Bi!.k.
H..trian 00 .... ,apondtd '" ,h .. c""'F by :wen'ng ,l><-long-lLlndi"ll corllinu_
i<y of p>~ ,~in," bu, on , .... ocao ...... he porn,ed .... , ,h .. nIM ...nydri"ll
,,,",, i> '" b.- btI....-.d ;, con, ..n<d ,n ,ht 8ibk, In one <2>t he poin'ed 10 ,h
...... rncc of the "",.I 0 ...1 .nd in ."",he< ht ..plic',!' rimljohn
n .....
porformod m.>ny .......
in ,ht <1h' of ,he dncip!a ,1>.>, ..., not rn:otdcd
in ,h" booIt")., I" ,.king HoJ,;"', ..,imony on i..up:>. , ......IOK. 01><" m....
I.. anful '0 bnr in mind 'M he ;, tapondmg '0 c~ bckd "&Ii"" 11
Nic:tot:t.. not p<<Sm""S' 'Y'.cnwic "n' ;.... M"'..,...... hi' COII<WI' nfrain i<
,Iu.. he is mady "l'hokIi", ,... ,ncien, tt..!i,ions of ,he <hu,ch. In 00. he NY'
. . on< point ,Iu., he:on<! hi, p,edccn.o" h..! ...... Y' f<j<Cted .. ...".d,ic>. ~"'
H.odri,n on dcfcnd<d ,he idn
><1> of ,"""hip p<rlQrml bdim an
i""'8" . ... rrf.. <e<l '0 ,t.. P"""I)'p<". I I. "en ci,ed ,he "I'I"<>P";''' ~ from
Snit"'fbc I"'f" diKtt,dy cited G,<goty, k" ... to 50...., ... '0 ,he ofT"", ,h;o,
i.... en <ould '<xh wh ........1..,....,.. '0 be: ..... d in ,he s.:,ip<ma." H.d,i. n
n..... r disc" ..... the apocity of ht.",if,,1 ,hing$ '" .1 ........
OIindo .nd ht
oays no'hinS
Ih bili,y of i,... 8<' 10 indl..,. joy...... """. compunc,io". or
.ny other emo'io.>n. On ,he
of ... ho.~h .. iOl. go> h.J 'ny in, ,;,,,,,, p" ......
H,thi.m
<>OIioo.<. In rc'p<>nJinj( '0 Fro"ki.h oo;":,ion. wnccm ing m inck
" ories ,>e."in ing!O ,I>< im~ ofPok ..... n and of ,he wum. " ,,i,h ,he A,,,.. of
blood. ,nd '" litO Ai'l:'" in"gr. ,he P"I>e nnly "Y' Ih;o, 'hac .... ,ie> f<'Cm '"
COt"O from "Ii. ble """cn.' Wh<~ 'he Fronlcs In,i,,,,J ,hOI TheOOorc of Myra
"'" ......,og In ci,,, ." ,rchdcacott , d.... m OJ rnnfirm.o';"" fO.r ,I..- ml' of inuga.
Had,ian rq>Ii<J hi, wC"Okly. Ih;o, ,I.., Scrip' u,<> ""''' full of ,cvd...tions ,Iu.
C> ..... "'rough d .... nl<.~ If ,hi, "",,,,.n , h.. I'.d,;"o Iud "iJ e~plicillr "" ,he
""bjca of i"'"f!<> In hi, fifiy .....!>'V k1, .. dokn,Jinl N;a.,.. on< """,IJ I.. kfi
..i,h ,ht imp' ........ ,h It.IU<> of ,rodi,ion .nd ,u,,,,,ri,y ""'... fundam .."aI
wh,k ..... 'f'C"ifi<: , ...... of ''''"1''> ..... ,I""", !ncide",.1 Of ..l......,i........
'''.)0
"gn'
,hi,
.buu,
wo.
lit" ....... IS , long
p>pI",
01"'
maptt. 11.191 in ,he Rnf."I"'"
t/u., provide>; """'"
""I> in' ..... i"l de...i l, ..... id> ,h,m.. I... ,h<d 1;gII, o n ",ha ~ in ,he
dow ...... ,. This chap<" con"", of Ho,!."n, ram"" ... ,he F... nkioh de
rrund ,hot ht ,eU ,hot ... ..hnr In ,he- Holy Scrip'u, Of in the ... hoIr councils
;, an he rnd ,,,", ,.............Ip of im.w:> ...... drrnanJcJ. H.dri ... dodged ,I><Scrip<"'" iu.ur:. He,.,.. did noo uke" up. His taCtIC ,n 'moti"' .... <.oun<i4 i>
in'Cfnting.~. Hc~", by a MI ,he .. ory of Sytvn'CT' hI";ng ohoown
im.,. to Con..,n" ... and poin......, du, ,hi> ,,,,,*, plaa- ck>tc in ,i ..... ,n ,he
fin. council, thot i. tt> I Nian in j'!, H.d,i,,,, thon 1:1"'" th"",gh <>eh of tho
>~ncill .nd ""'ntions imag that f"'I'CS e=tl ..ound the t;",el of .he co~n'
<;:il . , Only in (Ofl.ncction with ,he .i"h >un<il'. ' ''mrot th .. Christ could I><
d<piacd in hi, hu m.n form, dO<S H>tIrion ",ruolly COO".Ct papal i""ges wi,h
conei),,, .. m..lto. In am "'0<, h~" h< sa~ tim. the inug<5 <=,1 ill
oi".r><! h,v. 1>:" ,,,n.',,,,,, by us '" ,hi. o:I.>y _ His .."... b =d Ii~. liuny.
Hc .1"" mentio ... "'P''''tdy. ev<ry .ingle timc. t/i,""'-U ,"SIr"~;", "Id 111m.. ;""'Si ..... SornimC5 Hade .... ', words--h. f<>utindy u.... ,'Otb;d form.s uf ........4...om ro nx.n no mOf< th. n th .. tho im>g<:< erccred by p,tt",,, I., I'''I'' _ ..
"nd .... ,""" '0 be .nc;'nt md "'O'" much >tImirnd, ItdJ in groat <peet. But the
v.ncration to which Hadri.n con".otiy r'*'< might h. ~ hod m il .. "",, " jogs
tOO, m<ooings eho, would hove 1:>:0 <kq>ly ""jcctionabk to t ~ Fu nks. In
",plying to ,ho Fnnkish ""jcctioo ,h" r:' f"2Si, .. improp<,ly <qu... ed im>g<:< .nd
oxrnd ",... Is. I-lade"", .. jd tha, the Fnnki twI not undc tit""" the potri.,do
<or=t!~. T.n>i .......... H>tItian ",,;d. ""'IX>t. ding 10 the h.""ia of 714 who ",d
th" im.g<!'
no< holy h<c:tuo< no P"')'" """ .. id ,,, con"':"," the m .nd
th .. ocrordingly 'hey _'" no m"", 0< less ,hon wh1t<V<' ,h tti., had nud..
Had,,," con'inued, "w<o " r md judge fajthfulJ~ . nd truthfull~ tho, tho rustom
<>f oU' holy C.,holi< .nd "P"O,oLc dou,do WoO> IUlJ is th.t wh<;" h<>ly ;'11"S<. 0'
hi",,,ia'''' I"intl thq.t< firn ."oin ted wi,h holy chti.m .od ,h.n ",o.""ed
by 'h, ni,hfuL"" To my knowle-dg<' ,he",;" no ",I><, .,,mcm lik< ,hi. in the
whole co'p'" of COlly mlievol f"Ip.aI <locum.n", If by mcons of "",h co"-",,ro
,ion. imog<> .... re "'m.h ...... made 1",ly, tlo." ooe may ail why H>d,i.n ,e_
'1""ode-d '" C1u,iouily 10 Fronkish "";ee,io... '0 "ori.. ahout wor><!."""k ing
im'g<>, I'h.", he wu I><ing ,",cnul . nd toking Fr.tnki<h -",n.iri.iti into ac
count. Periu",. '00. at I"", at !{orne, ,I>< .. nctioc.tion ,ho, <>1m. (,om ""n ....
cro,ion ...... no, undc"tood in mirorulou. ,mo. Aft.. . 11 . t Rom<, .. Iia .od
the ,omb.! uf ..int> ""'" not .... rul. 'ite< of mirorulo", octi.i,y. In tl,i. ' '''''''''',
Rom. "-'" fund.m.ntolly diff..-cn, (,om C.ul wi", its I,,,,r,,,ioo of mir>rulou.
ohicc... r><! plo=" In other worili. H >tItian may h.t... dttml i"tog'" holy
.nd wotth)' of v<n<t>.,ion wit""", thereby concluding th., ,hey _: ru,urolly
mi"",ulo". H. w... no. I""I"rro '0 ",,"y the p<>ihility of mi ..""lou. octivity
con,,<"<,ed wi,h ;"'''11''' bu, ".i,he, ""'..... P"'I"rnd '" drkr><! i"
But th .... mc chop, of ,he kn".,,,,w",, contoin. a cutiou. p. sug. , h. t m. y
q.... lify who, Iwo jUst I:>:n ..id he"" Hadti.n ittm. '0 have wao'cd '0 fit Grq;.
'''1' 1 into the 1,.. CV<tl though he could no, ."oeh him to rouncil. Novc"l><
lese, h. me",ion. ,hot G'q;<>ry huill .n o'''ory in his hOlllo< m<)!l2Sry ,r><!
.do,nl i, "'i,h the cu"onury hi,ro ..... and i""g<". He ,hm " 1' ,hoc on K '
,,=
coun. of h" "onud\ ailrmnlS G~ <'fI'Clc.l .M """'01)' wi'" Elcmhtri .....

who ........ id '" h....., .. i.ocd a dta.l m.n. I\oIh proo.t .. !L"d .hcmxlva Ixfon: dx
inuga and.bm imploru\ ~di";n. mcr<y:' s.a.... of m.-r"pcrf<a
I""Y<"'~ hem!. H:>dnan cumpk.ed
G .,.,n..n ano:doIc by m..ti,,!;'1u!
ni.,,' .Ixi.
' '1>
an. mir;oclc occurttd in a fu<mn1r A, .. n douch (Su . Apu &i Goo) wfoich
ht bad purified. ht put Im.- ,n d>( ~. Hadrian 00.. no< connca .hose
ilJUfP wi,h ,lot m;rod<, """""".

Son.. Inoi&ho In.,, ,h...
an be pined from dote radin! of tbc
,.. u .htm...... and by ;.....""'inl .h,. ~ ... i,h .no<her from ,lot Rnpoff..... N",. fi ...
Had ..... doc> "'" ........, mi"",k din:o:dy .... '" an im .
Sn::ond, Grrgo<Y and Ekutbc ...... caI\r;d on dm"" mc-rq. "",on tho inTWon
of ..un,. INWd. II:>drian d<>a "'" b"...... ,o ..y .. hose i~ ........... hioror_
in Grq;ory Iud PU' in h.. on''''Y. Third. G,"t"'Y WOO ht>Icd "'" by the im",",
boc:fOK which ht . nd Eku,htn ... pros, ..,c.l ,hcmx/.a bu, by the pow of
fIN, ...,;" prayer.nJ hy ,ht pcrf..:, f.i,h of ,h. rwo "",n. fourth. Had';.n
"&'lin .nd opin inli," ,h..
eardUlly.li"ingui.htd be"'"ttn th. <ul, ,h
...... J"" '0 im~.nJ ,he funo.b"",n ..lly dif!C.,.n, ",1, ,;.., ..... ",,"I '" God ....
1l\a. n..y _II bot ,,hy. in ,tllinl .hi" ,....,.. 1-loJ,i.n ',arcf,,1 '" rett, p ..".....
' I> GOO alon . O,h. , hy ;n.ighu inlo ,hi. lIory clefi"" from ilS "I, im.,< ,..,,, ,""
..i<i<h H.,h"'n di ...:" y idon,i6 ..: GITS"'Y" DiII/T"" EIm,h iu ppc:tn in
....nn
,Iu,
..-ic>c.
.bbu, or
,hi> work "'. _II_known

S. M"k .h. fvangel;" in SpolcI",nxh ...,.. 10

,h" he h.d '0 e. ' com'm,ly ",d could
nm f. .. _ H. ",kal k",ht,i,,,. whol< p"ye' " ... kn<.>Wn to be maci<>u.., '0
en'e, 'he 0 . . '....,. and p... y w;,10 him. No ..,.,ne, did .h<y IKsin '0 pray d ... n
G,<gory .........led .uffici<ntlr ,h.. ht rnukl (..,. 1hc", i, "'" ,,"Old he'e
abou, im~ in . he on'o.,. "' ....... , G~ry.nd E.ku, .... riu. p,,,,,, ing . hem1<1...,. bofon: , .... m." G"'JO'Y 0110 ,OLJ ,......,he, .muoing uk of.ht mirxulous
pu,;fica.;"" of the Ari.n ( hu",1< ,h......,
by him. Bu. """" >pin
is Ill> "",,,. ion of i~" One i> Iffl _nJc.;"!; ;f Hadrian'. en>bdl .... """''' "" G,<J"')", ' ''''pla "" ~"I'YQ
Iocol
0.- --.-.: of hi>
""'" do>-".,,&. In ';,her c:aoo., ,hty do "'" add ..... much '00.....i<w of H>drian's
an ",Ik. H. h:>d ............1<......... "",........ ,;"n ,I>< f ... nb h:>d. ,h.. ;.....
"'<Te .<n<nbk. He i......... f<p<:;l''''1y ...... his p,~ Iud the P""'.......-:
indttd . W1" h.a.., ........ Itomo" .,.....Jo A"'''! b.><k 10 7)' h:>d ailed for ,I><
,-n>tn."", of im>. Bu, .... and pc.hap. hi> Rom.n """"" mo,e 1l'"1'I<r.II1y.
"""'. ~ aUl;"'" )".. ,"".. d;d .ht llyun""", and mon: ",,~e 0<1<"
thon did the f .. nk
,1Iet.
rtO:N"'""""'"
...... ("''''
"..t"""..
.10
CI. . . . . l "VI
0,.... sy>tem"", e>puo;t ....

fo. .nd ..,in.. rd.igious .rt."
n....du.lf did noduc< II .ny on< poin. in , ...
h" ,.;"..,.
''l'"''"'''
of
on [... "". . of """"bI<
l"'M foa "'"' ......... """""","" ........, <0. Ie.. "",,II .... to ,he Nic<nc: .,..........im
di.d no< ,herrudw:< con""n a .. np.. ~. ,..,. .......[ on ....
may be
on< .......... "'hy 1l....dulf did no< P"?"" a , ........... Iikt di>awion of h.. ",."
............... in [I>< mioho of h.. mwM polemIC. Hi. Iwoc indiff.... nce '0 rdi
po... ""-1"" e&n "'''"' it; ,.,.. .IltouId /tOt dar..". i.; ,.,., ohouId "'" .........ip
it- m.y "',~ d~ him (""" >pt>\ti", a. kngIh and in <>kt "" ,he 1Opic.
N....,rthdn.. .. ODC pujn' (II ........... in [I>< o,...1l....dutf rmnogtd ,0 id... ,ify
.nd 10 """n .." .imolly .U of ,he ,,,,,men,, ool..oad ,n <kf<.... of migjous on
~n ,I>< fuunh ='''1)' and n Niaca. Hi> an ulk i, vny mud. up 10 <h[
oub""".
it it ......... i ..... difficult to t.1I J"" wIM:,., 1M: Cll'rortOO hit idas.
TIu. he ..... prom!,,<d 10 "1'<>11 by ,he No.:..... <loci............. deu. But , .. ""
h ~n. hi. ,<fur. ,,,,,,. and rtjt< ....... .",... i""" uk.: .... fo.m of KrMtIfIIXi.
aI. rhrn>riaJ, or di.ok<,in.[ coun,nbI .. t ,l; ..,mni""", .und on .1ffLnm: mo;>dco
of bibliale>cpio: I<)mnimn .xptnd "" . n . "".... n'
I"rricuw book 01
.",,,,,," .. unkno-wn; . nd. ~n.lly. oon ... i ..... rat "n ,he .i,....... of.n . 1'Clru..i~c
p'"i>fic f"U'1I'" Wh .. ;' imprnoi"< in ,t.. mol i, ,t.. d"V"'" '" which Tltcod"lf
un<k,m.oJ ,h. ba,i. w.u<s ..1d ""'l"'ndcJ .lttctivc:ly .0 ,h.m. No I... imp .....
ive: ;, .h. ex.en . 'f> wh ich Thcodulf profit<d from
"I'P",runil)' ",hid> ,t..
0"", pro,'","" hinl 10 ....." ...... , in ",igin.1 .... ys on the .... h;", of ,<:liti"'"
...... Ihoug.
,h.,
.h.
'"
lIy now "" h.ve: 1>0"" fa ... ili., with 0<v< ...1 t..o.ic '<gumrn" on bebalf of
Ch,;,,;'n "''- Ln "" .... ",Iu, Thcodulf m.k", of ,hom. 0, .. old .rgu .... n.
m,in .. ir><d .h.. im>ge< of Ch.; ....... liei, bta~ .. H. oPf""l...d Oft earth ao a
m>n and [Ila. h.c <QUid " ....r.,..~ be <kpict<d Ii" any o,t.., ""n. 1"...'1;I' .... n.
was tI01 promi ... n, .. Niac'. "" l'heodulf h.d r.,hn linle to "",Ii ""i'h. H.
men, ion, ,he- inarn .. ion In on< .... y '" ......1><, ,_n'y_,h .... ci ..... bu[ DO<
once don he- do "" with ~'" rdtr.n '0 imoses of CItrin." When I>< ,a1kJ
abou, .t.. inc&mllOon ... ""'" 10 ... he. to .......
now Old Tcm"......
I""'fP ....... in fx. prop/>ccico al o.M', inam .. ion" 01 elM: '0 iUJlPOI1
.",""",ie T"ni.arian ,........,. ........ 1>< ....... com."P he p<ro<iv...t in BJDII'
tm.: thco!os1.,..;"S <0 ." om;""'" of tho~... , .... dotes, ThcoduLf """'"
'n ack~nR ,t.. ugu ........ , ffom inar ...""" oppa ...., "'" >WI ofbook
fuu . In i .' t.. "J~ en...f .n,..,.... ......... "I""'W' ala" ... andlOYS
it ..
,.,. So.. of GOO. h~ I.... !'<If, "" ")'1- "" pie".~ ...........d h""..nity "" QU,
bclWf. _ f\og<d. ctuCifltd. died, or ... ffom .t.. dad. A picru~ an_
,ha, ..
,ha,
rtV<aI ,it<" unique Son of God "'110 wu ..ith ,he FatM!Tom befo .... all ,im.:and
>n>; I<'fl' by ,he F" hcr to bc<.,..,. m,". In ~ . lot Cllri .. un tht dO'CU ........ ",';,h
opeci"" ,ef.... _ 'u ,lot qun,iun of ..i>cthn- ()f " ' " ;, ;. pmiul "" how
1""""'"
piccUfa IU ' <m<mi:w;r au... ~(O"""ni", hi,

in "'" WUf!d:' In ....
sponding. n.....Julf .. kt. ...."0 ~ Fif1,t, lot .. )~ .ha, ,lot ~oe>';". ~," oE
God <an"", be ItI ,n :>II im"",. The-n he .. yo, " Il u 1""""'" ;. 10 be odornd "'"
through a pico u.... bu.I Ih,ouch Il il woriu.
~ IX, <Iu.. H. ,00/0:
on ,h. bm of. oJ,,'o (I'I" ........ n 4.7)....... ..... n of iTn, 11""0 har;n&
,,,,,,,,,,,.M
,,,.Iot
"""10"
doJ, ipOC'dI "".he mUf<. I~ "" tht Wnt.

10 Icpen Of (D ",hen RJIfm",
U"....f!iicfion<. ~r. '" lhe <k.ad. "&h' '" ,he blind: he ".,~ Hell. conqu<td
<In,h ...... from ,h. 8"" ... :and;oundocd mlO hn.. n.~ So. he r;oa on . " I< ;'
olwiow ,ha. God iI ' 0 he-~, in ,he han ...... ,n .ilibk ,hinp. md "'"
in """uf.oe,ure,"P' ,he . 'P' .... n' f,om
inarNlioo, if h< x,ually opo<td it. by ""fi", lhal notJ,inK rove>led by .n
in"", oE Ch,,,, i< impot,an, in ony .... y. Thil i, wn .... rn' " 'i,h II" oh.tq><",.ed
' T"""'" ,hor God con"", be c;,e urrucribcJ in ony..- pI""" . nd ,10 .. i, .. o.Ud
be slumc if . nyo ... n<edcd pk""", 10 hq> f.om f~'ing
God. If
images of Ch,i" aft .in,ply u"n ...... 'Y. ,hen.hey <1. inly Jo no< pro .... '''Y
",n, ...1down .. of ,II< <hurth,
Ann,h ., uld .."'.... n' hok! th""<'11 of _"hip pt'rIO,~ befolt.n imogc
....,.. ,.f.,td", d,. pt'f>OII wlo_ imog< i, wo . Thi . l1-.rodulf " Y'. i, "A.d~
. ... u,J. " h, .. . ,6 TI..oo"lf "J'ocs ,10" ,h< very " ",,.in'y .."m""di"s . ny
.J:",y,
'm'g<. our i".bUity eo "~de,,,ly ", ..y " ,I",.. ' mago i, i., ,."den dubious ,t.:
I""'ibil ity ,10.. "".,t,ip l'ro'mcd befo...",11 an im.s. will >om.how ,ueh il>
in,.ndl <ipien', I n }.I6 l ........ I,M "s''''' bit diff.ntly. 11t h ..b
in .. , who n<~ all ou,w",d mOll<> oflt.otlOf ",hile ,h<y ....,,~ alive
.nd who now .njooy d .. ubim ... 110.." of I,fe in God', p....,""'. ",Iiei, ,hac
pr.oycn before ,Itci, imop Ch.ukmag .....1<1. "To ,t.: point!" Throdulf p><>
"" . 0 du.II.... "'" , he Groth ,0lOY ........ thcy
<'<ff .<2<1 any ouch ,hing.
Thi. lUM"'"
,h. f. milia, f".W8'< from 11t,;1 had "'" com. 10 hi ...,en,ion
(oI,ho.:out;h ;, did >ppC'O' in ,II<
H. ,on,in"", """'" '5>;n with hi>
ins~<tt
Nne. im., Ikp<nd on ,II< ..-him of the ""~. obou,ditia ",II
01 .... )'> ."end ,hd, _""ip. F... ' ..... _. """u,,fol
ill be """,hip!
......., ,n",n,1y ,han ugly una. II. ,ondudc. by .. yin th., .-.en if t'" leon>!
could . void ,top' ",hen I"". yinr; belOn: imago. II..... i. I<fioo.u ,w,1P ,hat t'"
Wlbmed ..;11 be led .. t ...y.
s.....aJ La...ntique writ..... nituLa,ed ,II< principle ,h.ot b<.uty roukI in
opi~ . muId lif, mind. f,om ,h" ...... 1eI ' 0 the .... ,. lhrodulf ...... knly ~,ivc
'" b<.uty ....... h. .. -".nd will ... in MOlt .In.il below. Y.. bc-aoty wu "'"
,,-h"', ..
,ha,
,Iu,
ha,..
&r,.."'.....).
"'''fP ...
u. c .. , ., .... . .
"'J,
m.p
in i...lf for him a drf..... of ar . In

,he
in ".. hidl n..odulf d iscw.seo.
,he
of PDf'< SylYC$I<J and ,h. im:ogu h. pracn.cd (0 c.,...,.an. in. [~ ;.
hin' w[ n..odulf >pp'O\w
,eg lOt ckvo'ing
KiH amally
minded <mpOf', """"".. from [... . "ibI. .o .I>< in .....lIk. s... in
n..odulf ........!. ""'" ond lOt all h.. thinlcinB on
bj<ct of an' ap>ci,), ' 0
ioupi ... 10 libea.u , ... mind f""" ,It;,. -"d.
apottk (roul) ,cacha tha,
'''''r
''''1'''1'''', ....
m.
m. ...
no.:
1.1'
hop<" 10 "" pIaad in thinp u noeen. nor in .hi"g> >'Cm lRom.N . .... ff.). W.
mus< look .. 'M Lord ~,~ ....... ,.. """"'.. in ot<kt '" bt ........ n..od"lf un.. """'"
[h i..,. ,i ..... .n-.[ ow mind ,~. our i.. ,,..;.,. ........ As we ....... >'Cm. n..od.. lf
")'I many ,i...... ,.... i, .. perm;"'" 10 ",-" i ....... '" ...,... ,ify churches. Th ..
aosu"",n. impli..
Iw......., .-".... bmdi, of irs ....... Yn ~uIf
n<Y<T ron.-n ba".,. eN , .....&10. of phpiool objooru wi,h dot _r. q ..... 1Or
God. FeN ~"lf 'f>,rirual J"OI'ftI _
only ..... n i, ;. po<liblr 10 _ in
[n. <kp<hi of rio< owl ,hinp
inviUb!o '" ,he n.ked ~. Ap;n ..... .....,..
Throdulr. principltd in.lifl'tttnc. 10 art.
Wha, did Tl>codulf 'h,nk 01>0 .. , ,he . ncien, ..,"""'"'
iomgn "",1.1
[.,..1.1 The " "" pia w ........ migl.. ha ... oprascd hi ...... lf in dcuil on ,hi.
'opOc .. '.1) """"'" ... ,i,cd ,he fi",
of Crrp>ry I '0 Sarnw of Mmcilk.
,ho, """"'1
,ho, ...
,h...
I.".,
y., ""......1_)'11. In.,ooul( II<~ I .0 d,.
Ofy only to
C~ry
.,)"'W
C.",,I;n~i.n
vi. ",...I ..., He ci"" G'9!'
'h" i, i> wrong '0 donor or to wo.. hip im.gn. Th. point
m.k.. in hi.lond
I.".. , ...."dr ,lUI ion"lI'" rour ,...:h ,he unkue"'"
".. h...h.In,.red c. n ....1 in book<. Throtlulf do.. 110' ci , .11." One. h.

i"corpo"'" ,hi. poin. br impli"..ion? Thi . .. I"'"ihl." .nd Fr ..... n draw>
""cn,ion '0 ~e in .,,.... wI, n ....,.j"lf ,uggc>" .hat i!hoses ,,j'~,
d<cd.. JeligJ" ,h. <)'t$ anJ a,~ ':",II1 mi,,";! '0 ,h. han . nd. Ih. gotl o~. ",h""
Oil< of ,II< d .......'
,ho: .. n.. ,i"'e n...... ]>O'i'i ... uprnoiofl. in [he
c",wi fUt,uron.ning inup .b<w 11 bccoult~. as ", ... <Witt ... rd,o in.'"
"",tit. im.gco'R .... gn.ed. ,eaching lU na"",,'''' I ,hink .h.. on ,I>< balm of
ru. ,...imony wt: n,US< .:ondudc ,...., he _ unwilling '0 ....ign '0 im><, a
...dti,,& lUoct;"n . 1". vny chap ... " 'him F..."",n ci ... as COII.";ning. pcrlt.po.
on ... ign .... n[ '0 im"&,,, of. ",oching lUD<tioft, -.1<, 0<1. 0' va' '""gth the
llgu""'"'
imap an ..... be cqlU,cd '0 ,t.. s.,ript ...... Ah.:.ys. Throdulf
uphold. rio< .MoIu't "'penonI}' of m. ..,.;,"'" -.nJ '0 ,ho: 'nur;<."' II. ohm
"Y' ,h.. IUndomonool ",,,hi an only ..., ron...y.od by .... rd., "'" by pictura:
" r";D"" an Ihtrtfono in 10.... way b<i"l\ ..... _
of p>If ....n lS bod: '" [he
m""""Y bu. ,hinp .... , .'" Oflly paaimJ b, ,ho: JnUD:meI b....,p.. IOnh by
..""" .." compt<hmdcd not by ""in'oM bu, by ..... ,\<10. .., 'Ihcodulf .. . ~
, h.. p<">JJIe will hclOf'V<' ..h., ,Ivy ... ..".j he dim", .. p.oin, ... '" ~ OfIly
who, .. ,rut... Covallo hoo modo .he "',,1< poin' ,hot in I. An.iq";.,. an bcpn
u.J.,
.h...
0,,,,
10 !',Oin ' ~I""ol~y fr'1)lJl w';Iing and.o dc-.-dop.n indq>mdrn. "isual dilCOO .....
'0 devdop /0.(,. ~ .. ~ ..... !'Of !tuned m;!n like G"lP'Y. thinking ....... , hi,
icvned """,.... pon,; ... i. will h,,,,, htt.o <2>y ro ... ppoo< thar.rt W2S imm!i_
.. d y ..... ~rumb,~y ",",,"bk. 11I<kN, t.. we< ..... o1. like ~ (to pn-.
.un. (tQ ....) wi, ....... " .... Iilia'ion. 8y &dc', ,ime. ~ ... word<
likr ,,,,,,", ('0 COfI' .... pa.'~) .nd ....'.,_ (ac ........., !',O.ins)lu."" aI . ..ed ,t..
w.a...ion ... Th" w""' Throdulr.......IeI. rico" ... "",., "'" tRn~" In<y
-..n. p<><rn'iilly ""'8"'"or.u. Fund."",,"," .n"h,. ,t.. <hi,.. th", really n<led
ro be Ia"...!, """" ;n";bbIc .n ........... "'" pocturn.. Midud Camille <In ....
rr ...."""o 'M F..."" Coder produced in Vnona .mund ..... i"", ...... n Thcodulf W2S oompooi",.,," 0,... Thil book mntun, p;o"", of ,,," ve" La,in
church f".hon pon<hi ..... n..o.Julf "'....." in ..... ~nd hnsrile SO mud> ..
a ",;"'.. .borI, ,he ide. ,Iu. i""Cd could ,oach. He fnrtd abwa'"
"..,....., a ,T"J' of <I.......""" in .... ri'ed by ,.... ~~I"h """,ury Ftum Ia,
n,;quiry Conc<fn. im'll'" ,Iu, We'" """"how mi...:,,1ou.. ,II.. .......t.ow ,lUI
<ri",,)...d
IOm<fhin~. Th"
'0 in L1!ft
mish' I""".in '" i",'11'" ,h."
_,. rni,>ruiouo in ,hei, ori~im.
,Iu, ,,,",,,.<lvn I""rfoom<J ",i'KIn, or. in mi klc,~. '0 jm>g<s ,hot
..,nfirmed dr .. nu
0< I"'"rnu. ThooJ"lf IuJ ''''''''''' '1 no '1 "'I",hy fo, . ny

,nch ' 'l\um,.",
i""ge>. P<fh .,. ,hi. rnttvcd .uit LKk m.y be ."ri!Ju,a!
'0 ,h....I.. i"" .h""o<' <>f mir.<Iewvrki"lI ;m. !\<' in .he Wat. Mo" likely.
.hou,
ho .." .... Th<Od"lf ,imply ,lid t"" !>"IiC"\'< Ih .. irn;rg.. tlrmclVQ cou k! """ibly
usutnc .ny of Ih. 1"''''''' or ><lion. ,h.. he .",ib",ed ... I",i.'ely '0 God .
Throd"lf on ly ,kat, ",i.h onc oll<gcd :o<:hi''''l",i<IQ''. ,he " I>go' im;,g<, On
1\\'0 o<c.. ion ..... imply '<it"" ,he Itori .. ,old 1I,0.. ! !hi> im.&< ," Ho lik""" ..
Iud no int~ ..., io lo..rinS al>ou. im.ge> ,lut I"rfumled mi,.d..... He di>mWcd
""h ""coon" .. ri,"', di.abo!i<:>l 0 . <1.... m. nif..""Urn. of God', po".... lis
far .. """ 'rld d".nu ""'0 concrmcd. hc ..:a imply "''1'';...1.... God rouid
do "",h thinII'. of rou .... B.. , if llo did. thcn tht ;rn;rge> thcmsdvD " .. " incl,
... n. ", ,he otury.
11... 1"h<uJ,,1{ ddr.ml r""" n.. n........ 1.0... n'KJ"" .. ri ...... ..,.J .J.., f..,...
Ir.io 8yun.i"" """,,,,,,po..';" "" 'M on,oIogy of;~ dffl..., hom a fur.d.o
.......... min, in hi, 'hcolov. 1m1fP " ..'" porclr ........w.nd God "'.. porely
spin' ...!. s..-.... i""fI'D ..... ("0001 no mon".. .......... "" .naloVes .." ... J>OO>ibk.
I( I am ..... mill ........ lloro.lulr~ irui>,.nu "" ,he >lien nutniaJiry of '..up.
.,., .heit rnmuf......rtd lfU.1Iiry. "h.. moo, <'OIDmonly '<pn.cd poi"t." On
On< ~ he offen "uun, of ,h" HOI)' Kcordi", to .. hid> if ... imag<"
1O'aI1"'" it can hc ducardcd. -, I"""" limply ..n, """ holy. did not panici".. ...
in ho!i-. Any "" of "unhip XCOId.d .0
i""l;< -... bl..phnnom. idoIa
.n
"""""p.
"'pc",;,;.,.,.nd ~ dismaion from , ... propc. ob;.n of

God
HI",,,,lf. In,>&<, W<'f< wOOlly unncuoour.
n..oduir. gmt..1 vio.ws 011 ,... onrolog of jm"fP ""'Y iC1'VC IS br>dg<
.... ru.ru..;.", of h" iokas
ia 10............... rd..ocd in ....~
way<. Th<odulf ncq"""dy ~ <knww:io,ions of images IS m<1'l: """,nufac
",ral thinp~ ...i.h (Ommcnu '0 ,he df.:co
i"""", 'P"ng fron. the: whims
of .ni...... Apin and ovin he "T>
y d<poct ~ .......... ythi~ and
=1 do ... "'ilfully 0< udt$dy. l"Ir.. ...."" of .n i""'ll'". he .. yo. .kpend, ... ,;reIy
"" .... "'ill of, ......iN who....u. il and 011 ..... im.insic ,..J... of .... ",..erw.
ofwhith" .. ton,prtocd ." s...... _rlu of.n.f'< ,hCrdOr. moK "","",iful dun
od..... nd. in~. _
..luobI.. Btu ,hcir,..J ......... noo uUc from
... y in"insic qual;!)' of ,lit I..... 1lu< ... i ....... __ rdly ..............., the
im. 'rpracnB, who made i, . .... for..m.. putpoK i, InS m.dt. Tha;>dulf do..
no< > wh)' polin ..... .boold bot held in hp. Dt. 01. plbm... bly .1...... , .np....... Im.tfP an he """u.iful 01 ugly. 1m
ages ca .. ~leO<nl 01",.,., ... y lCCui.a ..... lip..... >ub;.n. On< &do in l "hootmw.
.boo, ........
,ho,
,Iu., ....... ....
'W"","";o,, ro.. ,i><

.bili,in of . n iosu doQ Il0l. hoWC"o"o,. "'"RiM., rom,m", or modtm
....... of origin.lil)'. A1'h.ough h. can <kt. ,t.. diff... nu """'""n , pleuing
....!. rtp<lIing i""g" I.e b.. kolly di",,,,... "1,,, ,....! comi<k... l.ei. whim. [0
he d."g'rou . S,ill. I un "n,wort of .ny ",hOI rly mod ......I . ",hor who.<p<>ko
... uch I<ng[h ....! wi.h .uch r.. ling .h...... ,huub;c.:. of.n fo .."... k<. If I.e
" .... n K:o""phOO<, ho """ II<) phili"in~. .... primi,i..,. Hi. """ ,ibili.,. W<'~
d<pnt
high d'1\[(1'. Ht ~ ~
in' ..... in figu .. ,i ... sub jcets."'
Pc ....."'............... ,. Thcodulr ....,M.1e 1<111<" w mol< u,ili .." ....lun philo"'Phial. TIt .. i .........." .. h_ oIion I.e p",i;ed hom,.. ".-hinK suggat. ,ha.
he <t>r>Cri...! of bnu'l' ... univeo ..! .rche'rp< dfP..i"S ir><livid.w. in'" rogni.
dull". won!. on ~~ui'; .. " ... ~ ."d di"",. nn, ..... H"
diff~'ing
10.
"""'''''''tl''',
,i>" i.a' ......... ip ..."h tach "'..... by ,heir hkc_ .o j,:'"
1 ha.., .......... [ha. "" numb... of..."........ Thcodulf opokr of .... " mi....!',
Wbm he cltd to. he 01"10 not r.p<>IUnc of .... Of hnu.y. Of . ....., I"'IUption.
H., _
nuki,, .h~ poin Iu, ccn"in ,hi"p an only he ~ by. ki....! of
t.pi"nw ........ rI... w ....... '-Ood in "",.kr <>0" """J>O'Uli'l" In Oup< I
tyC"."
quOloo Augusti",,', W<lrd$ on Ipi,i,uaI,ight- n.cod~ lf wu dearly inHucnocd by

Augus,i",,', W' nf . hinking. And h. "'-. , no, .1"". in hi' ,ime.
In. I." h" m"" h..... he.n " -,i,,,n brtwttn 796 and 804, Aleuin replied
.0. query put 'II him h)' F'id ugi, (d. 814), on. of hi, pupil,. W. do no, know
wh he query i""lf wa.!, bu, he",;' Aicuin,.m".or
The",.t< ,h,o< waY' of ...,ing 'hing.: One i. co'po ... I, ,"mhe, .ym_
bolic. nd .h< .hi.d i. "",""I. Co"p"r>J ,-i""" ," ", , e wi,h
eyes of
body. Symbolic vi,ion mC2IU
,he bod)"! ey<> h.ving
no'hing '0 dI! wi,h i........ percci", in opi,i Ion. ,hmugh $time"", of
ion'gi""ion, '" when we luppm .0 'I"" ",mcthing unf.mili".o 0(1'
';gh, .nd immedi>1dy an im.g< of
obj<a;' fo,med in
'pi,i,
hu, ,h ymOOI" im. gin"ion Joe. no' em<<g< bcfof< .h. corponl pe"
pti01l h been encountered. Mc"':oJ 'igh' lnC2n'
we consider
,,-i,h ,he livdi<>05 of ,he mind . Ione ... when ....... c.><l in .he Sc.ipru""
"I.,w< yuu, n6glrbo, as you""lf." The l<IIen ". tnd by ",.,n, of
bodily 'igh' .nd ' he neighbo , i, Cliled back.o.he .pi,i,,1 im.gin._
,ion, ,.,.j loY<" i. en by the mind', u.,.jer,.. nding .\one.
The
kind of ,'i.,ion is ,he bc<t kn<no,'n of .11. The <cco.,.j i.
oqually f.mili., ." .11. Th hird is unkno,,'" .0 mOOll:>eau .. ,hey do
no, know how difl't",n'i.:u. wlu, iymbolic .nd wh,,;. me" .. I.
The ' 1"',,1. distingu;'h ... h..., 0"" ,,-;,h ')1)< ...
,hat a ,u_
perbly bri.f one. whcn h. Sol)'" "1 will p"'y wi,h my opiri. ""II will
p"'y wi.h my mind: I will <ing wi,h my .p;';, . nd I ,,-ill <ing w;,h my
mind." He n,med "Spi.;" the ~idde" mC1,,;np ,ha"f< in ,he Holy
$c,ip"'' .~d he called "'mind"' ,hci. pu in meaninp. For he W>nt<:J
to proy w;,h.n unde"".,.jing or ........ hi~p which 'Nt were .. Iking
.bo",- Wh."o::.n . ~o,he, pl>cc he ...y. "'If J havc p",yed wi.h my
,ongue, my spi,i, h.. proy<:J bu, my mind i, without fru;t. " The
'o"s"" '''.. ~, h e .h. d;"k .nd m)'l.ieal m<mingo which .. e ,u"om
atilr p<. cc;,-cd by .he 'pi ,;, .nd ;( we h.." ,,0 und.,,,,,ding "f.hem
ou, .n;nd, ,<m. in rruitkos.'"'
,h.
,h.
,Iu,.
,h.
.Iu.
,Iu,
fi",
'0
I<"'<n',"
Alcuin m.de ,h""" ... me poi"ts at I=t ,ht othe, tilJ'oC> in his wri,ing'_" Con
teml""; of ThroJulf ,nd Aleuin, n. mely I'.ulinus of Aquile" .nd Sm.",gdu. ofSt._Mihid , spol in .Imo" .h .,me wordo. " WI", 1 h.ve been calling
ThroJulf, " principled indifTen,." .0 ." ""., ,,'idely ,) ...-cd. The", i, no .-ca.
iOII .0 .hink of .ny of ,h ... w';'e ... . ' """ile ,,, . ,, so long .. vi,u.1 "'p ...,n.
,ion, we", k<pt "'itit;n ,he;, proper 'l'he",. n ... ,phe"' .... s co,n ..1.nd .!lOnIcd
no:KC< '" tl>< 'f'irittW 'f'h<r~. Th" .lurp ddi""" i"" of hound>ries I><lps '"
expla'n why Caroling;;m ... ,it<" no< "nly rejtcd >My ide. th., ,rruogc< ""t<
... meho", holy bUl . 1.oo dedined to 'peak of .n', capacity to dcvat~ ,h~ mind of
the ,"i""". !Tom the """ ,,1
the 'J>iritwl .colm. 0.,. mo", I"'int may hoo
",I<... n. Art w" an elit. C1t'''''''ganct ,-"d. at .uch. could Iu.dly to< ""'luired of
o,d in.<y I><li~." Throtlulf. "" "'" n",ed .00..", <aid at much.
'0
For m.ny ",hut." tho 0pMJ pr=n". ,.riou. prubkn,. If i, cu' to< "k." ... n
.uthoti""ivc ... t.m.n' ofCh"l.m.gnc' i<..... th.n how, it iJ ..ked .:an the
rn" ~n .hout 7110 and Soo hav, w;,nc<s<d 'h< otubc ... n, J>tu<luctiun of
figu",l . ft in profm;",,! Was 'Il>rotlulrs .lo""ly. rigori" .oice. om of <t.p wi,h
i" ,imo! Did h< <Iomin ... ,he 7900 and Wn, .fter I.,ving roun to .. ke up hiJ
dutid .. b"hop ofOtl6on. in 798, did o,hen. pcrh.p, Einh.rd. who...,,,, mo<e
.ymp>'hctOc to .r1, ..h hi.< plact Of Cha.l<magni. ,ide""
In m)" .ic-w. 'h= old conund ..... ise: from ''''0 >' h",,;le to . n. He WU no icon"d.", "".;"usly. hu, he
.... not much of . n imnophubc ,ith... He tq><>ted ad infinitum his :w.<nion
,It... n ..... "",mi.. ibl, for d01"O,;on .nd mmm<mo",,;on. H. mentioned
wide ami)" of .nis,ic t<p,<>cn ..,ioM whil. "ring of Wm only ,h.. ,hoy " 'ace
"'" holy. th,. 'h<y did not meri, .do ... ,iun. O n one o>a>;on he ehida ,h<
B)'L'",in.. for b,ing church". f.1I in,,, di''''l''i, while ...ring .Iu, "wc" odo.n
ehutene> wi.h ""'ry ..... utiful ,hing." I. "Ifue .Iu, hi.< Bib!co arc ."iconic .nd
,h., ;n d<>""i"g hi, <lupd .. C .. migny he "",,~ned hinudf ", . n irruog< "f
,I>< Ark .nd ,he cherubim." Thi....,n.in, ,dls u. >on,,,,hin& . hou, Throtlulf
h;",,,,lf .nd I,i, Own p.-.:-f.to:ne<::<. 1"" ,.It. US 1;"", ,I><>u, hi, p"'y..""".,; ;.....
OS" ~hi<f ><I.i .., ." Ch>..km.gtle. Alo""",.., MS Vati",,,o. b"inus 7lO7. ,he
origin.1 " 'orki ,,); m."o ..,i!>, <>f the 0,,,, ",ar innded h a mmple. nd
stunning. ... ofooutiful ",,,,m<med '-00 rolQ. ed ini,,,b, In hcr edi,ion. F.
m." ft proJ uo:s,.Ib.i, in bl>clc .nd whi . n.. rl~ one hundred <of ,t....: initial .
lik~. Throdulr, Bibb...,,, ,ichl)" dcco""ed. The ... Iy book. p.oduced at
,,!cui,,', T,,"rs ""'to: .. ,imnic, pc.h. p< beau .. ,h. young scrip1<ori" m lacked ,he
",.. n, to ;nco"",.. ,. 1''''11''''''' "r ",i"",,,,,,,.. tI", '''' """ accu ... Illeu;n <>f
ironod.. m. It ;. at
I"'"ibiliry ,h.. Thoodulr. "-orhh,,p w;u ;ncap. bk
of Iigu ... 1 proJ"",;"n .. itO i""'p,i"n." S,ill, ,h.
dJend,"n ,nd .ppreci.... oo"'y. n..., i, ,h. "offi.:i.I '" I"',i,i"n "f T hood,,!f .nd p"""m,hly "f Chat_
km"l;R' ,n who .. n. mC h...... ,,,iting. Th. offici. 1 VI .... dOC'S ""t >nttadi",
'0
lea" .
at'"
T".I"....,. UrJn.no! WotWp "7
m. , n ' \tic I'rodOlOioo af tM a,:e. In hi. j>OO!l. M """"~ 'M WI>< rtliO><d '1$"
we hl.r alrtad~ noti<!. Ii. ten, Gild., a...,lrn<agn<'
a psaI,er "1fW
kling with oil..".nd ~ .""
that aco:>mp.nyone: of his Bibb .. y
.tt., i .hinD. on ,Iv ...... ide. ,,';,h ;"'-ds. ~Id . nd purplr.'" tt. ... "f'Okn af
n.e..dulr. principkd i",!Jff'~'1(} rdogiou n . T" him ouch an .... p<J<CO_
di.tncti"Jll .nd te~ .... M><1I.ial putpc<. 8u, hI> .ttitude .... by no
_"""iko< . .. we 1"" ..... iw,..... G ...... ,hat hisgco' bo::.>k .... .1...........
:mel .pp..,......j in . . . """n . ,hen: i, .... . ea.nn
;aowmc ,h .. Iv .... ou, <IE
.. op with 0<00 Uy fisu.a ,n hi> " .....
St<ond. " iJ impt><t.nt "'" to ~ t<,., t:.Irrird .....r in"'r di ............. CJi ....
an CJiOwkrnogn<', rcivt 0<.., IooIt /Or gI..ing dioc~ brtwc.n .... , an
. nd n.e..dulr. 0,.... !Iet...... n 7f,:md ;ra, an o<he ..... ,,., unlmown ",rib. rurn.aI
GOOac.k prod....,,;J ,ho .... nsdi"'''Y 'N' >till kom hio tumC.' Ao;ordi"Jll'o
.... Iong~. ,h~CJi.h. " ""'n" boob.ho )n.. i"'" .round i'1OW
,,," production CJi ,Iv A".nal Go.pd .- .nd the fi .... poion of ,,," T ric-r "Awn
Go.pd.," In
,ho . niconic O.gulf 1'..1<. .... wu comple,ed and ,......
wi, hin ' fc,.o )"<'In, ,he, AI~,.,.il"' and I-.,Ioy G.>.p.1." ,.... fini""'!. Amund
100 ,ho hi"" poin' of ,ho ..,Iy ' 00.', work .... . ltai""" with ,he 5<Jil>On.
('.oopel,, " In , .... ont d.odt tM ~nd P'>",i(,n of ,h. T.io. "Ad, ' Go'pd."
. nd ,h. Lo...,h Go.pel,,,, .pp.... d, .. An di .. , h.onologY. d<ti.i"~ nui n~
(tOm ,ho wo.k of Kochl ... inl<.I"",, wi,h tho I.., o( tI,...
book.< .h
ii".,.
n....,....
,;..or
'0
.bou, m
"CO""
.. , ofboools ",I.,ed to d ie Vion". Coro ... ;O" G"",.k . Today Koehl .... 0 . .... 11
<hfOnoiogy i, "'" .. wi.!tly """pled "' i, 0",. wu .nd in I""leul ,he", .'"
.. ri<>t" "robl.n" ... i,~ ,he d,uing uf ,ho Vicnn. eo.."n wn group: ... tn. ",hul. "
_ Id pia ,hat m.~ u""'p,, ,nd .1", ,h. So;""n, Go.I"'I. ",oil in'o ,ho n'nth
ntuty. in<ktJ in,o ,ho igh of I.oui. ,he
Ahhoup,lt each of ,hn.:
boob i 'oul"'nJou< ""h ~ ..... n' in in ....,., . igh . ,ho fl<' mai". ,tt., ,ho
,ouI numho, of illumin,,,ed lu.,,'Y m.n"",rip"
elll be ~<kd .. mo<1' '"
In. "",temp"'"'Y wi,h ,ho
and >f><>"",m:I by ,he cou" ;, "'" lo'!l<_ Th ..
......... "'", .... ougit"o """id ''P' i", 1'0, ..... '1' dicho<_y bnwn poIrmical
P""'....
th.,
0,,,,
lI1ironi,m.nd pn>dll<l~ icon; .... ,"

Thi ... "'" ,he, pUc~ lOt an .n h... ori<ol ...rwy of Our~. reW>(:md I am ......... I"""'" ,,, unda ..
I ... rwy in .ny cuoj. 8u, f.....
I-'<: poinu
ho ~ abou, ,...,.. book> .. ,hey ",lot< '0 ,,,. ''P' .... nu CJi
th.
Fi.... ,he, >I"""'" "",.....'ith , hook of pi>po:md indudo
0,,.,.
""'r
""...m
psaI'<r bu"'pan from a r...,....n. in ,ho Got., M""",m:md .""'.... in KarlaIoo boob CJi P"oror<'- all -.r fWl GoopoI boob. Tho: cou" did "'"
prodlOO<.:ompIonc- lIobks.nd did not prod",", . pm from , .... boob of pcrico-
..w...
pa.1unuy ~'Ufzit:d ''''''''''- In mId rnpocu. .hi> .n"''' pmdUC"tion i>IUDy
COfI""fUn, with Thtodulr. fixu. on "'" Now Te>Wn<'n' no! only as Jor be.re'
of n Ulh bu. abo III<' fulfilmen, of"'" Ok! T..... ment'. prophr<it:J. ,ot Sro:>nd,
"'" an""i.e program in all '" Ihnt- booU focu..,.j on tIM: pon ..;" of Ih~ ~ng<'
lio". MOft"OWf. 'M ."...,.-Jim.re 1>01 1'f"O"<T"..:I in iconic; ~ and OObtion
but in 'M ..,.. of" .... i,ing
C".oIpdo. ON WN, ;. mon:, in .... "1 of tJ.c: pon ... iu
tJ.c: cv-v'i>l .. IOmnimQ. bi< ...+"-udly. p ....... , ,heir boob 10 I..... ~ .....
in<j>CCtion. In.!.on. in <Wry -.w." io , .... word " ..,lOla ~
nn..,;...... Thi., opn, io noaly l"h<odulf". ""T'tnmt. Th in! ......... nsrl..... in
,.... H>t&cy.nd Soi ....n. hooIu no! only hold
lOU.,. bul in
m-aI
"",man, ,nit> , ... , ..... n' '0 , ........ ' " onho<luoy ............. ion. "n...., CI.n'-
,t...,
<Wet.n.
,hoi.
r.a
fully <hostn .nI . .... "r> D..id ean......... ImUIbblund unpanlldcd <mp ....
sis on .he pMticuW ......., 0( nch Pl'<1."" Wlw " more, TII<'odulf ciord
>c>Tnl of thoc . aU dir..,rly in 'M 0,.... It io h.,,1 to
bet ...... ~
r.,.,. ronsi,u-ncr mho. ,h.n di~ of" ......"".",.... Founh. mool of ,.....
boob JiJpLoy Ja;o.. ..i ... o<n.uncn ..,ion ,k>. i. innia, nd bcou.ilUl bu, ..... ,
n<Y<C, di ..""t> ,n.: .;""cr', cyr f"mm , ... _ . In ,hi. '"""'"' , ... CuoUngian
rnanusc.ip-u diifo, .ip"6<"O,,,ly from _
0( ,n.. mon: oi.lly di>wn:ning
""hi .... m.n" of insul .. "n. Fif<h. ,,n..n in , ... pas,.ft hiol",i.", t<nJ..d aped.lly to <rudy 'IYI nd modd ............. .... ,u ...1 tcndrncy <0 ... ,h. Carol.
in&ion COUrt boob .. . kind of r"flun ... m.... in8 ..... wctn I" n.iq""
i....w...
pon;q>.ion, of 'IYIe ."d romposi.;.,,, .nd in",l .. drro"" iv. ,ndi,ion . Todoy i.
the Ca.olingi.on hook> compri;<d of olJo, ,I.m.n".
'" be .u ... hu, origi".1 " ...
h.. n",,' be 10<0,..:1 in a .pifi. lim nd
pl."".' "' Thi. m.,.", Ih ... h. kty poe. o r Ihnt- boob , ... , d.m....d. ,,,.,,,N,.
io 'heir .ffi.mation o( the p~,lon ,hOI ,,,,,h ' 0"'" di'Klly fro,n ,f." "", of
,h. Gospd>. Sj,,,h. IW(I of Ih.... rn.n....mpt. h "' F""n"';n
Lif,' ;rnagn
(Cod<l<"Ok foI. ).-; sm."," .. foI. 6) .nd .h.K h. .., imag<> of
in maj<sry
(Godn<:oIe. ro!. p; Sc>Won .. f<>I. ,''',, .....,. 0";',', m.ndor" io formod by ,hr
Q 0< Ih. l.uan "!",n i,,, ~~;.",.,..w.... i.orKh, pon ',p. ' 7. ' .m:dl im.
Of " ' " 'OP '" ,f." I"A" """"inin, ,n.. M.uhoeon .T'-".... "'). n.., fOmx.,- ......t~
i, " .,,. co",",,,,,
'0'"
i""
or
0.".,
lu.pc''''' . mo obvioullr. bu, alto 10 In.. fout ti ..." of porad;"', '0 .... orTn .
'" .... divi ... prom ..... and .0 ,... fout
n,.. Lo".. mate '0 .... penon
who.< "0<)" i. ,old in ,he Guopda. 10 In.. '"Ki", of" King:<. MaDd h> .... WOfd
.......... ........!s .... <n<:Io...d in .hr book... Tal and .,...". ....... ,~ in all
h>
eo.rn.. ,..
aoa. "Throdulf did no! ..... _h irnaca io hio ....... 8ible. bu. ""'"" ;. .b.oIu.dr
in , he """n boob IIw COft,Ddiru ...... , Throdulf ... in hi> q.-.
And ,lu., .. I i K .hou\d bo. fo< ,... 0,... .... ,t>cIf product '" .... court.
s.,...",h. onIy . f." 500_ Goopohlu.vc oem .. from . he lik of 0.,,. and ..
,hey.ppoa< OIIly ,n Ihr..,.oom. of ,he ord.a. OIl ...."gd.... pogo and on
"""""
,ho,
m"'"", p>g<$. Throdulf ,,-..s ~O! nect!&lriJy oppo;ll<> hil"lriM. hI,t he did nO!
"'" ,hem himself and hi. comemporar>c. IIm '0 ... "" .....ed hi. rductm",. ,r
Figl"h. ,nd fin.lly. nO! one <>f ,he.. hoo<>k. con"in. an im.go of Cho.lem.gnc
Ind=!, 'PO" from coin. ,h" i, if ,I>< impe,iol hu"' po"",i, <;oin, m.y he .. ken
.. 'Ulhemi. 1"<1'"""" ..,>On . ,hel< ..., no comempo ....y im.g of C"'rkm.gn ...
nd ,he bu"' port"';' win, cla .. b'e in ,I>< "ign. betwten 804 ,nd 8IL.'" This.
on roo .... ,""rd, well wi,h Throdulf bho,"'n'" fut ,h. Rom.n md Brun ,i". iml"',iol im'g.
M'rt-H.rti,,); h.. <lI1'rcs;.,J puuleme", ,h.. ,h. C<>un book. w,,,, .p.,.
ing in ,heir depi i,,", of Ch, i" whik ,he imfies ,h.. ""fO prodw;ed " ,he
.how 'he .. me tt><rve_ He "ffe.. tOur I""'ihl< <lIpbn,.
coun do no' IIm
, i..."" ..,iou, divi.~>n' of opinion or ,) ... COu"; ivori ""... diff...", ;co,,<>S"'phic ,.min ,I,." p>.chmen, page<; ivol)' was i,,<lf precious; ivones ......
imended for p,i".. .. P"'Y'" md medi""ion . On' mu" he hi[ c"eful wi,h
'fl;umen" lik. ,h<:;c beau ,I>< 10..1 number of ,vorie. from Ch,<I,m' gn<"',
court i. nm brg<; .bo", .fmcn ohj .. can wi[h ",me conlidtnce be placed in
,I>< l"',iOO 795-~ro .nd ""Iy .hou, l... lf of 11>< CO" be connected wi,h ,he COu rt
book>_ Nm .11 book> h"" ivory CO",,,. Some It:u! cove" wi[h pruiou, me", I,
.nd j....d . nd ",me probahly h.d no fin, em"" 11 . 11. II =m, likely t"'[. in
,he>< .,.-1ic;, yea" of C.ruli ngi,o "'. h.""oolo", p.-ogr>m' 'ncom~ing both
hoo<>k> mJ eo,'CI' had not y<t btcn worked om. Still. it mu" be rem,mhered at
or>. Throdulf oppos<d only , he ""'" .... ip of im.g_
Ao tOr [h. ;,'o,ies rhem.d,'", rhe 1'1"'1'''' [h" covered rwo of ,I>< """"
hoo<>k> ,u,", i'T. n .. """''' f", ,h, Ddgulf p ... Jter. p... pored for. book th.t .....
i,lf wti"e" .round 795, .how D,vid pl. ying Iyt<. <ViJ,ntly ' inging hi.
p50lm._,., Orh., images .how D.vid ..,I",,,ing ""it>eo '0 copy hi, psalm . -"rom<
getting. mand..te from Pope D."""", to ["'011 .., [he Bibl, {but here. of
0><'....,. ,h. p[.".l. ,nd jero",. di",.r;,,!- As ito dedi"",io" ""O"$e> ",.1, "k.,.
;n .. ,l<.Ied os. gif' fOf H.d ~." hu, w", prub..bly n...~' "t beca"",
,hi, book
[he pope died in 795 ,11' The p... I[ .. ifS<J(begim wi[h. rem"bhk collec.ion of
creed.> .Dd pref1CC> 11...[ occup~ ",,,nry.,hfcc fulio> , The Dagulf J' .. h .. con
.wlly be ... I"ed both di,ec,ly ."d i,l<.I irudy to ,he Op"', One of ,he cr=l,
which st."d, "ear it< be-giOl"ng i. prui><ly the p""d<>-Hi,ro"ymi.n (I'd.g .. n)
crced [h .. ope"' hook [lore, of [10, Opu,. Thi' i. [h. <eom' '0 he. pmry difCCl conn,oion. Th .. creed
"'. , .nr;bu,ed [0 jerome. jemme 'PP<>" in "ne of [he book ', i"",i .. """,i"ns
from Pope Damu, It.. commission [0 Ir.,.,b .. ,he Bihk. hUl [><,hops here, in
view of the mh .. ivory imag. [he psalm. in [>1nicul .. ""re me.nl. Chorle
'0
w"
')0
e,,, .. ""
IIV .
""'tnt wu, of COull<. ,he ....... D"id. Taun ,,,!;<,nn thcx fxu ""im 10 " b..
.n indi=. ron ........... hn...... n tilt psal, nd the: 0,. . Aft., the: UpIIJJ.Y".
Rn,.",~ .... nd fronl<fu" . nd .11 ,he commu";"',;.,,,, toochinB on ..Jop.;""'"
i>m and imaga. i, .. likely
man, ,0 .. taO ' 0 1"'P"!hat
,he Franks ........, .,n Ioy.d. rnpraf'ul .nd onhodo:.. '" n.. coon> of m. I..o<odo
c...p.t.. """"di.idtd bn-.n ,II< Voaori.t and Alb.... Mweum and me V.tican.
>how... dot.f un<nl-.. m.odnn .... (V&.Al and. ChriM .riumphin,.,....
bc-..... (V..;"",,).'" n..1at ... ""' .leu po,.1Ie1 in me ~ COW<1""'- in ....
tIodkian .....J p",Nbly orisi .....iy affi.oI '0 Goopd Icttiotury prepo<ed for
CioN whilt ......... abbto.r. oI"C.....11c:o. Th .. >vn aho lO,ulU l>aiah hoIdin,_
",mil on .... hid. ..... C3II tad " BtI.oId. .;.wn oIWl ~. MOl' Once, apin.
,..... _ all "fhmdullUn ....11"1<$. all af, '....... 'M' rdka ;...... d~ ..
'M' ..................
ienK'h in ,II<
,h.
0, .....
Su.dr.~ laY' Udo Rt'nhoid Jk. ,he.. h"", boa> only. tn- ....;00. in
Europc:an "i,lOry .... lI<n .lrt h.. ~n pI:occd in comp.arablt way at the un,..
of
Thi. lapid.ry .."",rI! ..;0 or"'" mnd..d< tho P"'""'"
o.cnion and fO bd on '0 ,he ..... , 011<:. 1l>codulf ,.!hd .. g:rea' kn~h abo",
on . nd
m..... do< fOO . Iii, g:rea' ,t..mco of .raJi.ion . <>r<In. 000 worship
.... r< ",.oOl ,.. hi, .h",kmJl- Buo Iv: wu .1.0 ronc ned ... kp.imizc..,<1 sim"l
.. n<OWly '0 con""I.". lInury bo.h ddigh,od and ,roubltd him. No wo,k of
"n. no mm .. how tx-.u.if,,1 it migh' 1>< nd no m.It how . kilfUlly i, ......
m.d a m id """,munk... ony,hing of ,ho ...." .. of
i".If.bl. d i,in;ly.
O"ly "",rd, ro"ld do .hi>. I.... S'" .... ' .....n';.lly i.rclc:van, '0 tho divine OIl!
. nd. quil.likcly. W<"rc dimy,;n&. Som( m...,ial Ihinp could I>< h...ly but on!~
......." ,hey hoJ hc<n dnigru,n! by G<>cy had 'n t.. . "". j"od .... i,h ,he ",es of ,he murd.. Th. ,n prod~
during. .. W<"II,. )U" bcfO". and . ftol.1"l.coJulf. ,ime at ro,'" did DOl ron, ..
diet ,h. hnic ,,,,,mon,, of,,,," 0,. .... Tha'.n ..... rru,i""ly .... ,,.ined in in .....
of ionaga and COftctn,,.,od on 'he word and ,h. Word.
"",..ron..""'"....:.".
,0
.bou,
<I,.
T,ar/i, ion, Order. and Worship III~
Court ofC~rkmagn<"
T .... Irpliu,;.", >lid ...... IIv: 'mpooiriorl oI"o..''' .. ni.,. in thr fuunh flNl)'
obIif:o:<l Ch.u.W>. m Ioca I","""""", in hiot"'1'''' n.. con ........... 01" .... _
Iargn numbm '" p>pIt from aU walks "' Iik implocd thr ","un....... disc:o>...,.
01". n<W h.....
brv" "';,h A.J.n. and E....nd "",,'inucd to tho ~L
..... he ",i,inp of Euod>ttu .nd 0"""..... On ,h. one lund, .....J ........ '" Aus-'
.,..Jut
lnC. on ,he ",,,,=,. ,how "e<y ...,11 , Ch,i"un .n,1 Ro",.n uni"",,,,,li,m""f< mm
p," ihl. in oom< .... )' nd .d... "",i. 1 in ",h.". '" Nn'.nh.Lc.. ... ,h. fo,me,
",.. I<m p rovinces of ,h. Rom.n Empi w<r< !<'a!!<'mhkJ kinsJon>' ,,"<lot
the bd." of tro'n. or peoples, ",ho h>.d no pl""e in pr ....
;che",.. of .ithe,
h ihlic>.1 0' cl:rnial hi"o,,,,,,1 oon><ioo", .... eli .... 11 Ia.". 1..,<>1 now."..p of
,honking in uni,,<..,1 ,.,m, ,.,hil. clioooci .. ing ,herru.cI,'<S from ,he "Id f.."""
of rd<f<ncc '" II)' CIu,I.m,&,,,,, 'ime ",m"hing nOW Iud .m(1gcd in ,he W..,
,....)m "'...,.. l.,do" Iud ,he 1'''''''' .nd ftlO<Irc<> nd ,h. will '0 us< ,hem. '0
eft,.,., I"'li'ial <mi<y ,h.. COI,jd ,....,,,.hly """, roml",i",n wi,h ,Iu, world',
othe, ,wu!1C'" j>OW<:'>; Brun,i"", ,nd ,he IsI,n,i<; aliph.. " Brun,i"",',
vi""" of hi"o')" "'.. , I"rado.ial. in'pl)'ing .. one< d,.."",ic clung<. "'pnt!
by ,he """",ion of Ch,i ,,;. ni,)' . nd , ,0<.1 .rn..ncc of dung<. impliei' in
Ro""n ron,inuit}"H' In the ely 79<>'. the 0p~1 "p r"d.imi. on biblic:ol
,)l"'logicol ground .. . Ch, i"un uni ... ""li"" wh.,h direcdy nppo><d ,he ro""i.
,,,,;"n.lly r... cd llyu"';", d,i"" in worlcl rule,..hip," ' "
i"",
In imp<>n.n< rnr" ,he OP'" ~. hi"o,)" book . nd hi"o')" i, at I<><t ponlr

11>00, nun.ging ,....Ji,ion .nd f hioning memo')". l<, us ,nquif< in,o the ...
tUf< of F.. nki,h ,d!ce,ion, on ":xli,i,,n in ,he Y"''' ..ound ,he Op",', romp<t>i.
,;On. Th.1< .r< ........1 inJic:otion. th>t the Carolin!;i.n, w<1< 'hinking
hi.IO')'. t....J;'ion . nd time.' " Around 790 ",mron. wi,h cloK oonneC1io.. '0
,he coun b<g:<n compiling
Am.. I, of ,,,- Kin~m of ,,,- Fr~n"', '" Tho, ",,,
m.y h.ve betn ;ntended in the nar"""'" ""S< to jU!1ify C. r<>lingOan m<"urn
agains, the ..rr.cr"rr T:rnilo of B.v.,..... but ,h. wo,k ..:hed b..k ," 74'. ,he
y<>.' when O..,J.. M.nel divided hi> '''p<>n.ihil;,ics i><Tv.'<rn hi, <on. Ca,lom.n
.nd Pippin. the \ott<. Ch .. km>gnt. forthe,. At .round the $am. tim. Clu.rl.mogn< "ked I'.~I ,he lXKon. f. mou ., ,he hi!!o,ion of ,ho l.omb.a,d . '"
oo"'pik hi"",)" of ,he bi.hop. of ~k" . "" I'.ul "'.....:J. more ,h.n '"yone
[,di, him h:xl done. the connettiun I>c<wcr:n Mo ... nd ,he Carolingi'n>Bi'hop Arnulf w >n .. on n=,,,, of ,he C.,olingi.n f.mily->.nd bctwttn
M<n .od S. 1'. ,he..., .lIewdlr lu.inS """n founded b)' d;i<iple of ,he
' p<>" k Y' unh.rd "')" ,h .. hi"o,i .. . nd the <ked. of ,he ,",len" wor< ru Ch.,le"''Iln< urdered.
colker",,,
be mWe of his f.",ily'. ""mpond<nee "i,h the pop< .nd the
wi,h the <mpil<.'''' Wo know 'hi' ",1I<io" of "i"<<y_nine I<no,," t he C",""",
li~",. "10 ou, gt<>l disappoin,ment. -.oll ,h" "'''';,.." He 1'>1"1 I.nm '"
.boo,
,h.
'0
u...
'l'
C "Mt . . " " .
Fnn.i . Th< F,.nki>h lette" k> R<>m< and

Om". ntinori<. .. ,,<11 .. tho
iml'",,,1 kite". Iu", ,.,n"hal "';thoot , t<aU. In p<.lup.s 79~ Ch"kmagnc
.kal for. rollwion of.i>< k.rcr> of Pop< G'<-g<>ry I. '''' Th. SacnmcncIIY or
Cdlone ..... itten in tho Wt d"aJ< <>f the <igl"h ntury. rontoi"" a litany for
,iI< d".J th" b<gin. ,,ith N... h and g<>es down to 1'",,, "w.! r .ul. The roin. of
thoo< I".,,,,,
Ct""tc 0<1'10< of ron""uniry " no< "nly .mong the ,tten_
d.:o"" " ,he ,I".,h. br." I><,wcen ,hem "w.! ,h"", who Iurl r~ them in
_t<:tl hi"ory." c..ru1insl>" lib",,;,,, ""t<. in . .. no<. 0'll"ni:ra! hi,t<>o1aIl",
6"t ".me II;!,I.., then the ",hoo! ....,rb th .. p<fminal an undt""ndin8 of the
plain te"' . nd then tl .. patristic <o""motam. '" urolingian rulkc,ion. of
".non law",.."" g<n"",lIy organizal h"wric>.l1", ,ha. io. ,hei' m.,or;,] ......,.
ta}<d in mo .... or kss .hronolosi".) order ""her ,han oys,etmti<:aJly by ,op;c. '"
An cpi ....!"'1 "'''ute from tho very ... Ir ninth ""ntury mrntion> four gr<at epoch. of I..w giving: rultu",ll>w bt:fol'< the f.r.1I: tho M_i. UW of .he Old T.....
mcne: Ch .i.. UW ,nd ,i>< N<"W T"," """"r: ,h. legisla'ion of ,he F",,,ki,h
chul'<h'"
In add;,,,,n 'n .ha.t indic.. io", of, "idcsprcad 'w"cr.coo of mel in", ...,
in hi,mry . nd ,t2di,ion. bmh "","e01p<>"'ry .nd "''''01< . hot ,. ""nrC fu " h".
hin" abo'" in" ..." in 'ime in .he .;1'<1.. '<ound Chorkm.gnr: . Einho,J >or'
du, Aleuin ,."g,h, C..h"kmag,r>< l'O"'p~I.' and '"""''' ,w,.,.m '0 help him " .
rang< 'ime rnr"""lr in hi, ....,rld .'" S"r<ly .hi, "'e.nt mol'< ,han dermining
Charknugn'" d<Sir< '0 dung< ,he
,ho da of r...... , _ On< "",rode,.
nam .. of ,h. month, . nd d.:o,~. In ahoo, 78\1." lrrs<.h . mo ...... ry "";,h cJo..
ron,,/:CIion, to tI .. rn.,,, . new ale""'" ..... pr<p,tal. u Unlik th".. dc>-i>cJ
earlier by Willibru<d (a. 701) . nJ tho 0, .. in ,ho GudcoaJc E ng<list"lj'. the
I.<>rs<.h al,nd., ..... no, prim.rily d<Signal to O<TVC me lit,,'P. Thi. Clknda,.
wl>o;c Ot;gio. ar< 00scun:. ,",'''' probobly wri"en in clearly n::uLU.Ie Caroline
r"" ~i n.
,n;n""",1e. It ..... d<$ign<o.l fo, d.ri'r .nJ ,..... ili. , _ It ~.
"ing wi,h J.n ... ry t and it .h,rply mk<o.l of!" moothly divi.i"", .nd cquipp<J
,hem wi,h <.....,., 11 i. I.id ,~,' in ,~"'" ",I.""n,, the Icti h.. m",p"""' he
<enter. fe." and the rig,ht. a,onomicai dot .. Th< COnten" wt:1C nO! deri.<o.l
f,om any . ingk model or "adi,io" . The a.ea dc>-otal to rc..t> induded the gr<a'
.. in" acknoW'lalgcd by all of Chr .. ndom .nd not m<l'<lr ,hose h<>flOtal in
Ofte place or ""n by the F.." k< ,k",e, The m. in go-oup.s of "int> SC<m to rome
from 'h< GtCS"ri'n ~r-.men .. 'l' O<n, t(> Charl.. by HaJJ;' .... Itlroug,h ""me
Rut
rom< from F.. nk; .... GeI"i.,. book<. and .!Orne from Angl~.&"on
.egardless of ....","". nd ofR<>" .. , ptumi.1rnC< ...
no p,,,,iow al.nda,
hod focuS! ,hi, ""'r un g<n<tolly r<>gni>.<d ,:ckl" .. ion,. The ""Iendar ron .. ins
biblical romm<mot. tion, ,h" arc no, in the li,utg)' ."d ,hat k"'"'" '" hig,hlig,h'
w., ",
.bou.
""I.,
"'U""'.
_"'<S,
the Camlingi'n intefQ t in rhc Old TQ""",nr ThCK ..... ,n of;'n"tion to. bur
""" ,n o"",..tching cm?""i. on. Ro",," , nd ",,,,I
Thc arca with the:
. n riqu< >srnl alcnoh .. wu m<>ningles< lor rh. ftCk()fling of E.ur<f bur U5<fi.r1
fOJ ' I",,,in~ p,,,,u:,,I,, <.b)'$ in ,he ~.. _The aleoJ" wu in 00"'. w'y> S)-'nthe:,i, ,.r ,II kind, 01 w' Y' 01 im'gining, reckoning, ,n.d u.ing rime. Alrhough ir
annm he: dirrly ti/ ro Chub him,dl. ir oImo" ",,"'inly h<>.. ronn<dion.
"ith pcopk who wen: clo<c to him ,nJ it Inc..!'<' hi. 'pi,it of o,d. pr<ei,i,,,,.
,nd gubtinn_ lr.1>o I... , ,,",)' of ,itwring rhe F... nlc, wil hin rheir own rime
,od ..;,h io.1I of 'ime.
From the quoridion ond oontempo ... 'Y we m.y move to the glimpoc> of ,II
of rime. including rhe furun: in q uit< explicir "''''Y'. rh., , low ",her 'Out>
p"",;JeY' The Carulingi.n p<riuJ hal no< been pro""nent in hi "o~d "f ,poe.
alypcic ,hough,. Still, then: , n: indication, th .. """e pcopk .. 1<>" thought
rlut December '!. 800. would m" k 1 new yc>r. 1 r>CW centu ry. ,nd , n",,'
millennium. S""h rhough" WCT<O prompred by rhe di>scmin.,ion of Eu,"",iu"
"pinion tlu, Chri" ..... born in pao. Some. like Bc:otu> of Ueb.ii>, the third
rh<;.ion of who>< Ap<:>e>ln'" Cornm<nmy ...... w,i"en in 786. rhoug'" <he
world ....... bou t to end. Oth .... lik. Ambto.ius Autpcn ... ,,-ho ... rote.o ,nfl u
cntiO/ Apoc:olyp>< rommen"ry (bcto.=n 7\8 .nd 7671 refused to 'pul.t< trn
rhe ~ o f ,im. hI,t in,,",J ,h""gI" i" V"ndly uni ... ",,1 mI<. Akuin ",m."
tirr.cs .pok" of the :octop<ioni'" '" the "ne..... heretiQ who;c ai.lten .igruJed
rhe end of rime_ Alooio.1so ulkcd often of rhe "'m1PO'~ pnirot'-," rhe "d.n_
ge""" ,in ..... (ef. : T im",hr pl. Around 7')$., St. Amand oon""'''e Ptq>;l'~
",I><,.n,i.1 "" of oompu"i",1 tot" . nd, fc,., )TO" I".. at Cologne th., "'t
..... ropil.nd ap><kd. It i, tempting to Connl:Ct th i' ...:,i.-ity ..-ith the tum
of the rca' 800, And it juSt might be the "'''' th., Cha,lem'V'" profound
oor>C<:m for the Christi. n propl. who h:oct been en'ru>red ro hi , ca", <i<,ivcd,,,
I.." in pm. from ... rue rlur tim ...... running our. If th.", ...... m)' wid .. p",""
O<05e thar rime woo running out. rhen Throdulf. concern bour h..uion,.k<
on kind "f urgenC)' ,h>t is nw)", d"" ,h>,r,><,]r thcol<W",,1 '" mo"""".,;ly
pokm;.:.I ,
fc..,,,.
Look wIl.te we
find indication, of tempora] ,nd hi.lrorical con_

.!CioU'"<SS.. Some of the m"'t important of thC!<: i",'01", th. Ribl" .nd the .. inti ,
Th i.l i, reminisnr ofThrodulf. in,.,.,.". Aft ...11, in c:onlpo.ing rhe 0,,,, he
ci.ed Ih. Old T.."m<nr ,1m"" eighl hundred rim ... nd ,h. N<w """" ,han
....'en hundred. urolingilln inre"'1 in rhe Bibk in ChanQ', rim. WOI, inrcns<,
m.)'. "'''
:u "" h,... ,..n, A,;J pm of ,h>t in .."''' ..... b.uecl
rn. Fr:>nks , nd rhe Jew<In ,he "",," inll" "'"'' cap;, .. I;.,. of h" mY'1
,,0 ,,, '''''''1'' '0 >.<>;n>,b ..
m'"
tI,e
""'",,,,,hit> ,,,,,,,,Ali,
or 7119, C,,"rI"">gI< com""rI him ... lf ,,, Ki"~ Jusi"" (of .. KinS' ", 1Jl in
,h< ".i,i,.,;."" conc<,;"'", . "d .Jm<mino" - of ~i. .Im, '" WI><<< ,I>< Bil>l.
,oiL, .bo:~" -""i.h "'~ teOod ,h .. "h<fu" him ,I><,. ...,.. ,,0 ki"g lik<- him ," 8y
implia,ion. ,k had l>een no I:ing iii" Clurl~m>s"e. 'J> If o..,le","I)"< romp....xl oim.sdf '0 }o,i.h on 'hi' oce.,;"'", h<...,.. much mO", "ft<" rom""",d ro,
inO<ro :tddr<>S<d . " D. vid by his co",(mpo ... ri<o. In ,h;, ",,,n<ion i, ;, ""nh
Ix>.,ing in mind [h., n" n:uno CJtC<p[ Ch. ;,[', 'pp"'n moK oIlen dun D.vid ',
on ,h. 0,...." .
,he
h~, i, is ,he '<o,i"",,,y mo,h.rs ,h., I wioh
ro ;"",,1:<, A; "'fly .. n l o..rl<m.gnt Iud bern <:alll bo,h S<>kom<on .nd
I). vid by C.[hwulf.' " P.~I [h. Dt>mn ClIll him O.vid in 787,'" By 7'4,
h~', i, had bo:o;n,. no"",,1
<:all Ch",k,,"'V'< D,,i<!. fo' ;"",.nce on ,he
dcdiCl'O<y
on ,I>.: Dogulf 1'.. 1,... " in poem by h"gilhl'n}" ."d in
k"., Qf /lleui,,'.. '" T... Ix
'''''''y fig" ...... Cha[kn",!S"<. ""..,,' rccci,u1
';,he, biblicl 0' d.... iC>1 nOd"""",,-'" It i, IurJ 1<, l hUW if [I>.: From'" knew
,0..., O, ..... n,i,,<>pl. ,h. ''''(><to' ".,. oIt<n alll. "scconJ D id" .00 ""'.
,he,d"", ''''P>',do"s i" kind}M 13... ,h. d<>k ....,. ........ 1x<W1l Ch.tI.m.!S"
"d D iJ w.u ",,,,,,, [0 .",ibUle [" .he gte>[ F....,k JOm. "f O..id, pnop/le[;"
wisdom and "'"go h io dck .... of ,h. f. i,b.
Ubiqui'''''' ",f~.J>CcS '" Ch.[km"S". as Da.id J>C>,I< in ),[11'" w"''',,,.,
1'''1''' 1',,,1 I had calk<:! ,h. Fro"L:,;. "n(W l..-ad ."'" h' .bou,,r"' ...... ,i""" in
.hr: mid 76o$. [h. Fr::mh .okrml '" ,henuel.<o in ,Iw: ..
io ,he .o<>nd
m::>1II <I .., on ,h. 0,... Tkod"lf ",,111
p,,,I"I!"'" 'OJ ,I,. S'''c L. w' " It ..ill
,k ~ ""k< ,Iw: " pi,i,,, ..
Ikginnin& in ,h. I.,. 780< '("''''''" of:all kinds
",r., to [he Fronk< .imply .. [h. ?"P~I", (;h,iJtW~"", ,, In ""i[it> hi, Lift 4'
W;f!;b,..rti, AI""i" alll ,h. F... "k<... if ,hey ,,"' . .. ......Jy '" ",lkJ on ,h. co dy
eigh,h ce"""y. ,he "rh<>kn p>pI. of Goo. "'" In "'pimbrie> of 789 .nd 79'
Ch.,knul1'e "'ok <><I,h, .,f I"pl,y f""" .11 of his ... ,bjec" .n,( h. '<e>'~ ,hen,
as .ungle >IICClivicy, nO! .. 'roll.ion of l"'''''.''' lni, 'ingl< 'Chr;,[un
I""'plc" "'... no n. o.he[ ,Iu[ ,he " .... "F.. nk;,J, 1.....1.. kd .". ,h. new C...,ling_
i.n D,vid, '''' h ""'o ld he h.rJ ' 0 o<nog;n, "I,... , """",i,,,, "fOld l'cst.",<",
,roJi,;"n< in ,Ix .... Im. uf proaic:al poli'i<o 0" close pproocb '0 n,et>dulf,
TIl< of ,h. bibl;"'1 ,radi,;"" .h" of I'rod j ..., .., "ih<odulfhad ..id. the Byun .
,in<o we'" ,h. l>ei .. of lI.byIon.
The ..,oca,ion; ofl'rod . "ot """fi"ed '0 ,... .... evide"ce. Ch. [km'g<><',
throne '" ,he "".. ,in. ch.pel ., Aachrn ..... i",,""'" '0 <>"Uk< ,b. ,hro". of
Solomon U Kings ,0.,8_10). '" To A!ruin, C b kmw' ...,.. like S<>komon bo[h
b. ... >< of hi. "";..:Iom and b. .... Iw: <=.1 ch.pellik. the Tempk which
S<>lomon Iud buil, in J.ru;ol.m .'" h" ju" I""'ihle ,,,"[ [h. Fro"k,.., qu.nd
F",
.,"Ie>
1"="',
,u
'''r<,
",,,d."
r:..
me ,,,,m,
wi,h B)... n'i~m . ngendered now inte'' in J<,m"l.m . n<! , .. ~, in .ne;'n,

,...dirion nd in D.vidi, kingohip.' " Aleuin ... rol< ", I'.<ri.rc" C"-'fJ;<
of ). ....... I<n. on one """"ion . od ..id )cru.. lcm i< o~, mOlhe, on<! ,h. hom.
I.nd ... f the Ch,;" "" people. .. , .. "'''sill",,, .. OJ th .. ",I"" h,J , ,,i ..cd io Iueh<"
f,..,m R<lm., Co"".mi''')ple. ,rOJ .1<,....1."'.'" T hi< ref... net mor ...".. os.
fi",,1 reminder of
omnip ..... ncc of .l<r=l<", in
C, ...,Ii,,);i.>" "'ind while
<hifting o~, .nco,ion '0 Rome.
Remcrn"', ,h., 0P'" ,.6 ,..., I"'II'erful ""cm<m of Rom ... ccnrednno
,Iu, l ........Julf W2S cncr","'gc-tl-fornd'-'" i"cu,po"" .. he II." '''''ising hi,
h<.ok. I-" .. mho:, '''', th .. only bool-.s 'I'I'nM.J by ,ho I"'J'<'S '" ,nd,t<lcd in ,he
Gd..i.n "'''''n were .o;ep"bl. to ,h. F,."k . n...OJ"lf "'I",.. edly cen,.red
,h. B)"U'\tin", for , iu,\don ing Romon ,,,,,d.,,!,. Quit pon fton, willtngly
.houldering , ... =pon,ibili')' of proteC'ing ,hc Roman Church. Ourlcmogoc
,~",ed '" Rome on mony "",,,ion~ He ",,,gh, in
'01'1 of , ... ' ... n ... INl
R"m.n COMn low .n,1 i"",1 ,ho: O<K011cd 1);"",,~H~"ri""". H. turned '0
Rome fo,.n .mho';",i"" .. rvOot book .nd ,ci""". v<"",n of ,hc Grq;o';. n
o,,ry.'" He .,hJ fO, .n ."thentic oopy of the Rw{, 6[ SI. lInordi<,. ,,.
Who" books
ob"it>i from Ro", nJ dn copied in the Fr." kiol, """Id.
,hey "',, m.:rr\tcd '"", ,,~'hm'ictl li/mo."" T" be " ,mnemi,"", b<~,k hod '0 be
!tom.n'"
Rum.n m",", "'JW OJ Pmi"", s.,.. ...1 , h",,1tt:s w.;<. m,iI, in , I'e F""k
i,~ ...... Id In Cho~.m.go.i. ,ime """,,, .. ""''''':. "in 'he Rom. n r.,hion:'"
Som. of the ehu,d>- S'. IXnis, S,.~J.u,icc J'Ag:oun<, Fuld., Cok>gn<.
St . Riquic,-, ......1 ,h.i, Rom.o inAucnc<s in h ing T., h. p<d ''''n'"''I''~ , ;ng
cryp ... or <x.idc"",ion, '' "I" , gr<"'cr ", I...., d<s=, ,hey ... copi .. of St.
1',,', "nd St. p.ul" . ,h. p,;m,ry eh o",he, Jedi ..,ed '0 Ito",,"', Ch';"i.n
fOuoo ..... ,,,",, rdigiou, rtpl.u:tmen .. for 11."",,,1,, nd Hem, ... Th. <lure' ",n>.
1'1""., Axhe" ..... ..-.m.,i",.. c>11~ " ,ho: I..... ,.,,, " (.Ibei,
,,,,Iy .f"r
Boo) .nd ito maio ",,,""ip 'J"CO evok.. ,he oct'S"",1 b'p,i".,), ,, , ,,",, LaIC,.n
in Rome.' ''' In ius,ly in~ ... ntial ""dy Rieh"d Krou,h.i",., ''l;.ul ,lut
I<m.~'" i,.,",u!"rAted . ..... ., . ..... ,,""'., "f Ch ,;""" R"n",' . ' Hc wo.< ' hinking in
p,.,.irulor of Co,,.mit>< but I would .rguc
it W:I.! p. ",1 Rom< ,h" .....
pmminem in ('..h.rI",', ,hinkio~ p,. lup. ,he ,,,,,,,, ).. I(,y, <kk" vf , ... 'J>OC1I.
I'l"< in ,I .. (\(1"'1. of
p>l.,;n. , h.pd II.... m., .. ' '0 .,.ok, ,h. f.....tdc of
Old $,- [.... , ... 'w I'o .. ib!y. 'OO. ,he .."i<:m>l Ii,,,rgies iml'le"",,,,<d in M... by
ChroJ'V"g .nd , h." " S,.Ri'l"i" ..,. A"giii)<n "" funk, ."""-,i",,, .)f
Rom,n ....g<>. '" The'e eon b< no dOuh, ,h .. ,he sre" mom,,"''''' "f Ch ,i"i,,,
Romc prm'OJcd both in.pi,."io ... od models for ,he C.roli"s"n~ But II'ho:n ,he
chief C. ..... lin!;i"n chIt''''''''' .nd pcci.lly ,i>< ch,pel .. Axhen .r< "uJied io
Jcwi'"
t'"
,It.
n. ,
,.,,,o<,..
,,.
""f<
""',,.,hI)-'
en",.
,b.,
,n.
detail. one "'on' bo: "rucl< by '~r frahneoo, 100' '"ip .... li'y. n..,. ......... ..,,,....
,h,n& ~. oomcoki"S tdWri ... of ,1><00 people ... ho sd(-coruciou"~ .....
thnnodvn .. ,I>< .wrni"",ion ololJ o. . i,,;'n hist""' ....
1r>Jt..d. ..... ,k ,I>< Itorn.n i.... in thr CaroIinpn m,nd io'"""im" ..,II
in ....... of a full .. udy. it is impam ... 10 ""'~ p<<M>ion1lIy he... ...,b;guous
...... b. Ito"", ....... both symbol and rc"''Y r.,. olr.t.,my CaroIinpn.. ...'1'h<o<I..lf ..icl oh .. Ro"", .... oJ.. twit of &by\on and ~ ap......J hi>
appronL On <>n< _
only-~bd .... n <><ld.......d o,uIcs .. Con...",i........ c.,...,,-.Uy. ""Ac-n, ,he c.o...a..,in;'n 'm,. .... only <iomeMie>.I
lor ,I>< CarnI'np.ru an.,. ~', impniol COftIfU.ion.... Such obv;ous
eumpla of i".,u," -1'"":11 coiru ,ook on <nlly Roman ~criuia only
.r... Il00.'' In " ...... ,"'1 10.. pol..occ """,pia ., ~ Cluri<nupo< nuy ""'"
boern a>o<nin5 his ",my "'i,h ,lit B.aghdad of ,J.. Co!lpIt$ .nd ,t.., Comun.i_
pi< of ,he 8,.....n,'.... ....,... ,""n uyi"15 d."" to ""1 tp<'Clfoc Ro ..... n I1>I>Ik! of
buildin& or
In ok f.ornous ~ of .bout BIO ..... ich Modoin hoped
would ........ him ,t.., 1<'",', ",'ron.agc 1It .",ho,..,.,u .pin and.g.in of
.. N.... Ronw." btl! ,hi 1.....)'1 rd'm '" Axhtn. Indml. ,t.., pot, spc-alu of ""'"
p~>a of D.vid" :II ",t.., "",,iul of ,t.., ",,,,Id. " ..,
I'u link ditklCntly, rcqualing hooIo..o f,um IW""" '" bW!.Jing """",....
" ""'~. was no, mnn, '0 r~..,im.'~ a <It.d pu,. but 10 ;oin li.ing ,....!i,ion. The
C.rolingi.n. "'... """orly . " .... ofhi,,,,'Y and "f "".li,,,,", ap<d.lIy J""''''" and
Rom .... Thei, . im ..... '" ioJin ,10 .. hi",,'Y. Thtodulf .. Heal. the>< in .. ' .....
f.i,hfully in ,he 0"", by hi. co",,"n, cvoca,;"n, uf I,""i. i"", biblicll. I" lrin;c,
1.0""."",,"1
.nd Ito ..... n. Alld h...Reus Ihem in ~""Ih., woy. On. of ,h. m",,' powerful
uprs of hi' ",nging pokmic is in nnhlul . tt.ml'l '0 writ< ,h. lIyun, inQ QU'
ofhi"O<)'.
If ,....!i,;"n .nd h, .. ooy /""In,..! thr ..-. y. ordr, ,old a..n.. ""'"' '" P" ,~.
Clw-kmagow', ....... '" n.~ ,,~U ... ttkmI ",.1", " rndrn,
hi. lint
c::tpi<ubry 00
Lu, and r"".. ,J.. "''''""P 011", ""'t<m~ n.... dain
....nifot..! i .....r on conttrnt.bou, In.dl~"f>.IaIlik and i_i,u,""'" .hou'-""CUt... and <bia<,ic:al .. ructum. and ,n ,i>< .-..y Lon","", used 00 ,ark .hou,
h"
.....
nom
'T'ht.. 1w lon, hem .:w-Jn ..__ ...... ..-hot.... thr."..run! li&of ,ht
CaroI'..p.n pnood ohouJd bo: unokncoo.l ao. ~~:oouantt" ....... ~,dOrm."m
In 00.', ..... booh. B", hoUrs wf>o ~ic:ally drfmd <>n<.;.w or throohn
""motim m'" .t.. ."".1 po,n, e:tp,StJ ....,11 h.lf-<.n",,'f'go by Jo",f

Fled."".i. : Rd,m" ..." " in i" """'0>: ,he h;'""ie>.1 ",.Ii"",;"n of, .up .hi,.
turinl, th .. i, di~in., comm.nd," '" Turnmg I<) C~ n"i.n .n,iqui<y 1'", in'pi" .
,,><1 pu"inS ,he C"roIins"tn hom.
,i,," w>< '''~ ""... Iy , n",,<, "f
Ofder "'.. no< merdy > mo"er of public u,ility. Evel}'th ing, ,he F"nl<> .. id, "'""'
done.o fulfill God', comm.mds mol ,n m..1u: i, po";bl. fnr ,h. ~p~{", ("lI';'';
4"", I<) live by God', taw. to achieY< .. Iv.,ion. ThroJulf'l""lIed thi' ,mt . t ,t..
ve<}' b<-ginning "I' the 0PM/: "Sio>: ...., Ii. ,. Ch.~.m'gn<"1 h.. t.k.n the ruJJ ..
in the hay of Hi, ,..1m. with the 1.o,d gnon'ing. it ;, nOCdS><y that """ uruggle
wi,h :oJ1 om migh' wi,h Oui .. , help in Hi, dckn<e mol 1'0' Hi< cul ..,ion ,ha,
""" migh t thc ... by be . bk to be a iled good .nd f.ithful "'<von"."'"' In ,t..
Ad""'~i';" Grnl'ra{;' Ch. rl .. i, ailed "king .nd l<Ctor of the kingdom of ,t..
F... nl<> ,00 humhk hdp of ,he hnly ,hurch," ,00 ,h. do-cum<n[ go<> (>11 II'
..y tha, hi, rul. <kp<nds on ,he .hund..m m.rcy of Chri" ,00 ,hen Cilh ,he
ckrgy '0 , id CJ"~,,, i" "k..Ii"g ,he I"",pl. of G,.! 10 ,he I"''''''' of ",.""",,1
lif ."" P.ulin", once ",lied Ch.,I .. "ki''S ".,d p,i .., ,,"d m"" wi", ,,,I .. of
Chh"i. ni'" whilc I<Jc.,in c.lled hi", " , l ing in I'<"""" ."d. bi,,,,,p in p.... ch
ing. """ They both we ... writing in conn""ion wi,h Charlcmogne'. effOr" '0
comb.t .Jo!'fioni.m >round the time ofFronkfurt. I< liuk corli<l H.d,;'n wrot<
'" Charl.. urge hi", "" in hi, con'I''''' of s,'o"y '" th .. ,h. S""", c""I,1
be off<m1 "'....,.,.I .. I.. tion. '..., Charlenugn<', pi.<)' may bt .' ....-cd .. 'impl. and
milium,.'" b~, ,hot< can be no doub, ,ha, h...... him",lf in the gui'" of th"""
Old T"lOmen, kinll' ,,'Ito Wert regul.rly held "I' '" him fo, hi' emub, ;"n,
From thi' di""''''''n ofCtt.,b .. the divinely instituted mUir of the po,..'
/", Cb.i,tUtnM'. """ un roO>'< '0 mh , [,.,,"", hu, "<v<nh<t... = ... ling 'sp<eu
of rht bng.... gc of order in ,he "wid of Ch"l.m.II"" \1:'. dilCU ....J co~i<r
Th.l"lf. in.i.,.no: tlu" ,hi"S' be done,.. "order dem.nds. " In tht b 740>
pop< bcn.f}' W""C '0 I\onif.", ""d urged him '0 ,dh. 'n ,he " ...""" ""i,""
i~;'. '" llx ph"'" then turned up in Fronki,), document>. llx Synoo of V.r
in 71\ colkd fO, ro,u,n co ,he """"" " ',,,,, ...""":... , Ch,oo<g1l1g of ht= ofte"
usru '"010 ph,. ... as "M'''''' ""j,""ini,' and "Ii"", l'fir..Jinu.....' In th.key
1<gi>I.. ion of the 7Il00 . nd 790' on< .nooun.m o,.. r .00 over word um os
"".,.,," . nd "~"'i>u. " Tironi. n not .. ,en u> that a..,b fum ,imes ad.. iml
"Ru"' .. ,he Op'" wu !><ing .....J in hi. p .... n"'. On on< "'cion Uu,l",
clkd for h'pr;',m '0 he curit:J ""t "."'i""hUikf."'" I.o"k ..h.... 0". ''''y, the
imp'''''''" i, tht ..",c. n ..... ,."". Godgiven ,""m'. rub,.oo con,.. ",;"n.
and [h. ,hid '<>poruihili<y of ,he king .nd hi. dergy """ 10 ~nd ,hem. study
[h.m . nd implc",.n, ,hem . '1"itvi"8 frum ,I.,

'0 ,he cone,,,, . we m.~ 1001 ~ts,,, ,he lUnd of
n,l., <I..,,, Cha,ks im>gin<J h im,.lf '0 bo. or ,uppooed ,h.., he ""&h' '0 bo
FiN" I..... ,<coli ,h. " in The<>dulf'. ,dlin&-,,hich
in Ch ..I" iew
'00---,1.0 Ryu",in .. we ""'S'n!, f l l..., im",wo"" ."d .~,' .. o,. of uni,y_
Ch.."',n'gn<: _ ju>! ,he """",il< . H. <It:fe,,<lc<J I." peoplo from ,he ."ods of
p.>gans.rod hel<lia. He prom" .,.j ju"i,e '0 soch . degtrt ,h.., one ..,1.,,1.. I...
"",n ,he Adm"";';" G.:'f("T41i .. ", implcmen,. ,ion uf ,he DcuIoguc. '" 0""
maid ..,ily go 'hrough Ch,,,-l,,,', legi>la,;',. aod nod io i,. C<)O!<ioinCln, ro aal'"
"'en,;."" ,he P'iee "f f""d, 1.0''''' ""'igh" and n..',,, ,,,,, ,10< pligh'
wi"""" anJ
orrh ..... ,he need. of ,he poor. The Byuntin..... ,h. inherioots of Roman aod
1ldlon"';'; >occp<iOfu of rulo"hip ...,,' ,h. eml"'''''' .. '"God', im>gc"
~lj.l'ftr,; Om';). '" A, Charlem'g""', <nun ,he i<bl of .
.1 b<"'''I' .od
pa>lO,....",",ehed by Gregot)' I in hi' PaM",1 R~". ..... ,e/i:>rmul:"od '0,."",
.. . "" of guideline> for. Prover ruler. AocoKiingly. Charlenugoe waJI a "",;~it
In Dri," a I"',,.,n ... igned an a"'es<>me S(>O!>,ihilil}' held in """ fur Othe". ,t>
Ch,,1a wa.\ mean' , be humbl . peaceful, gcn.lo. in .!wn .11 ,1.01< .hi,,&, ,h.
Brun,in.. we nOf. By ""nding ,h rgom.", we can I t t
Ch...lenugne
~ .he rigb, kind of fUk<. on ....1.0 mc.. u,.,.j up '0 ,he di.i"" id",,' . ... hem<
,h. B)"-,,,,i,,,, cmpctots f.iI ... in "'-'1}' eti,ial ,espec' .nd f"men .,.j ... tif<. .nd
divi,ion. ~"hen On. ,c;,w ...... , Ch .. ks hi ...... lf .nd hi ....,;" .. <aid . bou,
,ulenhip, if bccum<> clear why Throd ~lf wa.\ at "",I. 1\1"" I"'i'" to dcl<$i,imil.<
Byumiee rul<"hip .......1}' 'urn.
A 'ighrly om.rnd rul.r can <"<'p<d<n' him!df ie m.e~ ..... ys. We kno ....U
"'" 1i,,1.: . ""'" F~,,,ki'" ",),,1 """,n,,,ni>.l. b~, wh.., " 'f du k""", 'U~
i,
wu d"'Y'.! '" 1"'-'''''''' ,he ide>l "f "ni,y .,><1 communi,y "n ,he <me h..nd.nd
wh.. t " ... hi"oti"" h... ngagingly called ..d. ... rfuln""' .. on ,he ",he. hondo ' M A
focu. OIl ,h . .... in<y.
nd i!laC"",ibilil}' of .... rul .. ,h.., ,..... p,imc
Byu",;n. inheri .. nce from .n'iqu il}' ...... 1:"lIciy . b!Cn' in F.. e<i.a, IfISt",d ' he
ki"K" ono:nc>& wi,h hi, prnpk."d II" bcm:""I<n.
lOr ,lI<m WCr< .mp~
.j ..... The &'<'I,es ... ngk "".."",n ..1 <po in Ch. rkm.g"c", wurld procbj""
,he ' igh' order of ,hing>_ In ,h. grc>I ch..pd .. A..n.n,
,hron< waJI in ,he
W<$l. ,h 1.. " We'" in ,he <U< . . . >tl in ,he cup"la of ,he do"'" ,he ..... ,n
in'l:<" of Clui ... in m.jesty. ,.. This .m ngcm<n< in,medi.,ely '''S8''W ill "",n
,"<err"'''''''"' on. wdJ .... rd.:rnd "",Id ,he h"",hl.: "'Y.1 n,i"i,, ... ",.."dc" ,II<
privileged <um .on< to Co.!" ordained minists ,,-/'ile ,he 0fI1y ,rue ",I...
Clui" . ,he '" King of Kingo," reign! from high . bove. Th. F,.nki>h roy:o".uw.
ofteo .unK in ,hi. "'1}' p bc. bc-gin ."d fr<qucnrly <q><:O' ,he ref",in: "am,,,,,
"t'"". Cht-iJ,,,, ;"''''''',_ " ,,. B,,, ,hi, ><nngcmem of ,lie d..pel
"r
g.,...
,I."
.. ,I..,
,,"""ro.....
"If'
,h.
"',,,..;,. a"',,,,,
reuI.,.
m'r ,1", I>c

polemical "",","'m'. The irnp<ri,j Ory><>IIiklirms .. Con" . nrinopl< pl>Ct<! ,h. imp<ri,J ,hron. in ,h .." wi,h.n im>gO ofCh,i.<r "ll1'1'''' h<hind i, ,,,J ,hc , In, in ,hc '""',.,.. 'X'< cnn", I>c .b.ooI~,d~ ""in d...
,he Fronks k"..... ,1><." ,h. 1.)"Ou, of ,i><- Ch,y.o"ikli",,.. bu, in vi", of ,it<
ino<n>< diplum"")" , lut <ommr:n=I i" ,h. ",id'75O> i, -"""" Holy ,Iu, ,hO)-'
""",Id" I~, h,~ h.od ,."mc '''1'0'''. Thc clupd" A.:><hcn was. propc,rnurch
,..ith a ,h"",c in iu '""'tw1)rk. The impcri.1 rn.mbtr. on ,hc oth<1 h. "d .....
prinu,iI)" ,hronc room .nd f<"fIloni.! h.IL The ,ul. who offic ...<d ,hcn:.n:
cncrI)' thc on<> Throdulf h< .. ,<d for calling ,hcm~h.. Ji,..... nd .hci, :om
Ji""/U .-.I fo, .. ring tI , .h<y oo.",igrt wi,h C h,i". Could .nyonc who
I""ked" ,h. cn,I"''''' on hi, ,hron< wi,h ,hc iMUg< ofCh,is, I>chin<! him h,1'<c
csnped ,h., imprn<Oon! And "..""Id no! vic," " ,n Axhcn h,,.. und.",ood
,he hic,.."h;'; ,igo>incnc< of, O.n.. <",h,oned, like Solnmon. h<"<,,h, nu_
jatic:>lIy ",,'hmn<d Chri" who "igo<d ,ul""<m< ITom ,he h<>v<nlik< . p> of
,hc ""1.01', ",pol>' fi n,lIy. Ein .... rJ "minJ" us
Clu,I<""gn< p"f",m:I
good. oldf.shioned F.. nki!-h ckKhiog '0 Rom.n lin<ry.'''
An.mion '0 Jw,.. 'n "Ik .bom <uk .. ,.-.I 'n how rul ... ough, '0 I>clu",,;"
mi,mm:l h~ ""n",,,n, ,i>ou, .hc 'igh' kind. of d,rg)o. C. roling"" in,<""" in
,h" .ubi<C1 """lid T hrod"lf. blistering
on T.""i" irr.-gul., <i, ... ';"1'1. Ch.~<""'S". I~'<"d <:tH' .... n,ly "" ,i>< d<rl\.. He "'p....J ,on",n,
.bou, ,hci, "",.. I n m .... od pc""o,1 Clcdkn". H< dcm .-.I<"d
' hey live
by ",hc holy Rulc," .nd
they kp 'hc <anon . Hc oon,inul ,he dror<.<
begun by h i< f"he, ,.-.I ,ltc d<rgy of.he 7"'" '0 .uhoroi",,,c bi,hop' '" mro_
poli"n. ,.-.I 1"",1 ""rgy'n m.It"",. H~ e>lI1 for "'!luu, ,~o""'. On ,ni. poin'
i, i< in!lfyi.< '0 rccallllrrodulf'. clu."is<m<m. of ,hc Brun,;n., for holding
.y.....J. tOO oftcn. poo.ty. nd fu.- ,ri'''1 n:&><rn'. On ,h. <un''''Y. CI,.rI.m'l\n.
'pcn ' " k . " '" mon,h, preparing fi<t ,hc S)"nod ,I F.. nkfun ,od ,hen. in ,h ..
ynod, u.-.lcnook onl)' noc....,'Y "",ioo nd d id", ",.,..un",:'"" Agoin .nd
Ch,rI .. <aid ,h., ,It nci.n, <anon. or ,hc ,=hing< of ,h. f"hc" ..... '"
'0 I>c ..:ty,iniz.<"d and ,hcn follo,..I. Thc F.. nki,h r<:alm >Tn<"d '0 mc,i, God',
p.""i,d y b=.".., i, h.J b<.n ",.Jully u,dcrtd ."",rui"S 'u Go.f, .,,,."
WOld, .nd >mm. ncU. And whe,u. ,h. 1I )"'~n,in< ,uk" in'l'!"opri.,dy in,mJ<"d .h<n.",I,..,. into "'"."i,ul mm" ... Ch .. knug .....1.... )"' kf, ,h. m." of
dvgm. <0 hi' ckrgy .nJ tI,.o cnfu.rct:d wl,,,,,,,,r doci,i"" 'h<y migh' m.I:.:. '"
Th<:<><l"lf ,,,ok "",,,,me ,Idigh, in W<)I\lpby. His gr:>mmor I..."n . "pUn,_
,h<tonc.l <on .... n,i,.,,, . nd oyIlosi"'" .....,ning "" ""iden .,,,,"gh of
,~,. I" 'i" ... lly <v.ry as< wh<" Tbrod"lf 'ook ,II.: lIynn,i" .. '0 ..bO<>!. h.
did ... "n , p<>in' ofbial"",1 <'csW" If .hc lIihl. I,id ."" hmh ,hc k<y J",,"in ..
of ,he f.i,h ,00 ,h. rules ('" righ, livi"g. ,11.:" i, ,,-., , ,,,,,ul ", ",,,1...,, .-.1
,Iu,
,,,,,,,Ie!
,Iu,
,,,,in.
f."".
,;.,". ,.f
,Iu,
2.40
CHArTE R FI VE
it. Manifesdy, [ht: Byzantine underslanding of Scripture was dt:fectivt:. If the

Carolingian was superior, then Ihis was the result nO[ of chana but of design.
It would bt: no exaggeration 10 say that the very heart of Ihe Carolingian inrellectual revival was a broad effort 10 understand the Bible. McNally putS it this way:
"The Carolingian Renaissance can be characlerized as a rebirth of the Christian
aspiration for biblical spirituality and biblical studies. It was a return 10 Augustine's idea, expressed in Dt doctrina christiana, [hat the cultivation of leners
should be a propaedeutic 10 biblical s fUdies." '~ This involved the prepar:nion
of acaptable biblical codices, (he masrery of the intellectual tool5 requisite 10
bibl ical study, and Ihe acquisition . study. and dissemination of the great commentaries of the patristic era. Surely it is no coincidena that Charlemagne's
great school legislation dates from around 789, the year when the Admon irio
Gmtmlis was issued, and JUSt about the time when the Nicene acta arrived at
courl. The Admonitio Gmtralis itself contains several references to good teaching
and learn ing but its seventy-second capitulum is especially important. It was
addressed to the bishops firs! of all, and then to canons and monks. All cathedrals and monasteries were required 10 establish schools [ 0 teach boys psalms,
musical notation, singing, computus, and grammar. The clergy were urged " 10
corre<:t catholic books properly" because uncorrected books ca n le.ad aslT2Y those
who wish to pray correctly. Only matu re men were to be permiued to copy
books. At, surely, JUSt about the same time Charles scnt to the archbishops a
circular letter "On the cultivation of leuers" that was to be distributed to suffragan bishops and abbots.''''' T his lettcr agai n urges the creation of schools "for
although it is bt:tter to do what is good than to know it, nevertheless knowing
comes beforc doing." The leut:r echoes many of the concerns expressed in the
Admonitio Gmn-alis and adds that because ,he Bible is full of "figures of speh,
!topes, and similar things" it is imporunllhat people gai n a " maSiery ofleners"
10 make possible and then to enhance Iheir "spi ritual undersl2nding." People
should be chosen for [his work who have both the will and [he maturity to carry
i, out. Knowing and doing are closely related. T he Byzantines. perhaps like the
Spanish adoption isrs, know ,he wrong things and thus do the wrong things [ 00 .
The Franks are humble enough [0 adm it that they do not now know everything
necessary to their "spiritual understanding" but they are trying hard to remedy
their deficiencies. They are seeking to build a better-ordered world .
Worship
Although T heodulf addressed the lopic of worship, particularly worship in spi rit
and (rUlh, this was nor a subject that came up often in explicit ways in the
legi,btK,n <>f Clurkm.gne or in , he writings of hi, contemp'",,";"'. v.:'o m.)

in 1 gen.,.1 ""')' ,h., lh..,dolr. "'m.:Irh "" """hip me, wi,h ,he
coun's f,,-o' in the upen disru"iofl< hdd one or mOl< ,imOl in R<g<n,burg in
79.,,><1 ]9}. But such. g<n.1 ... urnptio" 4."" ''''t i<k"tify 0< d ."ify .<pc<iiic
""'mpIOl. In the di"' .... ion ju.<t .1:>:".., or ....h ... tion.1 ,d;" m w< n"'Oced ,h ..
Ch.rI<m,,&,,< "'.... conC<ml.boot liturgicol .inging,.boot ,,""puhd-tho.,co.n< ocien", ,h.. permi"" ,ho con' ohs<",,,,,,n of ,ho f=" of rhe lirurgie>l
ynr .nd . b<mt P"'~f$ ofr.m! in . ho 'ighr fOml. I"u .. ,uch " th<><: Cl'O<5
be",-=n the ,"'m.. of order.nd ,"""hip. In ,he Ad"",nino ("muuliJ Clutk
""'go< I<mind"" hi. con,empor,,,ic, ,h., hi. f1th.. h.d begun ,he proc.... of
Ro"",niz.ing the liru'&l" beginning wirh ,h.m . He him""lf ",n,int"'" ,h .. elfon.
Hi. "",rd< ",A"" hi, thinking on thi. "'hj ' and On .... oy <><he" ",." '"they " 0
t<, brn tho Rom. n chant, , . in the mrr"" form. in conformity wi,h wh .. our
f..... r of bl......! memo,!" King Pippin , ,troY< '0 bring '" JnS> when he . bol
i.h<d ,he G,Uian ch..nr for ,h... k. of un.>nimit)' wi,h ,he .pt><,olic > .nd
the pe.cdul lurmony ofG",!', holy church." " " When Clurl.nugne m;<i~
from Rom ropy of ,h. Gregori.n ucro.menuf}' he . .. ign"" on. of hi d"i",,,,
Ilcnedict <>f Ani,nc, ,ft. rul: of 1o:bp,ing i, '" F... "ki,h u.<ag<' " n .. hook "."
"',,"i hook for ,he pope .nu IQ, the church of 'he city of Kam . Son.. of its
""-=i,l",,, i"d",.. n, '0 ,h< op< ... rion of ,he r ... nki,h ch",ch, ' nd m .. ny f"""
th .. ,...'" imponon' in Fr.n"" "",,,, J'C, fofC< .hsc:nt from this Rom.n book
Onu Ilcnlict e" n'pl1 hi,
Ch,,1e> '''"'''1''1 '0 inll"'''' ,he book on
h;, "'h........ Im. Hi< dfort ,,~un ... CCC<Sfu1 but did 'p ..-n gr.,.[.r liturgic:ol
uniformity th ... h.d <vcr before exi,,"" in ,he v:m F",nkiv. "..,rld. In 786
Ch.rl", i....."". cireub, I..." '0 ""comp. ny. new I'io"",!, th .. he h..d .,ked
I'.ul ,he lkaoon [0 prep'''' for, nim.'" AVin he
'0 rhe """k of hi,
f.. h... nJ iooi",,<tl ,h .. he " ..."IJ "',.... ",,'end i" '"r.m! by ,he ""''''1'1< of ~u,
(.,h" Pippin. , . by
uol .11 tho chorehcs of tho G.ul. b.c.m< g=I by
, ;nW"1I in , ... Run,.." ...di,i"",,.... "ith wi .. judg"""t. Of. no ku concoml
to <mbelli.h them wi,h . sai.. of rndinl!' of Y." acell.nce." I-Ie ",en, on '0
.soy .h" ft. h.d brn"" ,h .. ",me ",,,,i bo..k. W<f< oIoppily compil"" ,nu full
of aror<. r.ul. h< "Y" collect"" from , he '" ca,holic f..,he"," ,he hcst """ihle
comme",,";'" fo.- . II the
of the yea<. For Cha<1a """'hip W:I.1 no. only .
m.tt" of doing ,hing> corr<nl)" bm .1", of doing [ft.m in ,II< 'igh' [imes.nd
pI.u:c:t. A ~ "".mpl, ofhi, .ui""k i , ,h, th,,,, doY" "flitonics .nd ool<rnn
01 ...... ,),..t h. co.tII fo' in 7';It :l.> hi nny ..... .l<ttin~ out fur ,aml"'ign 'Vin"
the A......."" Another indi"''''r of Ch. rI.,', con<crn< .bour correct "",,,hip can
be ........ 1 from hi. prohibi''''", of ~n pr><[iC(!O . nJ .... p<",i,io"'. He l<gi ..
l>t"" "Vin...omh ...ycn, m. gicim. ""flick." ",i[h opiri", ,,"< .. he, p,oph.".
.....,m.
boo",
rtf."""
"'oo'"
rc.""
l.41
C ~t"PTER
FI V E
makt rs of magical ligaturts, people who worshiped at sacred springs or trees. lOl
In the 780s and 790S Charlemagne was still fully embroilt d wilh Ihe Saxons
whose conversion (0 Christianity was still new and partial. It is worth asking
whelhtr some of the Opus's worries about idolatry and supersti tion might have
been born of very real and recent encounters with pagan practias. Charles was
also concernt d aboul form s of prophecy of dubious autht nticity, Apparently a
letter was alleged (0 have fallen from ht aven somewhere and the king sa id simply
that such [rash is ro be burned and only "canonical books and catholic n eatises
and the works of holy authors" were (0 be read.:m Right practices had ro be
carried out in the right way. and evil practices extirpated. Charlemagne did not
reveal, ourside of what the Opus attributes to him. Theodulrs ttal for the deep
theological implications of worship, but he was second (0 none in his insistence
that things be done corre<:tly. Some of Charlemagne's coins bore the inscription
"CHRIST lANA RELlG IO ."IO) It is possible to interpret this as a direct affront
(0 what Theodulf called " Romana Ambitio."!04 For Einhard. Charlemagne's
courtier and eventually biographer, building the "Christian Rel igion " was a
matter of promoting the Chrislian cul(.20S Without corre<:t forms of worship
the Carolingians could not expt ro rtteive the divine f2vo r on which they
depended.
A word or [wo may be said about what I do not find in the age of Charlemagne..!06 Not one pand painting survives from the Caroli ngian period as a
whole. Palladia and prophylacteries were apparently unknown. No icon was
carried into battle. Frankish sources are silent on miraculous images. I know of
no account of an image's being kissed. embraced, or venerated in any way whatsoever. On JUSt one occasion Theodulf reacted to the possibility that an image
migh t be approached with candles and incense: (4.3) but he did not do so in a
way that suggesrs he was fa miliar with such practices. Instead, he was complaining about what he found in the Nicene acta. We have secn that cult practices
associated with icons may have arisen later than used to be thought and may
not have 1>n as deeply embedded in the tradition as the Nicene fa thers insisted.
We have seen, too, that a small amount of ambiguous evidenct hints at cult
practias associated with works of art in Merovingian Gau l and lombard Italy.
In the world of Theodulf and Charlemagne, such practias were either unknown
or unrecorded. Imagts. ItI alone icons, playtd no rolt in worship.
Conclusion
Modern writtrs inttrpret tht Opus in a number of dilTert nt ways. Schmand[, as
nOled, called it a "Staatn(hriji" (poli tical trC3tise) whilt Gt ro prefers "Strd t-
Tradition,
Ord~r. ~nd
Worship
l4}
schrift" (polemic).107 For 5taubach what was at stake was nothing less than the
" Wtltsullung" (place, or rank, in the world) of the Carolingians. 2"" Cha-zelle
insists that it is more than merely a polemic because of its profound theological
foundations. 109 Folz sees the Opus as "a doctrinal manifesto on the part of the
Frankish church,"'!'o and Jeck appears ro agree, saying that however political the
work may appear. all of its arguments are carefully grounded in theology.ZII So
Berndt sees the Opus as a "basic Carolingian course in theology,"'! ''! while Freeman, who knows the work bener than anyone cise, calls it a "summa" of Carolingian thought}1l Mitalaite sees the work as a sophisticated meditation on
Trinitarian theology.lI4 50 we have an oddity: a bare-knuckled political polemic
cast as a course in theology.
I contend that each of these scholars has grasped an important part of the
truth about the Opus. It was political and polemical. One need read only a page
or two to see that. But the polemic was not generalized ranting but instead
minutely focused dismantling. What was dismantled? Byzantium's claims to
biblical and Christian tradition. to au thentic rulership. to ap propriate ecclesiastical organi7.ation. T his process of deconstruction was done with small, sharp
instruments, not with messy explosives. T hus, indeed, every mincing argument
was accompanied by biblical proof-texts. by patristic authorities, and by methodological disquisitions. Moreover, it was not enough to show that the Greeks
were always wrong, il was also important to build strong. new thi ngs where the
old ones had been pulled down . So the Franks unde rstood the Bible, the great
commentators on the Bible, and Ihe intellectual tools necessary to careful and
correct study. The Franks alone held a place within the lines of biblical and
Christian traditions. The Franks had Ihe right kinds of rulers, the right kind of
church and churchmen , and the right spiritual attitudes with respect to relationships between the here and the he reafter. T here was indeed something " basic,"
someth ing "su mma"-like about the Opus.
In closing it is worth reiterating how important and creative were the years
between, roughly. 785 and 795. These years witnessed major military and diplomatic successes, the issuance of the most important legislatio n of Charlemagne's
royal period, the real beginnings of Carolingian an and architecture, and the
explosion of Carolingian courtly literature. The Opur was discussed in open
court more than once in these years. It is. therefore, hardly surprising that the
work talks of more than just II Nicaea and images. The combination of a thorny
issue, a creative moment, and a brilliant autho r produced a hook that opens
broad vistas on a decisive time in European history.
CHAPTE R S I X
The Age of Second Iconoclasm
fW """', rio. """" tptM {j.,. /I ""1aN! ...n.n.Mt rIo. . . ._ of

........dW ,_.",'...-M"'~ IwIJf-o _
,,_ .. _"]
rJw....,.. ..........,
""" J.-_~", fw rio. .~",""" <ha ..... Iv. ~

....... ,;;.. Of. t4;, ~ . . . rJ.t ~ -I"""' ...,. -I rio. G-Is
........... ","'
.,J,'''l """"-
-1"'- .... - r" ...... ,....W "'" "'" ~ """

....M.,
rIo. ..."'" ,, __ " ,. .. M.M.
1;1>"'1." '0 '>vpc ""'n VIII.
-A .... ,..,'" , ....
P",f... 00 Hi> Tf1I"Io,.", uf ,,," At" " JI Nian
TilE II .....HD I) UATt$
"""r i""go ,loa, ."r.oe,o:d so 00""" <n<,1P" and intd~
lie""" in ,he: righth ""nn.,. rooIrd ..... <.la.....y in ,he yc.> .. .r,er " Nicaca aod
Frankfun. In ,hr ~'Ol pop<S and f .. " k..o con, in"'" to ..."k '~hrr prod",_
,wdy.nd amiably dtsri,. thoi, diugrmcn" """';~ and ,htfi~. In
Ihr Eo .. , O><1di,ioou - . . .... M'fcl'l<. In 197 I..... d<cided 10 h.... hc:, fri,,,Iou.
"'" c.,.....mil'l< Vt blJndnl- hr diod from hi> ........oo.-n<i to ....."'" ruIc
......... f. he". di<l ruk f(Of ~vt ,....... . . lUJiIiu.. bu. <ht u.ckd the oon~ "
many k.,. CONli .... n.. in the I\yun.i .......... At:ronli"!;ly ......... <kp<.d m
fIo1 by Nit<pIt.olUl. who iaad booh IOtrisn and d.>tnntic P'obicn " "h~
m:ogni.~. TM Butp';'........ 1".... '" h.rd on hi> B..tL.. f'roo,;.,..nd tho:
K'doububl< H.ru" .!-lUochid and hn A .. b forca ........ucking An.> .... io.. tn_
.ide ,he ,calm. Nicq>horu> <onfrootcd ........ICdym5 ,he ....
poor 6 ... ncial ".,g_
tion.ond ...,ofyins btu .. q ...""lo in ,ho dlulth. Niuphonu fi:1I in. bonk ..ith
Kkan Knlm "dw 8u~n. in 'tl, to be ~ lOt only """ ran by Ml
i~ non-o"'rr. MH:h>d I R.lung.bt .
was. in tum. dq>ood in It} by
t..
..no
,I>< ,oughminded L= V ,he Anncni.n. Uo rrin,e"a! ironocl ..m in &, ).nd i,

i. he ,h" ,hi. char'O' pick.< up ,he ""')' in .""",..
1'>in. yc>n . fter Uo V ,ocsuhlis!.a! imnod.. m .. ,h. offi.;;.1 imr<n.1 pol_
icy, hi> ,ucc<or-Lro wa> himself mu,dcra! in 8lo_ Mich:u:1 II "TO!' '0
lou;, ,I>< rioo., CharkmagJ'c', ">o.oJ
H c i"f"rmod him ,bo o' tI,.
g<n."I ..... t>< of even" in Byun,ium, fOld him , li,~c .hou. ,<~'i iconodum, .nd .1<emp.l ro enli .. hi' in',,:>sion wi.h tI" phI" wnc<rning. ,rou_
hkoorn< i""nodule tdug ,,,mmuni.,. in Rome
louis dccidl ro .""mble h y ,kco1ogi.:rns fOt. ""lIoquy-no ""uneil. ..
we m..ll 5<'<-[0 mc<, .. r.,;" in 8'1 '0 10k< up [he im.g< qun,ion oncr . [;Oin.
Thi. ch.p''' bcp ... b)' p[<:n. ing "" badtground [0 'he ra,;" Colloquy. That
h><kground """,i,,, of. few "",,,.,.J h,n" .hom mminuing im.g< d;",u"ion>
in
1'.0<" .... rcrurr<nC< of B)'l'n.ine ironoda<m and i.. 'hrologial dimen
&ion., [he .. ngll ""in of Fr:rnko-B)'l'n[in. rel"i"", Ixtwn Ni= .nd ,h.
mid_hoo, anJ d.... dopmen" in Rome.
corr of II>< <hap'" offe... 'umm"
and .. wysi. of .he <>'<n,i"" rorJ, produo:J by .hoc P.n. Colloquy.
'''"''''''to
,h.
n-..
"0"
Th. Tangled I1g>cy of II Nic.a ...

The r",oh '0 !';oris in 8.j from Fronk"", .nd Nicl .. go ,hrough Con ... n';n~
nd Rom< bu, tak<.IOme dc,oo" .Iong ,Ix ""Y, Her< "'e need '0 f<,llow "nly a
few leng.h. of .he journey: The fare ofironod m .f<.. 787: F.... , \'('es. rrla,ion .
bmh 0"1,, .nd <cd"" ..,;",I, ;n ,h. gen.,"'"n .r,., Nioo>: and ,he oon,oluted politics of tl>< B)'l'n,ine <hurdl . EiglHh-ccntury ironod"m Ixg.on in ""
Eo" ",d .., dKl "S<:cond lconod .. m," '. i" heir i. """Ilr ",lied. To "nde""nd
what h.ppened in 'he We', and ,,hy. "'C mIlS' ona: .[;Oin bcpn in tlx Eo" .nd
",k no. only wha. h'pr<"'" the .. bu 100 wha, ,he \'('m knew 'oou, i[, . nd
ho,.,. ,he Wc>[ I.. lna! , 000, i[.
The ..,oni>hiRgly .. pid collip'" of iroRocwm Ix,,,,cen 78\, ...men [fOOPS hro~
up Irene. G", "'emp' ". hold. O"I,,"<il, .nd 787. wh.n Ni<:>e. ",,,,,Uy me', i,
one of ,he ""'" remarkabl nJ punting .. pcct. of.he whole hio')' of the
COfl[rovcny. '" w< have <n,
iu. dcsc"... high ma,k.< for hi killful man
agcmem of 11 NicIt> ",'i[h i" dipk>m>fic ,,"[men, of ho[h [h. I",urian 1<v<Y
aRd 'he iwnod ..... Gi,..:n that ironod"m ..... [h. offici, 1 poli')' of ,he cmpiIC
1".,...
~ 0"" might
"'Pro>< <lur rhe t<ndcncy "f the "flici.1 "",r. ofren

L". or d"","""' . ro I"'n"'1 i"""""u.rn .. luving Vlni.<h..J iiI<.:. wi,p of . "",l.
fur
.m.
i bit d=ptivc. Yot try .. ""'" might to ~r.d hinu of p<""nr controv.rSy.
tf.: ."ide"". fur iconocl ... ntim.nt in the rats
II Nia.a i. unimp rc;oivc.
In 797 Co", .. n.in. VI rh",.,cr>i T.,wu. wirh. ""ro",r;"n ofiro~m
ifh. would n(K 'g'oc to rf.: emp<fOf' di""r. ' Ir ;' iml""'ibl< to g:mgt ,..hother
thi. rhfC1t
tak<n rio ... I). In . ny asc. Con",," ri,,,, mer hOs unrimdy rod
. hortly
rhi, d<m:u"h r.d rhe ...... dOd nOf rome up ,"&,in. 1"1><1<: i, "'"
I<1l<>n t(, think tit., any<rn< in the WCSt brew . bout Co"'''ntin''' thl<1t. Th.
chronicler Tbroplu,.,.. imerudy diolik<d Emp<fO< Niccphoru oJ impli ,h..,
w"
.n:<r
he fnom:! a cn .. in "'putl().h<rrn it" o'mod Nicholas " 'ho h,d.n iron<><laltie
fulluwing .. Hcxo.I.wn;"n. lnroph.n funhe, implies th .. NiccpIloru." ,upI"'IT f(" Nicholas"'"'r 1uY< hccn ptompt<d by his OWl! 'lU2rtcl, wirh P.rr"u;h
Nip"""".' U...;., M'clud I. NkhoLu ..... for<;! ro flUke , puhli. reon ... tioo of hi iew> .r.d 00. of hiJ followerS who h.d d.m,g<"d .n im>g< of the
lbro.oko. Iud hi. ronguc rur ou . Throph:m<> .100 rq>O<t. tlut . on the <>" of
the B.ttle of V.rSinie;'. itself. """ "roph ic defea. fur the 1\)'laJrrina at rho
lur.d. of ,IK Bolg:rri. "". , bar.d of 'ronocLu" cirruL.lt<d rumor> rlu, ("..on.I.1n,_
in. V..-.. !!Oin~'o 'PI"''' Qn t..-:r""t-oi. n, bd rho G_ ~ to"",. n.., ,,,,ubi<om.I.<" .... '" . p p.,cntly roundot! up wi' oout mud, difficulty. Th. iro'>I).<hi<:red by Mi
dud I.' Whether ,hi, i" cidem j"stifies Al=nde', rem,'" th.t "lcl.i<k ntly.
th. sold;.,y' in tIK "".,; ..1 wa> "ill icoood ..,i" iJ <>r<n to qun'ioo.' Som
.mob,.. h:....: dctt<d in ""me of Niccpoorui ...~i'i ngs an ... icly ovc-r iron<>d .., .. n,imen, . mong ,,'m< biJhQP" wi,t..-:r ~r being .bl. ", rum. rum ... ' Th.
,.,.,;labl< ""i<knce fur irunocu.m wi,hin ,h< . mpire Os minu, r.d 'mbigu<>U>From jo" "~"'d. rhe empire rhere u 011< . null pio of ronn:mpo"'ty
.. idr:"cc
i. '''Or. n.. riging ,I.:on ,....,.linS. Ilc<wc<:n 79' , 0.1 8" Tho.>J"re
Ahll Qur .. h (e>. 7~I!O-or. 81012\, one-,;me monk of Sr. Sob.>. bridly biJhop
of H.,,,,,, . and > p.....lil>c ,,,,ho.) .......... ;n A",b" . ,....,. ;n dcf"" .. of im.g
.n,l th.i. n.,."ioo ' He ...... Jee.ply indebo..J to John D,muc.n<, "f.""...,,1u
he m.y ""II h>v< encoum<r<d ,,h<n he orudi<d.,
S>b.>. AI,bough i,..."",
d.,r
T he<>J,,,. " ." .,j,h... ing M".Jim . n,l """,bly J...-iJh. o PPO"' " '' of
in"K<I. i, ., croncc.,..!:>I.
h. Iud ..-.me kn""icdg.: of ,h. <m ",n, ,urc of ,he
im>g< rontro,"",'l' i n I\yun'iu m .r.d of " Nit=:L' M., S. ba h.d inlp',"""
.nJ ront;nuou< ronnt<"tiun' witl, Rom nd in 808 tl>< moolu of 'hi' C ....k
morwt<ry ~ F.. "k;,h monlto o n the Mount or OliVdo o/"h .....y.1lrcoe
F" nlU.h monlto wrote '0 POI'" 1.> III who fosward<d rhei. oom plainu to Or . ...
kn,,&,," Ch"lem>gn . for hOs p.>n. h..d OCC>"Qn. 1 d.,ling< wi,h Pm h
,Iu,
,Iu,
M.,
,Iu,
""' .... kooo<l.....
"<7
Thorn. , of )<", ... I<n,. who m.y h.,-< know" Th:w.lore ",<I who m'r !u"" h,d
..d"ion< wirh , he Mdkitt p"ri ...<h of An,;.xh who d.po"'" Th"",I0
hi,
buhol',i.:" H Ol"T:ln ,n .bo~, 811. I woolcl not cal< '" pr<$S '00 b.n! on)'d.men'
of ,be. " "ry. b,,, 1<10 ,hini ,h" i, poin" '" ,ho possibility d"" p>pl. in Rom<
,n<! in F"""i. jUII mighl h..clud "'''''' i",im,,;"n ,Iu, ,h<re "'~. di"""i,,"
of im.~ going "n i" Ihe "'S'on of P. l.::.lil><.
Miclud l",dil4>''''''' <kf""" Ve"inic;' in g') ..... uused in no .molll" "
by ,h. <kf"",ion "r ''''''I'' who wtffloy.rl '" Leo ,h. A",,,,"i.n. W;,h in a f....
wed. Mich.d h.d . bdi<a.eJ ,nJ it hcc.>me d"", , ... , I...., "'-., suing ", .... CC-d
to him,' Even bcfOfC he enrcrl the ,iry. l<o ",n', 1<11<, ," r , trU.fCh N""vh01U .....,ning hi> o"hodo. )' and p,omuing n01 '0 innol'>.I' in ,digion. " %.n
l<o did <l\IeI O:on".nritlopk. NipllOl'" ",n, <kl'll",i"" ,,( I~.hol" '" ...."
witl,
uf "nhodO>.y fur the new ."'p<ror '" .igu. l<o ..... r<d ,h.
hisJ,,,,,, , ... , he agr<! wi,h cv.tphing in ,h.i, dommen, .nd ,h>.l he would
.ign i,. 11m he did no' do '" hofof< hi. <Dron." """ .nd af,,,,,,d h< <kclined,"
I',,,,umably h...... k"l'ing <>p<n rho "1";"" of innov.. ing.
UrInop!ril< .... ultt> .<;0)' ,h...1""", iln mli.ly on bcwming .mperor l<o beg;rn ' 0 II"n,p'" ,h. ""h~m.n" of l<o
III . nd 0>"."n,in. V. He even .. n. m! hi, ",n Symh;"ios. Con".n,i"", H
...,m, '0 h"" m><le , ho poi01 ,h .. I"g>n, " "fC triumphing 0"'" Chri"i.",
became of iron nd ho rem . rkcd thor all ironoci.s. <mpelO" were ,,,"",,ful
,II icnnodul .. w.... (,ilur." It ...,m, th", '"'''' >g>ill_ ."',,,"'I.,no .....
"bo'n in ,he purpl<:' l<o V. lik. l<o 111 befut. hi",. 'm' !;<nuilld~ '" I,.v<liev."j , ... , ,f",h pu,ifr<..i of images w..uk! on"" 'V.n b"ng cii,i"" r,vo, on
rl>< IIp.. nrintS.
H. moved """,in".ly, Un,il hi. , ..dd." dalh i" ~'4 ":!un ": ",m "'-.. ,h'<>'I cning rho upi ... l . nd commanding mo" of l<o -, .IIenr;"n, Mor" .U 'n. by .hi,
,ime iro""Phil;' hod bn offici.l poli<y fOr dodn, The I"'ri>.rdr ..... . kno"- n
1<><1...
ic<>"nph'k .. were ,he ."8,,,,,,,;,1 S".J;,. mo"l . ""'yeJ hehi,.J
Abbot ThrodOf<. A I., .. repon in 'he Lift ofNiu"" ~fM<t1ilfflm (written bdOre
8W'UJ "Y' .h" I'e.. plc ""s>n "-' "Ik ' ''>0''8 ,hem",l"" ,)?in>t Ihe hi.oly iaon'.'j
Anothor """"" .<;oY' th .. , "'in hi. =nod y<>''" l<o .ppoin'ed ",dy ""m",."i""
r"', <v.".u:rlly grew 1O.i>: m.mho" unde, rho leork .. hip of ,ho ,"-,di ./<>h n
H)~ib<, I.'et called rh. G"mm"i. n: " n.. >tudy commi,";"n .. nJcnook rQ
>careh thc hi"",y of rho church fo, c>'Kk""" ,h" im>gQ WCI<' rCCem iono\':I"
,ion .. ><I off""iv< '" ""h,,,,", ,,..,Ji",,n . The comm;"ion .1;0 inr,nd".j 10
...... ,,"'" ,h. ,.-.ching< of Ihc Co"ncil uf Hi.,.;. ,"
I" , he ",n,m" of 8,~ ,he ."mmi"",". ,hen <"" ,,Sling of ""I)' ,h,,,,, mem_
t..-... Joh .. . ",1 ,,," impe,;'1 hu.-co.".,.-.... pOd<n,ed NiI'''"'''' " -, ,h . few 1",,-
f"""
",1<,,,,,,,,
'''''.1''''
""';I.
,b..,
;lr """'mbled """"~ ' lbc JUtri."h f<'!pondcd ttt.t the 1"'. . . . in '1u<>t;"n
"' ..... Iy oo"<krnned I"'ll"n ;dol" nOl Ch,;.,ti.n im.g. !.ro', rpon'" r<> thi'
"'tbaek ..... to <lIl"'nd tM rommi"ion by adding to it tw<> monl<>.nod 10,,1001'>
men who ..... r< mol< ""mmpli,OOJ ,1I..,logi.n, ,tt.n John. Ini,;"i!y ,his ",mmi.<,;"n >:m, '0 luve hccn wo.king with the"""" of 754. which would in"" bttn
rndily ' I?iubl< in ,h. "'"'" ofll Ni= whol< i' ..... ci,ed.nod ,.futed in <1< .. (1;
. n Ofigi .... l copy migb, in", wn .... iul>lc in ,h. p. ,.iarctt.llib ... I)o. Th. h<> ....
ofH .. ,cl. 1ud . mbc4kd in i, KIm' patristic citation, but by no m"'''' the full
Jocun><I".,;"n enlke,ed in 7H. S"",.h uw , then, <1 .. . o,",,,i.,"'n 'Pre>'" to
tt.,. go"en ilS h.nds on addi'ional nUI;,.I, pemapl ,I>< f,,11 """ of 7H. petlul"
the I"'''",ic R"rikg;um P"l"'mi in con"",,;"n ",i,h Hiel<ia. pe,lups ,he Rori .
l<gium P"l"'mi by Con".n.in. V. Equipped "i, h !h" much fullc. JUn'. ic
.... n.1 ,he enmm;"i"n ,ubm;,,I, ..,J,.,.",ial rqx>f' '" I..., in Dtaml:>e . I...,
summoned the I"'"i."h .nil _11<<<1 him if he woold "i'<"< to !he r<mov:ol of
image> f'om ~>W . nd
pla.;q. Nicrphoru. ,ofuoed. 1-<0 <I.." 1<<<1 him
tn ")' wh<<< in the x , ipmm; O<IC might find a ~uircmem '" ,'cncr:o,. i~,
Niphoru. ""p<>nodl .in, many of ,he clmrch', ,.-.diuo"". 10"8 held , nd
dc<pI~ I:>el~ . ....... ,,"w,iucn btu no 1<>< . u,hentic foe ,luf. !.ro ,hen .. id
,ha, he in f"", hul " h;" di'l"""l m.jo. ""Iket;"n of p.,.;."", ....,,Ul flu,
deafly ovposcd imag<'. "In" ..... ub-iou.l r the oo..i<t Ihr o<",,",
Iud
r=ndy gi,-.n to him. H. demanded a .. rious deb;,,, on the issue<. 1'o'i<cpho""
d.dined to Jebat. but did ..nil. dep"",ion of ironophi" detiCl '" pfd<nt
th<i' "'ew< to the eml"'o" At .bout ,h...me ,ime Kline t<OOpl i~ tl>< city
,h.ew mud .~d .. on.. at .n i"'-'g< of Ch,i" ov<, fhe Ctt.lk< Il"f< of ,h. irnJ><lw
pol. .nd L.ro "'''''.. .I ,h. image, cl.imin! that h. did KI only'" proc= it
from the mob..... o.,;"t",-" 'pp""",OOJ . Ni<q>ho"" anJ the i<oflop!.ik clergy
held igil of pr:o)... " Hag;. Sophi, . Niphoru. ,hen Iud !.ro', "",""iet ~
.,,,,.,.,ib!e
.,'on
ou, '" ,he group and .,ked if '~' ... <r< ""Iidly ~ '0 it. They "'.."". On
Ch.i"m., morning I"" summoned fl>< iennophile group '0 ,h" JUUce . In .
pli..-.,. rnrt<in~ " 'ith ,h. I"'"i",h. 1.<"<> ,,<oer:oted , ,,,,.11 im>g< th .. he WOr<
.""'nJ hi' ned .nd a.. ured 'h< I"'ui.,ch th .. he hul no int~tiQn of d<po<ing
him. l)unng ,he <delm'ion of ,he d>y'. liturgy. Leo publicly ><e".r:o,ed >n
imag< on on .1",. clo,h. 00 Epiphany. however. !.ro did not vco.r:o", ,II< ... m
1",< d oth ."d hr bcpn mtimiJ,'ing d .. men,be" of the I"""uch', 'col)0l'hil.
group. '1", empero, won over . good nuo~ of,hem .od b<gan '0 pr<>SUl'C ,h.
JU,.i.rch . A, ,he bcJIinning of \.en, in S,! 1..0 ded.red flu, Nic.phoru. Iud
.Wic,,.1 bocoul< he could no< ..J,'.n.., F"".,,,,,iv< . 'Sum.n" il) (."". of inup
Th. I"'"i.",h had inJccd .bJic,,,,,d "nod., PS<UIC" ,nod he ..... '<pI>eed "
","'e, by T1u;odOl tll Me!'I.\.COUI, nephew or Coootmtio. V. Shor,ly , h.r<>r.."

Leo ronv<nOO. new coune,l '" con,id<r ,he m," <r of im.g<'>.
Th, coolleil m<1 >t H.gi. Soph;. un,l.. ,h, k.d ...... ip "f P.. ri>rch Th .. ><l< ..
,u, . nd , he emre'or'. ",", now coiled eon"""'i .....
oumho, "f p"ri<;ip>m,
i. no' known. S,,,dy 'he ironop....,l,.. who h>d m.,i.liud du,inS 8'J .nd 8, .
w= prcxn, . nd prob. bly .1", ,h"", fo'm<r ironophil .. ""'n over by ,he em
ref<)' in <>.,Iy 8'1. The council mer in , hrtt ""''''Ill. Outing ,h.
,he """'ie'
prep>tc<l by lc<>', commi";"n in S'i w".-...d (~" . nd ,ffi,m<:.t, n " "<'>,
;orne ironophik bi.hop. were .... mmooed . nd wh.n ,hey ,du.cd ," b..Jgc on
,hei, f. i,h in im>gcs ,h.,.'.....-rc Io<>l<n, '1"" upon, . nd pelled . In ,hirJ ....
sion. 'hiJ ,ime undc, imre,;'1 presiden')',. ~ w p'ep>rl . nd "N'""od."
Th. "'"'" of ,he Co,,"ea of H>gi. So""i. du "u' .u,..i"" .. . ,ingle. coh,ren,
documen,. HO"TVC'. 'he deer<"< of ,he coo .... il ., well '" it> >CCOml"'nying 1""
"i"ie Ilo'ilegium h,,,,,been pmi.lly ,eco"struCled by ['.ul Alcxander from cit>,jou , -' nd
in """I<.< "",;uen in ..;1. by P.uuteh Ni"""ho"" " My
fitting ,hc:se ,,,,,,... 1r",g "'en .. '''I;<'her i, i, poible '0 r"rm a rnsoo,bly deo,
picture of wh .. ,h. council ,e,u.U)' !>ugh'.
The council p,,;..,d , he I.. uri.n , by n""", .fIi,ml ,he ,<"hingo of Hi<,
cia, . Dd apr=cd ~n"" ,hot "wom. nly , implieil)''' hod led penple ",t:ly in
,he ti .... ofT.""i",. Hiete;. , .......... , hul 'hr<"< " .. in ,,,,,,hong> ' ,) i""~",,.te
....,"' i. lly idol" 1) icon< of Ch"" .;,her circum""ib< hi, uncium",ribal>le
divini,y 0 ' .pIi' hi, di.ine ""d hum,,, n.""~; J) i".. gcs a",,,,, convry 'he
..,u,,,,,,...:1 glory of ,he ",in". It will b< r=lIed. '00, ,h" in 7H ,h. hisho!"
lef, .,ide ,he 'hrol"llicoJ ,pccul.,ion, of Con ... n""e V '" ,h. eIf, ,h" .n
i"",SO . "" it> I"u,,,,yp. hul '0 be ""t'I>ul""",ul .nd ,h", -><a>nlingl)', only ,h
...:h. , i" was . ,rue and P"'P i~, In 8,\. ,he bi.h<>!"omifted ,h rgum.n,
i"",gc> were idok l"hiJ h.d been refutl rcccntly 1:- Ni"""....,,,.. ,n" w.u
.J,,-.ys ' """"k .,gum.n,. I.ik<wi ..., . nd <bpi.. i" <>plici' pt:l;" for Con", " ';ne
V,
council rollowed H ieteu 10 ignoring ' he iJcn,i6a,i"" "r 'he cucluri"
,",'i,h ,he ,,,,. ;"ug<. So" ,he
did
H iei" ",he< [,.uic ,c.ehingo
~I'h ""gh wh .. wu ",id in 8'1 .I,ou, Ch,;""I,'I!Y ;' <>gUO. The p. tr;',i<; Aoril<gium of g,! dca). " gt<O. leng,h ... i,h 'he ><>--aIled "rthic:ol ,bcory" "f Im>g~,
The hi""",,,, in 8, ! , ,h.n, "id 1i,,1 bou( ,h. old Ch,i,,,,logic:ol J eh .. ~ .n"
.... ",.,.j ,,,",, of ,h.i, <'''''I\,)' f",. di"""",," "f ,h< ""0"' of ,h< 'rue inug<
"1"hi, n.,ur< ,hey [0 .. ...:1 wi,h.he ,i!tHe . nd nompk of ,he .,in". T hi, '''S'''
men' ""'Y he ("med ""',h n<g:>,i""Jy .nd [lO>i'ivdy. 1"h" is, on , he ""S". i,'e
,ide, no im.g< COn ",[>'or< ,h ..,urr ...:1 gk>ry of ,he ..,in" or conl'<y .n)'
imp.... ion of 'he .i""" 'k" h>J c-.mcd ,he .. in' , ""i ng~ ... in h..... n. On
,he [lO>i,;,~ .ide, only in _,d>-preached or ,..d----<<>uld <>fle find 'rue im.ga
no.
fi",.
,.,Ii"""""
,ho,
,h.
"",,,,.;1
.1Ii""
"'r
,,<>.
we,.
of Jaints. 11><
,!Kir d.nl! and ,h",.
image i. a Chris,ian >pring in
hi. 0' he, Ii(. ,h. "",ion. of ,h...in". "
lLo.oJ hi, .bial a.....,""<> Iud procttd<d "'I)" au<io",I~" " "n..,. Iud
,neJ "'I)" Iu,d ,h'ough"", 8,~ and arly g'l '" gel ,h. I"""",h '0 """"1"""1< in
.. I.." &onl< fotm:ol i,itism of i"",&",. Thor Iud nut!< an h" ..... <ffi:m '"
,ufV<")' tI>< souro:<. Thry h.d. "Pf"Icr>'Iy. ~Acn'" hcan tI>< <ritici"" txptcutd
.. Ni<:aca." ,I>< dfea ,h" ,h. bishops .. Hi ...", Iud WQ,Iu:d from ""'.. pi,.
la~"----cJI'r.>CtS. probohly in a iIorikgium-r.nhe, .hon from full ,af>. Th ...
hey UO<d .h. dorumrnta.iun "f 754 .0 CI.!T)I OUr .h..",ugh f<'tch in 1"11.... i,
m," uscrip<<-'oId Nictplwr ... of .heil findinJS'. and
prco"",ably. <';~<d
,hei' .." ... " in 8' 5 from romp],,"
Thi, """0KI"1.<0 p",mined ,h, iro...,.
II NOc>ca "';,h fOm< <<>1'<<'_ T" be ",,,,.,hey w:>n,<d i, .....id .
And in 8'5 'hry Jid <"<jee' its ""'''''. II",
,-..:.ic inwlY! n...,.;n8 Nico"i.
ob;":rion. to Hietri., .d.ob."hip ,,i,h in,f'<CC"bI.: ",h"'",hip of ,""ir ""'" "n
!Ix vel)" m. tt .. of p,u,; .. ic ,.-..di,ioo. It is as if ,hey we saying tha,
V,h<,ed >< Nie><o>. <,~. "ndcrou...ubly. l:><a.us< 'hry Iud n..... ' .... n .h. i).
!IOph""" WI< m,d<: fully and ()11 irs ow 'IllS. I, is in :testing roo ,ho, wh<ffil
Hi.;., had IaI><Ied i",noplrii<> ., .i,h" Monopirpi,a o.r Nnwrian . H:i@.
Sophia . voi<kd ,he>< 'ag:r. :oil ,he whi]" maintaining ,h... m< 'hrologicol pI;_
,ion . [nvee,i"" and ",,,,,,<ailing WeI"< achcvmt. The "Id 'rgun>rn' .boo, idol._
'I)".
on ... biqui,,,,,, p<><i,ioo in i"'''''Ph'''''' .... i'ing from
fOytt" ctn,u/)'.
and ' o",ly ,he phm./)' ob;..:.ion of empc"''' Leo 111 .nd to:<> V..... omitted.
The "",uneil m.>ok "" e~plici ' ,,,,,cn'en, .oou, [he need to d<>u"Y image! .nJ
did no< add"" 1.0:0" ,ugg<s<ion "f [h. 1""""'0'" yeo, ,h.. iQw.hanging inuS'"
I>< eJ<V>.!<d. The ",unci]", po,i,ion, " ..,," /i,w . od ca,dtili)' "'''ula.or!.
pool>es." "..,
,"'=n.
.".
,I><i,
,h. fa,h."
,h.
,h.
,h.
Thi .,n,. ca u,i"", mi,ud< . ".nJed

emp<""', >CfWn. in ,h< ,in", f~" .m"
,h. ""oneil:" Nictplro.r ... h,d i"i,i.lly betn han i,hed , .... "",n.",ry h< h.ad
rounded bu, II. wao ,hen nw:woJ f,,,h., .way f...,,,, ,he api'.J. Only ,1>0: n>os<
~I<i, ... n' f(,." .,r .h. <" ,p<rol" polioy Wd"< ",;11. "mons ,he,n d "1<,,,1"".
0 .... Tl',oo"'t of S,ud.,n. wlro ...... n. '" M",,,p" in ,h. Ol"ikion ,heme
fusicall y Leo , >ked bishop> and .bl>o" [0 acccpr rornmu nWn wi[h llrrodocw.
,,ho ro, h .. Jn made ... ,crn.nll implying [ho, he .... ' rnlly Jni. 1 '0 inugcs:
.",,,,menu in "'h"h he ...... ",rprUi~y. joined by John ,I>< Grammarian. N"
on ....., .. k<d ro m.k public .how of <ksorc..,inS an imag<o Aj,hough im"",i.!
cffo'rs focUO<d on Con,un,inopk. 'h<<< is c-,.;,jen [ha, pr=u ..... h,ough[
ft,
be.. ""'')'pl"" ,h ml"'ro, h .l 'n)'
..,..iou, 1U[h",i'l'_ AlT., hi, mili....,.
,"d Muslim. in $.6. Leo h<g.>n '0 m"", mo ..

ig<:>mtJsI)' ' goin" .h.,.. ",h" ~ him_ T heod<>f<, fo< e"'mple, whoo< """".
'I"-'ndenct "",:>1 Iu, he "-,, "",n,ng ,n ""en';... op!",';,i"n nW<)<k, "-"
mOW<! f",hor from .he ""pi"l, ." 1""'= in ,he An'lOlic ,heme. Nictphorus,
",ho wa. , Iw ,..,iting oncruivdy. "'.. , pl>el under do .. ,
Some bi>hop>
10.. ,hei, iCeS. Prob;obly front
,his ,ime dm. , lweI "fTn"""",.. ... hieh
"Y' ,h.. im.g<S wer< being Jes''''~ <YCrywhm:, " AIt mAing . 11",...nee< /("
Tn""""re', u....1 hY',,,,i . nd ,he . Imus, ",..I .b..ma: "f rocroborotin& e.,i
den'e. it i. prob. bl) .. fn, l<> ... ume
,he .. wOj romp .... 'i .-I) little >OWlI
icnn""l"m ,od ,h"
,,r ,h".. who
.-..d ..iI. '" ",h" ".... <>-1,dle,J fmm
,hei' olli,,, "'.... punished for A.unting ,heir f'Olitial "prruOt>n ,,, the em
ror. The f"", i. th .. t..ge numbers of people .... nt .Iong wi,h the empe"".
Tni. Iud . 1", h.ppcne,J in ,he .igill" mu..,.. " Religiou rt h.d once 'I\'in
berorne, ,un"""l" ofBrun'ine roli,;". II w .. roo<ly to be I....
Auent ..
.,y gi",n mom.nt.
Wh. [he .igh,h.cen,Uf), phu< of [he inug< <onllO'.<' i, ron,eflled. we
nOli<;c-d 1 cefl.in I"....do<- The i",noph"""", who w ... rcp .... n'ed by ,hoi, foes
.. inn"'""" ...-rn though they h.d ",lid claim. to ,rodition. w<re in fae, mOle
oop/li>[ieo,l.nd rCl<)ufC<ful in . ""ir op!"'.i.ion.o im,S'" ,h,n ,hoi, icooophile
fo<>, wh.o rep .... ml them .. lvn .. ,he kr<<> of t... di,ion. de;pi the rebti,.
novelty of .orne of wh;" ,hey h<licve,J, ""'" in d<f~nding im,s<"_ In ,he ninl~
ctn,u..,. ph.", thi' 1",.00. i, .. ined bu, its p"I. ,;,)' <> ""-....-.1. Each <ide
d . iml exclusive po<><><ion of , ~e ,rodi[io" of .he church . nd denied po ..... ion
w ,he;' UPPO'I<'"'' n"" is not ,..... \l:'lut i. n.... i, tI"'t the icunophobn "-'
VOl)' mode" in .d,'.neing [hoi, "icw:t while ,he iconophil ,,,ue,J on High .. of
p~ilusop~ieol .nd [hrologic>1 >p:Ui.[ion ,IL" OIloci <>Tn ,h.,.. of John of
D""...:m who wu. in .ny c>s<, m.,silUlibOd b)' [~e f. ,hco of N;c><>_ Thi,
point
hi, of <nlp""i,
,h..."".pocti ..~ ligh' i, .....Is "n ,he di .......
<ion in Ch. plC' , of ,he of,," . h;SI",i""I,.nJency . mong "'m' Onl,OOo' ,h..,.
I,ogi. n"J hi"<,,i.~ . ". 11"'" "niq"dy p".il<g<>l
,he """norhil<
view wi,bi" the hinoey of Chri"i.. ity . nd . 1", to >Mume that ,]1 "-'p1S of ,ho,
,icw . <Uk .imul1>n<usl y .oJ .-.rly, Anothe, problem wi,h tlut unhi.",,,,,,1
.iew... w< <Ow in Chop '<T 4. i, ,ha, i[ erccts 01>. ...1<> [0 unde .... ncl ing " .... ,
the eigluhntuey F"mits kn ..... unde"tood, . oJ ' Clf'Ondl ' 0, It """ >C'Iually
in ,heir =e.io", '0 Sownd h:onoclas m .Iu[ Ni<-ephoru, .ncl Th""""", of S,ydio" ... <I<"',n ,he ten", of wh" h", b.-corne 'he ."nd"J
teaching
.00ut i",n .
10 vaJ)'ing d<gt~ l'<icepholU$ .".1 Th"""" .esponded ro I><"h 7H .nd
.U<Ce<S<O >gain" ,he BuIS"i,,,,
.rr<>'.
.boo,
'M'
."rr
m.-..,
' 'OIl
<i<><""",
ro.
,..m, '"
O"hoo",
8'1_ 11m ,hei' ....,Jumi""". w,i,ing< .... hy M memo p"rely """"i"".ry. Thry
. 1", iO,m"b, ...1 I""i,i", """'';ne>. T"l!C<k, ,lory at:h Ocv<-d. in Alrun<l<t'.
wmd . ,h. phik,wphic:ol dim ... <>f ,h n,i ... """""""y."" W. n<:<d f,... '"
o/k, n" mort ,fun , b,i.f !<Im"""ion <>f ,h. p,ineip>l ,h<-tne. .nd in""" in
,k n;n,h-o:n",ry ... ,;, inl\> of ,he OW> G"",~ ... ,;,. ... , 1'1", Ii ....
0'" of
cirrut.,cd in ,h. WCSt. No Ro,;logium f,,,nl " 'h ;ch 'hey drew cvi<koc<
..... Ittn or a~ hy .nyone in ,he WCS[. The fOllowing wmJrul.,. I<I"VCS
m.inly ... Nc4ro"nd rtmindor of p" h, no' .. ken by WOl,,,,n ,hin,,",,_ lIu.
dx u-<mend"". developmen' ~ Ea.," ""'..pot obout im~ i100 an imor
..,ing ><>n'1'"''' '0 ' he m..ci I) mort .uti, \iI;'Cltorn .-jew,
Whil. Ihry....". in ",ik Nic<p'u",,,, .nd The.-.d" .. prod ,""""' ..... , ""'I""
~ Ii"'tul< on ,he klbi' of images, Pr;"",;ly they add, .. !<-d ,hem"h-", '0
wh.,1ud hun .. id in 754 b u' rI.ry .1.., '1""k
,h. "",,,,eil of815_ N",<!
,he ..... ,hei, wn,ings "".. no, m .-oJy rd>,,,,.ion. of wh" h,d bttn .. iJ by
iconophobn. They al ... n.cmul .. cd I\cW doc!,;ncs and dr.doped. n...- ap-pru.d ... to ,It . ... Jo ......,,!:>;.-c,- TugttJ, th<)' '<p"""n, ,he high poin, <>f Bruntinc 'hcoIogiaJ rcAca;"" "" the qU<'Stioo of...,red imogcs."
They .gr<-I on many ,hing<. For io"',,"". botb ...,,1 from ,h. Ii.led.._
memo! Chri .. , ... "'1" ' ''1 of til< i"",,,, .. ion. li k ..-. m. ny be ..". ,h.m. ,h<)'
b<1i<v"<d that the in",,,,,,i,,,, ~ God 1$. nun j .... tifiro i~ But th<)' wen,
furth.c, tlu.n ."yone else had goD< in .... )ing ,h.. dx incama,ion .""wly r=<lc
im>g ~? "flu, i>. beelUse Chris, 'Pl""red ... m. n. he h,J 1<, b< d<piM. Othcrwis<. ,he truth of dx in(:ln Ultion W2$ aJktl into qu"''''n. A
purd y "I'i,;, ....1 ''''''go <>fChris, is DO' cnotIgh. For Nipbonu. morro"",. " Jr
;, n", Ch,;" but the eRti", "ni",,,,,
d;"pf'<'I">;f the... ;, no longe' .i,her
orcu ,""," I""'""' '" Oro,,:'" Both "i,1 th .. ;f then: "",re nO i,~ <I", .. ,he
;Dam:";,,n might.s ,,dl ho", n...... taken pi>ce. It ,,'" a bold mo.~ '0 g<> f,o m
.. ying
,he in<.m""'n a",hortocd im>g<> '0 .. )-;ng .h" i, requited them .
Th<)'~. '00. ,lu., <igh' " .... rom",'M '0 ",unJ (which m",os hearing.
in ,h. sense ofhcoring a 'nr' rc>d "u,), ,h. nobl .. .l<nS<. Likewise they.gr=l
,h., bcca .... " f ,I.. ina"',,;" .. O,;"i .... h.J n" ..... m ..' '" .u:..-.luc '" ,ulpCC!
.... " ... GOO h,.ing bt>me Ac.h, .....
h.J hun etc..tro in , ..,"', Not.1I
m." .. in .1I circ"""un=. oiwio",ly. bur n....." 'Vin ....,.,Id i, he .""ugh '0
di.",i .. vii. m,,'" '" '0 rondemn "' ..... bea"se they .....;" of dc.d m.nn
because th<)' arc "",Ik..: Fi",Uy. they ..... ted the .j..... tlut i""G<' "'m.h ....
cun~ tho ro nl<mpo~'l' rcal;ty "f the r<"'<'n whom ,hey depiel.!. They
we", nO! merely hi"ori<-.l. llu, ;.. 'h<)' .00..' ,hings .. 'h<)' .r<. no, .. ,hC)'
~. lcoru ..-<r<. on ,hi iew .horply Jiffcrcnr;'tl (",m ~i.
Al'hough 'h.ph,,1 id ..., ThroJol< .nd Nic<phoru, .1.., muk inJi"idu.1
'to'"
,!.ci, '''''..
.oo..,
,Iu,
,I..,
.,C!
<;om,ib," iolll '0 'he newly emerging ,heory of im.ges, Theodo .. usN A,i"OIeli.n philo.oophy ", work OU t ,h< .d"ion,hip botwn inuS" ,nd p""<:><ype. ro
delino ,h. n>tur<: of ,he ,rue irn>g<. Fo. Theoduro . he im>go .nJ its .rchctYfl<
dirk, in m"o""l. in n>tun:. Bur.t.cy .ha... n.mo. In mho. """d . Throdur<:
u""'
,h. A.i"",di", cl"1,.",,,,, of ",Lo,i"" '" .h"", h,.... itn..S" . nd P"'''>1YJ>< ""
conn,al. H< m.1t.. m :uion in . ;en.. ,1.0 .. i, ,h.., pin! ,1.0 "'u. H. usN ,1.0
.",~. 0(. body .nJ it> "'.dow. No .t..d,.... COn oj" ... i,hou, its body,"d
no body .. i,TS ,ha, d"", nor "'" h.>dow. I( 0"" ~ J "d,..... ,hi. poin ..
inevi,.b1y
body. So. rhen . n im,S" of Chr'" poim. ro Chr;' .. Funh.,morc .
ina . n im>g< h.. ""li,y onlr in i", P"',o,YJ><. ,he .. can h< only one kind of
'0.
tI,.
,ha",
,'."" ..,ion >eo>r<kJ 'O'n 'tn'g<. ,he .. on. vcno .... 'ion
.""f'<kd to
Plu,o'YI'<. Finally. wheTo.. rho ico nod.", h.d developed ,1.0 idea th .. C h ri"
o;sumcd hum.ni,y gtn ..... Jly. Theodol< ropond..J ,I. .. Chri" hod in r.., >S. urncd . unlquo .nd indi.id w l hum:",i..,.. Funhennorc. ,I... hum,oity " ... one
n" ul< 'h ....... joioxd t<). d ivi"" n",,1< in ingle hYl"o<,.,i" Th", .oy i",;og<
did in fir" ==1 ,h. h)l""'r.,i, ,h ....iWl .. }cw. Ch,;'. Th<r< could. in ",h<r
words. Ix no '1u",ioo of ><p.>". ing o. (onfu,ing .hoc o, mlCO of Christ 1:>-...,..
,lI... did n,-,t exist .p. n from t heir pr<><na "'tI<.he, in ,iogl. hy" ,,,,.. i.
Ft<},n ,hi, i, fOil ......
;m,~< d"", no, "",aI,ho hi",,'ical h"""" body of
los", bu, ,f,. Jiving I<'>l i,y "f 'h< hyl">''''''' j ..." Ch ,i", Tho im;og< ..... no,
ChI ..... nd w .. no, .utfuscd wi,h hi. m~ (john of D.m.scw hod 00m<
<I.."!!"",,,oly eLo.c ,,, ... '~';ns ,I".) , h", '),,,1 w;,I, hi", , ".".. ,nd a ""'''1\'''_
ic:ol rela,ionship. 11roodol< pbycJ high phil""'phial ,rump
ke .n old
trick flOm hi, lOco.
Amoot: l"iccpl"'rui. ,,,,,,rib,,,ion'. l",h.1" ,he ""'" d i"'nct'V(' i, hi, ort<mp' '0 .. uk ,h. m,,,,, of ,ircumsc.ip"bility. Tho ""'n"d.", ""1 .Im)"
.""""" .,h" c...J co,,!.! '"" be ei ,,,,,,,, .. rihcd .nd
an itn.gt oid .. , eilc~mscribed God. which ..... impo ... blo. '" circum .. rihed hi, hum. nil)' , "'h",h "'"
Lln" """,m '" dividing his ... ,., .... As n011 . I"htodo .. . 1", .pok. to ,hi, problem hy e,"'ncc,jng ,he ",,,,,ri,,. of ,h. hn~ ""'ic u"<o,, 10 d,. I'''''>kon "f i""!!,,
.nd P"""'Yp< by m""n, of ,h. "'9!"ry ,,( 1<1.,;"n. Niccl'l,,,,,,, ,,,,,l . $On,,
whO! diffi:",o' ' 1'1"""'1., Aho by u.ing A,;',m<ii. n philO5OJ>hy. h. "Il,>e<I io rio.
pl."" ,h .. ,he", i diff.",,,,,,, I:o<-t"",," "'i"8 depicted .nd "'ing . i"",n.
""ibcd. Cimrmscrip,ion, h... id ... im in pl. c< , ' im nd aw",h.n,ion, God
<1.00< '0 ci"""nsc.i'" him ..lf in ....1. of ,It... m)'S. No pain", . ,h .. is, did o.
COn e''''''m;eribe him. A I",",ct ca" d<pict him bca'o>c 1.0 'PI""cd os .. II ....
individ".) m,n , But tl" p.imct "''''IOt~, God in pi.." . ,i"... tI, .w..... ,;"n.
Indeed, no p.>im<,.an "". ,i,mm>CIilx .nrono in ,hi. w.y: ,h ubj1 of a
p.oin, illg i. 1101 p""'n';~ ,h. poin'ing and r><t<l no' h..... bun p .... n' ...Jv" rh"
,Iu,.n
'0 ..
tI,,,
Ii",
lH
CHAPTER SIX
painting was made. Nicephorus used a series of examples of things that could
be circumscribed but not depicted: the year, the Law of Moses, idolatry, human
life, diseases, breezes, speech. On the contrary, then, many things can be depicted but not circumscribed. This line of reasoning simply desuoyed the iconoclast contention that any painted image could possibly circumscribe anything.
Iconoclasts had of course argued that an image could only properly circumscribe
Christ if Christ and his image were identical. But they were not identical. Thus
Nicephorus guarded his Rank against an attack of that sort.
In sum, images are necessary, and they are superior to words, to which
iconophobes had always accorded precedence. They stand in a particular kind
of relationship to what they depict and they do not circumscribe their subjects.
These lines of argument advanced by long leaps beyond anything that iconophiles had said in the eighth century and kicked the intellectual props OUt from
under the teachings of the iconophobes. They bccame Orthodox. But they did
nOt come to the West. And so we leave them.
A Papallnt(rlude
What did come to the West, then, and when and how did it come~ The Carolingian and Byzantine courts undertook a long series of diplomatic encounters
beginning shortly after Charlemagne was crowned emperor in 800 and running
right down to Michael II's letter to Louis the Pious in 824.15 This string of
negotiations had cwo primary purposes.l9 One the one hand, there were both
discussions and military clashes petraining to the nonhern Adriatic region: Istria, Dalmatia, and eSpe<:ially Venice. On this front, the Carolingians finally
acknowledged Byzantine rights in Venice, while Isuia and Dalmatia remained
contested terri tories well into the ninth century. On (he other hand, the Carolingians obtained Byt.antine recognition of their imperial office. Emperor Nicephorus appears to have been on his way to conceding that recognition when
he died and it was his successor Michael I with whom the pact was concluded.
But whereas Michael began his negotiations with Charlemagne, a final agreement was concluded between Leo V and Louis the Pious after Michael was
deposed in 813 and Charlemagne died in early 814. In 817 Louis received envoys
from Michael at Aachen who wished to talk about Dalmatia. In 821 a Byzantine
legation brought news that Leo V had been murdered and that Michael" had
succeeded him. T here is reason ro believe that the two courts were reasonably
familiar with each other but, be thai as it may, there is not a single hint of the
renewed outbreak of iconoclasm in the Frankish annals that report on all this
diplomacy. Only under 824 do the Royal Frankish Annals remark that "among
other things. finally. penaining to their mission, they brought forth something
concerning the veneration of images, on account of which they said they were
going to go to Rome to consult the bishop of the apostolic sec." Louis heard
out the emissaries and dismissed them to go to Rome. Surely this is the legation
that brought the letter of Michael II to Louis 10 which we shall tum shortly.
The key point is that the Frankish court either knew little about the new image
quarrel at Byzantium or, regardless of what it knew, chose to conduct business
as usual with the Greeks. This situation is rcminiscem of the 750S and 760s
when Constantine V and Pippin III negotiated productively, all the while making Pope Paul I vel)' nervous.
Whether the popes knew more than the Franks did about second iconoclasm, or simply responded mo re vigorously is hard to say. The nature and
timing of the papal responses must, however, be placed firmly into comext.
H adrian I had gotten no more than a grudging acknowledgment of his doctrinal
authority at the time of II Nicaea and that council declined to address his
complaints about his lost church provinces, patrimonies, and revenues. When
Leo III crowned Charlemagne the Byzantines regarded him as a schismatic.
When Patriarch Tarasius died in 806 and was replaced by Nicephorus, Emperor
Nicephorus prohibited the new patriarch from sending his systatic letter to
Rome. It was not sem umil 8u, after the more conciliatory Michael I came to
the rhrone ..lO When Nicephorus did finally write, he explained why he had not
written sooner but was not particularl y apologetic. Moreover, he addressed Leo
as his "brother," talked of their collegial responsibility for the church , messed
that they both served the church under the primacy of Jesus, and repeatedly
messed the work and teaching of St. Paul. In each case, Nicephorus used finely
calculated affronts to papal amhoriry and its Petrine bases.
But Leo III had been hearing other things tOO from the Byzantine EaSt.
After N icaea the stiff-necked Studite monks refused to reconcile themselves to
the regime of Taras ius, and then to that of Nicephorus. They were angl)' about
laymen being elevated to the episcopal, indeed to the patriarchal, digniry. They
were upset with the lenient way Tarasius treated the former iconoclasts at Nicaea
and also at the patriarch's moderate attitude tOward various members of the
clergy who had been accused of simony. BUI their real rage was reserved for
Tarasius's conduct in the so-called "Moechian" (adultery) affair. Constamine
VI had repudiated his wife and wished to divorce her and marl)' a coun anendam. He found a priest, Joseph of Kithara, to bless his new marriage and the
patriarch went along with this. U nder Emperor Nicephorus, Josep h was exiled
but then he performed valuable service to the emperor and was rehabilitated.)l
156
CHAPTER S I X
This prompted Theodore of Studion to write to Lw Ill Y He did so in terms

that we re asto nishingly deferential to Ihe autho rity of Ihe Roman sec. T heodore
may have been sincere to a degree in his lofty auirudes about the papal offi ce,
but it should nOI be forgo n en thaI he and his fellow Studitc mon ks had been
for some twe nty years billerl y opposed to the reigni ng patriarchs and tha t they
we re, at that very moment , especially incensed because Nicephorus had agreed
to Jose ph's reinsta temenl. T heodore really had no where to ru m but Ro me.
Still. he praised the pettine origi ns of the papal office, spoke of the popes as the
leaders of the universal church, called the pope the unique guardia n of the fai th,
and asked for the pope (Q call a council to he2r the Mocchi2n ase. Neither Lw
nor H adrian before him had in recem years hea rd such welcome words fro m
any quarrer.J.l
By the time Paschal I ascended the papal throne in January of 817. the
Counci l of H agia Sophia had already met and both Theodore and N icephorus
had been exiled. T heir common opposi tion to iconoclasm had uni ted the two
old foes.J4 Still , N icephorus docs no t appear to have dispatched a single wo rd
to the Wesl concerning Second Iconoclas m. T heodore d id write to the pope.
however.n Theodore's surv iving letters make clear the gra vity of the situation,
and they TCpeat and even enhance his car1ier commems on the authority of the
papacy. He seems to have been well pleased and to have learned that Paschal
had taken some steps to deal with the new oUibreak of iconoclas m.J6 Unforrunatcly. his letters do not speak in detail abou t the theology of Second iconoclasm so the lellers are not themselves good sources for whatever it was that
Pasc hal learned aboUi the a se.
T he Lifo of the fUiure patriarch, Methodius. provides a few valuable details.
Methodius was a Sicilian and , the Lifo says. when iconoclasm broke OUt and
N icephorus was exiled, he weOl to RomeY It seems TCasonable 10 suppose that
Methodius was a key informam for Paschal. Moreover, he himself entered a
G reek monaslery in Rome and those monasteries h2d importaOl C00l2C15 with
(he G reek EaSt. Theodore hi mself corresponded with Basil, the higoumen of
St.-Saba in Rome..)I Ai; we will sec in a mo ment, there survives one len er of
Pasc hal to Leo V. It is possible that Methodius-and his cirde?-inspired that
letter. It may be that the dispatch of Paschal's letter to Leo is what pleased
T heodore about Paschal. T he Lift ofMnhodius goes on to say that after M ichael
" a me to the throne. Paschal eOlrusted Methodi us with " books of doctrine"
or perhaps "docu inal teachings" (t all0\.!!;; bOYl1utllwtJt;) to be taken to the
emperor in Constaminople..19 No trace of these " to mes" survives. Against the:
Byzam ine evidence. the one surviving letter of Paschal, and the reference to
Paschal's ro mes, there is, oddly, no t anmher scrap of wrin en papal evidence
Second Iconoclasm
217
for Second Iconoclasm. Unlike his eighth-century counterparts, the author of

Paschal's life in the Lib~r Pontificalis is silent about the image controversy even
while detailing Paschal's rich endowment of Roman churches with works of art
and this pope's close rdations with Grctk monastic communities in Rome.
Sim ilarly, there is not a single papal letter to Francia that so much as mentions
the image problem. Perhaps that is not surprisi ng given the cool recept ion that
Hadrian's efforts had received a generation before. But the si lence of the Lib"
Po1ltifica/iJ is puzzling.
Paschal's lener to Leo V survives in a fragmentary state. Cardinal Pina
edited it from a poor and no longer extant Roman manuscripf"O and then Cardinal Mereui prod uced a new edition from a better Ambrosiana manuscript.'1
The letter seems little known 10 students of Second Iconoclasm. especially to
Western historians.' ! The lener can only be dated berween January IS, 8t7, when
Paschal became pope, and December 25, 820, when leo was murdered. Paschal's
leiter lacks fo rmal opening and closing matter and one or rwo rather abrupt
shifts in its body suggest that substantive material has fallen OUt. In shon , while
it is easy enough ro summarize what Paschal said, it is difficult to feel confident
that we have all that he said, or that we have what he said in precisely ilS original
order and context.
Paschal's leuer not only reveals something about the pope's own thinking
on the subject of images bUi also provides hints about aspects of currem thinking in iconophobe circles beyond what can be deduced from the acta of the
Council of Hagia Sophia. With respect to the latter. Paschal denied that images
are idols.'J As we have S('C'n, this argument, although prominem in 754 and
raised in 8t4. was dropped at Hagia Sophia. Still the faCt that bot h Paschal and
Nicephorus felt compelled 10 rebut it suggests that it had some currency. The
letter also counters an apparent citation of the Exodus prohibition against the
making of images." This was of course a prominent feature of the earliest stages
of the image controversy in the eighth century but had been lillIe heard since
then, albeit Leo V and Nicephorus had debated this very issue." Paschal replied
in rwo ways. First, he says, this prohibition was given 10 those who lived under
the law and is no longer applicable 10 those who live under the new covenant
of grace in Jesus Christ. Why, he wonders, would anyone want to place himself
under the law. Indeed. anyone who docs so cannot call himself a Christian.
Christ himself, Paschal argues by means a series or New Testament passages, said
that Ihe law had been superceded.oj(, Second, Pasch:rol advertS to thc cherubim of
the Ark of the Covenant. God himself had commanded images to be made.';
Most of Paschal's letter as we know it contains arguments of his own that
appear to be: prompted by his understanding of the central issues as they then
l58
CHAPTER SIX
stood. He develops the argument from incarnation. The opening line of the
leuer as it survives says, "They say that no one has ever seen God." This is an
old move in the iconophobe game plan. Paschal responds by saying that perhaps
there is no image of the invisible God and then he imagi nes someone's saying
that there can be no image of the risen Christ. Bu[, he replies, we make images
of the incarnate ChriS( and depict him, for instance, e.ating with his disciples.41
Right away this prompts two observations. First, Paschal seems to have been
sensitive to the idea that one cannot admit the possibility that Christ had assumed some son of generic humani ty in his incarnation. This may well have
been an issue brought to his atrention by his informants. Second, in saying that
Christ is depicted in te21-life silUations Paschal gives one reason to wonder ifhe
has in mind the frontal, static, often isolated images that were common in
Byzantine Christ-icons (but would he have known of such icons?) or else the
more concrete, historical images such as the vel)' ones that he put into, say,
Santa Prassede in Rome. Theodore had argued the same way, of course, so one
must be careful nOt to press tOO hard any ideas about what kinds of images these
writers may have had in mind.
But Paschal went on with the incarnational argument. He says that there
can be no possibility of confusing the (WO natures in Christ unless one does not
paint the human Christ who suffered. Whether painted or unpainted, Christ's
natures are inseparable and indivisible. And each shares the name "Christ," just
as Christ and his image share that name. 49 This is as dose as Paschal ge[5 to
Theodore's Aristotelian relational argument. One wonders ifhe gOt as much of
it as he had from letters of Theodore that aTe no longer extant, or from Greek
milieux in Rome, or from Methodius.
Paschal also raised an interesting argument ftom typology.'" He spoke at
some length of the way the prophets interpreted the glol)' of the Lord for [he
benefit of others. Then , he says, the prophets foreto ld, by means of type figures ,
the coming of Christ. Why, therefore, will enemies of images not permit an
image of the one whom the prophets foretold and who is himself the image of
his father? At this point, Paschal, makes an interesting shift. He asks how the
enem ies of images imagine us to live in this world : in an image or in truth?"
Here he takes the old iconophobe argument about worship's being in spirit and
in truth, divides it, and invests it with a new interpretation. He says, if we live
in an image, then we must sec that images lead us to uuth, for we are images of
God. We subsist as images. We may not understand this fuUy now, as Paul said
(quoting "For now we see as through a glass darkly ... "), but eventually we
will. But perhaps you live in " truth." In that case you have no hope ofre:surrcction and if our hope is in this world alone then, as the apostle says, we are the:
Sa:ond Iconocbsm
259
most wretched of men. "Don't you believe that we will rise again, incorrupt?"
" Don't you see that when we are said to be filled with virtue, then we are the
image of the creator?" "Is not the soul the most distinguished pan of the mind,
as the eye of the body?"ll W hat Paschal has done is argue that the human soul
is the aspect of our being that is most fully alive and that it is the image of God.
So he concludes that iconophobes draw no dis tinction between humans and
beasts of burden.
Finally Paschal defends images by equating them with sacramental signs. H
W hat need would there be of baptism, he asks, if the Father and the Holy Spiri t
came witho ut signs? If baptism we re fo r yo u without an y work, purely a maHer
of will, the re would be no need of water. To whom would it be of benefit to
portray the cross if the faith did not permit signs? The cross is for you just a
wo rd, not a sign.
To sum up, Paschal seems to have understood quite clearly what was said
at Constaminople in SIS. H e spoke eloquentl y and at some length about the
incarnational defense of images and in speaking about the virtuous soul as the
image of God he indicates some familiarity with the "ethical theory." He also
seems to have understood some of the historical background to the whole image
controversy. Thus he rejected the equation of images and idols and explained
how the Exodus prohibition did not, in fact, prohibit Christian ar t. In his handling of the old issue of worship in spi rit and in truth Paschal made a modest
but imeresting comribution of his own to the whole debate.
Paschal's letter can be placed into wider comexts. In one or two places,
Paschal verges toward the Aristotelianism of Theodore hut he never goes far
enough to suggest that he was either fully informed about or even sym pathetic
to the Studi te's approach. Compared to H adrian's extant writings on images, it
would appear that Paschal's are more profound. But whereas Hadrian was current with all eighth-century argumems, Pasc hal knew more than H adrian did
but had fallen behind the mOSt recent thinking in the East. There is no evidence
that Paschal's views made any impression on Leo V. Paschal had imense relations with the Carolingia ns bu t he did not write to them abo ut images- at any
rate no such leiter survives.
One further com ext for Paschal's leiter requires somewhat more discussion.
Paschal was one of the great patrons of art in early medieval Rome. In erecting
a new church at Santa Prassede, Paschal created the first Constantinian-sryle
basil ica built in Rome since antiquity and he filled it with Roman relics brought
into the city from surrou nding regions. ~ T he Carolingians, as we have seen,
copied Roman forms , built mort Romano, at St.-Denis and Fulda. And the
Carolingians had shown a marked interest in things Ch ristian-Roman, including
tOO
C IIA PTE R S IX
in Paschal's own time. relics. From o ne point of view. Paschal may be seen
combatting the Carolingians by reclaiming for the papacy the Roman-Christian
heritage which the Carolingians had been appropriating. From another point of
view, Paschal seems to have behaved like G regory " and Gregory III in installing
sumptuous. public images just as the Byzantines were again campaigning agai nst
them. In C hapter 3 we spoke about the papal adoprion of the Maria Regina
image. It is hardly coincidental. therefore. that Pashcal put a spectacular Maria
Regina image in the apse of Santa Maria in Domnica. In this mosaic, Paschal
kneds at Mary's feet and looks IOward the viewer. H is pose is exactly like that
of John VII in the Madonna della Clemenza image from Santa Maria in Teaslevere. n T he viewers, that is the Roman community, see the pope as their intercessor with Mary. No emperor, Eastern or Western, intrudes on the scene. Paschal
could write letters but he could send comparable messages in other media at
roughl y the same time.
TIN Lm a ofMich,ul 1110 uui! rlu Pious

Soon, however, Pasc hal would receive a comm unication from the Fra nkish coun
requesting permission to hold a new investigation of the image controversy.
That communication was occasioned by Michad II's letter to Louis the Pi o u s.~
Thai full and ostensibly frank letter provides the only secure evidence for what
the Franks knew about sc<:ond ico noclas m. It is tempting to suppose that. amid
so much diplomacy, the Franks would have garnered a good deal of information
in the yea rs just after 81S . But there is simply no evidence that authorizes us ro
ael on those temptations.
In a lcner tha t fills 184 li nes in the srandard (quarto) edition, the topic of
images only begins on line 127. Michael begins by tell ing Louis about the tribulations suffered by the empire since the death ofLco V. In particular, the people
had been badly divided because of the dangerow rebellion of Thomas the 5[avon ian. Michael says tha t he thinks he should share all of this information with
his "peaceful friend and spiritual brother" and he desires a renewal of the peace
between them. In the recent past, the peace treaty between Byzantium and the
Carolingia ns had been reaffirmed on each change of throne in both realms. The
Royal Frankish Annals do say that Louis was somehow informed about the
change of rulers in 820 but il Sttms that Michad's letter constituted the first
official contact between the twO emperors." The structure of Michael's letter is
intriguing. Perhaps he d id not regard images as (he key item on his agenda.
Perha ps he knew that his COUrt and the Fran kish court were somewhat closer to
~~ond l~onoclasm
z6!
agreei ng with each other on this ropic than either court was ro agreement with
the pope and the Byzantine clergy. Perhaps he sim ply wanted ro give the impression thai the image controversy was a mino r detail. Whatever the case may be.
did not put images front and center.
But he did come to them eventually.s8 He says he wants Louis to know that
some people, both laymen and clerics, have departed from apostolic traditions
and have become inllentors of evil. H e says they cast out crosses ftom churches
and set up images in their place. T hey place lamps near these images and burn
incense before them, gilling to tho~ images the same reverence that is customarily paid to the cross. They also sing psalms before Ihese images and ask them
for help. Some people wrap these images in linen cloths and make them sponsors
of their children in baptism. When young boys receille their fi rst haircuts, or
when monks are tonsured, they let their hair fall on these images. Some members of the clergy scrape paint off images and mix the scrapings with the wine of
the eucharist and distribute il to the people. Some priests place the consecrated
eucharistic bread on an image and invite people to take it from the image. Some
usc painted panels for altars and celebrate mass nOt in consecrated churches but
in private homes.
Because of these " illicit" practices that are "contrary to our religion," the
"onhodox emperors and most learned priests" decided to hold a "local council"
to prohibit such things from being done. T hey caused images to be remOlled
from low places but allowed those placed higher up to remain in place "so that
they might serve as scripture but not be worshiped by the unlettered and weak. "
They also forbade the use of lamps and incense. Michael assured Louis that this
was his view and that he had expelled from the church only those who indulged
in such wicked practices.
Before I move on ro the rest of Michael's letter, one or twO points already
mentioned call for some comment. Michael did not refer to the Council of
H agia Soph ia and instead cited a " local council " which almost cen ainly took
place in 82!. SQ One suspects that he was deliberately trying to avoid antagonizing
the Franks. Surely the Byzantine court knew how angry the Franks had been
when fi rst Hiereia and then Nicaea had been called ecumenical and unive rsal.
Michael does not offer Louis a single word of theology on images. H e focused
exclusively on practices, and indeed on practices that he and his predecessors
might well have known ro be completely absent in rhe Frankish world. Finally,
Michael said nor a word about any kind of iconoclasm. H e merely said that
low-placed images we re raised . He ellen said that images placed higher were
permitted to remain so that they might be instructive. Perhaps the Byzanti nes
knew rhe Frankish position that, on the one hand , images are permissible for
....
<0 . . . . . . . .. ,
h..nd, if OW '"""""
'0 dco<ror ~ ,.. ... h..........., Tbn,dulf did ...,.
",,,had)' rnclont .... idea ......, i....SOS an taCh "'" ... did , "e on. Ion.....'hen:
Grepy 1 h..d ... MI ,hi>. Pnh:.1"- thn.for", Michod 1ieI, hinuclf
0II.Jr
J"""'d In rnakinB ,he PO;nI dw dev,..rd imagu could ... p<rmi.ml fo. 'CII<hi"ll
purpu;.<$ bu, ...,. fo, wunl!ip. II """ld be. misuh lO .... ppooe.No M;d,ad
qni",,11y alculoml hn wo,d. '0 .",HI oikndinK ' t.. l'..nl<.. I\y. i. """,lei ...
wi", 'Q .uppo>o< ,k.. M ich.d IwI ...1IK"n, knowl..!ge <>f I'.. nki>h vicwr. ,,,
n"k. hi. "'.. in thc moo' .nnen", ,.'m.
Micl, ..tl ,hen "",n' on '''''y ,..., >orne """"\CO who r<;":. 1oc.1 oouncil"
h.... Rc.! (rom hi. <mpil'< md , ... , ..... "y ha.., ....Ird in "Ok! Rum'" ... htt-r
.bty bear i"jul)' anJ calumny again .. ,h. chum. ... Midud 1. U'ao<> , ... wid,,",,
......rond bla.phcmico '0 .....ich ,... ornpil'< o.nd .he ,.... . huru. ....... 1:>"
...bjmJ bfgu", " ..." lincndy MId '0 the Jylhbol of the Ii. holy and uni...-n;,!
synod. dw .II'< aca:p!,"" by all orthodox o,ri<twr<. II. the1I .opprnd. brief
p<..r...ion of r."h .nd .... on by "Y;"II It- ......"""'" bdid in ..... ..on",
and ,ha, .............1<1 tlocir mia.lnd<o:d. .....yo, ... kp .0naythinB ,...,;.
,,~, in ,he f,oh<n.....d.u. <X>W><i1o. Miclud concludes by "rins ,ha, t.. Iuo
.. ,;" .... '" ,"" l"'I"'.nd , .... , hi. ....1:>.>..,. pUN to ....... ,n R,.....,...nd t.op.. '0
Iu.... Loui' l ,nt.1CQuon with
pope ,he... ~...., Mich.od l""><ubrly..-m,,
.. fO, ,I pop< '0 apd ..,Ju... p><U<kt-Ch,i,,",n,...oJ al .. Rln"" .... flo'"
Rome. To Vin the pop<', ~ ""II and St. P.... 'I in ",:oo;"n. Mich.tl h...
"'"' ......"(,,I.nd COItly ~r.. . GOiIp<1 book with gold .nJ gem and, golden
,nd g<>n,ncd I"l<n and ch.ti<c.
0 .... ago,n Michf. ""rd; pr<>mpt. fno rriI,;"n . n,...nti~m ~d I:>n
,<yin,. in ,ho f"", of r.,reipl th, .... ,nd domnUi; ..... Uiun .. ,,, .... i" pca<'< and
I>Inl)' lOr more m.n decad<. The .......-01 of
by iu
~ . . . dr..ui ............. bu, i.... ..ad ........ ,h .......Id oau.ally bti"ll
. . .her- nnc.ow IV""P' in ,h< ""'pi. I.. doctrine: "B..,.I1rd 011' IJW1llJ!1y ... d
" ' .;.., .......... ~. md nWnIy poIi'icaI. All Leo V hod aok..J fO< _ ,~,
oppvnmb of h.. ___ KaJ>< ,... ooonmunioot of ,ho ..... po,,...,..h Thcodotus
and. M.iClUy, keq> qui. 1ft_ who ttfuxd ..... ttilrd bu. Michxlll , "" his
a.....".. I'<CIIkd . - of ,he ailes. indOO'''I,1 S""lil<' bu, "'" ,ho fo.mn
p;ttriuch Niccplw>ruo. lb. problem ,h., h< .. ktJ Louis fo< Ir.elp with OW a
......y and 'rnIOno.... nil< wmm""ioy in Rurne, . communiI)' :oI..,.ody r<VnIod
", ~,by ,I Lift of M .. hodi", and by lbrodo.. cormp",,<knc<. II ,,ill h<
nOl..! , .... , Mich .,] d id"", '"" louis tu <ndo,,,, hi. imog< poIiq. 1-1 in'l'ly
1"" , ... m.".r hef" .. Loui .., .. 10 s>in f,w" on ,I pound. ,~. h<
m:uriaal iconn<l ..,. DN! Mid...:1 "'Pl"* ,hOI 1..,..,. could imp""'" on 'h<
dta,r.,..", aod comm,,,,-.tion md ,.... " on thr ""'""
oIfrn... 10 -..hlp
Of
to'"
""",hi.
,n.
1(1)"""""" .... "'" ..."
"'*' "",
pope It.. .... )'~. could ;mpolt on a I"'<riard,! II is ~ ..d ' 0 .. y. Th. Byunlir><
",",un"';l1 .ulr h.ve kn",.." "r d,. d.,.. I .. ~,,,. 1)<,,,,,,,10 ,h. I"'P'""Y ",d
Umlingu.n, I<> ..L:ing ror i.()uis, help,..., Mi""""I". only ,..,il.hle S!f':U<g)'.
M.d...:1 d id nO! di ... mbk in , he profn.ion of f:.ith in hi. ktler. It Joe. nO!
co""i" 'h< ....,rd jiiioqlU', F,.,,,k.< .. ><.I By",,,,i,,,,, hod puhlicly di"'g,"<l on
poin, u,, ,h. 7')OS and P">'>'bly .i"o: 767. In ;O)';ng ,I. .. h. hold '0 ,h. fix
"",n<;". Mi<h,d may well h... 10" ""king. p"i", triki,,& ,h.. Mich..1did nOl;or' word
.bou, Hietei., . rouneil ,t." hod I>o<n ..p.....ly .ffi,ml by ,I>< council of8'j
I'<fh.ps cii" ..,ion wa; ,he rule h.re. My poi,,, is ,h" M;eh.d', k"., ko.>'C:\
.1"...,., .. ",,,,,h un ... id .. i, "')'S, II i. diplo ..... ,"'.n.1l >en"" of ,h.., WOld, And
it did not ~k. a howl of pro'C:I' from ,h. F"miu.
To s who, impac' ,h. l.tI" d.d ho.e. ,,"'e mu,. turn to ,h. m'ing ,h"
I"""i. ,h. Pi""" ","'moned '" <k.1 "i,h "'''l!'='. In ",",u",i"S 10 ,I>< F~. " k"j,
world, w< """dud.:
""tollr "id ,goin the m.in mod. Along the detOUI"Nt
ol=rval 1.0'" the i"u. of religiou n returned to pubiOc diKu .. ion in B)"l'n"
tium. wh" ,.. ...: ,h. chi.f chor:act<,i"i", of the rene,..ed B)"l'n,ine di",m.ion.
and how the iu. com. on again to the ... ention of,h. Fr.mlu.
,n.
,ho,
ou,
The colkcti<>n of dD01mcn" "",uPr'ng IOm< s<v<my ..i. '1u,m" paS'" in 'II/or
minghofF" edition in ,h. council >erie! of the MGH 'UIY"' in twO dil'kr.nt
m. nuscri!". ,"'hieh ront.in , he ... me ma'er;,[' in tl>< ... me ord." Th. lit ion
p"""n" Ii.. i, .. ~., Th. 1<11.. vi' Mieh,.111 .nJ h "", Tl>o:ophilu. to Looi, ,he
Pi"", which w:.. d..tcd in Apri l of8'4 .nd rcxhl l.ou i> in N""ember of that
)"el' (pp . .. 75- 110): the Libtll~I 5,""""!;' (h
f&fml to .. the LiMlus).
whOch con,.i", ,he hem of , he F,.,,,ki,h ochol . .... ip and A .... io" on im.S'"
(pI" .,So- n'), )en.r of l.ou;' '0 h., <<>V<"> <0 Rum. on ho ... to <x>mpo"
them .. h,t> in ,h. pop<', pr=ncc: (pp. n:o.-H): k"" of Loui, .nd hi, >on
Loth .. to Pope [ ugeniu. 11 (PI" m-'5),.n ri'lmII: of the LibAl~, ... h"'h was
to be p,esc:ml to aoJ pern. !" .d out in the pr<:><ncc of ,h. pop< (pp. j)j_
j' )."' On elo><, in'f'<""'ion. ~, . ",fiJI f<".>d
<wo .ddi,io",,1
i' en" embedded in ,h'''<fe' sec,ion. of ,h. l.ibd/.,. On. of ,hese i d",. iled
sih of. I",,, which ,be P. ... bi, h"p. P"~ '0 1.00 r", '''n.",i ....... " '0
tt.. pope (pp, 510 _1,). The ",her i. an",her .err d". iled , .. r>i<>n of . kn"
....hieh ,h. 1',,;, bi>hops hoped ,h. pup< ",'ould .. tid to
",;oopk (pp,
....n"
.u."
c...",..
I>J-J , Wi,h;n ,hi> I."",, mOJ'tOV<', ;s , b,;.f JCCl;on ,Ju, ,he POI'< ,.... to
,h. lIynn,;".. as 'housh i, hod COrn. to ,I>< pup< frum the Frank,
(pp, \1\- >6), Talen ... group, ,hes< documrnu bea, ,;m; loritie. with ,he marc,i,1< remm to .. rh of tl>< th t doctrin.:tl co"novmic; thot "" hove ..Jra.d~
enooumemJ: im.g<". .dop,i,,"i>m, .nd fili",!"", T he funu ..... ,urvi,-..J o{ ,hi>
'Pl'",:mly eomplru: oo..ie, no, onl)' f"ili,., ... n un"" ..... "ding of wlu, Iupp<ned in 81j but .1<0 ,hah rctrosp<Ctiv.:: lish' on wh .. h.ppmed in ,he ;90<
. nd in 809- to.
1'''''''''' '"
Early in the UINU"" , he wri ... ","'inM.l!.oui, tfut lIi'hup FtoO'IIlf of 1.. ,iN
nd a n oth,rwi.. ohsrure Ad<gar, merely i"""tificd .. Frcrulf. ",....ria,"
.... m to I(om. 10 di ........ wi,h .h. POP"
;"u..... iI<d in Miclud ', let,." "'bit lot ... they reminded loui, th.. he h:od lOUgh, ,he pop<', p"'m;"ion.o ..plot<
problem of im.g<'< wi,h hi, own I'<"pk ,;""" ")'01' (Loui, 1 had .he
will !O Irtk ><l"i"" b~, 14<k<-J tI, u,h... i,y '0 ", ... d"".n 'n...,.,'5""""'''' '' In
hi. Imer '" hi. <T!VOJ'I ,,, Rom< louis ueg<d ,hem fO p,.....m .hi> in'.... ig," ;.,n
1<don, in obedi,nce ,he POP""",,'n rommiMion
'he F,mu" In hi> own
,h.
.10.
_, __
'0
~~'_~
'0
, ~_W~'
____ _
hi ... peru look imo ,he inugc qu ... ion .nd ,lut ,hey h:od don< 10 nol ."
dullengo: ,h. POI'<' mhori')' bu, ,,, b< helpful" Firully, in ,he Epi"'_, l.,ui,
"t<>> how much he ... iill .. '0 he oWien nd helpful ."
Sometime. thctcfu. brn.'n 1"",..,mhct of 81. . . nd the .utumn of 81j
Loui, "n, ""'0 leg:t,,, to Rome ." >.<L: p".n,;"';"n ,,, h,,1d .n inqui.y in,,, ,he
im"l!" qucotiot>----<o ""1'100-< the <VNlenc<, ... he oo..icr tcp<>.edly .trnoa, Lock
ing f"paloourus and wi,hou, .~y rorrobo ... ,ing ""moti"" rccurd, !lorn F.. ~cia,
".., G1n~OI pin do",n ,he chronology. Loui" rot>du<:t w:u ""plomJ by.n
gen ...,ion nf hi""ri.n. "'ho rcg.>'doJ him .. ",..1" less <kcisiv<:, ,fun hi>
fa,I><,. Iu grc:o' .n hilton .... Alben H.uck 'poi<c nf Lou;, "uemhling"' befOre
'he POI'<," In fact. loui ... COfIduc<)' di~ on <w<> doctrin.:tl
(im>g<>.nd
filimJw) bu. Ch."la .lway> desired ." ~oop<"" wi.h ,I>< p<>p< '00, in ,he .nd,
~ <" di,.grce wi.ho", "'"",p.ing in .n)' ""1 10 impost hi, will on Rom.,
MorWcr ... we .. w"he unique Pttrin. eh.p' in .h. Op'" w:u od<kd .. Ct)Un
'" Th><lul r. "ri~",,1 ""'ml~"i<;"n " !I<""" of ~1;oI ,ohcdi""ce. In B,! [.<>ui,
kMw p<rfcaly wdl,h .. F.. rtcia .nd Ronre had diff.ren. "odition' on 'm~.
""Ii."
""'to
Loui. fo'm~l .. ed .IC'o' ....1 Jifk,cnt ",..tq;i t<, try to mOW< tho pop< to tho
Fr.mki<h J>OSi.ion, But ho no
u.mbled thm hi, f.th diftated.
I, i< "'" de" why I..,,,i, ... koJ hi, ,fIe"k.gOe>J :>d.i;e,. '0 .... mhk in r.ri,
in".od of...y. in Aa<h.n. ,nd it i. no, <Ita, iu" ,,+0., kind of. """,jng 'h<y
, ,,.ndl. Undt, ,;",1... Theodulfh.:od W(),ktd .... )un," proh.bly 11 Rcg<ru-
mo,.
hy'll anJ t., .. ,. I""'ihly. at f ... nH" .. . Tho" ... ho ..."". ag.o inst .d"",i""i,n,
"""rktd in , .. ,itty of plxes. Th. throk>gi.m ",hom (.lu~ .. ktd to .dd,...
[h. fili"i"' COfl[rova>y WlOl. in 0<VCf'>1 ploc .. hut [hon ..m [h.i, "",,,,i. J. to
.... ch.n wh.rt o lloquy ...... hdd, So t ho .. wa< <om. pm:<"d.nt fur having
imp<>".nt d'c%Wcal m ...." .ir<>i in," official w.y in >.,mou.loatio"., \l;'htn
i," noticed ,Iu. [h. souren "" bn . nd . mbiguou. whon ,htv n.me [he m[
ing [hat [ook pu.;., in I', ri" we m.y be on ,ho .... y '0 unJ.",,,,nding one imp<>r_
"", "'1"<[ or ,hi< """,ing. Th .. i" . nd &'pi,. ,ho ,i,l. u.<! in ,f", M(iH
edi,ion . nd in >i"u.lly .11 ,h. moon ",hol.""ip. tho t~~ts n.... ""C< .. y
"""u"cil. " We rud of. (On"""",,,,." ."d "" rud ,h .. tho thrologian. "am.
[og<lh ,., Ofte, " .. w Iso ,ud. in word. in tht Lib.U~, [hrol'<[iaU~ :tdd<CM<d
[n (h. pop<, ,h" "we did no,,.,k roo in >n)' ""y fo, pe,mi .. iOft (0 all 'og<lhor
'rnod but m<,dy >ough[ permi .. ion to .ft. " .nd ..... ho ... "",ked "not by
a lling, .,.,nod, .... In ",h., word .. on. h.. h.I'<' ,n.<ting of d.. """ th.t took
pl.ce ..gul ..ly in Chari .. p,r:xnce f,om 792 to 79~ .nd .gain in So? ,nd R,o
Holding. prop<r .)"nod 0' mun<;il ....,uIJ luv" bn pfO''()C1,i,., would h.y<
.,,~k.ned i"lI! of hit ... rch) .. ><1 pf<'Ct'<kn ..... nd might 10 ..,. ",lied do"",,
p. p>1 ,thnk<." But mdy h<>!dink' mting. nd indd on. fo, ,,+Oi.:h tho
p<>pe hod gr.nttd hi. permi .. ion ............ y to .. il .moothl) "'.. , troubled
.........
It i< no' <>'y '0 Jermin. who . " .nJtd [h. rari. CoIloqu). Tht vorio,"
documents th .. w< iuve btm dis.: .... ing pro>'id< .........1 n.m .. hUI g<n< ... U) do
'" in ,he con .... of "'ring who affil which document' '0 whom. The LiM/.,
"r> l ho, Freculf.1Id Ad<gar ...." to Kom. to ".... ,"'It with tht pope.nd then
><kl, th.. F(cculf inJ(mnru thus< .... mbled in Pot.. '"vi ... ""d'
hi. CIIptri.
<n<n ,h<f<." I:,,,,,, ,hi< WI: m.y ",,,duJ. ,ho , F.... ul( ".... pr<xnl. but ..... he
,ummoncd (0 provide dot. il, on hi, mring wi.h Eagen ius or '0 ",nuibu" to
,he di""" ..... ,... ' Th. lib-Uw .1..., .. ,.. ,h B""'''I' M.,.!"in of Au."n .... ", h.
bn P'fKn[ 10m .... , p,<vemed by .iokn"" from ",.,.,11)' ",.nding. Bishops
H.Ii'ga' ofCamb ... ; .nd Am.J., of M= ...... o.kpnted by ,he coll"'Juy to carry
i" finding< [0 Loui<. l', .. urn.hly [h~' .ook .n ocri", 10k:' Louis WlOl< [0
Bi.hop. J<rcmi .. of 5< ... ,nd )on ofOrlhn. (0 gi", ,hcm ,dvice on how '0
pre>o<n[ [he F.. nkish a>< '0 [h. pope ." Thi. ronstit.,,,, mong p,eump[ivc
""id.ne< for ,heir P""""" in I'"i . The Ii" of lil<ly I"nicip.n". ,hen, is
.boo,
""'n
Anub ., Frulf. H. li[!I"" ,krcmi.u. }<In... And. fOr "' ............ i[ is

we COn odd
Modoin "'>S "",.n, [0 tu ......... n i"vuI~, App>rcndy
Bishop C1:m di... ofTuri", [0 wh.om I ""II rum h<k>w, ...... oummonoo [0 . " .
<we, fo.. h;' ;.",.,,,,,,..[ic amp>ipl in """h..n I<.ly. Tn.[ ;., I think i[ unlikdy
,h .. a.uditU hod h<en inoiled '" I"~n[ hi, ,iCWJ. Be [Ita< .. i[ m'r. Cbudiu.
rd'u.d '0 mend ,t... "!I",h<lir>g of, ......,.. n ... null "umho. ofk_n p.niei_
p>n .. ;'. funhcr .~umcn[ .,;oi",[ [he P,,;' mening', baying been, [rut roun_
eil. Thi, modes. n" mho. i" "",",n'e', ",mini""n, of [he ..,-lie. im>g<
ron,,<.>ve"Y "fI,n <>nly T'hcW"lf "od Aku,,, an aonfidc,,,ly ho n.n><d ky
puY"[>' with Angilh<n .. , p<mibk [hi,d p.nicip""'" Si mil too i, ,II<.IC1 of
6"" who contributed opinions in .11< di.pu ov<. [h. procc;sion of ,he Holy
Spi.i" Adolwin. Am. Hei.", Sm. .. gdu>. .nd Throdulf. Onu "",in. "Red"
ootabk """,i.,.ney in th. "'.r tfleulOSial p,oI>le,,<.< wet< .... ndlcd by the
F.. nk>.
lX'. do not knuw ",h.n Loo ;' summoned hi' 'hrologic.l Clpdt>. They
bcg:on ,heir m' ing in r . ri> on Nov<mbc. [ . nd 5Cnr tt.< Lilxllus '0 Loui. on
o..xmho. 6.'" The .",Ito< of [helilxlhn")1 , .... , '.ome of ..... Iud [0 ,..vd.
lung "",y.'" r.,h"ps P ;. ...... ,h"",n ... m.."ing poin. hoc>u .. ;...... "",,,n!
'" [b.,.. who _'< """'ing r..,m I ~""". c"mb ..i. MOl>, s.n . (Au,un). Q,.
bnl_ Bu. nu"" of thesc bishop.llud t() m;rk long 0'. in 1. 0<101>< . p>"icuI.rly . rdUOU! journey. We ,,[he .. in,olv! ... ""'" n. ..... w< do n<>l kno ... , fOr
cnmpk bi,ho p' rtOm <,$I of tbc Rhi",,~ "["Ix ",. iter .Iso add. , .... t th<')' Iud
..... n given [00 li"k lime [0 make [horough in~iga[ion ., He g<>n on ro.or
, .... , ..."',. did no, ""en know ontil ,h.,. gut '0 P.u;' ... hy.hey Iud ..... " ,o'n
moned_'" 1'h;' ,u[!;ge>" '" In< , .... , ,t.< ,bnh of ,ime .ppli<> [" ,he inl<rv>i
bctwn ,he sommon. '0 . od rho ",. . ning of [h. <Iloquy .nd nor [0 [he ~ve
..'<du or '" doring whi<h ,hey bishops .. ru,lly worlted in p.. i,_ Bo' why"",,,
[hinll" '" n.. hed! And ...oold Lou;' ,.. lIy bavc f..iloo ' 0 di><1os.: why he Iud
IU mmon<d ,h.m in [h. Ii.... poo! I< i. cor>crivabk ,h". he .... "[00 '0 g<t bis
envoys '" h::.ty bd"1< [he ""["h, of wi" .or m,d. ,n Alpin< <..... ing >II bot
imJ"O'Oihlc. 1"< ~I An""lt .. y , imply ,h". Looi. '1""" 11><: f.1l hun'ing .nd
'~en w" '0 Axlt." fO, ,ho: ..in,_'" I" ",ho:, word.. ,hey Jo '''>1 proviJe >
,ingle d ...
In . ny e<. ",hen ,t.< LiIxO.., <=h<d Loois he ,,'rmc-thc 1<II.tS h<a. IN)
d.,es-----". jer<mi.. . nd jonu.M """'''00 '"
"",e' fo.. Pope E"g~ni"._
10'1 hi, I."e' to ,k,c",;... nJ ju..... Looi, .. Y' ,hot H,1i<pr ""J An,,1,. b",ug"
him . he "'CJIwl'ti from the book.< of the holy n th.,, " that Iud ..... n collted
in I'..;' :uiJ ,Iu, he Iu.I Iud ,hem ",.J "'" in h;, I"'<><n< . The IJIxU., is
""'g ,,,,ori,,,. I" rc.ding mu h. .... ken "'me tim<. Then. Lou;' laYS, " in.1I
M.,
""'''~ .
,I""
,hotm.
hu!~" ... is ;...... mi'" j<rnnU$:mol}on.>!. of his pit....,. wi,h ,hci, ...,n. ,nd
h< ... gpf> ,,,", ,hey ",u 'h< pop< only port_ of .. ho, Iw bccco ,oIk<,cd ,nd
,.... , ,h.y >rid< m ...!w. .. moot .po ..nd ~. lAW. """""" .... ,Iwm '" b<
"""ien, , nd """"ctIUI" ,n ..,.;. """,inK ~dUpu"'''''''' ...i," ,he p<>pt. "
I...w......"'" <&II lOt "'" """''''''n.... Fi.... i, .. "'" "''P,i.inS ,ho, b< wwld
>pa.k of 0 "d;"",,,.;.,"" wi.h the po~ for ,ho, i ucdr wh h. pp<n<d in
whon Ad:tlh,td ..... ". to Rom< to

of ,IIIy Spi ,i,. n,~ .,,,~,j ,.. , of
i,,,
".,~u."
wi,h I...., III """t the ptoUi""
,lu, "'t\umen, i.....nt ... /To1",......" , inee
h" h.hili..,;". in 8:0 , Ad,lh.rJ h.d b<com< on. of 1.0,,; prindpol ad.; .
cu." It ..."" .><sibk." hypo.he:,i", th .. we"e ... ,~hinG him" ...,tx in th...,
proc<"linfl>. Sc.:ood. the """,,,, pan of 011 ,h,," '0 ",hich I"""i, fen m'r wdl
bt ,ht q,,~_. Th" i.....botan,i,j """. but <it .;",,,,,n p>pp i, i, mudo ~
............,.. ,b.n tht kngthy ~ th.on o.... IOunh .. 10"8-,00 i, ..
jt.u, ",>or .. ~ .. the ~I;' th.o, ..... tad "'" .."" n./,_" in ,ht Pf"I'""Ce
01 p...... loro III in 8.0. I ,hink ,ho E,;_ _ in,.ncicd fit, or:oI I""""">lion
in Rome.
I....... conclude. II.. In, ... co J=m'" on.d Joruo by ;......'nK ,b., F~li>h
m<mbtn bt indudcd in any",p;d kp,ion '0 Ryun,;um I..,.,i, h,mself...,.,..
'0 ~:..vn"" in 0 >pi.i, 01 om;.,. and ooopa"ion. H< In ,ht pop< k"",,' ,b., ht
hod .. ,~ ""Iy OIl' 01 . dcti", to b< htlplUl on.d ,ho, ht hupn .he: ......
ht
"I<ndins wi,h Je,rmin .nd,lo"", will , btd ck.. ligh, un ,he told. thomy p,oblem "f im,,,,,, In ,hi, 11. lou;, doe. not d..1 Of ,II wi,h ."b."n, i.. ;.. ....
I"',,,in;n, '" im.!"' ... J....,ui, ...,. pu,,,,. iI;,,,,,. l'.. h,1" he nli .. ru><.d ,he 1"'1'"
or I"', h.p> ht kn ...... h. t Rome and Aachen di",v-l in "" )1 tn" could no,
<..ily .... <We""n ...
A, ,hi, poin . the teLil of "'i<kn<:t go<'> cold. No, WOttl i, hcanl from
ElI8"niu. 0< ,he Fnnkt ... c...... _ Undtt ,ho rea' 117 .1>< ~I A .... /< say
.......,.. (rom MICIu.d on.d ThropItil ....ppatI .. ,he coun .. CompKpoc in
Tbty weft " . - ; ...d ..=nty. hord.
Scpoanbn ~ .. of to ron~rm the
Ottd dini....J..... h " ho,d '" bel",...
,hi,
had ...,.,h,nl CO oJ<, ... ;th
,I.e ..... oIh.....,h ... h;.:h...., t..vo do.:- p.... n' .L............ It .. _ I ikdy ..... '
i, was pon 01 ,,,,,,inc Fr.nb..Byr.>n,inc diplom.cy ond not unliktiy
i. had
"""""hins '0 do ... i,h .... """,.. n,
au...! fot 1xoth F" nciot .nd
Ryun,ium by P<I.,. po""'''' in ,I.e Mnhem Ad,;.", 'qioct." U ......'.... ,he
kv,;"n wh ;':h L- i...n, '" Co"". n.i""l'k in hi i. nowhe,...~I '" lu.... h"'.!
.n~,hi"g ' " <!o wi,h images." H.li,~.t ...... mem .... ' o f ,hi. emb ... y and he
'nem"'" of the c mb."y ront'" 'pl. ,cd in I", 81\. Loui.
h><l hn
hod inf",mtd both Jemi .. and Jo<= ,"".11 .. ,he I>OJ'<
h...... k",ping
Iblitg.>. and Am ....... th him ...
,hey couItl lit ind...Jnl in any 1"1"1
.w.
,ha,
,,,,,,.,..M
ha,
Icp,_
.ha,
provoc-.,ion,
f_, .. .
,Iu,
,ha,
1<&,,","10 ,1.< a"." 11m H alO,S",. romp.>n"'n in 8U1 _ Anmid of Non.n_

101... no, Anul> . md. in . ny Cl5<. lb lO,&,-, was n. inly no, k'll! " .. i,ing
>roUnd ,he 0>"" fur TWO 0' ,h= 1""""- II ..em, .. r"" H'''r ,h" .... in ,i><
790'. .11 p.>,,;e. >gtt"Od '" di.!agrtt and ca.ried on w;,h !>win""" ... ",,,,,I.
A S"m""',), of"'" l ibdlu,
N,,"
-,In
,he hq;inning of ,heir l.ibtll", I.l>\,i'" 'or.,o .... .pol...... n '

oJJ
ehoio: of woH4-prm'Kk. good &.1 of i"ro.=,ion M h.,...,~ P'~
"';r!, ,h.,;t ...mk. Th<y 1,<l\>n by h,""~ ,he H"'';'~''n>-Hacl,;'n", In",. of pis
". Con".",ine VI .rid I"'n ....... rnd ou' in ,h.i. p'osence. They discu....! j,
.:>",~,lIy_ At tI, .. p"in, ti>< P'''''''' 'n.:>ning of ti>< """ bowmG link murky. 1
qUOl' on .",.nlO:
Funh.tmoT< wheT! yuut f,,,he. ofh<>ly memory had <lu , .. m. synod
Ii.." Nia....1 ad out in the p'c<cn<c ofhimldf .nd hi' men, and h.d
.ri, icized it in nuny pl>:s ... was liuing, . nd when he had p.nirul>,ly
"0'<0.1 ..,me p~
"1'";'lIy <>P<" ,,, ...... n'u,., h... n,
,h.m '0 Pop< II.drun. 'hrough .bbo, Angilb<n. ""
,hq <ould b<
<orr'<0.1 by his judgmen' and .uthority,
pope him.df. un ,h.
con".'Y. by f.",ring ,oo.e who had at h .. in..-ill',ion irncnro bo,h
,upc ... ;,i"", .nd ill,ui,ed , ...,imUfliG in,o the:d:w:w< m'nTion"'! wo.k.
,ried. in. no, q uit< appropri.t< way. ,., offe. indi"idu. 1 chap ....
h. ",;!hed ,,, ...rid in ,h.i, <I&n."
,ha, "..'"
In.
,Iu,
,Iu,
On oneb'd. ,hi, .. no mOT. dun ......"""'n ofwlu, ,h. Puis b"hop> b<lin'ro
h.:od luw<ncJ in the <>tl)' 790<. On "\011." k:1. h<:>wa'<t. ;,
,," <ment
i,.
.oou, wt. .. tho ..."1' bi"'"", we .. ,h.m"l,... tcading, II St:<nlS cle>. "'" ,~
Iud in ,I><i .,.,....,..iun .nd a<l "",,,fUy H.d,;'~. ~."."... It .. n"t '" cle-.,
wh"ltcJ ,hq .1", po.....cJ .nd "udied ,h. C.,iuJ.t" "',,",~I ,,"""""'. ,h.
J.,."m<,,, ..," '0 Had,i.n ",;,1. Angi lber, .00 'u which ,he fW".","", "'.., ...
, ... .<pe.k.n obj,j"nabk ub;e.:.ion .... '"'' which ,h. r.ri, C"Uuquy nove, citn
o. m<n,iun> i, ,1.<
Thi' i< odd. Th. Opw
<1.,,,-1)" 'Tf)" impo"'n''',
....."'.", "f ,I>< Ca>lins:i>" ..,,,,,', .i.... of ,he im>l\<" qu""iton in ,t.:: 7?OO,
Mut<Ov<'. ,I>< wwk muS< ~ c been ... ilabl. in tl>< pilla'" .-chi..,. bc-c. ....
H inema . ",-hen ha.; wa, on """Inomw. h.:od a ropy m><k wtlich in fact ,u/Vi ...
a.; Pa<i,. A....... J 66J." n.. 1'"'>"'11' .bo.. >om. '0 ka .. ope" ju!t .IiW"ly ,h.
I""'ihili<y ,I. .. ,he r .ris hishops . bo ,.".;",,"1 ,I>< Nicrn. _ . nd. do 1<><>10:
0,,,..
wo.
SrcooJ I""...d .. m
'69
.t the p>tli5tH: fto,ikgi"," in ,I>< I.iM/~, ""le> i, i,,,,,1 ",,",inry' TIl<

of ....... ":,,. ;., of so"", ,mptl".nc< t.:c.u5< . ' "'~ ",ill .... noueh of ,ho
I.ibt-U... oon,.", of lengthy ",i,,1I" of !'l'N';': '1"o,.tOon, ,<><lone wonde" ",he ...
hoc ]>.,i, bi.hops go< .i.he, .he Kt",,1 .a<> .hey ci,cd <" prompt> 0" whe-re '"
look fo, the-m. A hi. funh 0" .h. b iU>op> .. ~ th1t , !.<y .Iso , .. d .he Io"e, of
Mid...,1 II
Loui. from 8",." n,i, i. the
C ".tCn .. "t ,h., ,he
bilhop. ,",le
thei, """li"g ntC,h.>d~ o.hc""i .. . ,hey ro'"c''' ,hc"ISeI...
wi,h "yi"S thot th<y "sol the little . ime they h><l to 0011, ",I,..,.", ,..,imoni
from
Bible .nd , he- f",h.n.
Oncc ,hey ... ,Ie<! in,o ,h.i, ,.uk. ,he bi,hops proceeded in.n impt"",i,.. ly
o,dl~ ,,,,hi,,". "l"hroJulf... ,,"ill be ",n",mhc",.j. gcne,.,lIy ~)II<>W<'< ar<a"M tf ..,i"u, w,it." wI." tdptl"dc.l to .. ~~"i,,,,isn,
tended to fullo .. ,he 1rgumcn" of E1il"ndu. ,<>ing hi, own wo,ks. The
bes, .n,log... f"f ~lj i, fu\"w;! in ,he ,,",i,ings of tho ~,.. 'hc<,logi.on. who .poke
to the ji/i""lw<110 they gropp/cd with ,h. i<>uc< .ec,,,ding t(,
own pc<ption of tho><
;"k1CS' impon.n",. In '1ui ",di,,,,n,1 f.... ion. ,hey huil, up ,h.;, dilCUOo",
m."..
'0
I." ".".,...
.00u.
,h.
.hei,
"'fl'"''
,It.
rmm
ch"reh f"h e". hut n" ",,. "I" ,1><"
from bihliall"""S'" and
oo,nribwti..,,,, i, jun like ~ny "ther. Who, i. mOfe. the ~ ,"C .utho.. ba<ia lly
odvan ,he-i, >'!lumen" i<><li,ccdy by heaping up proof.t<x". As "'i,h Throdulf.
lthousJI he om.red ,..., f"'f more o~.n .nd mo,"" di"""ly ,h.n ,he 8'0 .."ho ..
do. " .... foil ...... ,he- logic of ,he ''!lumen, by nOling af"Cfully ... Iu, "'.'" soid in,
that i...... ncd b)'. the- <itat"'n L Thi. mh<>d permi" >u,hon ,., ><lock =m
mun probl.m< in different w')'$. Th. d""'n<ico bfiv,"CCn the!< '<x" ,cr,...
""".ty ",minJ., of ho ... o,ill'''..! ,nd indcpcnJ.",_minJcd Carolingi, n ,hink
of> roulJ be rvcn " .... n t!.<y "'<T< tcfi""ing on . COmmOn p,ololem.
A(t<r <"<">"icwing tho hi''''rial record. the hi.hop'" r .ri. "f<"1tcd. in eff .
,""",,!;raph th .. develop. fou, m. j", them .. On tho ,ubjt of image: (th.
Lib.IIM, w .. no, .crually plO.ided with 10)' ,ubdiv;'ion." .11). n .. filS' begim
.. i,h . h,,"( .l.m"",,,.. ,,,,, . 1"" imOS"'"", pc""i~<;ble b", <"'!"t .. i= "'h~ it;'
"'IOng to demur them. Th. <cro<><l. which;' ",the, long . nd ..,mewh" m .. n
dering in it:! <=>oning. explores eo,rce, and incoIT1 fonn. of ..""hip. The
,hird .<gue> the ax
iO\>g<> "."nut be cq,,,,od wi,h ti" .." ... Tho r"unh
one m.kes ,It< full case th .. in>>.g<S ' rc pcrmiSlibl<. Tho hi,)to!" tnay h,yo h.d
to wo,k f"t . bu, t!.<y <"""cd. huge "'''ge of .ubjecu. <V1luatro . prodigious
oorptu of nu,.,ul. . nd produced. " ... ,i,. ,h .. ;. ho,h IonS'hy .<><1 rogcm.
Thei, ,chicvcm.nt i, Hul)' irnprnoiI'C.
tI",
TIl< LiM/WI oont. ;n. a kngth) .nd "'clJ' '''lI''nj>cd A"'ikgium ",",,,,,imDS
1]0
C tt AP TER SI X
188 S(:pa ra t~ ex.tracts relating to th ~ four th~mcs just enumerated. n The ttcatiS(:
bq;ins and ends, howev~r, with ~xp[anatory and interpretiv~ material that provid~s the reader with not only the Frankish v i~w of what they were doing and
why, but also a series of statements that permit historians to form their own
judgments about the Libel/us and its place in Carolingian culture. The bishops
rarely int~ rve ne p~rsonally in their Aorilcgium. They cont~nt themS(:lvcs with
saying, " Now we will cite the fathers against thoS(: who think thiJ ... " and
" That is enough about rhoS(: who thi nk that. . .. " On only a few occasions,
which we will not~ as w~ move along, do the bishops pauS(: to teAcet a little on
th~ topic at hand . Th~ir m a nd a t~ was to provide raw material.
The compilers say that because a certain reve r~nc~ should be shown to those
who occupy the chair of Peter, th~y will commence with a discussion of how it is
that images are permissible and why it is wrong to destroy them .9j In documents
intended for the pope's ~y~s, this was a rdatively safe way to start because the
papacy had defended images and resolutely opposed iconoclasm ever since the
early eighth century. " We judge it fitt ing and nessary to begin," they say, " by
collecting the opinions of the hol y F.l.lhers agai nst thoS(: who presume indiscriminately to remove images no t only from buildings but even from sacred vessels."'"
A first group defends images. Fourteen patristic passage follow , all of them
fa mil iar to us by now in o ne context or another.''' The opening citation is th~
passag~ in EuSC'bius's Ecciuiasri(aJ History about th~ statue at Pan ~as of woman
with the Aow of blood who was healed by touching the hem of C hrist's garment.
The next passage is the olle from the Acts ofSyiuuttrconcernin g the images of
Peter and Paul that were shown to Constantine. Then come John C hrysostom
on all the things that painters can depict, Paulinus of Nola on th~ va lu~ of
looking at scenes from the Old Tesrament, Gregory of Nyssa on how an image
makes him shed rears, the same author on how images can make on~ think
deeply about what is d~pi cted , and th~ n Augustine on how pictures an~ not real
but can bring rcal things to mind and incite people to compunction. Up to this
poin t, the au thors built a very traditional case for the permissibility of images.
The bishops then con ce ntrar~ on why it is wrong to d~stroy images. They
quote Augustine to the effect that a person would bear injury to God by damaging his image. Then they cite Cassiodorus who himself told of St. Paul destroying altars of the pagan gods. Next they cite Cassiodorus again on how Julian
d~s Hoyed the image at Paneas and replaced it with his own only to S(:e it deStroyed by fire from heaven . The point is made subtly but eff tively: C hristian
images arc of wmerhing and destrve respect but pagan alta rs, and by ext~ns ion
images, a r~ of nOlhingand can be destroyed with impunity. Then, as if to clinch
the caS(:, and perhaps to impress th~ pope, there follow four S(:parat~ citations
s.o>nJ I<oood..", ' 71
of G,<g<><Y I:
(0
Seren ... (clling him ,.,"
10
d.., , images;
'0
Sct~RU'
"'rinK
.Iu, (~><l . I,,,,e is '" b< ",,,,hiped ...! no. inug<o: > Jmu...iw .bou he kg;,i_
rn. ,. remcw.ol of Ch,i"i.n im.g<> from . ')'R'n"" wh<re .h<y Iud oo.:n IOrc_
ibly in,rodu.;ro; ,00 '0 S<cundinu. on how inuga em ",II 'hing> '0 mi...! , nd
....lo unC bum ,, i.h lcm19ng (,,' .h<m. Qt".~,u,Jr ,10< F",nki,h ... ,i .... Iud '"
h,nd very few text> ... h.re tt.e r,,,I,,,, ""tu>lly condentnl ti>< <k:.truction ...r
,m>g<>, So.hq ><Iop",d ,h. "r:tI1g<m of <i,ing old. famili .. ' .." ,h" .mhor_
ized im>g<>, of <kmn"''''''ing th .. p<s>n im>&<, ""10M b< de<trQyl wi,h"u!
conS<q""n">. nd of ...."in8 'hat dam.ging eh,i"i.n im.g<> ""uld bring
h<.><nly re:buk<. Th" &"ve ,hem an opporc:uni,)'
.ffi, m 1"1"'1 ,c>ching---<>nd
fi,~ of ,h.i, (ou"",n .., .. ct re: POi'll. 11",,, m.y bt . ... btl. p<>int embtd<kd
in the list of ciutiorlS , Of 'he righ' ... tho" citro only one i p<>p< . 00 'he o,ht,
>cv<:n p r<Cc<k th .. ~rqv.'Y I_in ,im<. In ",h..
the ""mp ilc" ore
nuking ,he p<>in' 'hat lh< pop<> .nd ,he r .. nh .Iu ,ndi,in", The Byun_
,inc< , lurcd tim . "di,ion 'OO, >0 ,he LiMI", would nO! noc .... nly.n,>goniu:
the 1I)"'.n,i ..... Th" del;':'1un<ing , ~- Fronki,]" 1"1'.1,
1I,...,,,ine .i",,~
lullnt"k of
LiIHII~,.
Commg t<, thei , <ond ,hem<:, 'he r.ri, bi.bop< n"'" "'y 'hat 'hey .re:
going to 'p<>k "'''II''in'' 'h<><c ... ho >c"" ,hom lim>g<sJ .nd adore ,htm wi,h
< g:tinl holin= 'hrough th.m."" A, thi, poin' tbt b ishop. emba,k on .
long di>amion of "",,,hip. The 'p,h< .~bjt of im.1ga i, .1 .... )" fron' .nd
"''''' '. ...! ,h. h ic ,h",i. which ,h< <ompilo" .rgue i. ,h" ,i>< worship of
i"",SC' '" wrong. 11m ,h. ov<r>ll .ppuuch i. 1>0",,1 in tht wbol. p<,iod of inugc
<o"'I'<)V<"i<:s. :-;"'.." h,:f"", h.J , ~< "l'I'<.rcd .""h. ,u""nro p"'Kn .. ,;"n o(
lici nd il1ici, fo,m' of ""' ..... ip. of the ",ltu of wo ..... ip i""lf. and of ,h<
l. ng"'W" . ... il.blo t<) tuk .bout i, .
Th< bi,hop> sr. .. by .,)i ng ,Iu, ,hO)' n<l 10 ",p~'r< iu" how ,h< worship
of imag<> ...... in the Ii .., place, '11><... follow ,i. rws>go< .11 from v.rious
wo,lu of Augu"inc'" lmag< wo"hip i, .. "ibu,ro
Simon M' g"" t<) the Go,_
P"'"''';''''' Gnoo,k
",hkh .U<g<dl~ wo .. hipro image> of PO" Paul.
Home" and f')11ugo~: '0 EpiCllru. ,nd IXmoc,i"" whose im,go< "'<r<. wi,h
,h<i' conniv.n.". """hiped hy ,hei, d""ipk>: . nd 10 H<fm<> T'i , m,,!\i"u~
Aogo"'n 1", i. qUo<<<l .. h"inS ,.id th., 'h< Ito"'"'" R'1"'blic btvn '"
d.dine wh<n i" <"iun. !Urnl to im.ga. T h " =,ion rondncl<> ... i,h <hun _
,ion fro", Th< Cif} _fC.odllu, God" ,h< <""'0' "f.1I . nJ i ~tn. to It< 1ow.:I.
no' 'h< CfCO'ro 'hing> of hi. wo,ld , The '><1ic here: is i"'<<<Sfing. Im'g< ""0 ..... '1'
is .",ih",oo '0 1"&""" uni".""lI y reoogni.ro h<ft1;"', . nd ndJbal4_ No ron_
mporo,Oes". circd. Th. pmblom i. pl.coJ in ,,..
."d .,f. p' ''.
'0
"",d..
i,.
.n"
,h.
sec'
'0
,rnt"",
27 2
CII APTER SI X
Having discussed , very briefly and discretel y, how image worship arose, the
bishops now turn to what "our teachers" say about this superstition.9ft The
remark near the end of the discussion of the origins of image worship about
the need to wo rship God alone serves both to identifY succinctly the fault of the
image worshi pers and also to effect a tra nsition to a lengthy elaboration of the
argument that worship must be reserved for the creator and not for creation.
Thirteen extracts follow, drawn from a wide array of fathers: Fulgentius once,
O rigen, Jerome, Isidore, and Lactantius twice each, and Augustine fo ur times.
This senion begi ns with some reflections by Origen on the twentieth chapter of
Exodus. Moving alo ng, the section forbids the worship of images of rulers.
Isidore is quoted to show that a pictu re is nothing in itself but merely a pointer
to something else. God alone is to be worshiped and the soul, which cannot be
depicted , is the image of God. The whole section stresses the spiritual dimension
of worship and warns against the worship of anything created, or made. There
is a danger of loving creation more than the creator. These arguments are old,
familiar ones. Theodulf would have been happy with this section, although it
lacks his persistent and expl icit rejection of "manufactu red things."
T he argument that the creator alo ne and not his creation is to be worshiped
is then carried a bit further in a way that anticipates and meets a potential
criticism.?'! The bishops as k about people who seem to thin k that the mediation
of images is necessary because the image of a hu man body is worth as much
as the body itself. Seventeen passages follow with Augustine most frequently
represented by far: thirteen extracts as against twO from Jerome and one each
from Origen and Ambrose. The compilers arrange the exuacts in such a way as
to make an argument. First, God alone is to be worshiped. Second, it is a great
ofTense to attribute life, an active mode of being, to senseless objects or to
demons. Third, angels and saints do not love it if we love them but arc only
pleased when we love whom they love. Saints indeed may exhibit wonderful
qualities, but they are nevertheless no r be worshiped. Fourth , C hristians do nOt
worship ethereal and celestial beings, such as angels, but only God who created
and blessed such beings. Fifth, Christians do not devote the cult to marryrs or
to relics that they devote to God. To anchor this point the authors twice cite,
once via Aug ustine and once via Jerome, the passage in Acts 14.10 where the
Lycaonians tried {O worship Paul and Barnabas. In parallel, the authors cite Acts
lO.l6 where Peter refused to let Cornelius worship him. Pride m ight make some
men wish to be worshiped like God, but Christians must avoid this temptation .
The Paris bishops were being careful to close the door to any argument that,
even if the worship of gods and heroes arose among the pagans, and even if
C hristians show reverence for certain people, that does not mean that C hriS[ians
. 00 "",...nip c~,ed bti"J;'- ''''gd., ..i"",, "'.,,,...., <"cn rulcrs- .nJ, hy <><'<0-
';"", ,ftc;, ,,,ug<>,
Thi, "" of ttA""ion, co"";." 0" wi,h. h",f ,C""" ,h" "n: 'g>in in,,,,,
, h" only
e~'''' ...d nO! hi, c~,ion ;, '0 bt .do,ed, ".' Cu"om mu" . Iwap
yi<ld '" ,ru,h , ('~><l i, "'" "''Ot.hirooJ 1:>="", li < i, olJ, SO ' " ,pr-.k, but I:>=us<
H< i. <mal, No tnc" ruom i, <1<m. l, Th< bi>hop< ""'nl ,,, bt ackno" 'k<j19"g
,h. worship o(image> h., ix<:n .round (ot . long ,i"", b", .. ring ,h" 'h)'
Ott "'" ' horcl>y impresseJ hy ,f.: p",,,'ee i,sdf o. pcrsu..u.J by ,h ....,,,ion
long ''''g< CI'lnf"" ... Iidi,y,
Now tl1< hi"'"", hln> '0 .pific p'actien whid , d"r consitl.. objtioor .
bk Th~' .. y ,h .. >io ,ruly holy moo . nd angd, did 00' ";,h '0 be .dom!
h~' fO h< I"'id ,
oflo"" .ncl ,inc< ,.mpl.. (,h" i.. ""utth.. ) . nJ _rio
ficcs .." no, in"im,edlO. ,Itt m.>rrp. but only fo' God, ,h.n 01>< wond",. how
i, i. ,h" ,ho: G"",k, ' I",.k i" Ii.. " k,,,., '0 1"",. of ,h. -aJ..,n,L<>". 1'v.I>. inc""", .
od '" on. wh ich.tt offem! '" irnoga'" T h< Holy. C u h"l;'; Chuh M' bid
.. ide ev<ry f",m of ,upr-n,i,ion ... d ,hm,fo", m ... , <uKi", due di5<tt'L<>O ",i,,"
,h.
,Iu,
'M '
..,,,,ice
im.g<> "j .. " .. ' M' "",."nJing ,=:h", ,I>< bk..,.,J Pop< G'W'ry,
l1o;ght," Hett ,ho bilh"p' ,I", ,,,nou,,,,,, ... plicidy. p<ni, .. n, .uh,h.mr: Olt<
mu" ,,'o id !Ii.in~ ""r.J.1 '0 "ou, "",.ko' b""he,,:' Th< ~g<> .ited ",ioc<
, p rofOund p"'",,,,1 ><,I;';i",,1<. From "'I>r 0')' 4' ~ ,hey ci,. th< ""'Y of
M<>s<s .rtd ,h. b .....n "'tp<01 . od ,h," ,ho: I.,,, "ory ofH"""ki.hs d.s'ructi""
of ,I>< ><tp<ntlla"" ... I><n, .ftc, i, had btto kepI fo, m<mo.y, >om< h<g>n t"
"",.,hip i, .. . n idol. TI>< bi>h"p Iso ,i"
'''''Y oj Epiph.niu, .. AI\.bbtlu,
.11>< h"hop had .m.m! '''''''' ,old f"'Jn.l ch .. rclt ""il booring on im.g< of
Ch,i" o. of 1Offl< .,im_ i,
nOt cl .. , which , Epipluoius ttm<n'Cd ,h. "ii,
11>"" ,h. do,h to poo, peopl<. , "d g>"" ,h. d,,,,eh ....... ""ii , I" oJd " ;"". ,h.
bilhop< citO (Plrudo-)Ambl'<>\c 00 ,h< co",ump,ion of nxo' ,Iu, hoJ h<cn of
f<tcJ io P-'I\>" "":"fie, Amb,o"''''Y' ,h .. ,It .... ""M "0 .. w ..... <on ....""h
b",
""" <ok b""h.,," migh, "" ","fu>Cd by lh< p",,,,ice, A. ,h.
"-'<lion d ...... ' 0 ill clooc, i, pttSCllu. fmm I'.ul (, 0" , 6,,:) "u Aug""inc, ,h.
,oju""""" tl .., "'.. c-'<<r,I""5 ~'hidl ;.I, ,,'(ul,, "I"-..I"'n" Th. bt>1t""" >;or <I..,
whcn p.:r..,n, h"" qui,. pmp<rly ..
inugos (0' memory ,nd I"." ,hey
should "" <ordul ,h .. , io .u;'fying 'lrci, <)WO tln..,.;"o, ,hry do "'" gi", .... nd .1
respect '0
,h.
w.,
m,,.,
'M'
"",ed
'" .....1" 1""'1'1 "d d ... w lh<o" i",o." "opl"'""" i'r Ii" ..,p<"",~,,,'
A, ,h" I"'i", ,h< bi,ho", ><Id .. "',-, f.mili" Old T.... n,.n' P""SCS
whi"" ""',. ",hink ",i"g ,I><m Win<' ,uppon f", ,h. oJo<>,i,," of ing<>,"'"
Th. bi'hop< ofI' Augu"i",,', ,nd Jcromo', rummen,,,;,,, on Geo"i 7,19-)' ,
,,'Ir<tt l.cob is .. id '0 Iu", ".Jom! " hi. >00 J<<ph, or , I>< 'ip ofhi, " . If,.nd
,hen 'h<]>' cit< G-g<>ry', M.",/i4 on J Kings L1J wl><<< D id i, p,,,,a! hi
274
CH A PTER S IX
have "adored" the prophet Nathan. The interpretations which the bishops offer
by means of their patrisric ciutions are completely traditional: this kind of
adoration is not religious bur is a mark of honor and devotion that people
customarily pay to persons worthy of their deepest respect. These two scriptural
passages were cited at Nicaea and often figured in iconophile propaganda. But
Nicaea cited many more passages than these and the Paris bishops ignore the
others. When T heodulfinterpreted these texts he did so rypological1y. The Paris
writers seem to cite them as further examples of the kinds of practices that must
be approached with discretion.
The discussion of practices concludes with twO more brief sections, each
buttressed by one citation from Augustine. The first counters the argument that
support for the worship of images comes from the fact that they are called holy
and are equated with sacred vesse!s.'OJ Augustine says, on the contrary, that
vessels are fashioned fro m gold and silver which God himself made and that
they are called holy because they are used to serve God in the sacraments. The
vessels are merely the work of human hands and as such deserve no worship in
themselves. The second addresses the old matter of the cherubim on the Ark of
the Covenant.'G4 This time the bishops use a long citation from On Christian
Doctrin~ to make the point that it is a grave offense to mistake the sign for what
it signifies. Signs are meant to elevate our minds from the corporeal world to
the spirimal. The passage does not advert to the old argument that these particular images are licit because God commanded them to be made. These TWO brief
sections should, like the ones dealing with Jacob and Nathan, be taken as additional elements of the preceding discussion about the danger of blurring the line
between creator and creation, and of misunderstanding how creation can, properly understood, lead the mind to a contemplation of the crearor. Certain traditional practices can enhance the wo rship of the one, true God but, if due caution
is nOt observed, they can lead anyone, and especially the weaker, the less well
educated, ro the worship of God 's creation.
The next passage extends this argument that worship is to be reserved for
God alone. It docs so not by talking about practices but instead by exploring
the meanings of the words that themselves are usually used in connection with
images. It begins thus: "Concerning the due service (culm drbito), which the
Greeks call1atr~ia, or that worship (rtligio) and service (culm) which the Greeks
call by one word, thrtskian, or whether or not any manuf.actured thing is to be
cherished (couT/dum ) or adored (adorandum)." lo, We have seen in earlier chapte rs that, normally, the Greeks were understood to have observed a distinction
between /atrtill and proskyntsis. The former was reserved for God alone and the
latter might be accorded ro images. Presumably these words corresponded with
Second Iconoclasm
275
the Lati n adomrt and vmrTdrl'. The fullest treatment of this tOpic in the age of
iconoclasm appears in the writings of John of Damascus, but his words were
neglected at Nicaea and unknown in the West. Many have argued that Theodulf
did not understand the distinction or that the rranslation from which he worked
had missed it by renderi ng everything as "adorarl'." We have seen, however, that
very few authors were careful in maintaining the distinctions between each word
in these twO pairs, and that the distinctions may be JUSt as much modern scholarly constructs as medieval theological definitions.
Therefore, this section in the Libtltus seems to be a promising beginning on
a fundamental clarification of te rms. Yet the bishops turn for "proof" to a brief
section from the beginning of Book 10 of Tht City ofGod. 106 Augustine here
inaugurates his ruminations on the va rious words for worship. He says that there
is no single Latin word so, when he needs o ne very precise word, he will use the
Greek latrtia. He goes on to say that cultus is unacceptable as the single word
for the worship of God because it has tOO wide a range of legiti mate meanings,
although it certainl y can apply to the wo rs hip of God in the Strict sense. T he
bishops break off thei r quotation righl after Augustine has made this point.
Only in the next (uncited) lines does Augustine actually deal with rtfigio. which
he equates wilh the Greek thmkt ian. Rt ligio, Augustine says, could mean the
worship of God alone but, li ke culws, it has too wide an array of current acceptations. He continues by talking about pindS. which the Greeks call tustbtia, and
says that this word 100 might refer to the worship of God but can also mean the
obligations dutifully performed tOward one's parents. Because ruJtbtia could
have a range of meanings, Augustine says, the biblical writers sometimes substi tuted t/uoJtbtia which had the advantage of referri ng to God alone. But this
word cannot be e;"( pressed in Latin with a si ngle word.
T hus far, the Paris bishops neither cited fu lly no r got full value out of
Augustine's comments on the terminology of worship. Then they turn to the
well-worn story of Jacob's pillOW-Slone. On this they cite Augustine's commentary on Genesis to show that when the Stone was constituted as a "title" and
anointed, Jacob did not become an idolater. Jacob neve r visited the stOne to
make sacrifices on it or to adore it. It was a prophetic sign pertai ning to the
unction that was to come in the one named "Chrisr." Moreover, Augustine
continues, " It must be noted very carefully how he set up those titles as testi mony to something, not that they would be served as if gods but that they might
signify something." [n this brief passage Augustine nevcr uses the words cult ,
religion, latrtia, thrtsktian, and so on. He uses "colt rmt" and "ado rando" once
each but the larte r does no t appea r in the quoted selection from City of God,
although both wo rds appear in the Libtfful section . The bishops seem to have
.;6
c " ,,, ...
inC<)'l""""rN rhi, >e<rion " <I""n"" rhei' >" .. n'~," rM' G...d >10'" i. ". t,.,
...,..!.irN
To oompl<-r. o~. <liscm,ion of rt,., ICCOfld rh.me of rho Likl"" w<
ro
h",,,
jump . ho.d .bour .iprn ~ in rhe rexr ro poin< whcrt the hi'hops rem.ned to .ho subja:t of wocl!ip, ,... Thi, ,ime thq ci .. tho Ictru of tho Council
ofNi=. ro Con>,.n,ine VI .nd Irtnc. Th< rtlcv.nr ~ begin>. "Po, .don
tion ("""'4';") i. und.r>tood In ",-,oy ....1':. Tb<y "" ..... On by ci ting $C\'<t.1
dill'ertttt kitld, of ><Io ... io ": Ad"",;"n "xcordi"S to honor 'n<l lov.: .nd 1<-...
ius' >s rei""", ",<I'M' p" wer are ";",.,r: "><.\o""ion "",,,.jing tv far prope<.
>s whcn Jacob .Jored I'...u", "admation """ ..!tng to gntitudc. >s whcn Ab..
!urn .doted the "'... of H "h from whom h< ~.cJ , pIor of l....! ro bucy hi,
wil<- Sa""''': "ado.,,,ion for ",mrone in oup<lior po>ition from ..+tom onc ....
gotined protocti<Nt. >s when j.rob adored ph<t,a%." But. tI,cy c... nclo<k. "th<r<:
u ,h.. ,ruc ."d n"", """, in ><lor"",n whi<h " <Jwrd '0 .lmighcy ("..,.I .ow.! ,h.
di.ine m>i<.cy .ton. It .. illi,i, '0 ,,,,oufer ,hi, ado""ion '0 .ny c.... ,,,n: or ,0
,hil1 " '0 .n)' m. nuf.ctured ' hing. " Irnrncdilldy ,he bilhops turn m Augu".
inc. ,hi, ,im< . i,ing h .. 0.. "" TnMiry. Hert Aug<<ine ...IIi,m. ,h< dillicul ....
of bnguogc and he dr.,,~ 1 d;"incrion hctwtcn d~hmn ,ow.! "'tT<Wi1t, The foe
mer mar he p.>id .0 mony ('<,..,ns in m1n)'''''1' bm .he "(fer;, p.>id '0 God
.Iooe. It
that 'he r.n. bi.hops "'cn: ..,."i,i.. to ,he ambigui,'" of
",d;n.t .... bnguogc .nd th .. they r<:aIiud d.arly th ... no mona ,,'h .. wo,d. OIl.
U>I oo<$<lf. o. f<mnd ;n 00<' tat<. there ,,'" lUnd of "ado",, ;on" <Jwrd to
God alone .nd .oothe, ".dom;""" ,ho, ""'" much b to><lc-r ;n 'Wl'''' 'ioo.
T ho LikU", theo lU'ns 10 i" ,h,rd rtl1jm ,h.m<. ,h. problem of ,ho .. ,,+to
th;ok tlu. they "'0 adore;~!><awe they 1f" JUSt I;k< "" 0""'.'" 'Ib"
leoSIl'y d,,,,,";on of ,he c",.. " unprl<n,ro ,n .11 ""Ii , .....S" d ..I"''''''
Thc m>l,,-;. I t.... ted in this sec,ion p, ...oked
ionS"" din:ct ;M.....".,ion by
tho bi>b"l'" ;n ,hc Row of ,h. Aorikgium. 'Ibc b~h"l" " .., off by .ddr<iog
,...."., wh ... " in ,ho, syn"" <o( <hc C...,k, pul>li<lr ..... ,ho, ,hey.do.. irn>g<o
ju>t >S ,hey ..wrt ,h. I;f.,.~v;ng .",..." They rtjec;. th ..."",em;"" by mans of
twelvc <i .. ,iorur .... , m.k. ,hr .... ,. poio".'" Tlte fine i. <1m mi ....... re
""""""ed ";,h ,h. <"'", Con" ,ine .. "" <,.,.. emb/uo,,,,1 nn ,he .l<y .....
h. u<l ,he .". '" vi<(()'Y.h"oging ..... " . nd"d , d.ad propl. Iu,,, beeo
brough, bode '" hf. by ,h. e",," .nJ p>g>n. ho,.. bee" brough, ,<> new Lf. in
f"rh ' h ,<ough ,ho
won .. n ""'" ",red of
by ,he ClWS" reli< of ,h<
ue .ems .I""", 'Wly R, n.... The ....,nd poin' .. ,Iu, ,he <"'" b,ing> innu.",,
. bk t,.,ndiu ,,, Christ;. n" ;, bring> hope. V;""'. """IOI.. ion. "'t. nd ptt>tcc.ion, Thc third poinr build> upon ,he """"od. Thc ( .". i, for Chri"i,n'
'p.,.."
,It.
<""'"
"'"ct.
"ni"<'111 "go : ,igo of pun""""n, h... become igo of glory: ,h. ""'" gO""
Second Iconoclasm
277
aIJ who see it hope of the resurrection it signifies. The inescapable infe rence is
that images neither do nor mean any of these things.
Now we encounter the bishops' longest single personal intervention in the
Aorilegium. ll o "Worshipers of images are accustomed to advance in support of
thei r point of view the veneration, adoration, and exaltation of the holy Ctoss.
So why [they say[ is it not permissible fo r images to be ado red just like the
cross?" Their first answer is one that we have encountered before in iconophobe
circles:
When he wis hed to redeem the human race, Christ chose to be hung
upon a cross, not upon an image. And so holy mother church, throughout the whole world, has decreed that the mysteries of the cross, among
countless others enumeraled far and wide again and again by the holy
fathers, are licit for all Catholics on this coum alone, the love of the
passion. And so wherever they see them they may if they wish venerate
them by bowi ng, and what is more, on the holy day of the Lord's
passion that is specially celebra ted througho ut the wo rld, adore it by
proStration as is do ne with all devotion by the entire order of the clergy
and all the people.'"
The passage then says that nothi ng like this can be said about images. Mo reover,
the church uses the cross in consecrating fonts, in baptizing, in making the sign
of the cross upon the baptized, and in other ble~ings too. Ordinary people
make the sign of the cro~ on their fo reheads and bream. The sign of the cro~
is a powerful weapon agai nst the attacks of Satan. W ho can say any ofthis about
images~ Furthermore, when the body and blood of the Lord are about to be
consecrated in the holy mass, they are signed with the cross. T here is no one, be
he wise or slUpid, who supposes that this consecration may be effected by any
other sign .
At this juncture the intervention shifts in mid-course and moves on to the
fourth theme, the issue of when and why images are permitted: "Up to he re for
you, if you arc an indiscriminate worsh iper (eU/fIlS) of images and from now on,
on the other hand, if you are an intemperate destroyer. Take care that in hearing
what follows you do no t think some permission has been conceded to your
rashness, so that wherever you sec images painted or erected nOt for illicit cult
bur for a discrete and, therefore, fo r a licit disposition of mind, you should
wish either to pull them down or acco rd them the mockery of ridicule." '1l The
conce~ ion to which this refers pertains to the possibility that someone might
read the following defense of images, penned in the first place against those who
.,~ ben' on dC'tro)'ing ,hem, ... n .u,h"ri ... ,ion '" """hip ,hem . Thi. paiDg<
.nd 'he 0fIe> ",. rounding i, ore mostly in di .."
in the scwnd-pct!OfI
';ngub,. This migh' be .. in .... ddiber.udy rude w:ty of -IJ><"k.ing '" .. , .... ..
add,,,,
po:'!On~
Bu, ,he J'W'Og<"'" ,IO' n~n' '" be setn by ' nJ">"" oap' loui . And
i, .. only in ,hi, k"S,hy i" .. r'..~",io" ,hot 0'" once.. a n)',hi"S Iii ,he ocri"lOny
ofThcodulf. Elscwh"" . ,he ",,1m. mooe"," 'one of ,he Libt!l1", i. Ofle of in
mos, ",iking c/u.r><Ii",ico.
lI<c:ousc ,he ,..., du",~, ... ill nO', ." <>Ik in I:H><h ,h. IA"'I", .nd if>
roughly runt<m",,"'Y t...... 'i .... nu mu~ will be provided he,~ ,h.n ~ boo
iOn,",",'Y of ,he los, ponion of ,he ~",il<W ~m. for i, is he~ .h.. ,he P,n.
hi,hol" eng.>g< in ,hei, ,n ",Ik '" 1"i, is ,he Ionges' sc<,ion of ,he l.ibtll", .nd
hy ",.. n. of """n'Y-li\'< "'1">C'~ (rum ni ....... n d;fI<~n ' (.. be" . i,, ~.llr . 1I of
,hem f.mili., ' 0 u, by no .... ,h. ,mho" bu;1d up . jUSlifioo'ion f", insa Iu..,J
on.1I of ,he ug~",en .. ,h.. w<"'''''
fo,. Im:ogcs 'rt >u'horilalby God
h;",,,,lf who romm,ndrd J<jm........as ,he eherub;m_ oo be nude. The i""""",_
,ion Icgi'im>t images, rm;ogo:s can ,,,,,,h , an d<V>t~ mind, from ,hi. "",tld to
,he
,nd ",n rdi:, "".... ip perfunnrd hcfo ,hem 00 ,he person whom
,!try pta<n', Aj,hOt.lgh &.re,.,;on of.n inug< bea" injury ' 0 ,he I"'""n
rtprc.<mi.
inugc docs n Ot ",mehow c= . dupl"' of it; >ubjot, 1m_
~gcs of Ch,,,, du nU! "V, ... I< hi' n.""".
rn<1..,
""'t.
,h.
\1(r"h ,he I.., ci ..,ion in 'h< fIorilopum . 'hi> >rion of 'h< Libt/J... com<> ,,,.n
>.1""1" <nd . Who, (,,11ows .. . ,1t.1i of. lou ,fut ,h< bUl,"P" P'''I><>tl '" I.o ui.
fOf . "hmi .. ion '0 ,he pope. T1", let,,, must be in,..,. ... ,ed ,,"'holly on irs own
'e'"" hoc> ~ .. ;, hel.. 'n~ innoo""""" ttUtO,i>.l , ... , m;gh, ..... phctd i, in,o
co,,,,.,... N """ will SOt: .honly. 1-,,<,;,. "" ...1 let .... '0 Pope [ ugeniu, <!iff..,.,
,u""t>n,i. lly from tho d ... fr kcr. In > .... y. ,hi... f<,rt~n .. < hoc>usc ,he dil<rq>.ncia provide d"" .. to wfu, ,h. b i,hol" ,,",.rt ,hi nking .. well .. ," wh...
mn,,;m,rd "'or< .uthon.. ,i".,. or poIi,i<. 'hink.ing at , he co~n.
The d,.f, k " .r begi ... by .rguing tI"' ..... ry hunun effi>n ntU" be di~ed
,,, och .... ing un;,y. pe>:. "n,1 mncord . No 0 " , ,,'ho f,;I, ro .. ruW< wi,h .11 hi,
might in 'h" 1\"'''.0" """ ... ,< .ny h<>p< of .". io; ng I.:. ",n. Th<: Int ,I.:n
")~ ,h .. SOI!1< apl.nion ohould be nIT.red fo, why.1l 0( ,hc p....,..jing ",c,i.at (i .. rhe Aorilegium) Ius been ".n,O\;,,I (.. , ..... WO<d, """ .,.ing ",'n,
ten, ;t """tU, th. Epi~"", "' d not yrt betn <n..; ... gl) . Th< ,horieo.l "'0<<1;)'
i. I"nicubtly i",o"",;ng. Th< let,.r ..... n, "'i,h. rcfl<CIion Ofl rhe ,in"... F.i,h.
&<:ond Iconocl;.sm
279
hope, and charity are preeminent, but they can only be preserved and applied
when prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude are present. [n turn, these
latter virtues cannot be operational if reason, disc retion, respectability, and expediency are not in evidence. Now, the lener says, many of these virtues exceed
human reason and some of them, indeed, can be arrained only by faith. The
Bible and the fathers have discussed all [his fully. But in its place, reason is a
powerful tool. H ere reason appears to mean a certain kind of logic, a way of
presenting an argument. The implication is that the Aorilegium constitutes biblical and patristic material that falls into the realm of "divine authority." Divine
authority, of course, has its own reason. BUI so does plain logic, or human
ratiocination, and so what follows will in faCt take this path.
The leller continues by saying that all are brothers in Christ because all
alike are redeemed by the sacrifice in His blood. Therefore, it is painful to know
that "our brothers of the whole empire of the eastern Romans" for whom we
have unbreakable love have been "i rrationally" split into two because some of
them, tOgether with "our dearest brothers" Michael and Theophilus, do not
wish to have images while others of lhat same " holy people" wish not only to
have images bUI even to adore them. An altercation ensues because neither
parry will seek an understanding with the other and both think that reason, the
Scriptures, and the fathers are on their side. God has deigned to give the world
an arbiter of such disputes, His vicar, the pope. He alone has the name "universalis papa," which possesses the authority to intervene. In these "last days" Satan
is splitting the bonds of love and unity and the pope alone can lead the Struggle
against this evil. Indeed, no one has a greater obligation to lead this struggle
than the lord apostolic, but if he fails to take up the battle he could nor Huly be
called uni versal. All this, the letter emphasizes, has been said to show our devotion, to show how we wish to add o ur help to yo ur (i.e., the pope's) struggle.
The draft letter is about twice as long as the one that Louis eventually sent
and is considerably more Aorid. It is polite albeit a little condescending. Its
overall approac h is subtle and clever. The problem is a split in Byzantium itself
and the pope's pastoral authority is invoked to help heal the division. This line
of approach avoids the ticklish matter of the division between the pope and
Francia. Moreover, even though the Franks sent their Libtflus, or at least its
Epitome, to Rome, this letter did not urge the pope to TeRect on those materials,
or to use them in any atte mpt to convince the Byzantines. Instead, the " Franks"
counseled an appeal to reaso n couched in a call for peace, unity, fraternity, and
mutual love. This too was a way to evade the obvious difficulty represented by
differing papal. Frankish, and Byzantine views of the same biblical and patristic
tex ts.
180
CHArTE R SIX
The next section of the LibtJ/lIs forms a draft of a letlcr that the bishops
proposed to Louis for the pope to send to the Byzantines. T his leiter opens,
courteously, by saying that as we arc all si nners and brothers in C hrist, thcn the
pope. on the autho rity of Peter, Paul, and the Lord, wants to call all to peace,
love, and unity. The " pope" says he must write to " M ichael and Theophilus,
the highest sons of the church of God ... the emperors of the Romans" because
the Lord commincd the keys to Peter. He asks the Byzantines to heed and obey
what he will present to them in thrC(" chapters. One will argue with reason in so
far as it is rational, discrete, honol'2ble, and advanragcous. The second will argue
with aut hority as it is understood by the truth and righteousness of the Catholic
fait h. The thi rd will lay down a plan, or perhaps give advice. that is pleasing to
God.
T he first section of the three-part argument is entitled "RAtio." In these
lines the "pope"- that is, the Franks writing for the pope-says that under the
authority of Peter and Paul the whole West has always been fTC<" of all taint of
heresy and has called back ro the right pat h anyone who ha!i fa llen away. This
truth is known all over the world and all turn to Rome to find the truth. So it
is critical to address the long, harsh controversy that has scpal'2ted Rome and
the Greeks. We must find a way to make peace. Let us start by asking, "What
harm would there ever have been to faith, hope, and charity if there had never
been an image?" Certainly, if these had never appeared. there would not be this
controversy now. When all the clergy and the dignitaries in " the empire of the
Franks" heard about this dissension with their brothers they sought aut hority to
look into the man er. They cried O UI to high heaven that the judgment of God
would fall upo n us if we did not use all our authority to work for uni ty. At this
poinr the draft conrains a short passage that purports to be a papal quotation of
the Frankish point of vicw. The "quotation" says that it will nOt seem tedious
if"thcy" add a linle on what reason and the ancient fat hers say about this case,
on what " the reason of (futh and the truth of reason" teach, and on " the line
of truth that Stretches withoul a break from the ancient fathers right dow n to
us." The "Franks" then tell how Dionysi us brought the faith to Gaul from
Ro me and how it has been kept alivc by many others, such as Hilary and Martin,
" who may not be known to you because of the size of the earth ." But we have
never heard that such a question was raised or debated. We find no evidence
that anyone ever prohibited images from being painted or erected. No o ne, in
fact, either commands or forbids them. If there we re: no painted images in all
the wo rld, no harm would come: to fai th. hope, and charity. T he knowledgeable:
somC[i mes put them up in churches or in the palaces of princes for pious memory or for decoration, while: for the unlettered, they arc there to teach piety.
Second Iconoclasm
l81
They arc not there for any cult or religion so they cannot bear any harm to true
vi rt ue. People should be able to have them or no t, just as they please. Our
ancestors have handed down this custom to us, and so we neither require not
prohibit images. Those who wish to have them should avoid any illicit cult and
those who do not wish to have them should not show any contempt to them or
damage them. "Such is then the key point of this whole explanation (totiUi huiltJ
rmionis), that those who wish may have painted or fash ioned images for memory
or for sound teaching in suitable places and without any illicit cult, those however who do not wish to have images should not spurn them with any ill icit
contempt. " H ere the " pope" concludes by saying that he could have said a lot
more but this ought to suffice.
The next section of the draft letter is entitled "Auctoritas." It begins by
making the point that the time has come to see if the writings of the holy fathers
are in accord with the preceding rationale. The "letter" cites four leners of
G regory I, the very o nes that appear in the Librllus and in the Epitom~. The
letters w 5erenus establish that Gregory opposed the destruction of images and
also forbade their adoration. The letter w Januari us tells about a gang led by a
converted Jew wh ich entered a synagogue and placed there images of M ary and
Jes us, a cross, and a baptismal robe. The Jews appealed to Gregory and he
ordered Bishop Januarius to remove the offensive images and let the Jews worship in peace. The letter w 5ecundin us, still rravcli ng in its heavily interpolated
condition , says that Gregory sent this recluse some images because looking at
images made his heart burn with desire for the persons represented there. Gregory approves this attitude and remarks that 5ecundinus docs not wo rshi p the
images as if they were God. The first twO letters, then, establish the basic thesis:
no adoration, no destruction. T he thi rd shows that in some cases images can be
removed while the fou rth shows the proper attitude and disposition with respect
w images. The "pope" says that Gregory's words must be read very carefull y so
that they do not appear to give aid to those who wish either to destroy or w
worship images, or w lead astray the "many persons of lesser understanding"
who might misunderstand them.
The las t portion of the proposed letter is entitled "Con!ilium." The "plan"
or "advice" returns to but expands on issues raised first in the opening of the
letter and in the " Rorio." The "pope" stresses the need to seek peace and concord and to remove the dissension that is dividi ng "brothers." Then the letter
gives a brief history of the controversy. It began when the emperor saw that some
of his people were inflamed with a completely inappropriate zeal for images and
worsh iped them beyond anyt hing that was ever before done in the church. 50
the emperor sought to remove this superstition and concluded that the vice
",
CH . . n "
could no. be .raJi"" .,j "nbs .he offendins images ..,,'" d..""yeJ , Ru. i. "'"
nu' r<':OUy n=>.ry '" ",mo.., ,h. i~ bccaUI< ,Ixy W<f< no, off.n.iv< in
,hem<clvcs. Indm!. th<j' we", Ul<fiJl. 1<, ,h. knowledgeabk fur mem"I)' ,nd '"
,he ignor.m f01 [""ching, So on. offen ....~ ach10gal ro.. 1O",hcr,oo , hi.<
""gh, '0 he our '0 G An [he devil in'pi,oo [he d ... ,u;"n ofi ..... g<s h. ,hen
led I",n. and het oon '0 Mm.ond ,Iu, . 11 p>pl "bi< [0 .t,.m wo,.hip im>gn
\'t'< "mply ,>>iJ ." ""me hocl ,h. righ, I",h,
The JICj(' i'em in ,h. doWrt is Loui.<, !co"f '" 'e",m;'" and
they
""'" P"'P.. ing [0 had for Rome. The ideali,m, pe,h. 1" ""iV<K. evident in ,he
d ... fi !cote" hCf< givd "-' ), to l.. rtlhculeJ f<.Ii,m. Loui, ~ .. , ..,.. ,h ..
n.. ,...rials which H,li%", aoo Am.Ia, Iu"" brough' to him .t< actlkn' .nd "Til
rui.ed [0 ' he purp<< for ,,-hich ,Ixy ...... collcc.ed. Bu[, he con.inue>. you nm!
[0 . . Icc. n,in i!em Iu,.re """, ' pt for the pope [0 ~ .nd then mind
him tlut [h ... thing< ....,'" only coll"",cd with hi.< .PI' ........ 1. II< ....... I"",i. uf'"!lCSo
'0 'I)' to convince 'he pope
",h.t " r<':O""," ...ch", concerning imOjJ<S '"
nci,her he nOf his peopk will k ilik ' 0 r<joea wh. ,)"O" .. y. Be pa.;"n, .nd
rnoJe>. in your di.pu ;"n SO .Iu. you do no. mmpcl him <0 "iff"<VOCObk
!Cubbomn.... " l..e .1 him by ""f,,l, m""",red argumeno_ II,,, if " Koman ohuinxy" 1"""""'''' til< d'><""';o" 1.<",..,.", )"Oil from COining <0 <he &,;,1 ~ul,.
then "Y ,Iu, " .. wi.h '0 ,ndude Our cnw,,.. in . ny 1'II",ion which he migh'
di,p><ch '0 (;on".nlinopk
The focus on ,,,,,,,n and "n ""ref,,1 ' 'l!umen, .. iQn i.< i..."",inS_ '-"',i. cl<x:s
'0
,;0"". '"
,n.
,I.,.
,bou,
"S''''
no, .... n' hi. envoys to en~ 10 a bo"le ufRuti~. Of '"

d ... ikd poin"
of ' h""log. He ",-. n" . h."" '" "..". ,he l ind, ,,( ",,,,,,,,,," ' 1"'1Ioed " .. , .. !9'<'"
IenS.h in the drah Itlte<>. Pca i, <ru<;'1. It will .. k< "'me Mmpromisc [0 g<I
pc .:.. Im. gc< ,hould nut he permitted to caul< ....h Jeep di",,;" .... The only
problem wi[h .hi, ..... ..,,"'bl." posi[ion is .Iu, i. Iud no <luno: of king ""_
.:cpled by .ny roMin<oo iwnoploilc 0' ico""phobc I",,;,.n. ut l>erh, 1" by an
oIn,in. " pope.
Th< foll"wing documem i, Loui'" l<Her to Eugcnirn. Louis remind.. the
pop< [Iu. when [1.< Grttlu inro..ml him tlu. [Ixy ""'''' going [0 <:li ccmin
i"ue> ,,'i.h !tome, he .sled .h< pop< fo, perm;""'n .1> in ....,iS". ,h< IN.tter
him .. lf,.he I.<ucr.o I.< helpful. Loui ... ys th..... lulevc' hi. bi,hol" .:ollted
in.IU .ho" , tit< ... I,. I,.. ratd ""'" , nd """" send< "" to 1>"", wi,h hi. ,,,,,,ed
<ouricrs who 1 . . ,hemsck a I""",oed .nd .<killed in '<pIment . Loui...,.. tlu. Itc
kn""~ the pop< himself is , ..,. ... of the slu." di.i<io ..... mong the G.k. ond
Itc hop<> ,Iu. [h. holy f.. h.. will wo.k wi[h 111 hi, ",.ng.h ro ",,[ore pc.cc . nd
u"i,y_ If i, ....,.,Id be- hclpli,l, I""" sa)'>- ru, W<)ulJ he gl.>d ." i"dude hi.< own
..W~ it< '''y """.1 cn,bosoy ,'-' ,h. F.... '_
c..oml"'mJ ..ith tho I"ng J .... ft le .. c",. ,hi, ,n'I"" i,1 m,,,i..., t., R.,n",...,,,,,,
p .. tty ~nimp"",j..., . YOt it ,hould p"""'!:> I ~ It< " I:en .. ind".,ing """ ,hing<.
Fi"" Leui, Iud limite..! "'p"'~m'. $000. , ,,,, i, ,",W no ~n '" mrogonizc
,1>< I"-'pe wi, h I,i, k.....t><l .
y. he, Ief, IV"" ""'I of tapo,u,!:>ility . "d
p<m.p, ini,;',i .... ,,, hi' 1'11'" I..o... i...... .", ,,,mdy ""io", 01 .. , hc It< aJluwe..!
ro I"'"i.il"' in . ny 1"'",,1 mi .. ion k> Con,un,inopi<.
,uW''' '" me that
,1>< C:oroJinsian ""''' Iud COme t" rcg:.rtl ",['ti"n, with BY'-'n,i ... m" bcing On
1"" with ",lo,ion, ,,ith Rome,
Th. I.., documen' in ,he 8'1 dtmi~, i, ,he [pitu"". Thi, ... 1.I:mi'" len ..
to Je"" "'i.... ><1 -"."., ,mpli.,.,.,,, in,.,><Ie..! IQ, p<e><tu"io" '0 .: 1"'1"'_ PCI'
h."" .. in 8'0. it "'., to It< ,cod "pr ordinmt.' The ,da<ionlhip bctwn thc
lib.tU", ond ,h. pi"""'''' linle my" .. io ... " Whe,..,.1>< lib.tU", con"i", ,
Roril-wum wi,h I ~~ 01'1'1<:1 .. ,he Ep"'o",,, Rulil9\ium Ius "nly 7J. In gtner:>.1
organi",ion of ,1>< t"p;,,, ..... fol~_ ,I, .. of 'hc 1~b.tIJ", hu, ,he"
''''c
di/fe'-"rw;es ,00 clungo ,Iu, ' .. worthy of "()Ic_ The n>o" W"ing dilfc..-n<:c is
,h .. the pir."" 0""" ,he long.,. >1ion of ,he librll.,. namely ,he 0"'" ""'ling
wi,h ,he p-a,riSlic ju"inca,ion, fOr inug.. _ Wi[hout thi, ><o;"n .nd ilS 71 0 _
, .....". ,he f.ibri1", con",,, of It} .. , ...". , n",,,bc:, wh'.h ",""",bit:. "'''''
doxly ,1>< tpilQ",d 7l- On" Ie.., 'hret OOOUiOlll 'he (ompik' of ,1>< Epiw....
>bb"",i"e..! .pt<inc ci",ion, in,,~.d of omi"ing ,h~m'" Bu, on .. lost fouf
oc"",ion,. t he .pi.omi" :uldcd rderena. .Iu[ . ft: no. in ,h. l.ibri1.,. Mo
:l<Xu .... ,dy. in onc ca;c ,h. cr,tom'" .d<kd. " 'holly ~ '-&.. n.'" . nd in
,h, otho:, co ... hc ;ndud<d lCCti<>n. of lcu<f. of G'<'gO'Y I th., wtr~ omiue..!
from ,he .i""ion' of ,h<c Iet" in 'he librllw. ,to The>< peruin <0 ,h. m [h<n _
,icity of G"-lIo'Y', n ... lett., '0 Sctcnu nJ . 0 , he ,rus"",uhin,-"" of 'h< hc.ft:f
ofG'gOry". o<cond k1lel. 1".", i, .Iso ric. no, '0 do"in'lf ,b" .. ,he _,,_
ger. 10 f<:w in".n,,,,, '''''' ,h. opi,omi,,{.) mi""ok ... ',."IS """,inN in 'he
librllMI fo, COmmem. by ,I:><- rompilcr> of ,h .. wo[k '" mi>look ""'0.1 COmment< in
LiIKU", for =ntinw,ions of m ",,,.<:t.'" T.ltcn <OgtOhe, [h ...
diffi,rcnca 'UII&"" ,Iu[ [h. Epi""',, ..... prcp-amJ hy Jifh.n, l>>pl hm ,he
on .. r<>pon,ibl< fo' [he Ubrll",_On. would norm.II)' look '" ,h. ""un for ,he
cpim mi,,{.j. Loui" kite, ' 0 .Ie",;., od Jon>! ' .. 'e< qu it< clco~y
hc
,h""i;h' ,h>t t hey ,h"!lld d"-"",, '1" ,,,.li,1 ("'In tho: l.iIKU", fut I':>C II "''''n
[he JX>I'<. Pctlup. ,hctctOrc ,hey wcn: ",,,,,",ibl. 10, [he piIO""" Bu, 'h<y
h.J bn in r ..i" thc Jiffc-rence< bcrv.'ttn ,he lib.tll", and 'he pir._ .ft:
im"""ible [0 . . pl>io_
Som. o,h ,..".,1 Jiffi,rcru:e> be.,.-. 'k f.pi"'M, .nJ ,It< UMI", ,,1<:,;,
""mmcn,." ''''0. 11,, ""'e:> ,hc "I' i",,,,;,, .It<<<:<1 ,he in""J,,,,,"'Y rc", .. k
which he fO<,oo in ,h. f.ibdl",. In [he n", in,,'nce_ righ, .. ,h. b<ginning.
n,.....
Th,'
,h.
'IC ..
,h.
,Iu,
'0
... ..... ".

~"
.... <pO"""'" ..)" ,Iu,
..., ...
1 .rh.o< doooc: ...... rqI ~ ...) 'maw<> ..;th

indiocnm"...c ..... as...,.ad in ,1..1ctta of Midoad. and ,cg how Ihtlitdoom
p<ml"'" fO """ ,htm, SII' in .... LikII... ,he <orK>p<>ndins mn.orlc ..yo th.,
~ will hc rnlkmd '" rd\H" ,,,,- ...... dIX.: ~ im... from build.
inp Of """ .. _ml ..,...1,.. ... In .... ~ caM', ,I.. <ri' omiu "'J'1- MThUl f~,
>pin" , ........1>0 dmroy imags. N_ "&'i.... , ...... who d ri,h (~"I) ,hem
... i,h ... IIn~'ed ", I" who piau in"""" bcfO<. th.nn, ,,, ...... do o<he<
.;n,n.. iu!"'''';' ...... ,hi"gs. . _" n.. C<lrr.,..,..,nding ...... go in ,t.. U~
"Now .p im' ,h"", who "''''. ,nd .dOf" ,I,n wi,h.n un-.-a,,;m,ro cui .
and call ,h ..", holy . nJ in .... lh .. ,hey gain ..,,"" hoIi~ fro", ,,,",,, as we
finJ in , ... , 'mOO of ,I.. G,.....:'1" n.. 'hi,d .... ~ bs ,h.""."" n.:
<pi,omi" ...., by ....., figh' Of 'D,mly tJo.cy brinK
Of ligklS to ;"'"9"
as '''' read in ,I.. kite.- of Iht G,cda. n.: J..W..... ,he ..""" ncq>< tlut ;,
does _ .......,_ I"" ... ' In ,......aI, ,ho C... nBU .... .....dot. \' ado """ ....
,ho .tWa ol...nrn,~ p<>iI>I<- cri[iciomo of ,ho ~ po.""", on i""P
Thlo "";.nins of implici. ~ ........ 'I'P'~[ in . _......... of """' _
_ n" ,.... """".. in .1.. E,I- bu. _ in the ~, M" e;,;n, Iht "",nn
from E....bi... OIl .... r."c.oo im._ do. cpi"""'" add. ,..., th .. ~ ....
betn ">eluded b::a .."" " >howo thaI u.ug.,. _ ". be ~ fuo- ~ and
""- bu[ ......" fo. odora,ion.
tho IWS"~ "" Sylw$t, Con.tun;n. and
tho i",. S" <of I'e,.. . nd r .w, [he <pi ,om;', ' ''n,in ..... by <;tyinl [h .. ,h;' "'dup'
t<,~ rom ..... nd. [h. nt l, "I' tho on. 'ou" Cnd and ,]'" P""''' ,ha, im>gcs a"
u>c(,~ (Of ,I n.. ,,,,>S)'. A d,.,i"" or Joh" ChtyJo""'" ;, /01101" .1 by " If .,,,.,,d.
i"l! '0 tI .....,itinp <of 1IIch . Y "'" '<xl, ,h. ""'Of;.I ... do.r!.)". ",.~II.>u,
"Ill)' It> , .........h" .; .... i,_ ...hy is h. con'ooir:d by hi, disciplnt' A!tt,
d ..,;"." of P.uTinu. __ ~"" "BdooId hoI" n,,,",,, h<-t>d;, i, """kroN by """,.,...,
of 10;...,'1'" , ,,,. cpiNmu. .. II", of P.u1 dmrori"l! 1"&''' 01= .rod "1' "0.-.
,,"',... of ' ..... """'-Id fuIkow 'h" <nmpIt." Afi .......'''''''nK M.""U......
Iw-oit. ,he ...,hot odds. Mit "''''' I.. -..I do .. M1IUI1i ... ;, numbnnl
.......... .... hornlQ bcuwc ~ ,.".,.,.s ;..... .ond pbcr:d i _ bcfOrr,
them .
n.......... I<w........, """"pie. )il<. tha<. bu, 'hey.r<.I1 ",lido ,ho
....,.. In."....,. case. II.. <p;"""iso', C<>mmm' ....... '0 ;"'pm:> upon .ho JIOII"
,IK f .. nkulo in,"I"='''''' '" ,..., ",Jo:v.", poM.IfjC- "Thc..r <om .... n...... II>ort
.nd ,""fully ,..,cd n..y >m to "'" 10 C<I''''I''',>d ...;,1< .........pccu '" thc
du>oi.er, TIler n.-fl= ,t.. ' '''plus;' on "",,,.:' o n log""" dCJnon",.,;"n nd
they ""I)' ",och h.."j I..,.,i" .d.",," to .. lee. only .pt j ......S" . nd '0 '<gII<
..,dully by "",.n. of ,h.""
Tho 1;,;",_, ,Io...fw". p",,i,lo u. ",';,h p,i,ilosed ><:0' '0 how tho F ... nb
,hough, i, miv" be 1"'''';1>1< [0 moun[ and ""in an a'l"",.nt- . di,I" ".'ion-
,.ad,.
i"""....,
Af,.,
",
Second Iconoclasm
285
with the pope. But Louis expected "stubbornness" and "obstinacy" and, as far
as we know, his expectations were mer. No more is heard of the subject of
images from the papal or Frankish courtS. As far as we know, there was neither
a joint embassy nor an individual papal or Frankish embassy. As in the 7905,
the image controversy of824-25 tells us some interesting things about Frankish
views on images but also permits us to listen in on other concerns that were just
then important to the Franks. The Paris colloquy evoked both protests and
defences. To these we turn in the next chapter in order to create a full context
fo r interpretation.
Conclusion
As in the eighth century so toO in the ninth controversy over images emerged in
the Byzantine Ease We are better informed about the inception of the ninthcentury st ruggle than we are about its eight h-century predecessor, but in both
cases we are poorly informed about JUSt why the problem actually arose. It took
a long time for the eighth-century controversy in the East to reach a high level
of theological sophistication on the iconophobe side whereas, in the writings of
John of Damascus, the iconophiles reached a high standard very quickly. The
Second Council of Nicaea was theologically moderate. In 81S the Byzantine
iconophobes were likewise moderate, returni ng to some aspec[S of the theology
of H iereia but mainly contenti ng themselves with reining in some practices
deemed superstitious or irreverent by their opponents. The iconophiles, especially Patriarch Nicephorus and Theodore of Stud ion. however, fa r outstripped
earlier iconophiles and their contemporary iconophobes in the philosophical
rigor and profundity of their argumentation. Much of what Nicerphorus and
T heodore said became orthodoxy on the subject of images. But linle or nothing
of what they said reached the WeSL
The earl iest Western reaction to renewed iconoclasm was papal. Paschal I
wrote to Leo V in te rms that-as far as can be judged from his fragmentarily
preserved letter- hewed closely to traditional papal teaching on the subject of
images. T he Franks had continuous and intensive relations with Paschal but
nothing in the surviving sources permits an assessment of whether the image
question played any role at all in Fran ko-papal relations. The Franks became
embroiled in Second Iconoclasm when Michael II sent Louis a letter in November of824. Louis respcC[fully requested papal permission to investigate the matter. Perhaps he was mindful of the difficulties occasioned by his fath er's earlier
independent initiative after Nicaea. Louis selected a small group of Frankish
.u
CHAP". >I X
bi,hop' ,nd i,.."UCI.J. 'hem ", met' in P.,i! ~nd look in,,, ,he imag< qU<l,iQn.
In .uing this OCIioo t.... ...... follol"iog ,r.><!i,io ...1 F",nki.h pl>CI;':' in dealing
with doc,';",,1 ;\o"<l. Lou;", bid",p' rn-iC'<l wid< ""'y of document> . nd
p.oduaod > lars< ""'I"" of m1lc.;,I. d",;nro in .hc ~ ... iruur><' fot
cyes . nd in ,h. """nd on,,,,,":,, f", !Wone .nd C,ru,.n,i""pl . it i, ;mpooo.;bk
t<, know ,t.... ou'''''"", of ,t.... ... hok ptuC<:SS. N""'''t....b.. ,he P,.i, documenu
.un,ti,,, ,, in\p"";,...... id.n ,of.1>c CJ>nlprch..
.,d ",'plti,,;"',;on of
F."ki.h ....."'n;"1l on ,Ire ....".' "I" in,'5"". F..IO<n''''lIr. ,he F"",ks a,s..ro 'hat
im'I\'" .. etc [>C.mino:<! hut nUl ,,,,,,,,1 '0 fai,h o. _.-.Irip. Ie _"Id be: goc>d
'" kn<>... if ~nyon. ;n ,he Wes, Iud augh' ",ind of Nicq>hotui nd Throdo..o,
''1\ume''" ,Iu. im. gu
n<t<Sl>ry. The Fr'lnics .rgucd "S"in ,Iu, imogn
,,"etc nei,he. '" b< dts.f<!)'<'<l no. ",..,.-.Iroped. Th..,. d"di..."J '" en!',>l;< in .. ,mi
I..,,,
.,i"",,,,,,
w.""
""Iogio;::ti w"'ngling. On ,k.: whok ,hey rommanJcd ,he p. cris," d,...x. on

i""'gn .od were olen ,0 .1i ,he argumcm. t1u, had been ..iscd O<I""'ry ,ide of
,he i"tI<.
CHA P TER
S EVEN
Art and Argument in the Age of Louis the Pious
AI. ,1.;",;"" . I.."

_ 11.p I ."
CONCU " RENT WITII rilE Paris Colloquy tt.:: F='" diwwcmJ . homc-grown
inugr '1""1'<1. Bimop o.OOi", of ['"in, pcrlup< ohonly . Iia he ba:amc hishop
I:omo=n 8J6 ond 8J8.1xpn "moving .nd datn::ing i""'ll"'."d pca<hing >g>ins'
rhcm. 0.00; ...... ><1iom "= brough, to tt.:: .." " . "'" of !.nui" <;O,lIt ond ,he
emperor dq>uttd ['''' of hi. tha,Iogi>n.1>i>hops '0 invar;g.r< ,he "",[",r_ .lotus 01
Orli> .... who Iud .,."", .... ,-ily in,<:>Ivtd ,,-ith ,he l'acis p~ings. penned oot
Iongrhy t[C;(,isc .nd
rhc m><t<r of.II<..:h<>oI in P .;.. .,thom.! ....,rh<r-.
In ,h" ch1pkf we dull ~ " fut a.uJi... did.nd .. 01. lhcn we dull [Urn to
tt.:: t<c:tt;"" of Jon. .nd DungaL In addition. we ,],.0 .ru.lyu ''''''''''' by Agob.rd
of Lron ,1m may Iuv< h<n .. much > Clur ..... rdUwion ofP>ria ... r<jo<rioo of
O'udi..... Two r>d-.:r .ignillc.nt Frankish writt .... ~frid Strabo and Einlwd .
.00 weighed in on ti>< inugr '1"""""'. On th< Mill of .hos< Wli.ing>. we sIull .urn
ro.n .nd an .. tk in."" midninth ""'''''1".n<! ,...... 8',he, in ....... ' ,he ,<,<",i",..
.Jong wi'" the P... is document>. GIll ttU WI.hour tt.::
of tr.idit""'.
<>Rie >nJ """"";p_ Firu.lly ...~ stull ~"'" fur $ill''' of " ' - .hem.. in ",hOI oon<en>
p<>r.II)" "";'ing:I and i<AIcs so ... '" ron,,,,.w1lK ,he ,n"'ll" qU<5lion ... . ,,+de.
0..""".
mItt "'<me>
Logomachy C.rolingian S'r1e

Am id .11< I"'te'" ,of Bi.tr''P Cbudi u. of T"rin i, . do<umen, bo:.'ing ,he t;tk
A~
""J &",,~ ".! BHhop Ct."";'" ".! T~,.in ~;1tIt Abbot
n,.,.'",i,_' Nor.
IWeT ., .11. ,hc ~ ...
""ri><.
of b,i<:f CX""'I'" from.

I..,c, ",;d by
in kflg,h ,0 ,he "",1m. of D,.id pi,,, ~fty
pulm . ' a . udiu. took nor< ofTh"",mi,', COllum th.. " "rumo,.oo..., me h:..
I\'>"e Mnh from I<>.I~ .nd .p=<! ,h_sh .inw.lly .1I of G.ul, ,;gIo, LIp 10 ,he
bordo" of 5p>in." jo...., I" c. ",id rlUI h< had 1<>,<>1 from Th"",mi, ,h"
CI,mdiWl hul ".omi,a! OuI boo/.: of ,ueh gru, prol;'iry 10 ,h< <h ... l<h of , II
~(G."l, "
T hi, '" of ducs np<nS ""r i"",.,ig."ion of Ihe Fnnkish ",-,rid'. hume5''''''-'' in"~,< ' 1,.",,,1 Thi, '1,-"",,1 o<""".a! .. lh< ",me ,i"", .. ,he ","....ml
F"mki!h di<pu.< ",i,h Byunlium . nd Rome. lbe n<>.,i.!, p'oouccd in 1'. ,;.
><l
Jon: o fO,lbn. '0 h.... bo>on in.1
'" h! """'" ""pli<i,l~ .. ",,,,io" Chud ... >., I. ", .. ,hoc PKJu.< .:0 .. """..",,.1 ,.....
throIogi.R.!,}o!U.I of Orl<.m and Ounpl of P"i '0 ,espond di,raI)' '0 a.u_
di ..... I ,h. 1I look in 'urn" "".. a.udiw d id. ",ho o,<lly he ....... nd ... h"
",,,,,ion. hi, ",i,""" d'c;,,,,j. Thon I >lull m ,n '0 hi! .,i,ica. J01U5 .nd Dung>!.
lIc<au!< ,I> ... "'"'' ". no, wtll k""",'n, I will , umnu'; ... cach 0"'"
In hi, ~ CI,udiWl S>Y' Ih., '" soon ... h< go> '0 holy !O 10\ .,..." Ihe
( ~""'8' h< n",nd ",II ,hoc b;uili<;>, fill<:d ""in" ,he "rd of
IImh wi,h foul inugc>. wonhy of >n .. h."" . nd b<cru .. CYaf<>nc p>id cui, to
,hcm (cp/ffl,Mj l!repn '0 d.moy ,hem 011 by myself." Sr>me cvidenu ,ugg<S"
,h." pc,h.p>
rb'lOj-ing ... ho, h< MI,,;d. Cb,!di,,, .... d n..... ",ulpto,.." 1'....
l"'cJ fu, ,he li,u.pc.1 ~ in hisc:a,hcJ..J .nd ,h.. ,h= item, had o;u.",dy
in,,;,,,,. I!"'>me" ic ..... ign' in which c........ymbol .....i.<il,l . Th< roi", kern,
'0 be ,h,, , Chudi", " ... willing to ' u.... i'u .. ,h ...... t><t /Or ,h< mitnctic 1M
,<I'.... ,,(1'io"o.I.' CI.udiw', ironocl",", .oml him 'he ~'c di.<plca'u", of his
prop\< and. h< " Y'. if G.>d h,d no, h<1p<d him ,hry ,,",mid h,ve ... ken his
lif. Cl..udi .... . nd Thru'mi, <;0,';1 On 1 '<Su!., co!Tcsp<md<nc< in ' he has.
I',<>um.bly. 11o<OImi, inform<:d Cl...di~, ,ho, rq>Ofl> . oou. hi.< .i, i~ Iu.d
,!,I"<,d widoly. ond pc .... .,. he cl,."i>aI him .. ,,cli. h Im.! ,ho, C l..udiWi
r<>p<>nrkrI wi,h ,h< I<ngoh)' "ca.i,. of which only fr.pru:m. JUlvi .. , If Th",,_
no, ..",n . Bu,
,mi n,,,,,,,<:d Chudio. on ,he ">pic.,r inugrs, his
11o eu,mi. did 1O ...... ,d Ih. A"."", In ,h< p. lxc. This !lU,ked" I..., , hoc """,nd
,im. ,ho, Thru,mi. Iud brvoy" Cl>udiUl 'Q ,h< .... n'ion vi !he emr<",... ><1
,I"""", of lu,in
.f,.,
....,rJ, .1<
ka,,, ..
""Ie.
hi. a.oci ..",. It is lim. '"

link ""'I"< .bo". CI.ud''''' in
'0 pu, ,hi,
.ff..i. intO 1><"J~;'<
O audiu" o,igin, .nd <.,Iy lif 1"< oo.rur< . H< w:u Go,h, hu, ;, i, no'
dn, whetl><' h. "'" Sq>,imani>n 0' Ib.r;. n, H .a:ms !<, h..... nt<.....t ,h.
Fran ki.h <n round 800 .nd .0 h.ve >p<n' SOffi. rc'" wi,h " "'hhi ..... "!' [ ... i
dr.>d .. Lyon. Feli. ~(Urgel " ... in 00" o(hoo()1':l.h[. in",,,,,,n.io" .. L)..,n fO,
m.ny yea ... ",< 11>,.. ;wumN ,10 .. hc inAu.nc..d hi, o>un,'}'",.n. ,nd
pc,h. p. ,10 .. h. h.d hn hi. , ...10 kfu ,hoy "",,u..J "pin Ly<.,". Cl",Ji,,,
Iud [i"k Ii"m. [ <dueuion .nd " ... unf. mili .. wi.h $<Cula, [cu ..... In m,".n
[hoologica[ . nd <xcg<. icIl, h. nuv h,v~ hn .n .modid"" . 0' h. m,y 10",.
In ,nl fmn' fdi, . nd/o, leid ... d, H. k~ ....",. pmi"", w,;,;nb"' ".')' wd[
."d he had <\>i.1 dNOtio" S,. Aug""i"" By~" h. had ,.,,,, ,h. f..or of
L::>ui, ,I>< Pio .... nd ..,,11 in >< ,h. ""luiui" i.n king', 1"1:> " C ...... n<uil.
The ho beg>n "',i,ing long ric> of bibli",1 o> ",,, .. nl>l'" (vi"""Uy .11 unli,I .nd unpub[i.h.Jj .nd '...:hing >om. m.mbot< of ,t.< 'gi"n.[
I.... ui
ppoimro him bi.hop of Turin somim. l><<Wttn 8,6,..J 8,8. A good m,nr
do"il>
hi. ""i" j,.., dc,i ... f,om k " c" h. =h>ng.d wi, h hi. f(mn pupil
Th.u'mi" [h bbo[ of r .. lmody 0<>' Nim ... In ' 00"[ 8.0 Cl, ud iu. publi.hl
com men ... ')' on Fi", Coein,hi.", . nd The",mi. ",n. i0 .he p>1"" .0 ...
i,,'f'CCI.d by ,h mp<"", bi'/,op< . "J opti"' ..... By .bou, 8'J or h .. Ct.udiu>
could wei[. ro Th ..",ni., in ""nn.i"n " 'i,h .n "ob""ing "",omen ,.'Y "n ,he
l'<m" ..IdI,
\II>, II. ~ eOO1i nuing ,,;,10 ,110 c.rgnia.1 "ork ~ ,\d ,0 UP'"
b... id hi, old 'lUdem (0. "ling '0 g him in.o """hie. Cl",diu ook ..,me
rlns" in .n.. f..: h.. f,ienm in high pbee. >hid,1ed h;m.' (:I...,,,\i,,, .peaks
,,' """.. of ,he.. 10m" ,[,0", <I" d'pk",.bk
of hi. di"...,... h" ut hi,
<"""ing "",klood. oJ
,h. COn"'n' lIppI><i,i,," h. fKI, It i. hard '"
bdio<v< ,h ... , hi' <X<1\<ticol work g<>t CI~ud iu. i"'" ,roubk "i,h ,Ix 1"",1., H.
m.y h.", .""'~'nt<.....J oPl""'i,i,," ftQn> tho .. wh<o we', "'r'[ '0 I\,.",.,d vf
1t, ly who bad .cb.:1I.d win" lAmi. in 8,8.' Such p>p!e migh[ h....~ ,...,n[ed
'0
d,rw,
.boI"
"'''y
.bou,
".t<
Claud;" <lose [i .. ,",'i[h I-,>ui>.

It ><ems "'Of'< likely."" Claudiu" dlO". ", .1, <USl,,",,<)' ",Ii giou, p.ac
' ices in hi, diocese h,d p>plc up in .,m . Bu, ,he ... ", puzzl ... CI;o"Ji ... $OY'
.Iu[ 10< found probkm' .. soon 1! he ~,';.cd in Tu,in (bctwon 8,(; .nd 8,8)
.nJ ,Iu, 10< im ml i.. d)' SC[ >1>,,<11 purring .hing> .igh, . y., hi> Ap.tqg, was
,,.i"en .ner Felon",}, of 8>4 """"use i, o,.,,,ions ,he .!<;"h uf Pop< I'>",h:.l I. "
Morro., DuoS'1 (... beIow)"Y' ,10" (;hudi". ,kdined to 'PP<"'" .yn,>se m<;mb." ho ... fer.....! to~" '"coll,;"n of uses:'" It" ~bk ,h ... , ,hi,
"',. I' i., N<w<:mlx. 8'1 _ w.. CI."d'"'' ...... nb" wi,h 11,"mi, known ' 0
.10< ['"i, hi'/>"I" 0' ,1HJ ,he Coll"'luy p",n'pt ,ho ~ It i. diffi<ult '" ""y.
Son", of ,he .hrul" . nd " uk 1"""lI'" in ,h. P"i, <Iocu,,,,,,,, {eing , '"yo,,"
ottm 'no'e unck""".J,hk if odJ,o:w:J ,0 , o~, Fil e Ch,..l;u. ,h.n '0 ,he
pop<. ()ung>1 . j,o"Y' 'hot ,10, ""nc.".,n'Y'" thot had kept him (,om ... ying
.n)'thing "fo, . och long ,im," ,,~ rtmo"ro "non I>< "",";vl Cl:lUdiu'"
Apelon." Thi, du. would 11:0.... IV"" ""I". if we kn .... jus, whon o.'"pl wen,
'" Povi . Hi. p!Ocn<e ,hc'" i, ."",,1 in May of 815 bu. not b.rfo"." My
hunch i, ,Iu[ wh.cn Tl><mmi, f:.ikd ro .. rni'" Cloudius', ""m, "" >Croum of
hi, Corint h"",> commen ..",. he [hcn denounced him [0 ,ho <:<>un on ><>;oun[
of his p.."'ral "'casc>. On [his "",koning. n.cu.mi. =<."tlludly Cbudiu"
,.uming of hi..... ppon .. "'" in 81) 0' 81-4. Claudius Iud wn d""ro)"ing
inuga .nd prt..:hing op.in them. and .Iso i,;citing ,.,I"", .nd pill\'im.ge.
fo, s.i. 0' right yn .. bdo ny"on, reaUy raised. voi og..inlt him. B", whon
d>< cll:o<gc of iconoclasm hi[ [he coun. Loui. >p.. ng imo :oct;"". He.nd his
<oun elil< " "dil .he A~.od prtp>m:!.n n,r><1 from i. [h .. ,hey ..,Of [0
Jon" of O.lbons .nd (J'\ln~ fo, l<I'u ... Oon. I ronsid i[ "nlikely ,Iu[ Claudius',
iconoclasm Iud ",..... lIy gon' un""",,}.1 lOt .....",.I)'C'... Wh... I do con,ide,
lil dy i,
Loui", I."" from Mich ..llI .Iong wi.h .h e P..i, Colloqu)' "",de
it <ml""",";nS fo, CI.",ji,," ocrivi.i", to be kIi wi,ho", ""'I",n...r,., 81S.
\l'lu, i, "",'e.
l~,,,i .., e~bl ""n. was "'" '" 1,00y in 8.) .nd in 8,S he
began issuing api.ulari ... intended '" pm ,he secula nd rdigious .If.i" of ,he
kingdom in o.do.. " This p,.,."bly .. pI.in, wh)' Dung>l. 0U0f<f of ,he ochoo!
of P"i" ,I>< "'pi!>1 "f ,he kin~""" ..." depu.I '0 " .. kc 0'" or ,he <>ffi.,;.J
m;pon ... '" Cb..Ji u~ .1<><"" ..,.. ,h .. h, stoppl writing hi, OOok 0.. ,I>< C~"
l-:n in 8'7 ,..b,n be ho.1d of Claudi". .. <b,h." This .....'" ,... , Claud;'"
wu !Wt <lepoKJ fOt h"'$,... Not ..... h, ,uOlmOf,I to COUrt 0' haull before
. ny .yn<><l. H, h.d nO ",,1I<>g'''' " .. hri". His iconocb.'m <lid no, cvok ,he
oIlicial ""1>0">< ,h., i'>yu",;ne ;,,>f>clum did . nd he did not teet;VC Ihe pun_
i,J,n><", ",.. I "'" '0 ,he "'~)lionis< Feli. of U'l,,<J. "
Who< did Cb,,Ji,,, ",,,.. ll y t~>(h~ A,,",,,,,ting 'M' question is no, c... y kco.ul< .... notl. we h.... inC .. """'p" from ...."k ,h .. w... as long as !WO
huoJrl "",1m'." Th, ClIceIl''' "Nt .. pp,,,1 " <oun on til< b",i, of ,II< book
"n,.o T"',mmi, .nd fC,,,,,,, ,dl b)' him '0 A.cheo. Dungal .. ys tM' IW\) fUrl
h<f"rc h< W'o" his Rr<p<<1#$ ,he i~ of Chudiu, wtre [he .uhj<c. of. '"",,,,
diligent In,-.;tig>tOo" in tbc p.I>." j<.>IW !at"> ,h., Claudi"" book ..... "um
inl by louis .nd "the wi .... t """'. of ,he pol>",,:". oJ [ 'moid,,, Ni!!"I!,,,
addr..... I.oui. 'oou, '", scruclno p.""",:. pm;um.bly Claudiu . who ",ould
due t" deny th,It the bodi", of the .. in" mctitl _"hip." This <c<m< '" be
furthe, evidence ,h .. Chudius', <21< w:.. ,im:! .. coun. And In us "mem"',
.h" The",mi, had " n. O.ud iu" <ommcoury on Co,i",hian , '0 <:o"n .., [h ..
<he hishop>.nd m.gR.1.a could >cnllini", i,. Th", cnmpla pro>"id, >till mort
.",in..,nr .oou. ,h h.,..,.i"", c.rulin&i.n """~ of de.linS ",i.h doc"in.1
di,putes, But my fi>Cu! i. now Of[ the aeap"- Sets of =<p......pm;"""'bly
'0
,ho,
u" .....
.r
A" .nd Argum<"'
'9'
iden,ical- were scnt '0 Jon .. of Orl~~n' .nd Dung.1 .nd ""ch m.n respond.d
wi,h . 1I..... ,i.., much longer ,han [h urviving (excerpted) veninn of the Apology,
and prol>ably longer [han CI~udiu,', origin.I,reOl;se." Careful an.l)"i. of bmh
trca,iSC$ f~il, '0 discl<e .ddi,ion.1 CI.udi.n m~teri.1 .v.il.ble '0 ,hem bu, nm
to us." We or. forced '0 tely on ,he ,ubs'an,ive . nd concep,u.1 ."ur' g' of [h.
excerpn pre~red .. Court . nd sem oUl for rd"u'~rion. l n ,he MGH edi,ion. ,he
Apology occupies. little 1<$$ ,han fnur p.tges_
Tnw;trd the end of ,he ext. nt form of the Apology. CI~ud;", ..,... ro The",
mir, "Your ~f,h objtion [0 m. is , .." (p, 6'3). Unfortun.,dy Ihe m.,eri.1
th., precedes thi, "atemem i, nol orgoonizrd .. four respon ... 10 fout objec,ion<.
W. may h~ve her due a. '0 ,he origin.1 ,h.(>< of Cloud iu,', hefty ApolOfJ bUI
we cannot from Ihc mUlilOled .. mn.m (><rceive [he '''UClUte of ,he origin.1. In
my reading of ,h. Apology I can Kc ,hree. nd ju., I"""ibly four, b..ic ,hemes.
CI. ud ius rejec!> images, u,ing many ,rodition~1 iconophobt ' rgumen". CI~u.
diu, rcjt. the cui, of the cross. And CI.udiu. rejec" pilgrim age to Rome.
r,rh.f" Claudius .lso dismissed [h. cult of [he saints ot ~, ~ny .... of ,heir
relics.
Aft... liltl. rhetorical ><lund .nd fury, Cl.udius o(><n. (p. 6'0), dilCussion
of worship wi,h Ihe oldesl of the arguments wi,h which "'C h.ve now become
f. mili.,. Ihe Exodus prohibi,ion wi,h few historical .ccrelions: '"Since i, is
dearly comm.nded Ih., no liken ... i, to be m.de of all [he Ihings which ar. in
he~vcn or on ,h. e."h, ,he comm.nd is 10 be unders,ood os (><,..ining nm only
'0 likcnesSC$ of foreign god. bUI , Iso 10 [,hQIC of] he,,.nly Cre.tures which
hum.n wi, thinks i, can mok, in honor of Ihe creOlOr.'" vt'h" is old here is
obvious , Wha, is '"new'" calis for just ~ commen, o. !Wo. CI.ud;", KernS 10 h.v.
unders'ood ,he norm.1 iconoph ik cOuntermOve which defended im.ge< of
'"our" he~venlr "..,[ures while rej.cting '"Iheir'" lik.nesses. He .Iso picks up on
creOtu1"C$ h(>noring ,he cre.tor with ,heir own "co,ions, wh ..e.... r ,heir inten
lion< might be.
A, ,hi, point some lines h..e f.nen Out bee.us< CI.udius is m~de 10 ~p(><~r
10 lurch into. discussion of I.. minology: "To adore i. to proise, venerate, ask,
bcsch, entrc.l, invoke, pour forlh prayer.'" PO!$ibly ,hese words formed p.rt
of, gloss On his nco,menl of Exodus W _4. or possibly ,hey .re one fragmen,
from a longer dilCuss;on. CI~udius wa. a k..,n .. udent of Aug""in nd he
surely knew AUSUSline' reAec,ion, on these very words. It i, nor intpossible [h"
CI.udiu. Ion ..... Theodulr. word< on ,h. ,ubje". For prose'" purpose>. CI.udi
u" .wem~nt m.y be re~d .. signifying Ih.1 he was ."'llre of lerminologietl
wrongling .nd [h.[ he was h.ving non. of it: .11 "f these words .ua~hed '0
beliefs .nd behaviors which he d..,nted obj.",ion.bl . Bur il m.y .Iso be
,I,,,
...~ .!>""k! read O."<li,,, as pr<Widing )'CI .noo t.ot proof th .. .,.,ly medieval
""",k did n", d ",w lurd .nd fas. disUnerio", ~n .he W<)rdJ "uto..".nd
"vencr>f< ." In .hoc "",rion, of th.c A~ .h.. 001 .pifi.;:,lIy wi. h .h. _ .... ip
of God, ."'( ,""i"in~ ,10< ""n,<net jy,. q,,'''cd. I ",unt ' ~itty-6vt cnmp!<s of
.h ",yld be .r.ml.,."j as "_"hip" , "",""" 11 .ime<....Jn.. 9 .imes.
"""""". 'imes. Cl.udi ... w<s .hem in.erdu.ngnbl), H .. ITK>ning i.o ",.reedy
ek1f md he . voids.U "'Ph""ies conn<c,."j wi. h .he dilft .. m ,ludes of n=on _
ins ho"", by ()fl< wrnd." .n",hoc . God don<"'o be odomJ
CLoudi ... co n. in .... by luving .n im~I\1OY i"""""hile ..y. "W< do no
hink that .he.. i nything divine in.be i"",go: wt odor<. bu. illSl<od "'" odor<
i, wi,h such ,..... "'.ion in ho"", ol him .. h_ inuge i, is" (pp. 6'0-11 ). 'n.;, it
.no.her chc<.nut in the i",",go: <li"",,,io" ' going bHk to .n.iquity, TIu[ e lm _
di u, ,,,,,,,,,," to put i. into ,he m"",h of.n iconophik intc.b:u"", 5Ugg<>O [Iu,
he "",lIy did lu ve I;"dy d;..;,..,,,,,,, in hi, di""""" . nd tlu, hi, """,""<"f> ""'..
...sun.bly ..ell ;"f<trtm<l (0. had he d.ed the subjea with Th,,,,,",i.). H.
then mok.. 1us;".!ly ,he .. me p<>'n,.oou, i""'lld of ,h...in.. (p. 6,,). "ring
th i, i h.m<
people who Ontt """.!>ipcJ demon. nOW .,,,,,,hip im.~
of the .. ints ... itlo""t "",Ii'ing that they h." not deserted their idol> at all. The
no, I",in' in =nn'ion ... i,b ><1<0 .. ,;.,.. i, ;<I,., """ .. i( i. "m<rgW ("""
>nve,.:.. inn 0' ddl .... "rr:' he SO}'" "ynu .hould d,..,., (""';b..s) 0. paint On 1
.... 11 imOS'" of r eter . nd r .ul. of Jupi ....nd Sotu m 0' MC"lcuoy. the I."cr ...
nor gM. .nd ,he fOrm 'I< no, 'I"""b. ...d ,,..;,10 .. ,h.,.. "", ,h"... f<: n",n .
I,hollgh .h. n,m. h.. been ch,"ted fo' .Iu, pu"!""" (p. 6,, ). Thi, 'gain i,.
fa miliar po<ition, imogc; ,I< not .<"twll~ 'nything. " If men wt:rc to be odomJ .
h.n ie is Ii,'ing ""h" ,lun dead ones ,Iu. ough, [0 be :><I"""', .h.. i ... h.,..
... ho Iu .. ,he
of God RO' of ""uk 'If wiu, i, Y'" mo..., 'rue, of ,"m",
....J "uocl ,h., utt<tl~ I.de .. n.., lik> .nd , ..._n," H. Md. ,h.. nO! onlY ' 1<
in" "'" be """"red >J (~ >d i. h",,,,mJ. hu, ,I... , ..;n .. "n=. '''''II',ed div;n<
hun"" to 'fu,m .. I...... r.!i<"t. hly he """,Iud", th .. if God', <".rion' are not
,0 he :><10...... how muc:h Icsc ,hon .!>ould """,",ion bo p>id '0 ,I>< "",k of n.,,"
lunds. H. uk<. "Why Jo Y<'" bow down .. >tl hut,,!,I. r"ut..,lf b.f"", f.!..,
in"!!,,,) Why do y"" benJ J">u' body lik "'ptiY< boful< ....Icsc I<pf<S<"r".,;"ns
.nd <>.n hly ;n,,",io.,,) .. WIly do you pros.",. ynutself in .... ,hiy .trO,
befOre th .... n.. l... imag< ...hich you cheruh,"
This '00 i, f.mil"-,. conventional . o.ud;u" vision of the _",hip of God
i. pUr< .nd un>mprom;'ing. M. ...... I 'hing> do nO! rued .... ,Iu ....,..,hip ,nJ
",w' nut be ...."..h;I'.... ,heOl.. h .... Li.i"~ hurn.n. bea, ,II< lik.,,= of God ."d
'" in .out( ""n.. (""od .... y be _",";[>1 in H i, lik<n"'" in t""" h"m.n,. (I . m
. I"",S! <c[uin [h .. CLoudiu" maning Iu, b<cn d;"o,,'" h<I<, ) M,n" i, life.
""rd,
tn..
1;""_
Art
~nd
Argumem
293
less and irrational. Idols are idols, pure and simple: yo u cannOl give them different names and change thei r essence. The very points that Claudius rebuts
provide us with some hi nts about the ki nds of defe nses of images tha t he was
encounrering: Images recall to mind; honor paid to an image is referred to the
person represented; creation may in some fashion suggest the presence of the
creator. Claudius's words provide a further valuable hint: H e talks of prostrating,
bending, and bowing. H ere we have a staunch opponent's ve rsion of what image
worshipers do. In northern Italy, they did a lot less than in Byzantium.
Claudi us also attacks the cult of the cross. H is opponents devoted copious
attention to this issue and, as Celia Chazel!e has recently demonsrrated, the cult
of the cross and the theology of the crucifixion were topics ofimense imerest in
the first half of the ninth century. ZJ I have the impression that the Apology as we
have it severely abbreviates and quite possibly misrepresents what Claudius said.
Nevertheless, it is possible to discern at least the kernel of an argument.
" Those practitioners of false religion and superstition say 'We cherish, venerate, and adore a painted cross for the memory of our Savior and an image
fashioned in his ho nor.'" A bit later on Claudius says, "If they wish to adore
every wood made in the shape of a cross .... " This leads me to believe that in
the first sentence just quoted Claudius is referring to both wall paimings and
crucifixes. Be that as it may, Claudius objects because images of the crucifixion
clepiC[ on ly the suffering and dead Lord and not the risen one. Such images are
idolatrous, in so far as they depict only a man, and cruel, in so far as they crucify
C hrist again and agai n. Indeed, if the wood of the cross is to be adored, then all
manner of things associated with C hrist's earthly existence ought to be adored
too: virgins, because Christ was nine months in the womb and only three hours
on the cross; mangers and old rags, because Christ was placed in a manger and
wrapped in rags (p. 612): boats, because Christ often traveled by boat, taught
fro m a boat, commanded the winds to be calm fro m a boat, and caSt nelS from
a boat for the miraculous draft of fishes: asses, because Christ rode into Jerusalem on an ass; lambs, because He is called the Lamb of God; lions, because He
is called the Lion of Judah; stones, because He was laid in a stone tomb; thorns,
because a crown of thorns was placed on H is head; reeds, because the soldiers
struck Him with reeds; lances, because H is side was pierced by a lance. H owever
Augustinian he may have been, Claudius had little sympathy with the father's
teachings on signs and symbols. "All those things are ridiculous and to be lamented rathe r than written," says Claudius, as if his ridicule were not plain
enough already. In the midst of [his diatribe Claudius cites 2 Corinthians 5.[6:
"Even though we knew Christ according to the A.esh, we now know him that
way no Ionger. "
294
CHAPT ER SEV E N
Claudius develops two points with these comments. First, and by no means
uniquely in his age, as I shall show in greater detail later in this chapter, Claudius
stresses the di vi nity of the rise n C hrist almost to the exclusion of the hu man
crucified Jesus. Second, Claudius rejects any worship that is associated with
material things, that is not purely spiritual.
Finally, Claudius attacks peni tential pilgrimages to Rome and he has a hit
of rhetorical spon in doing so. " If you (he means Theutmir herel should say
that I prevent men from going to Rome for penance, you would speak falsely.
For I neither approve nor disapprove that journey because I know that it neit her
harms, nor benefits, nor profits, nor damages anyone." H e then asks Theutmir,
with dripping irony, why he prevents his 140 monks from going to Rome to
seek penance. What could cause greater scandal than preventing people from
traveling the one sure path to satvation?l4 Sarcasm aside, Claudius has a serious
poim to make. When Christ said to Peter, "For you are Peter and upon this
rock I shall build my church," He was committing His autho rity to Peter and
the apostles and they, in turn, have bequeathed it to each succeeding generation
of bishops. Peter is now physically dead but spiritually alive in heaven. Thus his
intercession can be sought anywhere and not exclusively in Rome (pp. 612-13).
Here Claudius addresses T heutmir and says, "Your fifth objection against
me, indeed you say it displeases yo u too, is that the lord apostolic is angry with
me" (p. 613). Presumably C laudius's views on pilgrimage to Rome had reached
Paschal's ears and Theutmi r had learned about it. " H e is called apostolic," C laudius says, "who gua rds the (office? tcaching?] of the apostle or who Fulfills the
office of the apostle . " l~ Fulfilling the apostolic function, in C laudius's reckoning, is understanding the Lord's teaching correctly. In these circumstances, this
precluded the promo tion of Rome as the special locus of Peter's holiness.
These three hroad themes the refore seem clear, despite Theut mir's five objections. There may JUSt be a fou rth theme visible in the Apology: C laudius may
have had reservations about the cult of the saints. He said that saints can not be
worshiped in their images and that any respect paid to them had to be paid
while they were alive. Between his comments on Peter and his jibe at the pope,
C laudius says, "What is it to say 'If only Noah, David, and Job were in our
midst.' H ere's the point: Even if they we re, so much sancti ty, so much justice
and me rit, as great as they were, they would not acquit a son or a daughter" (p.
613). No one, he says, is to rely on the intercession of the saints because salvation
comes only through possessing the same faith, righteousness, and truth that they
possessed. From his surviving statements it is difficult to say if C laudius was
hostile or indifferent to the cult of the sai nts. Clearly, he did not share his
contemporaries' 7.cal.
JCIWS cfOrlill1lF. On ,h. Cuh of (mag<:>

Jon. , of Orlb", " .... n "'qui"ini.n, oorn .bour 78o. " 10 hi. O~ ,,,. Cw/, of
/""''-'' he <:ors th., h. I<m<mt.::rru h"'ing <nrounr<ml di><ipl<> of F.(ip>ndu,
in ...... "ri., .nd G.li,;', I'fObabl~ in >round 79'1, " Hi< .<tivit;'" down to 8t8
whrn toui< n. med him ro r<pUcr l'h<odulf bilhop 0(0000 1< unbrowo.
H ...".,."J in Orlbns "nril 84) .nd ......1.... )'> .loy.I ,ub;...cr ofLo"i< ,he piou.,
.00 rhen of hi. >on Ch..tI", ,he IMd. We t..>c .Ir<-.odr <n rh" "'no> ,001.:
bding rol. in ,h. r.,i, <ldibc",ion. of 8'1_ I" 8>" he p.... i,leJ, in I'.ri.. "
nuio' rd'otmrng .yr.. ><l_ He " 'mt< Ire" ..... on rhe br lif. md on kingship_ He
~ 0"" of rhe 010" iofl"""ri.1 =ksi ... i<;>l fi~~j"" in rho F",nki,h world_ I..,.,i,
:rsk<:d hi m ro
Cl",diu" r.,.hingo . nd ro hell' him do.., ..,nr him ,he
"'CCtpted A~ <I'A! WI: ha,.. been Ji lCUing. Jon ... <:0)'> th .. ",hen h. got
n""" of O",di"" ,bth h. hiJ dow" hi, (l<n, hcli.-.ing th .. CI.",li,,,,', '.-.ch.
i"!>, dieJ with 1"10. Uo .. r, in .bo.rt .. o, p. nly beau.. h....., o,keJ by Ch ..l..
the Bald .nJ partly beca",. n..... bq;an to ei,cu!." of the octi,it;" o( >om
lIcgcJ di"'ipks of a..udiu" Jon>. pickeJ "I' wh<r< he had kl't olf_ he >0)'> he
had m><k. gO<><! ...." -,"'d arrieJ 0., ,IN C"I, ofl""'ff' ", it< rond",ion in
..,fu,.
tltt
boo"',
I ob ..",eJ du, ,hftt hroad rhemes an be di"",,,,eJ io ,h< Apo/bfy. J<>t> ..

cok.. rhem up in order in Q,. Ii!< Cw/, ~fl""'t", dt-vc,ri"g "'>ok ,0 .,ch , In hi,
p",f..,.,." w,itt,n for 0,,1.. ,he B..ld, Joo .. p",.id", b,i.f hi""ey of ,he
,,-b.>k .fl'i" Th" ""urn'; concoin' only One .urpri.. (J07A-R, JoIU\- B): Jon ... ',
.... n ion rh., h.: h,d "edible repor< ' ,h" "m only h:od ,It., old "" .. y (i<~" ....
cl..m) ,,,,i>cd .mong O.ud iu" IQllowc<> hu, ,har ,h. A,i.n h.:'osy "'..... 1.<0
,pm><!;ng . mong them (rom "",m. t"",,,.1 r<>ll=io"," (q","""", "'.n~"""'"
Iii".."".. ). Wlur. >hame ,b., w. kno ... eothing of rh.., rcpon 0' W"') nude i,
At ,h. coo. Jon .. .,Y" thar he ;, .. nding ,hi, prrt>. hi, OpUlCU/"", nd ,he
(. It.,
A~)
'1'1'",,,,1 ,,' di"'f'pmv..l , Once: Ol\>in. WI:
....... confo'm"io" of ,he uru(;ngio" ",...Ju. "I""",,,j; III the "".. of. thcok>j;i cal >n,..-.",,,y. The ".<" n.,,,,u",, of ON 11K C~llofl""'gr> p",,-idn nu do ..
... t<> wh.re Jon .. It<>ppeJ. and ..."ed 'I\>in. Th< _, ...... geno",1 p~
UOIB---JOII<..l ond then Il<>ok. T"" and Th ........,'. thei, ""''" m",h bri.fer
prof."" 0 .,B---}4, }6;D-J66B). Book Ooe . ., som< ,hi'ry-fiv< column" i.
ronside.-.hl)' k>rrE" rh..n Rook Two, 31 rw<nry..,n< miumn" 'nJ IIook Th"""
., """nry-li .... _ The I<"g,h, of ,It., hook nJ ,he ."bie<" ,,,,,eJ in .,..h toUy
,opply. due .. to jon.,:, ptiorit;".ne! COnC<m'.
lIoo,k 0". '"'''' .,o".hip .. itS n".1 ,"","<_jon.. "p<n, " 'i,h ""m< oom nl<nu .bout how. in the 1"". lV""t t,>ch.ts .nd d.fend", of the f. ith h..,.
"""'1'''''''
"""""ed
f",
COme ftom S",1n bu. m'''e f<Qtly. OQI~ horcria. Thi. Ind, him .0 CLoudiu .
pupil of Feli. of Ur-gol ho "')'S." CLo,,diu. h><l ",m" "'I""""''' fo, I.. m"'~.
espoc",Uy bihlical in.ttpm";"',, . nd l.oui .... ,,' hirn t<, h.ly to
,h. Joc.I<
",ho "'for ,II< mo;, "''' locked. I<nK of ,he mconins of dx holy Go.pcls.'"
Cl.tudiu. was. gif.ed p""ch bY! the dn-il made him bdr.oy hi. gift ..,d Hi.
"I' ,h" 1"'1'10 ... ,.h ~I "'," offooli'" nono". . .Jon.. ocl nowkdgcs 'h" Ci.,,diu<
d .imcd to bt Joins .he "'Or\.; lI"'i ....... him to do. If. /on .... yo. h" . ctuolly
found J><OI>k wor<I.iping imag<:! then. of rourS<. Cl...diu' h><l . rcspom.bili<y
'0 ,e>eh ,hom btn" W')~' But i",,,ad of oong good r<-""het ..,d 1='0'.
Cloudi", ,",ol.,cd '"",OO",",ion ...J di.scrttion" and bq;o.n '0 cles.roy images
depicting ,he "<ked. of ,he .. in"," . nod .00 "",",Icri,,1 c..,.... .. "",ilU... I
btl;""<)"" .nd '0 coil ,hos< wh" ""'''hiped them idolot .... Cb.udiul gmer:llcd.
""t>d.I. St.me ""n "r tho. Ci.udiu, tought ag.in .. lies.. bu. his ,..ri.ing> do
roo. p....... it , When T h"u,m" !fie<! '" rott, him. a.uclius rup,.,oo;J.II< I,ond.<
of ecd"; ...;cal ch.,i,y.ncl "",,,i,eJ ou I",S" hook which cl<Jl'ltteJ fton, tilt
lIible.rwl ,h, ("he... Id', behind eccieoi ... ie>I ,~i.jo"" , .. 'Sed "" t.c'esy. ",.J
e... bli.hcd """ (jo;<;""'J 8).
/0"'" dxn COmmen= hi ...ru...ion of Claudiu" ...ching>, Fi",.. ht ,<iea, Cl. udi",, <n"i,y in c:olli"$ I""P/< in G.ul ."d '''''''''''r ""'''ml><" of
,he <hil"' for, .lIcvdly. ""... hiping im>gtS, /on .... )'5 indig'''ndy
no on.
in G.ul or (""' ...... ny docs >0, . nd th" ""<yone in moo< .-. Im, ><lh<m fai,hfully
'" ,h. ,,,,cli,,,,n, ,,, of ,he "hurch (",II-",.A). Tben jo.. ,-, '~i"
CLo..dju ....... "io~ ,h., he- figh,., no< "'und.<. >:1S, joow bias" 0.00;"'" poor
sr,m",,, ",.J ,Io.".co)" .h" , "Il'in . he wh(~. ch,,,ch i, >goin" .ho hi'hop "f
T "rin U.,.A-,,)A). Jon .. con.in .. es by ",. mi"ll a.odi",
hi. d.im
he
h.d found ~I .he ,hu",hcs .n.! b.,ilj"", filled wi,h im.go< _nh)' of .n.. t.cm.
i. ><t ...llly. coudcmn .. i"n "f . 1I hi' prcdco .... nJ of ,he peoplc committed
'" hi. ca. It i, J>O"ible tI"" >Om< jgnouncc !.as crq>' in. b", i, nCell! cardul
min;',n,i"" roo' "",ndol"", 1>01" of ,""hem., To hc- ....... if
people
images . .. to be.doIed wi,h ,he som" cult
is poid to God,
,,'ho .. y
,hen. "f ""'u .... 'h< ... hok <h u",h " ..d, wi.h you in rondemning ,h" ida. Bu,
in uunching ..... ,hem . .. )"'U have hcho,...d .. nilily ond cul",hly," have dcp>ttcd
from tho: ",.h uf '"discmi"n. fC>SOn . nd I"',icncc:' .t>d h.... b,ong/u &.hon"r
"n YO"' p<~'. 1Xo"h.. is ""'<c. yow wri'ing i, I>omcly, b.am.row;. ""d full
of ro". Wi,h burning "'''''m .Joo d .. a . udi ... ifho: .kmc
dcfcodeJ
.h. ca.holic r.i.h , .. d if. 'h,,,:forc, "II hi. I'ood""""", ... in 'h, <h"",h-"". j",'
in Turin_ h..e been faJ.c, .Jon ............ Ch .. dius'. <ito.ion of rll< Eltodu! p>hibi,ion in .h,ee distinct .... )'S: Fi" . hi, i. cuctly ",h "''''Y''nc bclicvo.; "".
ond, no .iglu .bcli",'ing p<r>On Ihink> , .... , .ny likeD"'" i. owro ,he ".., ..... ip ,ho,
',,"e
,ho,
.ha.
,ho,
,ho,
.ho.
,he"' ...
ho,
An and Argument
297
is owed only TO God; third, Moses put cherubim on the tabernacle and Solomon
PUt li kenesses in the Temple. Surely these were likenesses of things on the earth,
above the earth , and so on. But, Jonas says-in fact he says it twice-these
images were made, and we now make images, for decoration and commemoration (3 ISA-319B). Jonas goes on at some length giving C laudius grammar lessons
and thm turns to a lesson that is at once grammatical and theological. He
accuses Claudius of sloppy usage and fl awed understanding in his deploymelll
of terms for worship. He draws attemion TO Book 10 of the City of God (as Paris
had done), to the Bible, Origen, other works of Augustine, and Fulgentius. H e
offers points that we have encoulliered many times: temples are nOt dedicated
to the martyrs but to the God for whom the martyrs died; priests who officiate
at the altars of the martyrs serve in the name of God and not of the martyr. He
quotes Augustine: " It does nOI seem to us that a man ought ro adore what he
makes for it is rightly held that the maker is ro be adored by what he has made,
and nOi what has been made by its maker." Angels, finally, do not love it if we
adore them, but love it when we adore whom they ado re. [n OIher words, this
sections lays OUt the rules and terminology of proper worship (319B-}24D ).
Jonas now changes the subject and proceeds by a slightly crooked path ro a
discussion of the sai nts. He says that Claudi us's " highest and most pre-emi nent
self-flatt ery" is his claim that he re<:eived the church fo r defending against those
who adore images. After criticizing C laudius's grammar Jonas says that Augustine trul y received his church for defending against the pagans but Claudius has
attacked and disturbed the church. He has stirred up the church because of his
defective understanding of key issues. For instance, Claudius says that those
agains t whom he is allegedly defending the church say that they do not suppose
that there is any thing divine in the images Ihey adore. Jonas says, basically, so
what? If they say this, they are correcr. If they are like "Orientals" who actually
do think that somethi ng of the divine essence inheres in images, then the whole
church is against them. Jonas goes on to refute C laudius's assertion that people
who wors hip the images of the saints ha ve not left behind the worship of
demons but have onl y changed the name of the demons. Here, Jonas says,
people have not suhstituted images of the saints for idols, for they have truly left
their idols behind. If some people seem to show potentially superstitious cult to
an image, that person should be taught gently and reasonably. When Claudius
says that living rather than dead men ought to be adored because they have the
image of God, he speaks rightly. Then Jonas excoriales Claudius for both poor
gramma r and a serious theological Raw. [n th is case, I suspect Strongly, C laudius's abridger failed him badly. Here is the otTending passage in the Apology:
"Surely, if men may be adored, then it is living rather than dead ones who oughl
t<) he """~. ,h., i..... "" .. ,he lil...,nc:ss "fGod i, {"""''''. "", wh e.. ,h ... i, a
lik.n ... "f ",ttlc. 0< wlu, is mo .. '0 ,he poin, . of ...,n.. o< .,f "..,."d. 4ek' ns in
life. (""ling, ... ,1 '.on: " jt.ous ,in ke" .,;.h .h. gr:>m m>r ,,(.hi, P"""8< '0'1,1
""""s [0 tognizc .Iu ..,mcthing Iu. go<l' lCri<>U$ly w!(Ing. H. $:1)'1 ,Jut Cbu.
di~, should h."" put c",..,.Ii~"," wit.f. h. put ......" " _... 1'1., is. jo .... =1_
izcd .1., CI. ud;". ..... ,alking .bou. imoga "of thing> th l..ck.... " Su..Jy
a.udiu ...... Joing "" mOr< .h.n m.king ,he old point ,h .. Ii"ng~. 00'
.1>< lik...... .,fGod ,nd po ..... life, fttling,."d ..on. whc.e.. m.anuf:t<m~
thing< d" "" . lIut jofus 'ook off on ,diH<~n. lin . H. 'T''' .Iu[ Chudi ",
h"" '.-;oi",. ,h. wh,,1e .~;.io" ., f .h. , hurd>, I>Loph<n><:d Wins. ,he .,in,,, i,
is .. if a.udi", ""' "'mellOW compared ,bm, to attic. stonc .rod wood ..... n..
dd<-n", ,,(,I>< .,in" brings him .round ." di ..""ion of .hei, ,die>. He:w: .....
CI. udiu, of odl",'ing ' 0 ,ht, ,...,hi"g of F.", hi", . nd Vigih",iu." .nd of
td'u<ing '" """pt ,he ... hol. ,,,,dition of ,he thn!cl> ,h" ,h. ",m,in, of ,he
.. int> .'" ptiow. W. '''''~ , ... , tI,. m.,erial in the A~ "n .. io" is too
.hi,. to pern,i, n.",no:<! 'pl""ri>,i"" "f CIoudi",', vi"",', !,u, i. is d<>. [....
Jun .. understood CIoudi .... ' 0
",istd . ..,ious cl"Jlcnge ro ~lins ideo.
' 00'" .h .,i n". f ", hi, I"n. Jonu" "'''cdy ,~i.ion,l, .h...in" w= holy:
,hey ea" n"", imcrnd.; ,h.i, ,un,'" .n<! ,d""'" (~""o' .i ,,,, o( mi.xl.,.
Although he .Jmits tlu, .h" ... of the cult an OCCU', h. does [,." .... his
I",,,,a,aity ... t'Q"''' '" .Iu,>d.", ,he 0 ,1, ,,( ,h .,io". Nei,h .,im.. no, ,he"
im,~. Mt .~r to:liG.to: "woh ip! .. God .1" ..... _.,hip! (:j.IA- })t>lIj
Jonas na' 'urn' ro .t.. 0 h, in Joing 50 t.. bq;i'" by ,.kin~ "P Ct.",!i
u" commeatS .bou. bowin~ bc/Oto:. OoM. Hc "",.. 'igh W. )
CI.ud;",
h.. PUt fOnh .. hi' o",n wold bou. 'he cros< ...... , Cypri.n "",...Jly.,id
,I>< I"lPn gOO.. Jo .... ilio ",itic;... a.~'!iw, f""lty Lo,in on: win. lhcn he
"te""", ou[ o'er I<"Crai column> , ringing defen .. of .h. <,.".: It i. ,h. un;""f_
.,1 .ymb.-,I.,f .. Iv'ltion; i....h. ,yrnbol of
iumph <I'm' .ko.h: i, ""
been d.fcnJed by Augustine, G.t)'. 111< nd ",h.". Th. c",," is "'>dored,
'<n'..~ . nd c he .i,h~" it> me""',), of Chti<., paIOion ""d in """,Ike.ion .,(
the fedemption ,h ....... ""n on .1>< cro. In "'m. of.he m"" hea,ed tanll"'fl<
;n tI,. wh.,l. ,,.,... iK. -"'''''' ..1" ..... hi.< ott" e<>memp' f01.he idea ,Iu, J.p;c. _
ing Chfi.. on ,h. 00" mean h .. propk will only ... Him ,0n" ted.nJ JcaJ.
",;11 bring Hi. pas.sion into ritliruk ...;11 ,.;.,.. H im ,hc..,.y 'he i,np>Ow. J......
oJ I"IPM.Io. H"'ing htas.ed ,h.. conn.>O .. of a.udi",, Jon .. ru,,,, .0 .h.
bishop of Turin', faulty un.dc',,"nJing of 1 Co.in,h ians \.,6. Of mu"". Jonas
<.or<. we m.) W<>T'hip Christ arn.lly /(,[ He Him..lf coo.. '0 bcrome m.n , nd
dwell , mong .... Now Hc if fi><n .nd ,eign ...;.h.t.. F..h.f. Th. <to Kmind.
u. of boIh ''''es of Chri,,', .. i"<n.:<. Thi. ;, ,he .<"Xhing of ,hc whok . hu.ch.
h".
,ha,
CIt",,',
.bou,
An ~nd Argum~m
199
And, of course, the cross is not worshiped with the cult that is paid to God
alone, and certainly not in Gaul and Germany, no matter what Claudius might
think (}3oB-336A) .
Jonas next quotes Claudius's long, sarcastic rant about the n~ed, if th~ cross
is ro be worshiped, ro worship other things connected with Christ's life on earth:
virgins, rags, mangers, and so on. Jonas gives the by now expected criticism of
Claudius's writing skills and also says that he fails to understand how to read
the Bible. He refutes explicidy only the comments about virgi ns and asses. The
latter indeed seems to have stung Jonas sharply. In faCt, it seems that Jonas took
Claudius quite literally, even when he quotes Claudius's own remark that such
ludicrous things are better lamented than written about. The central point,
however, is that Claudius JUSt does not undersrand the church's teaching on
worship (n6B-n9A).
Jonas concludes Book One with a refutation of Claudius's idea that depictions of Christ on the cross crucify Him again and again. He begi ns th is section,
as usual, with a condemnation of Claudius's writing and censures his departure
from the traditions of the church. Jonas catches Claudius using Paul's words as
his own. Claudius talked of people who depict Christ on the cross crucifying
Him again and making a mockery of him. But Jonas says (hat this verse relates
to Paul speaking about those who have fallen away (Hebrews 6.6). But (his is
not so for us, for we depict Christ crucified in gold or silver or on plaques of
various colors only to commemorate His passion. Claudius is wrong to claim
that persons who adore Christ on the cross, or who honor the bodies of the
saints, or who salute the banner of the cross associate themselves with demons
and banish themselves ro eternal damnation. All these practices are the ancient
and universal tradition of the church .
Book Two is almost wholly devoted to the cross. Its " Preface" lakes up
Claudius's barb that if the cross is ro be worshiped, then asses ought to be
worshiped as well. It again appears that Jonas took Claudius literally on this
point. Jonas also stresses that the cross is not worsh iped in respect of what it is
made of, but because Christ died on it. The cross is never worshiped as God
alone is worshiped. Finally, as to bowing and kissing, Jonas asks Claudius if,
when celebrati ng the liturgy, does he not bow his head and kiss the book? If so,
does he do this, Jonas asks, in respect of the ink and leather, or because the book
contains God's words? So, Jonas says, we bow before and kiss the cross of Christ
to com memorate His death. Toward the end, Jonas takes up the other thingsvi rgins, rags, mangers, etc.- which Claudius had urged cross worshipers ro
adore. All of these points had been touched on in Book One but now Book
Two accords each a more expansive treatment.
80010 Two ,ud! plunlP ng., in with. I<na of pal,tI<iot ~ '" tbt
pni... of ,Ik <-.: , brief aut;"" of o..l!1""; Ions,by ... of ,.fncncu to
homd ... of John
from E.ucbi",
Con<unun< ...d
, .... ClOoI< "<NY from ~i",,. CIty
G.J.bou, man m,"""""""r ""~
of <:ant: .. by "'. sign of ,II< croso;. di""";"n of J<n> ..... "" f.p""';'''' abou,
!>ow ,II< blood of 0..;" i<>ln<d hoo.on> .nd oo.nh, Cauloo,I.,,,,, on pulm , .nd
,he _y ,I>< ,J't'< plon,I n<>, "'''ning _,., foouh.oo-. Chm" >pin Ca..ioJo,u. on P.. lm . ' SIuh'. r~1 50"" p... lin,,", DrrJs of S,. Fdir,
Ifi, ..... r ..".rri'", .nd ~".lIy G'gOfy'. o;~ (.p). Jon .. co ...dlldn ,n ..
><aion by uying , ... , ,h... 'hins> hav.: bot" ... I;"," b,idly <onaming ,I><
puil< .nd POW<' of ,h. """':. Th. fotn of ,I><
C1";N hy ,he long
,rodi,ion of ,I>< ehu. rh...d by miracles....,..;..~ wi, h ,ho ..,.. U4JB-,IOC).
Jorw Ixpn. 01;"" twO nf 80010 Two by '1""""6 o."'!'1>1 ho<.k to 1Umsdf.
for God cummv><kJ """ ,hing.nd tbty did ...........,"fi AA." Jc>rw. .. wwl.
aka
i.po .. a..udi... gnrtlllW" ...d ,hrn nukes >II i",~ ....,..e.
H. ""1' ..... , i. iI ...... f31 '0 the hunun condirian to do ...n....-;... th.n God
com .... nded ....., is. .0 ..... H.:u.Ir; Clrudi ... "Si............ ,.... _y the hwrud
o.rr-<<>m, .......
-r
.bou,
,h.
'T''''''"' ..
r.w ...
at.k,.....
condi""" ... I
if,.... .. ~ .... ,,..... I .......n . =n moK. do
,..... ,h,nk,..... .h .... I.. h~",.~ ~li'r1" UwC-,,,II). Jono. 11'06 "" ,hi. war
~1I<S.nd u.... ..)'1
i, would J,.. ...,. '" (it' coun,bo .... mples of
hum.n f.ilin~ bu, ,h .. <0 avoid proli ..it,............""'Ja",,< , ... , ...... ,nd ~
wh ....... f.il. to h<l-hc: .. in <hoo:oe ...,Jy ..,nl<. He bq:in' with a,,,.di,,"
...... io ... , ... , G nd ordered [h.m co J,.... ,he <rO$O. "<)1 '0 oJo it; ,h ... wi,h
oJo ......., ,hc-y d" not .. i.h '" 1><.. bodily o pi'i' ..... ny: J""'" mi....
blend of bib/in.! ...gai' .nd gI"2lI'm>tin.! in"',,(lion '0 .. mt<ly a.udi....,1"""
unJcn,ontling 0( 0.,;..', ......4. '" Hi, fOIlomn. "1:.k ~r )"OW" . ..... and
IOIIow M(" (M."t.ew ,6.1<4: I.uk. 9.1J). Jo- rotIduda dlill Ii"" of.rgu..... n'
wi,~ <Icv< . .. ("mCl '0 St. A~"" " LiI,rn .0 bIcoooed A""",i... tn ~ .. book
on ,ho ............. on ,I>< """,ne 'H. do.. no< IOllow Ch. ;" . ..-1<0 iI no< coIkd
,ho,
"". rn.
'0
o.';',..
n OCO>I"" '" In>< F..ith ...d ",,,hoIiot discipl, ...: Abhour;h "'" do no<
_m ...,...ty '"
tbt U\I< ... thoIiot (,i<lt. ,..... .how )"OW"orIf'" .... dioohinfuJ
0( foIIo.,'"8 Ch";" in 00 m .. ,..... ....... UP' . waf oWh,,,S -.y .. claios<ieal
,,,odt.
""""r>UAd
tkt:Ra.. >pin.. ,.... ,.-:hinS of 0..;.,;.,.,. .. In >urn, Jo ... r,i1s '"

,I>< Uible 1>..,. ...... , .. _
..rio<.tS .J..pu.. (ron, ,uthrn.ic ,raJition (n,3J jJlI). To rnn.Ju.k hi' " ..,,"e", of ,h. ''''''' in ,ho~. Jon .. was ><IlI>lly
"",~I ". iump ohad in Ct.ud;u,. '''-'''. n... . ...
'<e." ,ho ""'"'
tI,. A""""
P"'II<" ,hen , II ,h. o,h 'hing< ,h., Claudiu... , ...,kaUy .. id .b""ld b. """ .
.bir!. ,nd ,It.:n >ndlld ,,i,h ,It.: T.ke up rou' ."'.... ",1'.:,<. Cloudi".
IOliow. ,hi. bil~ i..1 <,..,ion .. i,h Unko. """ron. ..k<s u" .. I.,,. of hi ..... I(.
An
~nd
Argumcm
JO[
he does not approach the one who is above him and will nO[ know how to die
to what he is." Jonas spots this as a passage from Gregory's HomilitS 011 th,
Gosp'/s and says that Claudius is right on this point because he has, albeit dishonesrly, taken his bearings from a disdnguished author (3S3C).
Having exhausted what Claudius says about the cross, Jonas backrracks
sl ightly to treat at length Claudius's sarcastic list of things that cross worshipers
ought also to worship: virgins (mC-mA); mangers (mA-B); swaddling clothes
(mC-356C); ships (356C-357B); lambs (357C-358B); lions <J58C-359A); stones
(359A-C); thorns (}59C-}6IA); reeds (36, 8- 0); lances (}6I D-363A). As he proceeds through these issues, Jonas repeatedly makes six basic points although he
expresses them a little differently each dme. First, he speaks of wh y such things
are adored, worshiped, or venerated at all. H is comment on the Virgin Mary,
and by extension on virgins, may stand as an example: " We do not JUSt adore
the virgin who bore C hrist, but we ve nerate the holy mother of God with a
fitting honor, and we humbly implore her intercession with the divine majesry"
(35S D ). Here Jonas neatly distinguishes between adorart and vmrrart but elsewhere he uses them synonymously, and mixes them with cokrt. His meaning is
always perfectly clear even as he reveals to us how slippery the terminology was.
Second, he hammers Claudius for failing to read the Bible correctly. Third, he
serves up yet more grammar lessons. Fourth, he associates Claudius in various
ways with a number of ancient heresies and heretics: Montanists, Priscillianists,
Manicheaeans, Novatians. Fifrh, he asks who C laudius knows who actually does
these things since there is no one in Gaul or Germany who does so. As one
example, he asks Claudius, "who are these keepers of perverse doctrines who
wish to gobble up the living lambs and adore the ones painted on walls? Surely
they are not Gauls or Germans who not only avoid bearing adoration to any
piCTure whatsoever but who sound forth with a free voice and shout down the
adorers with as much censure as they can muster (358A) . Sixth, Jonas tells Claudius that he has violated the terms of the Council of Chalcedon by daring to
add something to the faith and that he has risked the auto-abandonmem of his
priestly office in doing so (36oB-C, 364C). All the way through this seCTion, as
in the earlier ones dealing with asses, Jonas either took, or affected. to take,
C laudius au pi,d d, fa kurt. He says again and again that "you JUSt cannot take
the adoration/veneration/devodon/honor of this as equal to that." Jonas's abiliry
ro perceive sarcasm seems inferior to his capacity for dishing it out. But he ends
on a nice rherorical flourish. Having dilated at length on Claudius's errors in
equating incommensurables, Jonas says thai Claudius cannot be equated with
any doctors or doct rines of the church but perhaps can be assimilated to the
302
C H APTER S E VEN
drunken Silenus, and to drive home his point he quotes some lines from Ovid's
Fasti and Virgil's Sixth EdogUf.
T he "Preface" to Book Three (36}D-366B) is not particula rl y helpful in
summarizing the contents of the book. Jonas here says only that Claudius has
wantonly violated the norms of fraternal chariry in heaping abuse on Theutmir
who only wa nted to hdp. Jonas does repeat one of his central themes, namely
that Claudius has offended the traditions, teachings, and institutions of the
church. It was to save him from the consequences of those offenses, Jonas says,
that Theutmir and other experienced men had auempted to save him. He says
that he needs to add a few addi tional remarks in case Claudius's writings should
in the future come into the hands of a si mple brother. Book T hree does indeed
open with some reflections on Theutmir, but then it moves on to the last sections of the Apology, the words addressed to penitential pilgrimages to Rome, to
rdics of the saints, and to Pope Paschal. Book Three has relatively little to say
about the image controversy, but it does serve to remind us that for C laudius
and his interlocutors, there were several issues in dispute.
Jonas's tactic in opening Book T hree with C laudius's attack on Theutmir
is effective for Jonas insists that it was in his atlack on Theutmir that Claudi us
revealed himself most d early as the "enemy and adversary of our hol y mother,
the catholic church." Jonas has been arguing this point all along. Generally
speaking, however, in Books O ne and Two Jonas rejects Claudius's teachings
because they misconstrue the Bible and deviate from age-old traditions. In Book
Three, Jonas speaks more particularly abou t what people were actually doing in
his day and how Claudius affronted them.
Jonas begins with a plea on behalf ofTheutmir and then cites C laudius: " If
you were to say that I prohibit men from going to Rome for the sake of penance,
you would speak Falsely" (363D). Jonas then goes on to argue that a look at the
rest of what Claudius says proves beyond a doubt that Claudius does object [0
journeys to Rome and that his wo rds to T heutmir were intentionally deceptive.
For had not C laudius also said, "For I do not approve that journey"? H ad he
not gone on to say, "Because I know that it does nOt injure, profit, harm, or
benefit anyone"? " I can hardly imagine," says Jonas, "that I could ever find
srupider words than those." Right away we must note that Jonas has here misquoted Claudius, for the bishop of Turin actually said, " I neither ap prove nor
disapprove of that journey." Be that as it may, Jonas's strategy of argumentation
on this poim is elegant. First he asks Claudius, rhclOrically, if there is any point
to many of the practices which we employ in this life to tame our te mptations.
He discusses fasting, chastiry, and almsgiving and acknowledges that these can
be done with good or bad intent, and that the benefit of such actions comes not
An ..... ~,
PI
.!.ci,
from
n"~rc h. (rum thei, q~.lit y. 5<>. he eon.inucs. we know of n",n
wh n h,ve go<>< humbl~ '" ,he ,hrc>hnld of .h< 'I""'.b.o p... y , nd." h<g th<i,
in.<renoion. H,,;ng .hu, ~i.~kd Mck on hi' poin . J<>"", npc'" ".",her loop.
Thi> nne pmc> by ,h. hill "" which Ab"lu.m prcl"rcd .n <>",ifi<c hue. ,he
l:"k,n.>d. ,,h'I"< ,h< H.b,..... "''' p<><i.II) ' 0 P"). ,he l~mpl< buil, by
Solomon . he >i'e! """"i"cd wi.h J<;u,' lif<
iod"ceJ wtonder ;0 S. J<:'"","",
tho roo',"o, ddirc of tho :opostla '0 p... y io ./<:rulem. nd .h< hof>< of $. Poul
'0 'pend 1'<0'<>0' ,her<. lI .. iog cri.ici ...l CI ..di~,, "unr<.."n.bl. rewtn"
J<>I\U .ho .... by ..,....,n.hl. "'.... n. '" '0) ip<.k. how oc. uin pnc,i= .r< holy
'nd <tn.in plu:<$, ''''' U6<\C-}69B)
J<>o. , .h<o ,.kes IIp CI.,,<I;,,"...,,,,, '" n, .."".;, .b.,u, ,.... ining in hi,
mo"""<ry. pa/up. .hei, pe.di,ion .... m. ny monk< woom h< doC! not pe,mi.
'n go to Rom. '0 "",k ,hei' red<mp'ion. Well, "'Y' Jonn. everyone who ,hink<
pmf><,I)' kno .... ,h .. ,h.",.", in 'h< chu'ch m.nr n,d.,. ,h" diffe' "'" by f..i,h
bu. by m.n"" of lift.: ",."ied. cd''''.e. ok,,,, . pil);,im . monk<. ",non . and
'" on. $paking wilh 'h< ",i.:t of Thm,mi,. Jon .. go<"! on '0 ",y ,h.. mnnQ
h.>. com. to "", ... p"'I'<,l y ... king Ihe lire d.~ned h)' ,lit II~" ors,. B<1,."jicr
.nd .h.. the anon. of Ch.kcdon f><""it rommunitid. of monk, tn r!>tm and
.ho,
'0
wbjcc. them
'0 bishopl. C<m.inJ)',
><)1tK
an rome for ,he ""rung rcoKtnl. bu,
,h;, doc> no< mili,," . g.>in" the Icgitim><y of mon . .. ici""" Monks live 0 lif< of
f><"""" .nd ",nunci..ion .., 'h<)" noed nOf ""k ,h"", ,hing> "UI.ide ,h. m<m,ery, And, in on)' """'" ,n<)" "e no, 'u~ to I...". ,h.i, communi,ies, Chudi", ;, wrung to "')' 'h" monks h,ve C<>me to " me"' fu, t~ ... kc of pe""n<e.
Th<)" Iu."" com. 'n ...... < ,n. u"d ,nd 10 "",k Hi, mc,<)". Thcy luv< renounced
,he wo,ld to ""k ..I,."ion (j6j/C-)]IDj.
The k11t of 0" rhr Cui, o[f...'W" a, w< fl ... i. nOW .!Cem. to ho.. a R.w .
.1<>= i> wr.opping up hi, point .1>00." monks ""'ing Goo .nd no, n.." ,mi,
when h< .hifu .brupdy. in mid_",mence. '" $,. J<:rom. on ,di", l>pjfic.lIy
from 0 ... of J<ro", lette,. '0 V;gi!.".i""l. The '!gun"n, .. it ,,,,,""'CS .Jong
m.kc. !""fttt SCnSC, b~t .!Om' " . n,ition.! ....o"h a", d"rly locking. Afte, de_
kndin~ ,.., I"~>'" ,<Ii.,. of ,h< o""yll. J<N'" "k.. if ~-c .", ..acriJq;;iu<o .... hen
we enter ba>ilia! , W.. Con",",;n< ..crilegiou. wh<n he ,r.on.fe" cd5O m. ny
relies to C.,,,,,,,,';nop!<-' \"('" A"go"u, Arodi", _,ileg'''''' jn ,r>n,!'er,;"s.h<
bona of S,mucl '0 Th,:ocr! Arc . 1I bi,Mp' .. crilegiou. fo, ... n<porting
.. t.a in ,ilk.oJ in golden vc<s<:h! Iuc the people of ",'orr d mrch fooli,h wIl<n
'h<)" go '0 vi,i, tho ,dia of ,he ",im nd f><,i,'< wj,h ,ueh g'''' joy thou ,he
.. in ... re ,live.oJ J>1'<'<n, thore? lio n. I h<g yo~. '0 ,h< ru.tom.oJ .nciem
pr.octi.:t of the hoi)' ehuh . nd do . - Cf<m.h< bound"i", )'0'" f..,h ... h. ve
<ct fur you , .. beau>< in tho venc .. tion "f the "Ii", of ,he ",in" by ,n< holy
"",cd
chu'ch, ChriS( i. odold, "'h,, .. nilied .hem .nd pvc them lik" 07,D-J7>C).
lbcn h. quOlC$ John Chry><,om : "And SO ""'" bl.....J b,ocl>m. In US p<her
rodr.y .. the plaon of . ht .. ints. In u.!us'cn '0 ,h. d .... llingo of ,he .. ints.1O
<lU[ 00' 1.!.SCHlhly '"OJ' ht ",nd.1d mOf. hfilli.n[ by ,hei, ptcn. " After"olightly ill.~"ing ~. on <he .id bo,ne by angdJ to the
t(' peopk
n<>w. Jon ...ita . he ();~ ofG~ I on [ht htn<ii" hn:",gh, by the bodily
... ",.in, of the saints. "M.y . 11 tI><O< p~ .hut roo' momh 10 <lu, i, will no
10"11'" gruw on ,he dignity of ,ht m. rt),," (p,C-)7)D ). Relia . nd the pUce.
whe,. th<)l .... idc. in <:><h<, words, h.. b<c n hono.red fOr ogn. Cbudim mm,
.band"" his oppo.i,ion . H. oh;.,r:.,
a.udi,,'... m.rk th .. 'eaching prupk
to g<> to Rome will giw lemd.ai . nd [h... [he u,..d Him..,lf ..... ,ncd 'p;n"
"one who ..... nd. li ... one of .he Ie...... The nh;":'ion i. built by . [;!'Imm.ri",,1
.""ment ......11 .. by .nother cit.. ion of John Ch<y$<mom. [hi> time [0 [h.
cffi,:, ,h ...11 ehrini. n. will hdp pro!>le who wiib '" visi, ,h .... I;c, of ,he .. in"
ev<n .hose who "" un.hl. ,od" >no pcrlups bcaw< of ph)~i ...1 in6rmity. Jo ....
concludc> by .. ying .hat pt ..-coring people from .. king [he p".h of .. Iv,ui"" ..
the g<'<'Itc<[ .em""'l lInD-J71BJ. The .ehtmer> of this denun'''tion is
"" ht, odd ..,crion '0 amd io" <>bIiqllC rdC .."'" '0 .. I;c, in the ~.oJ
pc,lu". ..,1.. 0il to }on. ,:, ""rl;'t rem.,k
ht had heard [ru" O:....lio. "0&1>'
>g>irut ,h .... Ii", of ,he ., in".
The nerrt few columnl provide some
of how Jon. ....'Sum"" " ...
... wlly boilt op--<r<>oming. win. rl... [ .hel< is. H.w in ,he '<''- Jon .. ",k'"
to a.udius, .rgument thaI tho>< who uk< M ... hcw ,6.,6- ,8 ... com,rund
tu go to Rome . .. f.iling to mrd the Golpd >pi, itu.ll), Jo ...... rcspon .. is ..
~ ..[ obIiq .... He .. Y' ,h... f""n tlr. ~"ni"l1 of th. chUf<h the", h.. .. b<cn
prople
dis.inguiibcd lU, .bti, laming ..-I>o ""'... CO'" e''' on ,h.,o, ";mpIOcity.
[nemie> of ,ht church h.,." . lway> dc,idcd [h"i, , implici,y ."J rllJW roo', CLo,,
di.,. . ho.n enemy of the I<1ic, of.he "I""',lcs, 'I)' to di.cn tho ""'), of.he
;impie 0"" .nd e~ti<>&uish tht ~fC of th.i, love lUr ,ht .posrlQ. h is pc,f"cd~
t rue. Jon .. "Y'. ,h... [he inr<n:cssio" of 1'... or "f .ny ",h., .. int, i, oot
confined ,,, . p:lnicul .. pl.. but .... know, . nd the f.the" h.....Iw.ys .. ugh,.
du[ pI..". .~~oci .. aJ wi, h the .. in,. al< <>pc.:i.Il) holy. Then J........ n",'CII
CLrudiu" ch' Ile ,h,t ,he " PO"'" of the ky>" giv<n.., Perer h., n(} ... I..... n<:<
'" .".,.if.c pI""" ,h.., is. doc> nOf '<qui", .isi", to Rom ...... at Jon .. go<> hKl
[0 [h. kind of ' '!lumen[ he had .. ,lier ,tud., .1:>< ... , ,bt Wid or ,h. ",;"".n<!
"Y' ,hat PerC'f' h' pp<n. to be in Rom. lIil B- jn ElJ. lbc logic of .he "",.. U
"'gum~' is dear: ,rodi,ion hold! ,ha, the relia of .. ints.te hoI),", that the plxQ
where [hOK relic,.1< [0 be found .re holy:
i,nly i",<tCeOOion i, possibk
''''''l'''..nd
,0
,ha,
',:0,..,
no'
,ha, ..
.nywhe.. bu, "p:i.lI)' !O be round ond invoked wh ... ,Ix .. im ', ,dies ....
10".. 1. ~in.tly, 'hi' '=hin~ h.u .tw. )" "'=<". ' I""'ul ""mron r" rl>< .... mple. ..
Then Joct .. und,,, ...
Cl",diu. '0 ")'
,he pow" of !>indirlg
"""ing w:u lunded to P<ter .nd !O . II 'he ."",tid .nd 'hot, beau<c h< dod
no. _ i' ,;ning "" .he .""".oIie ,hrone, .hen it mult be beli~ 'hot tl><
P"""" is hdd ;ointiy hy.1I bi"'"", n" ; .Ii,": ",;n 0<1><. "",r<U..1>< ,bd can
no Iong in,w:eJc, n,i, ch.'}I< ..",1< Jun .. vii' "" 0 ",",,,,,-lu, m.,,,<l,.ing
di"l,,;.ilion, b"",S<J by pm;"i.:; .",1 h,hhcal . '",io" " d.. igned II' I""""
,he d""ch h... Iways <mb ... ceJ ,he "uin, of lh< holy d...J .nd ,h., ,he ju"
'I'I1<)"S ,he p,i..,ly J~ no, oru)' "'" ,"d do i",,,cd. (0' tho living bu, .Iso
main "'m<thing of ,ho . u,ho,i,y ,,"'ioh 'hoy "",.....d wh ik . Iive. Jon ...gr=I
"';,h C ....Ji'" ,h. , one a.n only pk.." , God hy h.vi,,~ tI, ... nt< "f,i,h. jwcicc ,
tl,.,
"d.
."d
,It",
"'''''''''<
and lnuh"' """ioh tit< .. i"" ~, hu, h.

how ,hi, wPI"''''' '
de"i.l of i",e...,..i"" U77 B-)8sAJ. Jonas i, oo.-;"u,I)' <kftnJing !{on," .nJ S.
1'"... b", I>< d."I), h,. in ,-;.,.v
~'W' . P",jo' "f Jefending ",Iia, .. in",
in!<",<ion . ,,J ..:ddi..,ic:ol ,,,,di,":, ,,. Thae p,~ from \lool.; Th .............1
,I<.
fu rth., ..eu of w",on' .nd J i"'I\' ",I<'" b"wet" CI."<li,,, ,d J""", 1lo1h
>s=
ontologically ."",king, im>st> . no,hins" ,II ."d ""'"hy of no
tokenl <If fQr' in OQJln=io" wi,h thei, m.. cri>! bcing.1o=!,,ill , but CLau
di ... ...;11 oot, Krord im.g<S' ",,,.in ~.ili')", ,hoy rommemO", ... nd de""''' .
,his ttriliry moy I"'mtin ..pr:<ully '0
Mo""",,'",, Jon impli ......,."'1 ,;".,..
the 'impk, people ,,"'om CI. udiu. kern' '0 di""i", as ru<ti.:; if 0 0' down,igh'
heKTi",1. II", Jonas :accord. g>' .;go;nCln: '0 ,he phy.ictl m. ;n, of ,h.
i" " .od I>< 'hinh
Cbudiu, d""i<"< 'hi' which ,I>< bishop of Tunn. wi,h
hi> >rkJ)" 'pin,u.li=! f.i,h, m. y ..-dln.... 00" .
The ",'y I.., .... i"n ofBuok Tht, ,,hioh oddr<>ses o...ucliu", rcsc!VO.,ion'
.bo", .10 ",ho,ity of ,100 R",,,,,n Sec, mm' be inoomplete in ..........1 1<'>1""'''.
Jon .. begin. w;,h CI.ud iu" mark
Thelll",i, ,h" Popo i'>.><lul i, ' "gl)"
with him, Jon ,hen ,.ke. up Chudiu" ' <Kltio"
"One i. ",lied
c
.. if ,f.., gu.rdi. n of 'he ."",,,Ic" (1,,,,,,,0&.., ~u,,, Jid "" 9_i . """,Ii """ 6' ),"
)oo. t .ightl~ sa)'>
tni. ph,.... In.ke. no sen"" bu. ""'. un hordl)" beli ....
th. , ,hi. i, ",.. til' whot Claud;u, wrote. A bi, funher on Claudius Ius ..id ,h"
h[.)",<iy I> no<.o be a.llcd ."",,,olie who .i" on ,he eh.i. of'he . "",stle. bu,
,hc one ... h" ft,lfilb .100 ."""",Iie offi~."' Jon .. >grtt<
,hi, is "'I.. bu, <;IYS,
""'i"l; him",lf "" G,,,!!,,ry, tl"" Claud. ", ",,&h' 'or "h.w::"", d, .. l"u,len.., ..,1
hum;liry in . n""king hi upenol> (j8IA_j86D). It 5m. ,h .. wh .. Cloudiu.
wa.\ 'I}ing
gue i> ,h" ,I>< pop< h.d d<p;tnl from "I""'olio ,...di,io'" in
""n,ur;ns him .oJ, .cc.-.nliogly, hi> ",ic'","" hod no forer. r .dt.1 , ... nsl.,ed 1
hUg< numl><, of rdia from c."",,,.. <es (".mid. Rome '0 dlureh .. in ,he cil)". U
,Iu"
,ho.
,Iu,
,II
<I",
'p<,,,,,li
,Iu,
,It",
'0 ..
306
CHAPTER SEVEN
Perhaps Claudi us objected w this action on Paschal's part and prompted some
criticism from the pope which escalated into a challenge of papal authori[)l.
Jonas was unwilling w agree with Claudius, but he declined to offer a ringing
endorsement of either Paschal I or of the papal office itself Claudius and Jonas
both had reservations about papal authori[)l.
Let me sum up provisionally. Jonas's positions are traditional. No material
thing is worshiped as God is worshiped. Images are useful for decoration and
commemoration. The cross is holy because of its concrete association with
Christ's death upon it. Still, the cross is owed a form of cult below that paid to
God. It is crucial to read the Bible correctly. Specifically, the Bible must be read
in light of the church fathers. Ecclesiastical traditions must be embraced and
handed on. It is interesting that a book entitled On thr Cult of Imagrs devOles
so little space to the topic of images.
Dungal of Pallia: Responses agains t C laudius

Dungal is a mysterious figure. ,j.! It is always assumed that he was a native Irishman who wound up on the continent in the time of Charlemagne. H e was a
monk at St.-Denis and may have known Alcuin.'s H e has long been confused
with other Irishmen who were his contemporaries and he can be securely identified only with the person whom Charlemagne consulted in the last years of his
reign on eclipses and on Fridugisus's treatise On Nothing and Darknrss. Jl, He
once wrote to Charlemagne's daughter TheodradaY In addition to a handful of
letters, a small amount of his poetry survives. It is nO[ very good. His learning
was broad but not exceptional. It is nOt clear why he was selected to head the
school at Pavia although once that choice had been made, he was an obvious
person to respond to Claudius.
Dungal's Rrspomrs are about 20 percent shorter than Jonas's On thr Cult of
Imag($. Dungal's book has a general "Prologue" and then launches into a single
block of text-no divisions into books or chapters (although Paolo Zanna has
introduced chapter divisions in his new edition). A distinctive feature of Dungal's book is its lengthy quotations from the Chrisria n poets Paulinus of Nola
and (Vena ntius) Fortunatus; these quotations comprise more than a quarter of
the whole book. Like Jonas, Dungal focuses on wors hi p, the cross, and Roman
issues, and he also devoces considerable anention to saints and rel ics. Again very
much like Jonas, Dungal builds up his argument on the basis of biblical and
patristic references. He has many of the same references that Jonas does, but
also a few of his own.JS As far as style is concerned, Dungal is firm but he ranges
be:."'<tn "'ni'Y ..I <nSf'<"" ion. O~nll"l i, nlO,. ","phci, ,han jot,.. on d..
d,dac,i< funerion "f'm' gr..nd hr ;. mo,e
m.n Jo .... . bo~, the ""!>Ki'Y
of .,,,.,ia! ,hing> '0 Olmll'''"ia... 'pi,i,uaI "",h,ie> ,n<.! "",h . In general, hi,
I,nr of .rg~mrnt is ve,y much I,ke jolQS.'. N...<nhd.". Claudio lron. rdi or"
gu.. ,h" , lone .mnng ,he nin,h.""nrlllY ""mm.n[, .." on im'gQ. I).,nll"l
.. h i~, wo,k ofo<.~th.nti< 'piri""li!}, .nd th" "" ...,. """.i"ly th."_
d.v>l<"(1 .polrcsmlO fu" WOtc,n ""'rsorhil.... ..
In hi. Prologuc Dungal ,k..."" ,he .itu;""'n .. h. sen it in nunhero
h,ly." H ...". th., ("J."J iu n,1 hi, ;)k h.......dtcd ,h. CfOS!I anJ holy p;c.
tu . the in" ....."'n of tire .. i" ... anJ ,he ~Iin ... of mic>. All of this i,
famil .. , from booh Cl>uJ iu" ~ .nd Jon"". 0" ,/", C~I, of'-&"- On
bo<ncc i, "riking: Dungal does not .ign..! tlUI he will ,~ of CI, udim,
cri,i<i.m, of pilsrim.ges to Rom. 0' of his "oubl", wi,h 1'''1'' 1'..clW. He 00..
~me '0 ,h ... 'opia I"" in ,he Rn,.,~"". Imwew,. Slightly di]k",n, from
Jo..... approach ,. Dung.r. immcdi." .... nion ,hat he h ,,titt.n unJer the
nome .nd in oono, of the mo" Ch,i"i~n redo,", o( [h. holy church. the lotd
Lou;'" gt<>t anJ peaceful emp'ro" ",.J hi, moo, nohk .... n. ,h. Augu ..", 1.<>.hor: A bit J."r Dunll"l Slyo.. w d, most ks<tchingly that out nlo", Chri ..
,ian . nd ",Iigiou> 101\11, ",rrcd by zc.llO.r God, deign i. fin,ng '0 run '0 ,he aid
o( ,hei' holy m",her ,he cl>ur<h ""..' tr.mhling , n,1 ,hu,idering.O< P.. hapo ,,"',i,
ins fO, a k>eaI 1"1.. ,, ",Ji.,, 1...1 o."'g>1 t" """"' the I""'~' , nJ ,uthori,y.
nd oJ", 'tligio'" 'ightrou" ..... of the rul ..... A"othe, "'"" '" I'"",jd., fu"he,
COn'",' fo, ~i, di",,,,,,ion .nd diff.nti .... i, from Jon .. .. H ...".. In t~i .....
he poropk are "[>,,,,...1 and d'vid...l imo 'wo [>'fU on the matter o( eabi..,i",,1
p"",icrs. ,10" i. "n ,h. im'ge of ,he l.",d, ~n .nd the holy pi,,,, , . G",m
bling ,nd .. guing ,he C.,hol'" "y ,h ... pi<,u i. good and ....1'.,). ....,,,h
.Im"" as much (0' in,,,uc,ion """roIl.,,.n. The h.""i<. on tht other "'tld.
nd the [>''')- <educed by him, ")- No. it i 11 the <cd..ruon of .... il .n<.! OJuJ.
t'Y" '... 1)""1\>1 rn,k .. ,he divi,ion,
.J ,.,p 'nd ,h. ,Ii.."" ... ""im".i",...
Thi . . ..." ion
"'tigh' '0 lhrutmi ,, dU'ge ,har Chudiu. had >tinn l up
""". 1)",,&.1... ,h. ch;""h ;" 1',,; nJ, ""r oJ, ..., '0 t.:.tI"". t..d ,,,
J""I wi,h ,hOI socr.n.n mili: on. woy tlu, jon,,; did Mt.
[)u"1I"1 "I"'"' ,I.e Rn~n'" i,h > ~~pid , ..""".,10<> of ,he A~ .nd ,loon
.mb down '0 an Ofdl~ rdu" fion. Hi. inifi. 1 g>mhi' i, i",."",ing. He ""~
,hat the whol. is.<w: of imag.. W:ll int<ns<ly dcb.t...l or the
two ye...
a,I, whel< ,he Sc,ipm,... nd fa,h", ""I< >0 fully md ClOrdYlly stud;",! ,haf
,he", ;. no room (Of (""h .. do"m. on ,h "bi"'" ,,( p.in,...I i,n'g<>_ Di"i".
!mno" ar. [>'id ' 0 G<>d ,Ion ".1 no one i, '0 destroy im,ges PUt "I' f", ,h.
)'0'10' o( G<>d. Citing G"'IIoty. Dungal ..". .10 .. ,m. t'" m.y be: ""f,,1 '" the
poo"'' '
"",.,J
.M,
..
p.w
"ignorm[" .nd "[h<c wh" do nQ[ know le[[ClI." F", 820 )"elr>. Dunpl .. )~.
'he ba,i, '<aching> h.ve i><cn in p!.cc '" how docs 0Il< moo p rcwm<
oJ.
""h [<:><li,ion .nd hblpll<me i"/(;.und e,,, ~ C I,md iUl ' h ink ,hot he . I"n<
.. wi.<c. [h.n .... el)'<> ... cUe' Some.,r [ht 'ncic-oll r.. he .... O,,,,gaI i" ...... w<",cd
pietu ... n<>t only of,ht d<-ad ..in" who Ii"" wi,h a.m, but =n ofliving bol~
men. He men, ion< ScvenLi who pu, piaUI<S of S[. M.ltin . nd of P.ulinu. of
Nob. in h .. church. 0ung:>1 .hen ci[.........1 ",I<ct;"n. f.~m .h. vc'" of 1'."li
how pi< ...,.,. eon "",eOJ .11 .ho. U in .ht !l.x:.1u oi M"... ""d an
csp<:ci..>lIr te><h .hc igo"'''''"'' As he Iu, cited P..ulin,,,'O .'SU< ,h., pictu"," eon
incu1c>rc K,w><l b<hovio. by imi "'" .... ht """,in,,,,, by rd"ct,;n~ to C~'T
of N,....
the emo,;"n. cvulcd by." in'"'ll"- o.. ng.l..,.;,cs thot ,Itt F... od",
prohibition
,..,ilten bccau .. ,he Jews ""ere ...i/fncded propk "00 ealily
bpS! in'o idola,ry. llu, p,obkm no Iooll'" exi... 50 the full futtt of thc
prol>ibi'ion Iu. 1>n rduOO. In tXt. Cod H im",lf ""moundOO />1.,... to pu,
, hcrubim on thc T.b<m. de and Solomon '0 put im.gcs in ,b< Temple. It ..
cbl. h< "'Yl< [ho[ p>pk "'ho ho". picm "" o nly
~Ik<:ti ng history ",.Ite
'0
''''. ,,,.<how
."J
w-..,
w[
p..'" ..K! honut of Cod .'" not ", b< "'p r.l>rndcJ. In >hoI!, W"", ht <leoJ, in
dcuil with .ny one of Cb.udi ... pific . rgummt<. Oung.1 rejt< C hudi ...
wh,,1e co,", h'"I'I""lin5'0 ""'''"'';'Y . n,1 , ..... ;,;, ... . M"....,..,. O"ngool I,,,,;!; ..
,<:><l ition p. ltirubtly "ith the "'"' of in .. gcs fot the b<odi, of ,he il>"0ran,."
D ung.!". distinctivc cmp"""" ",,,nc ou' "II"in in hi< nCS' "",<on. He picU
"I' on CJ.udiw;". A1iom on ,h. v.,io.... _ibl< m... nings of .u/or,.., .nd
roIn. .. ying ,hot the bi<hop of l"u';n".linguutOc >kill i. dcftj"", He docs no,
un<k .....,mJ #",""" .nd ~ to h.Y<" "p recis<, d".inct m<>n inp" . nd 50 hc
uscl...Jy "m.......11 ",n,of I""'ibl< im~rp .... iom, o..ng;d .. y> i[ would .. ~
him [00 long 10 d i.lCu!.l.1I !Iu[ n discu!.ling in [I.. hcmic.ol book. Then hc
""min .... wi,h Cl>udiu',. ins"TCnu ,ho, propk who wor>hip ;nugcs 'f< de""",
"'o,",,,il"''' who h..... merely chongcd ,hc n.m .. of .hc obJ" of ,f><;t devotion ..
D ungol cbi ..... ,h>t ,h" clurg< i. <>n ..""",,,, '0 ,...;'-i08 tht h.:ltef,,1 do,,,,;n,,,
of Vigibn.ius . nd (unom;u," . nd .hei. follm>'." ",1m bIuphcn",J ,he Co.hoIic>. ailing ,hem idob ...... _rdtipo" of dn.d n",n . 00 iust Iii< ,I>.: p>g>.> ..
bccaUI< ,hcy .-cne ... ,cJ , hc Iia of tit, du d m. rtyn who had. .... ffi:[ro o,
C it,; ... Cbudi ... h.d n<>t men,i""OO ,dia but Dungal join< im.ges. .. ints . nd
.die> ;n." """ i""c. Then hc ..1"> "W, on ,he ~,h .. hond ~"d ,h .. ow<: do
"'" ...to ,It.: I"in,ed im>gcs (i_lilt,,) of ,It.: ..in" on the " ..U" not ,kit
hodi .. bid in tombs. .. if [h<)' W<c'" Cod. no, do we m.k ... ,i~= '0 them .
..+old< "",uld b< .b<"ni",hk. .. i, "';"en ...
ow<: <only .."ne .... in God
,h""" wh""" liknc<sc> <1fitin) 01 bo::>di<> [hcy 'f'< sking . hrough ,heir iotem:s>ion th.t divine hdp be made prescnt to ...: ... Dongol """';.'" im. ge> mol'<
1,,,,
An :l.nd
Argum~nt
J09
closely with relics than Jonas, or anyone else, does and his words hint that the
same kinds of veneration that may be paid to relics may also be paid to images.
So important are relics to Dungal that he goes on for pages defending the
holiness of relics, citing church fathers who defended them, describing miracles
associated with them, and insisti ng that rulers, churchmen, and the people of
God have no t for centuries behaved stupidly and sacrilegiously in honoring
relics.<s Clearly, Dungal does not say that the adoration due to God alone may
be paid to images or relics. But whe reas Catolingian authors had normally restricted veneration-no matter what word they used, their meani ng is al ways
dear-to the cross, relics, and m lttcratal, for instance liturgical vessels, Dungal
stepped over a line and permitted veneration to pictures albeit only in respect
of the God whom the persons depicted had served. Later he makes this point
more explicitly.
After a fairly abrupt transition Dungal turns to Claudius's argument that
venerators of the cross practice superstition and false religion and, what is worse,
bring C hrist's passion into disdain and his death into ridicule. Claudius tried to
support his contention by citing 2 Corinthians 5-16 but Dungal, quoting Augustine, says that C laudius simply does not know how to read the Scriptures. It
is perfectly true that C hrist was and is worshiped carnally, because He lived as a
Man among men and H e appeared with flesh and bones [sic] after His resurrection. Claudius, in other words, does not understand the incarnation. Moreover,
he fails to acknowledge that the Lord H imself did not tell His followers to
conceal information about His death. In increasingly agitated tones Dungal cites
biblical and patristic passages to show that the worship of the cross is both
traditional and laudable and, almost predictably, he comes back {O the words
adoro and colo {O argue that Claudius mindlessly thinks that they can be applied
to God alone, or believes that if someone applies them to anyone or anything
else, then he is superstitious and an idolater.</; H e goes on; " we believe with all
our hean, and strelChed out humbly in body and soul we confess that God
alone must be adored and cherished as the Lord and creator of everything ought
{O be adored and cherished by His creation ... . We also adore and cherish
God's good and hol y creation, that is we humbly honor, love, and emb race a
holy angel, o r a holy man, or the holy cross, according 10 their varyi ng degrees
of worthiness, and we do so on account of God, and in God, and not at all as
we adore and cherish Him. "<7 Dungal carries on at some length citing biblical
passages in which one person reverences, bows before, "worships," or "adores"
another (Cc. 86-92). He then cites Jerome on the twofold sense of adorarr in
Scripture: worship, as for God, and honor, as for other wo rthies (c. 93). The
next eight chapters cite biblical and patristic passages illustrating this double
m<>.ning. The gnmnu.i.:m Prioc"n is <i.oo (c. ,01l "n [he m<>nings of <010---<"
W<mhip, ,0 inh.bi, . o .ill--ond rhtn DunVI "'& hi, own gI.,., k. '0 4) Nine
dup'''' ('OJ- 'l) 1l dr.".., f..."" I""'''' ill ....... .h. me...,inIP "f these wurd..
H.ving .... rmoo to tht .... k of ctiti.iting Cl=di ...' Faulty ><rb>1 skills.
D"ng.>! I'<"'",ioo him .. lf . p;tning ...... : "Just he "",nt wrong wi,h thoot
wo ..... ,,+reno:. it 5O<m' to me. [he ...,ry ,i.e of hi. pcrvcniry. so [00 h.. impcri.
knowloogc _ .1.c. Jy dC"Ctivd . Ibeit to kss.:. danger. by this wotd; 4/",'''''.
if,.,." CL",di". ,hin'" thot ,h" word <ktn.a fl m #"",""i ""~ wh;.;1t in ligb[
of [he whok gnmm:otic.1 trodi,;"" i. nomen ... A"",f4iinu CQfIlCf from a"",~""
(c. "4) .
With SOme pr"CIry im.ges of sailins .nd tRvdi"ll (e. Ill). Dungal kavcs
thc<c gnmm Icsso... behind.nJ r<:ite ... tc< his main point: " No ODC" .bk to
."'.. ,he.." of ,hi, hf. unl ... he is bor"" by ,he ...,.. "fCh ....: Thi, brings
Dun!?1 back ..., hi. ""going ron.ide... ion of 'he ...... (cc. n6-69). He en umcT'
.t the Old Test.ment ....... ge-s wher< the.tQ5.S "fomhodowed. He di~
[h. "OO\! in <he Now T.... m.n<. especi,lly in P.ut H ... kc:u p;t"i.<cic p:uoaga
on ,h. C",". H. mem ion, [h. ,ign "f the C",,",. Dung.>! r.:rllu of "OC[wl c,.".....
of ",Iio; of [h. [n 0.""' nd of menul inug<> of .he <..,... AI ODC ""in. h
..p ,I,. , ,I." cross .t.""Id'" ...,n"ra'..! and chi ... ..! .. ...... , wi,h ,h.c ,d;., of
,he saim" m.king again .he .,,<><:i .. ion ,ha, we Iu"" al"",dy ""r..!.
"Wi,h [he >up""n and ime""n[;"n of [he bksoOO pri= of the
wh_ c>'""'e luve <iid..! '" ukr: up rigb' now, we CQmc '0 ,he [hird qu<>,iOlt.
Of [he [h"", principal ....... which .1>< impudent ",Iumn"[or '<guoo in h..
leltC<. ell< ~ ,.. CQr><:trn, braking ..J ,.. ",wing OUt irn>gt"S; th .:"CO..J pernin'
to hon",ing ,he eros< nO mo<" than on ... Ot. th"'n: rht W,. th.. i. [h. third.
prolribirs ' raveling to [h. m<morial, of tho: .. in .. and especially to ,ho: church of
St. Petc< fror th ..,kr: of pnying. ""ying
this wo,k i, . mpry .nd u!Cbs,
withou, any bend i[. and calling [h"", who .,...iz..l wi,h. d",i", 10 do [hi,
hli<>d , f""I ...... nJ ' !lIpid. H ffi,ms ,Iu, .he \:onn .. of .n}' holy man wh,,~
re like <he ho".. of ","k . or "OC,uoUy like wood 0' """" 0< .n)' ",kt- "."hly
,hing )"'U can i,wne ,h., i. worthy of nr> more fC'V<n:n",," (e. '70). These
Ii .... m.ke 6"" pro.;'ional .urnm.>,"'" of Dungaf. whole hook wh ile 01",
in,ror/<><ing h" third n.. jot o,i,,"
... I,.....!y in <lupt .. '<>9 ()" ngal ann"" ncer,( hi, inICntiOlt ' 0 deknd S. P.....
>g.in" Cla" diw', ... aclr . In faa, hi, der.n .. i,. m<>.,>d .. ing one . Oung>1
addresscs tdio; (c. '7l), ,h,; .... ("" '71), and pilgri""W" ("" .n-;rlI) brtawc.
he "y>. o.udiu,
"",h. A ... ... of clupttt .. culm'n .. ing in I"t of
mi,"OCko (cc. ,88- 89). dimh hi, CO th .. tI....in ..... ..,~. moch . li,'< .nd well
in .lw:ir ,<m.i ... ,nJ ,n th. ;, ,hrin. oo thot they rontinue." inr<k for tho:
."""Ia.
,ha,
Ii",
'<i"
li"i~g. This hne of "gumeR[ finally brin&, him b>ck 10 P..... nd permi" him
'" . <bU[ a . udiu" ngumen[ tlu[ Pote. ;" no Ionge. invoked in thc dmr<h and
thot thcr< j, no"""n to vi.it hi. I<main. in Rome. Scvtt.ol ch.ptc" thcn 'urn
up Oungal". [hinking on ['..<I. [hc Pelfine office. cpi"",p' [ power ge"",al[y . nd
thc "ructUf< of the chutch. Dun!!,,1 thcn ,i[<$ 1'0<'"' of I'. uli,ou. (C<:. ,o~- ( 7).
PlUden,i", (C<:. 0--19), .nd Vcn.ntiu. FOllun.t", On .... in, m.lly". tdia .
.h Rn.... oo inl<rc<>oion. II 'PJ>C'" mOl Dungal ...,.. panirul..ly "ung by ,,'h..
k ,00&: '" k CL:oudi",, I<jee,,,,n of.k fom;!;" feu""" of ,k c,,1< of ,k
.. in". Giv<n th .. D",,!?I i, n,,,,~ <y>.. "."ie . nJ Je",i6[ <In . . in" ... Ii",. cui",
.00 Ulfina thm ei!ht. Jon 0. ,he r..gmenmy A~. I wond if. 1
I<aeh" in r '-'i . he had mme detailed knowledge ofCL;lUd i",, 1<1U,1 teaching
th.n .n)"'.........
Yot Dun!;>1 w not mel<l), defending .. aditi"",1 pn<,i<c< benu they
w ...: old , nd ",!>blimed. He ..... adv.ncing. 'Vin" Claudi", as he be:1~. ,
panicul ... i,ion of ,h. ch urch: "Thi, chtl",h know> ,h.. j, h.. <W<)
di"inely
spelled "[[[ .nd commend<d [0 it; of ,h..". 0"" i, in foi,h .. >g. [he OIhe[ i. in ,he .l<rn.1 m. n.ion: on.
;" in work , ,h. o,h., i, in ""'. on. is on ,h. w'y, ,k o,her i, IK.mc; on. i. the
fruit of droll, the oth is tbe .<WOld ur rontempl.ation (c. 19j). The cb,,[(h is
I:>o,h of [hi, world .nd n<)l of ,hi, ,.orld . II i, rhe Boldy ofChri", Chri" s"e
,h. 1'''''''' of bindi .. S .nJ loosioB to r., ""I the '1'<'>,1<:> on i><-h"lf of the
chUfch.11", pow<l
>od ... P"cr ~ primacy. p., ,uCCCS$OfJ
. r<: to be: a<:>r<kd ""r' .od ,ubrni";on, CI.ud;u. is. m..""lo", new I'hilooop~ct. wi, tlun .11 'he tcaeh"" of ,he dr,"ch in .11 I"" ,i",c, r", he has
6.., ..,1 ,k ho>dy of Ori$( br cuttins OWly i><-li.,f in ,he ;n'~n of ,hc
.. int ...i,;" to thel~ of the ,.i"". hy,"", ."d 1'".. ,.... ,,, tho:
.nd ,he
...:n.",'ion . nd tk>'o,ion =ro,.".iJy >hown to ,hc .. i,.". OungaJ ""JetS,,.,,,,
Claudi"" '0 bc:Ii<vc
h.... nly church ,lut i. d;",i""t from ,he one 1'1<><01.1)'
.i.ihle on ,h... nh. Claudiu" he.venly ,hurch It.. no inte"'" in 0. po ...... 0"':[
, k ."thly onc. Fo. Dungol. on !ht ront ...y. ,he ,hu.d. i. ""c m~t",,1 Bod)'
<:>fCh, .... ,hOI co;", ,h">ugh ';n,e ."d II"" ;0<", heo",n .nd .. nh. Jm' as 1'....
w ..,ignl ,he power "f . Cling .oJ john ... ,1 ott ,h. h...... , of ,h. 1,01'<1. '"
tOO now [here .re ">riou, ,as'" .nd .... pon.ibili,i ... Bu" '" ,urn up. [)"ngol
", kes this eireuitnu. Mtte th",,,gh eccl<:'K~ '<> Jcf."J .. ilttly i'''.rc<:s>H-:rn in
gcn ...I.nd P",,'. inte" .... ion in particuL:o, .
N... , he end of ,he "e"i.e. DunV1 m. kes aplitit hi, vi ..... on thc 1'<0""""
, iOll ofiIrulgc>: 'from cvar,hing ,Iu, h:u bc:cn pulled 'ogc<h<f . 1:>0.. i, i. IllO"
lUin .nd ""iden' tlu, the hoi)' ("'"..... "') piClUfe, ,h. (...",,"'m) holy oro<> of
the: Lo.d . nJ m...",ed ( = ) rdi .. of God, d.., OtIgh. '0 be: vencra,ed
Ii,,,,
P<"''''
""'y'"
to"
)lZ
CHA P TER SEVEN
(vmmm) with worthy and fining honors (congruis honoribuJ) by Catholic and
right-believing people in God and on account of God" (c. 240). He adds the
necessary caution tha t honor and cult paid to God alone may not be paid to
these other things. To the beSt of my knowledge, no one in the time ofCharlemagne had ever said any such thing.
In his last substantive remarks Dungal asks how C laudius can perform his
ecclesiastical duties if he refuses to make the sign of the cross or if he does no t
believe in the intercession of the saints. Must he not make the sign of the cross
in baptism, in conferring chrism, in blessing, in consecrating, in celebrating the
mass? Can he omit litanies, or refuse to commemorate the anniversaries of the
saints? At the very end, then, Dungal makes a poi nt similar to Jonas's: Claudius
has in effect betrayed his priestly office (cc. 242-45).
Let me briefly review what we can learn from Dungal. First, he was in Italy
and he said that he had been hearing about Claudius's mischief fo r some ti me
before he felt empowered ro do anything about it. This may mean that DungaJ's
Rnponus answer not only the Apology but also the simation on the ground. H e
says that Claudius denied and destroyed images but devotes almost no attention
ro this subject in his Rtsponus, or, ro put this a little differently, he implies that
the image to which Claudius particularly objected was the cross, probably a
crucifix but perhaps also painted images on walls. Dungal defends images primarily on grounds of tradition but he also offers the old didactic defense. Dungal again and again defends the intercession of the saints and the holiness of
their relics. JUSt ro read the Rt sponstS is to imagine that Claudius's major preoccupations were saints and relics, not images. Dungal, like Jonas, objected mightily to Claudius's belief that an image of the passion mocked Christ's death and
downplayed His resurrection. Like so many authors we have encountered, Dungal ap preciates the difficulty of finding unambiguous language to talk about
worship. He understands perfectly well, and acknowledges that, generally speaking, Claudius unde rstands too the crucial difference between the worship that is
due ro God and all other forms of worship. But more than other writers in [he
Carolingian world, Dungal assigns a kind of wo rs hip, or veneration, ro material
thi ngs such as the cross, relics, and images. His words are not as clear as one
might wish. Images and the cross arc undoubtedly venerable but several times
he includes images in a phrase or sentence enumerating those thi ngs that may
be venerated. In doing so he not only assigns a form of worship to images, but
he also equates [hat form of worship with the cult that is owed to relics and,
thereby, invests pictu res with a kind of ontological holiness. When those images
are of the cross, or are of that particular form, the crucifix, then Dungal's words
seem dear, even though he does no t elaborate his point. When the image is of
An ..... " ' -
J'J
,he " dds uf ,he lam .... io: io much hank. '0..,. C'UClIy .. ha, o..npllud in
mi.....
Rippling Ois<:u..ion" Agobard.
Einh~rd.
ond Wallhfrid
'IS'"
Like: a pobbIo dr"l'pN into the Caralingi..lh pond , the im.g<

k<pt on
. irpling f.... m ,h. 8100 into tho 8;00. 1);'<, have , 110...11 I<'<n ,h" I~ffo;" Q",.Ji",
had li"k d.mon"",bk cotlnection ,,'ith ,h. k"" of En,pt"" Michad II ,,><.I
"'" I'ari, v..1I"'Iuy. JOIW, ... ha ",,,<'>II, toolc up hi, ptn rwic:., 0""" in .bout
817 and th.n .pin in, prohal>ly, a.<>- $h "",lr-it I<'<m>-O.n., ,he I'"io ddihe,
.. ion. A"'I>Iri$hop AgobonJ of tl"'n "'.'ghcd in on hi, (>V<n ",ith a.hoo ,.... , ...
0.. """'.... ~".
In ,he t"" F.."h.rd rot< in
of ,he I>.,Ir c..... ,
.,.,..... bly in tnponJ< to q.....,. by I.....,... ofFom;.", but qui likdy b.auo.
,Iu, .....,.......1 .....,.... Iud oft." b<n. ...",il.,,<'>11 in .-.ant,....., Liu..~ in
.....,.,., .... im!"""""" ....n-<n...,....j W.w.frid $,000 i ...1rtd<d a b.i<fhiotory of the Carolingian imap:- qlUttd in hi> 0.. rio. Ontr'" ~".
of
5-_ As"", of''''' L ",'U. Cd .. a.udk', w'"''' "W"> ,..... he <.. I. of "'"
mil>! comrn .. cd to pH1ll" ~ vi ...J ducb fOl' aoothcr few dccda." In
Rom<. the pup<> brough, up the inug< q.,ntion a few .in... in cor..-.po .........,
wi,h ,he IIp,,n.in< """It bu, ,h<y did so in w'Y" ,ulQ! ... ing ,h" ,he ..."" """
def._
'-l"'.
0-1.,,,,,,"
'1"'"'.
AboNrd (7" -a.< -. ~ ..""her of ,he Gnd" "'110 ...... u,",,<'>11 "". .......
,ion." H. ....... to Iu"" ...".m! ,.... Fr.mlri>h world in ?II' and '" Iu", .m.I
;" l)'O'l by 79', Ho fdl under ,he ;"8"""",, of Ardrbiohop lrid.-.d (7911 ,6).
O<doine<l a Pf1'<>' m~ ..... hccomc chorbo<loop in I'J and """""dod Lndnd
.. "",lIN.""" ;n ',6. ProIifi< anol q""'''1ouo, ~ 'ru,n ... m! h.m..-lf imo
....,., of ,he pn' ,...... o(.he <early ninth D'''ry. H. 0fII"CIKd louis ,he Piou<
;n t .... m....""""OftJ <>f ,I>< ' '''' >nd ..... do:~ ;11 In ,,"ly'" bo .. in ..
",ed ._
~.n
1." ...
Tho Ij"k " ... t;'" o~ l'i1~m ....d l-rn "",~It .. difl1 ... I, int<'P'ct."
Sine. ,her< i. no ",,~ kn ... ,h., "sob.,d ~ . monS ,1m>< ;... ,,1 p,m;c' p>t<
in ,he I'.,is;." dd ilx r.ltion. of 8.\, i. i, no.
>oy ",hy 0' ",hen he ",ro"
i,. 1100 ,.... It no p<of,cc .,r<! .imply
'"1'he- tin, pftJ>T.,r ,I>< 1:J.calog...
i., ,,;,It God Iti.....-l( ...... king. 'I.m ..... Lo.-J
God ",ho I<d """ OUt 0("",
Ixt''''
""r '"
""If
'0
,0
314
CHAPTER SEVEN
land of Egypl, elc.' " The text is about thirty pages long (in octavo), considerably
shoner than those of Jonas and Dungal, and, presumably, Ihan Claudius's original work. About thee-quarters of On PictuTrs and Imagfl consists of patristic
references; indeed, the work looks like a lightly commented florilegium of image
leXfS. Agobard has many of the same leXfS thai the Paris bishops used, and that
appeared in the writings of his comemporaries. T hese overlaps may be attributed
to a common imellectual patrimony, but the faci that he cites Hadrian's letter
to Irene and Constantine and his Rflpomum suggests ,hal he may well have been
in possession of some or all of [he Paris dossier. It is possible that he was there
and thai he wrote his little book as a SOft of minority report. It is also possible
that he learned of the decisions taken at Paris and spoke on his own, believing
that [he Paris fa thers had indulged in ambiguity and compromise. There arc
two places in On Pictures and Imagrs where Agobard almost certainly quotes
C laudius s1 so he may have had either the whole Claudian treatise-when Theutmir sent il to the court it would very likely have gone up the Rhone and right
through Lyon----or else the excerpt. It is also possible that Agobard and C laudius
knew each other in lyon before about 816.
For whom did Agobard write? I cannot say. Perhaps the best way ro search
for a context is to connect On Picturfl and Imagrs with the Paris Colloquy and
the affair of Claudius, on the one hand, and with some of Agobard's other
writings, on the other. Agobard wrote scathingly abou t the Jewish community
in Lyon. sz We have seen that ami-Jewish sentiment often accompanied real or
constructed image controversies. There is nothing in Agobard's Agaimt thr jws
which specifically addresses image-related issues-for instance, charges of idolaIry or Claudius's complaint that crucifixes bring the crucifixion imo ridicule-so
one can only appeal to a generalized conlext. Agobard also wrote a lOugh lillie
book against practitioners of weather magic in his own diocese. H H e knew the
dangers of superstition firsthand. Whal is mos t significant for our purposes
about Agobard's On PictuTrs and Imagrs is that it shows one more variation o n
the basic Carolingian themes and thereby reveals the subtlety and variety of
Carolingian thought.
Agobard, as noted, begins with the Exodus prohibition; he quotes Exodus
20.2-5. He then cites Augustine- although Van Acker, Agobard's most recent
edilOr, cannot fin d the passage-to explain exactly how the words of Exodus are
to be understood: "The first precept prohibits any image of God in human
contrivances, not because God has no image. but because no image of him
ought to be cherished" (c. I). The next few chapters develop this theme in
several ways. Agobard say that Moses did not see an image of God on H oreb.
He also says that if the works of God are not to be adored, then certai nly the
An ~nd Argument
;1 15
works of men may no t be. At this point, Agobard discusses the lengthy sections
of Thr City of God (10.1, 3) dealing with the various words for wo rship. Like
Augustine, Agobard insists that even if language is imprecise the fundamental
poim is clear: only God is to be worshiped. Agobard then argues that sacrifices
are offered only to God, not to holy men or angels. God wishes no creature at
all to be worshiped . Agobard seems almost to anticipate a query here for he cites
one of Jerome's letters to Vigilantius so that he can use the father's words to say
that we do not "worship and venerate" (colim ur t t IItnt ramur) the relics of the
martyrs, nor the su n and the moon, nor angds and archangels, nor seraphim
and cherubim. " We honor (ho noramus) the relics of the martyrs so that we
might adore (adorrmur) Him whose marry rs they are; we honor (honoramus) the
servants so that the hono rs (honortJ) of the servants might redound to the Lord
who said ' 'Whoever receives you, receives Me.'" He quotes Augusti ne to argue
that we do no t despise the bod ies of the jusl dead for the H oly Spirit uses them
to effect good works. But we do not build temples to them, dedicale pricslhoods
to them, nor offer sacrifices to them "since nOl they, but their God, is our God."
He then cites various biblical passages to show how memorials-say, Jacob's
pillow-stone- were nOl idolatrous. Concluding his first section, Agobard says,
" Therefore it is God alone, as we have shown abundantly above, in whom we
ought to place the hope of our blessedness" (cc. 1-1l).
Virtually all of th is is familiar to us. Agobard's argumenration is at heart
affirmative: Worship God alone. H e devotcs little time to saying what ought not
to be worshiped . In one sense, however, Agobard is rather sharper than his
contemporaries. Like them, he acknowledges the problems occasioned by the
vocabulary of worship. Like them, too, he insists that God alo ne is to be wo rshiped. But whereas others deal with relics, the cross, perhaps even images, by
means of the same language which they apply to God, Agobard uses honor and
honorarr for the saints and their relics and reserves adoM rr, coltr(, and vtnrrart
for God . C laudius would have liked the way Agobard opened On Pictu m and
!magt s but would have parted company as soon as Agobard got to relics. Jonas
and Dungal would have seen nothing to concern them in the first twelve chapters of On Pictum and !magtf but I do wonder how they would have reacted to
Ago bard's meticulous attention to language.
He opens chapter I} with a quotation from Tht City of God (1l. 1) where
Augustine is saying that onl y a rational creature can be made happy and that
happiness is confined to those who cleave to God. God must be understood to
be eternal. unchangeable, and invisible. These divine qualities pose ac ute problems for human understanding because the human mind grasps things in terms
oflincs, shapes, colors, sizes, distances, distinctio ns, in tervals. and suchlike prop-
.nito (c, , ~). So, AsOO>rdI"',~u>li"" u~ ""let .... unde .... ..,d God. if"", COn .
.. f.... "'" COn." V<> . bu...i,hou. qwn,ity ... Cr .,,,,. bu, wi,h"", nood of
~nf'hins." prn<m. bur withour loeuion ... C<lD"'ining ev<rything. bur ..i,h_
ou' 1 body... p"""m <V<fY"'hc<, hu, h>'ing no >pi~c loeui"". >II .,.nul,
bu, wi,h"", .ime. m1king ch.ng. bu, wi,hou, .nr ch.ng<
Him",lf. nd
fttling "",hing," Th nQ' ch>p< .. (IS) iIIow> ... wh= "gob,an! i, going wi,h
,hi. ''11"'''''''. "JuS! .;,ibk 'hins> .... h,,'mfl,1 'u ,he cum!,,",hc,,;;"n ofin,;'i_
hk 'hings. SO '00 ,he love of co,!"",,1 ' hing>. ,,",'en good on ... ;. d.nuging '0
,he ronltmplo'iM of 'piri",.) ,hings."" Thi, ,.nlt"'" i, irnmcJial<ly f,,)J.:-cJ
by. quo,"';"n "f J"h" ,6.7. " 1 'dl you dw: plain ,""h. It i. ""no< r... )"f)U ,h.,
I go. If I f.il to 1\", ,h. p"rack1. will nOl ro''''' '" )"U. If ho~, I dep.". I
will >cnd him '" rou."" Then ...., find ' he wo,d. of Augus,ine apJ.ining t/u[
Iud J<>U[ [.lIL1inM behind. H .. d""ipl would only h;o..., known Him nznuJj""
whern> i[ W1I impo"' "' fo, [bern to begin k> know Him spi.i'",,/;"", Sp<>king
in hi, own l'Oi. "gOO.>rd .. yo' p<....,n k,,,,,,,,, ,Iu, for. f.i,hFuI nun ", booth,
hi""df he m"" bo J",,,,,, f'um .h. al< ....... ,,, ,he in, .. iut ,nd nOO, .0 hi'
<kIfimen. , '" J,i,.." from ,he ,nri", '0 ,he at<tiof, "H. 0sh' to 1"''' <We,
from the Resh '0 the 'piri[. from [he body '0 [he lOul. from the "i,ible '0 [he
ind'ibl<. from [h. ",mid '0 GuJ:' It io O'Cn "" .... ,I,." ,10" ,,hcn fo.:.I .. h propl.
,>uk. im>gn' ,nd all ,hem holy ,nd P"y '0 ,h...",k of ,he,r own Iu,>tl rhe CI,t.
,h .. i, d,t< [0 God, .nd "'PP""" du, ","ceilia[i"" m;gh' com, from 'uch
im>g. "liMon! docs not. like O . "J'"'' cite l c..ri~,h;,", S, ,I> b u, he " m.k
ing [h... me ""K poino: Wo .... ip is [0 be in 'pi ri' ~nd in ,ru,h. M .."i:o! 'hings
annot be ..."nhipcd .nd , as I>< p<... .....,,.,] 'ima. no
ion C'1n com.
'h,ough Of . . . . . . . . 1,,.( m."ri.1 ,hi nll"
J"" .. no di.i"" Ito,,,,,, .t< '0 bt offfl<:d '0 likt,=, SO 'oo .. i, i. "P".
hen,ib)e '0 h""", .he ,omb. of ,he saints ""'n ... ,i"",ly fo, ,he putp<> of
winning popul., ""bim'" (17). Thi. f<m"k open. 1 di"", .. ion of ,he .. in ..
,,+oicb i, guing '" btl,,,. rej<cl;"" of ,he" im"W"'. Ag(ob.<d quo,,,, M."how
(')'>9-JO). '"w..,. ", you. Soil,.. ."d Ph;o,; ..... )'OI, fe.,od.' Yuu CC' .ombs fu,
,he prop!tw .nd Je.co" .. ,h.e monuments of ,h.e .. in ... " H< ,hen
)<ro,""',
.:ommen...)" On 'hi' p"""'t;< lrlJ begin. ,he next ch.p'" (19) by .. )ing ,It .. "",
m,n', ""imon)' ,hould om be ,!,umed fo, ,he whol. church .g..... on [hi,
point. To clinch It.. C1S< hc cites. from Euod>iu"Ru~n"". [he CIt.< of ,he nunyr_
don> of Polyco.rp. ~rd ..Y' ,h.. ,bi, i, how ,he ch,,<cl< .p<>ks '0 u,holito
"",.:c:ming 'he f'I"ion ofbk>scJ Polyarp.nd 'he ""nel"1tion (' .......a,;.. ....) of
[he in". Ib. "0')' is ,Iu.[ Polyarp', diocipl .. w.n,cd '0 uk. hi. body ''''''y.
lb. o/Iiei.I, p'"... dcJ [he goI'Cmor [0 rdul< '0 rda>< Polyc>rp'. body 1\" br
[h .. ,he Ch';',i.n, would . h.ndon Chri" .nd ".n '0 "".... ip ("""") I'olyarp
'0
i".I'1,....
ci,,,,,
ir... <>d. Hi< .Ji!ICipics. in EuKbiui. ,dling, insi",J ,h .. 'hry co"IJ "'"'"". ,I>.n
don C h rist. nOf "'o"hip (",/nt) .ny<>nc d ... Tho
,hey .... id ... W< I"",
{JiI,p.",,,,, .nd , ..""".tc (.........'mu" .. d"-<:ipics m,h. l." ".t Firu.Uy ,he n,u
rion !",rmiual then> to toke the OOtIy .way .nd they buried it fiuingly . "d I.,er
&",herl ,here '0 rdlce, upon the . u mpl. of ,I>< m .. tyr. Agubo,d we< ,hi
necdo
"",,"g,h.n hi. ",,"nlion ,h..". ev.n
hoi ... , .nd """I
f.mou, of "'"''Y''.r< ,o<><;<mrd. ,hey a", not p>id
cult Ih.. i, d"" '0 Gnd
>Ion<. Mmyn m. y w<ll be d"". form of ",n<l":"i",,: word I>< ,"",IKr ....
",;etal '0 God .lnn . Ku, hen:, "'~ i. ,h. wo,d
i. re.,,,,,,d for , he deiry
Thi, ch.p'C< b<gin. with "!}'>I",d <O.}inB 'h>t <1-..: '~mb. of .. in" o.. lf>t no, '0
be .,.,e"to,i........ 1". p..... iou. ch.p, .... h.d ...." m.kins po;n .... bou, .p'rit....1
wo ..... ,p. Ch'p'ct ,9 . ftc. Jctou,;ng 'hrough E"""biU) to ,..liJ.tc .pi>J .f.
kc,ion fur ,h. no.tty .... conelud .. by 'Iuoting Wisdom 'H-6: uFor r><itl .. , did
,he evil ,,,,,,ion of me" , f,"CJI de<:.i", y,. no, ,he fn,i,l ... I>bo, of p>in' ..... .
fO,m .m.. rl wi,h ,..,ioo.< ",k>". ,he oigln of which ><"Us<> )c,nnins in ,he
It'''''le. m.n. "II he long! fin thc inmim.", lO,m
d<aJ im>w=:
0.. f'j(lU,,"
'''"W' fin.lly Coma dirrttly ' 0 tho .ubjC"Cl of im~ fits,
by introducing tl>< e n"o (r~). AS"b"rJ ,I""", ",inly
d.,,,jiu. wt.."
"""'y".
'0
,,h= ,h.
,h.
,Iu,
4""
hc .... )~
rcrho~ MlmrullC
m.
'I''''''''
mip,t soy ,hat h< docs fIOt amib"t. an)1hing di.in<
'0 , he im>&< which he :oJor (.......T~/). bu, endows it wi,h such ~<T .. ion
(", ,,,",~.;,,,,,) in hono, of him ,,h.,.. like""" i, is: Agob."d $Or>
,hi, iH>Sy
,ho,
'" .n,we" 'If ,h. im>&< which he .Jorn (""......1 is no, Goo. ,h.n i, ough' '101
to be vmer-nod ...11 (,~"""nJ,,) .. ifin honor of ,he .. in" who n<V<r chimed
<li.ir>< ho,,,,,, fOr '),.m ..h... lbi. '11" n is. ,n old ull"mcnt. It i, imponmt to
<mph.,iu. h<>W<">'<r. tlut Agob,,,,j in"oJu> thi' .rgumcnt b~ quoting Cl:tu
d iu. b", immal i.. tly dimnca hi", .. lf from ,he bi.hop mTu,in , Agob;ord """.
'in .... by ~i'in~ EultbiuslRufinUll .g:oin. this ,im< ,h...ory of ,he ... lou, new
Ch,i;'". of Aband,;. who d.moli,h<d idol, .nd 'htn p>in'ed '!O$$d On
'IX"'..
<hoir .100"","". <T'''Y'''')~. ",intlo,,~. ",... 11< nd col"mno. '"0.

unt:lintc<l
,.Iigion~ l.<t the b. nn" of ,h. c...... be p.in,ed ....-.I)'Whe"'. not ,I>< liken .... of
",me hum." <:<><m,en.ncc. Go..I bfO!Jg/l' ,hi bou, mir.rulou;ly. ",en if pcr
lupo . hey dido, know it." Following ,hi, ",muk. W< ",:oJ .norh I"'r::tphr::tlt
of CI. udi", '" ,he <11. ,10 .. if 'hey_ l h, <><WIy ""n,.. nal AIe .. nd,i,. -hod
pm "I' 'm>go> of ,he .. in" they. who h:oJ ju"" .h,,,,do.,rd do< cnlt of don~," .
w""ld ,hink ,h" ,hC}' Iu.( nm.., much I.f, hehind ,h.i, idol, .. ch..,nged ,h';t
nom<s. Obviously Agob;ord .nd a.oJ; ... disagr on ,he <To". bu, o,h<rwi .. i,
. ppn. .. th>t ,hey COncur in ",jC"Cling imag<:' of the .. int!,
Not 50, ~rd no'" "Y' ,h .. irn.gt> m ,he 'po" lc> .nd m ,he Lord
Him$Clf W<f, pu, up by ,he .nciem. "on 1O;()um
10::.. . nd even m"" for
3[8
C H A PTE R SEVEt-I
recollection, but not for any honor of religion or any veneration after the fas hion
of the gentiles" (20) . Eusebius again provides a tale ro carry the point: the statue
at Paneas of the woman with the issue of blood. Eusebius adds that he himself
had seen the statue and that it was one with others made by the gentiles ro show
their appreciation. So tOO, therefo re, there were images of Jesus, as well as of
Peter and Paul. Agobard now rurns to Sede (2 1) and qUOtes the passages from
On tht Ttmplt which says that if people wish to argue that God forbade images,
then how are we ro explain the work of Solomon in the Temple, or the brazen
serpe nt, or images in the Scriptures? H e carries on with this long passage to the
point where Sede says that it is not forbidde n to make images but only to
worshi p them, and that the Strict biblical prohibitions were uttered because of
the grave danger of gentile-style idolatry. Agobard restricts Sede's meaning to
the wo rld of the Old Testament: That was then, this is now. Next Agobard tells
the Story of Sylvester, Constantine, and the images of Peter and Paul (22). This
story was told many times in antiquity to validate images. It was repeated at II
N icaea and in Paris. Agobard quotes it just to make this point: Poor Constantine
had JUSt come over from paganism and he did not know any better than to
recognize the apostles and to adore (adorart, atiorasu) their images. Remember:
Through the last several chapters Agobard has been warning his readers of what
is done by the gentiles or in the gentile fashion. Agobard then cites several other
well-known stories concerning church fathers who took a dim view of images.
Augustine testifies that Christ and his apostles are to be sought in books not in
pictures where there is no danger of error, as there is for example in looking at
a picture of Jesus, Peter, and Paul, when the three were not conremporary (23).
AnOther passage from The City of God is quoted to prove that even the pagans
had serious doub ts abo ut images and believed it possible to wors hip without
them (24). Some lines from Augustine's On Troe Rtligion demonstrate the dangers of worship that focuses on the visible and material, the arbitrary and false
(25). Augustine, Jerome, and Pope Leo I are quo ted 10 provide evidence for the
dangers of bringing into Christianity rites and practices like those of the pagans
(26, 27). This leads to a conclusion: If the works of God are not 10 be adored
and worshiped (adoranda ( t counda) then how much less are the works of man
to be worshiped? God made man in His own image and likeness but man cannot
make any likeness in which there is an image of the human mind and reason.
Quoting or paraphrasing Claudius again, Agobard says that if men had to be
adored (adora ndifoisunt), then surely it would be living and not paim ed ones.
Sut the point is that only God is to be worshiped (28) . The last note sounded
here draws attention to the miracles of the martyrs and says that they did nothing on their own; that God worked through them.
An and Argument
;19
I can now sum up On Picrurts and Imagn and simultaneously fold in some
points from the book's last few chapters. God once forbade images but that was
long ago and because of the tendency of the fickle Jews to fall into gentile-style
idolatty. God also commanded cerrain images to be made. What H e forbade,
absolutely, was that any created thi ng be worshiped. This has been the uni versal
uadition of the church. It is true that some people have worshiped images, but
this has happened when people have recently come over from paganism and/or
when they just cannot worship without the support of the visible and the material. Authentic worship must be directed to the invisible and the immaterial.
Agobard acknowledges that in olden times images were made for history, for
recollection (ce. 20, 22, 32). H e does not say that this is still true. And, unlike
many of his contemporaries, he never adds a word meani ng " decoration."
Beauty is simply not an i~ue for Agobard. Art is not transporting. It does not
evoke tears of sorrow or of joy. It is really a matter of indifference, provided of
course that it is not idolatrously worshiped.
Should art be destroyed? Agobard is no iconoclast, at least not explicitly.
On on ly one occasion does he give us a hint of his feelings about existing art.
H e cites G regory's first letter 10 Serenus, although he calls him the bishop of
Friuli, and says that Gregory told him not to destroy the pictures in his basilica
and in fact to leave them fo r the memory of posterity (22). Was this his view in
general: [t is hard 10 say. On one occasion he speaks of images as functioning
"in the place of words" 10 show Catholics viclOrious in thei r faith and heretics
vanquished after the manner of anciem depictions of civil and foreign wars (32).
Does this mean that he endorsed the "dida([ic" argument: I am not sure. If he
did so, he did it once, indirectly, and not in connection with Gregory I. Near
the end of On PicrurtS and Imaga Agobard cites the Elviran canon. He is the
only author to do so. If this is 10 be taken as an indication of his definitive
views, then one can only conclude that Agobard, unwill ing as he was to endorse
the destruction of art, would have preferred that it not exist. Si nce it did exist,
it was not to be worsh iped, in any way whatsoever. H e said, one senses with an
air of resignation , " Let pictures be treated as pictures." He meant that, ontologically speaki ng, pictures lacked life, reason, feeling. They were not, could not be,
holy. Agobard rook a spiritual view of worship that was less rigorous than Claudius's but stricter than Theodulfs or Jonas's and, especially, Dungal's. Near the
very end of On PicrurtS and Imagts Agobard says, "For God cried out '1 shall
not give my glory to another nor my praise to idols' (Isaiah 42. 8) and the apostle
[paull said of our Lord and the mediator berwcen God and men 'Because of
this God exalted Him above and ocslOwed on Him the name above every other
name' and whaf this name actually is he went on to say ' That in the name of
J<>u> C'o"'Y kneoo ml'"
Ixnd in ,h. Ix"'ens,.,n ,he eo.n h, 1n<! und., ,he ~"h,
~nd <v<ry ,,,ngue must >n!<n, ". ,h. gl.,ry .,( God ,he f"Ix"
!lUI Jnu> Ch,is,
i, Lord : No holy .ngci, no hoIr man, m'r usurp ro ' him,dr ,hi, "'''''', """",h
is '00"" <v<ry mh ""me, 0' ,h" p"""", p",i,., ,n<! <IominOnn" Ul), ~rd
.,lfc" no d.kn i< of [h. cui, of ..in", He .. Y' hilI< .1>0", ,da. H. ,hink,o ,h"
pulling up ern .... ;, good thing b", do<,; nQI pursue [h. p<>in', N,,'hing
m>.t<n.1 is holy, I""i<il""es in ho!in<$, <ommunic>[cs ool;n .... Ch.;"i.ns
must ...11 rom "'oid F,il< """'Om" The is. ",""in .fftion ,h .. i. due
m rhe ..... "Y" .n<! p.dup. '0 .. in!! g<ne",11y bm no WQI!hip .. all, .,( .nr kind .
Goo .k-ne is "wed WQ"hip. Af;o..t..rd is. rison" .n .b.oh"i",.., i<k.li". H
00. like: .Im ... , ='Y"ne eI .. ,""hI> I"'nicil"',ed in ,Ix inugc dioru\Sion. of [h
.... Iy M iddle Ages. cbirned ,h .. h. ~ 1 ".di,,,, ... li,,. H. bd;c..ro .nd .."gII[
only".... ,Ix whol. dmrch h.J .I ..... )~ t1..y. .
Einl"m/
,h;o,
(inh.rd is .!ilf<f,n, in
he seem .., "<ry well known .... He ~ bocn . round
,t.. ddn. clIild .nd p<,bap> only"'" oh nOOk, lonokd f.mily ... i,h hold
ings"" of rhe Rhi"" R<>' rlx ~loin. Aru" p<riod of .ct>noling .. F"kU he
en, ..ed CIu,lenugne'. >U" in 79' 0' 79'. He bec:>me o... .,r rhe king', doses,
f.ie",1.< .,>J co"fi,\ .,,, .nd, of cou,.... ",mre his biog<>phy, He ..... en;"yed
7]0.
",,,,Co""",,,
.1><
of Lo,," ,I>< l'ir,u. who SO" him "" "'" 11<:" M""'d.u-..d,.oJ
Mulinh.im (I.." colled Seligcns[.<l<). Ei nlurd fOunded. mO""'Y.,.he 1.,=
, i,<" .n<! spent ,h.e b" Y""" of hi, lif. in 5<n'eool retiremen, .. iu I.y
Highly .,J.....,tcd.."d. pmJ;f.. autl"", Einluol i, un", ...1 .. 'he only I' rm.n
who con,,;hu,ed '" , ho im.ge q, ...,ion; ind.."j, ho is one or ,h. r..... I' r in ..1Jc,;.
, ...1, in ,he C.ruli"~" 1"";00.
H. did nOl wri, boo, imag<" in grnet.1 bu, iru,oad,.boo, ,Ix holy c"""
in p."iculo, . nd h. did .., in "",p<>n>c to. q...ry by 1.."1'''' of F<fri<1-cs. Einlu rd
and luI"" ~.d a [ouching <1Ich>ng< of cufT<sp<>ndtn~ in March and Apnl of
aj6 <>a<i""ed by ,It<: do"h of (inba,d>, be)ov"d ... il1:." Ei"h"d>. kU<f 0,. rh<
Ador",itm <>.I,IK IDly C"""" .. )~, nca, in h<ginning. "\l'hen I ~ 1I<emp[ing
. . . '" .. tidj.- rou, "",i... i,y> my <kom' Lup u<., ,nJ to ..,1 the prool<m you
P~[ [0 me ,hoY< ,h .do",ion of ,I>e c..,." que>'ion f... gn", .. . nd m=
encomp ... ir>g ""'" from ,h" inq"iry .. . I refer '0 ,ho ><Io""ion of God .nd
,J,nu, h"... "ne ;I,,,,,ld oil UP"" ."d ~ I. im."" luI'''''' ",""'h I,,, ... r",m
April of 8J6. inrom<.! w [h .. h< Iud i"" ~.ed Einlu.d', let .., on d,. crou.
Einlurd provide< "' ",i,h proci"u, iruigll,. into wIL:r. o..r eduO[ed, ...<11
.1""".
An and
.vg..m<", , ..
.boo,
con""",ed Ca..,lingi. n b)'m.n ,hough,

son,. of ,he i...,,,,, ,h.. h ...., en~ lOS I<p<>tlly. w. do oot h.." the itt"" on ,,hich l.up'" .,k<d . boo. tho
.J,m.i,," mth. Ct"". nd h. did not rom. b.ck t" ,hi. ,uhi' d ...... h... in hi'
""I.;ont OOllol,,,"d.n. ~'< 'imply annot"1 ,pco:ifically why lupy! "'"'" in ..._
<>tl in this qklC>tion in the mid.g,,,,. And th. i, no re.son to uppox ,h..
[ inlurJ """Id h",.., ..Id<e>-..l ,h. ",pic on hi, ",om ini,i .. i... . Bu, Ch ."II
recen. work doe< gi ... ,,' the oPl"'nuni<y "'1 'hot ,It.< topi<" of
c><s and
the throk>g,>' of Ch.i,,, dcoth on tbe cr"" w<re mal"'" of continuing in'.. t
.igh , . hfOtlgh ,hi> wholt pe. iod " ~ '. n",ed .00... ,h... round 8.."./<>..,. of
O,lbn, bol..,.",1 ,h" CI."Ji"" had f"II",,. rs. Gi n ,h .. Jo"aJ ."d D"ngal
dirt<d "'m. of ,hei, ,1ufJ>C" cri,ic;,m, .gain!t CI.udi",, >.ll<g<dly .... yw:ud
undc"",nding of ,h. '><s. i, i. C<>, ...... ablc ,Il .. Lup ... . nJ Einh. rd haJ >Om<
f,,,,ili, ";'1" ... j,h rio. ",nu",'Ct>y on tI,. '''Pic.
Enlu.d ixgirt5 wi,h p.. yer. Ue !<'Vi.w. ,,'ipmf'11 .nd ",n<ili.. ...."u;a '"
"r ,ha. ., f..... be c:r.n ..... p"'yer i. t" be oddreo.scd to ,h. F"be, .Jon.
/.I""", ..... p... )'<rs m,," bt in the C"rm:t f"rm ."d most .. k fin . pprov<"d .hinp;!.
he: .hings .pelled nut in ,h. peti.ions "f .he Pa .... N", ..... Add""';ng ,he wrong
PO""'" in ,h. wro"~ ""'Y f" .. ,h. "1'On5 l"<'1><"" ... ill , ..... 1, in 1'",)",', "'" being
.n,wcred. [inh.. d gon on ," mo'" 0 . . . '"the apo>tlc., m. rtyr>o .nd mh<r 'pi.i"
"'n" ar< wi,h God:' He ...p"'1 "",II hearing it .. id tlut tbe ... rc ..,me pe<>pk
, who ,hinl: ,Iu, beneh, m . ~ come from praying '0 ,he .. in" .nd ,h .. ,be
.. in" , benu.cI,',," m,y ..... n be ,h. hco.flc;',i., of p... y....." Wo k""", ,h" Ein
lurd ...... n ~'g<' oollce,,,, of relics. '" we O<Jgh' nO! '" .... k. hi> mosinp;! be",
.. IOl!.,n, of sI<'p,i<i,m ,1:><)<1, ,h. " ' n" .".1 ,he J>OW<' of ,h,i, in""",ion.
Ein .... rd i, no Claudio'. But I" m.y jU!! be ,oiling u. >om<th;ng .boo' the
. pprdt<mion>. ,be uncer"in.i" of on ordi"",y po....,n in ,be Carolingian "",,dd ,
Hnw ... we '''I'~ to pray . nd h",,.Io ti ..... in" figure in ,hi .e,i,i,),?
In "'!Oming '" Lup"" 'link
("'t~ti''''''1r "''''') Einlurd "'"..
"' .. .... m. '0 me ,h.. ,be.ross oogil' t" bo: adoml ... nd I think I can apl..in
,hi, ,,"'''' .,.,ily if I .m.bI< ) ",pbin ,h. diff."n and dininction." I .... it,
be, ..""" p"'fin~ .. ><I """,;ns" ('. ' - 48/'711. " T" p"y. in m)' opinion. i. '0
bc<tcch in mind ", voice, or .. thc Urn. tim<" in mind .nd ,,,ja:. wi,h"o'
ge.'m< of d,. body."' " T" adt."," (,"",,,, ...). "n d .. od .. , 1..".1. "i, ,,,,how
.. ne""ion 'W>Jh~,i._ txhibrTt-) '" a v;,ible 'hing plaocd befo one and (act" .
lI y) p"""'" .i,h by boJ ... ;ng on", head u' by bending '" p," ..... ting on",
,, hole bod)" or~' and ing on", .. m. or by .pading on", lund, or in .ny
w:t). wlu'O<)C\I<f th" enn"i""." seou,,,, of ,he bod)'. Fo.. ,," W,,,, .... (.....,..,.,.4
lru.ny .hinp;! '" ",hieh ,," ""n"", an,1
nu, '" p"'y. I"
1 $c,ipto thi' von.""ion I""""",i.) i> no,"",lIy <.111 ador.,ion (""",~ti4' (,..s/' 71).
'0
tI,.
'I""""""
m."
,,,.w.t
s...:....
3H
CHArTER SEVEN
Einhard continucs with a few concrete examples, for instance "when it says I
will adore at your temple {Ps. 137.2] it is as if [Scripture] says ' I bow my head
or I kneel before your temple.' This adoration signifies only veneration ." Furthermore, when Nathan and Bathsheba adored David they did not beseech him
as God but venerated him as a man worrhy of honor. Likewise when the sons
of the prophets fell to the ground to adore Elijah, they did this for the sake of
veneration. Einhard says that there are too many examples like this to cite them
all and that the key point is that adoration has regularly been put down for
veneration. In any case, veneration is "frequently and appropriately shown" to
living and sentient bei ngs but also to things " lacking all life" such as churches,
tombs. or relics. Einhard expresses puzzlement over the passage in Jo hn (4.2024) where there was a discussion berween God and the Samaritan woman about
adoration. Einhard does not understand why they did not speak of prayer,
"which belongs to God, bur concerning adoration, which is shown to a variety
of things for the sake of veneration." True adorers, he says, will make their
adoration in spirit and in truth, that is without any gesture of the body that
belongs to veneration . Again he wonders if here, as elsewhere, adoration has
been pUt down when praye r was meant. But he thinks that John really did
understand the difference beween prayer, owed only to God, and veneration,
owed to many things. He acknowledges, however, that a person might prostrate
himself on the ground to pray "at the same time praying in your mind to God
and adoring with an action of your body him who is everywhere, as if he were
in front of you and present. So it happens that even God may be adored, as if for
the sake of veneration, just as other things which we said belong to adoration. "
Einhard concludes his reflections on prayer and adoration with a remark
that echoes the passage from Book 10 of Th( City of God that we have seen other
authors cite and discuss. H e says that the Greeks draw a distinction beween
prayer (proJtuchis) and adoration (proschil1(usis) wherefore "the forme r refers to
the fun ction of rhe mind and the latter to the body." As an example he adduces
Matthew 6.5-7 where Jesus taught the disciples how to pray: the Bible uses the
word prost uchis but when the evangelist (2.8) speaks of the Magi " adoring"
Jesus, the word is proschil1(usir, "which refers solely to adoration and to bodily
function. "
Havi ng d rawn our at some length his views on prayer and adoration, Einhard judges that " it is now evident that the adoration of the holy cross ought not
to be spurned" for Jerome tells of Paula prostrated before the cross and adoring
as if she saw the Lord srill suspended on it. We roo ough t to do this, he says, to
prostrate ourselves before the cross with our mind's eye open "to adore him,
"'~o i .IU!p<11d..! "" ,he ern .. ," Fn". ,h. e....... "",hich i, "' i,h"", .1",,'" holy.
will ob ... in [he honor ("" ....,.,.",1 'PP[opri ... i." In [hi ..... y G<xI .... h" m><le
, II ,hing> h"ly ,h .. . '" holy .... ill h. ""ne,.,loly .J,,~ " (wn",.h;/i.n "&"dl.').
Einh ..,J w.o. k>.ned . nd widely re>d. He ... )'.!lUI [0 solve ,ho p.oblem 1""
tu I,im I.,.. 1....1"" I,. di,!. It" "f ,,,,,,,,,,h. It", h...... "'" .n ."'V"e.". ,10<:010gi.n. He darl~ kn.... som<Ihing .bou[.he i..... co [... , we", in 'he .it in hi, .ime.
bIU h. J id nOf "" " ,he con~dcn", of ,h. ""1""i<:na:J "'I"n. H, i. p"ul<d by
tho .mhigui,i.. of bnS".g< . We ...... """n , ... [ moo.,n ","' ,b ,. h. v. som .. inlCO
too q"ickly diffe ..n,i.,..! be ....... n .d" ....'i"n and ""n<r.uion .. if ,hi. JiMin".m
_'" iron ..d><l .od highly ~I 'ng of posir.on. in [he im>go qu,,,,.ls of rho
eatiy Middle Agn. In f.ct ... _ h..., .Iso no,..! l<'J'<"l,edly. <"0.1)' medi .....1
"'.;, .... MJ.",,"od
,hore ~ a diu inClion lou, """., ..... ed , I'teei ... >Y"
K"""i< bngwoge '0 txp"'" i,. There " .... ,I .... Y". d .... om .. th" on, kind of
cult ..... I"id 'oG<xl and ,,,,,,her to 1O)1)ne o. 1O).hingel .. to whom or whieh
<uit W1.\ l"'iJ. bn"'rd "nd..... nd, r"', di"inion d...rly. ,nd I>'ktn .,Id ,.n.M;"n. th<)l'" ",I.. ed 'hi' ""r: "do""""n i. 'he Ji'po.i,i"n
of mind .nd ",n'1'1[ion i. wlu, on. d<> ... sult of , ..., d""",,,ion. Hi<
",""mro".. ico ""uld IO.r [he mo>t P'" I..", ... id , hot eoch ;,. dj'posi,ion of
mind .nd th .. " p"'I".l y di!p<<d mind und." .. nJ. th .. SOme ,hinS"re Jone
with '<sr' [0 God .10,"" .nd o,he' ,hings.rr Jon. "'i[h "'1= '0 , .,y. .,in"
or relic>. 0[. in cl iffe",", eium".nS. [h. em" o m.g<:>. In [he bar. tho
,id"" a ... the futmer i .dot.tion .nd ,I>< I." ... vtner.t,i<>" . But , to rcp<at.
the".... ..... .Jrnm' n""r tHi)" Einh.rd 1" [he <to ;., holy. 11. don not
.lobo.., . H... Y" [h., God .Ion, an moko [hings holy J:,m I>< .I".. nor go on
to n\<'tltion holy ,hing>. Docs h. h.v< . vi .... of '"
<.Iy. of chalicn? We
Jo DOt know, H, UY' P, ub P'OItr"ed h, elf befurr the <fO>O '" if.ho ,,"uld
..., J....... Is (inh,ro 10 0 " ,o/"rt,ins ,"'Ii<j"ely ,0 tf.: did.c'ic d.,/C """ "f ''''' 'KG?
h he emb""'ing ,h. ~"'K "><I,,i<>" ,hot bel,,,...,. tl .. , 'm~ an evuko .."",i",..(
t<:SpOn",,? We ju" d!. not know, Rut we "n ""'t.inly drtt ,he put.. of ,II ,h ....
;,.,..." bo.. i"K botwn ,ho lin .. on~nlu.td. \i"l. ,," . And " .. may '''Pl''''< ,hot
b>rely audible [hump. ,h"mp, ,huml' OCCl,;'.ncd tyPO'" queI)'. E'nh.rd put>
0'"" more .....,.,. in oy, do,.i<, I. heled .. pt2C[;.". ... (:h"diu, memion, bowing
.nd p ..... , ..,ion, l)u<>&>I. kis>;ng . nd Ein ...[d.cld. ,,,,io,,' h.nd ~'ut", '(''''0
poin" befure ukin& our bv, of Einh.ro: h h""" u. the wi", . nd pt"K,ical
b)tn.:," [tyi ng to gn>p dp ........ oJ cutcinS 'igh' '0 ,he han of ,h. m",e"
h. mi"J, '" 'S"n ,h.. Garolingi>n 'hou!;I" i t OnC<: imp"""", .nd (""''''t
ing in it> di"""il)'
'0
,ha,
_"'t.
}14
CHAPTER SEVEN
Walahfrid Strabo
Walahfrid Strabo was born in about 808, received his early education at Reichenau, and then went on, as so many of his contemporaries did, for a period of
study (827-29) with Hrabanus Maurus at Fulda. w In 829 Louis the Pious summoned Walahfrid to court to serve as tutOr ro Charles, his youngest son. In 838,
as a reward for services rendered, this son of a poor Swabian father was made
abbot of the great monastery of Reichenau. His abbacy was not easy. The Reichenau monks resented the rapid promotion of this thir),-year-old fraur and
when Louis died in 840 his son Louis the German adva nced inro Swabia and
drove our his father's appointee. Only in 842 did Walahfrid make his peace with
his brother monks and Louis the German. He drowned in the Loire while on a
diplomatic mission in 849. His brief life comes to our aHemion because, during
his period of exile, he wrote what Alice Harti ng-Correa calls "the first handbook
of liturgical history." Chapter 8 of that book, On Pictum and Imagn, is a brief
history of and commentary upon the image quarrels of the immediate past. 60
Walahfrid was highly intelligent, superbly educated, and well connected. His
views are valuable in their own right, coming as they do from a liturgical expert,
and also helpful as an indication of how one more member of the elite, this one
a monk, thought abou t and reacted to the image quarrels.
Walahfrid begins thus: "Some thi ngs should now be said about the images
and pictures which increase the splendour of churches. They should not be
worshiped (coknda (Sf) in their various forms with a kind of excessive fervour,
as some fool ish people do, bur on the other hand their splendour should not be
scorned with a kind of contempt, as some defenders of nothingness think. " The
Libt llus is a long, detailed, and carefully structured work. We may confidenc1y
assume that what is true of the whole is also true of the pans. Chapter 8 reveals
Walahfrid's priorities. H ence, images are beautiful. They make churches more
beautiful. Jonas has some of this too, but for the most part the decoration
element of the "decoration and commemoration" formu la vanished in the ninth
century. Walahfrid not only brings it back but purs it in the privileged position.
In another fundamental way he adheres to the Carolingian via media: Do not
worship images and do not suppress them. H e continues by citing the Exodus
prohibition followed by an unambiguous statement that neither Moses nor Solomon Aouted God's word. Moreover, he says that Moses decorated veils and
vestments with pictures and that Solomon "adorned nearly the entire fabric of
the temple with pictures and carvings." With these words, Walahfrid lends explicit app roval to pUHing images anywhere. He says that Moses and Solomon
understood perfectly well, as we still do, that rhe "cult and honor" (cultibus tt
N"";b.,) p. id .0 God ought not 10 IX" ""id (1rM.. ..,,) .0 .hinl\' m:uk by
hum." h,nd>-,h<i.., Q' "".., . Thi, i, ' n. "Q m," why ,n i"",1I" i, m.d .
And why migh' OIl. m.k< ,n im.go'To .ignify ",me mp')' .o comm.mo" ..
~.. dco:J (>f ' " cvo/.;. in ,h. mi,,,!. of ~,<W<
I",,,
I""".yrtl
.... in 'h< im.>ge> of ,he I""d .od Hi, ",in"." So ("..,.d Hin.,..11 ",mm.ndl
im.ge>
I:>< nude .nd Jccreed """.in .....,. 10, ,I:><m. They anno<. ,h.,..ro.
be wrotlg in ahwlUle
How might , n
be wrong! If on. wonhi!" i,.
To pcn""' 'hil. G<:>d go~' funh """, m.>od ..... n,, .. You .lull no. how down
bdO ,I:><m 0' """"hip .hom " (F.. <:>d ... 20. \ ) . w.bhf,id !m, ", ke .10< hibli_
a l Non .uk;,,,biJ M"1/U (II/is hi o=:,(y ... Einlurd did. \\on" m"" I>< ...,;d.J,
Ii"lily, i. ,u!"'n.i.ion which i, .. lf i" l>< ''''''(.. or >pi.i,"-,I w.,.,hip'" n" ... i.1
.hinS'-W.I.hf,id an,,,ip" " ..,o,1><-r kind of obj<-ction. qui,. po<!ibly OIlC
.. ,
I"
'.,mo,
m,lo. P<"'>O"
'mogc
,Iu.
", .. nded f''''I"""tly in hi, "."Id. MiWn "'" ,,,me'm. pf(>'O' ,hot ,f ,10"",
I><.uty of an ,m>gC would .n'icc ,I>< "foolish" (i",ip""'''') ." """"hip i,' \\:'ell,
",d,.
oo;.c,
.h,n, " " ,,Id '"''

P""" ' I>< "bligat 'u
'u ,h. wo,l<> "fGt><! ; Why
d;d He (= .10. ,pl.ndid hv<nl) hndi<S, '" bUUliful ..d fr::ts"n, pun", if
,hey w""ld lead "''')' the .imple to '"ado,.. . nJ ...... "'nc< 'hem wi,h di~in.
huno~"!,"' Drmun. m.y bd pn>plc to
(vm<T~nllt') ,10"", im' KO mol'<
is lilting bu. ,hi. is lu"'ly
l!un .h"", who sco,n.11 iougel''' idoL.
"","d.li", , he , impl. ofh",n. " W.I.hfrid he ,100"'-' an 'ppri. ,ion
(0' .10. oW id<;.
,,'t< ",,,,, ",,,,(ully ""p"rm: <te>'o' ,,,d ..,i,," lou, ,10.,
,,,,,,.ion i, no. in(rin,iaUy Iud. V),'.
b~ ",fut~,ion .nd not byapli""i"",
,h.. ic<mophob<> h<w
,h. E.odu, f'.ohih,.io" ."J "",,,.... ioru "f idola.')'.
Thc-r. il no'hinS phil""'phial Of doc,,;n. 1 in , hei, m;,gi.inl\'. La"ly,
,im
ple ,<tum hc. And
om '0 me '" I:>< he", in ....." gui"". By .h. onc. they
by
dcrg; wh" ough' to know.n<! beha",
. ,.. oand.tlil:d. IcJ
betta. We uw
ho.h Jon .. . nd Dungol n.<ed Cbudiu, wi.h .hi, <h'rg<. In
,h. ",h., gui.." .h. ' imple .: .h.,.. ,,'Ito m.y b<: d ...... n ill. I><lp(uUy, 1"",,,,lIy.
by im,s<>. J"",,. i, will b<: r<a.llcJ, implie> ,It .. , ,h.
<10 no, need ,uch
,h,,,!;, " """S'" bu, ,10" ,h. "n'ple m'gh, find ,10<01 hdpFUI, no. '0 '<' indi,
p" .... bl .
Now W,I.hf,id
'0 , hi ..,,1)' of COnt.ovc ..... ove, ,m' g<', He go
hxk I" ,I>< l i~ ",' POI"" (j,"W''Y II ..,.I 111 ,nd h. "uk f('W mil<>kcs
need "0' dot.in ... , We",",y m"k. howo ... th. , h.... ",;on. how ,h. Rom. "
Sym><1 of 7J' .-ejected her"')' ."d , ..,oC<"d 'm>ge< "f ,he
,hei, KCu,,omed pi"", 0". wishe> he Iud <I.ho",.<J ""
pIK., V.ubing <Ncr . cen
"'')', h~ .. )~ tI", ,he ""'"'N 'y of the Gtttks" "'m. '0 F,."ei. 'he
of Lou,. ,he Pi" .... N" H"""; . "" N'<a<:" "" Th",,.J,,lf. no F"" kFU,,. n"
u...
,,,,us.nd
w"""
<I",
'0
,h",
.hcr
"''''y.
'1'<"'''''
=.
.10.
,hc ,-.')'
w'"
,u,n.
,t..,
.Iu.
"',n" ,,,
,n
"m<'
p6
C HAPT E R SEVEN
Constantinople (815). Louis duly confuted the Greek view "with synodal documents" (seriptis synodalibus the only time Paris is called a synod). Meanwhile a
certain Claudius tried to renew the controversy but " he was pierced through by
the shafts of diverse opponents. " He then says, rather unexpectedly, that anyone
who dishonors the emperor's image, even on a coin, has committed a grave
offense. I th ink that this must be an oblique reference to Claudius's iconoclasm
and an insistence that Claudius's acts directly offended God or the saints. Wa!ahfrid nowhere raises the fami liar defense of Christian images based on their
sim ilarity to imperial images. T he only reason for him to make this cryptic
reference to the seriousness of damaging an imperial image would be to warn
off those who might deface a Christian image. It is curious that Walahfrid says
so little about Claudius and does not seem to have known his Apology given [hat
he was at court from 829. Perhaps we have here an indication that Walahfrid
was concerned with a general unease about, or conuoversy over, images that was
simmering away. Agobard wrOte, unbidden, at a not quite determinable date.
Lupus asked Einhard about the cross in 836. Jonas returned to his On tht Cult
oflmagts in 840 and Walahfrid composed his Libt ffu$ berween 840 and 842. If!
may be forgiven a cl iche, I think we are viewi ng the tip of an iceberg.
Walahfrid carries on with a few thoughts that are, to put it charitably, a
little disjointed. He remarks that Jeroboam offended God by making calves and
that Hezekiah rightly set up the brazen serpent but that th e Hebrews, prone ro
idolatry as they were, worshiped it and it had to be destroyed. One perceives
here fragments of several image conversations. God's prohibition of images was
not absolute but specifi c because the stiff-necked Jews were liable to idolatry.
Images could be PUt up for good or bad ends. Destroying a "graven image" was
not iconoclasm. It was perfectly acceptable, even laudable. To be sure, Walahfrid
does not draw out these points but he ci tes the very biblical passages that usually
neSled in those discursive frameworks. He goes on to say that the Christian
people have been so willingly drawn inro the "interior chambers of spiritual
wisdom" that they do not believe that pictures, images, or even holy men, no
matter whether living or dead, should be "reverenced with honors or adored."" l
Here we are in the presence of the principled Carolingian indifference to images.
He goes on to say that we do not ask of the saints {hat they provide salvation
but only that we ask them to intercede for us with God, who alone can save.
So, there is to be no adoration of the images of saints and no inappropriate
address to the saints themselves. Saintly intercession is available and valuable.
Walahfr id's prose is taut but the context allows us to relax it a bit. He finishes
this point by ~y ing that since Christians have a perfect understanding of this
po i m~th at we do not worship the ~i ntS but rather ask them to carry our
J'C'i,io", '" God----i, i, wrO"S '0 "Ji,.. "<1=", .nd 0>0<1<", .. ho"",," '" ,h.ir
i""'gQ, y" .goin. withou, .l>bomion. W. l>hfriJ ... umes ,h. ,.,Iidity of the old
f""ntia! .rgum.n" ..: "f "",,n<,< pe.f"'meol t.cfO ' n imW S" '0 ,I"
J'C''''" rcpr=nted.
W.I.tlfrid, fin.1 ""bst. n,i,.., point g<><> to the issu. of the utility of inuges.
t k "'Y' ,h", ,inee we h,,,, i, qui,. ",..igh, <I... iron. (h ..,Y' here. one<, ;.-,,"",)
.,. no, to he ",do,ed 0' "..,.... ip<d (,"",~",u, 1Iff ~) re w<c led ' 0
O'I<ld,id h" pier",.,. (pir"'.~') .h.~.ld be derpi.cJ ,oJ do,m)"I" "'''':<:S'
.,ry '" ,,"'cn lurmful' Should we d,,,,..,y remples h:,,,,,, God emno< t.c ron_
fined ""i,h;n ""II nd 101)1; mad, by h um,n h,nds' If " .. did 00, he "'yo, w<
would ""ru.in' r take .w.y <:v.rphiog by mean, of which , he mind "f ,he .impl<
could
bo, " .. would h,,,, virw,lIy "" ""y.o p"""ic. 0." d...."ioo, or '0
mnc' ,h. ';mpl nd unl"'<red '0 ,he love of uo>o ,hing>. MOl. If"o ,hi .
piurt:$ .re wcf.~ in ,II sor" of ""J"'. A piau" i, , kind of Ii.."" " " for ,h.
illi ..", . Con".n,i re<r>gn;-<l ,he 'p""'es " h",,, he Iud >n in , dt<>n,
after h...... 40wn ,hrir inr.g. Sim ple 1'.01'" who '.n",~ hc m"'..,.J by m.
WON, con <>fret> he d""ply "i"oo I:>y, pain,ing "f ,I:>.: ,....,ion of ",her woo<krful
~"'., So imOSe> >h",,1d I>< .. 1".... 1 ."d I""ed" (""""..Ju
D""'",W"
50 dr.t th.i, "",filln'" i> not n<g>ted by d..,ro);ng ,hem or hy "cord ins ,hem
,upemiti"". bono", And dom. ging im:lS'" I><. ,.lunn m ,h. pe""n wbom ,he
im'g< "1'1<nt<. H.re we .nC<>un h. did",i. ' <gum.n, "-.. well ., ,he
c<>nfirnutQry md ...."". i,.., ones. Ii i, refereo ,o.he .impl< migh. be. g<n,l.
d.,.. of (:.14)1,,,&,." oIi,. """J""",",i,, .. _ o. i, mish' h,,,. ,n ""'''K.Ii, ;nS fore
urh '" tlut noticed b~ KfiSl in ,he MCfOvingion """Id. D;,bono, ' " 10 im.>go
",00 ,",'cr '0 the pe"''" rcp><ntcd juS! l! p"ye< Joe.. W.I.hf,jd i, , bi.
mn" ""plieit .bout thi' th." hi, c<>otcmporaOO u""Uy ....~ . Still. he "C"<r
crosses .h.Ii" od ""!;I;'>" .h.. tltt imall' it.!Clf i. holy. O"t<>loglcolly .h. 'm>g.
i> no,hins more ,h.n ,he "",i." from "'hieh it i. mad . W.I.hfriJ\ """ ,,(
I.ngu>g< i, as ,Iippe'y" .lut of everyone d", "" Iu,'. mot. H< tt.!C>. a!mm.
imm:h.ngc>bly. ,"""".,.. ",,,,-. nd ,,,,,,,,,",, u dd, a"",,, ",d m. kes f<_
rea.ed us< of hom"",... A, .Iw.)~. he unJ.<> .."d. pe,f.I) well wh .. ,hcs<
word, mean "'heo 'I'rlioo ,n GoJ .o.j "h" th,}, "'<:>0, o. must nn< hc pe,mit
'00 '0 o,..n, when . pplicd ." ,nY"'" '" .n)1hins cI"" U"lik. E,,,h.rd. h. Joe.
acts of .. n.ra,ion '" hono, Or m-=n<r: .. adJing up.o .d",'1
tion. Bu. hi> u'" of adoratioo jus, migh ' impl)' ph)">;",I.CIS in Einlu,J', ..ns<,
E",o if ,h;.;. ,ho CO"" it< d"., 1101 Ii" '" d"",'il>c ,h.,.. >C1.
In hi, brief <lup'" On ,""'!'"' ~"" f>inum W,l>hf,;d S,,,,bo
much .nd
impl'" <'V<n m"",. In ,,Iu, he "')~ he , h".... , , umil,>ri'r wi,h .in>.lIy.U <of
,h. m.jo, W", n '<J;uro." made on behalf of ,m' g'" In wh.t h. impli ... h.
.rt.
",n,,,
""'''')0 ,,, ...
"'Y'
s"~,,' il<q><' "nile"',,,.!i"@.of.wide, ..... y of inug< '''gume''" Ahh""gh
in hi' ,in>< ,he eros, setms '" h.-.. ktn ,he COI"..,I i...... W.bhfrid >peak>
'" pi"",,,,,. W".hftid I.ys 0 0' ,me ""'Ii,i, ..... "g""",n,
.no.h;: .
he
doe> nOt . ."d in ,his be <liffe" .ha'Pl~ from his COIlt<1nPO"'ries. with the accp,i,," of [ inh..d. "" ,he chu<clt f.,he .. '0 duciling wi,h each ",I><. o. " 'i,h ,he
enemia or imag<>. He ... ri .,. fi rWly .... i.h ... thc, .".00.....;"on . The
m."., i, ..,,11. I>< setmS to .. y. H<l< is thc official.iew.
.Fi.,
h,,'
Tradition, Order. and Wo rsh ip in Ih~ Im~g~ Ten s

In fOYi<wing rhe Op .... it ~ po .. ibk to di...,.n thrrt rruojo< tbern .. running
,hrf>llgh llrrodulf'. grcot book. It WU
po>$ible to dctcc! tho<.< .. me theme!
in the int<TeS<' .nd ....,.k of m.ny of .h;: ky i><',ple ."",..<1 Cho rtc""'S"e_ [,.
the nin,h nt"ry. ,h... n.. ,hrrt ,hem.. .. e in ",'ido""" ["" ,,-j,h diffe'ing
=ph...,.. The 'hifts in r"",,,, ,..tions. On. is broodly conte",... I.nd I ;/ull rom. ro ,jut co",,,,,, in 11>< I..,
5<Ction of th;' <h'pI'e . Th. OIhe, ;,. product '" ,I>< 'pifK probkm' ,h .. "os<
in the 8,,,, .nd or 'he w>ys in which a .. ri.ty of "~itc,, m;po..<lcJ to ,hem. A
Sto"P of hishop. p,odt>Cl o"!>s,,miol hOOy of muen.1 in p,n. in b[.8'j.
Two
'epl >eJ to .h. pe,cei,..,J .. n::><> of Cbouliu. of Turin. Sevenl mhe,
w,i,." w<:ig)oed in on ,hei' o>Wn on rhe '''Pic or inug<>. The '''''IS whi<h we
have been ,,,m m.. i.ing .nd w;1I ,..". inte'l'n:t wen: w';tten "'.. ' .""" tWO
d<c.d .. in wiJe~ diffe'ing e;",um.unca.
"$eel,
'beoi.:.g uf h;.",'Y.
""Iy kgi. irn .. e hei, .0
Hi jrn ..... Ii) nlake ,,,,= !I<W f ranki,h " b rad" ,,,,=
biblical. "",,[olie, papal . nd Roman (undentood in di<linni", ... y) " .. di,
''''rut. Throd"II. work ...inc<> . gitat;"n .mot>g the F"'nkilh elite about tb.ir
o,,'n pi"'" in thc gr.nd <weep of tim< .nd "aditi .... . Th. Carolingian. ""...
u.utp<n.. .f[.. . 11. and rem 0Il" th". llxy we .. only <<<end y eml""ked
on .mbi,iou nd unprecedented pr<:,;<"'" of ini,u,ional, in,dkawl. nJ
a:cle, ""ic:!I rc/O,m. They ~ conquemf man)' of [h. old ""' .. or empi .nd
h:>d rolle<! m.DY pu> int" a .inglc pop"l", ChrusUzn",. The", W1I .n .ru,.
need [0 d eline [hei, o"-n identity .nd [0 ,;,wte [Ita, iden.ity in .p><x .nd ,im .
In ,h. nin,h e<nf<l'Y ,hese .......... i...'" all but in';'ibl . '!he Ub-U... con-
An and
Argum~nI
P9
tains an implicit argument that th~ truth will emerge from key sources, "from
the testimonies of Holy Scripture and the opinions of the holy fath~rs. " 6J Jonas
refe rs often to "the tradition of the holy fathers " and "ecclesiasical tradition. "1A
Dungal insists that in his world tradition has been properly unde rstood because
Scripture and the fa thers have been thoroughly studied. 6s Jonas three times says
that "Gaul and Germany" are without taint of heresy."" Agoba rd, too. clai med
that he ad hered strictly to tradition. 67 The Lihellus states that the "line of truth"
extends from Dionysius, whom Peter's successor Clement sent to Gaul, right
down to the present.'>!! Dungal says that the tradition has been in place for 820
years.69 These remarks are rathe r anodyne.
And that is the point. There is a serenity. a sense of self-assurance, thaI
pervades the ninth-century tCXIS but that was noticeably absent in the late eighth
century. The Paris fa thers, like Jonas and Dungal, worked confidently with a
huge store of patristic material. Theodulf routinely cited the Bible to build his
case and he addressed the fathers only to the extent that he found them cited in
the Nicene /lcta. In the ninth century, only Claudius relied primarily on the
Bible. His mutilated Apology has rwenry-five biblical citalions as against a mere
rwo patristic passages. It is as if Claudius were conceding that the church's
tradition was against hi m, but saying it was nevertheless wrong. Dungal as ked
him how he dared to
bard cited the Bible
begins by relativizing
necked Jews and that
set hi mself, a lone man, agai nst the whole tradition. Agothirry times and patristic texts forry-seven. Although he
the Exodus prohibition, sayi ng that it applied to the stiff[he Ark and the cherubim prove that God did not always
forbid images, Agobard's main biblical strategy is to insist on purely spiritual

worship.7(l T he Paris bishops inclined sharply 10 the patristic side. The fathers
W(rt tradirion for them and they display a real confidence in managing their
patrimony. Scholars have noticed that in the ninth century Carolingian exegesis
moved from direct commentary on the Scriptures to "exegesis of exegesis," that
is ro commentary on the com mentato rs. 7l If the eighth-century Carolingian
wri ters Struggled ro lay claim to a tradition, a nd to find a place for themselves
wi thin it, the ninth-century Carolingans reveal themselves as having assimilated
that tradition, having made it their own, and being willing to adjudicate among
the exponents of that tradition. This knowledge and confidence, taken together.
say something important about intellectual life in the time of Louis the Pious.
Or, to put it a little diffe rentl y, as the "Carolingian Renaissance" moved into
its second and third generarions. the foundational work of the age of C harlemagne was payi ng big dividends.
It is interesting, too, to see thaI while Theodulf was trying hard to deny
tha t BYI.a ntium and the Franks belonged to the same tradition, the Paris Libtl/us
.""ned
thot R<>mc, B)""n.ium . nd ,he F",nk, m.rro. ,,~ition. Th<

rum,", difficult;a or"'" from tho f..n th .. the trodi,"'n Iu.d DOt .I"".y be<n
<:>Imlf
prop<.ly und<ntood in Rom nd Co." .. n tinopk Wd. hfrid ,~I,,, ,imiu.

cnnm in hi, b.i<f hi,,"'1' of ,he qlt>fld O'o'et i.... p H. go<$ bxk '0 ,I><
, .. Iy <iglrth n,ury to>.<how tltot .<c<nt novd.i.utd mi.und",rurd inll' Ito...,
promlced .n unf<>rturu ... disp"" . " nm:t und<rs .. nding of [h. r<4nt ~.
will 111' to put 'hings .iglr .
If .I><n: i ."in "'''''ni,y in what tl>< nin.h.oon[uty W[;[. . . . . id .bou[ [ro_

dition. th.n ,h. i, p"1p"bl gi... ion in 011 th ,hq .<aid .bout ",d,
Thq ' J'<'Ok. li" l. on g<''<mmrnt .nd rul ..... ip but Ito", . 10, '0 say .bout ,he
ch urch . nd ito bd ..... ip. They W<K ron""mod wi,h gr.omnu., bngwg< . nd
<elSOn . Ed"""i" ...1
.,, ~ ,h<i. men,;"n . Clton')'. Of ' Lock of i"
prompted sort\< an. """ word~ Scalld.1 "",fTi.ed 'h<tn 0 guod <1<-.1. Th.i. 100
nd f""", ;, onct >g>in ditTo",n, from l"hcodulr ..
The wo.ld will I>< .igh~y ",<I.m.! wh.n ,h.r< is " uni,y . .,.-.0. ond co,, "
0:",<1.'-' M ich.rI II in.i<tal that he, had bruuglrt all tht jl<'OpI.. ofhi> .",pi,..,."
.... ct >.l,d conco.d." f or ...... q.wities '0 be p .... n', R<>", nd 1I)",,",;um
muSt ";dd ,0 ,h. t",th, ThXIulf .. HJ no.ua. 'hing. H. It.od ... th .. link to .. y
,.boot ,he, R""", <>f hi. ""' n d.y . nd .:ootrntal himseif wi,h geen ...1
, bout 1"'1'.1 ,.,.J;,;"n . The "1"'1'.10,," cla"", in ,ho: Op", h.6) "">.< prob;obly not
ThXIulr. 0,,"" work. Ao for ,h. Byzantines. Throdulf "':u '00 hwy hnping
. bus< on ,h.m to <n.<". in ,he pouib;lity th. t e" nrotd could he ""hied with
,hem, In Loui". time tht '011< ..... ditT.",n, . Loui . '. b;'oo", [po\<c ofhi. dtcp
con.ctrn for hi, " bt:",h." of [h. <mpi of ,he ",",[cm R<>.... n.!.... nd of hit
&<>Iicitud. fO, hi, .. d...... I>o<!..:,," Midud .00 Theophilus .nd .h<i. "holy
""",I.:' I"",;' ...... ",o.--hcd .bo~t the 'GoJJo,.i"5 eh,,,ch of doc Ro" .. , ....,. In
hi. let, ro '-'m;'. Mieh ..i .dd,Scd "ou. d ... i>hod ."d h""o.. bl. b tud.,
l.<>\Ii,,' .nd calltd hi m ",~" pt"Octfu! fri<:nJ .nd ' pin"",1 b""h .. : ~' Th< Li~
i. n'" . mbiguous .bo~t B)""ntiu m', bl. rn. fut ,h. t<C.n' tli.I"'''''' But u. .. i.
mUSt " I<phtnd tho illt ofboth p>.rties." Dun!!,,1 "19'<'" 'h..... Ch,,,,i'n ",I..
Lou;' mm ioc up in drt.noc of [h ""h. Nev<nhd .... in ><idi,ion [0 ill ralk
,1,00 .. f..,[cm.1 &<>Iici",d . [h< f.ib</l", nukn ",m. ""nccs<inn, .n l:Iyzano i".
"",ibili, i<o, TItt f... lt> of I"'t>< &oJ C<>n,un,in, VI ,h ........ hod in the u"f"". "
n. <1, ... of II Ni~.f< .nribu,td t" Sa, .... not '" tho ... ""n.1 f.ili"p of
,I>< rul ....... \1('hcas in tl>< eigh, h <.n, ul}' 1"'1"'1.nd Fnnki.h ""itinll' .bou.
,u",!>.'"
,..,.,.rb
,h~ im. g< qu"",K.n
",ess<d
POT.", .u<ho,i<y, ,h. UIMU", rou,indr ",fen <0

PnCl .nd Pml, which w:.. n""",,1 in 1I)"..",inc co'<npomkncc .nd othot doru
men ...." If ,h.f<;' "'0'" ,han . ,ing< "I' "" " <I=n, i",, in ,h. UIMU.,. ,h.", i,
.1",. <ompleI.<k of ,nV<'Ctivt.
A, .oy "" c. Byan,ium', ruk .. do no, rome in fo, """hing <ri';<i'm. The
.,m< co,,"o< he.,id fOl ,he p>p>cy_The Ulnl/", ."..... t h..
owed <0
,ho P.-.rin. o/li"" .nd '0 ,I>." pope_ " "Louis"-"" .. lIy ,he I'"i. hi,,"~
emph .. iza ,h .. he onl)' wi"",,, he helpful, "'"
u.urp 'he office of ".<her,"
God h.. ,n""",cJ .n .. bim of ,II di.pu,,,,, ,he popc. Hu, , COnt"""'''r i.
"'g;n8 . nd ,he pop< <>noo' he colW "un" ...... r ,fh. f. ,I, '" toke up ,J,. b..,le
fu, ,he f,i,h Ch1lkm.gn< Iud di.ow,red .."ioU$ problcm.< ,nd h. dmifully
"'hmined ,hem ", H od,i.n fo' hi, "judgm<", and , ,,,h""il) ... I\u, Hod,i.n
defended [he C,k., Kt<d impropc,lr. and oru.:,cJ i"",1l'" he odored "",[><".
SCifioU$ly."" Hadrian pUT imo his Icnot " n.in ,,,,,imoni.. of 'he holy f,the"
wbid>, .. f.... "'" COn ,,,,der><.,,,1 ,I.cn,. 'n: " .. kly i.-rel .... ", '0 ,h. i",,< . nd
OC1=ly pcni,,<n[ [0 " ." Hod,;'n laid .. iJe pon,iGCilI 'UThori,y .00 m.ny of hi.
ob j<CtK.n, c",.hcJ .gain" ,ruth .nd 'UlilO,i<y. He brough[ fonh ",,,im,,ni..
,ho, w<", ""me[im.. i,,,,I<von,. ""m<'lim.. i<:>'>l'I'li""hl<. . od 1OII,.,i""", cv<0
=P'"
'0
'0
'0
wonhy of Rptthcn.iun,'''' fm:ulf and Adq;af !ell huw 11K')' di;,:u&<d ,hac
h,,.
i" .... wi,h r ..cI",1 I- ,h" m ....

betn 1i""ly . """""",iM!_nd "ka,....,j
how portly ,hrough ir;nOl.nee of 'he "",h.oo f'Onlr br odherence [t) ",iek<d
CU$.om ,he [>I'g"" of ,h .. ,upc"';'ion hod gm"'~ top in
I"n. -" Th.refore,
'he Lib./J", "y>... Whcn )'OU [u...i.[ ",w ""'" p.ni<s d...i"i"j; from
royal
mad. ODe ""' ing f. llcn in[" ,he kn di[ch b)' rel>psOng in,,, ;m.S" m<.king. .od
one "'.ing r.lIcn in,o
rigt., di,.:h by ,u[><,,,,;,io,,,ly odo'ing ,m"l;<'. )'IU. On
,r-.o..
,h.
,h.
piay', prompti"l\o wioh! '" offe,. middle .... ).00 '" CQnf.. life.givin8 medi_
cin. ", ,he deully iU .,f ... ch p.ny,""
I <>nnOl ,hink of .no[h.. inll>oc< ;n [h. u ,I)' Middle Ag'"
rub
.nd prominen' memhe" "fh;, <bgy implicitly chorj;<d ,he f'OpKy wi,h hert$y.
Fo, [h .. i he un mi<t, k..bk fofCc of [he....,..n u>Cd in I'.,i, in 81, . No' '"rp[;'''
ingly. tit< ".11;1 doc""",n,,," prodUCC'd " P"i. callcJ
eh""'in8 ..'Ord, ,nd
",sumen" ~. ".",fUlI) . nd &" U$ing [><''' .... ion md flll"ry. Still. Loui' CII '
pt<d b" en"")" '" "'CO" n'" "Rum"" orn'in.cy. " The .. i, an in" ... ,i"lS
<cd",iology . n il\l""'['ng .... ). of [hin king ,ho'" ",d... in ,h .... docu men,,_
The pop< h"ld, .he I'e"i .... o/Ii"". i. Goo', duly .ppoin,,:d _",;".nd .Ione
.... uni""",1 oo[hOfil)l. Jon ...od Dungal c, i,ici<oed Cl>udiu. n..... ,hey uoo .._
IlQod him. [.jcaing I"'p.1 , ,,'hon<y. 11,,[ Jon .. Iud I>n . [ P,ri, .od m,y h,,,,,
b-n priDeip>1 compik, of ,he LiIMU",_
he . r,., he!i ...l ,lu, ir' t he f''f'<
""".tc.
w,
s...
r.pd (.om tho C"fwl;e f. i, h. hi, uni"" ""Ii<y ".....d. The Fr.mb in,i .. on ,hci[
3.It
CItArTER SEVEN
obligation to be helpfu l but never claim an independent right to pronounce on

matters of faith and tradi tion. As far as I can see, it never occurred (0 anyone in
Francia to attempt to coerce the popc. Nevertheless, the Fra nks were not prepared to submit meekly.
The LibrHus several ti mes laments the possibility of scandal's arising from
the current disordered situation .84 Walahfrid expresses concern tha t the image
quarrel may give rise TO scandal, and Jonas makes the same point twice, speaking
about Claudius."j " M easured speech and priestly gravity" arc necessary, Jonas
says, and the LibrIJUJ calls for discretio n, reaso n, and patience.86 Jonas charges
that Claudius's scandalous behavior has caused " the crown of the priesthood to
fall from his head. "87 The Frankish texts reveal a particular concern that the
" simple," the "weaker brothers," will be scandalized. S ' If the Franks were worried that ordinary people would be scandalized by the conduct ofTurin 's bishop,
how much more mus t they have worried about the scandal generated by the
pope?
I showed in Chapter 5 that order also pertains to reason, to scrutiny. Theodulf carefully scrutinized the Nicene acta so as (0 decide if they were or were
not in accord with the traditions of the church. H e faulted the Greeks for their
linguistic mistakes, for their poor undemanding of the Bible, and for their
inappropriate citation of va rious patristic passages. Dozens of times he displayed
his use of "reason" by means of trenchant syllogisms. The ninth-century writers
proceeded rather differently. I have not sponed a single syllogism. They cite
biblical and , especially, patristic texts in profusion. The Librllus says, in effect,
that logic is a well-ordered argument. S? I argued in Chapter 5 that one can
d iscern in Theodulf's overall argumentation a theory of ecumenicity according
to wh ich the Fran ks could argue for their complete, principled adherence to the
traditions of the ch urch. I am inclined to think that the Ratio, Aucroriras, and
Consiiium of the Paris Librllus is in fact a much more "ordered" statement of
the same theory. O ne states the case, assembles the authorities, and lays OUt the
irrefutable argument. Reason involvcs not finding but yielding to the truth. In
a felicitous formu lation the bishops speak of the "reason of truth and the truth
of reason. " T he matter is serded. Nothing new is (0 be added (0 the faith.
Indeed, Jonas reminded Claudius thaI Chalcedon had forbi dden adding anything ncw. 90 TrUth and reason are implicit and explicit in the tradition. The
pope himself m ust "stand aside and let the truth emerge."?1
The Franks seem sure that their positions are [fue and reasonable because
Gaul and Germany are pure in the faith. ?1 Terrible ideas come fro m Spain.?J
C laudius was sent to Italy to teach the faith but he betrayed his office and
led his people astray:'"' One is rem inded here of the kinds of issues treated in
Ch.rI'''''Y'i. :amo ... I." .. 0.. lIN C.. lli.'tlIWn 4 Ltllm. Th. F",nks know
1:><" ... ho ... b<en !>ugh, 1:><,, nd nUl'" "o<h oo,~, .
./<>n" "i,Ki... CUudiu. for <nri ng imo .'Sumen" in which he """ no,
CI "ldi,,, rtj<o. ,h ",honty of .<p<rienccd men:
hi> tide rings :tbw,dly and ooieulouol) in ,h, .... of,xper"ncrd men: ..J
Cl.udi", beh ....d "io.. pmly' in .I,,,ing ,he "..ording of. UH.in p"ri"K
,,-.gr. Cl.udi'" widJ, pen ,ho, i. 'inape": writes word. ,h..
""in
pcn ."" Cl>udi",, word, ho,,, com< imo ,h, h ..J, of men ..... ho
in f:oct.
"~<pe"." '" ./<>0 .... commen" .lign w;,h Dung.!". in reminding Cl.ud;", ,ho,
tl>< i..... of im.g<:S Iud .I<""'r hn h.ndkJ di1il!""tly by "pens or ,I>< I"'l>ct.
In ",het word . the C.rolingi.n ...,ite" view om.... implicit in the ".Jit":>o
. ntl m..ely ."",i,ing .,,,,;on . nd p"""",,,ion. Il", ,h,) , oo 0 otdc, ...
..... " .. ofbeing .. pen. or le"ing ,he .. pcn' prono"",," on key i... ,es. I" lish'
of thi. line of "'11"""'0.. ,100. one can k"<: why the F.. nk. we .10 di,.,......j
.bou. ,he JKlp<>. The JKlpe W ,he moo,
of .11. but h, "',. beh.. iog
;",pm". Thing< """ b>dl~ Out of omec.
Throdulf !!"v< ,I .. G""ks "'I"",ed I..... n' in s",mm,c >ow v"",.bul.f")'.
T h... I.....", wet. ctn, ,,,1 ro bo,h ho. JKllemic:ol purJKl"" 1nd hi, m<lhod of
.. rul;n~. Th ... ii . inually non~ of Ihis in Ibc LiWlb.s. Ncvwhd<M, JonOl; and
O"ngal <o<u<.ntiy chi,," a.udi", f", hi. linsui"K f'ilin!\~ T" ".m< ...." I.
,h.il ''ll'ln..", m.ill .. in, that had CI.udiu, hn bett.. ,,"uca,cd. h. wouW not
ha", ~, ,he mi,uk .. he d;J. Educacio",,1 , .. nd ..d, ...<re oncr .g.>in ., .he
ern ... of.n "Id<...-.I discoun.
",mpe'~n' '0 I"nicip'H~.
,,<
,1<.
"'"'UI
W" .... ip m ... ~""" l(>tCiK..a. oflm.: , ... <=<:",nc< ond ,he [""oon, ,or nbj<. 'n
which ,hose ,,<> .... 'dd.....cd.. 11.. n;".h-o:mu<y , uri",,, I h. v< bc<n di..,.,...
i"1> ,<"It "",!>hip . nd """'hipers. often in ""')"$
differ .IOm<+'., from
Throdulr. """m<m "f ,he .. m< '<vie<. Im>g<:< p<:< >< occupy f:.irly 1"",11
pl> in ,ho ... ,i,ings of ,he nin,hcrn,,,,) ""h"...... hile ..lia . h. in ..",... i,,"
of ,h ..,;n,.. , nd ,h. holy <roo> .m.'S... m.;Or th.m... JUst .. Th.oouW.
",A=ion, W<"!< prompted by lhe Niun< _ . .!O w<> ,he word, of ./<>n... nd
Dungal we", promp,ed by ,hei. on&,,,unding of wha, Cl. odi", h>tl.<>itl. Th.
P.ro. f:.thcr. =ponded. '0 Mieh.d II . nd Agob>rd, i, "",m., f<"l"'ndcd '0
P i.. Einlo. ,J ""_~ ~"",'io'" put ", hi", in , kt, ... h i, "'" dar ,rut
W.t.),frid h.d any 'p,fic i"tedocut"" in mind .. h. " .,O!<. Nrvcnl><kss.. i. i,
in'I"'".m '" krqo in mind ,ha,. w;,h he JKl",hl. ""ctp,;"n of WoI>hf,id . no
"'ot
nin, h-n!U,), "",i'e,
~nd.n""k 1n
indcpcn<km .)....erru"ic . nd <:<Impt<'hen.i
"'''''Y of woMip ,. i, ",l".. '" figunl "" "'" ..... n Jon., "."" .",i,kd hi,
_rk 0" "" Cui",! ''''''t'>. The r.ri, bi,h"l" ,,,,,,,,I ,h., um;; h.d """mbled
,h. rna""
.hem "on
of im.ges" bu, ,h.ir delibera,ion' ta"gcJ widdy. Wha, "'"
find i,. ruhUfC of comen,ion wherr on. ~ of .'Sumon ...-oW one ~ of
.. plies. Fin.!!)'..J! of ou' . u th" .. _tc OCUtely :rw>.. of the <h.l!eng<'< of b n
S.... g<Fir>!. ,hen. J>RCti'<lI. Th,re i, no evkknc< tim- ,he kind. of p rxlK:a '1'<111
nu, in Mi<:h..,I".!o:tt<f
in Francia. POl4ibly loui$'llo:gotel'o Rome in
"."Iy ~'5 ",. &u<h PrxliC<o .h<re-,ho "fuJ cw'o,,,, ' '0 wI,H;h ,I.e Ukl1",
cd<n, Th, Liklhu txpli<:i,ly rei<' the uS< "f light! "r iooms< in <'Onn..,.;""
wi,h im' g<>" but ",her ,at! do not men,ion mem ."
Ah",lmoiy.1I ,ho ' .." ""'" ,Iu. Goo . Iono i$ '0 be wonhiped . In .... '
i"&Ir. inlunJ .lot.. 'I><cifi .. . r""m tha, ,,,,= """"'ip of God O/>""IJ ""ume:
1"")'<1. Where images. ",lOa, ,nd ,he <,.,.. .rt conc<rneJ, ,he ... .. p"."'ide
nome"' .... d ..... 1""'= Uk/I", <:<Ind,,,,n' bc<t<>wing upon ;m,IP ,he .d"..,i""
i. owed '"
os .... 11 a> "i n'pprop,;"e," ",,",>=,),," " .....cessi ....
furm. of """rtnC<. R'W". tably, the...,n doc-s no' <pell ou' ""h., . ...h "",,"cpt
,bl, """"" migltt be lilo: bu, ,he Jt, c<ru.inly 5O<m, to imply ,Iu, ""me rom ..
of """'rt"" WQ1lld 1"-" ,h. 'CS' . [)ung.;ol .. . h i, mo", <Iplici~ "It j , p<tW;tly
dear .nd obvious ,h .. h<>ly (.......us) pierur<:>. ,he I..".,J', holy (..."""...) """"
and the "",cd (...-""") Iia <>f('~ ...f. eke, o.. g., '" be """"ra,cd ,,-i,h &tting
h"no<> by Cu""lic .nd riglu.lxti..-ing pwpl.:"" W.I.hfrid . grca_ Fi",. h.
$1)'$. p i ct~rn and im>g<S oho~ld not be: _"hipi wi, h .. ..,m< im mOOrnuc <ult"
or """"ra,cd """,,, ,lun i, ~"ing:' Then Ix $1)'S .Iu, ",in nd n~,d,,"'t<
""i,,,,,
"'=
,n..
Goo
....""" (1.0 ....... ) "f imaK'" . hould "'" be . I'ogh .. joaN." He <:<Indudes
,Iu, ioug<>".nd pi<:turn oltould be ~ (b"bmM"J .nd loved (a"",...r.u).
"'" d..,royI o. p.lid e""""i"" ...... n." EinluAl ..yo, .. h ""m, ."
m<
.Iu,
,he <!'Of> ;hould he odor.-d (""_..... ).. . nd H ,.,!x>nu.> M.urns (a> .... , h. n S
bdow) >grttd ",hoIch.. ncdl)',
T1><od"lf never ..id any<hing like thi . If hi> th""{;h' . ccutatdy
.dkc"
rurrentS <>f <>pinion in hi> d.y. then theft .... "'m, dn-doprn,n' in c..rolingi.n
,hinking. Bu, it ;hould be lCmember.-d ,Iu, C\audi", .nd J\g<>b>nJ am,jnued
mmu
"r """'rt"" .ho",n to, 'ny m"~'l. c=.ed obi<a. II ;,

p<lSSible ,0 Q!Ch glimpse of W\U, ,he au,h.,.. ""'0 ""' in
r.shi"" (,"0.'
ably di~ " ..... 1 imogn m.y Iu"" been tllking.oo,,, . a."di". compl.incd
.bo"" h"",hlillg, ho..i"g. .",t indini"l1 ,Ite hoJy. ' ........... criti<:ir.ed CI."di, ..
fu, ",IIinK .. f. ...
,Iu,s.: w .... "love. ",,"c" . nd .do" pain,ed
'" "'i' . n y
..,m<
_,;hi.,.,,"
im, lI" 4<1" """..,oJ",.. ,fu, ki"';nK ,Iv: en ... i, .. lf i'.n~' "f '"",,'eno::'.'
An.oJ Ar&-m<"' JI'

Ho dO<> no< "')' ,hi. plicid wi,~ 'cspte, '0 p.in,ed inuga. of ,he <1<,.. or
<>thcT im.gcs. [ inlurd ..)'$ ,I... ,doring mc:on< bo"'ing "n.'s h~. inclimng
""is boody. pm" .. ,ing on=lf. or .".nding ,~ ... m. Bm '" ~im ,~<><
ges,u, .. ,h" occumpony p",~.. t . ,h......,.... .inu... ""'.<enu , God, ,nd ,Iu,
may hot p<rf<)fmed b<for< ,ho cm'" W.L.hfrid. ho,...,...,. "'Y' 'h" ,h. "'f""l
i,h" "b<nd" '" "00w (in<liw4~r) whi.h lcov<> "no ....md<ring wh>! h. ron,id .
m:! ." hot ,h. "UnCCf. ,nd mode"u. h"'nor" th., ",,"uld hot poi<! '" imaga. 1OJ
) "n cit< OR< oo.:um.nt , nd four pietu .... ,It... hed <Om' ligh' "n !low
pcopk migl" h, ... hoth,ved in ,h. pt'<S<nc< of images. Be ...... n 8,0 ,nd 8"
Prud.n, i"". ,h. bilhop o/"Troy. romp<!. ",rmoo On .IOCII holy _<mn.
M.u, .
died in 8,0. I'ruden,iu, wu f"rmid.bl. ,hroloj;i." o.nd , do ..
ronfid.n' "f Lout. ,h. Pious. hi, wife Jw.lith . nd ,heir "'" Ch .. ko. H........ .!'"
Cu.h. like ThtoJulf, Cbu.dilOS,
Agub;or<.l. Th" <>, h. i. ,,,'lil<oly '0
been pm:!i.poscd in f.vo, o/"itrulgts. In , h. miru, of pr=ing' "s< for r<>gni.
,i"n of M,u"" "ni,y, h. "Y'
fm'" hot "",'h, ~i>ur> .m.red ,h.
Church of ,h. Hol y Aj><>5CI<> ...ery d.y .nd pr.yed ",i,hom en", ,,hil. lyi"~
proo,w. befOf. ,h,a:: image<. On. of t it<$< depic'ed ~t.ry holding J<$U$ in her
L.p, ."",he, ,h ....... ifi. i"" . nd ,ho< ,hi,d Chri" in m.j<y.'" M.u" aln<
from. prominent local family.nd made f'IlI<n, don't lon, to the <hnrch. She
lurdl~' qu.difi<> ... '"simpl . " Nevenhda. PlUden,i",', "'rmon pcrmits uS '0
"""",,hi. booth
bo.~(;lr gts,,, .... bef.,,,, i",'S.. """",red ."d ,h" . i"., b;.
on. C1.S<. did '" wi,hou, p",.-oking i,i.i'n In ,he S"""men,.<y of Cdion .
probably prq>a,ed be ...... n 7')O.n<! 800. ,h.1'< i. , n il1'l1g< of 'ho <nKifUion in
"""i"nai,," "i,h On opisrop.ol I,I""i ng fn' ,I", F.... , v;gil ,h" .<I'OW< . is"> of
>e<""", """r. " if coni ... bl< ,ru., ,h. d..trulg< ru.pp<ned 'h'ough ,h. repeat'"
'''''''''ing Or kissing (the dal1'l1g< ""'Y he duo '" m"i.",,~) of ,hi, iln,!!" <lu ting
,h. p_ru.lli'U1g;"" O' Jon ",id ,h" kissing ,h ross,.... on "'" nf ",,,,,,nec
hu,. 0= .goin. Gdlon" iflUg< " ...' no, """,,,,"cal hy ,he '"",ke. h""h",n ."'
Th. I, inugc in H .. b.onw M.ul\I>', ttl HIHU>' <1 ,ht HN, C...... depim H ... b.
mu hirrudf kn<din8 Ixfot. ,h. CfOY""' H ... ru.nu. prcp.or<d cop;", of hi, "",k.
tOr ",an~ <iial <<<ipi<m.>. tOr looi. ,h< l'iou> od for, laymon. Duk< a.:,.
h.rd of Friuli , In ,he dedica'n,, kif .. 0, Ebe ..... ,d. H",bon"" ..p'..... ,h.
hop< ,h .. ,h. duke would h. ve .... book .d 0 '" frJu.ntlr in hi. p,esenfe. ,.,
Palup. lTcqu.n, viewing of ,h. pictu .... mod< ..,me imp,,,,,,,,n 'OIl. T"" p",),<r
boolu m.de tOr king>. Clurb ,h. Bald .nd Loui. ,h. G<IIn.n . depict It.:..<
rul .... k.... lin8 humbly bcfo ... ,h. etOS . ' O,<li"",), 1>>l'k m,gI" hov ...."
M.u ... Th. prj,.. ,. devotion. of mon!os. duku. . nd kings. howt'VC'1". "'ould no<
h. .... bc<n .."",ible '" ,ho< ""i mpl . " Th o r"ctu .... or. 'uU".. i..... ,hofu. nO
...
woo
.".1
,!c.,_
,It"
~"
It".
JJIi
C HAH . . " V U
C'.od ;oI~". i, <1.< 1''''1''=' . "d 1<I9, i"",< ohjoa of hum.n _"hip, N<>,<rthe
1<. SOme 'r,eten,e ' oold be: p.id '0 manufactured t>bi<ct irnag.s md '''''''''.
and .1$<, , ..die.. Su.h k>'<"''''''' ,w k ,he k"m of v. ';""" bodily W"'~""" In.ll
lIu, ,hey ..y abo~ , w<>nhip. ho""",,,. rite nin'h.a:mury a... ho" ptux much
mo'e "ttU on 'he et<><S and ..dia ,han 'hey do on images. '" Where ,eI;'" a..
concc,ned. ,he v" "''''' w,i,ing> "",m '0 b.: ..... pondiog <li,~tly ,~ Ch...!; .....
" .... k on ..dies :and. mo", g<n lly. on ,he cult of saints, Carolin&i>n ... ri ....
we staunch in .hei. dd<:n.. of , be cult of ,1M: .. in .. and of ,he con,inuing
in"",,,,,,,,n of ,be h...vro <I""lk .. , '11>< w'; .. mal. i, .b, ,h .. ,hey do no<
ad"""". ,h. wonbip of ,h...in" , 1>0:",..1.... bu, ",uh..
,ho:y ocr: ,h...in"..
and
,hem c>ptC;'lIy ,he """)'''' .. "",dd. "f ,n.: holy lif. ,nd ...is'',
off.i ,h in God. Jnuga <>.n ....U '" memory ,h,o d...... ((0>,,) of ,h,o .. in .. and
can 'eaeh the "nle"<II. '11>< .. i. an eli .. rond .... nsion ...iden' in ",h., the
.uthon "'y .bou, the C1]Ciry of imaW" '" >ch ,hc unktred and .bou, how
'he " 'implc." ,he "wcol<c:. bre,h'en ,. migh, be: .lip into in.ppropriate bdid in
.n rondun tI>W>. d im.W".
The"""", is diffi:'cn' , To be: ,Uf<, Jon ... nd Dunl\"1 ""f< app>Ued .. o..udi ... , in.i" ...., ,h .. inuW" of ,he uun;I
and hold pu. up '0 """k,,,y. " . jon'" .. ,.. ,h .. CIa...!; .. ,', fuI~ ' '''e" ""'" ,.in.
,C'Il by Ar;'ni,", ""h",11 n"~ ...... n .It.. Jonas haJ adop.ion;"", jt\ mind . nd, if
so, ,hi, m.y .. pbin hi, <if".. '" """";OIC Choo,u, ",i,h hi. C\J<,n''J'n,." Fdu.
of Urgd.lll But bo,h "f ,h ... ",,, ho ....,><1 ",he.. '00 ...... ". far bcy.,, ,,d
i. n and Ch';"'oIogiCliargumcn" ,n ,ltci' <l<f<ncc of ,II< c...,.., The 0""" " .. If,
,be ohu",h', .,iu"'ph.I .. antl.>td. is 'ruly holy, It tlcocr. .. . n "ado,.,ion"
rouW be: I"'id wi.1t >' io"" .ign' of tnflCnCC, The cui, of 'he '''''" .... gtowi"l;
in ,ignifiullC< ,igh, ""roo> ,h. Carolingian I"=,ioo, B)'
nimh crnm l)'. ,h.
majn' limrg;Cli ccle-bro.ioon, <k<\iC1.cd ." .b. e..... ' .b. Im"/;" Cnui,
("by)), the &.ou~,;" CnuV (Scp,.rnbe. '4). and ,h. AUral'" CnuV (Good
F,iJ.y).'" Dqtie,iom of ,II< CluciG,ion weI< growing in f""lucncy and
ironogr.r.ph~ of ,he findi ng of.he Ttue C .... , took ,tupe in ,he )'tl. . . tuun.d
800. '" Church dedicllio", '0 ,h,o S.. io, or ,h. c",," prolifera,ed ., d,d ,h,i"..
l""'.... ing ~Iics of ,h. True Croso. H. 0.. Good Friday . pbin,...,.,..\en
pr<n'C'Il '" ,II< f.ithful fu, . ctS of "",erenee. "",. lIy '''''''hing 0, ki"ing. In
hi, Li~ OjfoiIJi,. Amm,;"" of Met< >OY'. " let no 0<1. be in .n)' doulM II""
,he furm of ,he eros. i. '0 b.: wonJ,ipcd." and a bi, lo'er h... y>. "We should
PIO<""'. oul><l,... bc/O , he <10"" " ' " Am.lor ;01", ",h,,,,, a oro,y which II< rook
from IIcJe ,n ,,hi.ch K, ng Oswald ."",,1 . c,..,.. I>o:fu,., ,," .. I nd .hen knel,
I.. r"", i, "';,h . 11 hi. men'" Am;ol" oJ", "Y' , h" " ,II ,he ",,,,Ld .,Ju,.", ,hi> holy
CfOI,S ,hrough whi.ch if WU .ede<rncd."'" Some confirmation fu, 'his ' .... m.nt
.h.
.""'''s
,Iu,
'1',;,.,,,,,.
,ha,
..",. .It,...
,It.
,It.
c..,.. ....
\I'
An.nd ~mm'
comes from th. nobkwom,n DhlJ()(b, l'IiI" C()rnp<<d,n :odvic< truln~:ol 10. 1><.
>on Willi,m b<twttn '4, . n.! 8'13.
p.<><rihing 10, him a "'mi_mo""'ti,
romin. of P",),,,n I>t: ",id ""fo", hed. i""".Jre -"')~, "Wh,n YOII luv< done,1I
th;"
on)'Ol" fom-h.taJ .oJ ov<' )'QU' l>N ,h ign of th. c..... of him by
~ ",ed .. ,nd -"'y " <1,< .. me ,i"", , 1.J..,t. you< em", my
whom )'OU
lo<d. ar>J I beliC'o1: in you. hoi) ,c>u'l<'CIi"n. 11.1')' Y"~' holy
be with me.
YUill OIU;' ,h,
, I.. , 1 h.v< .Iw.,.. 1",-.<1 .."0: I co rne r... know i,. ,,,d .Iu,
I ,1""}"1 .do",."''' '
In mon, def'cnding <he ,ro" .ffirrned n"..1 [i><ologicorl [.>ching> and Ii
tu,gial pncti<o. Oung.>1an.! Jon .. both >.>I< CI .. l<li,,, how he CO n "kh"'l< tto<:
liturgy if hc .bhuts the cross.
he rna"" thc .ign uf tho ero" O,'C ' tt..
dom.nl> .. [he ron..., .... "'" in ,he rn ...! Docs he m.k. [h.
of tl>< in
h>.pti'm, con6nrurtion . ,nd hboingo? " If I luv< ra.d [h. 1<>" mndy. ,h.cy
..II m. tlu[ [h. C.roIingj'" 'mho" ..'" rnOKh Itl(>f, .. . uk. in defending ,h.
cui, of ,h. eros< ,h, n in ~,I"ing p~i<<> .""ne<,ed ... i,h i""g<::!.
fi,"'lIy. tho ,uthon I have ken rorui<kring .<Iruggll mightily with b n
g""8<. A[ [he ""no:p.""II .... I. ,hey 11,><1,,,[000 ,h... rue >d",."ion ..... .......d '0
Cud alone ",ilile "' .... fu,m' of ulor.rtK::rn migh[ be paid to p/l}"1ical. nunuf>c_
turn! objrn_ .nd '" tel;"" as wel l, h ut th<~ ... <re OOt ""'nwf~cl;t, Thwdulf .....
hirn.df """"<ned with I.ngu>g. but hi. Jius<ion did not lead him to .." bli.h
",Iniv< form. of _"hip wi[h [h. I""' ihk " ":'l',ion of '" _t~r_ h,lias,
for n,n'pl,. The ninrh...""ml)' ,u,h",.. , imply do nor . dJ """ """><.,,,,1 oI:ri" (. I, hough Jon .. does.,k Cl> ttdi " " th.,otially, if hc ki<><s the C .... pd
M,.,
m.""
."r:'" ..
w,..
"IV'
o.x.
"IV'
t..,k)' I'
In tho ninth a ntul)' on< ~~[ho, .ft ,noth .ng:r.ged in I.. ioogr.rj>hicol
.UI<;";' f~$l on th .... ri,,", words f.,. worship. a.lldill" fo, .,..n,pk. ..y<.
'" To "",,,.. ~",,) i. '0 p",i><, v<n<" "<. u k bc><.:ch. i "'J>~''' ' i..""c, tu offi:r
p'~ To _<>hip (roln.) i, f<> proc.d ,long [he righ[ path (p",",,"m, [0 b<
. tntiv<. to ]><tfurm.n office:. to do t<f'<'tedly. to rn'CI.n, to 10... [(' che.ish ."'" !r migh[ '1"1'<"" <lU[ CL. uJi", i, [tying 'v J",w II...,ful Ji"inc[i,)n
b<~n [h ... <w<, _"". Give" ,he f",gm.",,'Y ",t< of ~i, t.... i" i, i,. ];nl,
d ifFiculr '0 d.. ..."' in. iu" "'~" I>< hod ,,' ,nind . It ",,,,,IJ b< "m<mb<t<d tlut
he ,..,...,...,J .11 fO. m, of .Jo.:" i,,<1 10, (;0,( . 1""., Motrov<: . rignt I>t:fo he
offen th ... de~nition' h. uitici", [h. p ,oeti"", he diKOv<rn! in TII,in ,nd U",,"
cow"nt. With [he <>"'ption of W,I. hfrid'. UWIl",. ,II [he 1<X" I Iu,'< ke"
""",idering d",w upon [h. op<ning of ,he "n,h boo&:. of Aug""in Ci?, ~f
<>'oJ to m. kc tho point thn Lotin docs n<>< Iu"" 'ing!< _I for odor... ion. '"
Sum. ,mho," point out t n.. ""'" COn m<. n " (0 ....... hip: but . 1", '"to i.lubit'"
or "to 'ill.'" '" Ado..."ion con be [h. cuI< !'lid [0 Cod or i[ e>n hr: fO,m
...f scfVicc trnru.<) 0' t1"',;ng lui"",,;,,). ""';"us biblial p.....g... oom..,ima
, ccomp>.niro by p. rri"ic iarp,..... 'ioa . ,." <i,cd '0 ,ho ...
ror eumple. in
""""'ing" D'i<!, Nuh.n ~,I him humbly . nd rup<fully.'" The radcr
of ,h..., ,,,,ncr.." is d"' ... n to 00< in=p>.ble condu,,",n : \1(',,,,1, n.,.. "ml, iple
mc.nr,,!;>. ""n be usN .Im.... t m tch.nge.blr. bu. ;llOuld neve, I.>tl t" roI,fu.oon .bo." the f",>damen",l point., Us.... IN, poin, is .n., (".od i, owed one
fo,m of .dor:ot"'n and an otnc, I',,,,,,n. , nd thingo Of. owed different kind. of
.d"""ion. vc"""""'n. tp1. ,nd honor. ThcoJ"lf was ..... in thot tdies coukl
be ".dorl." .Ibei, not like (".od, hu, he was aml>igl'O<I.' .bo", ,he cross. In ,Ir<
ainth c<ntury .... ,il1--.pan from a . udi"" ,nd Agob...l_ ....... tc cen..in thot
.. lies. ,he cross nd im.g.. '00. could Ir< .d",ed." Th i, wu new in the Corol.
inS"" "",,'d.
,ha,.
The An< and Art Talk in ,he Eady Nimh Ccnrury

~'ltat kind. of.n did eli ... rilttO ... ev<ty day! Wt.. , kind. of.n did the
'.impl" _~ A~"".bli;hi ng the .i....1con,,,,, I ,n.Il '0'" '0 wn.r ,he nimh_
century wti" "'r abou, ,rt. to "'hat J h.ve been ailing . n talk: '
'0
Anyoo< ...ho h....en , "",...1""I.... in .. ncr with C.,olingian on ... ill bt .bl.
c..Il to m,nd gu'geu"" al'''''''''il'' ill,,,ni, .. ti,," . For mony p>pl . C"oIingi>n
l"'in'ing m,,.n' the imaga tn., wt .. painted into book . "n.. dcliglnflll "n,.,.
d"""i,.., C..uk":"''' P4i",i"l hy Fl"",n,in< M ~,h.rich .ad J<>xhirn G .. hclc
P' <:Sents fony...,igh, mumin.. io", from kw<r ,n." n.Jf .. many man ~",.iprs.
Thltt poinrs. ~t Ie.. t, .." I"" in this "PPruad, ", Carolingi.n , .... p"",k in
Corolingi. n Europe we ... killed metalworke ... ivory ....It.... . nd """';')n,lIy
..on. sculp'o.... No, . 11 ~n ..." painting. Wh(IC p.inting i, conCCfllcd. th.,.
~. I", m" .. of i, on chuKh .... 11, ,hon ,h<le nc, w
., in boolc.s. " Ilook.Il
...., per1O... P"V"". even ;n, im." e. Ir i, P""'I' hard to 'naoct ,he di<ru.<sioM
" .. h.ve been n.,ing ia ,hi, book with ,hc i~ tn.. were p>.intl into Corol.
iag .. n m. nuocripr>. Walll"'inting<. oa,he oontr>ty. w < I"'blic, visible to . 11.
Tbctcfore. m"" of 'he an .. Ik "'hich wt h.ve .nCOltn,."'" m. kcs ,he m"" ....'"
... hea ",ance,ed with ..... 11 paia,ing< 0' wi,h m"",ic'.
Untt,nu>utdy. n", much .... 11 pain,ing .u,,i..... Or. '" 1"" ,hi , li"k
J ifferently. the wall p>in,ins ,n., d ..... "'IVivc is hur po<>r hia, of the .lmo
,ha,
unimagin.ble "i,u,1 ,ichn ....

confron,l ,00.. who .nnod C.mlingi,n
church.. and p.I""". lis &mI' , ..,hol...s Wolfgang Braunfd. onc< ;aid ,hoc
'he C.rolingi.n. would luve rcg>,ded.., un~n;, hcd .n, church who,. ime";",
w." no' plin,l, indrd juS!
"'holly p. iml. '" A gr ... Guolingi. n
""'01 ... H .. b, nw M.urns. ,ook f'olimcd w.J1> in ch,ch<! for gnon'cd." r0 ,I>c
811.,. No,k.... ,~. S.. mm<,<I. in hi, 1:wJJ 4Ch..Jn tit.- G""t, " M,k <.!cc"..,.l
church.. fo, gran'l '00: "If ,h... wrn: ,ny churches belonging '0 dl<' roy.1
demene ,lut h.d to be dcco,..tcd with f'olr'l<lcd ilin~ "r ""II p.iotings Iocol
bim"l" ",d
looked .fm thi . " " Much of the ",,,'i.ing p.i",ing ex;'"
in wh .. wct< once mon. >tic churcha. Thi. ,"ident doc> nOO m.. n that only
mon k, '" nun,
,hos< P'intings. Mony ",,,n.utic h..,ilieu = "",,,><\>,,,,1
the "",;hip of g<><>d_,iuJ IU'r(Kr...ding p"pul..,ion,. SU[ the . Im",[ in<llp, ....
ihly heaUl iful f""""", in S,nl> M ..i. fmi, I'on.., in ~I<Is"I"i" 're cloqu<m
reminden of [h. ki...d. of piau,.. ,h" on<:< graced ,I>< ""II, of on. church
.Ii... ""[h.. ... And ,I>< ,h,.., "II
of p. i",;ngs th .. Nn ,tgh, d",,'o
both ,ides of [he n.Y< in S" John of MUs .. ir ....=1 [he I<m '0 "'hi,h tl><
eigh[h . or nin'hnmry v;,imr 10 Camlingi,n ohmch " ... ,,"mu nJc,J by
p;"", ..... ' " The m.in. uf C."di"gi. n w.1I ""i", i"S' to ",dl di"rib<ucd gooS'.phKalIy: S,. -~<mlin d .... w;cnt is hanc,', chid" rtp,<>cntl!"": ~",uIlY
offe .. S'.M"",;min in Tti ... G.otvcy. 1.0..<1,. P>derOO.rn. A:ochen. St.inb:o<h. Sf.
Em m<f'Om in Reg<ruburg', ,he T)"Iol prac .... s'n Benedelfo 1'0 11 M.11e. .nd
St. John of MUstoir. wi[hoUl " .. n m<o,ioning Rnm< Of mOle "'~[h<rI) .......
luly off.... C2s< .",1 S"" S.. im ,,'
Mil.n, 5.an Sal.. tore . nd S.n" G iul;, in B,ae;., S.n P,orolo in N"urno . nd
s,n .. M",i. in V. U. (," Tcmpi<t[o ungoharJo"J Civir;L.1e. In .11 ,h= places
",h.. rtl1L1ino temp" ill to im.gine wh .. W:I'!! once [here, NO! ""oy C>roIi ngi,n
buildings.re "iii ".nding. [he imp,,,,,",.io. of Ro""ncsqu< .nd Go,hic h.. ing
knodccJ them d""'n 0' built right "'.. , 'h<m, Somim<>, w< n.,.. lit,,..ry
l(mfC<1 tha, .. Men u, with [heir ..... <larion. of ",har "'.... ill n<vcr soc. On.
'h inlu of ErmolJu. Nigdlu" ron",)",1 of [he Ken., in [he church . nd P'I1<e
"I"sdhdm '-" 0' of ,I .. "ym.r'm . .."'''' ';'Nlj
once "",,mP'ni<p"'"II)' m""' .... WC'" v;'ibl. ", peopl. in
Carolingi. n Eutopc. One thinks of S,ntAmbtogio in Mil ",. ",hi,h deligh" u>
.. ill. o. of the chu.. h of La D.urade in Toulou<c. "t.o>< fifihl.ix[h--<entury
mo ..... are now known onl~ from ..duou> plo"'[Oon of. k .. than ..[i.f.Clory
><,'on,,,,,nf"-.'\! ury Jeocril',ion .' ..
The Camli"Si," elite. lor ... ,1 dical .like, hoJ '""'" ", pier ...., .11 the
time. rn . 11",", of medi. in m.ny Ioc.'io .... The f.mou, "'T... ilo Ctwiu."
.boo,
.bbo"
"w
resi"'"
,Iu,
prob>bly oon"cd by ,!.e . mbi,i"", duh of s..... ria <0 J(retn<mO""c<. fdlo u,
"'mnhing .bout the look of tI.otc m ""'._ wh>ch Throdulf.nd others Jio
,....cd, The beautiful ivory carving> on book~" rould have b<aJ conran_
p!;.teJ >t lei..,,,, by ,h_ who ........d the book. themselves. Would not the
,;pectacular gold<" ~rs of the LinJ.u c.:..pd .. "'y. OJ of the G..da AutcuS,
~ aplurcd mor< than On< "p' gaze Ordinary p>ple _Id Iuw: augl..
glimp><> of .uch ivory o. goId<n co>e" only wlren book, werradcd put
t!.em in lilUrpal pr<Jo:<SSion" The play of candle liglrt On Wolviniu" murful
.I,a. in Milon
h"" ,ouch! off. million >p>rkk>. b", could prople ",m;idc
,he I>nc",.'Y haY< made o u, ,he i""l!'" On. Ie' US ...y. ,he twenty-one p>n<D on
,h. (rom, n ...'or mind ,h"", on ,h ide..nd!:>.>d ' Wl .. , ..... 'Y"" . ,!.e I"" " cd
.nd the .imple. could .... ofn and <O.<ily. ""fe the wall p>inting>. Thcsc: p>int.
ings. U
can ,ell. co" da ...<11 with ,he waY' ,ru.t " ..,ises ulk . bout
.n. Th., ... ,!.e", ar<
from ,he lives of ... inlS ....y fnom ,!.e martyrdom of
St. Stephen in Au"""e or Pope Gn:gory wri.ing hi. homilies from San Brncd_
""0 Po. Th.", ""'" Old '16"""'0' "",n... fu, eurnpl. depi<'io", of I).vid in
Mu..,.i, Of. >g>in. San Ikncdeno 1'0, lb. New Tcs .. tnCn. was Iq)'''''''rcd by
an .m... '''! p'c",,,, of r.ul bo.ng Iowtrcd from t!.e woIl of I:hnu><... in San
1'""",1" 0" hauntingly ~.u'iful " ... "" ,h. "",i.;ry in c..,d Sqttio. ),Ii ..... i
1", pkStnts ... with .. pownful Ch, i" in m'jn'' In orhe, words. "" can ....
,h. iiI.dr of pi""," ,h" ,hO)' .. Iked .boof_Th,,, "'" k" "", th .. ,h.i, di""' ...."n.
wt"" not .bo,""'t or a<a<kmic.. Libi. J><Opk in Ca,oling;... Emo!",
e"""" .nJ ""eifiX<>, to jrulge from the ",Io,i." prominence of the obju in
,h. 'r<amry 10", publi>h! by /\cmh.rd 8i""hoff." h i> "",U .., kttp ,hi. in
",iod in liglr, of ,h. promin.nce of ,he <1"0$' in ,h. i=g< "'"'' dioctWcd.bove
",II
f., .. "'"
=""
"'w
AN 7;'/1
t:vc..,.
.bou.
Vinwlly
f.mili .. . ~um.n,
an th., h.. bc<:n p..::ntcd in ,,"rli
eh.p' ... ,ceu" in ,!.e ninth""'n,u..,. , .... ti .... 8... ",m. 'm,,,.,,ing . hif.. of
tn'plusi nd undc"unding ."..,d ,h. "'I""i,inn of old '<gUmen.,. All ,he
~k ." ,h. (""lth ""o,ury... rire" ",n,,"in,cs .~ued th.i, own aS .nd
>m<fimes let biblical ...J I"'"iie ci ... ion ~"'" the point. The .!.crotial
"'''~C> Jid not ch.nS' at 0.11 in.he ninth ""ntul)'. And ,/r.r: Carolingi.n, seem
t<> h.v< bc<:n f. mili .. with.1I the old "<gUmfn'" H en 'hfi .... brk diff<f'C'1Kn
of fmplta.i> .nd imf'l'rauion nuy !.e u k<n .. poin.ing J\<K '0 ignoran o.
mi",nd.",."Ji,'I! bu. ins,.-. d to otig;".liry . .. lvanG< . nd o>n<r"...,,,y. Shifts in
. n "Ik . r< .nalogotJ, '0 ,h"", , hif.. in 'hoology . dmowkdging ,ru., "'">< honor
....r
or ........ 'ion mig!.. b( paid '0 llUn4UfJ1."d thn !Om, n",,,;"1 thing<. c<pcci.olly ~ro<:>. might be holy.
Th. urolingi.n ,ia n><di. i, eo.-iden' ",h .... nn. would "PO<' '0 Gnd i,_
H.., is. Cblldiu, .nd Agoba.-J Ut no, pt<pat<'d '0")' th>< i, i, .Irigln '0 ha ...
",wl . n bu, wrong '0 &'(f0Y i, 0' '0 woaltip i,. 1'11< 1'.", LiMI.... ',. Jon"",'"
Oun&,-I .'''' .nd \'('.uMrid '''' pl"i,I)'. uid ,,, !Om< C>-'< ";' m.Ji. wu """,mp.nie.d by ,he 'rgumcn, ,hor
.n W>J pe,mi"'bl. fOr comn.."",..,'oOl ,rid d""" .. ,ion. In ,h. nin,h cen,u,),.
,hi, ba<ic posi'ion ""I>;m bu. undergo<> >orne wbde change>- Fo, .... mpk,
comm.mo",;o" '" r<>lIec,ion do 'P!"'" '" i""jf,cuio'" fo' im.ges. bu, i""
as ofn '""'ve'" and '"""no,'" 'r",," "" ",<II." I.m indinl to 'hink ,h., tl><
pun.uion fo. thi, change i, '0 b< tOund in ,It< h","Y .".,""''' ,h., ,,.. n;n,h.
",u!), m occoru 10 d,e cult of the .. in ... a,1t! to .. indy in' ...... "'n , Agub.ru
ockn<>">l'lOOges ,ha, imoges ""'''' <fec,<d fm rommemo"''''n in olden ,imes . nd
'".IU, 'h< fuhi,," nf ,he g<nrib'" bm I""... ,h. imp=,mn ,h" I>< n" longe'
,hinb 'h<)l .'" ....."...!)' now. '" Only J<>""-' ..d w.W.frid men,"'n <ken ... ion
. nJ ".i,b., Joes.\(> nplicidy. Th .. ;,. Jon ....,.. ,hOI ;.... ges <nh,n", ,h< '"""'<.
lin ... Ipu"*,,,wii_) of chU1~h~ "'bile WalM>fr,d loy 'M! im.ges inl:rtt
,I>< '".plendo,'" (tknos) nf chu.ch<> . nd ,ha, '"be. u!), ('fUni",,).lwuld by ""
m",ns be: """",<d ,'" I wooo.r if ,h.", h.J betn >0 much rorue"""ion .nd
'" decoutio,," ",nee: th< 7800 .rid 7~ ,h .. b,.,
simply took fOr sr.ntod
wI., 'Th>dulf wi>b<d auti,,~<.Ir to .u,h",i..,?
In Ch.p' j J .,,,,,,",<d Thidulf. posi,ion on 6gu",1 .n wi,h AUg,ini
nd <halX!~,i.ro il :os ' p,iocipl<d ind i{f.. enc.-_" O"ly in ,h< I'.,i, =,i.I"
.nd ,!.on "'" in th<
prup<' p",nted '" Loui' bu, in"<ad in 'h< pro-poocd d...fr of . b, ,h.. Lou .. migh' ocnd '0 'h< pop<. did ,I old indilfe","""
rom< '0 . nirul"ion. Twi ,h. P.ri. hi.hop ... k "'fuu ha, m ,h .... w<>uld be: fO
hi'h. hope . nd cha'ity if im>ges had n<>'., a,j"od. Th<)l'''' >Iguing tlm ,he
church
,h< Chris,i.n "'n.... bu! CO" <>.i" ni",I)' "",,,hou. im. gn.'"
1,.1>' ~.d ...., 'hittLins .Ion~ ,h< !am< Ii"". when"" ..i.l
i, ough' '0
h< pos!ihl~ '" wonh ip God wi,h,,~, ph,-.ial im'ges ... lIt>,ing in " ,i,id ,h"
,I>< ninoh-cenw ry imag< """i..... y '"'p",i ,,py link aboot im.go:<. I ,,"und.,
if 'h" d",i nf ,h< . u,ho", nf th .. ,.rise! to dd'tnd 'he inr;"n "f ,h<
.,in". who .. ,letd. w"", f"'<l,ntly p.it,,<d. nd tho: .,,1, of ,1 c...... th., w",
....,rywl.-. growing In pwmin<n. induced. Cen.m rduct.ncc di.mi.. im
'11"''' u,,<r1y unn<ea>ory?
Fo, >go:> "",,i..,.. had <i<f<nJl im.S'" bec>us< Gnd h>tl <mm.nJ<d "",l<
im.ge< b< aud<. AJ'hough CLu;diu. could d;'pcnl< wi. h ,1., .rgumon,. A~
"''''m
Lib""',
...ro.
,h.l,
'0
'0
1'.,_
34~
CH APTER SEVEN
bard said that anyone who reflected on the work of Solomon would never say
tha t images are strictly prohibited. Bur he does say that in former times people
made images in hono r of foreign Gods, implying that they do not have to be
made any more. IH The Paris Libtllus does not cite the biblical tex ts directly but
instead defends the conduct of Moses and Solomon by means of a lengthy
quotation from Gregory II's letter to Gcrmanus.'6 Dungal is a bit like Theodulf
in arguing that the Jews were a stiff- necked people so ptone to idolatry that God
had to appease them wi th images of his own design or approval. 14] Walahfrid
argues that neither Moses nor Solomon flouted God's will-that is, the Exodus
prohibition- and also suggess that God may have commanded certain images
to be made on accou nt of the superstitions connected with other images. ".
Jonas mentions the images commanded by God but stresses that they were
erected as rype-figures. ' 9 All the ninth-century writers who defend images do
so on the grounds of old ecclesiastical traditions. 1 wonder if their tendency to
appeal to tradition, and thei r desire to get Bytantines, popes, and Claudius to
toe the line, explains why they chose to defend images within the framework of
C hristian history more than on the basis of divine commands to Moses and
Solomon?
One of the oldesr arguments on behalf of religious an was that it was
valua ble for teaching the unlettered, that in certain circumstances an was equivalent to writing. The Libdlus,''j() Jonas, 'SI Dungal, lll and Walahfrid 'Sl accepted
this argument. Although the argument was older than G regory I, he was cited
as the authoritative interpreter by everyone except Walahfrid who simply did
not cite any sources.' s-! Even Agobard acknowledged the argument but, once
again, suggested that it had mo re validity in the past. ')S Thcodulf, as we saw,
would not accept the idea that an could teach. By the middle of the ninth
cenru ry, it had become no rmal ro argue that it could do so. As I have shown ,
there was a concern that art uuly instruct and not mislead or scandalize the
"simple" or the "weaker brothers."
Late antiquiry bequeathed other arguments to the cady Middle Ages. One
of the oldest was the "referential" argument: acts of reverenced before an image
were referred ro the person represenred. The Paris Libtllus accepts this argument,
cites the famous passages from Basil along with others, and draws into the discussion Gregory II's letter ro Germanus. ' )6 Dungal seems to accept this argument though he cites a slightly ambiguous passage from Je rome and also says
that intercession comes through images. I)] T his is not exactly what Basil had in
mind. Agobard may have been implicitly rejecting this argumem when he said
that " no other mediator is needed between God and man except the One who
is God and man." I)S It seems to me that nint h-century authors come much
An Jnd Argumem
J43
closer to the "referential" argumen t when they talk about the cross, or about
relics. There was also the argument about emotions. The Paris Libriius and
Dungal cite the famous passage from Gregory of Nyssa, and in his appendix of
addi tional teus Dungal adds a passage in which Augustine says that images may
induce compunction.lS'! By means of the neoplatonic nadition or else directly
through Pseudo-Dionysius, writers had argued tha t images could elevate the
mind , could use the visible to achieve some access to the invisible. T he Paris
Librllus ci tes (Pseudo-) Dionysius on this point, but no other ninth-century
image text does so. ".0 Agobard insisted sharply that visible things arc harmful to
the perception of invisible things. 161 By the time of John of Damascus, another
thread in the ancient argumentation had gained slrength: the argument from
incarnation. The Librllus adopts th is argument by citing Gregory II to Germanus and Germanus to John of Synada. '61 Theodulf expended some effort
<jualirying or refuting each of these arguments. His ninth-century successors
were in at least some cases fam iliar with these arguments but simply left them
on one side. In so far as they were rooted in the tradition, these arguments
ought to have been attractive. BUI they we re not. There continued to be a basic
conservatism in how Carolingian write rs we re prepared to ralk about images.
Finally, I come to one of the issues that had been contentious since al least
the rise of the icon, namely the ontology of images. All of the au thors and lexts
we have been considering agree Ihat images are material, are manuforra, are
"senseless things." All agree tha t senseless things cannot be wors hiped as God is
worshiped. All agree that nmhing di vine inheres in any image. In gent'ral there
is agreement Ihat images have value only in respect of what or whom they
represent. Beyond this point, consensus becomes shaky. Einhard says "without
doubt the cross is holy" but Agobard rejects the notion thaI any material thing
eilher is holy or can provide access to the holy. Writers sometimes speak of
" holy images" or " holy pictures" but always do so in such a way as ro make
dear that they are referring ro the figures in the pictures and nOt to the pictures
themselves. Ninth-century Carolingian writers uphold the traditional Frankish
insistence that the way-of-being of images is neve r intrinsically holy as some
Byz.antine writers occasionally insisted. But the language of these writers is
broader than Theodulf's and imp recise enough to earn rebu kes from Agobard.
D id any image in the Frankish world do anything? I know of only rwo cases.
I already introduced Mauf3 who daily prostrated herself before three images in
the church of the H oly Apostles in Troyes. Prudentius as ked her again and again
about her experiences and she was reluctant to reply. Finally, she said that she
had heard the baby Jesus cry, the crucified Jesus groan, and the majestic Jesus
roar. Moreover, the C hrist in Majesty handed he r a golden scepte r. lhl It is hard
'" know if ,h ... """"rr~"ca "'e<~ ";"g,,b, 0' """,,,ed, Ko "n, et.. ..,.m, '0
0' he.. d wn.[ M,u", did. II i, no' d"", fr<)m ,h at whether~.
"'-... "",,,.lly I>',n&" ~isi"n
.n >ClUalo",rience. II _m. 00" fin.lly,
th .. PrudcntiWl [dh [h. ''''ry II> bu[[<= hi. ".... tn.[ M.u.. da.crved to be
cOIl ,MI."", ...ino. The .Itrond Cik ",n,;ns ,,,.n old .nd """,n 'pse ;nlOS" in
,he ch "rch ofG",edon.> n,,,, Como [n., gim>'ed fo.- "'" days in 8.}. The inugt
of M,ry .nd.l<>.......... m.donn.>, pcrlups. rcgin_",,;'h ,he M~ offering
gin.. The M,gi did not glow, Tk SlOry is ..bred in ,he fWpl Franltish
.mid Iu[ of 1"''''''''' 'M"1'1>< .""dcr i. "." told [I>< ""'I fo, [he "ory, No
a pb"".i"" is offcfed. "bu'"
as wdl as ,I>< Ofl< ftom C""edona. t<
mini ...", of [he OIl'" ,""",un,.. ed ",,<lie, from fU'l'enna . nd F",nki.h c..ul.
Th"l' '0< 01""", . ~,,<_,im .,...,,,, ... id, "~''':c.J." .. . "d om ",,,U!ucrrces,
No mi",de<.rc . <ooc;.,.J "";,h ci,h" image.lt<>ry bu, Jon .. and Dungal g<> on
.. kngth wi,h ..:roun" of mi",cln wrough'" ,he .h[incs of ..in .. ..,J m>fryr>
.. HI hy ,h~ eros>. CI.. ,ly, wh.,.....,.o". n,.keo ofTroycs .nd G.. vecIoru.. im.S'"
.rc diff.",,,, ,h.n relia.nd C~,
n.~...,,,
"".1 ,10'
w>,
An"""
"s<.
Timli
Ti"'/i, ,h. in"'rip,i"n" . 1""", .I"",ys in
ro"";',," p.<1i.III..ly intrisuing fo,m
~.
'hot """",p>nied m ... y im>g<S.
cJ an
,.Ik . &iuipping pic'u .... "";[h

in .. ,ip,ion. to idcn'ify. npl.in. 0' i""'Pre, ,""i. ""n,e"" and me,mi,,!\ Iud.
hinory ,,, hing fot boclr in'o . ",iq"iry.''' r.uli",,, of Nola ... " ....... in Ch'p'er t, disr;u>Ol [h. tiuJi o~r the p""ur" . t Nob.nd <aid tn.t thry would
"a.it. ,h. ",,,ia." I'.ulinu .... umed , n.[ ,b. rou",.,.. folk would ",<>d ov<r
,,, ."b o,h.. ,~c ,ul.i" p>'ntc<l."'" Crrgory ofT"" .. ,dt. cJ ..... " wOO was
inspired ' 0 lea ... '0 fud by 1i",6' ...,.;.,cd with pictutr:! iB CI.nMn<. " . In ,he
,,,,,,Ifll, ctmury Ahhut Sug<r uf SI._D<ni "",01 ,n., wi,hou, lil.!i ,I>< ..,mpl<-<_
ity of pietu .... W<)Uld be diffi.ult for ordin,ry 1""'Pk to unde"" nd.'''' There
...... <XIn.,,,,n, vi", of ,he .... "'n..I. for ti,~"..,J Iong_,,,nding ocn .. [n.,
pietU[e> rcgubfly Irad them. Ti,.1i mi&h' ' pp<>r in conn'lion wi,h f[con
and mosaics. or wj,h im>gn in books., <K OIl >l ...., vessels. ivori .... nd <"en
~Io,bs. I sh.U
mysdf!r ..e 10 rom"""t> "" Ca,-ol;"gi." 1;1"", ,I,., 1"'.. incd '0 f<con ,nJ ....,.,ics hcc:r"", [h ... ",,1"< [he m",,[ visible, puhlic .n,
of ,he C. rolingi.n ""OIld.
From th. Carolingi.n period. Ii""; ",,,,i from Cologne. Fukb. Sf. G,II,
S,._Riq~i .... nd 'Il'.i ... nburg. ,.. Som"ima "" know ,I>< n.m<> of ,I>< I"""
who composed ,I><m, Th.: """ m.jo";.,. of ",,,,i"ing Ii"," at, .. un, ""Iy be-
,,",,fi,,,,
.!.a,
aUI< "'","""e w'o ,hem down. Ir i .,fe.o 1'

only, .iny f",,,ion of
C>ml;ngi." ,i,wI; '~n';"', .. i, &><l , "')'
rhe '''I''Ii''ing 'h/i ",mind", "S1;n
.nd >fI"i n of work. of.n th.,.re I"'t fo ...... r. It i. onl) .light romp<n'"'t",n Ih ..
few ,ilwli > sullici.ntl~ d.uikd to pennit im. girurti.-c tOMtruction. of the
... "ish! ironogr.rph>."
A fow ''-'wli b~ r . ul the Dcutm. Aleuin . nd Angilbctt ,ul"iv. from the
reign of Clurkm.gn<. Th.,. W'''e prep. red '0 "company. '''p1ivdy . Los,
Judgm<n, . Gen";,, ey,:I<. .nd individ",,1 "",nes of ,It< Annunci .. ion. ,he N.
,i,ity. ,he !'... ion. ,,>nw Mouru, lei, behind >I I"" fuur ,;",Ii p<,uining to I"'rt ... ,..1 of
... in", ,o.n Aoccn,ion .nd p<,h,1" Pen,,,,,,,,,. 'nd '0 IW<} im.ge. of Ch,i,,'"
The
of ,hese W>.\ pl><l in ,he.pse of ,he chu,ch ofS,. I'e, in f"lda. Ti>e
<>thel> .'" rno", difficult 10 """"iol< ..-ith p.rti,ub., places. w .l.hfrid St...bo
composed. ,i",I", .. S,. G.II fot. ch:orming iCCll< of the .. in t feeding In<>d to
> 1><.. who ,hen ..rvaI him '" Horu. of Lyon composed <w<> ,i,.1i fo, '1""
m""aa. The s<cond of ,ht. in ten ), .... m<l. dnc,ibc. in &:"il. rompl ..
rnos.oi, k..tuling.n enth ron<d Chri........ ngeJi" ,)"mbol ... ,I>< .po>tk>. the rivOf>
of ",<><Ii.., Je",,,,lem , .n<! I"'"ihl)' john Ihe lI'p,i". Sed"li, ..
e",><ed
In, > ~, l lery 0' .."edumbe, of",,, .. lind ,j'wli . n.... uot;n~ ,,, t"",,my h"".m ....
,h"
Ii",
Scm,,,,
for righ'<t:n New Tnument occn<> beginning .. ith ,he .ngel" W"'r>n '"
ueh.ry. '" He .1", l'fC"p>,ed for Archbishop Gunt"", of CoIotnc (850-6<;0) 6,..
,;""i Cbn.;";n~ off"",t~" h"",.,,<:<>, at~.ycd !"'J- J'!'! , AI'I""'''tl, the ,i'w/;
dr:sr:";h! one very Cbmpl<x ..,."" induding cl><rubs, .n en,hroncd Ch,i", tvan
gel;', .yrnools, ,he ,ive" of I',,,.tdise, .nd ,he .poosrles... AI, S"'l{jqu"" , >tries
of pons. """,;1011 Mico. Frcd;lI"rd. , nJ Odulf. composed num<rou' ,;",Ii. Some
occompanied ,,,,,ili,ion SC<II<> Of im.ag<'> of Ch,i" in m.~ry_ One ... , 100',
.... ', p"""y<d ""en" in ,he Gorden of Eden; Adam ..,;ng ,he forbidden f",it;
A<bm .nd Eve "",""';ug ,heir gen;.. is wi,h I.,,,,,,: Ad.", .nd E", being <>Ip<lIed
fro m ,h. gorden: Eve being ""'p,ed hy ,h. serpen!. Then ,here i ..,."" of
Daniel in ,I>< lion'. den ..., T he n>on .."'~' of SIS. r .00 r.ul in Ws<nhmg
h.J <on ,;,~Ii in ...-wu....... ~"'n. whkh '1'1"'"" to, be co,rup,;n ,he ,"I"Iiving
-=ion . "fh.,.. hogon wi,h occn .. fmm ,he I'""ion ofeh,.;" .nd mo,'oo on '0
"""m<nlS in ,he 1""',. Rr;sur",,;rion Clre", of 1'",,,,' " S,.,G. II. nn.n),. p....... IS
... poci.llr in!<Sting.let of ';rw/i. Fir of .11. ,h.crr i cycl< of .ighty..-igh,
ho.>m<tco t""t pert:ained to forrylOur N ...... T.... m.n' """",. They h<g.:rn wi,h
"Va ... fo, ,he P,in,ing of ,he Gospel" TIl'.nry h,,,,.m...1> ",ached '0 re"
""nco from the ch;ldOOod of Ch,i", l"hcsc COfIciuded with "H< Ends ,h.
Inf..ncy of Ch,;', ."" Ikfol< ,I>< na, forry, #",1., "",d 'Th... V<1'''' on ,I><
Righ, W.II of ,he Choi" ThOll< V...... on ,he Rigb, Wall" ,he N,,,,,," The
of Christ', ief~ocy ...e "Thcsc" while 'Th/),.. pen.ieed ", ony "''''''
COIln"",cd ". ,wenoy imog... 'ille b " ...., concludes wi,h "Up '0 He'" On ,he
MifUks ofChri" On the
Wall." O n the """' an wall (p ..... nubly i",ide
.nd nor ou"idc) ,he", we",
rit!Ji, or fOur "" ...... "",,,ining '" a Luc J~dg
,n."t, with, once: og;tin, dirl;"n" " Thcoc in th.c We ..." Front ie 'he Sp..:.c
Which i, Above ,h. Throne_" The ,'e""" he", =<I,
><en<ol
Riv.,
'wo
Th.c h.on> ... ,,,,,d which '<>c;od 'he rigl,t> of <1<..10,

The cmso doi .... in ,he Io.. vens, ,nd Ii", pr=d .. ,he do\,ds,
Re hok~
!\nothc. di."",""" full"""" "These Bm.. th tt.<- Th"",. Bct-cn He"'en .nd
Holt " The ....... he =<I,
He Ii"" the gocan:st saint> with Ch,i" the Judge,
1;' i""ify the pio". ,"d d.m" ,he w;.:ked to the .by>..
On. fi".1 dirl;"n ",.. I, "Tho: P.... io .. of the lord o n the Lori l;(',11 of the
N ...... " It i. folkowod by ,en <w<>-line ,;.~Ii. ,,.
n.c,,; ,'er!Q affurd ICY.... I insighu into Carolingian an talk. 0 ... S. .. .
"'.... of h{>W ,he ",imple b..,hrcn" might hay< bn i..." u"ted, "",.ed, in _
'pited by ,t.. cumbi" at;on of piau..... nd ,,... ,tIs. 1 am I... conlident than
P. ulinu. 'pp'.. ndy w.. ,ha, IU.riCS co uld =d
rind; t" <me ....,'her, I:m ' I
.. n qui,. prepared '0 beli .... ,h.. ,h. di t. could have, and I'fflb.bly did ... pl'in
picmr... nd word. to ,be ',impk_" n.. y...... I:",.d. wi,h wo,tIs meaning
"to ,~.r>J ou, .. "'0 .hi, .... 'to <j>.ltklc" and "0 g1eant." Here, I th;nk. are
J",,,, md 'p!mJ",. In otllet word .. the ...,sa ."icula.. tbe Caloling"n '.,>le
of"d<e<or>.tion .' I ha ... .J,.m. .. ,ha, ni",h-c.n,,,,), ""rite,. aJded "k>.~" to ,""
,,,,clition.l O;)upkl of ucommc,,,,,,,,,ion and do~.. ion:' Thcsc ....... confirm
,hi. ~ d ;,inn . W ~ li". I'u<> in", Gu ~ , h ~"', mou,h ,hese wo,d<, "Tho: vcnCl.blc
bi'h.op Gunth .. Ofderro thesc ""on to be made fo.- the lo,'e of Chrisr, ", .. A,
S! ,. Ri'luic, . ri","', fC~. "I o,dcted thc$c itnagc:! <If Ch,;" t" be f.$b ionl <In
KCOUm of ,I.e I""" of Ch,i .. ,''" 0 ... of Angilben, ti",/i
"o..,h. dead"
thcrefOfe. the""," of Christ . i. 'iglnly be wot$h iped: l bil >co>rds pcrl',1y
with wha, ,he "ea,i ..... ~. And how migh' ouch ...""hil' h.ye bn c/fce,ed'
H "b. nu. help<, In. ,;"',., he w,o" IQ, an image of a u i he lay>. 'Bend
you, knce, y<lU who <nt." lie down . nd ado Christ I whO$< p. inted im.ge
. p.rklc. ah.o ... with <oIOf,' K,,li ng, gcnu8ce,;ng. p"",,.,, inS' The>< "'" ,!.c
kind. of bodil)' ge"urd mentioned in the t=, .....nd depied ,n inug,
,h.
,h.
'0
"')0'.
SItCh g",ur<> oon<titutcd "~ttin~" hon" ... 1'lul" Maur> only did what 'i,~1i
.dvised her ." do.
'0
On. of H ... b,mu,'. ,;",/i invited an obkrver ""nd hi' kn" before . n im.g<
ofOrri". H .. b,m ... mOS' f.moo< work. {~ Honor of,hi HoJ,
oo"ni,utcs
on< of ,h. moo, ;n";guing a.ampb of." ulk from rho <mirc MHldk Aga.
Origirully wri" cn bel"o\o"ttn SrQ md 8'4. {It JkinO' .[ "" 1101, e"", con,i, .. of
pm><"'Y m><<!;al .00 <w<n'y ... igh, figuml poem. (ed""''''' fipr~"'). Thc work
... . wfwl. i, di,idcd in'o twO book.. !look 0"" con"in, ,he rocm' On left
h. nd pag" .nd prt>IC upliru.rio", of ,he po<m<
fiprdr.",) on the
right-h.nd P"g<:>. At ,t..: roo< of ,t..: tigh, h.nd I"!ld'~ .k, 6nd<,~ ,mu.r
i~uui. Th< ore , he "'''''' , ... , Hnbom" ing<niou;ly fiued in'" rhe figur<> , ... ,
in,,,od< in,,, 'he 'P"'" of the f"II-f"t);< I"""n, un the 1eft1"",d pog<:>. BeaU,. ,he
poem. wefC difficult . nd tlKir meonin!;' 1<10 ,"'n ' ''''''pucn,. H ..... nu. pre
p>red Rook 1""'0. which i>. pro. ""pl .,..... n of exh of ,he 'wen!)o'-<igh, im,
in Book Onc. In "ldition to hi. origin,1 ropy. H",h:r.nui prep. red:1{ 1<;111 right
mOr-< down rU ,he mid-l4o.- fur . number of noubk oontcmp"""id. Thc work
""'" hi&hly ..,...,n.cd "m only;n ,he Carolingi. n p<tioo but <igh' rhrough .h<
Middle Ag. Morc th. n righty m. nuscrip" ot. ex""t ond the book .... , printed
fu. ,h. fin' ,im. in 'SO), When Ern" DOmmie"
conducting the ini,i.1
""",reh rh" led ro ,he puhlic,,;o" by ,he Monument> "f ,h. volum .. ofGrol_
ingi.n pot:'ry, he ""'" di.p.raging in ~i ...,.,mon, ofH .. ln .... wn<k. D(lmml .
r, view hdd .... y un. il f.irly rro:ntly whon H,..b"n", . nd hi, I~ Hp~qr~[lhi
HoJ, C..... bcg.>n .0 ICCci.. the ",reful . "cn.ion 'hcy .I"" y. d<S<fVed. ,., Ik.b".
nu" 01"" f.mott. won: rro:i,ed > ,,;fial cdit;"" only in '9'17.'"
hon'" .nd oddi,'" .nrnd H,..b.nu" work .. <"V<ry 'urn. On. migh' note.
fi",. ,"'r H ..... n." pfoouocd work with ",,,n,y. igh, <oH'pl .. figu.<O-<l'
"""nty.n'n. ,f on ..Jill tI,. uf"",i,,~ i ..... g< anJ poem ,Jclica.ro to Lou;, .he
Piow in the "'py Ht.tlnw prepared for him in ,he ..,Iy ~JO'.'" V., in . poem
odd' .....l ,,, Bun .... u... ' ,hot is ,,, hi> .do""hn ... H",,,, H",b. n", chided hi'
friend for being tOO otuched .o im.>p Sinc<. pictuf< ><em, rn<>f< ~in8'0
y"" ,h.n . ny o.her .n, I u k y"" no< '0 'pmo rho wml; of ""iring .. unpl ....
nt: He go<> on to ..1'
e",,,.
("""',a,i.""
w..,
Th. ,igo of writing i, wonh mOre 'hm ,h. ~mptr form of.n image
.nd <>ff... mofC beauty '0 ,h. "",I . h,n .h. f,l .. pielu with ",I.,r<.
which Joe:. no' >how ,hings currectl, . fur >Ctiprurr i,
, ~ e pe,f~,
alld
blasd norm of .. Ivation .nd is im l"'ttan< in.1I .hings . nd is of ""',.

u",." eve')">n<. It i. '",'ro mo,. quickly. is "" "': porfcc. in i.. m ... n
ing, .nd i. m'''': ... il, ppi by .h. hu"", n lI<:rna. It 1lm"C! ...... Iips..
, 00 ern, while pointing "nly "ff<.. "'''''' ",,,,,,La. ion U) .he <ye>. I.
,J,,,,,,, .h ru.h by its for m. its " tfonC. i.. m<:oning. ond i, is pl ... ing
fOr long , in ... I'.in,ing deligh ...h. go "'.... n i. i, n",,. bu....-hen i.
i. old it is .. b~.de ". it ni,h .. Wt . nd i, not. f. i,hful ,,,,n,mi,,.. "f
.h ruth. '"
H nbm ... words .nd Ktion rr not it> ",n.<><lOa;"n, as I ..... II.'1\' .. I'tcScntlr.
Fo. H,.1"",..
,h. "ld .roi."" of ,t." Itgut<d """m '0 , uoorui 'nus
to "",.-.is, indoed U) m.I words in." im.ges. lIut H ",han ... ckorly , .. nds in >
long .ndi.io" in p..a.:fting "";,;ng '0 images.
A .IC"COnJ itony. '" or .ny "'.. pu.,Je, ",n",,,,, H .. b.> n... I""i,i"" ",';,hin
his own in.dkc ...... II.oolGp<. 11... ~, h...... at CUm' .1>o<1ly .ft.. the Frank.
responded to 11 Nic>o:o ."d Th"",hllf wn" h. ap", C4ro1J. H. P''l''m:! "",em
COf'in of I~ Ho"", 0/"" Hoi] C"", . round tho 'Om. of ,t." r .ri. Culloquy. tho
bauk oY<' a . udiu> . od ,II< C.roli"ll'>" l"&,,ma<h, ""'" i",.go. Yr, f. "".",.
u.ro
0/,'" Hq/y C"", nIT.... ""' ingle h in, of poIomietl in,en, '"~ of "'"nt<:fion
to
ro.
cont.m!"'.... ry i""d , <":<''1'' in '"

OS i, , ... ili.. to ,~!;">Wing in,ensiry of
the cult o f.h< ,,,,,". '" \VIu, .h. wo.k pro"ides i, ,he """.idcted views of ..
acrp<iOfl.Jly ko. nro . nd "dl-<X>fl,l<C"ted ""''' who """ AkI,in ', grea,..' !,,'pil
.nd ,h <>ch<. of >eVenl mojor nin.h-oo:ntury figurn including W. I.hf,id
S.,..I>o, O,f,i"[ of Wci>s<nburg. H,nm ~' 01 S. Gall. Lup"-' of F.,rih",. ,nd
R"d"lf of hll<la , H .... h>o' .. """ nus. of FulJ', ..,hool . bbot of ,t." mo .... ry
(~n-41). "clob;,~op of M.in> (847- S6). conli<lan, "f Louis ,he Pious and his
",if. Jt><lith . oo (...,ofLouis".IOn
.he Germ ... h en if he d id no .......
npli.i.ly '0 ,h. comro~"i .. swirling . round him . b. a: ... inly 'I"'ke wi.h fo,ec
. nd .uthority. "
So, wh .. did h. <or' And " " y did h .. y i, ,n ,b. w>y ,h>< h. did' He
1.0,,"
,ho,
i, wh .. ''''''';'''' dt:J.-'he pr>i ... f)N,,~m. t.wILI) "f .h. holy

R;vu ....y .his is qui diff."", fU)m the imen.ions of hi! f"..,ff ",odel,
Opt.,i." ... ('","fyliu., "'1.. 0 compo..,d . ... of figum:! po<m< ." "'1..... Coo
.... n,inc. Wm""Ii~. Iktw<t:n .h. foutth ",ntuty ond the: n inth, -",,",ral othtt
. utOO" compo..,d fig um:! po<m. in ""<>or of .h. O>S., b u. non. achicwd ,he:
"'1)h'''~.~>n o. compl"y of Hrah>",,', won: , H.. b.>ou.< ..,e.! /'ou. ligu..ro
image< drpiCling Ch.i " (no. oj. ngelo (n o. 41 Lamb .00 ,h. ev>.ngdi <ymbolo
(no. ' 11 . nd, . ",.. wi,h H nb.>nw; h im.. lf Irn:ling. Of bowing profoundly.
.. ng- fot
(tQ!.I.
bcfo~
it (no. "1.81. In nd> casc tho ~ur~ i, insertN infO' lid.! of (lQCtry ,nod
""nni", within i[ .. lf funh<r po<m . <he ""'''' in"".i. Three time> (nO>. J. :6.
17) H .. b.nu, in>CtI.dm lLU.I . mi c ..... into [he lidd running from oo.dor
[0 OOr<kr. Thc<c crosoc< ron .. in '"C<><S. Thi,,= tima {n.... I_H. ' J. '7.
11.
>j. l..jl H .. b.anu, wro .imple but ekpm grom<[rie .lum. cirda and .. iongb
FOrcumple. to pick ou' ,he""",, inr,,"'. Seven <im (no". j . ... [~. [9. 10.".
1)1 ~I r:ob.nu. ingeniolUly i"",n.dlet[", im" hi, lidd and [hen in>CtI.d...."us
inltXti in", ,he kue .... Thc:k \cu", C.n be "[<:Id" t""; 'Cru.: "Ad.m," and
"Alklui.:' FOr rumple. 0,1< (no. '9) ;, . .... of chi', (,he ~rs, k" .. of Chti .. in
Grkj .... y.d in c ....... form .nd ."",he[ i 5<t of bmbd", ('ignifying "''''.
pm,.). No. " i, I"'rt;';"I"I)' dever: chi .rho. the .ymbol of Christ. with the
,,",'" intn:ti .... king , he n,ma of Chri .. , .nd ,he ,ime of o,ri .. p"",hing,
the time of judgment . nd [he reign of Afttichri ... "..
Words .nd im"S'" '''g<,hcr pr:oi", ,he c..,.. .nd Chri. _Thi, i. wh. , H .. b.a.
n,,> ..;d, ""Of.nd ""'" .pin. The
p,od.i,,,, [he p>",i"", [he mY'''')' "r
the incam>tion,.nd 'he gift of ..Ivalion. Chri" i, port .. )".d" the pcrka im>ge
of ,he f>ther, .. the one wlo<> " t" ""m' , tI" "". wh" anI< in fulfil" ..", of
the pmphcci<>, .nd ... the one who..: d <>th .nd mun<'<tion govc hummkind
tM hope of ..I,."ion . Th. <>p<ning im.ge "f Chri" i, 1'",;';"I"ly r...-etling
Ch,;'" i, pon,.,yI f",,,t>l!r ,nd n,Jte,J '1"'" fmm . Ioind",h , H,.,h>"u" im.ge
i, pm:<>ciou. in [ha" <>p[ /('[ the .Iigb tly carl;"r crucili. i"n Kenc in ,he s."",.
menu 'Y "f Gel!""" (oce ,00'-' 1', mI. ,h. had bc:.:n '10 ,uch dopie,ion, in
<>,Ii .. Camlingi>n >no ,.. Novd,y i, porh' r> ,h<- 1<..[ i[\"m[ing .. p<et of [he
i""g<, h~cr. Chri" "a,ul. ec, with hi. h.. >tI. <>t.t>tkd... if on the Cf<m,
but ,h<- i. no ero ... Morro> .. , Cbri.<[ Ix... no """,nd. on hi . homb. {t... do .
,a.
Cf"'"
.... head. w. <cc ~ ';..:n CItrin, to ",h.-, " .... n! ... 1""""yI in ,uch ""'r" '"
rcn,;"u the v'ew", "f the ,.."I" of the pmi"", n.mdr telUt.-.ction .nd .. I,.,
,ion . Chtis,', nippks .nJ n .,.1 r<VC11 <h. \c"m 0 E O. Ch,i" i, dcpiN '"
God.t>tl m... He m. kes the inc.m .. i"n vi,ibl nd r<V<>b the F.. h.. wh"",
""n bcc>me ina,n .... In ,he lidd. Chru[ i. alkd "en",or." which further
Od<mi~ <:o ,h. (;,..J_m.n wi,h God ,h<- 1:.. 1",_ In IIq"", ofli,. 1101] C"''' ,he",
fore .Jd....... ,he "'"tnl tru,h. of tho Christan f.i,h. And it ploe ,he CIOU ..
the ccn, of the f.i,h. Re'.-encc p,~1 , ,h. <t< ... i. 'rnonrm"," ,,ith ,he
worship ofChmt. Ilenee., book in 1'..... of ,he Cto<f hegins wi[h . n inugc of
CIt,;". H"b.anlU w[i[e>'
Ikhold, tn. im.gc of ,II< ..vio, by ,he posi,ion <of in memb<" "'mind,
US of ,he m",' .. I>ilic .wect . nd bd",-.d FOrm of [he holy cro [lut
,,-!to bel iCVf in hi, tumc .nd oi><y his ""mmondm<n" might ,h""gh
w.
350
CHA PT ER SEVEN
his passion have hope of eternal life; that, each time we gaze upon the
cross, we might be mindful of him who suffered on it for us so that he
could seize us from [he power of da rkness-"swallowing down death
that we might he made heirs of eternal life" (I Peter }.22). He went to
heaven where the angels, powers, and vinues are subject to him, that
we might thi nk again and again that we are not redeemed by perishable
silver and gold ... bur by his precious blood. 190
What H rabanus says does not tell us why he said It In verse, or why his
wo rds surround and enclose images. Hrabanus was an accomplished poet. That
he wrote in verse is nor in itself surprising. Once he chose to create figured
poems, obviously. verse had to be his medium. Behind his verses Hand a rich
assemblage of biblical and parristic sources. But this is true as well of his other,
volumino us writings. What Hrahanus seems to have been doing, among other
things, was recuperating the late antique heritage of religious poetry on biblical
and patristic themes. Behind him stood Paulinus, Prudentius, Sedulius, and
Juvencus, to mention on ly a few prominent figures. 191 His contemporaries, and
he himself, labored mightily to recuperate the parristic herirage in biblical exegesis and fundamental theology. H rabanus anticipated by some years the Paris
fathers in adding poetry to the dossier of aurhoritativl." texts. He is intriguingly
like Dungal in focusing on the Christian poets.
Still, this again tells us what he did. not why. Ie is true that Hrabanus
subjugated images to wo rds.'9l But this is not the whole truth and Hrabanus
need not have created figured poems to do this. In Honor oftht Holy Cross blends
words and images more than subordinati ng one to the other. In Honor of tht
Holy Cross is fundamentally a linguistic phenomenon because of the strict connection between text and image. All the verse is there without the images, but
the images reveal to the reade r/viewe r another layer of ve rse. Hrabanus urges his
brothers to frequent reading and allenrive viewing. In the course of his work,
Hrabanus effecti vely uses vidat . ruminart , and kgat as synonyms. Hrabanus is
alen to the old debate touching on the relative value of sight among the five
senses. But he resolves the debate by conrrotling sight with wo rds and by drawing an equivalence between sign and image, between image and text. Hrabanus'
integration of figures and texts is intended 10 promote a deeper understanding
of each and of both together. Hrabanus is also alen 10 the diffe rence between
sign and image. I mage as imago, or as pictura, as he once said to H ano, raises
problems; it does not reveal things correctly; it does nor teach holy rhings. But
image as sign poims to reali[ies beyond itself, relates to words-to [he "perfect
norm"- and teaches what is true.'91
Anan<l~,
'"
Lik< hi. w"tcm!",,,ria, bu( "",ike (he ge"e,,(ioon o( hi, mas,ers, li"lr.mu,
affirmc<l ,1.< ".1"" .nd l<$itim.cy o( im~g<' fur mort tbon <kcor.. ion .nd COm
mem" .. t;"n . T1>cy ,,,,,lIy,,,n 'ooch. h", ",nno' do .., if C'" off from word.,
Hnbo nu. i. 01.,,,,, "" ,hi.
hi, m",o "'I"',..i... Hnb,nu. ",for> to m.m",y
.00 """11",,,;"n ~OO eommemo,",io" m ony ,imes but n<vcr. [bdOcv.:. in uniotr
wi,h iu old m.., "<ka;o""ion," Unlik< T hrodulf. lh.. b."u. hdi<wd "n. p. ni<ul., kiOO of ""'~ufa('" """ holy-. the <Tm> , This i<. vic... he "',..ed ... ith 0'00
membe" ofhi. 8Or>e""Mm , Th< <m df"",ed ,1.< mY'''''Y .nd mi",ck ofhum.:on
.. I"",wn. but ("''''''' work no wonders in this world . N" On< dk...., .. ing<'nHlus as H r.ili.n us in showing how
.nd inug<> migh[ ",,,,k [og",her, or
how Ofl< migh[ ac>p< ,he old uruggl< fO pix< one 1><10.. ,he ",h." y", liko
,I.,,,
worm
=')''"< d ... H ..,b.~u' did flO' 1''''1''''' ";~glo. ')"!<m",,, ..... Ix,',')". For
him oct> of ,ocwing. rto<ling . nd medi'a,ing'f< . 1", :rru of "''''''''ting. odori ng.
o.oJ wurn.ipinlS- Like Einb.N. he "It:S
0"' ... as ')'flonym., For Hr.
b."us. mcdi, .. ing 0" the m)~ .. 'Y of the c"",, is moving. <mOfiotr:ol. Fi""U)',
d<q> .nd pelled medi""ion o n ,he wo,ds . nd im.ges in J~ Hono, of,IN H.>I!
C"'lI c on libe",.. ,he mind from [I>< world of [h. sen .... In orhcr wo,d . I-I ",b..
""".a".r><l
.bo""
nw "Iked
.n in n,"" m)'> b~l aho joined ~ diwmt'>< ,I. .. ,,~ by hi.
nm. live nm ,i.. old,
Tradition. O rder.
~lld
Worship in .he Nimh Cenmry
In 'hc ill" of Ch.,km>gn< ,r.idi,ion wo.! motter of SUI'< iml"'n.ncr. o,dcr

b[i,d)' unimpo''''''' as. ",,,,I pr><figured promir>e"dy . nd wonhip
no?>tion. T.. Ji,wn """",;"ned . ",icl)' .nd p<>kmic .. ,h~ C,lIolingi.n, tried
turJ
di"""..,r .nd . nicul ... t heir pl>o< in ,he " .... m o(hi"o')', Argum<"rs
.bou, ,,,,",,j,;"n ...... id<olog;ally J.wied
p<>kmically . ninol ..ed. Or<k,
w.,
'0
nded
.r><l
to
0'
mel" ,h. righ, ord'rinsof ,he po!i'Y .nd of ,hc,hoh ... thot the
d;"-~I . nsJe . 0,.1<, m;gIo' .1
". no".., nil'" ..,....,~i~E
" .. <i,;" or< ..J .... r> "'Y ,,,
ond legi'im . .. in"'1'ming, Wonhip pl~rl. modc.<t 101. in wn"mp<>"''Y Jj ..

<u""o". h:>. ..... [I."", di"'IWio",
promp,ed in , ~. Ii", plao< by. eon.id
c"'tWn of i""'II<".<>red to KCOrd .ny
fOrm of ""'nhip to im.g<>. In [he '80 of l<>ui. ,h. rioou. [ndif;"" ..... impo!!.n,
but i" ""Y' [b., difkred ,is"ifie>.n,ly from wh .. Iud .... " 0pp<'''''''' ,n lho
mind, of hi' r.,hcr', g<n<r.uion. Thc,.. ....... . m. ni. fOr or<k, ;n Loui ... >g<.
W""~ip figured prominendy in the imogc debotD. of <OlIn<, bur .1", .ignifi.
CIndy ou"id< ou,,;dc fb.[ (..,m<wo,k,
w,..
II'
e N"'''' nvu
n.., Trw/", BoJ:. .flin-;". ,.. ,,hich fn:culf of Ldiew """pk,I in I.~ and
d<di(:,.,1 w Emprao Judnh .. I
lOt her """ 0wIa. provide In a.;;dkn
"ft
.... eni'" poo< 10 loot """ mp<ml)'Caroli .... n <oncnm about .ndi[;"". Fn:c.
uJf. ""sin,,.... ~nu-..... '" Ht _ . pupil of louis', d..ncdJoo- Helis:xIw.
wfto ~dy brougb. hlm '" ......" .... no.. of ,lot <oun. H ....-.d .. biJhop
ofUoino!Tom .'1 .... hi un.il hi> deuh on Ocwbn I in
8so or II'. In
d..
10 his Hmmn fn:ct.ulf opnb of h.mn, been "...."'ppcd up in
x-cut.. ond clc.W.oed
~,
lie Wl> ,..;..,. in I .... Louis', CllVOY to
Rom. in h ... wft.tn, ...........-d penn;""", fa< .... F.-I<> to look in",
i....".,
q,-;"". _nd p.uticipuo. i" ,lot Pm. deliloenoooru of "1 ....J in .Iot Paris
counc~ of 119. He
panicubrly in _inB .,... of. busy ...... I-ODfIncacd
man ... too _ in",,1vnI in .Iot ;.... .,... cli.<etly and .100 ift ...;.K ....., of
rim..
,,""*""""
oK,,,,, ..
m.
i,.
",he, ""...."' dtvdopn .. n...

F""",Ir. Hi'lMItt C(O .... i.u'.... impo".nt ......k .hat is only;"" bop""i",
10 "" i" d... _u "",jo. int.llectual xhiC"<m<nL '" In , ... PmIogu< kl "= ~
(coouin it>g Book. [ ' 07) F""",lf .. mind. H.I'sach ,ha,'" has bc<n ,..".king
"""1 M cbr ''''l .... <o:J hi.,,,.,. of _n<;.n. , ,,1.... 00 .... m. _Ion! "";,h ,he M.. "'Y
ofl".... I'... On. run. from ,I>< . rn.jon of.he wu,ld kl.'" "",;'ity ofCh[i".
It is iml"""ihi< '0 ..y cnc;ciy wh.n I'",<hulf fini.htd r an OtIC. App" .ndr
F""",lf rontinul """,t ins on hi. H;',"';" dapi ,h. p ..... of oth.r "'.. in...
nd .... ..,.n>t .0 ha ... pl>nncJ ,he wo rl as wholo in '''"0 p>ru. .he .....,00
,,,,,"inS frun, d l< in<,.. n.. ion to c:a. 600.
In O.<.\t, '0 unders nd F-... lr. Pu"""" it it ......... ty to besin ~I I.... .-nd
ofhi, m... iv~ ...... k. The t>:pm.', "Y'. "H(.~ cnd ,he- book. from d,. i""""..ion
0( OU[ I...,..d)<out Chri,. down ro , .... ki~. of' ..... hanks in G.ul ODd of
.... Lomh>.:d. in luJy," '" The imtmd .. ,dy prroroing <hapten [~., [he 1"""
,ificot~ of G.......,. J as dmn .... of ,.... faith, .tten,;'" aJmini
<"1nJ!"1il<"t
of Bri"';n . nd p"'lific .uthor (l . I . ... ): , .... 0><1""';"" of m. v..igoth> .0
C "hoIici>m Il. j. ll): ,he dt:cd. of Pope Bonifou Ixt...uy he """lWa Bonifxe111 .60]. and IV, 6011_ ' 1) wfto Itttt....J 0 dr..,!Tom F..mpctOt Phocu aipuLa, 'n,
,he Rttm.n ......... " the ....Id of aU mun:n.. .. and ,,'00 ,.. rned m.
P>ntftron. ,he kmpk ." 01' Ron.. . ~ g>d>. in'o m. murdo of Sr. M><y
.nd All tht .\t>ttyn It. j. "l: and. 'nally, I... .,( .he ,;,,; tatmmicol """ncil!
runnillfj from NtCI<:I. (jll) 10
,i...,p. III {68o-a,j (t. j. 17). n..... fxu
~ by 110 MtaJU .. ndort>.
Fm:ulf ",.. the Ii... lot pcrI\o!" ,... , ... oftct Ioidon:) medi ..... wrikT to
"'" th< p..... Rom.n "",rid .. ..""..hins new. Wha, k,,'od of ...... Ih,t>g _ ~
.,.,ut,
.ha,
eon.....
An .00 kpo.,.",
III
provides ><venl dues. Ir was poll-Rom. n ;mper;.I: ,he Roman. h.d been
""""lied from [uly .nd .he I", great tD"nUmen. to Rome', " ... ctolu h.d
been .".",funned. Ir was Roman. howcver. bur Rom. n <biu.ial. Grq;ory I
nurked rhe WO)' . nd ",en.he GI<"Ck> :oc lrnowledgcd .hor Rome w.u .he hcad of
.n eJ, ol"(h.... Ir w.u ("->rholie. The ftlr"'~ of rhe W..r "''-' ..fd y in rhc h,nd. of
Gr.holie F",nk>.nd l.ombmh (h n.icil"'<! li"k h.,.). ,hc Vi.i(!'>.hs hod
~.ed h.cr<!y . nd rhe Engli.h were on rhe " .. y
con~l$ion . Wh., is mOT<".
,he f.i.h i,,,,lf Iw;I hocn J.,~"i'i .. lr ddined.
Frttu(r. concluding f" me of tcfct<:n<c "kco on. bit more d. rily w!.err i.
i, .i....ro in light of rhe work .. . whole. md of thc "'"Clure of r . n Two.
Frttulflw hod . bad ~u tion .mong; ""01." who J " mi" him.,. sci ..........
nd_p te compiler .nd no. even "cry g<~'" ()ne """,,,UK he .b. ndooed the
cto"om.ry >g<H)f.rhtw()rlJ ,I< ehmnoiogiCll/compuri"ial moo.I, for ",voi.ing his m....i.l. ,.. I" fOct. h. h.d hi< " wn $Cn!C of ,he ""rch of his.ory. He
,<XCI ,he rise and 011 of ",kll. r..Jm nd cui" 'hrough p;og;on . pre.Roman
.ntiquity
.hcn through I<r..L By ju'''po.ing AJom .nd Christ .. ,he kgin
nings of r .... On< . nd Two he cre..ed " pe,fcet typolog)" fo, ."'() . gn <cntcTing
"" thc,hift from I.... '" gJact:. Dy implica.ion .he history of 1."",1 " ... ." on e,.,J
bcc:ou!C continued temple !CIVic< . fte, .he inam" "'n w:I.I pervc"ion . TIt<
Rome of Aug...."'...... impon.m only"""",,,,,, i,
,he J><>I'e .nd (>Cdc,
.hmugh ... hich Ch,;, ... ch"teh co" IJ grnw. R",,,. ;,,,,If hod "'" p;ou! .w>.y.
"""..... ,. I.... ing hchi "..! ""I)" .h. ~hu'c~ .".1 th. fi'1ln ",hOch had .uccmkd
Rom od .mbr.>C<d ,he oh'rlch. I" di",,,,. in5 Ni"u . ho 1,,!\.ndJry. op""ymoo.
founder of Nion"Ch. hc
'"he liv<:d .hou, "",I.. huodrl Y"" before the
fOunding of Rome ."",her B. b,..ron in [he WCl . ......
H~
'0
.".1
,=,<:<1
"Y'.
Frcculf"...... h. moot impo'''"' r<p<ion "f Augu" i",', c"",p''''" of

histol)' before Ouo of Frci.ing, in .he r,,".lfth cenlUry. &ginning wi,h Grin
...d Abel. Frttulf'r><r> .h. ri .. . nd roun< of.hc "rwo .i.i.H Fl<"Cuir, ' J>P""'eJ, blend, .pc:ciftc hi,toric.ll ,emu"" wi,h ,0"'"S .II.-goria1.!lmion. I.ik.
Angw.inc. but unlike ""m< ".h ""i ..",. Fm:ulf did not ide".il}< .he Ch,i"i'ni....t R<onu n [ "'pi'" .... i,h ,he City of Cod. Th< iden.ifica,ion of regime . od ""It
hod been eJ, .....,.ru,ic of "II e:lflier history. including l<nd,. In Chri"i."
lima" "" ',,<h id.,,'i~""ion w:l.lpoo.oible.'" The inam"i"n ch,"god .... ry.hing. Once l.d. Rome . nd Rome", cui .. weI< gone. only .he uniVdSaI
duteh wa< left ... m. nim .. tion of the Ci'y of God. The Ci<y ofM," hcncefonh inclu<kd only ./<w>. I"Vn .. ond h<fctic.o.""
It h.. puz:d<:d m.ny of hi,
,b.. Ff:ulf did not bring hi, ><:>Un{
do" 'n to hi' OWn .im. Somcrim. i. i. th<",ght. hc .lid n'" wi. h ""pliei .l)" '"
place thc F",nki,h empire in rhe Ci<y of Mm. Bm ,he p,ohl.m Iw botn f. I,.I)
read."
lH
C H ArTE !!; SF.VEN
put. Christian Times were achieved slowly betwttn the incarnation and the
early sevenrh century. The ninth-century Carolingians lived in those: Christian
Times. In the early fifth century Augustine could not have known how things
would rurn out. By 829 Freculf had four centuries of hindsight to guide his
vision. Freculf told Judith that he had prepared his work as a mi rror for Charles
so that he could see what 10 do and what 10 avoid.lI.IJ Obviously. the work
provided all kinds of concrete examples of excellence and depravity. But much
more than this, it provided a d ear oriem ario n to the march of all time, of all
history. Theodulfhad done much the same thing but he wrote angrily. polemically. anxiously. Freculf was a better Augustinian and he wrOte with a kind of
confidence and certainty that had been impossible to achieve some forty years
earlier. I noted a kind of serenity in the argumemation of the image texts.
Freculf. himself a participant in those controversies, exhibited a similar serenity
in locating his conremporaries in time.
Ermoldus Nigellus provides two further examples of an interest in tradition
at Louis's court. Ermoldus wrote his Song in Honor of [oun tht MOlt Chrntian
GUlar between late 826 and early 828. I noted earlier that Ermoldus made
passing reference to Claudius of Turin. H e must have been aware of the recent
disagrttment with Byzantium on the mat ter of images. Yet instead of heaping
abuse on Byzanrium Ermoldus says, " And even an organ , which Francia had
never built, whence the Greek kingdom boasted so much, and which was the
only reason, caesar, Constaminople thought itself superior to you. is now found
in the palace at Aachen. Perhaps it will be a sign that they are bending their
necks to lhe Franks that thei r particular glory has bttn taken away. Rejoice,
Francia! It is only right. Give pious thanks to Louis by whose virtue you receive
such gifts. May almighty God, creator of heaven and earth, grant that His name
will resound throughout the world for ages. "lIM There is something 10 the Story.
The Royal Franknh Annals. under the year 826, state that a man named George
arrived from Venice asserti ng that he knew how to build organs. Louis sent him
to Aachen and instructed that he be given all the materials and help he
needed. M I would draw attention to the confidence and se:reniry with which
Ermoldus claims thaI Byzamium has been passed in the march of history.
Another passage in Ermoldus, his famous description of the wall paintings
at Ingelheim, also reveals contemporary conversations about history and Hadilion.206 There has been some comroversy over whether the paimings were installed under Charlemagne or Louis. 101 For present purposc:s that issue is beside
the point because: Ermoldus described them in about 827 and i! is his words
that interest me he re. Was he descri bi ng real pai ntings? Probably. And Lawrence
Nus says carerully that Ermoldus provides "a fair guide to the fundamental
,,.ns
,h ..... , of ,h. icooognphic p""I\I'>m:'- [,mold",

with a d"""iptioo of
<I.. bihlial $Un.. in ,1>< ibce chureh. Th< lof, "",II pr<><n,e.! Old ...... mom
IICtn ...... nding from r.",di: to O.vid, Solumun , . nd ,he Temple. The tigh'
WlIIi "I'kK<l Now Tn .. me", ""nl:< (,om ,he Annunei""'n <u the Meosi" ...
While Ermold i. """',iption i, .nt<Tcing enough. thi' ,.",ngement "f pOctu.a
i, IJ'I'""I of Rom.n buil;';" and ""it he' the p,intinl\' nOf E,mold ~", words
. oou, .hem " . di"i1\CTi", . Th. oppo>ilC i, ,rue o( ,he p. in,ing> in ,he 1'.1,,:<
lull. Th. p.inting< CMt""t .Ie.i of p;g;t" ..... le ..... ><1 fig. .... with> .. ri .. of
Ch ,i,.i. os ..... 0 "" .Ie. ;.. 10.. Cyrus. Ninu . !'h.I.,i., Romulus and Remus . nd
AI ...".!.,. Th. ".10., .Ie'i<S Ius ("..,,,,, . nti,,., Tha.J"'i ..... CharI." M.nel. l'ip_
pin Ill, .nd Cha,lem.ogn .
[""old"...
"f the p>; n';n~ of d P');'" ."d Ch,i"i, .. 'u l." "
' ... truo' ''''' '' On on. 1<Vd ,he wo,d, and pima (un"Oone.! .. . mi "". fi"
I.<)u;, . They pf"O\'ide.! ... mple< of beh.~oo ... '" be ..oide.! "nd cmul"e.!. On ,
d<q>a kv<1 ,he word nd pictm ptn<n, . no<he, ..ric; of rr:Rection. on hi ..
'ory ,nd ,mli,;"n . One CO" ... ,h. p... ing of people. .nd 'egi""". C)ru,.t>d
N ih"', " .=n,e.! in
eh"'''''logical o,d .., ,"'-"lnt fi" the.nd . nd the
beginning uI" Babyloo ,,hieh hod "i.. n in eruelty .nd .nded in fu1}" But invok
ing Ninu nJ lI.hylon would, ro, ,he 1",.n.l .. ><1 .leM , h.,.. .....,l.... tho i1\._
"cw<""
=-e'"
,,,,,t: o.""iu,', Srom &..h ".! Hmo'] A~"j""
tIN P"i""" e>f\,. lIy the (>S>g<

where O l<iu' .poke at length .oout the ronn=io<t, be.wn ""me and &by.
Ion. Th is ..soci.tion comes from Au&u"in<. Thcodulf ,it.... i"" did F.,,!f.
Nuw w< ... it .gain. O"i~ll,,o""" "'orr: favor:lbly on Chti"i, n Rome ,h, n
Au&u"it>< (0' T h<oJulf. 0' F""h"lf) <lid. Hen.,... h. """Id .. ko ""i,f'crio" in
,he lip'" ofRomulu nd Rem",. Rom. b)" ,I... of Core51.mi"" ,n<!llt.<od""'
ius. Errnoldo>. ,hdo ... <0,,1<1 ,imat. ,h. Uroling"'n, in ,,,,minuoo> lin< of
di.i"dy 0.01:.; ,>1 hi>1".;.,.1 d'.'''~'Pme'''. fum"ld",', ,,'" of d", 1"'" i, ""tit
,imila. '0 . nd dilfc: .. nt from the .Im"" cxxtly conmpor>ty Frr:culf ,.
N<'"eMhd .... I $U 0"" inuiguing p.r>lId. Charles M.nd.nd CharleJrutgllC
.,,, pni><o.l for defea,ing p.>g.>n ... nJ l.h.. i; ju" .bou, .11 ,h" i...id ,00'"
<hem. Thi, i, DO' wholl)" unlike I'=-ulf. ide.
Ii,.. in Chn"i." 1,,,,,,""
in ,he City of GOO . n<! ,hat ,he G1}' of M.n ",n;i", of J......, p;g.>n, . nd
h ..., .... Tho: \"Cry ....... g< f",m Ol<i... th. t m.)" It..e ... ",1 .. tho !mi, fot
the Ing<lheim ironogr..phy .nd Etmoldu", ,"Oun. uS the ...... ,<1, "'Ch,i,~""
""'PO"':' In ,h. 10,. 8w. <wo C orolingi,n w.i,.... who did no< . gree on .11
puio" .. 'icu! ........ n >Cut< .W1rr:n.... of . ime. t...di,ion, . nd h;",,<y. Su,d~ Pe,
Brown i, <;o'm;!. """. "" . in ")'ing ,Iu, "'[.]h. f.<<><> in ,he m. in hall of ,he
1"1"", uI" Ing<lh.im coni"rr:d "I' the hug< con~den"" of the h ,nl., , hat ,hoi.
empirr: rt:prt:.l<ntN no'hing .... ,h." the c"lm;n..;"o of Ch,i,.;'m hi",,<y:-"
,ho, "'"
JS6
CltAPTER SEV EN
If it was important to understand whC'rC' onC' fit in thC' grand scheme of

history, it was also critical to understand history's concrete lessons. Ermoldus
and FrC'c ulf arC' full of such lC'ssons. But thC're is anOlher way to view the maner.
In the late eighth century Thcodulf and Alcuin could complain about books
and authors with which they wC're unfamiliar. Theodulf in particular could also
rant about the incorrect ways that Byunti nes read known books. He was fighting hard fo r his right to read, say. patristic texts of biblical passagC's, in his way.
ThC' image tens of the age of Louis the Pious arC' different in tonC' and approach.
They arC' almost C'ntirdy frC'(' of ridicule and insult (at least with respt to
Byuntium; Jonas and Dungal pound away a( Claudius). ThC'y lay OUt cases with
rC'al assurance. They know more and better (C'xtS than had bC'C'n available thirty
yC'ars beforC'. Again and again thC'y content themselves with saying "The Bible
says ... " or "thC' holy fat hers say. ... "m T he authors of thesC' texu knew the
tradition and prescnted it with equanimity. What had to be fought for in 790
had bC'C'n assimilated by 8)0.
Several analogies come to mind. First, Carolingian biblical exegesis. For a
long time. Carolingian exegetes were disparaged for being unoriginal and sometimes uncomprehending compilers. Gradually it has come to be SC'C'n that the
Carolingians read [he Scriptures themsdves with discernment and discretion
and that they selected carefully and inu:lligendy among the patristic commentaries that served as their guides. What is more, ninth-century Carolingian
commentaries, some 150 in number, oft en turned into commeruaries on commentaries. Carolingian writers set one church fathe r off against another. m In
Silvia Camelli's memorable phrase, they did "exegesis of exegesis."z'4 That approach reveals a powerful sense of a tradition mastered and deployed. Second,
Walahfrid's Littk Book on tht Origim and Drotlopmtnt of Somt AJputs of ,Iu
Lirurgym as well as Hrabanus Maurus's On tlu Instruction of tlu Ckrgym arc
full of spific, detailed, practical information. But both works OffC'Thistorically
rooted commentaries on ecclesiastical rites and customs. Once again, tradition
is a sure guide to the prescnt and a beacon pointing [he way to thC' futu re.
Walahfrid and Hraban us both contributed to nimh-century discussions of images and both were wdl-experienced, wdl-connected men. Both had a profound
sense of how tradition could and should guide their own times. Third, there is
the proliferation of martyrologic:s in the ninth century. Monastic legislation
required that they be read in chapteT. This requirement assured a wide and
knowledgeable audience of the ancient, heroic past of the church while, in vi('W
of church dedications and limrgical commemorations, pUlling ninth-cemury
people in constant touch with their anciC'nt Christian forebears. m They key
point is a widespread F..miliarity with the stories of the early Christian martyrs-
wi,h hi"Of}' and ,radi,ion simul ... """'-lSly. Founh. and fin. lly. ,h ........ II..
mo ... , ~.., '~n ,h""",nJ a.oon. of r""'..Jo.hiJo .... ' " .... mid o>n""""ni .. w~ieh
.'" no< ou, ron"",n ~ . po.or.cub,ly gih od fO'g<" <=<:1 v,"" body of
rn . .., ..1 "'prod"ei,,&- .1~ly . ne;"n, nnonia.1 .nd ""'I'll kgi,b,;"n. R<prd
lew ,,(
",,,ho,,,;";ry or ><:<:u<><y of ~"r of ,hi, ""'<fi.l, i, ",:ok> no .. ""'.
,hm 0' now. i,i, i. nO! =n in <flO con,,,,, of ,h. powe' of ,h. !=,.of , .. di,ion.
'0 confer kgitim.cy.
.h.
The ",ign of louis the pio\l, p" ....id... hundm' ...Hlone<:
".n.
'or. q"'" /0, o,do,.
Fo"
k. w look" .~ .<cords of tl>< Council of Pui. hdJ in 8,,). Th.
I>odtground m.y he .""'ehod .imply. Til mpi'" woo ."ffc,ing ""'eh on ,"".",1
"n'We> we'"
e.....e.
fmll. i.... Political

",ml'-'OI. I.<>ui. duit<:<! '"
1""i'l\oor
fu. his )"Ju nS"" >on. ell.tIcs.''' In th<1<: ci,cum,,..,,,,,,,,. h. ~,. ",... ful i"!true
tion. to hi, archbi.hop nd bi'hop>
mcrt ;u!t ,her I'cnt..:o<t in fuu, gmtt
",uneils .o h< hdd .. M. io," Pari . Lyc>o, .nd Toulou ... ' " Lilui. had .. n, hi,
own ",wi thmughout tl>< empi .. to 100\.0 into .... <)"thing in ,>n fully ,0
him .'" Only ,he '<co,d , from ,h. P,ri, ",uocil ,urviv . .11><]0' 'o,m , kngthy
. nd fC>"tlling dos.sicr.'" In "'rning now.o ,h"", m".,i,l ....... .<hootld 00' in
",iod thot .10.... of Orlo.n ........ th.i, prineil"l .ro.."o nd th .. Freeulf wa.<
pr<><nt at 1'..;..
Th. r ari, m .."w. Ole "" funh in uou,u.1 fomion. ll>c", i, g<nenl
imrOO"""m . hr innoduory ... ""n. ,nod ,Mn. in '''''0 book", ",irro, f.".
bi,hop' a tl<l. tnitrot fut lingl. Fin.oll)". t hcl< is .1<1tc, of the bish"p! '" u:mi$
>long wi,h yoo",;. of.ho ca,>oo,. 0",cili.. co,>on, rypieolly ""nw, of ",la
tivdy !hun. dcuilod. ,od precis< '<l!uh .ion>, Tho p" i. cono,", .t< lI,m.",lly
kngthy, lofty. ,nod <>e=ion.oll)" . 1",.. . Th. Citnoru'l< uuddod with hiblicol
",(.r<n> .nol. j..., """",;"n. lly. w;,h I"'"i"", <il>.,io,,' . VKwrtl .. . wt,<)k. ,he
document.< .... mo", lik< a 'ingle ..... ti .. th. n . 1<1 of "'OOn'.
I" II", 11."....1 i",lfidu",,"''' (pI" 606--')) the biJmps .. y
,C>"kw uf
h;'t<><y-it i. bibli<aJ hi"Of}' tlta. i, undc, ,cvi<w-sho",~ ,Ita, God 1= nun)'
timn futgi .... n co... n gr.ve ,in nct$"'ho Ita,.. t<ptntod ,od .m.ndod thn' .... )~.
Thc bishop> ""p'c ,hei, joy ,Ita, Loui. and Lotha, Ita", und.nak<n ,o.....,n.in
wltat i"'ta. pouumobly ... Iu, sin . migl" now h< in ncod of ,mendment. 1 ""e
lord 1>0, .",,,,nod His chu:h '0 lou..."d Lo,I>o, '0 rule ,nd ",," ch ove,
(~'" tw"","",qw) . To mcrt th.i, ""pon,ibili,i ... the rul ... h' .... humbly
'0
,t.., ,
)\8
C IIA I'TER SEVEN
consuhed the bishops. The rulers unde rsta nd that to achieve God's purposes
they must "ask the priests the law," citing Haggai (2. 12). Pious princes who
follow the teaching of the vicars of the apostles merit forgiveness. T he bishops,
in telling the law, have not boldly transgressed the regulations set down by the
fathers but instead have studied them.
The fi rst of the three prefatory canons (pp. 609-10) states that the faith
consistS in basic doctrine (a creedlike statement is presented) and good worksfaith, hope, love, humility, chastity, continence, sobriety, unanimity, concord,
justice, piety, mercy, innocence, and simplicity. The second prefatory canon (p.
610) says, " The universal holy chutch of Cod is one body whose head is C hrist."
The third canon (pp. 610- 11) says, " The body of this very church is principally
di vided between two distinguished persons .. . the sacerdotal and the royal."
This canon contains the first medieval quotation of the famous dictum of Pope
Gelasius I (492-96) from his letter to Emperor Anastasius.2l.I
The bishops' words recall Freculf's "Christian Times." After the events of
the early seventh century the City of God subsists in the universal church. The
foremost duty of the church is to know and teach the fa ith and to effect proper
Christian behavior. Rulers have a duty to use their authority and power to
promote the church and its faith, but they have no independent warrant for
action. They must consult the priests and implement what they learn. It would
be difficult to imagi ne a clearer or more urgent statement about how the world
ought to be ordered.
The bishops then say that because people arc to be led to salvation by the
vicars of the apostles, it is fitting that, first of all, the bishops look into any of
their own actions that stand in need of correction. Accordingly, Book One
(canons 4- 54), constitutes a lengthy series of statements and admonitions to the
episcopal order. Book Two (canons 55- 67) asks "What a king is, what he ought
to do and to avoid?" Right away one meets the famous tag from Isidore, "A
king is called king by ruling rightly." H ow does a king rule rightly? "The royal
ministry consist particularly in governing and ruling the people of God with
equi ty and justice, and in being zealous to promote unity and concord." T he
king must defend the churches of God and their servitors, protect widows,
orphans, and the poor and needy. Cases submitted to the royal ministry arc not
man's but God's.
Walter Ullmann once spoke of "the king's stunted sovereignty. "m That is
to miss the point. As the bishops saw things, there was only one legitimate entity
in the world: the uni versal church. m Authority in the church was entrusted to
the vicars of the apostles. As Gelasius had said, the authority of priests is more
excellent that the power of kings because priests rule souls and kings, bodies.
Art
~nd
Argument
359
W hat Louis thought about bei ng assigned an auxiliary role in the church is hard
to say. In 822, in his Admonition to Ail Ordm 0/ thr Rralm, Louis said, "But
although the summit of this m in istry is seen to rest in our person. nevertheless
by divine authority and hu man ordination ir is understood to be divided into
pans so that each of you in your place and rank (ordiflr) is known to ha ve a
share in our mi nistry. Whence it is dea r that I ought to be the admonisher of
all of you and you ought to be our hclpers."ll6 In 829 (he bishops effectively
reversed Louis's sense of the way things ought to be. Still. it is striking that the
emperor and the bishops shared a fundamentall y similar view of how the world
is organi7.ed. They seem to have disagreed somewhat on where initiative resided.
In either case, they were keen to establish correct order in " Christian Times."
T he image texts discussed above give evidence of anxieties about papal authority. Claudius appare ntl y questioned the Petrine office. The Franks were
worried about unusual practices tolerated by the papacy. Hadrian was accused
of heresy. Louis and his Parisian interlocutors expected papal obstinacy. What
is more, in 824 Louis faced the grim prospect of investigati ng murderous mayhem in Rome. Shortly afte r the Paris Council of 829 Louis the Pious fa ced two
rebellions, one in 830 and a second in 8J3. Pope Gregory IV intervened in the
second rebellion and Frankish reactions to his participation reveal further concerns abo ut order in th e highest levels of rhe church.
The details of the two rebellions need not detain us (alrhough one could
explore the issues on both sides for further evidence of concerns about order). m
In early 833 Lmhar marched north from haly, to which his farher had confined
him in 83 1, bringing Pope Gregory IV with him . The sources rdating to the
rebellio n are partisan in the extreme but they permit a few solid observations.
Lothar. his brothers, and their allies among the clergy brought Gregory from
Rome to suengthen the legitimacy of their case. Some of Louis's supporrers said
that Lothar and the others had brought the pope only to excommunicate
Louis. ll8 T hey viewed the pope as a tool in Lothar's hands. Some of the more
radical clergy among Louis's opponents were prepared to accept papal intervention only if the pope were going to insist on the restoration of the Drdinmio
Imprrii of 817, the succession instrument whereby Louis had made Lolhar his
sole imperial successor and his younge r sons sub-kings. In trying in the late 820S
and again in 8}1 to find a place fo r Charles, born in 82}. Louis adjusted the
Grdinalio in ways that alarmed the sons of his first marriage. The spokesman
for Louis's opponents was Agobard, who wrote to Louis that " if Gregory has
showed up just now unreasonably and looking for a fight, then he will leave
defeated and repulsed." U I An impressive number of bishops, including some we
have met here such as Jonas and H rabanus, remained loyal to Louis. They wrote
}60
CHAPTER SE VEN
an angry letter to Gregory that does not survive but some of whose contents and
tenor can easily be reconstructed from Gregory's response, which repeatedly
says, "And then you say .... "1.10 T he loyalists said tha t the pope should work
only for peace and uniry and that he should show humble obedience to Louis.
T hey said, furthe r, that if the pope dared to excommunicate Louis he would
himself go home excommunicated. Gregory responded powerfully. H e chastised
the bishops for calling him "brother." He said that the overturning of [he Ordinatio and [he new Divisio of 831 were sinful. The loyalist clergy saw Louis " rumbling into mortal danger" yet did norhing to save hi m. Hence he, Gregory, as
the chief priest of the Christian world, had to intervene to restore peace and
harmony. The pope also answered the charge that he should show hu mble obedience to Louis by insisting that he was the mmmU$ pontiftx. As such, it was his
responsi bility to intervene on acco unt of si n. In the end, Louis's sons deposed
thei r fat her, and Gregory we nt home "sadly," unheard and unheeded. H is grand
claims norwithstanding, he lacked the effective power to intervene.
If the Paris bishops had d ivided the world in Gelasian terms and assigned
primacy to themselves, then G regory made an ide ntical division but assigned
primacy ro hi mself. " For you ought to be aware," he said, " that the rule of
souls, which is pontifical, is greater than the imperial which is temporal." For
bishops like Agohard, the pope might have an auxiliary, complementary role
alongside the Frankish clergy but no independenr authority. For the loyalist
bishops, the pope had badly exceeded the limits of his authority. T he kinds of
order so elegantly articulated at Paris in 829 proved hard 10 apply in contenrious
ci rcumstances. Yet the desire ro discover and implemenr order is palpable. Order
meant the correction and emendation of all that was sinful and scandalous.
Peace, unity, justice: these were the signs of order. The intractable problem was
how 10 get there and who was 10 take the lead.
"Ask the priests the law." The Paris bishops in both 825 and 829 praised
Louis for consulting them, fi rst on a thorny dogmatic problem and second on
the condition of the " holy universal church." Asked or no t, the priests of Louis's
age offered advice on a wide va riety of issues. Smaragd us of St.-Mih iel, Ermoldus Nigel1us, and Jonas of Orleans wrote " mirrors for princes," advice ma nuals
on how to be a good and worthy kingY ' Jonas also wrote a book On thr Lay
Stau for Count Marfri d of Orleans,m I have already mentioned Walahfrid's
liturgical manual, a how-ro book of unusual breadth . Amalar of Metz. produced
a similar book enritled On Ecc/uiasticai Offiw,w Hrabanus Maurus, as noted
above, wrote a substantial work Thru Books on thr Ckricaf Ordt r a son of
cverything-you-need-to-know-to-be-a-pries[ ma nual. Louis's reign commenced
with a series of ecclesiastical councils aimed at defini ng, correcting, and regular-
An and Argumem
}61
izing the monastic and canonical life. From 817 down to the 840S there were no
fewer than four commentaries on the Ruff 0/51. Bfl/fdicl, the fundamental text
of monastic life and observance.uoI O ne could go on and on in this vein. Proposed solutions to the problem of how to be good and do well were ubiquirous
in the age of Louis the Pious. Order was much on people's minds.
Worrhip
Practices of and reAections on worship formed prominent issues throughout the
reign of Louis the Pious. The Carolingian elite shared a profound conviction
that the fIIltus divinus had to be properly observed in order for the peace, stability, and unity of the realm to be maintained. u s The image texts show that
individual, private acts needed scrutiny and regulation. But worship at the
grand, public level was no less significant. even if it does not appear to have
been a site fo r controversy. More research is needed on Carolingian coun rimals1.l(, but the religious dimension, the worshipful dimension, of those rituals in
Louis's era is so prominent that it provides a first context for thinking about
worship generally in the early ninth century.
After the successful conclusion of his siege of Barcelona in 801, Louis processed into the city preceded by his clergy, everyone si nging hymns and giving
thanks to God. m In McCormick's words, Louis managed "to rransform the
Frankish triumphal entry imo a lirurgical procession of litanic quality."nK The
religio us and rirual dime nsions of Louis's coronation by his fathe r at Aachen in
813 and by Pope Srephen IVat Reims in 8t6 are described in unusual detail by
a wide array of sources.m We know who was present, where people stood and
what they did, and, 10 some degree at least, what they said. Granted, we can
only "see" those rituals in their textualized embodiments. lolO Nevertheless, the
sources arc unanimous in stressing that the hand of God can be seen in the great
moments of Carolingian history and that in great spirituallritual moments the
Carolingian elite came together as one. Ermoldus Nigellus's minutely de tailed
accOunt of the preparations for and celebration of the mass in which H arald
Klak of Denmark was received into the church was less an improvisation than a
revelation of the extent to which court rimals had expanded and elaborated. l ol l
These ritUals were designed to proclaim and to promote consensus and unity.
Relations amo ng people he re and now, as well as relations between the here and
the hereafter. were put right when things were done righrly--one almost said
"ritdy."
Less auspicious. but no less worshipful, arc some other examples of rdigious
)62
CHAPT E R SEV E N
rites in Louis's age. In BIB Louis declined to sit in judgmem over or to execute
scmence upo n Bernard of Italy and other rebels d uring lent. loU When Louis
was deposed in B3} the bishops charged him with a variety of offenses including:
"That against the Christian rel igion and against his vow, without any public
advantage or obvious necessity, having been misled by the advice of wicked men
he ordered a general campaign in Lem and he decreed that he was going ro hold
a general asse mbly right on the OUTermost fron tier of his realm on Good Friday
when the paschal sacraments are supposed to be celebrated by all Christians."14l
Holy seasons were to be observed. And holy moments could be inserted inro
the regular course of the year. O n several occasions Louis called fo r days of
fasting, prayer, and penance before major undertaki ngs such as the issuance of
the Ordinatio Imprrii in B17l.. and the assembling of the four councils in B29. 24~
Who was ro worship, and how, when, and where occupied the atre m ion of
H rabanus Maurus. The organization of his how-ro book for priests is revealing.
Book One discusses the orders of the clergy (ce. 3-12), vestments (cc. 14-23),
sacraments (cc. 24-)0), and the mass (cc. 30-34). Book Two treats fi rst ho urs
and offices (ce. 1-10), prayer in general terms (cc. 11- 16), fasting (cc. 16-27),
al msgiving (e. 28), penance (cc. 2B- 29), the celebration of major feasts (cc. 3141), Sundays (c. 42), saints' days (c. 43), masses fo r the dead (c. 44), commemorations of churc h dedications (c. 45), weekdays (c. 46), canticles, psalms, hymns,
antiphons, respo nses, and readings (ce. 47- 54) , and, finally, blessings (c. 55).
Book Th ree treats moral and theological lessons, things cleries "should hold and
know." The book is clear, concise, and imensely practical. II is meant ro show
priests how ro celebrate. Celebrating the mass properly was evidendy a matter
of widespread concern if the nearly two doze n commentaries on the mass from
the period are any indication.l .06 Walahfrid Strabo's handbook is less cogentl y
organized that H raban us but testifies to a similar range of concerns: tem ples and
altars (c. I), what should and should no t be do ne in churches (cc. 10, II), bells,
vessels. and vestments (cc. 5, 25), regulations for the reception of communion
(cc. 20-22), canonical hours, posture in prayer, hymns, and chams (c. 26), and
so on. General issues pertain ing to wors hi p we re unde r discussion and specific
kinds of liturgical books were being refi ned. Helisachar, Louis's chancellor. apparently re-wrote the night office sung al Aachen and a new hymnary was, it
seems, under preparation at the court. T he major liturgical scholar Amalar prepared a new anrip honary. Only the prologue survives but in it Amalar says he
set to work because " I have been distressed for a long time because of the
disagreements (discordantts) among the am iphonarics in our provi nce." 147
Beyond thinking about worship as a way of configu ring the polity or as a
way of celebrating sacraments properly, Carolingians also wo rried abou t avatars
An and Argumem
}6}
of "gent ile" pranice. In the Danes Louis and his comemporaries saw a very real
embodiment of living, yet dead, prac tices. Ermoldus N igeJlus is the bw informant and even when some allowance is made for poetic license his account rings
Hue, on the one ha nd, and lays bare: Frankish concerns, on the other. Louis
resolved w send a mission to Denmark, identified Ebbo of Reims as his missionary, and secured permission from Paschal l to launch the evangelization project.
Ermoldus, as is his wont, puts speeches into the mouths of all the key players in
this drama. Some of what he says can be taken seriously. [n Ermo[dus's telling,
Ebbo w Id the Danes that metal statues made by their own hands cannot possibly benefit them; that they were wors hiping empry things and praying to deaf
and dumb beings. A bit later, according w Ermoldus, Harald Klak tells Ebbo
that he wishes to see Louis's temples and God. If Louis's God is more powerful
than his own, he will cast his metal statues into the fiery furna ce. Finally, H arald
ac knowledges that Ebbo had told him that things made by human ha nds are
empty idols so he elects to believe in God and rejen statues made by ha nd.l<8
Paganis m was still a genuine problem alo ng the frontiers of the Carolingian
world . In border wnes the barde for corren worsh ip mus t have been fierce.
What is more, it is suiki ng how Ermoldus, surely not H arald, has imernalized
some of the discourse characteristic of Carolingian image texts: vain or empry
idols but especially "things made by human hands." It is important to remember
that Ermoldus's poem was written JUSt after the Paris Colloquy and right when
Jonas and Dungal were combatt ing C laudius against whom, as we saw earlier,
ErmoJdus took a potshot.
In addition to real, live pagans, there were also imperfectly Chri stia n i~ed
folks whose modes of belief and wo rship demanded attention. As early as 815116
Agobard wrote a treatise: " On H ail and Thunder" in which he described various
practitioners of and believers in differem forms of weather magic: " In these
regions almost everyone-nobles and common people, ciry folk and coumry
fol k, the old and the young- bel ieve that hail and thunde r can be caused by the
will of humans." "Storm-makers" could raise storms when they wished. Ships
fro m Magonia (Magic Land?) sail about in the sky full of crops knocked down
by hail. Some people in Agobard's dimin were about to put to death some
people who had allegedly fallen OUt of such a ship. It was also bruited about in
the Lyonnais that Duke Grimoald of Benevento had sent people wi th a certain
magic dust that, once spread in the fields, mountains, and wells, would kill
cattle.' '" Agobard docs not believe any of this but he accepts the fact that people
in his diocese do believe it. 150 Such bi7..arre beliefs-and practices?-were not
localized in time or place. The bishops who gathered at Paris in 829 sem Louis
a resume of their del iberations focusi ng on some of their most important discov-
cri ... ~nd urgrnt rol>C<m'. lhry mention the ai.t<n<c of p.. ctitione,., of , .. ri.,...
(>il, ,,,,,h .. hom"""' .... li')' and 1><><;'li')'.nd [hcn """'in...... Tl>c..... ",hct
no"" 1'<"'0.:;"'" (>il. w~o.:~ ~.v< no do"b, .utvivcJ frum ,I.: ,i,,," of ,t.. p.1giIn~
""W,i.n ...
fonuoNelle,,"false: prophet!.. as,ers of'l'<lI.,
intc'l'rcten of d[oom'. ""'..... The hilhov< .1.0 aprc<Kd .J.nn [h .. "'m< J><"""
pic weI'< b<ing led .. tny by I""" po<ion . arrmlru. and wc>[hcr ..... gic.,." AI
.Jmost the ume time [he P",i~I;"/ of H"/i't,,, .. riffc<l 1'<tu.n<CS fO, <kath,
e>UO<d by m.>gic. In,', m.go.:. ,h. "",,juring of ..."m,. ,ogur;", ___ hu)'n8o
asting loa. plOcticiog wiu,dry nd bed. ing amulm.'" B~ tbe cnd of the ninth
cenlUry condition. h.d not improved much judging from Rr-gioo of l'rO.m.""
Tl>c "" )t,i ... <xp<~ in 'he image ,."ts .bout the .... mpl .. .nd the COOC<m'
iliou[ CO[m;:t . nd i"",rm;:t w<>,.,hip wen: by no m.,. .. """"'mi<.
.....,,/ua,...,n.
w="'....
Concl us ion
In the early dcct.dc:< of the ninth <cotu'l' Carolingian writen aptcSScd them
,<Iv", more fully. " " dUlly,.nd ,h<Rlghdully dun ,h.ir ~n Iud "".... ,
S"n.r,,,i,,n ..... 1"". The ;m.~ ro""m"",'" of ,he hoo pc'm;" ~ .. n I"'r$pf''''
on ,h. fo",.. td m.reh of til. "Caroli ng;..n ~ ...;""no:", M"", "boob. ",IIoh",
lib .... i... Th"" u,," ....;n.'" more nurnetuu< ,h.n ,I>ci, prod<:CCWoO<. Th"
aff(,,,ts [h. 1'<''''0 who 'lUd ... th.m an opponu",'}" to diK<m are... of agr"",n, and disagreemen[, to) ..,. , .. tying .hados of eOlplusis.
Ni,,,h_,,,,,,}" Carolingi>tl ,urll"" hirn, ft,1I f.omili.ri,y .... i,h all ,h. cbss;, 'tgUm<n" fot ,nd 'ga;"'t images. Throdulf """"Id bO' adm,t , h.. . ny ..... "~
could be holy and ~,,~.~jtcd any""" of "," en.;"" pctformcd in
ronnecti"" wi.h manmoJe ulf. Some ninth,<c",ul)/ ... rik" KttI',cd ,h. ,
>OfOe object> migh' be holy and ,ha[ ",me ""moo."" ,' pt>C.ica migh' be 101.
bk Thel'< Wl.i more ' Y1IlI",h)" for ,he ide. that an could [<:Kh in [he 8ros [h. n
,here had bc<n in [he 1%>. from ,he 'S" of u,ui, ,he !' Iow w< h,,,,, ",me
~ide"ct {or p"""i= coMeacd " 'i,h holy oojcc<S. Whil. i, ...,"" ck:o, ,ha,
Throdulf Wt)ttlJ h,,,,, ha,ked hi, displ.,..., .... P""""'" [h .. ,he gen.ro,ion .ft...
him ,oIe.. ,ed. it i. not '" ck:o, if mot< .bund.m .. idcoc< for.he So", and 8,.,.
.imply ....,.1. procticn already pr=ot "",Iie[ but limply Unfrconkd.
Th. ninth ernlU,}" confron" it< stude"" with 1"1"1<10"". Amid mueh pru_
dent . co,.,><"",i". ...... i>g< O""ct,oing an. ,he ....... , prufu"'n of ,pca-acuh'
work> of:tn. Two insu n"", nu)' .und fot m,ny. Tout>. in the d=d .. ~r.er
dca,h, p,,,du=iI'<,h'l" ,_ lV""d. illumi""l Bibl.. 1'<' I""''''
Som ... ime ~ ca. 9,6 .nJ co. 81\. """...here in ""nh.", Fro"ct. an .. elier
flu"""
A!ru,,.,',
An .,..j
Nsum<"'
)6!
prudoccJ ,~c m"llni6ccn' U,rcc~, P$;lhrt which <quipi <;>cty pi.Olm wi,h a
hauntingty ",..",ifi,1 dr>wi ng. ,,' Earlie, in thi, ch'p,er I .. ,gs... ed ,10"
;. difficult to d ... w on'" the kind, of diSCUSliun, that I h:o", h.-tn ","ducting.
Ordin,uy rrople. ,h imple: ,><w, <ow.uch I>uok >.nJ mO<t prominen'
laymen probol>ly did"", ei,her. Bu, at ,hi.... ge I con bri"S ,hi. gIo,>Ou.l>uok
a" ~k in'" 'he di""",ion by way of ""rinK ,h .. 'he .Ii,.. wi", ,.Jd .b<.oU1
>n we .. cliQ-wi,h , he sole ""<q><K>n of Einh,rd_ 'lnd ,hoy did ... ,hi, , no
Did ;, ,fftcr ,ncm. ,nd> "oem. uplift ,hem. in.pi .. ,hem' We do no' know.
Th~ did no' ,dl u.
""'* '"
Conclusion
A" ;, ~
IN",. ",1* . _.
-aifford c."nr.. " An ... Cul"".1 S,...<m
T .. , c~ RV7..... "T'U . . ...... O'ul> ,h. r",,,ic.< in ronllo ..... ;.,. fl',,' im.<". II
mish' h... h'pP<"ned ,!tiro , ime. I" 8.., Emp<"'u' n.""phil". died. Hi,,..;<kJw
Theodora mmcd ,h. rrgcncy /0, ,h.i, ,hr-ru,..,ld io" , nd in 1<4, belted
by tI>o okl iconodule Methodi .... who h:idfl'y ~: ,I.., i. ,he '''''0<1 ic<.ot .. Th. no, ,wu d=<ko in .h.
Ust wer. filled wi,h f,milial. poIi'ico!. milita".. and ccclaia..ric:al."if. When
Mh<:><Ji", died in 8..7 IS'",i.,. "1,1=:d hi",. F", eI .... n ,..,... Ign .."" " ....
V.ed d)'ftU'ic "lu. bbleo .nd .ric<! f() bolancc waning ecclni ... ial f...ion,.
loonocl .."
"><>SIll' ...... "..ed from ,I>< 'pisoop.o,e bu. "Of pe"""",ed. 11",
ioonodu le ...10.., led by ,I>< S!Udi monk>. wanted blood. Amid ,hao: difficul
.i.. Ign.>''''' w.>.< deroood in 8j8 ,,,d
by ,h. letlned laynun l'hOfios.
Phi";,,, , nn",,,>O:<t his d=ion '0> Nichow I .. w.!
beg>n ."",h ro'''"'"
w.'"
,..,,,bad
,I""
"'''Y <>vet imagn. '

Fo, mor< ,han, decade 'he [>Ore< mpe." ..... nd B)... n,ine <h .. r<h w.r<
en,ntled in .h. !'hoo.;." Schi",,:"
of "Iu. luppened d.. . ;ng ,Iu, period
n<ed not conI;<'" ..... Sn...1 of J>:ichow. kIlt ... howcw . ,o""h u[>On , he
in'ag< qu..,ion' Af", ['\,"'''''' ' n,,<)Un<eJ his
Nkhol .... '" twO kg:o,<>
to o,nSl. n,inople.o in"""igate .h< c;t(."Um".ncu of Jgn.>'''''', de"",i,ion . nd
tep!acc:men, by rhocio ... well .. ,he cause of hull" "n<ro.bk images. Niclt.or..
M.,.,
.I.n"""
'0 ..,.
w.,,"
rq><.tedl) .. id ,Iu, hi, l<p'" Iud mme

,Iu, inuga
properly ....
"o,ed to ,h.;, cu",.m.cy plOCl:. He compl>i ntd th., h.tt<ica/
of
im.gos hod nul betn ,ufficiently pu ~i,hotl .nd 'hat bo<~ cl... rdtme~.nd rule"
Iud .<<<<Il)n [>01;,,,,,1 "'" religiou. imrc ... ,;.... N;eh"lu ,I.., ..,.,,'. 'I) Iu""
helKvcJ ,~at Ignat"" ..... , champio~ of im.ge< . nd 'hot Pho''''' ..... not. By
,h< midBoo. ['\,""'" ~dd. council which <>eommunic>'otl Ni'~l)l ... nd oc-
.,......,.,..'0..
CU$Cd him, as ",dl as tho ~'<St<tn ,h ~rch gcn<",lIy. "fbct<sy 1m issues sw:b >$
S,turdoy f"'ting, the uS< of unbvtnl broad in the e...:h"i>t, I',; .. tly ""Ii!>.>.:y .
nd ,he fili"'l"" H. did "'" memi"" im'~. Nichol unb.hl .n .pi"obry
oor"'g< in .he I'.:ts" .od . 1>0 wro ' 0 ,he .... md ~, Fr:tnkilh bi.hop .. to
Ourl.. ,he Ihl,1. .nd.sc.ndl the thronc
in C." ...",illop!.. d.po.<"d I'h"t"'" . " d """,11111;11>1;0;,.. In ~69-70 IV .. ,io'

pfC$idl m"C <ouneil in 0>nst>n,inllplc who .. si"h conon ,imply embf1<Cd
F"'p.:t.I ,=hing (srtbl "",,"~IU:M """"l~kI) on the topic of imag<>.
\l:'h<n Nichol", ", ""e.O Mich.d III in 860 h... ><l.h .. lilll< r=JI '" lit
..id On .t.. 'pecifie topic of i~ btt:a .. s< hi. I'redccc:;so, H.dtUn I Iwl .1
rndy .. id """'Y'hing
o.."w .. yinS. Then he .uc<umbtd '" .h. temp",io"
'" .ad few COmme." of hi. own. He off.red f.... ""t.., u"'ys<em1lic <kfenICS of imago. He ",iJ ,h.t im.~ of o"i" . hi. m<>.he" 'he i>Jdscd 'f'O'I\e<.
.Ad all the .. inti ohould he ..... n.rued .nd w""hiped" (""""AN" ,..u..). lie
defended inug<. hcc:o",e they inera>< 1m. and incite emub ''''n. Image> p.in,td
on the ....11. of d lU",h... nd on boallh . ro not ..Jured '" if God. Im.~ bring
biblicol ><o'i . nd the truth. of the f::oith vividly .0 mind. Finolly, G od Iud
.pp<:>red '" men:os. M.n. All of ,hi . "i"hol:u .. )"S ... ,he unbrolen ,r..Ji.ion
of the chu,.h.'
EDcd y ",h... h. problem W:I.\ in the Ea., with '<>fC<1 to images connot be
J<te,~.i,,I . Nichol .. h.d. 101<; .... '" "f 1"'1'.11"'",,.nd 1"""I;>,i,"", ,1"0
.nr of hi . predcs>t., .nd much of hi. ><ruggl. wi,h the Ea.t " ... :o:tu:tlly
.bout P'V'I ptim . ey. It ""'Y 1><, ,he .. for<,
Nichol ... imply " .. ml.o 1""
1"1".1 , u mp on Ryuntium ', r<turn to Onhodo.y On ,be "",tt" of im>g.
When Nichol", turnl to the Wc;t 0, "'pro". he did not pm ,he i""'g< '1u<>,ion on ,he w,le. s......r>1 W.,.ern rcpli<"> '0 Niclwb ... mjU<>l for """<U[felK<
.urvive.r>J not on< of them ")~' wmd . bout i""~." The Fr>nks h:ul .. iJ.U
,h ... hey ""'..
going to .. y on , he .ubj<c . Thor Ie. I"'" ,t.. "l'I"""uni1}'
11.. , Nichul .. procn,ro ,hem '" do ..."bol cumbo, wi,h Byun,ium '" Rome.
Po!", Nicholu'. o;ommen" in deftn .. of irn.g<>'r< b,ief ,h.n ,00.. of
H.d,i.n I or I'..chal J. They 00 ,dl us, how"",,, ,h .. ,he P"1"'<r h..J not )'icldccl
my v.mnd '0 .he C.mlingi.n. in ''1ltl mcn,.,ion fo' or .goin" i""'geI. The
Corolingi.n, ,hem..1.-.... hih"td fO, .I(lme fif,y or ""r ,..,.'" ... .,.."".1 f""il _
ion<y ,,ith . U tt.. h...i< demen" in d;",.....;oru :thou. ""red ." '00' Iud been
in c;ul .. ion .iocc ar lca>t ,he founh century wi,h ,he ..::>1e acep, ,,,n of ,he
philo.!ophical p<ition ..Jop<<horu nd Theodo .. in ,he ..,Iy ninth
ccn,u<y. lhi' i fi"t ,mpo".nt di!OOV<T}' of .he pr<$Cnt ",."k. It should no
,ho,
,ho,
,"It,
'0 ..
Io"set b< ~bl.

y 'hat 'he Carolingi . ... bdal ,ho booh. iM1dlcawl
, ..d i,ions. or '~I "'rbis,,,,,.io" S"'Pple wi,h ,he more compla ptub.I<m. ~ by .,.,,,,,J.f!. ThO. "udy ,,{.n "Ik m ay provide food foe [houv>,
for O[he. tn=[ ig.,ions of how ,ho Caroling;.", p<~ [heir in[elle<:m. 1 in
h.rito.ncc , A """",J impo"om poim J<tn,,,,,, .... ,,",, in ,he p<tCI:dinK pogcs ;' ,h ..
Carolingi.ns did no' ogrtt wi,h ad, otho 11 ,ho , ime_ In on .. Ik. os in '"
many
of inodlcauollife. John O"" .. ni, "lnl""'lOni"", Harmony"
.."'.. :u 1 "'perl:. cfu,~ ..,ion of . be ,ichllO> . nJ ",mplai'}'. ''''' of.I><
confu<ion .nd inromp .. he",i"n, of Co.mlingian in ..tI<Ctwllifc. It i< cc<1ltinly
[rue .fu n< C ...dingi,n, _gh, norm" ruin.. .tan,b,J" ,h...It.cy ..,uv>.
"orde,." SU[ one m..... nei. ho, <""W,,,[e "'" mu.,nJel>~.n J ,h .. '1<>1 .
The ccn, ...1 Ca.olingian pooi,io" . "'= ' h<Sec figuntl. n i. uccpt:obk. p>r,icul.rly (Of rommcmo ... rion o. dcco"uion: . n obj..:n .Muld bo n<i.h ...... , _
. hiped no, dmroyed. Bo,h of the poIi,ion' WCK qwli!i<d in ..,.,'e ""'YJ.
Ab<wc olk ,n<tc w:LI wha, I fu ",tlcd " p,incipled ind iffe .. nce." No Caroling-ion wri, . ro my Irnowt.dgc...00:1 [Iur a ....... neo:osary_ All Carolingian ""i ..I>
agreed ,h.. an could "'" be wo..nipccl .. G od i. "".. hiped. All Caruli ng;.n
wri,.... v=! On
po;n' bot, ,hey .ltruggkd t" 6 00 [h igh. word, m p'",
it_ So",,, Corolinsi.n w.i .. ~ ...... unp"'l"rod '" pm;. ' ''y ~; nJ of ta' .....
ro, ""'nlli.ulll. fot ,h. wo.h "fh um:on fund .. bu, ".h.. writ ... ""e.. willing to
pe"ni' ccmin 1<>'m, of vcn.<>.ion in " , .. in ciullU<on=_ No Carol."!;'",,
wri .. , ""'<pi amdiu, of TUfin boli<v~ .ho n """,k.< " 'i,n Chrinia" ",bjt
mm .. could bo d<o'royed _
Caroli ngian. agrd ,h.:.t~ .. muld ",,;'t,.nd of rou ... ,hey product<l ... in
<"ube ... nt p'oh.,iOll, An ",'os .,.,ro"" !>I. Ii..,. bea .... ,ho Old TClm<n[ . in
rui n proof'p' ... gcs [ho, ~e ci.I <we' .nd tw "id ,h .. God Hinuelf h:oJ
O'Jmm.ondcd cc ... i~ 'm.!'" to be mad . 1.1"...""..,. h.,., beli......:!. ,ht chutth
!..d ol"",)~ "'"nnon,cd an . CaroIingi. n w. i.e... p<>I<e ..",Ir 'M h.. ".~"Y
i..... gcs no. "",de hy h um. " h.n tl~ For late .n. ique . nJ B)1." ,,;o< im""phil. ,I>t, "'h~jmm ..... a .iKnihcan' proof of ,ho Icgi[il1l1<y of ",Iigit>us
,ho, .n coulJ
im"W". Som< bot, no< all Carolingian ""i.... oocepcl ,he
,ad, ,h< illi ..", wh .. ,It.: li .... could ... d in book:.. M"" Carolingi.n wri,
....gr=I ,ho, . n could help propl< ro r<>lkc. cbc hi"ory . nJ "' Y' ...... "f tho:
"i,h, hbny.grmpunaion. Only 0:0>"'0'
. lIr ..lid . n, Iuca.i,,, and rommem"",,'vc f"netio, .. >pawn .. ~caio ... o n cbc
",10,;,." c.cdkncc of hooring (0. reading) vc" ... _ins- Th" wonl ..... '"perio.
ro ,he ;<TUg<. Caroling:i'" wfi .... agreed. bot, ,h< image ..... useful fuc ,ho
,0
",Ita "'=
,h.o ,
.bou.
.tIe.
"';mrk."
On,c in whil< Carolingian diJ wri'e .. rome cL:m ,u ,pjnning "",tI ... ic
.gument$.o [he rtf. [h:.. h<-.m ty i.lf """Id inspin:. A proper eh';""n..,..
,h.ctic h:.d [0 .".. i, [hc nuMi,'c ",hol... ic compendia of [he [hinn[h mury.
Ao;colingly. ,h. C>rolingi.n, h:.d li"l. ,o ...y OIl ,h, (111-) PI' lOnic. I\<udoD>Ony>i.n p",!",<i,i,," ,h"," co.,,,M " ' '''po'' ,h., b<,k" "",I f""" ,h., ,,,.,i.1
world !O high<-! rnl,m. ThC)' of,en .. inad f,mili"i,y wi,n tll< , "Sum.,,, b,,,
ratcly .tlgaged i. h link diffetcntl). ,h., C>rolingians 'Pf"'" ." h:.'e .hough.
much harJe bout "commemo" t"'n" ,h. n ,bey did . oou, "d""""t"'"."
Two of I" ntiquity1 mo" COmmOn dtl'ent< of . rt . the ..gumen, f'om
i""""".i"" and ,t.. f'<fef'<mi.I''l!umem. w.tc wiJely known ...d di.u...,d. y",
<><i,h.,. 0<>< ,,"upied . cent ...1 pl.cc in C>rolingi.n di>ru!Oion oou, . ". It i.
my imp ...."'n ,h.t oo,h .. gumcn" wrtc P'''''Y much "ken for granted. Furthrt
' __ n:h in C>roIingi . n Chri.!01ogy migh' hd p '" cl>rify [h.i, . ni[uJr to [M
'<gUmcm from inorn .. ion. ("",rolingi.n Wli" al1ag'~ ,h:.[ on. dOd no, wor_
,hip.n image bu, only oon,. "ri ..... " 'en: ... plici' ,bo." praying '0. 0' ""fun:,
an im"S . Again. all tho w';'c<, M<nJc<.1 intrtCd>QJ)' pr'y<t. h i, my i"'p<eS> ion
th.t. Ofl .ni. point. C>rolingi.r.n princif'led indiffcn:nu kd them ro ,hink.n..
i..... SC' wrf< >=puhl . pc .....!" ",[n , ..Iu..ble .nd h<lpful. bu, n",'rr .[[i,d y
1l<CU1)'. H<nu it was n01 lei. impc"ti ... to go on " length .bou, tt.. uitim" c
"rg<' of. P")"" d""",,,,) in ,he firs, pi",. >< ." i""'S'.
Not on< C>roling"n wriw dcfrndcd ... go"",,1 p,opositinn <I.. ont<:>logi _
01 hol,n .... ofim.g... On ,he con,,,I)', mo" of ,h.m 'n.i"ed ,h" imago W.f<
mere m.It.,. the ....." k of hllm.n lund . Images' w.r-d'-beinll w .. "'' ' dif!"'~nt
from, ><f'1""': frum. t~. wood '" p>int from ",hich thC)' ,... .. m>dt. Br the
mid_nim h ""nrury. how<V<1'. >ome wei , ,,, hod rom< <0 believe <I,., 'M cro ..
(. nd the <ruci~.'l f"rmed on <>p<inn
In , I>< <'gh[h century ,nd [hen .:gain in ,hc n'n,h. Carolingi.n wri, ...
_ med haAkd by the image practices of the B).... ntinrt. Image> in ,he Wc<._
Rome m.~ h:.vc b<:rn dilferro,-<lid no. i,. hair 0' b<"d dippings. did no,
,un.d 'J'O""'< 01 ),..p<i.m. djd no, ..""' .. p"'.. ble .1..", [M'[ ""'ping> we"
nfJ( hlen,1ed w,th th. E""h.,,,,, thC)' wen: nv, v,ed wi,h lil1>" .nd inu n"":
'h<)' we", nO' ""<t;cd on,,, ),.."Ie Ibu, folia ""n:,. llrun<ine t...", of1<., . peak
of ki"i ng .. , common ft"m of <<v<rrncc br.towed upon image>. C>tolingi. n
tats in the ninth century .Jluck to kis,ung. bowing. knling. p"",,,,,ing. nd
..",nd'ng of ,he """ ,Ihe" .. pl'cjdy only in ronn,jon ",j[h ,he CI'O$S or,
<kpcnding On how On< ttld. Claudiu . " 'itb f'linted imag of'M <ooW<.uci~ .
If the C>roIingian. gonenlly did not do '0 0' wi[h im>SC' ",hOI [heir Bruntine.
><><1 po<4,bJy Il.om. " . con ..", ,,.,,,r;" d id. tl",,, neither did C>rolingion im. ge>
th.m.d.,," do .ttyth'ng. Tbry wet< n.... ",itO<uiou . did
heal <I", sick. ward
off <lemons. Or identify ch. =<"", in d,,,.m .
tI'"
n.. Ca,oIin,iJn im"", ..... ,h~. haw boen II ,he an,., of thil .rudy. mOl.
,Iw> ,hoo..nd 11<' of m.,.ri.>I , ..., ......... , I:>o:furc boen ifUdKd .ogrthc,. J
~ .he- PU><"' lIudy ..w... ron",,,,,,,,,,, in !hi. repm loa". Wi,h only
r... ~iono' ,he Ca....ina:iJn ..... ".,diN he.. ~ ........, bn ,nnob..J
into .....xm Lan"...,.. .... .Jon. I:.nJllWt. J """"' .hat r<a<kn .ill .i<w my
Ie""",
rub.""" ...
p=ph...... ond Kka~ ....

no ..... a)<I.ribotion. Fi.,.JIy.
cwn ,hough <hey ...,.. a IV"'" d..I .bou. ' ...... ,he oubjt of ...... itJdl"
was mdy ., .he .op of"'" Caroli"",," ..,.t....d neon .Jon. on , ... , ~.
A ,hird cOl"ri .... 'ion tI\at J
Iricd fO
he~ cotoiim in payin, cJoo.
.".ntion.o ..... i.... ''''''' in ,heir ",,"cmpon<y ron,,,,, ... J >lwo,.. uy 6,.. to
tnod .he i~ In.. on
m . TI>m I look ...hoi<."ua1 wonls . nd
p< h<tw<t:n IJw;, Ii ..... 0 _ If m.y onnJ <YMl<no. of .'I<n.ion rooor "' .... <iv_
il}' .00.. oth<r ..... min' ........ I h:.t ... idm,ifi<d ,h_ of ...,.., .Ddi.ion. ordo<
nd ,..."".,ip. I ......w.J ." ... , ... , each ,.(.hex topia \O"2i of inlftU<...d d" ... hk
in
,he Carolin"'n! . nd ..... ,he i..... g<..,. ...........Ivoand ......... fOtIg<
of othu "''''ceo'" mu ..aIly ~Ium"",.ing.
Af... [h. C..oIina:iJn. (.n ..It 1",," ror.'fO<Sia did no. aa>oe. Th ....
dim.n.tlonaJ IeUlp'u"" "';,h ombo:dd<d ..11a c~..1 bJurti"l\ of Ii,..,. wi,h
which the Caroline;'ou did no< ........ 0 ",".".J. H .....ial
b<einnin~ in
.b. ekv<."h cen lul)'. DCCUioMd n~
'0 lhe Icgi. im..:y of inuga.
Ch,i"i.n.\<wi.h """"mion in .he 'we lf.h '''lUI}' .nd La,., Ontt :tg1in gtncr_
ed boI h ,..I . nd ingined.'l" """" aboo. migiow in\1g.., G".rid.., "'pu,
.i"ni,m" mdi, ed "",;01' ,h. u of imagt nd provuked d.f.n .... " Th, ~,
..,hola"ic. Bo"",'... u, nd Tho, . .. A<juin .. booh .poke ......." 1'.8,h, . 100,
ill ....
pUc.., oOOu. imaga." Ie it in' ..... ';ng.f} .... oow "Ca<olingi>n "
,heir orgu""n"ui"" ,.... cwn 'OOugh Mithe. o( .hem cited .h~ ''''''' ""i,h which
[h;' alOOy"" been
They"W:d , ... , only Go.! could bt ",onhipl
",;[h ,he: high.cs< fotm. nf wonIIir bu, , ... , i"'"fi'" 0>u1d be- paid a Iaoa fOfm
nf ,",'em><:<. Thty .mbr>'ll.he In(;inu ,ional.nd rcfcUfl.iol .'uma.... The)'
",,:d .hat imago oouJd.each ,he unlenend. The d..c ..... 1>dicwd [h,o, i""fl"
"",td ;00... heigI.cnl p;c.y. Thty agtM:I ..... , ,Itt E-l", pn>hibi[ion appli<od '0 ,<i!T_n:kc.d,...~ ...J
J........ hoe)' u!"ldemood idols
.nd idolul)'. 10 toO they Iu.t..
i ""F and idols ..fft diRmn . Wh.,
ch:.tfl!<d ,n .... tI"""",th ~n'ul}' ..... ,....... in nindo-an.Uf)' Byunuum.
p<Ofuund phiiooophicd fOunda.ion ...... Ioid undn the kind. of hi>to<i<:ol
,....n..,i.. icd, and !heoIosicaJ ..,wn<.n of doc Wolin""" period. ~
to undo .... "" ........ he w.....!ked abou, _mi .... ~ .. n:asary. and.tmo..
... fIicinot. 10 IIOOr ....... , ... Carobn""", ~>WI and <diet"'" on
La"
"";que mh<riuntt.
"'oT
....u
.hei.-.. ,
,.,.,.o
.uon."'"
-=".
".r..J
c"""."""'.
idnI.&''''''''I''P''''
w[
,hei.
NO T ES
A. . . . V . . T'nN.
M"
AnBoI
","C
'H'
"BEC
A"" ,<;"'''''8.,.'''
A""/,,, &IJ.",du,,,,,
Art /J~lk'i~
Anm,,,tiNm }/i",,,;,,~ Ctm<ili""''''
Armi""'" }/;"8"'" I>on'ifo""
AaA""". Kn;lb/.i't('
ltibiictlKqOK ~ /fro!.- da rlMnn
,II""'"
B.\tGS
hJUn'i~u'
BZ
h,..,~'i~iS(1K iliJlthifi
G",. SNJin
cent
u'P'"
em
C/mllu,,,,,,,,m. Conlin"",io Mdinwlu

CmpNI Cb,.;"ia"" ... ,.,. Snm [...,i...
CH'
C,,J,,,fi, lIi'1IJ";'''/&V;''''
D'
Dm
[)n,tst""
D'"
EH R
E~,b 1I;".ri<~1 Rroirw
[M E.
uri, Mdi"",[ EN"'p"
FMS,
Frlihm;,,,14[,rriid,,, S'Ndi",
,,,h.h,,,b '" ~<bi...h.m BJZ"nri~"'i*
jOJlma[ of ~"I Sudi"
L"",u" tk< MII""'[_
!.iw f'Mliji,<I/i,
J. D. Mon,i ed" Sam",,,,,
Co"",[;"",..,
n
C.Ik<lio
Mon"l>Wtt1lJ Gnmani Hiilo,ua
Se<;<> in MGll
JO'
JTS
,,~
IY
M.n". Concili'
MGH
Arrhiv
DiUo""m bi"t"4fi>
D"mb",,1IJn
.up; i'al",~i
0..... "apm
N.,,,, A",,,,,,,,,,,,,,
up.
c..pi"'t.. .." /('P'" f."",,,,,,,,,
372
NOTES TO PAG ES
2- tt
Cone.
Epp.
EKA
PLAC
SSrG
SCH
QDCC
PG
PL
PBSR
RB
REB
JE
SCH
SSCI
T&M
W&I
ZKG
Concilia
Epistolae
Epistolae Karolini Aevi
Portae Latini Aevi CaroJini
Seriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum
SSRL Saiptom rerum Langobardicorum

SSrM Seriptom rerum Merovingicarum
Studies in Church Hiltory
Oxford Dictionary ofthe Christian Church
Patrologia Crau a
Patrologia lAtina
Pub/ications oftht British School at Rome
Revut Btnidictine
Revue des (tudts byzantins
Jaffi and Ewald., Regerta Pontificum
Studits in Church History
Smimane di Studio de//'Cmtro ltaliano per it Medioroo
Travaux et mimoirts
Word 6- Image
Zeitschriji for Kirchengerchichtt
IN T R ODU C TION
Now brilli~mly interpreted by Finney, Tk InlliH'blt God. For a wider view, S the
r<xent ~nd engaging Jen sen, Unda-suJnding u rly Christian An.
2. Ladner, "Origin and Signihance of th e Brunti ne Iconoclasti c Controver~y, " p. 127.
J. Florovsky, "Origen, Eusebius ~nd Ihe iconoclaStic Comroversy," p. 77.
4. Cameron, "Images of Authority," p. 3.
5. "A Dark-Age Crisis: Aspects of the Iconoclastic Controversy." p. J.
6. The dosest to comprehensive treatments are various chapters in Martin, History and
Haendler, Epockn karolingisrha- TlNologit .
7. A rece nt, stimulating, and wide- ranging trealmem is Besan~on, L'imagr inu rdil.
8. SlOck, Tht Implications of Lira-aey, es p. pp. 88- 4 0.
I.
C H APT ER ONE
I.
Tht Sa,ings oftk Dmrt fiuhm , trans. Ward, p. 225.
Barasch, Icon, pp. 49-60 ; Menler, '"Bildemurme und Bilderfeindlichhit," pp.

14-29: Baynes, " Idolatry and the Early C hu rch:' pp. 1I6- 4J. esp. 1I7- t9; Bevan, " Idolatry,"
pp. 253-72; and now, generally, Besan~on , L 'imagt inta-dil, pp. 9-10, 2]- 62.
1.
NOTES TO VAGES
II-II
373
Frttdberg, TIN Powtr of Jmdgn. pp. 61-6\; Besan~on, L 'imagt inurdit, pp. 66-68.
4 HO$.Sfdd, "'Du 50lIst dir kei n Bild machen!,''' pp. 15- :4; idem, "Das Werden des
ahestamenllichen Bilderverbms," pp. 11- 22; Freyd. "Du $OilS{ dir kein Bildnis machen," pp.
2}-48; Hane nSlei n, "Die unvergleichliche 'Cesla!!' JHWHs." pp. 49-77; Barasch, Icon, pp.
lj-U; Nichols, 7'M Art ofGod Incarnalt. pp. 3-35.
5. Cla$.Sic Sluemenu of Ihis yicw are von umpenhausen, "The Theological Problem
of Images in the Early Church," pp. 171-toO; Koch, Dit altrhriilfirlu Bildtrfragr; Elliger. Dit
j.
Sulbmg &r altm Ch rislrn ItU &n Biltkrn.

6. Jen~n, Undmtanding Early Christian Art; Finnq. Tilt jnvisibk God; Murray, "An
and Ihe Early Chu rch."
7. The colllinuing impaCi of Jewish book arl has recently been lraced by Kessler,
" Through the Temple Veil," pp. \3-77. See al50 Frey. "La queslion des images ch~ les Juifs
it la lumii:re des TO!cenle! dkouverres." pp. :65-300; Oiringer, TIN Illumina"d Book. pp.
6:-64; Cough. 'I'M Origim ofChriitian Art, pp. 28- 29. Su also the micles cited in n. 4.
8. MacMullen, Paganism in tht Roman Empirt. csp. pp. 1- 48.
9. Justin Martyr, Apologia prima, c. 9, PC 6: J4oA-B; Baynes, "Idolatry," pp. 117-18.
10. Finney. Thr Inrisibk God, pp. 1\- j9. See al50 T hiimmei, Priihgnrhirhu, pp. 27- 42.
II. Mansi. Co ncil ia, 1: II. c. 36. For a discussion Stt Grigg, "Aniconic Worship and Ihe
Apologetic Tradition," pp. 418- H.
It. T1!r History oftlir Churrh. 7.18, trans. William50n. pp. JO I-2.
IJ. James, Tht AplKryphal Nrw Tnramm/, pp. u 8-H. For varyi ng iJllcrprel;ltions of
such apocryphal images. Stt Grabar, Cliristian Iconogrophy, pp. 84-86; Breckenridge, "Apocrypha," 101-9: Th{lmmei, Friihgrschirhlt. pp. 43- 44.
14. Mango. TIN Ar, of tIN BJUlntinr Empift. pp. 16-18. The tCXt is in PG 20: 1145-49.
See al50 Cero. "The True Image of Chrisl," pp. 460- 70.
II. Vita COlIS/amini, 3.49, PC to: 1I09A-B.
16. HiJlOry offlu C/Jurrh, 7.18. IranS. Williamson, p. jOl.
17. Ibid .. p. j02.
18. Tlu Divint Insfifum, l.l. tr~ns. M ~cDonald, pp. 97- 101.
19. Tht Cast AgaillIf tIN Pagans. 6.9, 10. 12- 13. 14. 16. lrans. McCracken. pp. 460- 61,
463- 6j, 466- 67, 468- 70.
20. I'owtr of Imagrf. pp. 19-60, 65. See al50 Finney. Inm'fiblt God. pp. 3- 14.
21. Finnq, TIN Invi,iblt God. pp. 146ff.
n. Jen~n, Undmrandillg Early Christian Art; Janes. God alld Gold; Gough. C/Jrisrian
Art. pp. jl-I)6; C hriste, "Christian Art from Its Origin~ to th e Beginning of rhe Elevtnlh
CcnlUry:' pp. 11- 18: Malhews, Tht Clttsh of Gods, passim; C rabar. Christialllconogrophy, pp.
8-9 1.
1J.
Rcpr~SC nlatiye ~re
von Campenhauscn (aboYc n. 5) and Savramis, "Die aberglau-
bische MiGbrauch," pp. 175-76, 180.

24. Ladner. "The Concepl of Ihe Image," p. 20; Kit7.inger, "The Cull oflm~g<"S in Ih e
Age Befote Iconoclasm," pp. 115- 29; Gl":lbar, Christian Iconography. pp. 21- 36. This thesis has
recent ly been criticized, in ways Ihal arc nOI entirely salisf~clOry. by Malhews, Cf4sh of Gods-.
See Brown's r~oyinY in AB. 77 (1991): 499- 102; BeIJing, Likmrss and p,.~lrnrr. pp. 102- 14.
374
NOTES TO P"GES
IS-I7
25. Ke~ler, "'Pictures Fenilewith Truth:" pp. B-6j, quoution p. $4.

26. Kin.inger, "Cult of Icons,"' pp. 90-91.
27. Dagron, "L' i m~ge de mite ctle portrait." pp. 125-3[; Grabar, "L.e portrait en iconographie paleochrctienne," pp. 87-t09: Belting, Imagr and P.-mna. pp. 78-101. Mo.!l re-cenliy,
S~nde, " The leon ~n d Its Origin in Grae-co- Roman Portraimre," pp. 75-84 who neverthele5S
PUtS the vene ration of icons very f~r back in Christian history by adducing the concept of
syncretism and drawing UnF'C'rsuasive analogies be[Wttn known pag;ln practices and ~lIeged
Ch r isti~n ones.
28. HolI, " Die Anteil der Sryliten am Aufko mm en der Bilderverehrung:' pp. 388-98
rem~ins the da~ic srat ement of this view. Sce also Gendk 'The Role of the Byzantin e Saint
in the Development of the Icon Cult," pp. 181-86.
29. Mathews. Clash ofGods, pp. 25-u8.
JO. B~ynes, "Idolatry and the early Church," p. t26.
31. Brenk, "Visibiliry and (rartial) Invisibiliry." pp. [40-jO.
J2. Cameron, Christianity and rhr Rhrrorie of Empirr, Elsner. Imprrial Ram.. and Chrirtian Triumph. pp. U-[j: idem, Art and thr Roman VirW(r. pa~im; N ecs. Ea rly Mtditr;a/ An,
chs. 1- 4.
JJ. Re-cem dis(lwions are Cormack, Painting 1M Soul, pp. 64-88 and, somewhat more
generally, Lowden, Early Chri>tian and Bywntinr Art. pp. 9-61.
14. Mango. Thr Art of tlu Bywntinr Empiu, p. 47 (PG 32: 149). Thummel, Frnhgrsrhirhu, pp. 53- 55 thinks Basil expressed himself in similes and did no! really diKuss art F'C'r
".
35. PG 26: JJ2 B.
}6. Mango, Tiu Art oftlu Bywntinr Empirr, p. 14 (Dr kitotr Filii rt Spiritus Saneti, PC
46: 57 2Cl.
37. Homi/ia in quodraginto martym. PG 31: j08C-D.
38. Homilia (nromialtira in patwn nOIlrum Mrktium, PG jO: 516: Kal ltavraxou ri]v
dKOVU tiJv aytuv hEtVI]V btaXci()Cl~uV J1oMOl.
39. Frcedberg. Thr POW(r of lmagrs. pp. t62-64: Magui re. Art arut Efaqurna.
40. Mango, Tiu Art of tlu Bywnrinr Empi.r, p. 37 (Oraril1 laudatoria saneri magni mar
tyris Thrruil1ri, PG 46: 737D- 740B). The first portion of the trans lation is Mango's, the
SCi:ond, my own.
41. Maguire, Art and Efaqutna in ByY,llnt;um, pp. 9-t2.
42. A subja:1 brilliantly treated by Cameron, Christianity and tlu RJutorir of Empiff.
Stt ~Iso n. j l ~bove.
43. On Epiphanius 5": ThOmmd, Frnhg(Schirhu. pp. 6j-7J; Maraval, "Epiphanc." pp.
jt-62: Kittinger, "Icons," pp. 91-9j; Baynes, " Idolatry and the early Church." pp. 126- 28;
Mus, "Die ikonoklastisc he Episode in de m Brief Epiphanios und Johannes," pp. 279-86;
HolI, "Die $chriften des Epiphanius grgen die Bildervcrehrung," pp. }'j1-64. Re-cently Spa:k
has, on the grounds of alleged textual an~chrQn isms. argued that what we rc:ld is an eigh th.
century confection, F'C'rhaps by another Hypatius: 'TPAA Il: H rAYAIl:: Zu dem
Fragment dcs Hypati(," pp. 211-72. esp. 22t- 41. I follow the traditional ascription of thesc
fragments to Epiphanius: Thummel. FrnhgtJrhirhu, pp. 10}-12; S~nsterre, "La parok.1e texte
NO T ES TO rAGES 17- H
375
el I'image selon les auteurs byzantins," pp. 104-~. Brubaker and Haldon. Bpmium in tlu
!conodmti. Era. p. In say Ihat the matter " remains a subjeci for fUriher discussion."
44 O!frogorsky, Studim zur Gm-birhu dts bpntinisrlx" Bildcmreitts. pp. 67-71.
45. Oratio Lt5, 11.18.
46. Mango, Tht Art oftht Bpmill( Empire, p.p.
47. [bid., PP' 41-42.
48. !bid., pp. 42-43.
49. Mansi, Concilia, 13: 32C-He. 36A-D. Mango, Tlu Art oftlu Bpmiru Empi", pp.
32-33, has uanslations of [he interpolated versions.
50. Thummel, "Neilos von Ankyra uber die Bilder," pp. 10- 21 and Friihgtschichu, pp.
78-79. Sanstette accepts Thummel's interpretalion: " Parole." p. 204.
51. Mango. Tht Art of flu Bpmi,,' Empire, pp. 4J-44.
~l. Dumeige, Nic;c II. p. 41.
S). Clark, Tht Origmill Controvmy. pp. 43- [04: Schonborn. L 'icone de ChriJt pp. 21- 85.
esp. 7-85; Matht"Ws, Clml} ofGodJ, pp. 17-)3.
j4. Mango, Tht Art oftlu Bpminr Empi", p. [[ 4.
)). !bid .. p. 115.
56. Hypa!ius of Ephesus. Summikta ilumata, ttans. Alexander, "Hypalius of Ephesus."
pp. [78- 81. The remainder of [his arlicle (181- 84) consli!U[es a briefbUl areful asses.sment of
Ihe thought of Hypalius. S also Thiimmel. Friihgmhiclm. pp. t03 -6; Kilzinger, " Icons."
pp. 94, 138: Baynes, "Icons Before Iconoclasm,"' pp. 93-9~: Lange, Bild und Wort. pp. +1-60;
Gero, " Hypatius of Ephesus," pp. 108-16.
57. PG 93= [597B-1609A. There is a new edition (pp. 66-72) with a French Iransblion
(pp. 72-78) in the second of Deroche's articles cited below. I neat this text at $Orne length
because it has not bttn nansialed inlo English. On Leonlius. sec Thummel, Friihgnchi,bu,
pp. 117- 36, 233- 36; Lallge, Bild und Wort, pp. 6t- 76; Baynes, "Icons Before Iconoclasm,"
pp. 97--98. Speck ails into queslion Ihe aUlhent icity of this 100t: "Gtaphais f Glyphais,"
pp. 242-48; "Anthologi~ I'abtina i.1 and des Apsismosaik der Hagia Sophia," pp. 315-22;
"SchweinReisch ulld Bilderku!t." pp. 367ff. Once again I follow Speck's critics: Deroche,
'T~ ulhenlicite de I'Apologie contre les Ju i~ de Liomi05 de Neapolis," pp. 6\5-69; idem.
"L'Apoiogit rontrt fnJuifi," pp. 45-104: Sanmrre. "Parole," p. 205; Mango, "A Byzanline
Hagiographer at Work: Lrontios of Neapolis," pp. l4-41. Mallgo dales Lronti05'S work 10
61O-~0. Thummc! messes lromius's laler inRuence. Most recemly, see Weilmann, Suj,wsion
und Gtgtnwart, Pl" 128-32; Barber, "The Truth in Painting,"' esp. PI" 102~-J}; Brubaker and
Haldoll, Bp",ium in tlx Jconotlmr Era, pp. 151-)3.
5S. Thiimmd, Friihgeschithtt, pp. Jl8- 48.
59. Stephen apparently wrote la[e in Ihe sevemh century. In Rome in about 73t his
wri lillg, or some portion of it, was translaled imo Ladn. In, perhap~, Ihe 7605 Ihe work was
lranslated back into Greek. possibly ill conncction with a council of three Oriemal patriarchs
in Jerusalem. T he fragmems Ihemselves survive in Pari~ BNF MS Gr. Jl15, an icotlophile
Rorilegium [hal was probably prepared in Rome in the early 10 lace 7705. See Alexakis, "Some
Remarks on the Colophon of the Codex PariIinur GratcUS lIt5,"' pp. 131- 43 alld "Stephen of
8oma. Fragmtnta Comra judatoS". A New Edition,"' pp. 45-60. wilh {he edilion PI" 5t- 55
)76
Non. TO tAG" .)_,6
f~Mb<t
~69 .
d<uil, .oJ
Fot m.
Ii..,.,..... io b,,,Wt .oJ HoLIoo. B,u."... 'n tIN
I"~
cun,...... Dkocht. "rwbn"l'" ",';.iu<Wqu<." Pf'. ,.,_6,
60. Dr lo"p'. " )<wo ODd au ........ '" ,h<IIput, ... Em,..,." pp.
"'... ;u , '"
&. Pf'
'1-," tWoo'. ll?-
Stw.'" enu.". Pf'. ...}4I: c:.m.ron. "Byt.ooUneo aod}<o<." Pf'. "<9-74-
6, . I n .o.u. Oon,~ 'h, "",lu of l".><rod..: . nd A lnak~ d".:1 '" 'n . p.nd )9 Ott , h<
otudito oflh&<oo .nd Db""'" tIw fill.In.o.t ,h<..t.oIt of ...l. "of T& M ""l. """"
"",,"<!y. HopI ".. "hU. ... Pf'.
"6-]9. ("... """_ "By"" ,i,,,> ,oJ )<wI.... ~. 6 .... 0\11"., ..;...., pIau~bIt but uuufficitn' .. "" <.<pl."","", of ,h< .n,i,.,...., .,,~udo of ,lit ';m<. Il>obtt. "n.. Truth;" r.;",
;"," add. ,lit nuan ,)", ,lit d~ of
""f ;" "",, 1<..., &;,0:1 """'PO by
hooh Jew> .oJ au ~,i.". '0 """""" ;.Jm,i ..... . "",oJ ,I>< <or'<.,,( tht m"i.aI;,y of itn1fl<>
,p,<i6QI1y ODd ,lit <=<.:1 Mdt< ~Iy
6,. f.tt",sD>"""'. G ,obu. ODd It"Lm -Modu... IJ ..;" An .oti
Pf'. 619- 61
""_ Dr.- N,,,,,,,,,,. U", ...... d<s '''''P''-'' Pf'. '7~"") 1'1 _ .,,(V" '..... "
" ...... ,0:1 "'''' F",och PI'- '79-Si. I _ """"",,, onl~ few
f""" F.. och i.,o
Enp;.h btnuoiot.., ......i'" ,lit funda
n>mul nudy of
i......
&yn ... "Irono fkfoo: IlJltIO<Ium.- 1'1'- ,~6: Ab.ndrt,
"An """'if Sooc, '" 1'0..,.-1..... - pp. '1 ... 60: Mat.!. "Lts! ... "rnboi<o ... do< 6u I ,066,Pr. ,0,-16. It i> ""U '" ",,,,,,.I. h.... and , h< pOO>' ~ mtv.o, donoh<". ,\uo ,h< """''''''
,h,-.dimamoo.1 Utrisri&n i<Ulprur< ~ <>",,,,,1, limitl: Kik.ifh. "So:uIprot< ;" ,II<
Roon<L" f'I'. "---lIf. _ p ~ . ~
61. Akaodt,. - ..... fucrtot. 5, ofl>n<><:bst,: pp. '1, _60 0''''' uonduM by Ak..ntl<,
from tht .... ""'oW. hi<Ky '" tht Co",,",,"" AIb.n .. ", br M""" '" ~nk.,,"jk. p. " .
s.. aI", Thtlrnmd. ~", 1'1', tt,. ')0. and 1'''''9 (tht btt'" pM' of ....... nd<r.
&.pod.
66. Pk ...... I'''o. .. e&.t>.J H,",,~ , . i and ,,,....
On ,lit btiondUp
"""=' Pk_l,..,,.. ...,J . . . . . '" KitDnvr. "I""",:' p. 'Jr. ~ .. " z",. F~ _
.doi<;h <It. 8;1.k",,,,h,,,,,,," f'I'. 60-6" F""""~ TIw r..", <{''""t''. 1'1' '6<-6" J\M>.
sch. Ie pp, 'Il-Wo Lou'h. 'Truly V.m.k Thirw." 1'1', '1- ')'
.7. I A .. Y... p. "'. r", .<>t." ."......;'" ,.II"", ..", <No ' - ' ,I>. ... ';'iop of ['"'.""'~.
mip ")"", f,.,;., maI .. tI ,h"".g. ,,- '" M.,;m., ,lit 0>nf""" . ......, was P""";""'"
. nd eoo,,,,,,,,,;. 1 io tht ........ th ern,,,,), .... Zh""". -Tilt M)~ '" M..;m .. til<
pp. 9-76.
61, M. nsi. Con<il .. , 'I' ,,,,,U-,6,c ..'10" of ,Ix bam _
i> ;. Mon&<>- Tht A"
<{"" fI;ru.,;", &.,iff, pp. 'oo-.' b.i, ! iu", ><><id<1<J , r.,.. I.... ..bOoh .. "",mod .'it<
ThBmto<l. F~, "". ttHo
69. M.n~ . Coocil'" 'J: '111I-'1lA SrtTh ......... f~AIN.bt. . pp. >9-"
",. I ,,,. ,hi, ,,,,,,Jo,,,,,, of . _
r""" ..........i." ~ """" SuIx<. "no.
80Jy ~c,th; " ,II< F, ..... " p. , "
". 1M,"_I. f-...", ~~A. 1'1'. ,)1_ 00. 'j6 ..,7. m-6I, a. .... ,. "TIIt body Wi,~;"
tht Fnmt." PI'-
lU=roi . "no. fon,",,,';p;";'... '" ,I>< Cr.dti."",: f'f" '6<- 66
!I. _.
"r.:..
i""""
A""' __ .
1"'_
So<..,.,
,h"
r.:..
'''''J.
-=.
eoor"",,:'
?-""
NOTES TO rACES l6-Jo
377
and, more generally on Anaslasius, Anastmis, pp. 41 -67: Brubaker, "['ereeplion:' 18-31 and
"Byuntine An in the Ninth Cc:n mry," pp. 70-7S. KaruQnis bdi(Vcs that Anastasills may
have illuslraled his lex l.
71. Mansi, Concilia,
II:
976C-D, c. 73: ed. Nedungan and Falherslone, p. ISS.
of
7J. Mango, TM Art 1M BpAlllin( Empirr, p. ]6.

].t. Mansi, Concilia, 11 : 9860, c. 100; ed. Nedungall and Fe;uherslone, pp. lSo-81.
Mansi. Concilia. II: 977E-98o B; ed. Nedungan and FealherslOne, pp. 161-64.
whose translation I cite. On Ihis passage, sec Ki ttinger, " Icons,"' p. Ill- bul Kininger ~ys
Ihal Lambs were to be "replaced" which is nm Slated nplicidy. Excellent disc ussion in Bar]S.
ber, Fipr( anJ Lilunm, pp. 40-47.

76. Dagron, "u chriSlianisme byuntin," p. 6s: Robin Cormack, WrilinK in Gold, pp.
98-101: Vogt , " Der Streit um das Lamm," pp. IH- 45. adds the idea Ihal Ihe combinalion of
Ihe Lamb and Ihe Forerunner was prophelic and , as such, jewish and t-C[uiv:alent 10 Ihe prople
when lhey were under the Law. Accordingly, images of Christ in His humall form would
indicale Ihe present dispcn~tion Qf"gracc and muh: ' He docs not pursue the qucstion of
whelher or not his Ihesis con"ibules 101 ,1.11 undel$tanding of anti-jewish polemia in the
sevenlh ce nmry.
77. I would emphasiu here Ihal proclaiming the in(;lrR.alion was nOl the $ame as d(Vdoping a ChrislOlogk:1.1 defensc of images, or of deriving Chtistological perspectivcs from the
existence of images. This was done for the first lime in the eighlh century by john of Damascus. as we will
Stt
in lhe neXI chapter.
7
S '" co ns, "s
p. S
79 Ibid., pp. IH -H
8Q. Mango, TM Art of 1M Bpntinc Empirr. p. 1] and n.
s:
Minanoli, .. 'Imago'l
'leona:" pp. JI}- 16; Belting, Li!mm anJ f'mcnrt. pp. 17-19.
81. Cameron. "The ungua.ge of Im:lgc5." pp. 7-9; Kil7.ingcr. " Byuntinc Art in Ihc
Period Between juslinian and Iconoclasm," pp. 48- 49; idem. " On Some Icons of Ihe Sn-enth
Cc:mury:' p. 14\. BUI Brubaker suggCSts thaI ir m~y be hazardous 10 differenlialc tOO sharply
between icons and narralives: "Sacred Image." p. J.
8l. Lilunro and Pmcnrr. p. 16. Bu r Stt also Cormack, Painting 1M Soul, pp. 64- 88 for
wme coge nt remarks on the limitations of sryl istic a!>scssmenlS of icons.
8}. Diebold, Word and ImAKC. p. 98.
84. "Sacred Image. Sacred Po_r." pp. 1-1; " Ruminal;ons on Edible Icons," pp. 47-59.
8S. Allhough Weinmann. Monasl"] of 51. CA,"m",. vol. I. pp. 13-16 thinlu thaI Ihe
icon o( SI. Peler was carried in lilurgical processions.
86. Brubaker, "Sacred Imagc." p. 2.
87. L.iconodulie," in BoespAug and L.ossky. Nirrr II. p. 159
88.
8ilkrlc"~(
und Bilk"""i,, pp. 14-15.

89. /)( moribUl (Iniac (aIIJOii(ac I.H.7S, PL. 31: IH1: "Nov; muhos
C;S$C
~lchrorum
CI piClunrum adoram/a:'
90. Lilunro and f'rncllrt. pp. ]0- 46, 78-101.

91. Mango. TIN Arl of II" Bpmin( Empirr. p. 41.
92. Vikan. "Icon ~ nd Icon I'lety in ~rly Byzantium:' pp. 569- 76: "Uyuntine Pilgrims'
Arl:' pp. 119-66.
);1
~oH'
9). All
To .. ~ .. J ' - H
,hi< io bnu"odr <><>bd Dkl .......ik.l in M>guil<. ~I< . ,,>P<al impl"";"'" ~ <u<h i""'P"'

Env ..."". "7..., V..1:>;",", ~ ()bd..d"." 1'1' ,,-..s.n.. ,1><_;,
~
A" - ' H.J, P..,.... PI' ' - J)' So< >I.., for <h<
po""'" ,.".,..
10 ' '1 .nJ IIf"'1,;"m in M~",.Ad M~. ~ I,...,.

H NI"",., joJ-" ,.,.,,In 0.-.","";'. 1'(; off, 1,691, M,o"". TIr<,.." of"" ~ t-,..,,;... p. ')9, I" !;m ..... I c...m..,k. W"""r in
(",.IJ. 1'1'. <MI.
')6. Ca .......... " I"'W' of "",borily:' pp. )-)1. M<Co<ma. t-......J V~ 1'1'. '00-
".
~7.
' .... p. l,
eo""",", "n.. n..o.oIu:oo in S;"h"".'"'Y eon..'.''''''plt.- rr-
,*. F _ t..
~ . ~ 1 ."fI'"
~d.
79- 1>.
q.......
'.<m<I,n,in<>pk:'
TO;,.." -f<lw Jt.,<.""'" ...,.... p
"""
'00. V", f""""""k. "1" ",1 ck 10 V-I<f@;<:PI',t , _.
,6,-"" Cam.ron. - Im>p and ""d.om1:'
,,,.
I!oyo<c.. -s..,..m.,",,1 o.f<ndn~- pp.

Dwoo...". ,l<tUWnism< brumift:' pp,
c....,." C,,-_J..- 1yuNio. 1'1" )0\-<"
'OJ ,
Cunmx.. n..~ofl".. .. p . ))
'0',
PI'
W- ...
" _:00.
a.<d<ft..... ,v. __ d<o"'f'''P'tJ-
,,,.. Cam<=<. "11"""" of 11>< I".. f~" pp. "'~ rd~ ,hI fa.ci"""t ""'I'
q(!>ow ,I>< .. ~ .... "",oJ of .... <P-I>'Y "",bon" b<cwmo J.w U>d ,iI< ~ iUn,
"i>&u
in",
,n i"""" q( 10...... , by th< L.utd HOrrudf,o
,h.oug.
'",....!
"bp'
,t<>')".oo.,
on in,mn.-d"ry.
,<>\. TIt;, n"'1 it .d.,aI by ,I>< 10 ""h-n'WJ 1'U<m... Papim', 7.....b p.... Pw_
""'~, "- "". aI . 04
\Vo1~i"~'n. p. l6.
,06. Tho- H.9 N..m. '-'0. aI . ............ Wd~; ....... p. ?8
'en. V"" Dubo<hU". Chmt",.;u,.. w. 00-'9<'
I ........ ~ .J p.",,_. !'P.
<]-6" Co>smA (>",'.",,(: <Iw s...J. 1'1'. 9J ...... G>mo>cI< """""'" ,,... ,I>< i""t" <fI by
"""'If ""y . . ,ho "'" now '" a...-.Iood.
,01. rot dil<..- q( i""!;r pr.rnc.... ... Ki,onl"'. " 1"'0>," !'P. ')6 - "" KoUwi ...
Friibgt>dti<-t.,,: p. 6) , Jooi'h I1m;n. TIr< f ........ ~ ofr:t.riM""-. 1'1' J07-ll' Ihgroo.
" I~ ,b ....;.";",,, brun,io:' PI'
,~ IW<,. "J.<\ """V' brun'; .... !'!' 'i?-"L
,,>n.
,..J,,",,
r.-9.
"". "1""" II<f"". '''''""'''...... ~:. 1'1'. "' ....... "1', "10-1".
Tbt Spiri~ ~""' " , ...... WO<1l<}". """- oJ h/" "'"
IIr.
><>'<tI'" ,,,,,ury).,. t"'. 1)0,
,Iu,,,,.,. d.r;-", r",", ,,",
,,' . ijrul,.l." -'m~ I!</OJ< Jo:tn<>C ........ ' .- p. "10 n. )II d'i~ c.y." t..tin Ii,ioo.
,I>< f.na:!;,h '''m .. ';....... at.:..-. R. '''I.
"J- s..- h<Iow PI' .,_ .. fot ,,,. kt,.." q( Pop<" G"V>? 1 '" bi<h<'I' Srnn", ofMor
><ill J""""<>t """", ..... ..r ;,.'ti'> . rounJ 600.
~'"
"0. s..- $''1 .... ,, ', F,"P-"""
.H.
td. Aknki> (.. in n.'9 .bov.).I'I"

"I This ~. """,illy..,..lU"" Th"m",,'" ,,,,,", ;n ~kh", .r'hous/> I .. ,och
<nOt< promi"""", ,t..n ". d.o<o KI ,ho """"'" of '''''I';' ~ "" bt~h oid<.
of ,he ;.ow ~ 7""-
_lu,
NOTES TO PAGES 35-,41
379
116. l'aulinu~, Camlnl 17. Carmina, roo De Hartel. pp. z8~-88. Sec also Dugg:tn. uWas
An Re;llly the' Book of I he III ilerale, '" p. 229: Cam ino-Walaghin, uBib/ia Pallprum . ..
11 7. John Cassi~n, ConflrmCt X.\, cd. Pichery, pp. 78- 79.
118. Dr consnltu rvangrlularum. 1.10. PL 34: 1049. Sec Berli ner. "The Freedom of
Mroieval Art." pp. 173-74; Iksan~on, L'imagr ill/trdil. Pl" t41 - 50; Harrison, Brau? lind
Rrwld lian in liJr TWllght ofSoint Augustint.
119.
Dr Doarina c.1Jriuiana Libn IV, 1.I-j, Ij, cd. Martin. Pl" 32-Jj, 61.
120. Dagron. " Holy Images and Li keness," p. 14.

IZI. Dr Triniraft, 15, 8. 4. 7, ed. Mountain. pp. 17\-76.
111. Setmo 164, PL 38; 1114.
113. Dr grllrs; ad lintram. 11. 6. cd. Zycha, pp. J86 - 87.
114- Miller, "Relics, Rhetoric, and MenIal Spectacles," pp. 28-}6.
Ilj. &
jirk mum invisibilillm ZOo roo van den Hout, Pl'. 1- 2.
126. Rrgula. c. 42, PL 67: 1II6B.

117. Etymologiat. 8.11.4-5, roo Linds:l.Y, vol. I. p. J18.
na. Etymologiar, 1.73.jZ, cd. Lindsay, vol. I. p. 74; 19.16.1 (cf. 16.3.4), vol. 1, np.
IZ9 Sm /rntiarum Libri Trrs, 1. II. 9, PL 83; 6IzB-C.
IJO. Drm libn' iJis/oriarum 2.17, ed. Kru sch and Levison. MGH. SS tM, 1.64-6\.
131. &um libri IJistoriarum, 10.)1. p. jJ5. Venamius Forcunalus, Carmen 10, Opra POrt-
iea, cd. Leo. Pl'. 134- }8. 5.:e Kessler. " I'icwri al Narr:ltive and Church Mission," pp. 75--91.
IJ1.
Woodruff, "The kOllOgraph y and Date of Ihe Mosaics of Ll Dau!":ldc:' Pl" 80-
IJ).
Vidllard-TroiekourofF, Lrs manumrms .rligirux dr la Ga ult; Kn6gcl , Sfbrifiqllrllm
ZII' Kllns/grsehichlt dtT Mrrowingrruil.

'H. Dr gloria martyrum, 11. MG H, SSrM , I.l; II.
13\. Stt his smdy cited in n. IJI.
136. " The Cult of konJ in Sixth -umury Gaul,u pp. 151-j7: essent i:tlly in agrmem i~
Angenendl. Anti- Ikonklasmus." Pl" 1/\- 16. noting, however, (ha( images are marg;n,l compared with relics.
137. Dr glorill martyrum 21, MGH, SSrM,

138. & gloria mllrtyrum 22, MGH , SS rM,
1.2:
1.2:
139. Dr virl. s. Marrini, 1.15, MGH, SSrM,
jl.
51.
1.2,
p. ,97. h was in f3cI Gregory's friend
Vellantius Fortunatus who was curro, 3.1 he himself rda(('S in his own Vila Marrini. 4, MGH.
AA. 4.1 . pp. )69-70.
140. Le Blafll, Inseripliom. vol. I. p. 2J7.
141. H ~id r;ch, "Syrich~s Kirch ~ngemeinden im Frankcnreich im 6. J,hrhundem,u pp.
11- )1.
141. Rltymond Van Dam. Soinf> lind 7hrir Mi.arlrs i" lAir Ami,!ur Gaul. Pl" 4( - 42. n.
143.
Gloryof'h~Mar?n.
6, l!":Im. Van Dam, 1'.17.
14+ Vir/. Jul., 14. MGH, SSrM,
1.2:
39--1 1.
141. Drrams in lAlt Antiquity, p. '0 4.
14- 1,; Gloria martyrum 5, MGH, SS rM , I.Z;
380
NOTES TO PAGES 41 -1 1
146. "The Poet:LI Visionary," She extends this argumeJl( in " Images as 'Mysteries,'''
147. "Im~gej in TeXIs:' quot~tion at p. [0[.
148. Gregory I. R,!istrum EpisloMrum, 9.w8,
roo
Ewald ~nd Hartmann, MGH. Epp.,

I, p. [95. Sec also Duggan, "Book of Ihe Illiterate," with [he older literatu re. The 001 study
of the~ Icncrs. wi[h even mQre or thc li[eralUre, is Ch~l.dle. "PiClUfCS, Books. and Ihe illiterates," pp. 138-H. On [he important mallcr of [he rhetorical style of [he~ letten, sec Banniard,
"Langages et styles de Gregoire Ie Grand," pp. 29-46, es p. 37- 38.
149. Rtgisl,um EpimJlarum. 11.10, ed. Ewald and H~r1mann , pp. 169-7 2.
[So. Drum libT; "tit., 2.[0, MGH, SSrM, 1.2: 5S-60.
CH .... PT ER TWO
I.
Ludovico Anlonio MuralOri. Olllh, Tnu Drvotion to Chrisl, qUOIed by Belting, Lilrt-
nNS and {'rfUnCf, p. 77 (with n. 8), p. 16)).

2. Two oumanding books lay OUI current thinking effcctively: Haldon. Byuntium in
rlu Slwmh CtnlUry; Whinow. T/" Making oJOrtlwdox Byunrium.
3. Fowden, Empi" 10 CummunWfalth.

4. Dagron, "l,(- christianisme byzanlin," p. 93.
5. Cormack, Writing in Guid, pp. 47-49; Behing, Liktnro and PrNtnrt, pp. 225-26.
6. Dagron. "Lc chrislianisme byzantin," p. t09.
7. Mansi. Concilia, [3' w8B-C.
8. Sevcenko, "leons in the Liturgy," pp. 45-17: Beck. " Von der Fragwiltdigkcit der
lkone," pp. 33- 35; Schreiner, "Ocr byzantinische Bilderstreit," p. )B. Cf. Sah:l.l. /con and
Logos, p. 14' "The icon ~nd thc word :I.fc in no [ension with each other. The icon scrves:LI a
reminder of and as a commentary upon the Scriptures and h:LI always been an integral pan
of the IilUrgical, didactic, and m iMionary mi nistry of Ihe Church" (my emphasis).
9. Mango, "Historical Introduction," p. 4; Lowdcn. furfy Christian and Bywntinl AT/,
pp. 101- 41 passim.
10. Schreiner. " Bildersttcil," pp. 380- 81.
II. "Perichoresis: The Christology or [he Icon," pp. 67-8S.
n. Melhodios, Archbishop of T hyate ria and Gr~at Briuin, "Icons in Palf;stic Theology
and Spiri[uality Eastern and Western," pp. 17- 12.
13. Iron and Logos. p. s. A similarly ahislOrical view is taken by Konstantinidcs. "Die
Theologie der lkone," pp. 42-P. who says thaI an icon makes a holy person "present" and
,hal [he icon is in one sen ~ independent or historiaol COllleXI and in another sense serves
alone 10 imerprcJ comexl. A!}1in and a!}1in he speaks of " the Orthodox {(adition" without
any reference to historical ci rcumstances.
14. Tiu Tluolog oj1M !ron, p. S.
[i. Painring till Soul, pp. 20, 46.
[6. Hetherington. trans. Painurs ManuaL pp. I- IV: BeiJing, LikmrJS and PwmC(, pp.
17-19. Sec also Cormack, Painting Ihl Sou/, pp. 29-30.
17. Mansi, Concilia. lr 2i2B--C
[S. Most prominently: Gr~bar, L 'iCOl/{xlasmr bywntin. p. 300; Cormack, "Paiming after
Iconoclasm," in Breyer ~ nd Herrin, iconoclasm, pp. I'P-55: de' M ~fTei, lcolla. piffOrt T arlT al
conrilio Nicm o /I, pp. 69-lS, 81-86.
19. Convincingly demonSH:llffl by Yi~nni:.u, " A Rttnminalion of ,he 'AI! Sutule' in
Ihe Aru of Nicaca 11 ," pp. }48-S9.
10. Ikl ling, Lilttnro lind f'm,nu, pp. 19-11: Thllmmcl, Bifdn{,hrt und Bildnltrrit. pp.
}s-J7
11. Besan~n , L 'imagr inlf,diu, p. 158.
H . Nicephoru~, SI}(m Hi/rory. ce. 59-60, ed. and mns. Mango. pp. 129- JI. Pp. 8- 12 of
Ih is work discuss Ihe problems involved in dal ing Ihe lexl. Sec aoo Brubaker and Haldon,
Bpnlium in tIN /amllClast E",. pp. 171-71.
Ij. Thcophana, a,ron"f;Nphi4. ed. de ikM>t, pp. 401-lj. I eile Ihe Ir:msblion of Mango
~nd ScOIl , TIN Chronic~ of 7"/,n}phan(J Gmf(JJO'. pp. m. 558, 559-61, 56j-6s. For Ihe basic
details on fhe Beser, Yaid. ClC., see V:.uili cv, " The lconocl::\SIic EdiCl ofY:uid 11:' On Thcophanes. Brubaker ~nd Ha ldon, Bywnlium ill 1M ICOlloclasl E,a, pp. 168-71.
1+ Lift ofS/(phm tM Youllgrr, c. 10, ed. Autepy, pp. 100-101, French Ir:.ms. pp. ' 9J--94.
Sec Brubaker ~nd Haldon. Bywnl;um ;11 lIN lconl)(last Era. pp. 2l6-1 7 wi lh rich bibliog.
raphy.
15. Ciled by Kazhda n and Tal bor, " Women and Iconoclasm." p. j9z.
16. S,,,odico,, Vt"(us, ce. 147,1 48, ed. Duffy and Parker, pp. IH- 4 .
17. Vi/a Grwn'j /I, ce. IJ-r6, l P, cd. Duchesne, I: 40 j- 4; for general detai ls see Noble,
Tht Ntpub/ic of St. {'ttt,. PI" 18-40.
IH. lP, ed. Duchcme, I; 404: Davis, lrans., TIlt /.ivrs ofllit Eighth-Cm/ury Popt"S (/.ibn
POnlifiralis), no. 91, c. 17, p. " (my transl~tion differs from D~vis' s in one or two impol!am
ways).
19. Davis. /.ivrs. no. 91, ce. 18-4, PI'. 1}- I6.
jO. D~vis, Liurl. no. 91., ce. 1.-4, PI'. 19-11.
JI. Mansi, Concilia, II: 959-82. Cf. Jaffe. Rp, nos. 1180. 1181. Caspar assellcd Ihe basic
~ul hcmiciry of Ihe lexts and supplied an edition Ihal imp roved on Ihal of Mansi: " Papst
G regor [I. ulld der Bildemreif:' pp. 29-89 (edi,ion, pp. 68- 89). Gouilb rd provides fhe hc~,
ed it ion of the teXIS. along with a French lransbtion and a superb commemary which m ~ kCli
d c:lr the problems wilh Ihe IUtS: "Aux origines de I'iconoclasme: Ie I':rnoinage de G regoi re
m'" pp. l 4J- J07 (Mi lio n, pp. 176-107). The primary defender of Ihe aUlhenl iciry or Ihe
[ellers is Gron., " Bcobachlungen zu den zwd Brieren Paps' G rcgors II. ~n Kaiser Leo [lL,"
pp. 9-40: " Weilere Bcobachlungen 1.U den zwd Brieren PapSI Grcgors [I. an Ka iJer Leo 111.:'
PI" j6S-7S: " Die friiheste rl)rn ische Slellungnahrne," Iso-61. For a review or Ihe issues and
comprehensive bibliography see Come, Rrgmo ddlt (tttrrt. PI" 46-79. For Ihe moS! fc<;;efll
ugu menlS ag:.i rlSl the ~u t hemicilY of fhe [eHers see Michels. "Zur Echlhdt der Briefe Papsl
Gregors [ I. an KaiJer Leo 11 \"" 376--91 and Vogl, " Ocr $Ircil urn das lam m."' 145-49; Wei lm~nn . Su/tzmion u"d Gwnwtl" , PI" 175- 77. Aleu kis. Conn: {'arisjnus GrtlHUJ, pp. loS-10,
119- 1J, does nOI finall y co mm it himJelf on the 3uthemici ry of Ihe ICl ters bUI he does show
Ihal Ihey mu~' h~ve been prelrcd before 754 and thaI some m~leri als U fafll before 7}1 in
iconophile Aorilcgia appeu in the lellefS. T here slill see m to me 10 be so many problems wilh
Ihe le~l ~ of Ihcse lellers Ihal I decline (0 dr::lw 1C~l ill1 on y from them. Onl y a critical edition
of the aria of II Nioea will, perhaps, resolve the maile r one way or Ihe m her.
,1. Mansi, Concilia, Ij: 91C-lOoA; Jaffe. RP , no. USI.

n.
]0.
For Ihese Ihree
lefl~rs Stt
Mi<:hek
" Eo;hd\~il ,"
p. JSi
Brubaker and Haldon. Bpnlium in 11K (",nlast rll. p.
177
lJ. Mansi, Concilia. IJ: looB-l o~A Uohn), L05S-loSA (Conslanlin~). roSA- 1I8A
rrh om2l}. Th~te is a good discuss ion ofrhese lencrs in Thiimmd. Frilhg($(hirhtr, pp. 159-71
bUI
he datn them 710-16. Mosl reml y on Germanus and these Iwers: Siein, "Germanos,"
pp. II- IS. Spk, " Die Afl'are um Konmlllin ," pp. li8-H, argue! thaI German U5 and Con
slanline "'~rc cucnlially in agreement and that the 5lion$ of Germanus's lener Ihat appear
to support Ihe vcncr:l.lion of imagn are laler imerpolations, I am sympathetic 10 this point
but nor convinced by Ihis argument,
,... I am indined to acecpl [he argumcms o f Stein for daling Germanus' leuer to
T hom as in about 729: lkr !kginn dn bywnlinischrn Bild","riln, pp. i - 8S, Spk argun
Ihal Ihe leiter dales from Ihe 7405 and is riddled with later interpobtions:
Arta~s,
pp.
167-Sr and again in his Irh hin i nirhl, Kais,r KtmJlllnrin iSI n grwmn. pp. t6.1- 67. Siein,
"Germanos." pp. 13-15 agrees than the IClt er to Thomas is a bit bIer than the ones to Constanline and John. and that it may have been tampcrcd wilh al some bter lime. Slill, he
believes Ihal Ihe letter i.! official in char;r.cler and CSSl'ntiaily authemi<:.
35 , Dr harrnihw rt rynoJis, ce. ~ O- ~I , Pl 9S:nA- 80A.

Dr IMrrnihus rt ryniis, c. 41, Pl 98: SoA-C, On this lexl Stt Gouillard, " l'h~rb;ie
dans I'empire byzamin dn origins au XIl'sitde," pp. }06-7; Dagron, "u chrislianisme
byzanlin," p. [17; Siein, /h, &ginn , pp. 161-68 .
.17. (Antra imaginu", ralumn;alOffl ~T{/ti~n($ tTn. ..d. KOller. Eng. tr;1ns. ].oulh. For a
genenl account of John's role in the ieonoclaslic comroversy KC Louth, St. Joh" DamdJet'lt
and my "John Damascene and the History of Ihe Iconoclastic CAn!loversy," pp. 9~-1I6.
3S. KOller, Srh,ijim, pp. 6-7 lays OUI the mdilional chronology. Loulh. in Ihe !n!lO'
duction 10 his tnnsbrion of the Thrtt Trratim, p. 10 dales no. I 10 716-30, no. 2 10 7.10 or
shortly afler, and no. J to the early 74as. Sp k argues Ihal 311 three Orluio"f were wriHen
belWeen 7il and 750 but hold.! OUI the possibiliry of ~ date after 751: ArtahaJJM, pp. 179- 143.
This view has not met with acceptance. Schrei ner. " Bildentfci[," p. )1' pronounces the
mailer unsenlcd. Alcxakis. CMtIt PlZrisinus GratnlS, p, 115 don nol commit himself except 10
say " the end of Ihe second (if nOI Ihe beginning of the third) quaner of the eighth cenfury,"
Mosl recently Brub.iker and Haldon. Bpalllium in 11K Ic~nlasl E,a. pp. l~8- iO Opt for a
d3te in the 7i OS for all three. I certain ly agree on the third Orali~n bUI I believe [hat Ihe
mher IWO arc earlier.
39. Orario}, c. [, cd. Kotter, p. 65 (!I:ms. l.outh. p. 19).
i O. Oral;o I, c. t, cd. KOller, p. 66 (lI,ms. Louth. pp. 19-10) Where Louth renders Ihe
Greek wotds quot..d above as " the word of a king" I have altempt..d 10 catch both the liten!
and idrological force of OwltiOltUm, a commo n word in 'mpcrial diplo mas where ifS use
is m(:lnt 10 suggest Ihe divine inspir:uion of imperial pronounments. ~ Dolg~t, " Di~
Kaiserurkunde det Byzantinet als Ausd ruck ih rer politiKhen Anschauungen," p. 1J.
il . Oral;O 11, c. 11,..d. KOller , p, 101 (Inns. LoUlh. p. 6S).
~2 . Oratio 11. c. 16, ..d. KOller. p. II) (Ifans. louth, p. n ).
4'. Oralio fI, c. \2, cd. Ko[ter , p. [0, (Inns. louth, p. 69).
,6.
NOTES TO I'AGI!5 ~8- 6[
J8J
..... Oralio I, c. 3, ed. KO ll er, p. 67.

4S. Oralio II, c. 4, ed. KOller. p. 7[ (nans. Louth, p. 61).
46. Oratio I, c. I!J. ed. KOller , p. !J4 (u;tns. LoUlh. p. pl.
41. The point has bcc:n 50 comprehensively argued Ih~1 il "',Quld be oliosc 10 cile all Ihe
cont ributions. The siro ngesl C;t$C for a formal do:cr in 716 ;s Ana.nos. "Leo Ill's Edic[
AVinst Imagcs." For a vukly of reasons schobrs have been skeplical: Beck. "The Grk
Church in Ihe Epoch of Iconoclasm," p. 28; Gero, HJUlminr IronlKLum During rh, R,i!!, of
Lro III. PI" 94-IOS: Mmgo, " H iSloricallnlrodUClion." p. 1: Stein, lkr &ginll. Pl" IJ8-n:
Spec k. " Wei lere Oberlegungen lmd UflInmchungen ilbcr die Orsp ru nge dc, b)'7.anlinischen
Renaisunce," p. 99.
48. ChrislOphilopulu. "5ilemion," PI" 79-8S, esp. So-81. For [he ~ge in Ihe Lift of
Su/,hm lIN Young<'Tsec c. ,,0, nl AuUpy, pp. 13!J- 40' French t~ns. p. 1l\.
"!J. Gero, Bpmint lronorwm in tIN Rti"., ofLn
PI" 8S-87 sayslh~ ICllers "r('Ve-a]
Ihe exiSlence of an active iconodaslic movement in cerlain parIS of Asia Minor" (I" 87). I
think Ihis is an eugger:uion of Ihe d~ree of iCQnophobia present [here and Ihe sources
simpl y do nOI prove OVert iconoc l;um.
SO. Barnard, TIN GmoR(lmlln lind Oritntal &".g"lI."d (If tIN IronlKlmtir G)l/tTOWTJ}
by! OUI Ihe c::;ue for Jewish and Muslim inAuencc on Leo. Speck's Ith bin i nitht r('Veals mO$I
of Ihe rc.uons why ttnt c::;ue cannot stand. Sec also Dagron, "lc chrislianisme b)'7.alllin." PI"
m.
tOI-l
Sl. The gre~t sllIdy remains Mango, Uu BraUII Houst, pp. 108-[8, wherc the ClCiSlence
of Ihe image, and Leo's destruction of il. is basicalJy accepted. Belting. U.mt/J alld I'rtsmu,
p. 119 follows Mango. Speck was among Ihe first to suggcsl a legend: iVliSt'f Komlallfin VI, p.
601. In her oommenl~ry on Thcophancs, Rochow accepts Spn:k's views and adds some of
hc,t own: BJUu i", 8. jllhrhulI(im in tkr Sicht tin ThMp/ulnn. pp. II S-[8. The mOSI d('Va5ta1
ing crilic of Ihe l~di[ionaJ view is Auupy, "La desuuCiion de I'icone du Chtisl ~" PI" ,"~-9t.
\2. V;11l Sttphimi. c. 10, ed. Auupy, p. 100 (French trans. p. 193). Th is is, incidel1laUy.
[he lim source to mention the dewuCiion of the image.
H. The one exception mighl be Comllllllillopir ill llit Ellrly Eighth Ctll/ury: H" I'aras
l;oscis SynlOmoi Ch ronibi. c. sb, cd, umeron and Her/in. p. 61: l i"l~ OwvbQt)lli~ til(6v~
tOU ' h}OOu XQtotoii. Bu[ AUzipy thinks this is a lenlh.century il1lctpobtion ("La destruc
lion." p. 446) whereas [hc editolJ of fhe text, while acknowledging [hal this portion of Ihe
PllrllJlllJtis w:as filled;n Ialct. think Ihe malerial may be authentic. pp. 6. 17.
H. Germanus to Thomas ofCbudiopolis: PC 98: t8SA: Mansi, Concilia, Ir t4E-11SA.
55. LI' I: ,.l6-1'l (Irans. D~vis. pp. 35-10). For [he enCOUnlcr wil h Co nSlamine Va nd
[he gift of the esl3te$ ofNimfa and Norma, cd. ci[ .. c. 10. p. m (Davis. p. 46).
56. Rouan (Auupy). "Unc Iccture ' iconod;ute' de I~ vic <rE[ icnnc Ie Jcune," 419. For
all inun peruining 10 Ihis important IClCt sec now the in lroduCiion 10 Auupy's ed i1 ion. pp.
S-60
51. On the reign of ConSlantine sec now Rochow, KIliur KOIISlllntin V (74'-77$) and
Whi[IOw, 11" M'lii,,! 0fO"IHml(lx BJUmium. 1)1" IH-64 passim. Among older works $(e
Lombard. ConslIlmin V: Omogorsky. Himry. PP' 161- 75; H ussey, Thr O"lwdox Churtli in
Ibr Bplll/int Empi". pp. j8-4".
j&.t
NOTI';$ TO PACES
61 - 61
511. In chmnologiCiI order thtsC' arc: (I) G>rge of Cyprus. NOUIMill tt"'ntM pni Ion
alion ~ilronon, ed. Mdioranskij. I have nOI had acctlS 10 this edition. Dumeigc, Nick II,
discusses this text (p p.1I8-90) and provides extracts in a French Innsblion (pp. 1j2-}6). For
additional discussion see: Gem, Comlantillt V, pp. 25-36; Speck, Bin 's lIirbl. pp. 565-67.
Tradit io nally the work is dated to around 754 and held 10 be a source for no. 1 below.
Aluakis. CAdn: Parisinus G.aw, pp. nO- IS. shows thaI Ihese cwo tOIS arc intcrdep!'ndcnl
and Ihat ,hc Naur~ia is a "cUI-and-pulc" job that dr~ eit her on No.2 or on a common
sourcc and Ihat it probably dales from the late 760s. (2) AdvnsUJ u,nrtanlinum C.""Uinum.
PC \15: )09- 44. The prinred version is wrongly allribuled
John Damascene. "fhc, tex , is

composile: At ils ~ is p!'rhaps a synodical 1eller of Patriarch john of jerusalem (cc. t, 1';)
(0
wrillen in 7)0. This was turned into a shorl version, p!'rhaps al Rome. shordy beforc 769 (cc.
1-7. 9, II, '7, 15). The longer version w:u prepared jusl before [I NiCica in 787. This is ,he
rcconmuCiion of Auzepy, ''L'Adversus Conmnlinum Caballinum," pp. }Ij- jll, which 1 accep' ucerl Ihat she Ihinks Ihe long version was p~parcd in ' :otrasius's enlO urage whereas I
thi nk that the texI's biller denund alio n of Conslantine V fi ts beuer in the ycars before
Tarasius became palriarch because, as we will 5 below, he handled Constantine very taCI
fully. Speck. Bill S lIithl, pp. Ij9-90 anempts to make a
on the same sourcelsl u!icd by Ihe
Noul~ia
ClSC
for an early section dep!'nding
and Ihen expanded redaclions in Ihe early nimh
century and again after "4}. Th is is aU quile ingenious but unconvincing. For further discussion 5: Gero, u,mtantint V, p. 17; Dumdge, Nick II. pp. 95--97; Dagron, '" I.e christianisme
byunlin." p. tl7; L:.ngc, BiU und WOn, pp. "U-57. (j) john of jerusalem, AJvnsuJ iconq-
rimtm, I'G 96: IHSC-I}61D. This work , which may nm Ix by John of Jerusalem. appears to
datt from about 770. It is mainly a theological p:utich~ and contains fcwc:r del3ib ,han Ih~
first !Wo. For discussion 5 D U I1\~ig~, p. 95 and Dagron, p. 117.
59. Stephen the D~acon. Lift of SltplNII Ihr You"gtr, ~d. A llZ~PY' pp. 117-178, wit h an
e~ten $ivcly annotated French lramlalion, pp. 179- 177. In addition 10 Auzkpy'$ " Introduction " and annOlalions, there are sevenl good diKussionl of thi, tex l; Gill, "The life of
Stephen the Younger by Slephen the IXacon," pp. 114-'9; Scvecnko , "Hagiography of the
Iconoclast Period," pp. 11,-)1, a p. 115-16; Huxley, "On Ihe Vita ofSI. S,,~phen Ihe Younger."
pp. 97-108; and the ankle by Rouan (., Auzipy) in n. 56 above. The Lift w;u written in
aboulllo9 but could dale from 807.
60. The so-called Ptusris ulracled by Omogorsky, Sludim. from thc ninlh <cntury
writ ings of Nicephorus. We shall retlJrn 10 these lex lS below.
61. The council f.i1hers al II Nicaea devOled Iheir sixlh cession to a vcrbalim rcci lation
and lenglhy refutalion of Ihe docul11cnu of Ih e Council of Hiercia: Mallsi. Concilia. ' }'
20'-354
61. Shorr HistDry, c. 64, cd. Mango, p. 1}S.
6j. Chronirlr, anno 6lJj, lrans. Mango, p. 575 (ed. de Boor, p. 41 5).
64. Histtlry of1M Byzami."t S'Il/t, p. 16~.

65. Gero, u,nstantint V. pp. 15-17 (quonlion p. 17). The key sludy is Speck, Anllbmdm,
whO$C chief 2Ccom plishmenl is a r~ision of Ihe chronology of the revoll from Ihe Ir.>ditional
741- 4110 7-41- 41. Sec also Rochow. "AnastasiOli," pp. 4 - 19.
66. Chronirlr, anno 61}S, lrans. Mango, p. 5115 (ed. de Boor, pp. 4Z2- lj).
NOTES TO "AGES
6 1-67
J81
67. Shorr History, c. 67, ed. Mango, pp. 1}9-41.

68. Bin s nicht, pp. 94- 101 on ConSI'lnli ne V and pp. 98-104 where he suggem Ihal
Anaslasius may have iSiiUed some SOrl of decree againsl images. Rochow, An:asu.'liw," p. Z7.
nOla [hal [h is is:ill w njeclUrc. For my pari, I observe how J[riking i[ is that later iconophile
wri[en did nOI anribllle iwnod:asm 10 An:aslasius.
6<). Ad"..nus Gm st. o.b., c. 11, PC 9S' H]C-HOB.
70. N"ullmia, [rans. Dumdge. p. z}Z.
71. Lift ofStrplnll tin Young". cc. 14. z6, cd. Auzepy, pp. 110. I II (IT. Fr. pp. l IZ.
114- 11).
71. Chronir~. anno 6144 (751-P). tnns. Mango, p. 59' .

7J. Am;". 1. 19, PC 100: I}M - B.
74. NOUtMW, Inns. Dumcige, pp. I)l-H
71. Lift ofSttphm lin t'IIungtr. c. 16, ed. Auupy, pp. lU- l1.
76. T'lr:uius, A/X1WgtrirUJ ad pop"/,,m a TaraJio. Mansi, Concilia, 11: 990A. T his lext
stands in the prefalOl)' materi al 10 II Nicaea and, as it is not registtred by Grumd. Ri-gmN,
there is re:lliOn 10 SUSpI if. I ca nnol indepC'nden ily verify ils aut henticity.
77. Mansi. Concilia, I}: n6C- D.
78. Mansi. Concilia. tj: }14D- E; In flS. Sahas. Iron and { 'p. pp. 14j-44.
79. Mansi, Concilia. I}: }18C; Inns. SMtas. /((m and iopIs, p. 147.
80. Britf History, C, 71. Inns. Mango, p. 145.
81. Maflsi, Concilia, I ): 319E. HIB, D- E.
81. LP I: 464Sj. C haranis. " The Mon k :as an Element of Byzantine Sociel)'," pp. 6j-84; Riflgr05C,
" Monks and Sociel)' in Iw m:x:lastic Byzantium," pp. ' jO-51. Chann is was drawing on an
:m ide of Brehier [hal iden ti fied Ihe forty,fi ve monk' p<llriarchs :as having officialed in Ihe
yean between 7Cl'5 and [104: " Lc recruitment des palriarchcs de Co nsl'lnt inople pendant La
~riode
byzanli ne," pp. 111-17.

84. Mango. "51. Arll husia of Manlincon and Ihe Fam ily of Constantine V," pp. 41--9;
Au~epy. I.a vit ditinmt It ftunt. p. 37.
8\. 8r;if' History, c. 80. ed. Mango. p. lB.
86. Clmm;ck, anno 615j. lrans. Mango. p. W8.
87. Lift ojSuphrn tiN Younp, ed. Au1ipy. ~Siiim.
88. Short History. c. 8. ed. Mango. p. 155.
89. Chronick, aflno 6117, Inns. Mango. p. 604 (ed. de Boor. pp. 4j6-}7).
90. Thromri ktos. Lift of N;mm. Co jO, M SS. April I, pp. z60E- 26IA. Sec Sevecnko.
" Hagiography of Ihe kOflOcl:l51 Period," p. u8.
91. Niccphonu, Br;tf Hillory, c. 8}, ed. Mango. p. ' 51; Throphancs, Chronidt. anno
6217. [rans. Mango, p. 60\. Sec Rochow, Throphann. pp. 186- 89, 191.
91. Throphanes, Chroni(~. anno 6z6}. Inns. Man go. p. 615.
9). The mos[ pC'netr.lling analysis of these dc-vdupmerlls is Rouan. "Une 1lure ' konod:l5IC,'" pp. 4ZO-Jj. The most ra:e fll dicus.s ion is Rochow. Komtalllin V. pp. W-68.
Many disCllssioflS of Ihe anacks Ofl monks go back [0 a famous art icle by PCler Brown.
"A Dark,Agc C risis." pp. I- H . Amid many poi nled obSl:rvaJions. Brown offered IWO b:uic
J86
NOTES T O PA CES
67-70
in(erpreu tion~:
monks Were a ccntriJXul force: at a time of imJXrial ce:nTral izat ion and monks
we:re OIpccially dcvoted to icons and Ihe 1)()$S('sso rs o f many fa mous ones so that " iconomachy
in practice: was monachomachy." Brown's argument about ccntcr and periphery won some
suppon. for instance: from Mrweiler. " Thc Geography of It!.: Iconoela5lic World." pp. 11-17.
but .sttms 1m prominent loday. Brown's usociation of icon om achy and monachomachy hu
not been ace:epled: Gem. " Byzantine: Iconoclum and MonOIChomaehy," pp. l.4t- 48; idem,
CO fl!tantinr V. pp. t2t-42: Sch reine r. '"Bilders"eit." pp. 35Z-S8; Th u mmel, .'0.:, b)'1.antinische Bilderstreit," pp. 9- 40' esp. t6ff. Stt also the articln by Charanis and Ringrose in n. 8J.
Generally there is a consensus that the atlack on the monks WaJ political and institutional,
and pcrhap:s eoonomic.
94. Nice:phorus, S/xm HinD']. c. 8t, ed. Mango, p. ISS; Theophana, Chronirk, an no
61S7, trans. Mango, pp. 6o.f-S. 606 n. s. On I'auiarch Constantine generally .stt Rochow,
" Konslant inos II," pp. JO-44 and on his deposi lion, pp. 37fT.
9S. Whitlow, Orthodox Byzantium, pp. 144- 47.
96. I e.ssentially follow Ihe rt'COnslruction of Auzepy, Ln vir d'tirnnr k /tunt. pp.
IS- 42. although I do nOI think Ihat she fully rcsolvOi all the chronological problems,
97. Theodore of Stud ion. UIiNlIill S. PilltllniJ Hiso"mrni. PG 99: 8osA-849A.
?fl. The elm ic siudy of religious pcI"SCCution in the iconoclutic era, which began Ihe
procOiS of moder.uing adier lurid accounts, is Alo:under, "Rel igious Pe1lUtion and Rnistancc in Ihe Byza ntine: Empire." pp. 2}8-6". Al re:ady Lombard, ColIJranr;" V. pp. 15/-5] had
argued for rOlIr.lint in in(erpreting the persecu tions, Stt also Mango, " H i.Storical Imroductio n," p. 4 and Sevcenko. " Hagiogr.lphy of the Iconod:m Period,' p. Its: Dagron. "Lc christianisme byzantin," pp. 112-14: Rochow, Throplumts, pp. 1l8ff., 186- 88; Auzi'py. " La place: des
moina i Nidc II ,"' pp. 6 -7.
99, Mansi, Conci lia. IJ: 187A-1910,
TOO.
Rodley. Bpntinr An ilrui ATthiffflllr" p. 1l6, wilh the observalion that "Olher-
wise the damage iJ dacribcd in su~piciously general terms."

TOI. Mango, " Histo rical Intraduction," p. 4; Schreiner, Bilderstrcil," pp.
observes that the story about the replacement of the images of the
si~
38~-89,
who
councils may be a
or
literary dupliCltion the removal of the image of Ihe si xth council by Phi lippicus Bardanes;
Speck, Kaistr KII"SfIlniin VI, pp. 71-72.
tOl. Belting, Lilunrss arui i'rrsmrr. pp. tH -}5; Breckenridge, Tk NllmiJ_"i, /ronor;raph, "f/UJlink", II; idem, " The Iconocwu' Image of Ch risl," pp. j-8; Bertolini, Figllra wlul
qU4 Chrimu dnignalur, pp. ~-12. lZ- J6. Moorh ead. " Iconoclasm, Ihe Cross and the Impcria l
Image" argues , hat iconcia51l1 sparked a cu lt or lhe cross and , hat its origins lie in the er.l o f
Conslan line the Great.
IOJ. The-ophanes, Chronil"k, anno 61j9, tralU. Mango, PI'. 611, 611 nn. 14, Ij (ed. de
Boor. p. oWJ).
to". Maffei, /ronil, pirro" t artt al ConciN" Nirrnll II. pp. 9J- I04. Khludov Psalter, rol.
671, rq"odU(cU many lima, most recently in Evans and Wixom. cds.. Tk Glory of Bpnrium, p. 97.
JOS Mango, " H iSTO rical ImroduCli on,"' 4: Rodley. Byzanlinr Art. pp. 126-27.
TOO. Schreiner. " BildNsmit." p. J87; Dagron, " Lc christianisme byzantin, PI'. 108-9.
Ik<k. "F"f:W\Irdi~;,:' PI'
,,-)6 :HId. ch" i, ,rn<kJ 'Q "" ch, <:>Idt,. nOOk. ,,<Il...tuc..od
""hod,,. dngy .. t., J.,~

gon< ..... 5...;m
anJ ,,"hmal ,t..
'-""">,..,i",, V i" 7\< up '" .
L,u~.,
......."'" ,,,,",,, elm<. nuy ......
po;M"'. ,b"" ,,= ~ ..i" .. '0 ..... w m<r
p~ '" !!"
'OJ". C.."nrl.. - rt.. Art, Duno~ "" AI;< '" 1<00,,<1><1"."" pp.
,oil. Kuhd.u> . nd M't"i. H_.phic>l To,,:' '" BruI:>ak<,. "Brunn"" Cuh"",:
pp,66_61.
'<>9. r", Th""l'b,"" ,""""M of )",,', "'iv> "'" 0-.1<. ,,.,.... Man!!", Pr 6w--),
wtI"<
,,-<..
""" ""';"6 ...... """''' '" ,ftt, "'5" '" I"" 0 l>unteis<. Ntd.II. I'f'- ?'t-'OO' Sp1o.. ~.
<i- 'Oj' Roch_. '~.~ . ,,~, D'II'0n. "1 .. dui"i,,,,,",, brun"":' pp.
"' -.~ On Pm,,"'" P,.I ... Ih. "P.. ..,. IV:' PI' ,0,6.
""_ ~. C/mt"'-", " ..... M,,,,!!u. p. 6'1, <;td"" ... H~c-,...n....
"'''''w VI. I'f"
.... I!dd.n."
'<;-10
'Q
K....,.,"',.
"' . Sp~.
1'1. rr. ,6-j1l .. J Wh"..-. ~ ~"'''' pp. ' . ....
...;,~ tIt<"Id" Ii",,'u .... F", "'"" of ,I>< okIt. vi<w> > Ru""im.". "1"" ~.mp""" II<'>< ,ftt,
.0.,1>< ..... - PI' ,ol_,f. H",,'-, " , .... iMI, """'I" '" ~ .,,)11"" "" f""i<ul.u- J.r..w. ..
ofitJlO!;<'- "" "''''''''' .nd hi'" in I""" in f..,l r Ch,i .. i,""y.- pp. I~ -IJ. I:>u, "" " ......... ~
jUl' ,,,., ,hin ... ,h< ,<tid< by KD.hd.n .... T. lb.,t ("""""_ , ,1"-' "",,",,.,i<Wr_
" . J;" <IIJ>0aIf)-
r:nod ......""'n" of ! "n" pttoO'' 'n. "" lI,n'o.
Ifo.- i. I'o~.
1'1'. 1'-' <9". \\>loi"".... ~ ~....n" .... "". '<9-1'" Speck. ~.,;. <7. f'II. '<>1- '7.
T~. n..1Ip-'"'' &v....J., f'I'- '''19
"). ~ a...""[,,, '...... M"W,. I'I' . ,6- ), (q_ " .... p. 6,61_
"" _t..--. 'n...,t.mn. 1'1" ..6. 1.00- . " II""'Y' (~a.,,~. p. 1:
p. 6,. 1~. s,...,;", 1Ini.. ~ f'II. 7<-n, T..-..lpd. p. J9'J iii. p ...... id<,
Jddi,ion ..,.,K<>, <i, la""..... in ,uPl"'" "',I.( ,...ti,.."... ......
"I 0. ...",[". ,..... M,"p', p. ~!" Cf. ,I>< r..,- ,Iu, in h~ ''1'"'' ro. ;foI1, n-.f'lun<> m.... y ..id "'....."" pot>U> btpn '" ' ..... t"'j~: 8<><n in "9'" 701.0, lb<opIwI<>
......... <y<Wi,,,,,,,..-..l """"; .... p>nic,fW" in ,.... 11<" """" of ,I>< ;-$ot: ..., M.'W',
<np<<b ;mmdocriooo. PI'- , li.--1ii, h--lvi
,,6. Srk. "-"'~"" VI. 1'1'. ,06 - )9 , " I'. ')1-)1, su.",i".,. 'ft,IoJ.-,,,,,i,: pp. )<1- <6,
T.....tgoId. s,..""", ~..J, 1'\'. 6)-'1" ".
'1'''".,,,,<1.
B"""""".
~ s,..m;. .. ,~ . '10HI . ~. ''''''- Man"". p. 6),_
'W M, ....
o-;'.., ",,.,.~ . 1 .... <l.<<< af A"~""
'"', ,.. h., ...... Y' ""'" """
<<ptm 1JOivr.~. 110. 1<" Du_. Ntd.II. p, ,00. M>>IKIII<.""n ii Adti..., I

< il """~'" di Nit:<. 4d 7i 7:' p_ .. ) "_ , bdiev<o d"" ,I>< I<tlff m..., do" f,om ;1\ brt.oUk,
t.. ,hinb. ,h, ko-"" ~ "'. pica "'; ,h T=~", ', tyn<><liool ""II,, ,ha, mUl'.ta", f",m;l\ ,..d
o.c...K H..dh ... , "'pO .... ~~, not ~" i".., ~ ,iJ Cktubt, ,6,
\on&- M..,eo'MIf
,hinlt.. ,~., kI,,, of .0._, ,~,.... n....
C<>rt,,~ . s... '" ~_,..
Up/<"" n.. flo .... 1'1'- )9----<
1>". M,"~. c.....il ... " . 916/1, c..."an';n"m I""""""" .."" i..... ~ .. <pi"""",,,,
Lroo"m"n Chn.." . ... biI~ SiciI ... ""',... in...!o.. qu<n> ;..., """,i, f'-''''''' ...... buti
,...do. odJu. ;mUl :HI ...". <I foci<...t f..... '" Ioqoo<n", 1Ii""i.... <um f"-"'; """" V<""'-
..
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'"'VI"""''' '" "'"
j88
NOTES TO PAGES 7 j - n
bili jussion~:!.d vos ... porro llanctimss imum epi5Copum Nc:apoli!anum om nino ten.,r~ habel.
u! cu m ip$O :lSC~nderet hue." Marlin. HiJfory. p. 811 n. ) lakes these references to m!':ln th:!.!
Paul w;lS forced [0 abdical~ and that Irene was looking far afield for a replacement, [h~
bishops of Cons!antinople's region having been !aimed. This view is plausib le but runs far
ahead of !he evidence.
p. [77.
Thcophancs, Ommi(u, mills. Mango, pp. 6}l-)J. For a fine discussion ofTar.uius
IU. Bpntin~Statt,
l t l.
Stt
Ludwig, " Tuuios," pp. 57-loB.

llj. Mansi, Coneili:!., 99OA: nvt~ Oi oAiyot t WV av9Qoltwv aVEjXtllovlO.
!14. Hadrian to Irene :!.nd Con5l:!.ntine, Mansi, Condli:!., !1: IOSSA- 1071B, !O]}A.-
1076 D; 10 Tuasius, 1078C-loB4D. The inid:!.1 section of the fint leller rcf~n:nccd hen: ClUes
in both Luin :!.nd Greek, whereas the second section e:tists only in u tin. It is in this utin
section that Hadrian ' s shup crideisms arc exprcs.scd. Tradition:ally i[ is argued that this section
was su ppressed in [he public re:!.d ing of [he lener at Nicaea in 787 so as 10 Hoid raising
thomy issues between E:is[ and West and com promising the position of Tarasius. The lener
to Tarasius mentions only the ma[terofhis elevation from !he l:!.ity but does so in rather mild
terms and sap !hat, given T:!.rasius' c:videlll orthodoxy, H:l.drian accepts him. W:allach, " The
Greek :!.nd utili Versions o f II Nicaea, 787, and the Synodi~a of H:l.drian I V 1448)," pp.
j-16 argues that the whole Luin venion (Had.i:!,II 's otigin:alJ was transla!ed into Greek and
r!':ld in 787 but !lu.t [h~ Greek veniOil w:!.s truncated in 858 [0 avoid creating problems for
Ignati us, another man elc:v;ued from [h~ I:lY state to the p:llriarchal dignity. Wallach's argum~nu arc Jc:l.rned but lu.v~ 1101 won much f3vor (Tradgold, for iru!ance, Rpnti," RnJival,
p. 400 n. 98 cites W:!.1I3ch wilhout C(Jmmelll and Hussey, Orthodox Ch"rrh. p. 46 auumcs
suppression; Lamben, "Studien lur Obcrlieferung der Ainen des VII. Okumenischen Konlils," pp. 4[- 41 shows [hal Wallach 's arguments res!ed on sh:l.ky foundations as to !extual
hislory, b,,[ that he may nevertheless have been oorre<::t about a later alteration of !he letter).
S"rely there W:lS:lS much rea$On 10 avoid potenti:al insul ts and tumults in 787 as in 858 :lnd
[he references to pap:al patrimonies and episcop<li ordinations cannOt have had much mc;ln ing
in 8S8 whereas they were S1ill live issues in 787. Still, il is odd th:!.t [he C(J nciliar re<::ords hne
the a,,!hen!icating (alimony of Ih~ p:l.pal lc-galC:s after the po]X"'s lellen were re:l.d in 787 if
[hose lell~1"$ h:!.d been significantly altered. M:!.nsi, Coneili:!., [onD. loSjE-toB6A. Sec now
Uphus, CHr Horos, pp. 41 -10, 50-B, cucnt i:ally upholding tradition:l.l interpretations.
[11. On this monastery Stt Sansterre, Ln moinn grm n orimrawc II Rom~, I; 11- 19.
!16. Sans!erre, Moinngrm.! ; 118; D:l.gron. " L..c chrislianism~ brunt in," pp. [ll- lj.
!17. Henry, " lniti:l.1 bstern ASSCSSlllen!s of the Seventh Ecumenical Coullcil," pp.
78-79 notes (he (aicul:!.[ed ambiguiry of Hadrian's response. suggesting [hat all the pope was
willing to do was C(Jun[enance Ihe repudialion of 714.
!lB. A poinl (over-)em phasizcd by Maccarrone. "Adriano e il cancilio di Nicea," pp.
4j)- j9 s]X":!.king of " "n:!. unossa biunt ina," 4'}6. 111- 14, j [5, and passim. For a mon: reserved
view Stt Dagron, " Lc chriuianisme bruntin," pp. Ijl- jj.
119. Tn:adgold, Bpntin, RnJilNlI, pp. 78-79.
Ijo. There arc tWO accoUntS which C(Jm plement each OIher: 'Incophanes, Chronicu,
IranS. Mango, p. 6j5; Synt;raphf Syntomor, Mansi, Coneilia, u ; ?9OB---99!D. Sec Trcadgold,
Bpnli,u R~lJival, pp. 78-81.
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NOTES TO r A GES
164.
16\.
166.
167.
168.
169.
9 1-9 <4
391
KOller. Srhriftrn, vo l. ), pp. 10-U; Nikol~u, " Oie Ikonenverehrung:' pp. 1}8-6j.
o,picting lIN Word, p. [66.
& ./y ChriS/ill" lI"d B,Zll'l,i"T Art, pp. [jO-jl.
lA /Ju Ji,i,,,,,, It /'''11(, p. [79 n. z.
" The Concrp[ of [he Image," pp. <4-1. 8-9.
" "Wha[ Was [he lconocb5tic Con[roveny Abou[ ~" pp. 16- 3[.
170. K""u db Mtdi"m, pp. 45-70.

171. Jevlic. "L'icone ({ L' lncarnalion," pp. 161-70 is a good example of Ihe reigning
confusion on Ihis IOpic. He shows b.:yond comravtnlion [hal Joh n imroduccd Ihe fundamen[al C hrislOlogical Ihem" in a IItrious way bUi concludes [hal Ihat argumcnu had always
been pratnt .
171. " Dcr Bilderweil und die KunSI-Lchren def byuntini.schcn und ab.:ndl~ndischcn
ThCQlogie," pp. 1-2). "Po p. 8 n. n. John refen 10 [he incarnalion many limC$, e.g. 1.4, 9,
16, }.6. Oralio }.12 is especially revealing of [he caS! of John's Ihought: "Reveren tl y we honor
and worship His bodily form , and by comemplaling His bodily form, we form a nOlion, as
far as is ~ible for us, of lhis glory of His divinity."' C f. j.l4. S abo Sch(lnborn , L 'idmt tk
Cl/rill. pp. 191- 100 and Parry, o,pirting lIN Word, pp. 70-80.
17). Here I follow my "john Damascene and Ihe H islory of Ihe lconoc!;Ulic Contraveny."' pp. IOZ- 4. p. II} n. H wi[h funher li[erulire.
174. Crucial on Ihe Aorilegiu m and on [he manuscrip[s is KOller, !Xhnftrn, vol. }, pp.
24-H and }4-}9.
17S. Nnra!!ah, Sai", /rdll it Dama;. p. 9S.
176. " D isp ul:l.lions. Polemical U[ erallire and Ihe Formalion of Opinion in Ihe Early
Byumine ['eriad," pp. 91- 108 and "Telt! 015 Wcaporu; Polemic in Ihe Byumine Dark AgC$:'
pp. 198-1Ij, Sec also Gray, " The Sd1 Falhen," 11-)6. An elcdlem survey of the emergence
of AorilTa in church councib is Alenkis, CtHin: ParisinWl Gramu, pp. 1-41 .
In. HisloryofDogma, yol. 4, p. 26[.
' 78. T his ugumem is al Ihe hearr of his CMIX f'ariJi"us Gratr"J. bUI sec esp. PI"
2Ij- 26. H is b.:lief [hal Had rian senl 'he no version 10 Conmillinople is based on his rc~ding
of LIl, [. SII - [l bll[ I am not su re whether he hOIS asked pcr Ics[imonia Scripul~nlm IItU
tradi!ionum probabilium ~Irum" 10 carry 100 much Weighl.
' 79. Sec Hennq>hof, TrxlWl Bpmi1lOJ, P(Wli, '''''frags. 14[-6,. pp. 51-H. PtWl;' I/o:
frags . 16l-70, pp. 54-5j; Brief C.llraCIJ of Ihe Inn arc given in French [ransbdon in Dumeigc,
NitiY II, pp. 129- 1l, al mos[ all of Ihe fragments (from HennephoO along wi[h a good Germ~n [lOlns!Jtion arc giyen in Rochow, Komranrill V. pp. 177-88. Hennephof thoughl Ihal
[here was ~ thi rd PtUS;, and he giv~ :ulJilion~1 fragments Ihll he b.:lieves derive from ;[ (Nos.
171- 87. pp. SS-S7j. This view has nOi won acceptance: Gero. "No[~ on BYUlliine Iconoclasm
in the Eigh[h Ccmury." p. 18 n. 6; idem, Omslanl;n( V, p. 37 n. I; Rochow. KOllJtanli" V,
p. 46. Generally on Ihe PTllft;' 5tt Gero, Om"a1l' ;1I' V, pp. )7-S1; Rochow, Kolltta1lrj1l V,
pp. <43 - 48; Chifar. Das VII. lilt"mrniKhr K01lvl ""n Niltaia, pp. 61-64.
[80. Thcosu.riklos, I.ift of Nimas of MtdiltiOIl , c. 19, MSS. April . p. z61 A with nOle
g, p. 16.D (sec Hennephof, fr:lg. 140, p. 51) l (1IUl(OiOEl(O A.OyibQIO. Gero, Cl1l11lam;n~ V,
p. )9, Itochow, KOlllt",,,in V. p. 4j
}91
NOTES TO PACES
94-97
181. OSlmgorsky (Studim, p. II) assumed Ih al the fr.lgments accuralely repr~ nt Con~[;Inti ne 's Ihought whereas Gem (Constlmtinr V, pp. }8-}9} has doubts.
181.. The firs! rwo of [hac were diseus.scd above (pp. 6z-6}). The th ird (PG '}6: [USC1}6[D) datCS from amu nd no and mayor may nOI be by John of }crusalem whose- name
stands at thc h~d M ignc's edition. Sec Schriencr, " Bildermcil," p. }z6; Speck, Bi" j Nirht,
or
PP579- 6 35.
18}. Parry's discuss ion of ,his abstruse issue is p.m ;cul arly dear: Drpirti"g th, Word. pp.
99- 1I }.
184. Os[rogorsky. Stud;,n, pp. 1}-17 Ihought Cons[antine poorly educued and rather
crude in his thtology bUI Ihis view can be countered, as by Rochow, Ktmstllnti" V, pp. 47-48
and by Gero, (;("'111l",j,,( I/, p. 40.
ISS. O n H ieteia generaJly. 5 Gero, <Anstll",j,,( V, pp. B-IIO (wi[h an Engl ish 1[;I/1$lalion of [he 1HiTt1J, pp. 68-94); Rochow, Komlll",;n V, pp. 48-55; Chifal, Das VII. Konti/. pp.
67--90. a Ihough[ful and insightful sllldy marred by lIS insimnce [hal CoIl5[am ine V and
Hiereia were essemially monoph ysite. Th is was Owogo rsky's thesis but it has not been embraced.
tS6. Gem, <Ans",,,,j,,r I/, pp. 100-101 believes that H iereia saw th is argument as " irrcJevan l.
IS7. Iconophile sources confir m Ihat th~ i5iiUCS were: among Ihe key ones raised:
NOUIMill, lrans. Dumcige, p. 1.14: Adv. Cllns. Cab., c. 4, PC 95: }17C- D ; Adv. IcOIlfKlastaJ,
c. 1, PC 96: I149C.
188. Hel pful is Gem, "The Euchari stic Doctr;ne of th e Byzanti ne konocbm and Its
Sources," pp. 4-22. Sec also Breckenridge, "[COnOClasIS' Image of C hris[;' pp. }-8.
189. Gem, Cllnstllntjnr I/, pp. 95. 106.
190. The author of [hc m:alisc Adu. Cons. Cab .. c. 3. PC 95: ,I}D saw th is as a key i$Sue:
"So why, wicked herel ic, do you call me an idola[or~" Sec also c. 7, col. j~ and cf. NflUI~
li(l, trans. Dumeige, p. lll.
191. Ba rber, Fjprr (llId Ulrmffl, pp. 77-SI.
19z. For confirmatio n: Adu. COIlS. Cab., CC. j, 9, PG 95: }15B-D, jI7A-B, J1S B-C: Adv.
Iro"oriIlJI4$, C. j. PC 96: ' lp B. Sec also An astOJ, " T he Ethical Theary oflmagcs,"' pp. 151-66.
193. Flomvsky, "Origen, Eusebius and the Iconoclastic Con lroversy," pp. 77-96 argues
Ihat il Willi nOi so much Pb[onism as Ori~nism, as mediated by Eusebius, Ihat influenced
Ihe iconoclasts. It is nOi clnr [hat Ihert really is an Origt niSI slreak in iconoclast thought ,
however. Sec Gem, Comllintillt V. pp. 10-4 -1.
t94. Here [ d isagrc~ with Gem {Constalllinr V, p. 4[ ) and Schllnoorn (L lcO"e tit ChriS/,
pp. 170-78) who ugue [hal Con5tanJine V made the COn/rove/sy C hristoJogical. I wo uld
ugue that in light of John's thought [hose who opposed images had to move onlO anOlher
track than idolatry.
[95. Nkcphoru$, AlltirrIKti!roi. 1.j, PC 100: 14oB-C.
196. C. 16, PC 96: /j6tA.
197. C. [So PC 9S: jJlA-C. Joh n and G regory were: also ci[e.::! in H ieleia's florilcgium :
197A, }ooA-B.
198. Adu. CflllJ. Czb.. C. 1, pc, 95: 311A-JI3B; Ad~.lrollotlaslas, CC. 4- 1l. PC 96: [HZCIl60A.
'9')- N~
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J96
NOTES TO ['AGES
11 7 -11 9
ness" can only mean seizures uf properry thus explai ning rClrosptively the use of" malitia"
by Stephen II in nO. tl. Finally in nos. J6 and 37. pp. 543- 50, which will b.: discussed in
delail below (pp. 141- 43) Paul finally mcmions imagcs ex plicilly. His sub~uem letlen again
drop th e subj=t. Su the pop<: co ntinually ask'l for tnritorial sc<:urity in Italy, occasionally
mentions in vague language thaI thc Greek'l are heretics, and on one occasion (Ienen 36 and
J7 are rdated) mention s images. See also Spk. Kalla Ln> Ill. pp. 603- 35.
11. JE. nos. 2174- ;61. Thc dubious leners arc registered as nos. 1180- 82.
22. Noble, "A New Look at the t iber Puntificalis," pp. 147- 58.
2;. LP
l.
404: [ cite the translation of Davis (with a modesl change), EiglJtlJ-Cmtury
Pops, p. tl.
408- 10.
25. MCH, Cone., 2: 87 comains much of whal remain s of Actio Quarta (bul see below
4. LI'
l.
p. 00) of the Roman Synod. It is in the Lift of Stephen !II (LI' I: 476-77) that we find a
much fuller account.
26. Hadrianum, I. 5. ll, 1. 19. pp. 15, 19, 51. The leuer is edited by H ampe in MCH.
Epp., 5. EKA J, pp. 5-57. I shall hereafter refer to it as .. Hadrianum" and cite it by section
and page number.
27. We will return
10
some of these details ""low. For now sce Ha rtmann, DieSynoden
da Karolingeruit, pp. 40-4}.
28. LP 1. 415; trans. Davis. p. t9.

19. [bid . l. 416; trans. Davis, p. 20.
JO. [bid., 1. 477. [n the life of Stephen III. where it m ats the Roman Synod of 769. we
read: "Hacc vem omnia promulg:ua cominuo et diversa sanctomm patmm teslimonia de
s.acris irnaginibus .. . in eodem adlata sunt concilio." The Hadrianum (1. 5, p. 15) s.ays,
"domnus Cregorius papa secundus iunior ... multorum s.;rnctorum patrum tcstimonia roborantes. "
JI. There is a voluminous literature on Ihis subject bUI nothing is bener than Sansterre.
Ln moinn f,"1l
t"I
orientaux J Rome. See also Alexakis. Codex Paminus Gratcw. pp. 217-60.
J2. L:l.nne. "Rome et les images sa intes.'" pp. 172 and 174 n. 4t suggests that becauiie
Cregory III was of Syrian extraction, because St. Saba was one of Rome's most important
monasteries and maintained close relations with Mar-Saba which was John of Dam:ascus's
monastery. it is possible that John's inAuence was felt in Rome at an carly date. This imerpretation is not impossible. but given our fragmentary knowledge ofCregory's palri~tic dossier
! see no way 10 verify it. Moreover.;u I have pointed OUI el:;ewhere. John 's writings cannot
be shown to have been known in Rome until some (Xtram wcre copied there in around 760:
"The Declining Knowledge ofGteck." 59.
LP t. 476- 77.
14. Werminghoff. who edited the records for the Roman Council of 769 for the MCH.
published only one patristic extract from the pseudo-Athanasian Quamionn ad AntioclJum
J).
ductm on Ih e basis of (he manuscript that he viewed (MGH, Cone . 2, no. '4. p. 87) but
EWhringcr (""Zwei Fragmentc," 93- 101, frag. cd., pp. 102-3) found a longer fragment of the
same extract in a manuscript that eso,p<:d Werminghoff (BL Add., t6t43, fols. 4r- 6v). Werminghoff also worked carefully through Hadrian's lener to Charlemagne of 793- the Hadria-
NOTES TO PAGES 11'~116
397
num-~nd found in it several more exuacts thai. on the b~is of Hadri~n's own words, seem
cerlain to have come from the sy llod of 769's repetition of the sYllod of 731. These extr:lCfS
add a biblical passage alld fou r patristic texts, Alexakis thell worked through Ihe Hadrianum
alld added cwo more biblical paSSOlges alld three palrislic leXlS (Coda PariJ;nuJ GrarcuJ, pp,
3,)~40). To this list I think i( is possible to add a reference to Gregory ['5 letter 10 Serenus
bc.:ause this also appe:ars in the Hadrianum (I. t, pp. 4I- 43) alld was used around 731 by
Bede who drew upon Romall sources. Because one text apIXars in both the Hadri~num alld
Hadrian's letter of 785 to ConSlalllille VI and I relle, Alexakis thinks that cwdve more exuacts
in the latter may derive from 7Jt and 76') (Coda PariJinus GrarruJ, p. 39). In fact, A1exakis
missed IWO extr:lCI! Ihat appo:ar in bOlh papal letters: The letter of Gregory to Serenus ~nd
the wera of EmIXror Constantine IV to ropo: Donus in 678 (Mansi. Coneilia. 12. 1073B;
Hadrianum. I. 7, p. 17), I think Alexakis missed anoth er one that appears in both sources:
Gregory of Nyssa, Dr tUila/( Filii ( l SpirilUl Sanrli (Mansi, COllcilia, 12. t066B; Hadrianum,
t. 37, p. 33). In Ihe latter source Ihis passage apIXars this way: "Sanclus Cyrilllls Alexandlinus
rt SanrruJ Grrgarius Nil(nUS uno lenore in istoria Abrahae pro :>:tcrls imaginibus veneratione
dixerunt" (emphasis added). Gregory's texl deals wilh images in an important way whereas
{he larra of 678 docs nOl. Walbch (Dipwmatir Studirl, pp. 2,), J9) identifies three additional
teXIs Ihal apIXar in Hadrian's leller of 785 but nOt in his letter of 793. Alexakis does not
include these in his list even though they would appear to belong there according 10 his
melhodology and one of Ihem, from Ihe Artus Silvmri, apIXars in the iconophile Aorilegium
that he so painstakingly rcronstruclS (Coda Par;l;nUJ GrarruJ, "Appendix II." no. 124, p.
333). I think it man prudent to hold the count at cwclve and to Omil the cwdve additional
paSS3ges adduced by Alnakis, or Ihe addilional si xleen if Wallach 's four new ones ~re added
by using A1exakis's melhod, or even seventeen if my pas:>:tge from Gregory of Nyssa is included.
)5. l[> I. 4)1.
)6. l[> t. 46), 464; trans. Davis, pp. 80, 81.
37. Codrx Caro/inus, no. J6. cd. Gundlach, pp. 544-45.
38. Noble, "[>aradoxes and [>ossibilities in Ihe Sources for Roman Society in the urly
Middle Ages," Pl" H-81.
)9. lr I, 41 7; trans. Davis, pp. 12- 2).
40. Mordek, " Rom. Brum und die Franken im 8. Jahrhundert," pp. ll)- \6; textllJ46, edilion 147-56; date device, p. t47, left column. Hartm~nn. Synodrn, p. 42 n. 17 says
Mordek should nOI be so certain bcause only the MS has any kind of date device and
perh~ps the copyisl left OUI the emperor's regnal years. It may be signific:.ulI Ihal the Roman
Synod of 745 again dated by imIXrial years: MG H, Cone.. 2, no. \. p. 37. The Synod of 769
then dated " reB"ante Domino noStro JtSU Ch risto": ibid .. no. 14. p. 79.
41. Mordek, "Rom. Brum and die Franken." p. 1l7.
41. This was Ihe position I took in T/)r Rrpubf;r oj St. P(t(r even before Mordek published his impomnt article on the synod of 732. The chief rep reselllativc of the old view that
Ihe papacy in (his period remained fundament~lIy loyal 10 Ihe empire is llewellyn, "The
Popes and the Conslitution in the Eighth Cemury," pp. 42-67 and also in an "Afterword"
10 a 1994 reprint of his book Ramr in I/)r Dark Agrl.
398
NOTE S TO PAG F. S 113~[30
43. LI' I. 418-19: "piclUra'i."

44. Mdograni, .ole pillUrc," pp. 161- 78.
45. Andaloro, " la dauzione." p. 168.
46. ll' l. 4[7-[8, 419-20, 4u.
47. O~bornc. "Court Culture. PI" Zl7- 18; KrnUlhemer, Rom~, PI" 110- 2[; Haldon and
Ward- Perkins, "Evidence from Rome," PI" 186-96; Speck, Uo JIl, PI" 604-5, 6[6-17
48. Herklotz, "Campu~ laternncn~is," p. 38; Ficthlenau, " Brunt und die Pf312 tU
Aachen," p. 43
49. lP I. 431; see also Davi~'~ notes, Eighrh--Cmtu'} POj>(s, PI" 44-45; Osborne, "Papal
Court Culture," PI'. 213- 29,
50. lP I. 376. Sec Palazzo and Johansson, "Jalonsliturgiqucs," pp. 15-34
51. On this image sec !kiting, Imagt and Lilunns, PI'. 64-68; Wolf, Sa/ItS Populi Romani, PI" 38- 44: Grisar, SanctD Sanctorum, PI" 14, 39-54
52, A pilgrim's guidc from Ihe period 635-45 (flinn-aria Rlmwna IV: Ecriniat QlUlt infUS
&mlU habmtur, p. 321) says, "Basilicae quac appelblUr Sancia Maria Trnmtibelis; ibi CSI
imago sanClac Mariae quae per se facta CSI." Andoloro and Barber (sec below n. 76) ta ke this
seriously as documcming an early dale for Ihe "Madonna della Cle menz;l," although Barber
allows that Ihe exlant image could be a copy whereas Andoloro Ihinks Ihe image ilself must
be from Ihe sixlh cenml)' and [hal Ihe pilgrim reference merely proves that the image was
alrcady in place in Ihe 640S. I am dubious about the proba[ivc value of [he pilgrim Icrerencc
becausc it is so starkly isolated and, 3$ far 3$ I know. unique before 753.
53. lP
I.
464-65.
54. Angenendt, "Anti- lkonoklasmus," PI" 207-8.
55. Andoloro, " II 'liber PomificaJis' e la qucslione delle immagini." PI'. 70-72.
56. Ulunns and Pmm{(, pp. 47-48.
57. Andoloro, "II' liber Pontificalis' c la qUCSlionc delle immagini," PI'. 73- 76; C roquison, " l 'iconogrnphie chrilienne ii Rome," PI" 535- 606.
58. God and Gold in Llt( Antiquity.
59. See above p. IS, and p. 374 n. 31.
60. lawrence, "Maria Regina"; Cccchelli, Maltr Christi, vol. I, PI'. 80-83, 309-12; Nilgen, "Maria Regina"; Osborne, "Early Medi~1 Painting in San Clemente"; Ihm, Dir Programm -ur chmrlichm Apsismahri, PI" 51-68; Stroll, " Maria Regina."
61. Dated to the mid-eigh[h cenmry on paleographical ground~: C ray, " Paleography of
latin Inscriptions," p. H.
62. Sec s.v. "Mappa," Oxford Dictionary of Byumtium, 2: 1294.
63. Osborne, "[mages oflhe Mother of God," p. 140.
64. Wolf, Salus Populi Romani, p. 119 with the older literature.
65. Osborne, "MothcrofGod," p. 136.
66. Wolf, Sa/ItS Populi Romani, p. 120: Osborne, "MOIher of Cod." p. 140.
67. Brenk, SantD Man'a Maggiort.
68. Klauser, " Rom und der Kul! dcr GottcsmUller Maria"; Cameron. "Th~ Early Cult
of the Virgin," pp. j -t5.
69 l1'
I.
317.
NOTES TO rAGES
I}O-I}I
399
70. LP I. 376.
71. Osborne, "MmherofGod," p. 139.
72. In Lau&m IU$tini, I. jl-B, ed. C~mcron, p. 49 (u:ans. p. 95). Cf. the prob~bly
sixth...::emury "Akathistos Hymn,"" trans. Geanakoplos. Bywlllium. pp. 193-95: " To Thee.
protn: tr c~ . . ..
73 Mango. "Constantinople as Theowkoupolis," pp. 17-25: Frolow. "Di-diCice de
Constantinople," pp. 69-72, 89-IOt; Baynes. "Superna!Ural Defenders of Constantinople";
Cameron, "Images of Authori!),."
74. Belting. Ulrmm and Prmncr. p. 63.
7\. I conclude this from a survey of the images in Ladner. I'apstbildnissr. Sec also Osborne. 'The Portrait of Pope 1..tO IV." The last example before John VII is the image of
Honorius I (61\-38) in the apse of Sant'Agnese.
76. Bertdli, Trtl1uwrr, pp. 80- 86 remains the authoritative view but Cecchelli, Maltr
Christi, vol. I, pp. 54-\5 had already argued for John VII. Wolf. Salus Populi Romani, pp.
120-21 adheres to Bertelli's view. Amato, Effigir, pp. 2j-}2 is more cautious and docs 11m
take a firm stand. Andoloro, "La datazione della tavola di S. Maria in Trasteverc" pp. 139-2t5
holds (or a si ~th-century date. Barber, "Early Representations of the Mother of God," pp.
258-59 docs not rejn:t Andoloro's arguments bur docs say that the extant image could be 3
copy and that early medieval viewers would not have been puzzled or diStre~ed by a supposcd
lack o( authentici!),. For my part, I think that Ihe fOmparllluia put the picture in the eighth
century and point to John VlJ as the pope represented. This issue has nOt yet been setlled.
77. Romadli and Nordhagcn. Santa Maria ;" 7'tl1uvcrr. pp. }1-}6 for a survey of th e
history of the paintings in th is building.
78. LP I. }85.
79. Wolf, Salw Pop uli Romani, pp. 120, m ; also, SanStcrre, "Jean VII," pp. )77- 88.
80. Ladner, Papslbildniru, p. 90; Romanelli and Nordhagen, Santa Mana Allliqua. p.
..
,6.
8t. Ltdner,l'apslbildnwt . pp. 90-94: Wolf. Salus Populi Romani, p. tn: Belting. "Commissions," p. t5: Lawrence. "MariJ Regina," p. 161.
82. "Anti- I konoklasmu~," pp. 201-9.
83. On th e deacronrics, Noble, Rtpubfir o[S,. Pmr, pp. 2)I- H.
84. Some example~ from Lt U1rrl1mrmdir~ gri1pnm, ed. Deshusse~: PutifiCition (February 2): nO. tI6, p. 124: "intercedentc be:ata semper virginc Mari~e. " Annunci~tion (March
Ij): no. t40, p. 128: "ut qui vere earn genetriccm dei crcdimus eius apud Ie imerce~ionibus
adiuvcmur." Assumption (Augusl J\): no. 660, p. 262: "imereessionis eius auxilio ~ nomis
iniquitatibus rc~urgamus " ; nO. 662, p. 262: "genetficis filii tui domini nost ri intercessione
salvcmur": no. 663. p. 26}; "subveniat domine plebei tuac dei gcnetrici$ or::uio": no. 664, p.
263: "a malis immincntibus cius interccssione libremur." Nativi!), of Mary (September 8):
no. 680, p. 268: "eius imerccssionibu$ complacatlls Ie de if1$tantibus pe riculis eruamul."
8\. Belting. "Commissions," pp. t4- J\.
86. Miles, Imag~ tl1 InIiglJt, pp. )I-H, noting that the image might dircct thollgh($ to
Mary, to Christ. or {Q the pope and that where the pope;5 concerned it ;s either his subjn:tion
to Mary or his intercession with her that might be not iced. She quotes the phr::l5l' "detachahle
conclusion" from Frary, "Logic of Icons," p. }98.
NOT . . TO PAG . . l Jl- 'J 7
I,. Ctnl<,.. IGOp .,.j a...,;, ....... pp

""",,"~... 1'1" ,_to
" ......
U.
oqm.m.. tioru
.... "tz,
.... ;.!to." PI' 11)-76. '9'-91' Nobk. - M>iO"II of P>p.d
i_ ,"
1W<n<." pp. 6'-71.
'JO. Romand(; and N~.~ M ..... 11.,_. p . ,. 1 "","nnI ,b" "''''.....,
<Jf oJ>.,. hoi., by """" ;.' 1""';0" io '997.... , ] ..., IHK<d ,h..u , .... , 010 "'" "f'P'2' ,~h.,-"
"""" ......, ..,.". of oh<m. Tht- """" """, M. ,;,"
nido<r. So. 0.-"". poihI1
s..... S....""". Clt><onob of San V>kn<i_ aypt ofs..." c....n.. o.mi>no .,.j S..,U,
Ioino, Oobom<. - Modo<. ofGod. pp. '.'_.,.
9'. n.~ ;, one oi "'" pd;ns """" of h;,. ~..w
-J """_. So. ...,
M4"''''' 1!.- ]"'.. of thnr &.6t1. <>p. pp. \-<1. >ithoup '" ;. tAjn& .bou, th, p<riod
foIlo>o,i~ ~m . Rorn>ndi ...I N~ .50 ... M ... 1I.n,-. p. ,6 "Y " probabI,o-
w-..
<i&l"h
"",u')".
9' :;.,. ~ . -M>pho>non."
9).
Oif-i ~<fs,..-."
,,~.
n- ......-,..d ...l "'1'rod..:.d in ......"" ~ """ #. po<U<>.
9. JW,.o. - L.Jfu.m di Twt", .. " I. )1-1\. n. 7' - '1".

9' 1Iut><,. "ilq>>tn .. ,"'" of 'k< M",k of",,,,." pp. 'n- '';' ",,-60.
96. Bdoin&- "!:in< P,;..,wpdl.... M.oN... "La <:>p<lb <Ii TrooIooo"": LaM<. Rom ...
]..-." '7<' 1Wtrud(; ..d N~.s.- Mon.lI""'-- Pf'. ) >-) 7.
97 T<,",,,,;km-... ~ .. Whom II n....:to. .. r>.. y;~ .. ....... I\d,;"" -~~"" p,-;,.,ob
pol ..:. Pf'. ,,- ...
?I. I\d,ing. "1'; ", P",,,kopo-/lt. ' 1'1'. 61-1>9
?'/. 1l<loin. /.,......, ..; _.1'\'. '>O--'L
".,. T",,,;.,~iL>v . .~'" Wh<>n> I. n.,.><J,~ .. Pr.~ 1'\' 'J- 44
'''' . .50 ... M .;. 11",_. p . ...
'0'. 11;'-;' "~,..) . " . MGI I . SSRI, p. ,,",.
'OJ. LJw p_,p.J.. ~ hw'"",;,. <oJ. Ddipn,,", En5- u .... by Ddipn .... TIx
of "" a.-;, of rt...-.. -to.... 'I.,rodu<tioo
a<dko,
inorod"","", '" U.,: ..., M",;"",_Pi=.,. IV,;,;"! - ....
'<4. Ddipnru... "~"' ..... ~:. pp )6>--1'1
'01. 1.40 _ . R.<~. a:. ,.. .... <oJ. Dd;r,,,,n~. pp. '7<>-7': f~ " ..... (-<f-ifJiJ.
pp. 'W-'!.
,06. La. 1_ II.tK. <. JO- <oJ. l)d;)"'tIn... pp. '71- '<, En. '''',,~ (1lH.i of r-....;fftl.
ronni,",,, ,.
&oM of /'m'1Ji
pp , ....!!.
'07. 50""" ...
" l~ ...... "'ioo
do ..-.- I 11.0"",..:' pp. l-4;. "Ill<
dooh< """' ' ' , _ "",i<>
,,,. Co.,,';" .. _
,"!!. " La
..... N.
W"'ni~."
.-.Uon do inup l. R=n,:'
''0. Ilond>. Epp...... ' 7. '9.
."tho< ..-.c'"
77.
p. ,6
".)1, Wdhb<okl. I~.. -foni. "," . 6. a . E;pI. 1'...
s... ...... ,. '" Al. XXV]). PI' ,>-,(.

a.n.n.u.;,;n.."l- pp. ,,1_lO-
"'. Von P-.oJIJs,
"(. MG]I. SS. '.' _ ' ' ' ' " ...... l>1 ...... ;n N.,I,k,..J 1"1<><1 ...,~.
'4)-"'. On ,ht: ioum<r of W-.lli\o.ill. MA<mcl. Qnr<o.
pp.
"9-"',
~ofa...,.,
..
"..
~.
Co ,. ,,,N. T.."". r. '19.
"!. Il'>h<r. I.. lh< " .. ~ I"",h";"'""."."'., . "'/ In ~.

116.
f<;"""" ro. W..... r. p. ,6,
,.""t."
"7 N=r. ("~oJ

"I. fuU .n.!y .n,h pW by 1>1_. C.odohi"", (",.,.1>.
"9, Not.. C.oMh; ., Go".Is. "". ")_s,, i.km. "C.roIin~n An.<>,1
P"'"ia:' ""
.. "di.pu-
__
h"'~ ,"" I"";""" ~Iy . ..i ,k ,I oIJ<, ~' '' " ...
rup;ou.J,. ,i<i. ... M, t(j",ri<k. H,,~ .J "*-?<ll. ("..... ,,' okt.~ NOOk. ~ofS< P....-. PI'. 6,...,._. Th<lry ""'''." ,k I.ifof St<ph,,, 11 in "'" U' ,. J~).
"J. ce. _ 'I ,h"",. ,Iu. Georp: "'" i" N"I'''' in 7Jt ..-hik:.., " india... ,I.., ~,Im
..... '" F"",," ,n 717.
ut.
0. <II< >nn.t. . nd C.roIint;i.n
" . ..r. ....., 'T"
f,."",,,, ... al. """'. f'?' ' . ",

tt!. 'B)""nuum . nd tho< W"'.'" p. J6!.
ftmin. Co",.. nooopk. Rom 0<1
s.""
do< F"'nko.- PP. 9'-'''''

,,,;. M<O.-mi<k. "S)"LO",ium:ond ,,,,.
J'P. l'i-l-66 .nd '"T..,.... i""!,, n ico""' .......... pp. """"II> Audpy. "Coruun,i. V'" C.roI'.p.ru.." pp . ~ _6!.
W",,"
1>7. "Tong>nlin V Ie c..Q/inp.... PI"

,;" ""'" "' . ... y" Fr. """-Bp..,i.. Ji f'lom><r.
"""l~
s.. Cc."""
II , JO, 1'1"
JOIi, ,}Ii,
"""iI.
wi,,,,.,,
,tt. No< "'" .,00;-10 " ""-n .'-< , hi> "'mw<. II ~ m,n,;"...!
m, or
io CC .,. al, Gundlxh. P. 161. a_n. JG.,11b C_. p. <Ii n. 7) "'W"" II "'unS <>f
7f<6I7 .nd McC<>tnU<1<, "T... ,.... ;m"ff" '" ;.""""1,,, .....:' !'P. 'JO-J' >q><1 ,),.
,, ~ , -1 ... ,....
~.- P\' . u6 _l&.
'''''I<'''
,'W",;.,n
'I". 0-"'0. PI. "J: " vi: " f"", "" mnc <emp"''' ornOO" ....." !~"""' Do
mini O<pIiog<. ,,,,im<;< ~..,
q .....;., ,,",i"', in'" G',,",OH' Ro ....... do:
1;;0""'." "'rum Sp;hH< ...." ... ,",g, 1"00000, I'" ... it> p,-.Ii, filio. do: .. <><roNm
im.p ........ ""umqu< Imgtndx, .0 ",.p:oo.., """" in Mini>- " N",. tit" ,,-"0.J...-. "'"
.......... ,h, 1'<.0" .. pano.,,,... .. in ,I>< <kba".
"1"''''''. "
'J"
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i.
i.",I"""''''''''
')" Th~ M<Co<.. a,

'10,.... im>p:> """"",I ... "", 'p. ' ''' a.. .
... Iu.l .. ...J1 ~ ,,",,, I.... ~ "" "'""Y '" 1""" ,..... ,I>< fiI-Iw ..... da<u-.I in 761
i" h<>~" Ib
J.oo
>td /Ip.< ... po ~~ witlt n, 17' . TIl<
<nt, di"""iort ,
(""""'"",N', N ~140".,_. I'J'. 76-1,." abo >k<p<k.d
G..p...
P"""" ...
moo,
'JJ. For ...... 0lN "'" I"n,,,o vi<w ... LP I. <68 -7J.
'M' MG I!, 0>n< . , . ..,. '40 pp. TO""'" 1'0< t..,;cd.:" ... < lian ... on. s,-u... 1'1'
"'"",6.
'H. LP ,. <71')0 F.mph"'oJ I')' M<G:>!mid<.

')7. U ' , . ~-n .
'jJ. MGH. Co"",. I. ! I.
"1<>,. im.IP" Oco..oo..mt.- "". ')l-J1.
402
NOTE S 1' 0
I'A GE S
146 - 160
139. The surmise of Bohringer, "Zwei Fragmeme," p. 94, wilh wh ich I concur.
140. Sanrri LlIlli rt &mifotii rpistowr, nos. 116, Il 7, ed. T3ngl, pp. 264-65.
14!. "loae5, images el iconoclasme,"' p. 132.
142. Hadrianllm , I. 12, p. 20; cf. 1. 4. II. pp. 43, 46. For the lener, Gregory I. Epp., 9
148. and appendix X, ed. Norberg, pp. 114- 11.
143.
144.
14).
146.
pp.
McCormick, 'Texl<:s, images el iconocla~me,"' Pl" 13[-P

MGH , Cone.. 1. ')0; Hadria"lIm. !. 18. p. 1).
MGH , Cone.. 1. 90; Hadrianum, !. [" p. 10.
MGH , Cone .. 1. 89-90; Hadrianllm.!. 12, p. 20; Gregory I. Episrowr, ed. Norberg,
!II0- 1I.
147. Bohringer. "Zwei FragmeOle," pp. 104-5

148. LP I. 472.
149. Bendli, "Pittura in ltalia," 50, repom [his interpretalion as having been offered by
Dale Kinn0' in a slill-unpublished 1985 con ference paper.
150. Coda: Paruinus Graus, pp. Ill-IS; "The Source of the Greek Parrinic Quota"
"
!lons.
For Franko-papal relations in this period as Ih0' are revealw in [he surviving papal
correspondence sec Thoma. "Papsl Hadrian Lund Karl dcr Grosse." On Hadrian and II
IS!.
Nicaca
$ ,
briefly (and withoul serious uca[mem of the theological issues) Hanmann, Ha-
driall /, pp. 178---')1.

151. Pi[2. Papstrrskriptm. For example, ove r 65 pNCent of [he 866 surviving lellers of
Gregory I. who ler[ Ihe largest colle<;etion from the early medieval period. are rescripts.
153. Hadrian's claims on behalf of the Roman Church arc discus~ in grCal detail by
MaCClrrone. "Adriano I e il concilio di Nicea,"' but [he author goes fimher than I would in
interpreting the impaCl of [he pope's writings.
154. lP t. 511-[1.
155. Mans;, Concil;a, t2; t066A- t071B. The [nlS are lisled by Alcxakis, Coda Parninu$
Graus, p. 40 and W~l1ach, Diplomatic Studits, pp. 29-39.
156. Pl96: 1137D-tl.4oA.
tp. For a mote [raditional vi(W of this issue sec Sefton, "Pop<:$ ~nd the Holy Images."
[58. Nobk '"Possibi lities Jnd Paradoxes. '"
IW. lP, passim (t hese numbers 3 ~ derived from a [abulation ~cross Ihe whol e uiro).
160. lP I. 501.
[61. lP r. 503, 504, 508, 510.
C H APTE R FOUR
lp, I. 511: "Qu~m synodum iamdicti miss; in greeo sermone 5eCum deferemes una
cum imperialibus sacri~ propriis subscripti., pracdictus egrcgius amis[es in latinam cam [ransbrari iussil, ct in sacra bibliorhcu pariler recondi. dignam sibi orthodoxe fidei memoriam
fJcien . "'
2. 'lnis wa.s the su rmise of von den Steincn, "ErltStchungsgcschich[c." Pl" W - 2,. Freeman. "Ei nl eitu ng" (to her edition), p. I accepts {his imerp~[ation.
J.
NOTES TO rAGES
160-163
40)
). Details in von den 5teinen, "EnmehungsgeS(hichte," p. 11. For Anaslasius'sletter to

John: MGH, Epp. 7, p. 416. In his edition of the Lih,i Carolini, Baugen turned onen 10 the
Greek a(ta to control the poor Larin translation from which [he Franks had 10 work. In her
editiOIl of the Opus Gtroli, Freeman uses Anastasius's [ransia rion which it5elf appears in
parallel columns wi[h the Greek text in Mansi's edition (Concil ia, [2.991- 1154; t3, l-.tI8) and
in PL [19: 195B-SllB. These issu es are tr\":l[ed in rudimentary fashion by Neil. " WeSle'"
Reaction."
p. 115.
5 "Einleitung," pp. 2- ).
6. OpUS(ula n tpittolat quat S~(lam ad caUS4m Hincmari Laudunmrir, I'L [16: 360A-S.
7 Annaks mosalani, anno 781, MG H , 55, 16, p. 497.
8. Throph anes, Chron .. anno 78(, trans. Mango and SeOl[, p. 618. His name was Elissaios and his task was "to teach ROIrud (Erythrol Grk leiters and language and ,duC:lle her
in the cU5l0ms of Ihe Roman Empire."'
4. MGH. S5, I,
9. Anna/ts qui dituntu, Einha,di, anlli s 786. 788. ed. Kune. pp. 75, 8).
10. Exccllenf on the dipioma[ic exchanges of these years is McCormick, "Tex[es, images
et iconoclasme," pp. 1)4-)6.
II. Annaks rtgni F,an(orum, anno 798, ed. Kune, p. t04.
12. Cubin, Anglo.Saxon Church Cauncilr, pp. [53-90, esp. pp. 154-17.
I). Ibid., pp. 170-90.
14. "Alcuin Before Frankfon," p. 578.
15. Originr oflht Europtan Economy. es p. "Appendix 4."' pp. 851-972.
t6. Opus Caroli. Praef.. p. 100.
t7 " Einleitung."' p. 4 and n. [9.
[8. [assume thaI Throdulf was the primary author of the Opus Gtroli. Freeman, "Einleitung," pp. [2-2) provides a [horough history of the " Verfas5erfrage" from the sixteenth
cem ury to [he present. Although there were always a few dis.seming voices, Al cuin's authorship was generally accepted umil von den 5teinen, "Entstchung."' made a S[rong, but llndocllmemed, casc for T heooulf. in her first publ iCl tion on the subjec[, a revised version of her
Harvard dissertation, Freeman made i[ all but ccnain that Throdulf was the author: " Th eodulf and [he Lib,i Carotini." In two subsequent publications she clinched her Clse for every
fair-minded reader: " Funher 5mdies in [he Libn Carolini I and II" and " Further Studies in
the Lib,i Gtrolini [[[." For some
lWO
decades Freeman had
!O
endure the vituperative and
frequently beside Ihe point criticisms ofLuitpold Wallach. whose many smdies were collected
in his Diplomati( Studi~. Paul MeyvaefJ provided an assessment of Wallach [hat was Cl refuL
balanced. and devastating: "Authorship ot the Lib,; Carolini.'" Oddly, Wirth. L'imagr midit valt, pp. [52-53 st ill tcg:;lrds the maner as open.
[9. Bullough, "Alcuin and the Kingdom of Heaven," pp. P -H. The point was first
made, ! believe. by Levison, England and tht Continolt. p. tt2.
10. MGH. S5, [). 155: "S(ripsit Albinus epistolam ex aUClOlitatc divin arum Ktipt1l3rum
m irabi liter afli rmalam.'
21. Weitmann, Sukussion und GrgO/wart, pp. 18t- 81; Gem, "Carolingian Onhodoxy."
PPII-[3
n . F.......... " fM<io ....- III' 7-' and ~ Onhooica.y.- pp.t&-l7.

t . ........... oiaoI oIcWIo_ f.......,. " Tloood.Ifofo..t-",
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"",n, In.! I ..... "'"
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of~
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,.,." PI' 17"0<> tI>onb ..... .to< 'E .od "",.., .... _ itMIood ..... 1><- .., ",,-.,.
........
)I.
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'''''u
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)I. _
.......... " Alcuin and.to< ~tuokd!o ~ .-
". rift .... , "fjnkitu",," rr ..._ ~!...t "c.rnti,.;-n 0nI00.I0q0: rr-_

.... F... ",,"', c/o, ............ =-<"""'"',,; ,ho oko<kopmt., oi d.. 0,., tu. ioe<n
.... """ .. I... ..-.d ~ by M<IIoni. "L'Opuo Ct.""i ~.'" 1'1'17)-7' .... H.n"" ..,
"F ... kf"" """ N; ...." 1'1' )><>-1.1. h "'"" . - Hom ...... d.6ni,m ........ no. .......1"
IwAnul.li ,o.u..1ht 0,-"" ~ ~ oot~ : "1.. _ , . . ; l.ibric-.!.o>i,'- pp.
NOTES TO rACES
169-170
40j
3- 19 Wallach. Diplomatic Studin, pp. 47-49 also pm the pr~paration of th~ Opus in Ih~ y~ars
be[W~~n 791 and 794 bUI he dates the Co.pituw.r( to 789 and docs nOl provide a~ nuanced an
account;U Freeman docs of Ih~ crucial years from 791 10 793, Nagel, TluoWgischm Hrrausfordrrung, pp, 168-77 dates the Capituwrt 10 790 and the Rtspomum to 790/91 because ilS speaks
only of Constamine VI :tnd nOl of his mothn, who. ;u OSlrogorsky argued (HislDry, pp,
179- 80), w;u away from Conslaminople from the spring of 790 10 January 791, This is
possible, but I prefer Freeman's chronology. Th e preceding accoum depends h~avily on Freeman 's reconstruction while emph;uizing more than she docs some of the puules and uncertain ties faced by Ihe historian of these years.
41. Sec Fleckenstein, "Das frankfurter Konzil von 794," pp. 27- 46; Hartmann. "Nizaa
und Frankfurt"; idem, "D;u Kon zil von Frankfun"; McKiuerick, "Das Kon zi l im Kontext";
Mordek, "Aachen, Fr:ankflln, Reims"; Nelson, "The Siting of ,he Council of Fr:ankfurt,"
pp. 149-65; Staab, "Die Konigin Famada," pp, 18J-tI7; and the nill valuable Ganshor,
"Francfon,"
41, AmuJIn r~i Fran.orum. anna 793, ed, Kuru, pp. 92, 94: "Rex autumnaJi u:'rnpore
de Reganesburg ilc r navigio faci~n s usque ad fossatum magnum imer A1cmana e! Radantia
pervenit, ibique missi aposlolici cu m magni! muneribus praesentati sum .... [nde per Radantia in Mohin naval; iter peragens, natalem Domini celebravi! ad sancmm Chilianum in Wirzinburg."
43. Ammln qui dicuntur Einhardi, anno 793, cd. Kurze, p. 95: "cdebravitque nalalcm
Domini apud sanctum Kilianum iuxta Mocnum Auvium, pascha vero super eundem Auvium
in villa Franconovurd in qua et hiemaverat." AnnaltJ rT'i Francarum. anno 794, ed. Kuru,
p. 94: "Pascha cclebramm esl in Fr:anconofun."
44. Annaln qui dicuntur Einhardi, anna 79 4, ed. Kurze. p. 95: "quando e! gen~ralem
populi sui convenlum habuit, concilium episcoporutll ex omnibus regni sui provincii~ in
eadem villa congregavi!. Adfuerufll elaim in !'adem synodo ~I legali unctae Romanae ecelesi ae. Throphylawls ac Stephanus episcopi .. ."'; Annaltf rtpi Fran.orum. anno 79 4, ed.
Kuru, p. 94: "ibi congregala eSI synod us magna episcoporum Galliarum. Gcrmanorum,
[Ialorum in pr:acscnlia iamfati pri ncipis et miswrum domni aposrolici Adriani, quorum nomina haec sum Thro61aclUs el S!ephan us episcopi." Ahhough these annals call both legales
"bishops" the Annala maximiniani, MGH, 55. 13. I I calls Throphyiaci a deacon. httman
Ihows that this is likely to be correcl: "Carolingian Onhodoxy." p. 93 n. Ill.
4\. "Carolingian Orthodoxy," p. 90. The Lalin is in n. 42 above.
46. Von den Steinen, "Enl51ehung," pp. 6o- 6 j; Frttman. "Calolingian Onhodoxy,"
pp. 91-92.
47. Annaln rtgni Francorum. anno 794. ed. Kuru, p. 94.
48. Annam qui dinmlu r Einhardi. anna 79 4, ed. Kuru, p. 9\.
49. MGH. Cone., 2, no. 199, p. 16j: "Allata cst in medio quaestio de nova Grecmum
synodo, quam de adonndis imagi nibu5 Constanlinopolim f((erunt, in qua scriptum habc:bamr. m qui imagines sannorum ita u( deificam trinila!em servilio am adontioncm non
impendercnt. ana!h~ma il1dicavcrunt: qui supr:a s:mC1is'limi pan<'"S nosni omnimodis adon !ionem el servi!mem rennuemcs contempserunl 3t'"lue conscientcs condernpnaverufll."
\0. Mansi, Concilia, 12, 1[48B.
406
NOTE S TO PAGES
171-17 4
51. Opus CaToli. }.17. e<l. F recm~n. p. 411.

$2. Hadrian ep. no. 1. MGH. Epp. I, 17.
B. Some of the problems in reading , his clause arc diKusso:<l by Freeman. "Carolingian
Onhodoxy." p. 94 and Hartm~nn. "Frankfurt und Niua," pp. }o8--9.
54. These sources arc well diKu=<l by Freeman. "umli ngian Orthodoxy," pp. 92--91
~nd Hartmann, "Das Konzil von Frankfurt," pp. 3}1-36.
Sj. MGH. 5S, I, pp. }1-}6.
16. MGH . SS 13, p. 11.
17. Von Dobschurz. e<l" DOJ D~rTttum gtfmianum tk {ibm m:ipimdis tl non rtripimdiJ.
58. Thcodulf cile<llhe Drttum five lim~ (Opus, 1.6, 2.1}. 4. 10, 4.11. e<l. Freeman, pp.
t}2. 133, 261, SU, SIl) and alluded to il anolher six limes (Opus. 1.6, 1.11, 2.17. 2.20. 3.2t, cd.
Freeman, pp. 114. 1}5, 159, 267, 272. 429)
19. Opus 1.6. e<l. Fruman. pp. 132- }7 with IF n. 1. For a somcwh~t different view of
the implications of 1.6 see Milalailt, I'hifosophir rt rhtologir, pp. 45-51.
60. In addres.sing Mige(ius, Elipandus held (hal Mallhcw 16.[8 applie<l (0 all (he apostles and not jusl 10 Perer: PL 96: 859-67. Alre~dy Butus ofLiebaiia had maintained Ihe same
view: Ad/Jt1"SUS Elipandum. [.3. PL: 96, 916. Freeman. "Einleirung." p. 41. On the issue generally 5C1: Ahern, "Lue Visigolhic Bishops"; on Rome in the early adopiionisl quarrel 5C1: uv~dini, LaJr Chr;stolug" pp. 47-48; on Roman aUlhoriry in Spain see Fircy. "Carolingian
Ecdesiology and Heresy" and Nagel, TluologiJdJm Htrausfordtrung, pp. 37- 43.
61. Noble, "Gregory of Tours and Ihe Roman Church."
61. The spe:cific subj ect of (he inculolion of Rome-ce nteredness has nOI advanced far
beyond wh ere Levison leli it in England and thr Cominmt.
6}. Hampe:. "Hadrians Verthcidigung," p. 101; Hauck, Kirrhrngl'Srhirhu Drutsrhlands,
2. 327-4}, esp. }30; OSlrogorsky. "Rom und Brunz"; Haller, tim I'apsrtum. 1. IS; Arnaldi,
"La queslione .lei 'libri umlini,'" pp. }-19; Grape:, " Karolingische KunS! und Ikonoklasmus," p. 50; Trompf, "Concept of the Carolingian Renaissance," p. 11 n. n.
64. This seems {Q be Freeman's pmirion, "Carolingian Onhodoxy," p. 91 ("The urolingians were commine<l. however. before , he fact, 10 ~n unquestioning a~~eptance of whatever the pope: proclaimed"). and p. 9l (" Defiance of Ihe pope. p~rticularly in a mailer of
doclrine, would have been unthinkable to any urolingian king"). Hartmann, Hadrian J, pp.
278- 91 goes 100 far in the oppmite dire<;rion.
65. Sec Ihe COUI;OUS remarks of Harrmann. "Nizlia und F r~n kfurt." 37[, on " publ;colion" of Ihe Opus.
66. Opus e<l. Fruman. p. 97. This page comes from Ihe P~ris manuscript (Arsenal 663,
fol. Ir). a page Ihal is lacking in the Vati~an manuscript. There is no reason 10 believe that
someone in Hin~mar's cirde invente<l (his title. The long familiar title for the work, Libn
CAlmlini, derives from (he arbit rary litle seleCIe<l by Baslgen in his 194 MGH e<lilion: Libn
CAlmlini siw CAlmli Magni rapirula" tk imaginibuJ. For a reproducrion of Ihe ririe p,age of rhe
Arsenal MS see KArl tkr Grorst: Wtrk und Wirkung, p. 193 and plate 33.
67. Schatz. "Konigliche Kirch enregierung."
68. Codex urolinus, no. 95. ed. Gundbeh. pp. 6}6-38. Candini, LaJr Chnrtology, pp.
11,73-77
NOTES TO VAGE$ 175 - 179
407
69. Hadrian ep. l, MGH, Epp. S, 7-11.

70. For a brief introduction to the filioqur issue $ Haugh, P/w,ius and flu Carolingians.
PI'. 41-81 and Willjung. "EinleilUng" ((() hi s Das Kom~i1 von Aarlullj. pp. S-lO. For more
detailed analyses see Gemeinhardl, Oir Pi!ioqur-Ko"rrolJmr; Ramos-Lis.son. "Die Synodalen
Ursprung"; Peri. " II 'Filioque' nd magisterio di Adriano I e di Lrone III" and "Lrone III e
iI 'Filioque', ancora un falso e I'autcmieo simbolo romano": Borgolle. " Papst Leo Ill. Karl
der Grosse und der Filioque Smi[", Healh, "The Western Schism of the Franks": Sierk,
"Silver Shields of Leo III." The gradual Frankish adoption of filioq ur is trae~ by Nagel.
Tluo/ogisrhrn Htrausfordmmg, PI" lOS-16. Kelly. Early Christian OortrinN. PI" l75-76 shows
lhat Augustin e is behind western thinking on lhe double procession of the Holy Spirif.
71. E,g.. Opus 1.7. }.J-S. cd. Freeman, PI'. 1}9. H S-60. Opus J.J appears co have been
the original lim chaplet flom the Capitula".
71. These materials are now expwly ed.iled. by Willjung. OIlS Konzil von Aarhrn SO?
73. MGH . Cone. 1, nos. 19 a-g. pp. 1Il- 71 (documentS a to f arc the treatises and g is
the canons).
74. Hartman n. " D2.S Konz.il von Frankfurt." PI'. HI-H. }36-41 and "Niziia und Frankfurt." PI" }09-11.
71 . Willjung. "Einleitung." esp. pp. 10-41.
76. MGH. Cone.. 1. no. 19. p. 165.
77. Ibid . pp. 165-66.
78. DIlS friinkiilh-drufithr Synotilam/'t. pp. 2\1-\}. 16\-66. See also Depreux. ''L"ex-
pressio n r/alUtum (Sf a domno r~r rt santta synotio" and Slaubach. "Cultus Divinus." p. SjO:
"Nicht Eigcnmachtigkeit in Fragen der Glaubensdelinilion, sondern Zusammenwirken mil
den BiKhafen und dem ramiKhen SlUhl sowie mildtatige Freigebigkeit. insbesondere gegenuber den Kirchen. zeichnct :tlso nach westlichcm Verstandnis den HerrKher aus.... " The
same basic poim was made already by Folz. Impm'al Coronation o/Charlrmagnr, pp. 84- 85.
Most recently Spillung, "Die Spraeh de$ Konzls." PI" 699-717 noting carefu lly that canons
I to 3 (canon j condemned Tassilo of Bavaria) were impersonal. 2.S were canons J[ 10 72.
unons 4 to 10. therefore. reveal C harles's own voice and decisions.
79
80.
81.
82.
Wallach. Akui" and Charlrmagnr. p. 147; Hartm:tnn. Oir Synodrn. p. 107.

MGH. Conc. 1. no. 19f. PI" tS7-6 4.
Hadri an. ep. No.2. MGH. Epp. 5. 5\. S7.
I'eri. ''L"ecumenicila di un caneillo."
83. Bulon. " Ocr klr,henrechdiche Chara ktcr." p. 167' "In the eyes of th e Frankish
church :tnd of i[5 leader (Herrn) the council of Frankfu rJ wa~ a local counci1."
84. B2.S1gen, "Das Kapimiare Karls des Grossen." pp. 66 4-66: von Schubert. GNc/,idJf(
-ur c/'ristlicl~" Kirclu, p. 384; H:tuck. Kird~ngrsrhirh/( DruNthlands. l. 343.
85. Opus. 3.1l. ed. Free man. p. 37S.
86. Sieben, das Komilsidu. pp. 307-4J. Bullough. "Alwin and th e Kingdom of
Heaven," pp. j6-JS. acccpts Sieben's theory. The key st udy on pentarchy remains Peri. " u,
pcmarchia," PI" l09 - jll. Valuable [00 arc Schatz, "O ec umenicil<: du co ncile e[ s[ructure de
rcglise" , Brandmul1er. "Traditio Scriptumr llIfrrp",:'
87, For a range of reACCliorlS on the meanings of ratio It<: Carruthers. Craft o/Thought,
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Iplv...""'"''"' fo.- du<lfit '" ...ton ."G ..........
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..... 0. lloNrJ.lr. <><r<r<>! """ .... [ ....,......11<'" N.. ~ ,rlo''f'"''"''' A.."...
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"'_1M.
NOTES TO P ACES 187-111
409
109. For good commenls o n Throdulf's allilUde 10 Ir.ldilional bibli cal exegesis s Cha-
lClI e. " Im ages. Sc riplure. the Chllrch." p. 59; Froehlich , " Ubri Carolini and U$$Ons." pp.
199-101.
110. The firs! four enmples come from chapler
(wo.
Ihe fifth from chapler fourleen .
and Ihe sixlh from chapler ~nf)'-(WO. Throdulf mighl have vtherw. all Ihe$ passages
about o ne person worsh iping anOlher into a si ngle chapler. but he is following his sources.
lit.
Opus. 1.13. ed. Freem an. pp. 163-64. and 16, n. 5, 164 n. [. Throdulfblam ed ,he
G reeks for nOI adhering 10 Ihe leXt properly Ixcal1~ aU he can find is Jacob worshiping "at
the fOOl of Ihe Ixd" nOi al Ihe lip of a !\(aff (I/i'l'''-)'
I l l. These discussions may Ix found in, rCliptCli vdy, 1.10. 1.1l, 1.13, 1.18.
113 In order Ih()' are: 16.8.4.7. .1, 19.[1, 11.). 11.4. 9.7. 15.8, 47.9. 7).J, 7).9. 71.10.
84.11 .98.5.98.9. Il+ J, 11...5
II " . 111e firs! one 10 dr.lw utention to possible Mour.lhic demenls in Ihe
Oplll was
Allgeier. " Psalmcnziute."

11 5. Opus, ed. Freeman. p. 167 n. 4. Stt ibid .. n. , for some of Ihe problem s involved
in trying to tr.lce [he texI thaI is at issue here.
116. Freeman. "Einlei tu ng." pp. IS- 56 enumeralct Ihe thirty-five syllogis ms.
Sec Wirth.
L Imagt mtdiroak. pp. 1}1-,8 on logic in the Opus.

117. Opus. ed. Freeman, p. ,85 n. 4.
118. Freema n devoles Appendix III 10 Ihili malerial in 1.11: Opus. pp. 577-81. Ii should
be borne in mind Ihat ThcoduJrs Ir.lceable sources arc all ICXIUa!.
C HAPT E R FIV E
t.
Sch mandl. Srwii,'I . p. 54 oounts eighteen repelil ions o f this poilll. I did nOi coum
them myself.
1. So. gener.llly . Dahl hal1s-Bcrg. Nova Anli'luilas tl Allli'lua Novitas, pp. )5-J7
,. E. .g., 1.[7.
1.)0.
1.15, 1.14, 1.15. 1.31. J {'fllff.
) .11 ...
{'ratf. eiC. These arc merely
representative cxamples .
... Oplll, {'ratf. p. 101 .

S. Opus. {'rat/., p. 10 1; cf. 4.18, pp. Bl-H
6. OpUJ. 1.1 7, 19, pp. 184. 19J. Dahlhaus-Bcrg, Nuva Anri'luiras i t A'Iti'lua NUI/ilas, pp.
t'}6- 10 1; Staubach. "Cullus Divinus." 553.
7. Oplll, .P l, pp. 511-21. The council ofRimini was one of two summoned by Emperor
ConSla ndus in 359 in an 2uempl 10 sellle the Arian problem. In the end. it s decisi on s wenl
tOO far in the Ari2n direc lion and were bter rcpudi2led.
Sec the indcx under "novitas," p. 647.

9 Oplll, p. 564.
10. E.g.. Oplll. ('r1U{. !.l. \.17, l lI . lI). 41}, 4 .18.
II . OpUJ. 1.10, p. 1'}6.
Il. OpUJ. p, p. 344.
I}. Opus. }.}, }.S, ).11, pp. 145-5 2, 370-7[. 4JS- 40'
14. Opus. 2.31. p. Jll .
8.
410
NO T ES TO rAGES
111-114
15. [n Opus, 1.19. 4.8. pp. 1')1, 50S he adds moderalion and patience.
16. Opus. PTaif'" !.l, 1.17, 1.28, 1.1}, 1.}1, 47, 4.8. 4.12.
17. Freem~n, "Einleitung," pp. S5-S6. Scc also Marenbon, "Alcuin, Ihe Council of
Frankfort and the Beginnings of Medieval rh ilosophy," who makes the point thaI whereas
for Thcodulf logic was a 1001 for validating or falsifying arguments, for Alwin, who may have
beell inspired by Thcodulf, logic W;I.\ a WlIy of apprehending re~lity.
18. Opus, 1.1, p. II}.
19. Opus, 1.I, 1.1. 1.3. 1.8. 1.9, 1.11, l.Il, 1.I}, 1.I7, 1.1}. 1.18, US, 1.17, 2.}0, }9. 4.1, 45,
4.14,4.16, 4.1}, 4.16. [n some CI.~s these chapters contain numerous complaints Oil this sa me
issue 50 the overall number would be higher.
10. Theodulf seems to have taken particular delight in lecturing ,he G rttks on this
point. He mentions len figures of speech and with much false patience explains how, if
the Greeks understood them. they would not have misunderstood {he scriptures or spoken
"incautiously," " inordi nately," "inappropriatcly": amphiboli a--doublc meaning, ambiguity
(po, p. 41S); ethop(o)cia- inanimale preaching (Prllcf, p. 9S, U5. p. 117. 1.}O. p. }(4);
hypo:tCuxis-a principle of subordination (1.30. p. 30S); metabole-repetition 10 make a
point U'rllif'" p. 9S); mClaphora- lhe usc: of a word in a figurative sc:nsc: (24, p. 245. 2.}0. p.
}IS); parabola-a compariwn or an explanalory illustralion (1.26. p. 120. 1.20, p. 272); ~u
sis-a sc:atching inquiry (1.2}, p. 211); prole(m)p:sis-a nticipation or anachronism (1.1. p. 112.
1.18. p. 11). 2.1, p. 139); somatopocia- artribution of corporeal qualities to incorporeal thing1
(1.4, p. 244); syllep:sis-using one for many or many for OllC (1.1, p. 240. }.[6. p. 408).
21. Thummel. "Die Ikonen im Westen." 355-56.
11. Morriwn. "Anthropology and [he Us.: of Religioui Images," pp. }8. 'I}.
1}. "1 mages. Scripture. [he Church." p. \4. Sec also eadem. "Maller. Spirit. and Image,"
pp. 165, 172 and pas.sim, and Froehlich. "Libri Carolini and Lessons." pp. 1O}-6.
24. Impl icit or explicit in Opus, 1.1, p. 116. 1.1, pp. 240- 4[. 1.7, p. 25[, [.15. p. 16}. 1.1t.
p. 274, 2.11, p. 277, 2.24. pp. 280-SI, }.17. pp. 411- 16. ).25. p. 4\4. p8, pp. 470-75. 4.1, p.
491, 4J. p. 494, 4.18. p. H2. 4.24. p. 5So.
15. Opm. 1.1. p. 117. I.,), p. 149. 1.16. p. 179. 1.17, p. 18S. 1.19, p. 19}. 1.1}. p. Itt. t.24. p.
II}. 2.S. p. 247. 1.14. pp. 261- 62, 2.16. pp. 263- 64, 2.16. pp. 286- 87, 1.19. p. JOI. 2.10. p.
}17. }.IS. p. 418. 4 PTa4. p. 485, 424. p. 550.
26. Excellent is Jeek, "COI[ in die Materiae damellen?"
17. Opus, 2.21. p. 275.
18. Jeek, "GOI1 in die Materiae damcllen?" pp. 95---')9.
19. Opus. 1.11. p. In
30. Staubach. "Cuitus Divin um ," 547.
31. In order; Opus. 1.8, pp. [45-46 and 1.16. p. 265; p. 99; 1.7, pp. 1}9- 40'
32 E.g . Opus. }.IS. p. 40}. P7, p. 466-70. 3.29. pp. 475-79
n. Opus, 1.7. pp. 138-}9, [40, 1.17, pp. 185, IS7. 1.10, p. IH. 1.t6. pp. 16}-66, 1.22. p.
175,315, p. 40}, 4.1. p. 493, 44. pp. 512-24. 4.11. pp. 539- 40.
}4. I fully concur with leek, "GOII in die Materiae darstellen?," p. 9S.
}5. More than anyone clse Chazelle has studied what Thcodulf owed to Augui{inc and
where he passe<! beyond him: " Images. Scripture. and the Church" and "Matter. Spirit, and
NO T ES T O PIIGES
2t4-Hl
411
lm~ge." Fr<:<:m~n shows that August ine is by far Theodulrs most frequently cited aUlhor
"StdlenregiSler 2: Autorcn und Werkc." pp. 599-600. Ch:uelle makes Ihe imponan! point
that Theodul( may have thought that he was always reproducing Augustine's thoughl even
when he was advancing beyond him.
}6. Rdiu: Opus. }.t6, pp. 409. 411, P4, pp. 448- $1; the cros.s: I.I }. p. t66. 1.19, p. t92.
2.1\, p. 26}, 2.2S, pp. 296- }OO; 4.t}, p. \t6, 4.16, p. 528; churchN: }.t5, p. 40}, }.t6. p. 409.
4}, p. 494; vNsels: 2.29, pp. }00-}02. P4. p. 448. 4.16. p. \27; Sc riplUres: 2.}0, pp. }0}-21
(this is the major but not the only theme o( Ih is, the longest chapt er, in the Opus). }.23, pp.
+\6 - 47; eucharist: 2.17. pp. 289-96. 4.13, p. j16. 4.14, pp. 52}- 24; Ark: U5. pp. 169-75, I.t9.
pp. t92-9}, 1. 20, pp. 196-103, 2.26. pp. 286- 89, 4.13. p. 5t6. These themes arc partially
discussed in Chazelk " Malter. Spirit, and Images." pp. 165-70 (she omits churches, does nOI
take up the eucharist in derail. ~nd does not make an exhaustive search for her "five" classes
of objeCIS [I have seven)) and Appleby, "Holy Relic and Holy Image:' esp. pp. m-}6 with
particular refere nce to relics.
37. Opus. 1.9. p. 254

}S. Good summary in Wei[mann, Sukzroion ulld Grgrnwnrt, pp. 198- 102.
}9. Rrsponsum, [.24. 1.26. pp. 27. 27- 18.
40. Rrsponsum, 1.15. !.l9, pp. 21, 24.
41. Rrspollsum. 1.18, 1.23, pp. 2), 26.
42. Rrsponmm, 2.19. p. 51.
43. Rrspollsum, 1.8. p. 17.
+\. R(Sponsum. 2.15. p. 48.
4\ Rrspomum, 1.11, 1.18, pp. [S-19. 2}.
46. Rrspomum, I.I}, p. 20.
47 Rrsponsum, 2.19. pp. 49-jl.
48. Rrspollsum, 1.[9. p. 51.
49. Thacker, " In Search of Saints," pp. 247-69.
\0. Rtsponsum. 1.54, p. 40 is one good eumple among many.
51. Dinlogum Libr; IV. ),)3. Pl 77: 196B--297C.
52. Dinlogum Libn' IV, }.}o. Pl77: 288A-z89A.
5). T here is no comprehensive trea[ment of Theodulf's views. Wcilmann. Sukws;on
ulld Grgrnwnrt, pp. [86-91 is a good sian. less satisF.:tc{Oty is Nagel, Tluolog;schm Hanuiford.
rrung. pp. [82-94.
54. Opus. "WOrt und Sachregister." p. 6}8. I tr.lcked down each reference. Froehlich.
"The Libri Cnrotin; and [he lessons." p. 208 uys that Theodulf neglccted the argument from
incarnation. That is lru~ but mis~$ the point that Th eodulf was nOI attempting to defend
.
tmages.
\5 Opus, [.ll, pp. 207-S, 1.)0. pp. 2}1-32, 2.}0, pp. }06-7. 3.6. pp. }61-6}, }.14, pp.
397-<)8, PI, p. 457
;6. 0pU$, 1.29, p. u8, 25, p. 248, 3.21. pp. 432- }3.
p. OpU$, 4.2. pp. 492, 493.
58. On Thcodulf's condensation of Gregory's arguments see Chaze]]e, "Images, Scrip.
lure, the Church," p. 56.
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414
NOTF.S TO PAGES 127-230
from , or arc modificollions of, Koehler, MinillfU"n. vol. 2. pp. 9-16, with his sub.scq uenl
oommenu on each of Ihe manuscripts.
97. MiniaturOl, vol. 3, pp. 7-21. Set' MOlherich and Gaehde, Carolingiall Painting. pp.
10-11. 48-j l for a broad affirmation of Koehlcr's views.
98. Disc usso:d by Nus. "Arl and Archite<:ture," p. 843. So wo Bischoff, "The Courl
Libra!), under Louis Ihe ['ious," pp. 79- 86. Ganz. "'Roman Books' Recon si dered," p. 311
53YS simply Ihal " Koehler's palace school gmpcb should rather be regarded as later than Ihe
oouri grou p. "
99. So Bullough, "[magines Ikgum." pp. 241-43 and Wicder:l.Ilders, '" Die Auswirkung
der Bildermciu," pp. Ij 2-S}.
100. MUlherich, " Die Erneuerung der Buchmalerci," pp. S6}-64.
101. SaurmaJeluch, "Das Bild in der Womhcologie K;.rls des Grolk n." pp. 647- 4S.
6SZ-S 4, 673. Her Ihesis is Ihal Ih e images in Godesc.alc, and 10 a degree in Soiuons, arc nO!
aUlonomous but serve instead as exegcsis of the Word.
101. Reudenbach. Godrsm/c, pp. 12, 45- 50. Mlitherich. " Die Erneuerung dcr Buchmal
erd," p. 567. The fullest study of the images from the standpoint of style and modeh; remains
Roscnrn.um , "Evangelist ('onl'llit!."'
101. Diebold, WII, d Imd Imagt, pp. 99- 10}; McKilterick, " l hl and Image," pp. )01,
j lS, and p:wim: Wicdel'llndcrs, "Die Auswirkung der Bildcrsrrdtcs," p. 154: Brenk, " Bild lichkdl und Schriftlichkdl."
lelt. Ganz, ''' Roman Books' Reconsidered:' pp. }I}, }'4.
lOS. For a traditional approach w style analysis (apan from Kochler'$) sec H uben (I aI.,
Carolingian An, pp. 7S-91. For altern aliVe modcs of interpretation sec Rcudenrn.ch, Godn(air, pp. 17-j6: Nus, "An and Arch itecture," pp. 809-10, Sol); idem, "Carolingian An and
Polities," pp. 178. 187: Brenk, "Schrifd ichkeit und Bildlichkeil:' KCS$le r ~ddrcsS(s the whole
i$sue; "On the St~te of Medieval Art H ino!)',"'
106. Sllldi c<l most fully by Underwood, " I'o untain of Life." Sec also SaurmaJeltsch,
" Das Bild in der Womhcologie Karls des Grossen:' pp. 640- 41; Relldenrn.ch, Godn(lIk. PI"
6S-78.
107. Mayr.Harting. "Charlemagne as a Patmn of An," pp. 46- .,.s.
loB. Garipz.anov, "The Image of Authority in Carolingian Coinage," pp. 207-l j, !'Sp.
loB. A Jingle gold coin from the roy:Il period now in Ihe British MU$Cum, which mighl ilsclf
have had a marc in Berlin unli l somelime afler 18,.0 when il VlIInishc<l, 1M] form an exception
{Q thi $ rule: Schl'llmm, "Goldm(ln'lCn au, der Konigzeit Kuls des GroBen," pp. 188-90. The
1965 Aachen exhibiti on catalogue (Karl rb, Gross, ) nos. 10-12 datcs the coins merely "after
..
8
109. Go ldschm idt , E/ftllluilltll. nos. j, 4. s.,e Nees, "An and Architectu re:' p. 832;
idem, "Carolingian An and I'olities," pp. 189-91; Filin. "Die Elfcnbeinarbeitcn," pp. 610-12.
110. MGH, I'LAC. I, p. 91.
Ill . Bullough, '"Alcuin and the Kingdom of Heaven," pp. IJ- IS; idem, " lmagi nl'S
Rcgum:' pp.141-4l: Nccs, " DagulfPsalte r," p.a5$im, esp. pp. 688-89.
Il l. Goldschmidt, /fOlbtinm, nos. Il, 14: Filin, " Die Elfen beinenarbeiten," p. 610.
{fl. Goldschmidt, /frnbtinm, no. s: Nccs, "Carolingian An and !'olities," pp. 19S-102;
Filin. '" Die Elfenbeinenarbdten ," p. 610.
".
NOTES TO PAGES 2}0-2J4
41)
114 "GOIt in die M~leri~e d~mellen!"' 98.

!! 5. M~rkus.
Sauulum. pp.
!!6. Momigli~no,
}- 4.
" Pagan and Ch risdan His!Oriography," p. !l0.
117. Lowe, Von ThniJfrirh
dn CrllMm ~um KAris dn Crosun; Hauck, "Von einer spa!an-
(iken It.ndkuhur zum karolingi$l;hen Europa"; Fri tLC, "U niversali s gent ium con fCMio" ; Angenendt, "Karl der G rolSe ~Is rnt: fl sartrdos."
u8. Fl c<:kenmin. " Karl der GroBe," pp. 29-}2.
119. Scvcen ko, " The Search fos the Pasl in Byzanlium "; Gurevich , Calrgllrin
IIf Mrdif-
va! Cu/turf, p. 140; simibrly H enry. " Images of Ihe Church," pp_ 247- 49.
120. Dahlhaus-Bcrg, Nova Anriquilas rl Anliqua Novilas, p. 201.
Ill. McKinerick. H'ftllryand Mfmory; eadem, "Hislory, 13w and Communica tio n,"
lH. McKilierick. H'ullryand Mfmory. pp. 101- 11.
Ill. Librr M qiJropis Mmmsibus, MGH , 55, 2. 260-70. S~ McKiucrick, History and
Mmillry. pp. 6o-8}.
[24. Oexle. " D ie Karolingcr und die Sladt des hciligen Arnulf," pp. 299 -}0 1.
125. Vita Karofi, c. 24.

[16.
Gundlach, l'raft, Coda Carolinus. MGH. Epp. }. 476.
127_ Alcuin, ep. 1}7, MGH. Epp. }, p. 215.

128. PaxtOn. Christianizing Dfarh, pp. 118- 19.
W ).
McKiucrick. Carolingians and Ik Wrimn Word. pp. [65-210, esp. [96--98.
I}O. Mordck, "Kirchenrcchdichc AUlO!i[~ten ." pp. 49 -50.

[}1. McKi[lerick. Fronkish Chu,,/', p. 66.
I}l. Vita Ka roli c. 25.
IH. BorSI, Dif korll/ingiKhf Kalmdilrrffo nn, pp. 2} 1-}1I, 418- 24. 518. 8om's imcrp,clalions camc in for crilicis m from Meyvacrt, "Discovering Ihe Calendar," and Bullough, " York ,
Bcdc's C2lcndar. and a Pre-Bedan English Martyrology." Borsl has now responded in dctai l,
Dfr Smi/ urn Mn karolillgischfll Kalmdilr. Perhaps the "l.orsch C2lendar" is less originallhan
BoTS! Ih ought, bUI i( cannOI be explain ed away. Moreover. Ih e whole issue of lime reckoning
a central preoccupalion of these years: Conl reni, "Cou nting, C2lendaTS. and Cosm ol ogy." pp. 58- 67; McKitterick. His/aryand Mfrnary, pp. 86--97.
w::IS
Frttd. " Awaiting the End ofTim~." p. 29 ' Brandes. " E.sch~tologiKhe~ in Vortcld
der KaiserkrOl1ung"; unde$. "Lest the Millenn ium B~ Fulfi!led "; Winandy , Arnbrois~ Aut1}4 .
pm,
pp. }[-37
1}5. MG H. Cap.
1}6.
!,
no. 12, pp. 53-H.
Con(Tel1i. "Carolingian Biblical C ulture." pp,
l-},
Opus, "Namenregimr," pp. 612-l 3.

1}8. EpistflLu variflrurn Carow Magno r(g>1anlf scriplaf, no. 7, MG H. Epp. 4. 50}.
13].
[39. MGH , PLAC,
I.
51.
140 . MG H , PLAC,
I.
90--91.
14[. MGH , I'LAC,
I.
360-6}.
142. Ep. No. 41 . MGH, Epp. 4. 84.

143. T he mo~t rc<:cnt study of Ihi~ interesling pheno meno n i~ Garrison. "The Social
World of AJcuin."
..... F;cl,,,, .. u. "'By:un> uod .!o. Pi.b: !C. Tht Si.th Eo... """,.". V>un<il of 6$0
oddr....-d ,I><
" N", D,.;.J" ( o.~. "1.< ChtU<ioo~"", by>.>.,in: p. .,6) >nd
oht F, .. b. "";01. thtit ..... pn..~ "" ,I>< S .. c..:.....cili ...~ Iu.. ~n ,Illo.
,Rtf'<""''''
'~I Cod<> c..,I;n ..... """ J? MGH . ~W ). p. II>'

,<6, In SaI>ca. I. f-<ldwci,. Pr. '-<J. C.m.., "n.. Fr'nks ., oht N(W [" ..I?" rndo
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NOTES TO PAGES IJ6-lJ8
417
der Meller Kirche" ~nd "Noces sur I'ancienne lill.lrgie de Men"; Rabc:, F"ilh, Art. and PoiiriG.
pp. Cll-Jl.
166. Un l(rmann , "Di( Aach(ner Residenz... PI'. 158-60; Jacob$C'n, " Die ~nai5S:lnce
der FrUhchr;sd;ch(n Archileklur." PI" 63J - }4: NttS. "An and Archicectur(." pp. 809-10;
Schalz. " Konigl ich( Ki rchenrq;ieru ng: ' p. 367: Schieffer, " Rnir:ul1us ad fonles," p. 64:
DOnofrio. Roma t Aquistr1llla. PI'. 115-46.
167. An impotl3nt firSI seep is McKimrick. I'nuplions O/flN PlIJf in Iht Ea rly Middk
Agts. ch. 2.
168. Code:t Carolinus. no. 60. MG H. Epp .. }. 587.
169. Nco. Taint", Mantk. PI'. 3-17. esp. p. 6. shows Ihal ConSiantinian imagery is all
posl-Soc. Sec also Grimme. " Novus Con5l~m inus," PI'. 9- 11; Ewig, " Das Bild Constanlins
des G roBen."
Fallon. "Imperial Symbolism," PI" [11- 17 .
[7 1. Falke nstei n. "Charlemagne e[ Ai x-la-Chapdle." PI'. 182- 89. ahhough he does nOl
men lion Baghdad.
172. Modoin, Eclopt . .:.:I. Godman. I'try 0/ tIN GlrOlingian Rtnaifsanrt. pp. 191-96.
17j. The m051 reccO( auessmc nl is Brown, " The Ca roli ngian RenaiS$.1nce." Wilhom
170.
ciling all of Ihe older lilet:llu re, I an offer Ihe following tilles as cfftive summations .100
original contribUlions, Contreni. " The Caroli ngia n ~naif,$;lncc": idem. " In ha rmonious H:u mony"; Guerret.u-Jalabc:n. " La RenaiS$.1nce arolingienne''': Trompf. "Concepl of [he Carolingian Renaissance", Morrison. "The C hu rch. Reform . and Renaissance."
174. Dil Bildungmfonn K",/s dn GroJStn. p. II .

I]{. 0pllS. f,at{, p. 98.
176. MG H. Cap. I. no. u. Prat{, PI" H-54
177. LilKflUJ 5.urrnJu"bllS. MG H. Conc. 1.1. p. 142 : "5;1 rex el saccrd05."
178. AdWTSUJ Elipam/um. I. 16. Pl 101: 251.
179. CtHUx Carolinut, no. 76, MGH. Epp. }. PI" 607-8: cf. Alcui n ep. 11 0. MGH, Epp.
4, PI' 157- 59
Waas, " Karls des Gro~n Frl)mkigkeic,"

181. Zachary (0 Boniface in Boniface. cpl" 58, 61. .:.:1. Tang!. PI'. loll (" norman rectiludinis") 111 (viam r=:;ludinis): in general, Fleckenmin. BilJu"U"fonn, PI'. 7- 1j.
181. MG H, Cap. I, no. 104. p. H.
18}. RtfUlR ranonirorum. prologue. c. 10, III 89: 1O<j]C.
1804. MGH , Conc., 1.2, p. 194.
185. Wormald. " u x scripta." p. IJ1. 5 also Comreni. "Carolin gia n Biblical Cult ure,"
180.
186. Tre ilinger. Dit OJ/rOlI/itrM Kaittr- ulld Rtirhtidtt.

187. A king wu first allnl minitm Dri in c. 7S of Ihe Fourth Cou ncil 0( '101.:.:10 (589):
III 84: 385- 86. Markus, " The uti n Fathers." p. 119 captures bautifully ,h~ G r~rian posilion: "One of 'he threads running through Gregory 's RtfUlR Pll$roraliJ is ,he insi$lencc ,hal
the exe rcisc of power mUil Ix a miMion of (rvice 10 Ihose subject to it, and humililY ilS
indi5pen5:lbl~ condition." There is no COlllrovc rsy on ,he degree 10 wh ich Gregory in Au (nccd
Caroling;l n ideas ofkingship, bUI at the sa me lime. no one has ~(Udi .:.:l (he issue ca refully and
in dtlail. 5 Ewig, "Kl)nigsgedan ken," PI" 1-4, 19- 6j: Foil, Co ronation. p. 77: Rus(lI,juJI
418
NOT ES TO " AG ES
2}8-1 41
War, pp. 17-19; Frinc, "Universalis Genlium Confessio:' pp. 106-I}: l..:onardi, "Akuino,"
pp. 48}-8 4
188. Nd$On, "The lord's Anointed," pp. IH - S7. t7S-So.
t89. D'Onofrio, Roma r Aquisgrana, pp. Ill, ISO-S~: Folt, COrr!mltion, pp. t04-5. The
controve rsial dement in Aachen is the mosaic in the cupola. A scvenl~nlh...::en tury image by
Ciampini shows a Christ in majesry, r.nher like the now-visible image that was huvily restored in Ihe n i nel~nlh cemury. Charlemagne pUllhe first ilmge in the cupola and Frederick
Barbar0$S3, in o rder 10 ha ng a chandelier. CUt through the ceiling and then replaced it and
the image. Did he rCSlore it faithfully or did he replace an ador.llio n of the Lamb with a
maieJras ~ Schn itzler, " Kuppcl mosaik" made th e most impressive
for an original lamb.
Mayr-Haning. "Charlemagne as a Palton:' pp. 45-46 tends 10 agree. Schrade. " Kuppd mQs:ai k" argued for a maicstas image. Th is is.also the view of W.allace-HadriU, &rIy Grm umir
Kinflhip, pp. 194-9j: Bul1ough, " Imagines Regum," pp. 4 1-41: and Wehling, Dir MOlililtm ,
pp. tl- 48, who also st udies the fninli ngs.
190. Kantotowicr, ulldn Rrgiar, p. [5.
191. Came ron , "Justin II ": Fichtenau, " BrunI und die Pfall," 7-12: Foil, u mmation,
pp. 10 4-6.
t91. Vi/a iGzrp/i, c. 1}.
19}. Flcc kenSlCin, "Karl der G rofk," pp. 41- 4} $tr~ how long C harlemagne SPO:nI in
preparatio n for Frankfurt.
[94. Two old s11,ld ies SCt th in king on this lopic on correct foundat ions: Kampo:rs , "Rex
ct Sacerd05" and Delarudle, "Charlemagne el I'eglisc." The k~ point is Ihal C harlemagne
was not addrascd ;u " king and priest" very oflen and neve r considered hill1Soel f a priesl.
Moreover, he always nayt'rl short of the line scfnr:lti ng his protcction of the chu rch from
outright intrusion. See also Fichtenau, " Karl der Grosse und das K.a isc:rt um: ' 178- 80; Foil,
Corona/ion, p. 84: McCorm ick. " [>aderoorn 799." pp. 74-78. For a slightly different way of
assessi ng the subjecr and of eval uati ng A1cuin's inR uence: l..:onardi, "Alcuino."
t95. Bibfr, p. 1 0. Sec also Com re"i, "Carol ingian Biblical Stud ies" and "Carolingian
Bib lical C ulture": Hartmann, " Die karolingischc reform und die Bibel"; Gorman, " Wigbod
and Biblical Studies under C harlemagne. "
196. MG H, Cap. t, no. 19: Martin, " Bemerkungcn."
t97. MGH , Cap. [, no. 11, p. 60. Sec, in general, Hen, R~form tlftlN LiruTl and Vogel,
"l.cs echangC$ liturgiques. "
198. DC$hu$$CS, Lr lIllTammlai"gligofim; idem, " u supplemefll au ucramefllai re gr(go.
"
rtenne.
t99. MG H, Cap. L, no. )0.
100. Annaln rrgni Franl'OTJlm, anno 791, cd. Kuru: , p. 88.
101. For some examples: MG H, Cap. t, no. 19, c. 6, p. 45, no. 11, c. 6S, pp. 58-19, no.
16, ce. 6, 7, 9, pp. 68-69, no. Jj, ce. j, 40, 41, pp. 101,104.
101. MG H, Cap. I, no. 11, c. 78, p. 60.
20}. G rierso n and Blackburn, Coinagf, pp. 101 , 209-10, j14-15.
104. Fallon, " lm()Crial Symool i~m," pp. 111- 1): Nces, Tainrrd Man/fr, p. I} I.
105 Staubach, "Cultu5 Divinus," pp. 561-61, S67-71.
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49
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10. ':';noJ.. ox. 6. 9. I. M"", i.1'P- "9"}o. 'lO
I'
. 7-1. cd, M,ta,i. p,')O.
5'" ~,.;.., '- <0. I. M.. ",,,.!'P. '_J' .
) _ f., i",1,.. a:. , .. 6. I. Mm:ati.I'!'. ''''I''p ,
, .. On I...,h.d. _
vn<""lIy. Thuna. I""'KuM /Ubr. O. 'M ,h"" .... . oJ """""'.
McCkndon.
-rM~ 11"",-,"", pp.
OJ"". "u..;, ,I>< P""" . R.,m., ond
,i""'...
t"""",
F"""".
cm:;.,
'.J",,;
Con,,,..,i""pl', >lid Nobit. M.kJnt oA' P.f"lll.omt: f>I>. 6, _61. On tht ..Ii<>. Smidt.
Sa;"". N.... Cod,,:'
II. M' C .. "OO". o.W" of ~ II~""_. f>I>. ,,6- . 7 no", tht 1"',.Jld ""~
,I>< T,>.>,,,,, im"6" ''''
M .... io 1)001""",', 'I"'"
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,r.., ,I>< _ .......i<;" s.n.. 1'.-.-1<."""",,, of J>.odul-, '~u.m... qoot., '''" ..... of
S.nu eo.m. < D."'.....,). ~"' M<Cl<Mon "';nk> Ih" 1Kau", <h< M"y;n S,n .. M.... in
DcHruUco..-at> <>Illy. ""f'Oohon "'" ~"'" a ~ 'J1>< bo..t
G ..... 'J1>< ..... ,h",
..t.J.< ,0 M;m.d II lot J><rluf" l.ro VI). I ~ OIl It.. ..b"L.. I h.>.... .d.op<..:I chr
oo..n-..ion on tr.><!;,w.. 8", I do "'" q"; foIImv <h< lop< of <h< ..... M>ry>- If on< q""""
m. 1Mh<>-. of .I" Ron..". ...... <>1'=..:1 "' " Il'" .. : . .r,)", Sao .. M"", ;" T 'U..... ;""l!' ;.
""Old
t.'" ;"
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Ji"" 'J1><. ,bm I do "'" w<
why tI.< """"'" of. ' ''''''' in S.M. M ....

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,6. MGH. Cooe., ... , . pp . 71"40. Th< k"" .. d"..:1 April, ... . " .
' 7. A~""" "I'" h _ _ ....... . K"", n .... ' ' ' . p 'w "AdL.,,,," n, <I dr mon.
~,,;, c",,<an,ioopo!iuo, ... f'<1"I ...... . . "
I'. M~1ud II . f~ oJ H~"",,,,. pp . Ji-n.
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I~. M"",;. c-.;~. 'f.
ch,,,,,.
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II. f,~"" H~,". pp. f79-So

6, . MGH. C<.-.:_ '- . pp. f7t-ljl. G<nrt.u,. Hart"""'" ~ pp_ ,61-71.
61. "'"",inshofi" <>t' ,II< ~ .. i,.,.., ... 10 E but I ......1"'" ... ,h<m by n,""
~J {.H/I.,. p. tI, ((,,,,. '<>--'J "o.J ,.,-, 'J
.,.. Uti'" '" J<t<mw "'" Jocw., p. jJ).
61_ 1"' ,<1 '" H"F""~ p. ,).0.
M.
pi_. p. 1)1.
6)
K;"b"'goAih<hu o...""hJ"nJ. pp.
61. 1.,,,, '0 p.m;.. """ -","". p.

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p. ,~ S...., Dunpl. <p. no. 9. MGH. F.pp.
. p. ~I
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,"'. L,;"O.... pp. 10'-'.

'07. Li;..o",. pp. 1,t-' 9
,01. Lik!h<>. pp. so ... 6.
'''9. LiiNllou. 1'1'. !O.- ~ (,II< qllO"'"", i. on p. jO.).
LiHlh<s. p. "".
III. I ;+'''v. p. I"'.
III. l.iW/bu. pp. 106-7.
11). ,., ' b pp. 107-1O-
110.
..u
' .... II po<m ofrauli .... iulip"ty a~: ef. pp.

and I": a p"ns' from PL
Ambroo. ill ohonml (ef. PI' . 91 and S,,), a ,mit,.:, ' 0 PoW (, Cw. I .,,) ill ohonMCd '"
........ of an .Jlip>is (ef. pp . 91 and ~I).
"S. To }olin O"y""'....... r,.../fih Ho",i" IN EfU'" .. Ii>t Hob,.,.. (an i ..u,,,"n,it:
work. in 'ny cas<),
hp;"""', p. W.
116. E,..."". pp. j)!r-""

117. q,;_. pp. SOO (Ii,... ,,-)6) and
s Oi.., ....... ) ... d .... nampla; p. H7 (Ii,...
'0-11) is.m..r _,,", oumplt at. pIact ........ ,lit '''' of ,he ql"_ ill -....po; p. 1<9
Oi .... ~);" curious "" ho ..
of Mit:h>d and T"Ioccph~ .. ;" ."hbuocd ... Michad
m.1t!....
.nd P"riMdI An'''''''r.

"'. q;-. p. ,)6.IAtII.s. p. ....
"9. E,i.._. P. 1<0. LiN!l.s. p. ~1It.
no. E,i.... ,. p. s . l.,MI.... p. 4~.
," . hii.."". PI'. 1)1i. Hr. lJ7. 1)1. S". W. I<lpccli~y.
,. Oaud .... <po No. ' .. PI' 610-,). Gornw.. '""ConunM'0IJ' _ Cd ill ofa.udiUloi
Turin.-". n . 'I piO.KIa ...... , ... fi" ,II< fOrm Thnouni ..) .....ad of "'" m<> familiu
l1I<od,mi .
. Dt ",m. i_si",. I'L ,"': ,nC.
I. Chudl<. C...-ifotl GM. p. ,II ..... m<> ,h .. "'" "vi>
oonc .. ncd wi,h
C Loudiu .
. a.udiu,. ~ Iw bn 11 ......11 in,o En"i'" '" M<:CnclI ... (u<i] MrJkwll
1kip. pp . ... ,_41) bu, my ..adinp ..",..,i""" dilf", {""" his and I oIfer m1_" hm.
Jotw lID..ather bear IIarula,<d nor ~. ",..d.. " <di,ion. I Wotl"';1h ,lit I'L <dilion.
r.,,,",, ......
o..npllw bear -ir <dil<d and " ......,..:1 in ... f.ngIish '" ralo un..... H. mUes Id:llivdy
few .......... "'" PL ..ti,;.,.,. ..... ich I .... u....... od>e<wiot not<d.
'09-" .
,. Croand!i N.,..Jli. "Lim .... r>< ddb <rI>, - PI'

6. Fat baoi< deI.iS. _ 00...1;".... Soulhol. cr."", II. To ...... pp. 1;>-6,. '7- '''': c;."..
nun. "eomn><n.. 'Y ""
ofCl.oudiw.." pp. '19-IJ: FCTI,ri. "N"", ... (;bud.,:' 1'1'.
" '-)01: i..oo..,d;. "O,od.,:' I.MII. 1. ""b. 1IJ1- JJ: Sup. "CI. ud""" DB!. 16. pp. ,\1 _6"
WIII<nW~;",IM. v,."""""", Gn.:~odJn.. J. 1'1'. J'I>-II: M,n;,iu~ ~. ' .
c......
pp. J'.IO-96.
7. a...diw.. <pp. /i, 1.'. ,. 00. 1'1" *Co; 1,0.
I. CL.w:l i.... <po 10.!'P. 609

9 Loui,',
of
rd w.. ind.I <oo " O>"Ii. 1 wdl in,o ,II< 12"" J" ou' .
K. i"" wdwig d Fromme und K60 ig iklnh"d v-on 1.. I"'n."
10. Clmdi .... <po 11, p. 6'1.
, ' . Donpl . ~. PL 'Of 1.9... . Do ngal .. ,.. ,h.. ClaOOiu, .. fUS<d 'n , " ,00, con .
""nmrn <pi<tpO<Um" , nd th" h< GlUI tll<i' ",y"odun" , "conv<"&" OO<m i"",um."
W, h." no ro,robo"[i.~ <'IiJ<n 'h" CL.udiu, ....., ournmoni '0 PlIi,. 1>0' J,o w, !mow
of . oy 0111<, :w<m bly bcfor< which h< ..... alll . I\mhof, AzoharJ, p. '. 1 ,hink> P"i, w"
no<.[ i..... , . Boolhol d.<.t<! the "~'i'.'" [0 ... rly ," ,umn 8'f C"'''''' '" TN"'~. p. J!'
1..eon' rJi. "Gli ir!.n<k>i." p. 71' d" ", i, '0 7'7' H,il. "CI,udio,," )'/8, m,ke, , good "''''
th,t CI.udi", W1! di!<'U>!l in ,h. r>1> in the win", of 1,.._.\.
11. lin,."",. PL 'OS . .. 6;<C.
'I MG U. Gp. [. no. ,6). p. l'T
[i . F"",ri, '"NOI< 'u 0.00"," p. '9" "f",,,, PC' mu"" roodi,ioni di con .. ni<n",
poli ' ic>:'
' So D< 011,. i"'li~"",. PL ",6: )07'" (,h .. ton" "'"" ,pc.king of811 i,. widp .. ,d
",hol.:u ly inf.. cn r", which th." i, 00 proof). Hc ..... in ."y C1>< ",,", Ooncd in M.y of
81] in <h", f", NOViIk u : > Corm .... Comm,n,"". on Ce."i, of Cbudi u,:' p. ,8,
.00 n .,.
16. a'udi,.i. "n",nl '''''m<fIt h.. ban ... ioo,]y pUinl. M"1<[. "'11>ro1opcal
F=dom." p. 18. bdi<v<> ,n" "GroIingi'" Eun>p< w" m " iV<"iy op<n lield for [h<Ologic>l
.pocul,,"'" .. . [he" w" littl . .. y in ,he ... y of monoli[hic con""",,.'" I ' hink ,hi, go.-.
'00 f... H,il, Cb udiu.: P!' . 00- -10,. cmph"i"'" th .. in the <1rly 81", [M' ..... . ,ignili.
C1n, <h.ng< of k'''krmip >round Lou i., Th< ,,,,,h. (h< ",..rIool<ed PrOO,nti",) w<r< ,]1 dud
(Thcodulf. iknl"" of "''',m,) Of und.r '"!pK.,n (Agooud). 1111of ,h. Gad... .... ,'" !>m,il.
"' im' g<, . nd it m. y be [h" ,II< pupil> of I\kuin. fot , ,",mpl. Hilduin . 00 H" )",.,,, ..... n'I
'0 w;dcn ,he . ..ro ... 'l'> ld, '0 imoga by ,h.
Tht}' w"c ,]'" S'", ooI loeto" or ",Ii<>
.nd "nflO[ h"c ""lcom<d a,tuliui. ,"",k an them. Boo r",u. " La [bioIagic", caroling_
"'n.: ' P!'. 11<'- 1) 00.. "'" rhink rh.. Cloudiu, ..... <uflic:i.n,ly h"<rIo. ", ""tit dc-pooitKKt.
'7. h , uNiv in , ' ing\< m,n"octip<, V... RO!;. Ul. '''''. foI . If_~'. F" ios 7' [0 9" of
thi, m,nu"" ipt 01< filkd with Dunpi '. &>po"",. TIt", i imil" ",",nuKTipt. Mib . Bibli_
""'''' "'mh,,,,i,... R t01 , up. which ron" i", [he
, 00 " hO$< 00" miins ini,"'1
folios .1 """, ""i" ly <a" .. inl ,he n:c"p" . F,""ri . "O,,"gal:' !'P. 'HI "'urnes ,h .. til<
V" "'.n .nd "'mbr",i.n. ""nw<lip" '" "" i..J copi of D,mpi', ""ipn.!.
,i . R",."",. PI. ' OS' ,,6-8R.
'9. V. C./Ju i""'ti~""'. PL ,06: J06C.
>n. ,. "'''''''''' HI.d4wiri. line> '19-1-99. I . F...!. p. 19'1.
1[ . Roth .. y aplici,ly ,ha[ Iht}' tri".,.J only ,,tp,~ Jon... D< ",I", ;""'ti~~"'. PL
,06, ,o6C; [Ampi.
PL 'OS: -!6;rC.
ll. F.,.",;, Dung.d." p. '0",.. ,h,[ Du ng.! rnisl\! h,,< hod [he whole ",n ofo.u_
diu, woO: bccr"", he o""c <i,,,, , few lines th" .1< nOl in the a",!pI' (R",. .... -197").
R,n"ing. CI.udiu,: !'P. 7. 7-. 8 "Pf<><fl" (.nd ci,) "oJ i,ion ,h" D"ng,1 h>d ,II of
o...diu. TIt, .. id,,,,,,, i. too thi n fOf . """fid<m "11"""n , on ,h i. poi nt.
,,,,,,n,,", I\cn...
0,.,.
R",._
R",._,
416
NOTES TO PAGES
293-308
13. Crurifi(d G"J.

14. Cbudi us w;u like Throdulfwho says (Grmen 67, MGH , PLAC I , S17), " II is ~mr
to live honally at home than to go 10 Rome. One will nm gel to heaven by ftet. but by good
mol':lls."
2~. Somelhing may be wrong with this sen tence in the exlant version of the Apology:
"Apostolicw aUlem dicitur quasi apostoli CUSIOS aUI apostoli fungens officium." Apostoli
CUStoS could requi re another wo rd. as suggested in the tat.
16. Savigni, Gionll; BrunMb.l. Hi/roi,.,. vol. t. pt. 1. PI" IH-j9; AnIon, "Jonas," LMA,
S, col. 615: Wancnb3ch, Levison. Lowe. DnllJchl4nJs Gnchichnqrulim. vol. }, pp. }1I-11;
Ma nitius, Gnchichtt. pp. }74- 80.
17. lk rufru imllt,inum, PL to6: }oIO. [Hfourn.-aux. "Charlemagne eI Ie moru.rchie
asm rienne." p. 181. h is nm dear why he w;u in Spai n.
18. This is almost ctnainly untrue: Hell. "Cbudius," p. }91.
19. h used to be thought that monumental crucifixes had not yel appeared in the early
nimh ce ntury. The words used by C laudius and Jonas seem to me 10 imply that this old view
needs correcting. For a stan, sec Nccs. "On the Image ofehris! C rucified."
jO. ApoIoO, p. 611; lk rultu imaginum. col. 116C-D.
jt. II is :I. lillier nard to sec what Eu5talhius (OOCC, p. ,.Bj) is doing here. Vigibntius
(fl. 400) did o ppose: the cult of $;Ii ms and their reliu. as wr know from Jeromc's argumentS
with him (OOCC, p. 1+40).
}1. Surely wmelh ing has fallen ou t of Ihis formubtion, pt'rhaps an (W that would ha~
creared a statement in indirt discourse which, in view of qUIIJi, would be [aken as doubtful.
Jj. LP, 1, p. 54.
",. Zanna. "I ntroduction" (10 his edi tion of Ihc RnPO"III). PI'. xv-xxi i: Brunh6bl. Hilloi". vol. [, pt. 2, Pl'. 6}-64: Ferrari , "Oungal." OBI. 41, PI'. 11- [4; eadem, " In Papiaconven iunt ad Dungalum." PI'. I-Sl: Leonardi, "Dunga!." LMA, }, cols. 1456- S7; Manitius,
Gnchichu. I. pp. J70-74.
3\. Alcuin, ep. no. 2S0. p. 4}7.
}6. Epntoku I!ilriorum, no. )5, p. 5SZ: Dungal, cpo no. I , PI" 570-78.
J7. Dungal, ep. no, 7, p. Sh.
JS. Fcrl':l ri, " In Papi~ conY!'niunl ad Dunplum," PI" 1J-z.8 provida ~ hcJpfUllabulation of the wurccs used in Hadri~n 's Rnpomum. P~ris S15. Jonas, and Dungal. This is fol lowed by lim of Ihe wu rca used only ~t Paris (pp. 19-30) o r only by Dungal (pp. JO--J I).
J9 "Gli Irlandesi," p. 717.
40. Ce. 1-[8. ed. Zanna. PI" 1-ro.
4t. C. I, cd. Zanna, p. 4.
4l. Ce. 27-41, ed. Zanna, pp. t6-1S.
4J. Jonas assimilated Claudius's teachings [0 [hose of Vigil antius and Eus[athius. Eunomius (d. 394) w:u an Arian who taught about a single and utterly rcmotc di vi ne substance:
ODCC, p. .so. Perh.ap$ Claudius could be a iled Eunomian in the ~n~ that hI' had such a
remote, thorough ly spiri tualjzed view of God and no room for in ferior levels of holi ness.
44. Ce. 46- 47, ed. Zanna, p. jO. Leonardi, "Dungal," LMA, j, col. 1457: idem , "Gli
Irlanda i," pp. 756--57: Fell':lri, " Du ngal," OBI. 41, p. 13 both argue tha t Dungal believed in
the possibility of spiritual mediation through material thi ngs. induding pictura.
~ !.
Ce.
~5- 60. cd. Zanna. pp. 30-,.6. In gelltral. Dungal i~ ~peaking o f the relics of
ma rtyrs. On relics and Iheir cult in Ihis period lICe. in general. Geary. Furta Stlera. chs. I
and I.
ot6. C. 7S .:d. unna. p. SS.
ot7. C. S",.:d. unna, p. 61. On Ihe cmu in g<ner;J.I. ce. 61-7J. 79-S" pp. 4S- H. SS-61.
"S. Crucifitd God.

"9. &5hor, AgolxmJ; BrunhOl7.l, Humi", pp. 166-n: Manilius. GnrhidJtr. pp.j80-<)O.
so. Dr pirluris tl imaginibUJ, .:d. Van Ackt r, pp. 151- 81. Belle!'s att empt. " JI 'Lihu de
imaginibus.''' 10 amihule Ihe IreatillC 10 Claudius of Turi n has nOI met with acceplance: Van
Acker in Agobard's 0IW,a. pp. xxiv-xui ii; Brunhtll7.l. Himli", pp. 16S- 69: Boshof, Agoha,d.
pp. 1s}- 56 .
51. ~ pirturiJ. c. 19. p. 16S, c. IS, p. In .
51. Ag0b3rd , ~ insoultlia lwiatoru m. .:d. Van Acker. pp. 189-95; Dr iwiairis suprrttitiollibUJ n trro.jbUJ . .:d. Van Acker, pp. 197- 221; & shof. Agoba,d. pp. 101-,S.
B. Agobard, Dr grill/dint tt l(m;truiJ. cd. Van Acker. pp. 1- 15; Boshor. Agobard. pp.
170- S5
54. For an ClIcdlem introduclion
10
Einhard. sec DUllon. Charkmapt l COIi"itr. pp.
~ i-li .
IS. Lupus 10 Einhard: Lupus. cpp. 2. ,., 5: Einhard 10 Lupus. apud Lupus cpo " .:d.
Levillain. pp. 10- 50.
56. Einha,ti Quant;o dt adoramia rTUrt. cd. Ha mpt'. pp. 1,,6-,.9; lr;J.ns. DU llon, Charknll/plti Courtit. pp. 171- 74.
57. Ed. Hampe. p. 146: 1r;J.fl!. DUllon. p. 171.
sS. Crurijid God.
59. Theil' is nQ w mpll'hcnsivc m<Kkrn monograph on WaJahfrid. Dttails on his life
and asscssmen l.$ of his many wrilings may be fOlind in Manitius, GnchicJ,,,.. I. pp. jOl-IS;
Brunhtlbl. Huroi", pp. 101- 15: Halling-um(a, Wlllahfrid Strabo i Ubellus. pp. 1-)7. p.
6-a. She also provicll"S an outSla nding .:dilion o f the te~t o f Ihe Lihtlllis tU n:ordiis tI inc,,
mmlis wilh an excellent English tr;J.nslalion.

60. Ubtllus. c. 8. .:d. Ha rting-Corrca, pp. 71- SO (Lat in). ]3- SI (English).
61 . 61.LibtllUJ, p. 76: "a qu ibusdam ctr;J.nlibus divin i$ honoribus ador;J.la sinl el
cu h~."
Ha rt ing-Corrca (p. n) hu "adored and woll'hippal il1lhe lilllrgy." which, I believe, SlrelChl"S
Ihe meaning Ihal IhGC words h3hilually prn<d.S,
61. LibtllUJ, p. 78: "divin is cr.:d~1 colendos hon oribus vel ador;J.ndm." AS'l in.
H~ rling-
Co rrea lakes divinis honoribus as a spec ific refe rence 10 "Ibe liturgy."
6). UhtflUJ. pp. "Sz- Bj.
6 . Dr (li/lli imagilllint, JJIA-,Jl D .

65 . &polUll, ,,68B-C; Jonas, ~ ruilli intaginum. }08C-j09B. In this. Ihey were hardly
exaggera ti ng. 8ctween 500 and 750 about JS bibl ical com mentaril"S were composed. From 750
10
abom
')00.
moll' I h~n IS0: Conneni, "Carolingian Biblica( Cullure. " p. 7.
66. Dr rulfu imagi"unt. }llA. jJ4C-D. }SSA.

67. Dt pirturis (t imllgi"ibus, c. 10. pp. 17S- 79.
68. LibtIlUJ. p. 525.
O\s>. ~""" ~II--C.

70_ So '" "" [), """'o,-;,~",,, ,.,." .... ed. V.. AcI=. f'Po '91"-'U fw>banI
f,l, 001>&1 '" okftO<! 0..;'",., >pi ... , !<wi'" .."...,"," th:o, ,~ _;p..l ioJok W..
,Iw . ..... J;,pul< t" -..-.. it ..... <n=tiI-<no,uty B;"""';wn.. b...."Y <Ktci>d Gi"", dut
....... 00 oI..d '" ~ '"r futm of .-.-...:. 'Q be poOl "'""1 m><,..;.J ,1Un~ ,,,,,-......dm
ju>< wbo, It< ..... .ltf<fHlitt&.
7' c...,,~ ; ....._. P. 6" Coo,,..,;. "c.,o(;op.n O;bI;...J Cul,u",' Hkm, "'B,I..,.... R;,J,.,po V<
NoI>k. "!l<bliQI T",i""'"i<>."
1'- I,W... I'I" , .. . pj. ')0. H' - j'7J. Moduod U>ud. .. "' n. ,.. p. . 71,
7 . L;MJ.4.
11.
7). . Lm... 1'1" ' 71 . ,1.
.\1..,.,' ",
1'1"'''.
-,,;. (.,MJ.j,
r ,,,
77. IbM!.. 1'1'. ,.). 1'1 ,
nu. ..... 'i'P<""
'" Consun.;lIt>pk. n....&-. ;...... doubly

......,~......:I
;. ,t........,.....t "','" I<>t ~..;w II ", .. nd
~~r.:...,
;0 til" pop<! "',,.. -.Id no.-m.IIy
POl<'<.lone.
71, L,MJ.j. P. 44
)'). l, ~ 1'1' r . I\<.
&0. 1.oNI{.. , 1""'-
t, . Li"",,",.!'f'_.~' .so
"a... p. "
h. I ..
Ij. Libtlba. p. <!. (both q"'''''''') ,

k L~. P!' . 97 .\1'1 . ,.,. , ~ .
I, Uh.u",. p_ <lJ' [), nJr. 'OWK''''' . ... "- mD-mA.
16 D<nJr. ;""'l: m~ ... ),)0; uMiMs. p, ,U
'7, I'" N<ho ,~.","- ,...C-D.

a . Jon"- 0. nJ.. '_';""'" )"~' )UA.
19, UMf",. p. ", . s.. fw1ho'"n
'JQ. [), Nob. ,...,.'_... ,001\---C
9' .
w..u.... p. <1'-
"""Ii'.'"
9' ,., .. ,. ()< <oJ#,

9J. Joou>. 0. nJr.
mO-Jl,.... I<>t , .. mpk
109<. .....,.,. .nJ ,,,,,h. f'IO. <lJ. 1". ,.). "
l''-~' 1)olC-D.
....,....... )OtC,
"
J,v..
w"~)tOC; l~. ~_
- ,,- .... ed
7~ ... W6~
9-1- Jon"- D< <toh ,..",;. . ... ".,0, by ..pi"","",.

7.= ... 1'1" ,-._
'..",;"~'" J,,8. C. )JOLJ. J,..c, O.
~ >Om< Ii:mn of ;"'f"''''''
96- ubtll." P. 497.
91. D< ",Is"

""""
97
~ . L40 . rd . /~p
9i. IJMtt.,. c. t .. td.
). y..
....
It.n;n~ .Co,,<a.
"'"
7,-76. ]i. ~.
"'1_ Qo-<M "..Jn.oJ.,.,.,.. 1_ Do ......... , p. '47
,no. ..r,..t.g. p, 6".
O\<ns>l.
'Q'. D< ,.10.. i-t'n .., WD-JJ<tA. J"C, SO,C-D.
~. a;,
C. In ='Y
J- 6. ed,
= .ho ",=",
NOTES TO PA CES
}}~-B7
4l?
102. Quamio tk adQranda umrta (ruu, p. 148.

10). Libtflw, c. 8?, ed. Han ing-Correa, p. 71.
104. Snmo Jr lIi,a tr mlmt Maurar, PL "r 1J71D-1}71B. Cule$, "La dbtolion privee
el ran a I'epoquc Clrolingiennc." pp. )- 18. Cule$ argue$ Ihal the image$ wcre a crucifix and
IWO SlalUCS. The mailer is of small oon5C<juencc here. 5n: al~ Ganz, " 'Panik /fulHl i!?,oro,'"
p.
)0.
lOS. Puis, BNF. cod. lal. 12048, fol. ISlV. For Ihe dale, [>aluzo, HiJlO? of Uturgical
BI1OKJ, p. ?7 wilh fu nher nfe rcnces. For the interprctatioll adopted hcre, C haulle. Crurifid
GIHI, pp. ?6-97, with her Figure 10, p. 96.
106. In honorrm um fUlr (nIdt, B 28, ed. Perrin. p. 116 (sec al~ C 18 and D 18. PI"
11?- 1I, 18~-87).
107. HTlIbanus, ep. 41, MGH, Epp. s, p. 481.
108. PTlIyer Book of Charles Ihe Bald (8605). Munich, Schankammer der Residenz, fols.
)8v- J9r; .s Nccs. Early MtdirWJI Art. p. 171. PTlIyer Book of Louis the German (ca. 86<),
Berlin. Staatsbi bliothek zu Beriin- PreussiKher Kuhu rbcsin. MS Thool. lal., fol. 58. with
Ihe image on fol. 110r; Stt al~ Goldberg, Strualt for Empirt, pp. l8 S-87. C rivello, "HmscherbiJd," 116-1? thinks the piCiUre W2S added latcr Ihan Goldberg docs and that. in IXI. it
may rcpr~nt Arnulf of Cari nthia. The idelll ilY of Ihe pcr~n depicted docs nOI malerially
afTccl my argument. On Ihe pnyer book of C harles the Bald.s Dcshman, " Eulted &lV:I.nt. "
PI'. J87- 88 and n. I}.
109. The Paris Ubrflus, pp. 502-6, devotes one of its 10llgest ~u5lajned discussions 10
the cross. Jonas devotes his wh ole s('(ond book 10 the subjcct (with scattered co mm ents
d~herd and Dungal assigns ce. 61- 17? 10 Ihe cross.
110. jonas, Dt t"UffU imJIl inum, j}JD-})6J\; DunVI. RnponUl. cc. 6. IJ. ed. lanna, PI'.
I II .
Dt t"U/ru i""'xinum, J07H-j09C; cf. DunVl, RrtpolUll. c. 11. ed. lanna, p. 6.
Ill.
C haul1e. Crurifid God, pp. jO, 118-jl, 1}9-40.

Ferrari. /I "Ubrr !illfIrta( Cruris," PI" }60- 78: Baen, Htrifllgr IJf Holy W/IOd', pp.
II).
14-80.
114. On the chu rches, Heill . Rtdurthrs, PI" 147-49: on Ihe shrines. Wilhelmy, " Kreulv( rehrung im Karolingcrreich," PI'. l?-jl, wilh ~he useful map on p. }l.
liS. J\s jonas affirms, wi~h citalion of thc pnyers: ~ rU/lu inwlinum. J}lA.
116. Librr Offirialis. I. 14. 4, S, ed. Hansscns. p. 100.
117. LiMr Ojfirialis. l. 14. 11 - 11, ed. Hanssens, PI" IOj- 4: cr. Bcde, HisflJria ct/niastira.
3. 1, ed. rlummer, PI" 1l8-jl.
118. liM Offiria/is, I. 14. 10, ed. HanMens. p. 107.
119. Ubrr nwnua/is, 1. 3. ed. Riche. pp. 118-jo: Inns. Nce!. p. I?
110. DunVI. RnpolUll. c. 1.41. ed. Zanru&, p. 2.46: Jonas, ~ ruftu imagj"um. J}2 B.
Jonas, Dtt"Ufru imlZlinum, jIlD-jIY.. HID-HjJ\.
111. Apo/ogrticllm, p. 610.
113. Paris Librf/us. pp. ~01 - 1: jonas. Dr nil", imaginum, JI?B-D: Dungal. RrtponSll. c.
103. ed. lanna, p. 76: J\gobard. Dr picfuris, cc. l - }, (d. Van Acker, PI" 151- H. Einhard.
111.
Quami" dt adora"da sanrta eruct. PI" 148-4?, docs 1101 cite J\uguMine but inSlead talks about
4JO
NOTES TO PAGES
H7-Ht
the different manings of (he Gretk words (prtunihin. proschi"uJu) for adoration in M~t
thcw's Gospd. H e may wcllluvc had Augusti ne in mind b:I.use Augustine himsel f disc"' ....
these. and olher. Greek words.
124. Jonas. Dr {ullU imllgin um . }19C-D; Oung~1. RtJponsa. cc. 78, 101, 104, cd. Zanna,
pp. 18, 74, 76.
121. LibtUuJ. pp. 499-joo: Jonas,
{ullu imllginum, )1oC-O; Dungal, RtJponSll, cc.
86-92, cd. Zanna, pp. 64- 66.
126. Cuofi"tilln {'ainti"g has no wall paintings. Braunfel$, Dit Wdl db /Vtrolingtr, has
}12 B&W and 54 color plate5. Of Ihcsc, 9 B&W plates are wall paintings and J arc m05Olia.
The index has no entry for. e.g . " Wand malerei:' But Braunfels did dcvO'le a fcw page5 to
mil paimings ("Die Wandmalerei," pop. 47J-7!, along with Cltalogue entrie5 nos. 610-88) in
/Vtrt dtr Gf'OJN: Wmt u" d W'irA-u"g, Ihe C<llalogue of Ihe t961 Aachen exhibition. Huben (1
aI., Tift Clrofingidn RmlliSJllnu, pp. I- II prcscnts a cursory treatment of wall paiming wit h 4
pbtes from St.-Germ ain d'Auxerre and 11 from the North Italiannyrolean region. DodwelJ,
Pllinling in Europt, memi ons wall painting til passam and dcvO{es 4 of 43 Carolingian pbte5
to the subjcct. Bergamini, "u pinura e la mi ninura:' pp. p6-19 is beller for Lombard J(;aly.
['rei/ller, "Fragmen(e ei ner verlorenen Kun sl," 11'11" l~n-206 handles only Paderborn and its
putat ive romp"'llntU while mention ing ,hal more than I},OOO fragments have been found. In
his oUl$landi ng new survry, &'7 Mrdin.'lI1 An, NttS provides platcs for j Camlingian-tra
mil paintings (Sta. Maria in Valle, Sama Maria Amiqua [Thtodoms chapell, and San
Vinccnw;al Vol lurno) along with Thtodulrs mosaic at Germigny. My poim is nOl 10 crilici2C
any of (hese great scho lars bUI 10 iI1usu:lIc that "paiming" has lended 10 mean book painting.
117 " Wandmalerei," p. 475.
118 . Homilia, no. 37, PL 110; 7JB-74C.
129. Gma Kilroli Mllgni Impmlfons, I. }O, cd. Haefele, p. 41 .
I}O. Sironi, Cufrl Mp";". wi~h ric h bibliography down 10 199~ (pp. 47-~8). Carver,
"Carbon -' 4 Dating of Wood," and 'S. Mari3 foris ['O rlas al Cand Scprio" brings some
pre.:ilion 10 the dating by excluding dales before the la(c eighth century. On b;alance. midninth century seems mOSI likdy.
I}1. Coli. Exner, and H irsch, MiiJlllir.
112. In lion""", HluiDwiri. II. 2061- 16}: for imerpr(1alion, Lammers, " Ein brolin
gisches Bildprogramm." pp. 126- 89.
IJ} . These may be found st rewn Ihrough VOn Schlosser's SchnfrquTllm or vols. I and 2
of MG H , PLAC. s 31$0 Arnulf, VmuJ Ild Pi(furas. pp. 147-200; Gan z, "'Pando q uod
.Ignoro, " p. 17.
lH. Woodruff, " Mosaics of La Oaurade."
lH MilUlllfurfithtSchartwru;thniJJf, nOS. 12, 15, 27, 28, 56, 66, 74. 97, 110. Of Ihe Ijl
documenu: in Bischoff's oollcclion, 12 arc Caroli ngian and 9 of lhcse expliciliy men lion
crosses or crucifixcs.
1}6. LiIHUUJ, 481, 48l, 48}, 484, 106, p.I-H. 526.
l17. J:k ruffu imllgi""m, }IIO-}IIB, ll!!C-no B.
1}8. RnponSll, cc. 5-6. ed. Zanna, p. 4
Ij9. Libt/JUJ. c. 8, ed. Harting-Correa. p. So.
en
'4<'_ I,;o.u.." <lI . 19.<>9,

D""Il1'I.~, ce....
'<". ,,6:...,.... V. nJ<o i-ti""'"' l'Ot). HM. nol!. l'llI:
, '""', N 7""".1'1" 'J.,s. "" .
,., . .........<1. Dr f""''-;'' IX_ '0. J"..:L V.. ""k, 1'1'_

,.,. I>' ",It. ;-p..... ),3C: /..MI.<.. <.1. N,
"~I - "'"
H."i"~.c.om.
110
I'f" 7'. /4.
,., . f.,J,d1.,.I'!', '>-\.1,6

'.4- Agub>nI. 0. p....,.. <. ...' N . V.. Ad",. !'P' '7>--7<.
,.1 AgtoN..l. V. ,,,,"n'<C. U, 001_ V.. Mol. PI'- '69--;'0.
',6. [.H/Jw. 1'0. II. bi, /U"b,rt.m (po It)1 ,b< I.a.u." ...... ,b< =n<
of. qUOD'''''' [,"'" 1.<OO,i., of N",poIi, io Crl""'_
,,7 iIIo,..""', . !9- '"

..... LiI.dJu,. <_I ..:L
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"",ion>. PI'- !>6. no,
.,' Ik",tr. ;-,u..m. ,,,,1). ,,,c
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~. rr.
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(I\,h......; .. ). ,'I (G,<J"'l' ,,fNru

'17 , fiL?o""" . 7 9 ..:L ~-'".'" 1'1'. "" J.I_
, ". i\go>lwci.lk tk'"",. c. J. td.
""~". 1'1'.
V,.
'li.
'19 lit./J.,. 1'1'- ",6. l') (G'T")") ",d,B6 '11.""",1;""), IAmg>!.

UnO,"
p..... II.F'I""o,Ii . ,.,. 'o. P.
fiL?o""""
lou"
",ri~
)S.
td
,y;,
,60. liM/oJ. p. IIl_ 11>< BY""',n< >UN ,. 1' 7 rn'

,I>< r ...... IIll"rr moo ..
of (1'><000-) DionV>iu> ...hkh I\bbot I-Md";o ofSt.[Xru. ,,.Ml><<d in,o
(n<,
l.l,,,,
fI'<"o><Iy!) on.! r"'''htN t. 11>< r",~ f"h... II<" ,I><~ "'[>;.",,.; .. ,"' (torn ,I>< '<>'1>
..... idt 'I><}' f<Vi<wnj, It ~ dilliG.l, '0 s, uti ch"-'<l<Oi"ll"=al ~od~ how Cblkli ... I\g>b.I,d,
Of Du"&>I "",Id
oht ...... full 1<>,. jon.>, W.I.tt(hd , ...l ~mh .. d ""U 0... _"
i, . 10 'or""'. ;' "",m,,~ h..," m><lt "" ;011""""'" ~",iI. fI;<~'"'"''' I"" ...... " t:~"&<'"
"udi,.J ,I>< ""I"k ..". ".."J,,I i, .""'.
,6,. ~ . 0.
<. " . td V'" 1I.<J..r, 1'1' '0..-6,
,., "_.1'1'- 1"'1 , I"
,6J, 1'''''''''',;",.
')7'C.
,6._ A ...lN ~ F,~","", ,, ,,,,no hi. I. Ku,. p. '6i
' ~I /\muir. r",., oJ 1'>mo<4>. 1'1" lO-" , 'J
,.... rot"' 00. ' 7. <d. H,"<I, p. ,!I, ,r,'m. Wakh. p. '9' s.. lI.,"ulf. V.,., .. oJ r.m"",-
lu., ..."
"".m.
s..-.
1'\" <7-"'
167. Tht I.,~
,61. /\mulf.
,~ .
ofth< F.J..n. 11.'. ,,In,, -"""', p. 9J.
v"' .. .,/ /'1"",,,,- 1'1'. "_'._
I." ........ o> . oJ Im<f """m,n";" C"". " 'P,,,oo q.od i~.
v..... oJ r.m,,-,,> PI'- " 7- 6) "'IW''' ""...
'7<>- "'"ulf,
,00,,,,,,,,,,,.,
1'1', '7-"1,
Ot
NOTES TO PACES HS - HO
171. Discussed by Amulr. Vt'l'JNJ lid PiCfUrIlJ. pp. 148-51.

171. MGH. PLAC, I. nos. 44. 48. 60. 61. pp. lIl. II}. 210, HI.
MG H. PLAC, 1. no. Sj. p. 400.

t74. MG H. ['LAC, 1. nos. 18. 10. pp. 547. 548.
175. MGH. PLAC, 3. no. 48. p. 110.
176. MG H, pu.C, 3. no. 8t. p. 131.
In MGH. PLAC,}. nos. 7-10. 14. IjO-jl, 154, 155. PI'. 196. 197. 147. 348. j59
178. MGH. PLAC, 4, pp. 1047--10.
179. MG H. PLAC, 1. PI" 4110--81.
ISo. MGH. PlAC. j. p. Ij l .
181. MG H. ['LAC. 1. p. 1'}6.
18:. Fttr:l.ti. II "liM SIlncfll.. Cf14ris." pp. 1-7 summarizes Ihe older scholan.hip.
18}. I4b;m us Maurus. In ho"ort"m SIll/tlllt tnlcis, ed. Perrin. Perrin has also published
a fine filcsimile along with helpful introductory material (now largely superceded by the
"I ntroduction" to his edition). transc ript ions of the wnw intna;. and French tr:anslations:
u,utlllgn d.. fa lIlint.. (TfIix. [t may be observed that [ use Perri n's lille In Honor of lIN Holy
Cross. In his "Introduction:' Pl" uvi -ui~ he nplains why the preponder:ance of evidence
argues for honort"m inste:ld of the more familiar faoukm.
184. The cop)' for louis was made hcfWtc'n 8jl (it alludes to Ihat year's "['ellian" embassy to Ihe court) and louis's death in 840. &.trs. "louis the Pious as Miln Christt' makes
an impressive C<I5C tltat the book was made fOf louis's imperial restoJ;uion in 8H.
18S. Hr:abanus, Gmnm no. }8. ed. Diimmler, MG H, PLAC, 1, p. 196. The fillt p,an of
the tr:anslation is my own. For Ihe second p.art [ rely on Gant's tr:anslation, .. 'Pando quod
ignoro: " p. 19 with some sligh t modifio.lions. [t must be acknowkdged that we do nOt
know when H rabanu5 wrote this poem and we Jo nO! know wh at picm re(s) he was referri ng
to: Ferra ri. II "Libtr Sal/aat Crutis," PI" IS-U, JI 4- l j.
186. Schola rs have sketched H r:abanus's intellectual background without being able to
con nt him 10 specific feamres: Chatellc. C",rift..d God, p. 114; Ferr:ari. II "Libt"r SRI/rtat
Cf14tis:' pp. 191-jlj; Wilhelmy, "Die Enmehung von [k faudibw im Sp,annungsfeld," PI'.
In
1j-16.
187, On Hrabanus in gener:al, who lxks ~ modern monogr:aph, $tc' &iNtnw MIIUrw,
cd. Konut. PI" 15-19; Perrin. " Introduction," PI" v-vii; KOltje, " Hr:a~nus Maurus," lMA,
S. 1+4-47. Brun holz.l, "Zur gciSfigen Ikdeulling des H r:a~nus Maurus," pp. 1- 17; Mani tius.
GtKhirhl(, I . PI" 188- }Ol; Brunholtl, His/oi", vol. t, part 1, PI" 8 4-101.
188. T hese figu res arc readily available in Perrin'~ u,lUlngn, a facsimile, and in his edilion of II/ hono"m sal/ctat rruris.
189. Ferrari, 1/ "LiN,StlllClat Cruris," pp. JIS-p. 343.
190. In hol/ort"m tal/CIllt (TUril, C I, ed. Perrin, p. 19 (lines 1-11). OUUlanding on H r:a~
nuS'1 theology of the CroiS is C haulle, Crucift..d God. pp. 99- 119.
191. On H rabanus' ddm 10 his poetic heritage sec Ferr:ari, 1/ "LiMSIlntlar Cf14tn," PI"
196-~ l o.
Diebold. Word Ilrullma~, PI" 109- 11.

19J. Chaulle, Crurijtd God, pp. 110-14; Ferrari. II "LiM Sanctll.. Cru.-n," pp. )16- 19,
191.
}1},14J-S7
NO T ES TO PAGES
H1-H7
4 33
t94. Ed. AJI~n. CSEL., vol~. t69, 169A (1001).

t95 Allen, ed. cit., vol. t69A, pp. 11-8t; Schmale, 'Frc<:hulr." lMA, 4. 881- 8}.
(96. P,lIlogur, ~d. Allen, vol. (69, p. 19.
197. Fundamentally owing to the ren'aluation by Stauhach, "Christiana umpora."
198. Ed. Allen, vol. 169, p. 714.
199 The older literatu~ is fully discussed by Staubach, "Chrisriana UmPllra," pp. 16770, t75-76, 189-98.
100. Hiullriat,
201.
I. 2.
I, ed. Allen, p. 91.
The phrase "Christian Times" (Christiana umfNJra) is nO{ arbitrary. Although Free-
ulf nn'cr uscs Christiana Ttmpllra he uses form~ of (h e word ItmpUr no limes. He virtually
always !hIys "In Ihe lime of ... " or "[n the times of. ... " This w:tl his way of marking time.
His inlcnexts explain his copious use of lime words. Augunine uses Ch,iitiana umfNJra
II
limes. including once in th e City IIf God (1l.21, cd. Domban and !(alb. CC 48, p. p8).
Orosius uses Ihe ph rase five limes {}.8, 4.6, 6.1, 6.21, 7.43, cd. Z:i.gemeisler, CSEl 5, pp. 151,
12}-24, JH, 429, 56}. Each time he uses the phrase he docs so 10 COntrast "Christian Times"
wilh p.1gan times. The last instance is rn'ealing: "I ... would permit Ch ristian times 10 be
bla med fredy, if, from the foundi ng of the world to the prescnt. any equally fortunate period
an be pointed out" (trans. Defer rar i, p. 363). Frecu lf W-IS able to look back 10 that "present"
from the van tage point of his own. The numbers specified here were derived from searches
of dectronic databases and Ihen verified againsl the texts.
202. Staubach, "Chrisriana lnnfNJ,a."
103. Hirloriat. 2, ProIIlgUS, ed. Allen, p. 436.

104. Carmtn, cd. hral, vv. 1\10-19.
105. Annaln rtgni Francorum, anno 816, ed. KuT"l.C. p. 170.
106. Carmtn, cd. Faral. vv. 106S- t63.
207. Lammers. " Bildprogramm:' pp. 1.4)-47 argues for the time of louis and cites
older literature. Necs, Tainltd Manl/~. pp. 176-77 discusses the iswes.
lOS. Tainred Manr/~, p. 176.
Ermoldus implies strongly thai the pagan and Christian images opposed each OIher
on the side walls: "Regia narnque domus late pcrsculpta nilcscit" (v. 2Jl6); "Parte ~Iia
10').
tc<:{i ... " (v. 2(48). Pasculpta cannot be taken literally. lammers, "Bildprogramm," pp.
181-86 thinks the Christian images were in the apsc with the pagan one On Aanking W-Il!s. I
have no view on the matter.
210. Ex cel lent discussion in Nees, Taimtd Mamlt, pp. 270-77. with older literature.
111. Rist ofWmtrn a'riJrcndom, p. 169.

Ill. Noble, "Biblical Te~timonies."
l l j.
Notably, ConlrCni, "Carolingian Biblical Culture.'"
114. Angdomo t la srullla mgt/ira di

Biblical Cult ure,"' p. 20 n ..p).
Lux~uiI.
p. 6t (c iled by Cont reni, "Cuolingian
115. Ed. Harting-Co rrea.
216. D~ inrlifuliont riairorum. ed. Zimpel.

117. lifshirl, Tiu Namt IIf flu 5.zim, pp. IIO - H.
21S. T he defin itive study is FuhrmaRn, Einflus> und l!rrbrtilulIg, J vok
4J4
NOTES TO PAGES
)17- )61
119. Boshof. Ludwig dr, F"mnu. pp. In-81.
Comtitulio dr synodi,. MGH. Conc .. I. pt. 1. no. ~oA. pp. 596-97.

211. Hludowici rt Lotha,;; rpisMIa tt"tralis. MG H . Conc .. I, pI. 1, no. soB, pp. 597-601.
H1. Concilium parisi",sr. MGH. Conc" I. pt. 1, no. 50D. pp. 605-80. On the cou ncil
generally: Hartma nn, KOllzilirngrllhirllft . pp. 179-87.
2l). Duo q"Jppr sunt, cd. Schw~rtt; Eng. [r,tI1$. T ierney, Crisis ofChurrh alld Stair. pp.
1'-[4. Kn~~, Ztittwaltrnthrorit.
22.4. urolingian Rrlliliwlnrr. pp. fll-H
uS. That issu~ h~ve bttn di$CU5Sd endlessly. Fundamental still is Arquillihe, L ;'u~
tw'inilmr po/itiqur. See also Mohr, Rnchsiri; Morrison, TIN Tu..'tI Kingdoms; Nelson. " King110.
sh ip and Empirt."
116. MGH, up. I, nO. ISO, C.). p. JOJ.
217. ThCS( i$.!u~ an: now brilliantly discusstd in Booker. Past umuicliolll. forthcoming.
u8. Astronome r. Vila Hludowiri. c. 48. cd. Trem p. p. 474.

119. Dr pri/Jilrgio aposlo/ira, srdil. cd. Van Acker, pp. 304-6. quotalions p. J05.
1JO. Apud Agobaldi cpis[olae. no. 16. MG H . Epp. 5. pp. U8-Jl.
IJ I. Smaragd us. Via &gia. PL 101: 931- 70: Ermoldus. Ad PippimM R'KnII I. II. cd.
Faral, pp. 101-)1; Jonas. Ad Pipp;num "l'm L..dO/J;rii Pii ilUguSli ftlium admonilio 'I OPIlJC'll110m dr mun," "lio (Dr institution, "fia). cd. DubrcuOj. The basic study of Ihex leXIS is
Amon, Fiintnupi'l,I. pp. [)1--93.
1)1. Dr institution, lairali. PL 106: 111-178.
13). Amalar. Oprra lilurgira omllia. cd. Hanssc:n.s, vol. J . pp. )61-6).
114. lkncdict o( Aniane. um('(},dia rrgularum. cd. Bonnerue; Smaragdu5, &f'I'1itio in
rrgulam S. 8mrdi"i, cd. Szpannagcl: Hi ldemar, &polition rtgUlar. cd. MittermllUe r; Gri ml aicus, Rrgula Sfl/ilariorum.
135. Slaubach. "Cultu$ Divinu5."
1)6. Nd$On, "The Lord's Anointed and the People's Choice"; McCo rmick. Elrmal
Vi"ory. pp. j61-84.

117. AWonomer, Vita Hludowiri. c. I). cd. Trtmp. pp. )18-10.
118. flrmal Vir/ory. p. )75. See also Hen. Royal Pal10lIiltt of I}" Litu'll' pp. 108-9.
1)9. 813: ATinain"l"i F'ilnrorum, rd. Kuru. p. 138; Etmoldus. ea,..",..n. ed. Far;J.1. vv.
651-735; Thcgan. Grrta Hludowiri. c. 6, cd. Trcmp. pp. 180-84; AloirollOmer. Vila Hilldowiri.
c. 10. ed. Tremp. pp. }40-44. 816: Anllaln rrgni FrIlTl('(}rum. ed. Kuru, p. 144; Etmoldus,
Canntn, cd. Faral, vv. 848-1131; Th~n. Gnta Hludowici. ce. [6. [7. cd. Tremp, pp. 196-98:
Asrronomer. Vitll HI"dowici. c. :6, ed. Tremp, pp, J64-68.
140. A nod, but not a bow, [0 Bue. Dangm of Ritual.
141. Gmlltn .:d. Faral. w. 1164-)5[. Sec Hen. Royal PlIl10lIlIgr ofIIII Litll",. pp. 115-16.
41. Annaln rrgni Franrorum. anno 8[8. cd. Kuru. p. 148.
14). MGH, Gp, 1, no, 197. c. 6, p. SJ.
4-4. MGH. up., [, no. 1}6. Praif.. p. 171.
45, MGH . Conc.. I, pl. 1, nO. soB. p. 601.
146. Kttfe, Wat" ilnd tlK Word, vol. 1. pp. 126- 17. prividcs a li51 or Ihe manuscriplJ
containing thCS( txpmirionn missal.
NOTES TO rAGES ) 62 - 370
4lj
147. Hen. &yal P'lIronagi of"" Liturgy, pp. 101-1 wilh Ihe older lilerature and sources.
Carmm, ed. Faral, VY. I,)so-B, 1014- '47, un- 17.

14'). ~ t;ra'ldi'li if 'ollirruiJ, cd. Van Acker. EsKntial extracu (rans. Duuon, GlrolingiJIII Ci"ilitA,ioll , pp. nO-l}.
IjO. DUI{Qn, " Fi rt and Hail"; Ric!.c: , " La magit i I'Cpoque carolingieont." There is
much of value in Flinl, Risr of Magi(, apccially pp. IIO-IS on Agobard, but I disagree with
the fundamental premiiiCli of the book.
151. MGH. Cone . I, 1'1. 1, p. 669.
1S!. McNei ll and Game r, cds., Halldboolu of Pm"" , pp. jO'j-6.
ljj. Libn duo Jr rylloJa/ibus (llUSU, 2. }H-n, ed. Hartmann, pp. 412-2S.
IH. Krnkr, lIIus"aud Biblnjrom Thurs.
lSS. C~ulle, "Utrechl p$;1llt ."
148 .
CO NCLU SION
I.
B;uic deuils: T.cadgold, Bpnti'li S,art IIIId 5i,ry, pp. 446-p; Oslro>gouky. Hi.-
tory, pp. 117-}j.

Dvornik, I'ho,ia'l !Khirm .ema ins fundamenlal.
j. Epp. nos. 81, 8S, 88, 90, ')1, 92, 94, 98, cd. Perels, MGH, Epp. 6, EKA 4, pp. " B - 39
(ap..1)6-38), 443 - 46. 4S4-87 (e$p. 471-730 481-8)), 491--93, 495, 51 4, 516, 517, 519, 511, 514,
\"44, S5 4-SS, 5P-S8. [n almost every cas.: the references are brief and say no more than Ihal
Nicholas'slcgata attemptcd to look in{Q the mautr.
4. O n November 13, 866, Nicholas wrote twice to the Easlern archbishops and bishops,
10 Michael III , 10 pho{ios, and 10 Ignalios: Epp. 90-94, 98.
j. Epp. nos. 100-102. ed. Perc1$. MG H. Epp. 6, pp. 600-610.
6. Con5lanlinople IV, Artio VII , c. 6, Mansi, Conrilia, [S, cols. [O<JE-lI oB.
7. Ep. no. 82, ed. ['erels, MGH , Epp. 6, pp. 436-38.
8. Ralramnus, Comrrl t;ratcorum opposiftl. I'L [11: 113-346: Aeneas of Paris, Lilur advrr1.
JUS Grar(os, PL
Ill:
68S-761: RrsfXJmis tpisrofXJrum Gmnaniar
Jr fidi UUlctar Tri'liraJis, PL
II'): 1101- 11.
9. ClaudiU5, Dungal, Einhard on Iht C ross, Walahfrid 's chapler, and puts of Hraba nu5.
10. Nicely 5Urvcycd in Schmiu ,
corps drs imalfJ.
II. [ make no prelen$( 10 thoroughnCSli on this topic. Sec Bcun~n, L'imagr imiTdir.
pp. Ijj-64; Fdd, lkr IItO'lolt/Asmur drs Wl1uns, pp. 6,-68: Dil1enbcrger, Throl4gy ()f Anisric
SmJibilitin, pp. 41- 44.
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Wolf, Gc rhard. Salus Populi Romani: Dit Gtschiehu 'limbe/itT Kuflbi/dtT im Mimlalltr. Weinh"im. [990.
Wolfram. Hcrwig. " Pol irinl Theory and Narr.l.live in Chaners." ViatOT 26 (1995): J9- 5t.
Woodruff, Helen. ''The Iconography and Date of the Mosaics of La Daurade." AB [3 ([931):
80- t0 4
Wortlcy. John. " lconocl:um and l.eipS<lnoclasm: Leo III, Constantine V and Ihe Relics."
ByzaminiscM FONchullgm 8 ([98~): 153- 79.
Yiannias. John J. "A Reexamination of the 'An Statule' in Ihc Ac{S of Nicaea II. " BZ 80
([987): 348- 59.
Zhivov, V. M. "The Mystagogia of Maximu~ the Confessor and the D~dopment of Ihe
Byzantine Theory of the Image." Sf. Vladimir s Throfogiral Quanaly JI (1987): 349- 76.
I NDEX
Abbt-ville Gospels. 117

Abgar lm3ge.)3. 69. <)]. 147-48. ISS. 100-201.
10).11]. Il3. 378 n. 104
ilrlJirropoirro". H. 117-1? 148. 113. )68
Ad3 Gospels, 117
Adalh~rd, 167
Adalwin . 266
Ackpr. 16.. -6S. HI
Admo"i,i" G",m,iis, lH, 117-18, 140- ,,1
Adomnan.)), "1_16
Adop!ionism . !\9, 16 \, !6]-68. '72-704, !76.
180, !<)5. 119-)0. IH. 137. 140. 164-61. 169.
",
Arians. 1<)
Arn . :66
Arnobios of Sicca. 14
AlKnal Gospels. 1Z7
Anabudos. 61
Aneriu.!, Bi.hop of Amastia. 19'9
Achanuios. 16. 19. ' 13. 1~11. 41) n. 90
Aogusline, )0. 34. ,6.,8, 41. 44. II). 187, Ill?
191,100-101.109. II}. 116-17. 11\. 1)0--)1.
140. 1]0-76. 189. 19c. 1<)8.}OO. )09. )14- 16,
, 18. H7, HI. 343. JIJ-SI. 410 n. Jj. 4}0 n.
II). 4H n. WI
Aoguscine of Canterbury, 1I"-C5, IjJ
Ichd~.I" . King. II ..
Ag:uhias, 10, 14-15

Agobo.rd of lyon,}, 1111 . 187, )!J-IO. }I6. }19.
}H-JS. 3)7, }4hU. Jl'r 60. ,6, . .. 1\ n. 16.
")1 n. !60 ...3\ n. 150
Aiscolf. 117. !.. O
Akuin, !l6. CI8-60. C61-6,. c67-68, !]O. !H71, !77. !84. 107, 114-16, l)l-H, 1)7. 166.
169. )06. HI, }..s, }\6. 40} n. !8. 404 n. H.
.. 10 n. 17, 418 n. 1<)", .. 2S n. 16
Amalu(ill$), Bishop of Men. : 65-68. 181. JJ6.
}60,,6:
AmbrOSl:. !"7. !86. 1<)1, 171
Ambrosios AOlpt"nos. IJJ
AnasTasio!. Patriarch of Conn and no pIe. 14-16.
5<).81. lIS- 19. [14
Anastasiu! of Sinai. 1\-16
Andreu AgndllU. 1}S-)6
Andr~ JUlybiTe5. 6\. 67-68
Angilbc:n. 16\-68, 1}4-}5. 166. 168. 345- .. 6
An~frid of Nonan/ola. 168
Ami"hnifroi. 94
apolngisu. 11
Arculf. H-}.f. 116
Arianism. 17
,.
Basil. 16-17, 19.87. <)). 'SJ-14. 111. ),,1. 413 n.

Bnil of An.cyn.. 77- 78. 100. [h. [9'6
B:uil I. Emperor. }67
Basil Triccacabos. III
Sca[os of liebana. 1)}
Scdc. \. u1-l6. m. 198. )18, })6, )97 n. H
IknwiCl of Anianc. 141. 415 n. ,6
Benwie! Biscop. IIj
b . I)-H. \'), 8). }.[ n. 1)
Boniface, 116. c}6-)]. Ii). 117
Boniface IV, Pope. 1)0. JIl
Caesario! of Arb. )8. 44
Camuliana icon. 33. 69
(Apiluta"
adWTIU1
<J""Jum. 159-60. [6) - 67.
1]0.171-7), 176-77 8)-8... C9). 116. 1)0,

168. 40j n. 40
CaMiOOorus, 1-,0, )00
Ca[hwulf. :H
chalk( im3gt, 59-60, 69. n6 . Ii'
C harltmagnt. [. J. 6-8. 71. H. '44. 1.. 9. 111'.
I\S_61. 167-68. 170, 171-71'. 177, 184. 19'9" . 1<)9. 206. 111. 111, HI. H6-17. H9-J4.
1)6-i1. 1~5-46. IH-55. 164-65. )11. 310.
Charl(m~gnt
(rontinutd)
)18-} I. H S. lj l. jS4-n.
,8,
396 n. H. 41 8 nn .
Charles Man d. 14). 1)1, ) IS

Charles ,h( Bald. I. 195. )14. })S, )S1, JS4, 157.
)19. )67
C hrillology. 91. 95-97. 99.105-7. 114.1 44. Ij4.
149. 336. )69
C hrodegang of Mell . '44. 1)5. 137
chrysorriklinus. 1}9
circumsc.iplion. 94-95. 99
Claudius. Bishop of Turin. 1.). 8. 181. 166.
187-)11. )14 -15. )17-18, )11. JlS-16 . }l8-19.
,,1- 31, H7-)8. }41-41. H8 . }S4. )56. )j9. )6).
)68-69. 41S n. 16. 416 n. 19. 417 n. SO. 4)1
n. 160
ClHitx o.mlinUJ. 141, 16 1. 1)1. )95 n. 10
Co n~l anr ia, I)
Consranri ne, Bishop of Coruramia in Cyprus.
79. 170. 198
ConSianrine. Bishop of Lconlinc. 71
Consramine, Bishop of Nacolcia. SJ~4. S6~7.
59. 66. 81 - 8),86. 8S
Constantine. Palriuch ofConsranri noplt. SI ,
97
Co nslanrine [, I)
Conllanlinc [V, Emperor, 397 n. H
Conslanline V. 46. Sj. 59-71, 76. S)- SS, 94100.10,;-6. 'Q9_IO, 118, 11..4, ' 41 - 44. ' SI. r61 ,
170, 117, 1..46- 49. 155,}St n. }), 314 n. j8,
391 n. 185
Cons.aminc VI. 46, 70-7 '. 7). n. 79. SI. 101,
149-S0 , Ij6, 164. 18S. '99, 116. 144, 146. ISS
168. 176, 3)0, 397 n. )4. 40j n. 40, 41) n, 90
Connanrinc C harrophylu. 15. 17
Cons.aminop!c 81j. }16
Cori ppus. IJO
Coom:as.6)
Cosmas and Damian. ima", of, )1
Council in Tru][o. 16, 6)
Counci l of Elvira. u. 17. 1)9. )19
Council ofFrankfu'l, IS8-6o, 169-80, 1)0. 137.
144- 4j , 16 j. )lj, 41 8 n. (9)
Council of Hagia Sophia SI S, 149- 50. lSI. 15657. 1j9. 161
Counci[ of H iCK'" 48, 51. 6). 6s-67. 71. 7478.80-84. 94- 101. 104-8, 110,119. 11..4.1)9,
144, 146- 47. IS7. 181. 10}, lOj- 6. 109. 147SO. 161. 16}. 18S, 31S, 391 n. rSs
Counc il ofraris 819. JS7. )59- 60, )6)
CI'05$. IS. 18, 11. IJ. 16. JI-)1, 4', 80. "l- IS. (16,
137.148, ISS, 189. (9)-94. 114. 161, 169, 176-
77.181,191,19),196.198- 101, )06-7. )09I). 31j. }17, }1O- 11, )1), }lS, H)-17. 34)- 44.
H6 , 348-49. )69 , 4" n. )6
Cyril of Aleurniria , IjJ, 191
DagulfPsalrer, 117, 119, 1)4
Damasus, r opc. 186. 119
Decretum Gclasianum. 171. 191
Dcsideriul. 141, ' 9j n, 10
Dhouw.
Di~n!,j~.Hllliri4n4 , 11S
Oion)"i us of AscaIon, 10)
D ion)"ius of Fourna. SO-SI
Dungal. }, 1.87-91. }06-ls, )19, )11, )IS, )19-)1.
JJ)-H. JJ6- J7. )41-44. HO, 3S6, )6). 416 n.
, 8. 419 n. 109. 4" n, 160
Dura Europos. 11. 14
Ebe rhard. Duh of Friuli, HS
qloo Cod", ll)

Ei nhard , j. 16s, 1l6. 1)1- )1, 119.l.41. 187, )1 ),
)10--1), )IS- 1.8, H)-H. 34). )S I, 36S. 411 n.
SI, 413 n. 81. 4)1 n. 160
Einsiedeln hiner.rry. 1)8
Eleu!heriu~. 119
Eliu. Ardbishop of Blach ern~i. 10}
Elipandus of Tolcdo, 16s, 168, '74. 169, 195
Elviran Clnon , 17. )19
Epiphanius. Deacon. 8)
Epiphaniui of Salamis. 11-18.)0. ,..10 1,10),
m
t'pitomt, 16)-64, 167. 178- 79. 181, 18)- 84
Ermo ldus Nigellu5, 190, n? 314- 56. )60-)61,
J6J
Eu~nilll
[I. Pope, 16)-67, 178, 181. 418 n.
Eunom ius. )08

Euscbius, II- I), 17. '9-10, 17. 101, 1)0. 1H,
170. 1.84, 300. ,,6-18
EU$lathius, 198
EUl hym iul of Sard is, 78, '98
Ev~g.ius. 10, JS
Felix. Bishop ofU'Kd, 165, 168. 170-71, 174,
169 , 189--<)0. 196, n6
Fi{ioqUI ConHOyeny. '44. 171. 171-76. 180.
195-96.110. 1+4,161, 164-65,167.169, )67,
4tJ7 n, 70. 408 n. 107
Florus of lyon. )4S
F ranko. Pap~1 Alliance, 6
Freculf. Bishop of Lilieux, 164- 65. "I. Jl l,
11S-)8. 4JJ n. 101
Fridugis. 2lj. ,o6
Fulg~n!ius. 272. 197
Ful,.d of 51. o.,nis, '44

Gclasius I. Popt'.]S8
cdasius's Dtrttl"m. ,86. l)S
cenlilly. Synod of. ' 40. '41- 44. 146-47. 159.
,6,. ,64. 181. 206
George. Bishop of OSlia. '47 61
Georg<" of Cyprus. 6)- 64. 80
cermanus. Pal.ian;h of Consl.tntinople. S2.
14-60.64.80.84.86- 88. 106-7.11>9.118.
142.)81 nn . Jj - H, 42) n.?O
cermigny. 116. 116. 430 n. n6
cisc:b. 142. 117. 130
Godescak Enngeliniary, 1l7-18. 1}1, 4') n.
86. 4'4 n. 10 1
Gregorian Sacr.l.m~n1a ry. 131. 1}5. 141
Gregory. BidlOp of NtoC:I<"S:"~a. 79-80. 8). 101
Gregory I. Popt' o 42- 43. 114. 111. 116 . '46- 48.
'51. IS6. ' 77. 19}. 195. 200. !II . 117-19. Hl2}. I l l . 238. 261. 271. 173. !I . 29S, }00-301.
}04-5. 307. }'9. H2. )51-S). )97 n. H . 4' 7 n.
"7
Gregory II . I'opt'. 6. n. IS-56. 59. 74. Il 1-.}.
117-.8. '}2. 1)7. 151-S2. ISS. 260. }15. H2. 41}
,. ,.
Gregory III. Popt'o 14-1 6. 19. 118- 19. 125- 26.

137. '51. ' SS. 160. )25. 39S n. 10
Gregory IV . I'opt'. }S9-60
Gregory NazianlUS. '9. 97
Gregory o( Nyssa 6-17. 19. 9). 'H-H . '79.
19 1 , '97. 170. }08. H 3. 397 n. j4
G regory o(Tours. 39-,,2. 44 . H4
c undohinus. 139. '44
c anthar . An;hbishop of Cologne. }41-46
Hadrian I. Popt'o 6. 72-7J, 7\. 79. 8}. 9J. 101.
Ill. ,,8. ' 14-2S. IJ'. ' H. '49-56. rs8- 61. ,6972. 174. '77. 180. 18S- 86. '91. l.O6. 2. 6- 19.
129. 2}2. 1)6. 255-57. 259. 168, ) 14.
JS9.
J67.}87 n. 1'9. J88 n. 'Z-4. }89 n. 142, J91 n.
178. 396 n. H. 197 n. J4. 41} n. 90
N..dri"""m. '20-2 ' , 141, '10. 164. }96 nn. 16.
JO. l 4. 397 n. H
H.l ilgar. BWlOp o( Cambr.l.i . 265-68. 2111
Huley Gospels. 117-18
Hd 'o.266
Hdis:o,h.r. H2. )62
H eraclirus. II
H ilda in. 411 n. 6, 4JI n . 60
Hi",mar of R<'ims. ,6 163
H'.
Hr.l.banus Maurus. J. J24. JH-JS. }J9, H I-I',

JS6. }S9-60. }62. 425 n. 16
H und)(K o( Hd denh<'im . 1}7

HypaliU5 of Ephelu<. 10-2 . 14-21
Hypalius of N ica<'a. 76
irnnOSlasis. 48
icons, 4-5.
1.8-j4. }9. 41
idoblry. 17. 78. 86- 87. 9), ' 00. 109. II J. '16.
'14.141. ISO. Jo8
Ignalius. J66-67, JS8 n. n ..
images. criticium of, eirrum.."iption. 149; dis-mcting . 8. 26. ,B-J9; elhical lheory. '7. 114,
249; E~odus prohibitio n. J. ll. 24. So. 86 - 87.
96. Il l-I}, ,,6. 'I ' . 117. no. 217. 291. 19697. ,08. ) '4. }2S. )19. HI; God invisible. IS 4;
idolatry. u. 9S. 249. 29J. }07-8; incorporeal
be,ingJ. IS; inde lerminale 8. }6, 111: m~I~.i
aliry. '9. 96. 154. 29 2. }16: whim s of mim,
17.18. J}. J6. 51. 198. 121. 114: worduupt'rior
to pictures. 10. )6.117. 91. ''}O. 194. 100. I I}.
Ill. 249. JIS. 368: worship in spiril and
truth. '9
imagel. cult 0 (. S-<). 10. 40- 4" 44, So, '09. ll}.
'S.
'7'
images. d(f~1UeS of: aid Iht $i mple. 20-11. IS.

lS. IS6; aUllw:miC:lle vuions. 135. t47. IS' . 191.
270. }Z7: bnutify, 1j4. 152; book of the illite"~IC. 41. 'St: commen)or.l.lion. IS. JII. H .
[01. '0' - 4, "9. '14. '46. '48. 185. 207. 1'5-.6.
226. Z62. 27'. 2110. 281. Z9}. 297. 299. JOS.
308, J,S- ' 9. 14' . 351. )63; compu ""ion. 119.
146. ISJ. 1~6. 270. HJ. )68; decoralion 8S.
19'. Z07. I'S - 16. 222. 216. 16z, 280, 297. )01.
11..4. 141. 146. )68; elevalt though". 20. 98,
[0}- 4. 111. 156. 121. 178. 14l, 369; erl\(llion.
16. lS. -4 2. 44 , "4. 170. Jo8. J17. Hl. )70;
<'mul~lion. 87. 98. Jo8; equivalence of " 'o rd
and imat;e. 6. 24. 87. 9S. '0}- 4. " ). 16 .
307; cthinJ Ihrory. ')8; God commanded im:ages 10 be, made. 11. 2}-4.119. 911. 114. Ut.
'1' 117. 2711, 197.}08. }.8-19. J24 -1S. 14'42. }68: incarn~lion. zS-26. 87. 91. 106. " 4.
' SI. no. Z!2. 2!8. 178. 29S. }09, 14}. }6\1-70;
inspir.l.lion. \19. 116. nl; ref~Kntial argu _
mem . 16. 21. 101- 2. lUi . "4. tSJ. '16. ZlI.
278.1\11. )17. 142- 4}. )69- 70; r<'nde-r Ihe invi~i hle visible.
' S}. 156; superio r 10 wril_
illg, 15-16, 1\1; teach. 10. 44 03. "4- .6.
'H. ' 11. HZ. 161. 270. 278, 182. Jo8. l'l.}17.
341. W. 368. J70
images. impt',ial. 16. 'I.
imag~~. m iraculous. IS, 17. ,0. Jj-j4. 4" '04,
li S, .2). IH. 200
'S',
1ngelheim, 339, 3);4- 11

1rene, 70-79, 81-B}, 81. 102. 14')-10. 116, 164.
170. IB5. 197. 199. 1I6. 44. 168. 176. }14.
BO, 397 n. H. 423 n. 90
[,ido,," of Seville. 3'), 41- 44. 272. 311. }5B
Jeremias, Bishop of Scm. 261- 67, 281- B}
Jerome, 186. 195, 100, 219, 171- 7). }OO. )0),
309. 316. )18, )22. 142, 416 n. 31
John. Higoumcn of Monagtia. 68
John. P.rriarch of Jeru5:llcm. 384 n. 58
John VII. Po~, 11')- 11
John Cassian, 31, }9. 41- 44
John Chrysosom. 16. 31. 41, ')7, lB. 192, 197.
170. 184, 100, 304. 424 n. HI
John Hylil'5 (the Crommarian). 47, 250
John Mayr:r.gometsi, 24
John Moschos. 14
John of Damascw. 5. 17, 34. SO- II, 14, 17-60,
64. So, 83. 86. 8B-9). 96-97. 99, 04-9, 114,
H9, Ill. 181. 46. 251. 113. 17\. 281. H}. }81
n.}7, 184 n. la
John ofSynada. 56- 17, 59, 86 - 87, 143, 41) n.
'"
John ofTh=lon ica, IS. 27

Jonas, Bi5hop ofOrl':ans. 1,).261- 67,281- 83.
187- 88,290-91.2,)5- 307, 309,112- 15,119,
321.14- 25,329, HI-}7, 141-42, 344. 156-17,
3S9- 6o, }6}. 416 nn. 29. 38. 419 nn. 109. 115.
431 n. 160
Judilh. H5. 148. 352. 354
Julian of Auymilium. 20
Justin II. E m~ror. 130
JUs,;n Marryr, '2
Juslinian. Em~rot,)2
Juslinian II. Em~ror. 69
Juvrncus. Jjo
I.:ictantius, I), 272
Lamb of God. 26, ')8. 192. 293---94
latrcia, ')1. 181, 274 - 76
leidr:r.d. Archbishop of Lyoll. 18,), 1';
lc<.Il. Pope. lla
lc<.I 111, Em~ror, 46 -47. j l- 5j . IS. 58- 61. 6},
68- 69.73- 74, 76. 8)-a6. 88. 91. 96. 99. 110.
IIS- 19. IlS. Il]. 21 ] . 247, 110
lc<.I Ill. Po~. 175. 46, 155- 56. 167
leo [V. Enl~ror, 65. 69-71, 8). 85. '24 - 25. 142
leo V. Em~ror. 241, 4S. 110- 11. 254. 256-57.
159- 60. 262, 281, 411 Il. IS
lc<.Imius of Neapolis, 21- 22, 25. 9). 42) Il. 90
UlMlb". 26}, 161- 79, 281. 28}- 84, )18- )2, )14,
141- 4)
LiMr PontificaliJ. 52, 54- 56, 19. 64. 112, 117- 18.
121-14,116,128.1)1.1)8,141- 46.1 49. IjI.
'SI.I57
lorsch ulendu. IP-J}. 411 n. 133
lorsch Cos~ls, 227. 1}0
LOI hu. 26), 190, )07, )57. )19
louis the German. 324, 33j, 348, 367
louis the Pious, I, 3, 7, 165, 217, 241. 154- \5,
160-61.16],16').17). n8, 181- 8}, 18S,
188-<)0.195---96.3] ,1'3,32. Jl4-I6. P9 )1. )34 - Jj. HI. H 7. 311, }54- 57. }19- 64. 421
Il. 16. 4}1 Il. ,60. 432 Il. 184
Lull, 116. '46
Lupus of Ferrieres. )1), )20- 11, )2). }26. 3-*8
maiestas image. 139, 218. 238. JJI. 140. 34). 41S
Il. ,89
manufocra, 21. 29. 41, 86. ,a]. 190. '93, 101,
104- 5. HI. Ill. 2]2. 174, 2]6. 298, 314-'5.
}18. H 7. J41, 143. lSI
Maria Regina, 127, 129- )2, 260. 422 n. 51
Mary. cuI! of, 80
Mau ... )Jj. 343- 44, 347
Maximus the Confessor. 389 n. 150
Methodiu5. Patriarch, Ij6. 218. 262. }66
Michael [[, Em~ror. ), 14j. 154- 5\, 160-64.
167.269,179- 80. 184- 85, 290. 31). BO, m.
422 n. 51
Michael Lakhanod .. kon, 67
Modo;n, Bi5hop of Aumn. 1)6. 26\- 66
mocchian affair, 155
Nicea, Sc:cond Council of. I- }. S-6. la, 15.
46 - 411,10- 51.56. 6}. 65, 69. 7J, 75- 84, 9394. 9a- IIO. " ] , 12). 147, '4')-So. 1)2, Ijj- 64.
167. 169- 71.175- a3. 18]. 191---93, '9S, '96.
200- 201.105.209- 10.116.219.120.140.
241. 1~3-46. 248. ISO-I'. 251. 261, 26), 168.
269.274 - ]6. lSI. 318. }11. }lB. 330, B}. 148,
)84 n. 58. 3a5 n. ]6, 388 n. 1l4, 41) n. 90
Niccphorus. Em~ror. 44, 246. 114-11
Niccphorus. Patriarch ofConsraniinople. I. I] .
50, 11- S3, 59, 61- 61, 64. 66-67. 86. 94. 97.
146- j7. 162. 285- a6. 36]
Nicclas. P~tri~rch of Conslanlinople. 69- 70.
]1. 81
Nichol", I. Po~, 366-6]
Nilus of Sinai, 18. 26
Norma rrrtitudini" 217
Notker Ihe Stammerer. 339
oilronomia, 81, 99
onlology. II. 107. 109. Ill, II;. H) - 14, 297.
30);. 312.119, )17. H). 369
Opus u,roli R~is, 1- ), \- 8,
116. Il), '44.

160- 63,16\- 70. '72-7), 176, J]S - w6, z08,6,216- )1, lH-)\, 2)7, 142- 'H, 264, 168,
)28, HO, 348, 41) n. 81, 41\ n. 16
order, 8, 20') - U. 236- 40, 3)0- 33. H7- 61
Origcn, 12, 172, 197, 300
OrigClli$l comrovcry, 19
Orosiu~. 198. 2)0, 3SS, 433 n. 101
liZ,
palladium. IIS:'27' '3S, ISS

Pan~:u imag~. 23. 270. 284, 31S
Pari$ Colloquy ofhs,). 7-8. 16S, 245, 263-85.
287,289-90,313-14.318. HI. 348. 360. )6),
426 n. )8
Pas.:hal 1. Po~. 1\4-60. 185, 189, 194, 301,
305-7, ))1, )6). )67
Paul. Patria rch of Consl2nlinople, 70-73, 77.
8[, 84-85
Paul I. Po~. 114. 118, 1)1, '42-4). ' 45, 159. IH,
255, )89 n. [)6. )95 n. 20
bul I!. I'ope, 64
P~ulinus of Aquil~ia, 176, 225, 137
Paulinus of Nola. H. 170, 184, 300, )06, 308,
JII. J ~4 , 146. J50
bul ,he Deacon. '35, 231. 2H, 241, 145
penta rchy. 178. 180
Peler. AhbOl of 5,. Saba, 74.160
PClcr. Roman Archpri<"sl, ]4, 160
I"UJtiJ, 6), 94-99. 'OJ
Phil ippicus Bardan<"S. 386 o. 101
Philoxenus of Mabbug, 18- 19
Photios. 366- 67
Piaccn", pilgrim, 14
rippin Ill. "7, 124. 128. 'J9- 4). ' 45. 186. IJI.
24',155, JII, 191 n. 20
Plalo of Sa kkudion. 68
rolycarp, )16
Populus ChriSlianUJ, 114, 237- 18
Pliseian, J[O
proskyntiiJ. Jj.}4 . 91. 181 . 181, 228
Prudendu~. Bishop of Troycs. 311, HS, 343- 44,
)jo. 415 n. 16
P",udo-Dionysius. 24-15, In. 34). 4)1 n. 160
rdics, '5, 41, Ill, [)3. '17. 193. [96, 100, 21 4.
218. Ill. 159. 19'. 296, JOJ- I1. )'1. pO-H.
3"-14, ,,6- )8, 344 , )69, 411 n. )6. 416 n. )1
Rtipomum. 163-65, 168-69. 171. '77, 184, '9),
lOI. 116-17, 219, HI. 1)0. 268, J14, ~05 n.
40, 416 n. )8
Roman Council of7Jl. 88. 120, 123. ' 45, 164,
)15, 197 n. 34
Rom.o Council of]45, 117, 397 n. 40
Roman Council Of769. 118. 1)6, 145- 49, 1\859,161-61.164,181. }89 n. 1)6, )96 nn. )0,
14, )97 nn. 34, 40
ROIrud , 161
Royal U.Ud$,1)8
R,& O/Sf.
Brnrdirt, 135
S.b:u. Abbot of Stud ion, 79

Sacramenlary ofGdlonc. 112, 3J5
St. Calherine in Sinai, monastery of. 29
St. Stcph~n , 70
Salie Law. 2)4
Seduliu!, )00, 141- 46, 150
Serenu~ of MalYill<"S, 41- 43
Sergius I. Pope, 117, 130
Jikmilln. 54. \8-60, 61
Sisinni us p:utill .... 81. 97, 161- 61
smaragdus ofSI.- Mihid, H\,)60
Soissons Go,~ls. 127. 4' 4 n. LOI
Sopauus, 19
SL.uraci us, 75
SlCphen II. Pope, 114, 127- 28
Stephen Ill. Po~, '4j- 47
Stephen IV, Pope, )6t
SL~phcn of Bastra. 12.)4.9), '53
Slephen (he Younger. 65, 67-68, 70
Sylvcst(r, Pope, '50-\', 191, 112, 170, 284. JI8
Symffin Srylil('. 15. )0. 40. '79. 20)
Sy"odiron Vnus, \ 4 , \9
Tu ... ius. Patriarch of Constantinople. 8, 63.
73-8\.9), 101 - 3.154. 16,. '7~, 180. 189. ' 949\,110,116,218,2)9,145- 46,149, 155. )84
n. ~8, 387 n. "9. )88 n. U4
T:wilo of B.vuia. 231
T(ssarokont'pe(hY$. 83. 41) n. <)0
Tht"Odore, Abbot of Stud ion, 5, 50, 147, 250 S). Ij6. 158-59, 261. 18\- 86. )67
Tht"Odore, Patriarch of JCfUSlIkm. 80
Tht"Odore Abu Qurrah, 46
Thwdorr of Myra. 77- 78, 100. 217
Tht"Odosia. 60
Thwdosi us of Amorion, 77- 78, [00, 18z, 196
Tht"Odo~ius of Ephesus, 8,
Thwdotus Ch.~I, 119, 1)1. '1)-14
Throdows Me!inenus. ]'alriarch of ConIlJn,; noplc, 149- 50
Throdrad a, )06
Throdulf ofOrlbns, 1-). 5. 8. Ill. 116, II). 15860,16) - 67, '71 - 7), [75, ' 79-w7. 115- 16,
120.124- 19.133- )4.2)6 - 40, l 4z. 161, 16466.169,27\,178.191.195, )19, 11\, )18-)0.
JJl- )5. 337- 38. 341- 4), )48, )5[, )54 - 56. J64,
486
IND EX
Th~ooulf of
O rl eans, (ronr;71u~d)
40) n. 18. 410 n, 1]. 412 n. 81. 41) nn. 81. 8).
86. ~ 15 n. 16, 416 n. 24. 4)0 n. 116
Thcoph"ncs. 51- 54, 56. 59- 6), 65- 67. 70-7}.
8). 86
Thculrnir, Abbol of P$:Ilrnooy, J, 187-91. 194.
301- 3.35. 307, 31~
Thorn", of CI"udiopolis. 56- 57, 59. 86- 87
Ii/uN. 3\. 344-~7
Hadil;on. 8, 78, 80 - 81. 84 - 85. 88. 91, 93. 95.
97-100. [01-~. [07-8, 110. "9, [43. [Po 154.
156. 17J-7~. 177, 179. 18,. 185- 87. 193, 108-9,
217. 231 - }6. 2.. 1, 243. 247- 48. 2W - 51. 261.
271.296. 298- }00. 302. 306. 3oS. 312, )lo.
}18- 30, 341- 43, 351- 57
TriccoccabllS. 97
Trull"n canon, 98, [01- }
T",JI,," Council. 26, 6}
Vcnamiu$ Formnan" . 40 - 41 . )06. }n. 379 n.
')9
vcss.:k 21, 31. 193-94. 200. 104. 114. 218. 270.

17~, 284. }09. )1), 337. 344. 411 n. 36
Vicnna Coronadon GO$pds. 217
Vigibnlius. 198. }03, }08. 31j
Vn"ncs.14- 25
W"bhfrid $Irabo,}. 187, 313. 314- 18. 330, 3)134. 3J7, 341- 42. 145. 348. 316, ,60, ,61. 43[ n.
,60
Willibald. 137
Willibrord, 116. 137. ' 43. 131
worship, 8-9. 91, 10~, 108. 186. 193. 211- 15.
140-41.161,169.171-72.174-76.291.195,
197.199. }06, 311. 315. JI8 -19. Hl. ,61-64
Wynncbald.137
Yczid, Caliph.
5},
59. 83, 41) n.
'}O
Zachary. rope, 60, (1)- 14, 116- 18. IJI, 13)-14.

137.137,395 n. 10
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The first lines of this book were written thirteen years before the last. Teaching
and administrative responsibilities along with a move from Virginia to Notre
Dame took tolls on the progress of this work. Beyond these explanations-not
excuses-the book itself kept changing shape as I worked on it. Every change
pushed me in to ncw sources and scholarship. One happy result of the book's
long gestation is that I got a lot of advice and support along the way. I am
delighted no w to be able to acknowledge at least some of it.
The book was begun and almost finished during two stims (1994, 2006) at
the incomparable Instimtc for Advanced Study in Princeton. Those who have
been there will know its superb blend of interaction and isolation. I also had a
wonderful year ar the Nctherlands Institute for Advanced Study (1999-2000).
The National Endowment for the Humanities provided a fellowship in 1993-94
that permitted me to launch the study in a serious way. The Universiry of
Virginia and the University of Notre Dame supported me morally, materially,
and administratively.
Institutions are important, of course, but TO me, people matter even more.
At an earlier stage in its development, Charlie Barber, Karl Morrison, and Larry
Nees read my manuscript. Later on Larry, along with Rosamond McKinerick,
read the whole thi ng. Such labors both display and stretch the ties of friendship .
Along the way, I received help, advice, and encouragement from many friends.
In listing some I am sure that I will omit others, and I am sorry that I cannot
always remember, and have no space to reco rd, what each person's support has
meant to me. So permit me to thank David Appleby, Barbara Baert, Fran1. Alto
Bauer, Claudia Bolgia, Beat Brenk, George Brown, Peter Brown, Leslie Brubaker, Celia Chazelle, Martin Claussen, John Contreni, Mayke de Jong, G iselle
de Nie, Deborah Del iyannis, Paolo Delogu, the late Robert Deshman, William
Diebold, Judson Emerick, Ann Freeman, David Gan1., Eric Goldberg, Caroline
Goodson, Jeffrey H amburger, Johannes Heil, Catherine Karkov, H erbert Kessler, Dale Kinney, Genevra Kornbluth, Federico Marani, Robert Markus,
488
ACKNOWlF,OGMENTS
Charles Mclendon, Paul Meyvaert, John Mirchell, Jimy Nelson, Eamonn 0

Carragain, John Osborne, Daniel Sheerin, Julia Smith, Paolo Squatriti, the late
Richard E. Sullivan, Erik Thuno, John Van Engen, Roberr Louis Wilken, Ian
Wood, the late Patrick Wormald, John Yiannias, and Paolo Zanna. I must also
thank Jerome Singerman, my editor at the University of Pennsylvania Press,
without whose faith and gentle prodding I might never have finished this book.
I also record with gratitude a generous publication subsidy form the Institute for Scholarship in the Liberal Arts of the College of Arrs and Letters in the
University of Notre Dame.
The dedication says all , but much less than I wish I could say.
THOMAS F. X. NOBLE is Professor and Chair of

History at the University of Notre Dame. He is
author of several books, including The &public of
Sr. Perer: The Binh ofthe Papal State, G8o-82j, also

available from the University of Pennsylvania Press.
TilE
MIDDLE AGES SERIES
RJJth Mazo Karras, Series Editor

Jacket design: John Hubbard
Illustration: Hrabanus Maurus, Dc 'audibus sal/Clac crucis.
Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vat. Reg. Lat 12-\, fo!' Bv.
"A deeply impressive, powerfully argued, and extraordinarily interesting book.

Noble c:stablishcs the ccncralicy or the Carolingian period and its writers to
the dC\'Clopmem or ideas about sacred an. H e offers a nC\v interpretation or
the understanding or images in both the western and castcrn empires in the
early Middle Ages."
- Rosamond McKitterick, Unn'Crsity or Cambridge
"ImaS.lconoclasm. and fhe Carolinians is remarkably scholarly, surveying
secondary literature in both Byzantine East and Latin West, and in many
different disciplines, including theology and an history as wdl as hiStory. It is a
splendid book. It will be a standard n:fercncc ror many years to come. It
- Lawrence Nees, University or Delaware
UN IVERS ITY OF PENNSYLVAN IA PRESS
Philadelphia
www. upcnn.cdu/pcnnprcss
158'
9-8-o-8l..l.!-41'W9
90000
I I~~I~ U

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Images, Iconoclasm, and The Carolingians

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I MAGES, I CONOCLASM, and tile

n [he year 726 c. E., the BYLantine emperor

III issued an edict declaring images to be idols,

forbidde n by Exodus, and ordering all such images

first wave of Byzamim: ico noclasm, which ran its

were temporarily resolved at [he Second Counci l of

[he churches of the East and the

end in 842, w hen (he icons

iconoclasts exco mmunicated.

the \Vcsrcrn and Eastern churches. In Images,

Iconoclasm. alId rill: Carolinglans, Thomas F. X.

It is t raditionally maintained that the

Caro lingians in the 790S did not understand the

Byzantine iconoclasm were tenuous, they

were also compl ex and deeply rooted in central

the whole debate over

Imagr$. Iconoclasm, alld dll! ClirolillbrillllS is the first

provide a comprehensive study of the

\Vesrern response co Byzantine iconoclasm.

comparing art-texts with laws, leners, poems,

11w P' 'r ... _ of"'" " " - ..... ~

All ~........J.. F......

&- "" I...;.... ...

U.... .....,. of .............. .....

r.. b<;,t.......,.... """ ... """'"'" of .......... ~itO.OWIY W'- _

"'>01< ""T"' ~ io - , ..... t.,. -, ....... _

wm.. ~ _ '"' poIoIobn

Byzantine Iconoclasm in the Eighth Century

An and An Tal k in the West in the First Age of Iconoclasm

The Franks and N icaea: Opus CaroN Rtgii

Tradition, Order, and Wo rship in the Age of Charlemagne

The Age of Second Iconoclasm

Art and Argument in the Age of Louis the Pious

n- shalt ...' ..... M"to ,iN- nJ 1'4"'" '-t'. ., ~"7Ii"""" of.""hi"f

-F.. od", '0 .

_ _ sha. Jo. ..1m""". ofm. C"'-' '-t''' 'N r.hriJti.Jn

- bn .. KjIli"5<" .. n.: Cult

/i", ,uch '''''''P''

In.,,, wu. ,n f..... C.rolingi.n ."",m,.,,), . hou, ..;"ul 1M hill i".ies.o

,00...[ 780 ,nd 800. G oodnl b)' II N;ClCI ,he

0,,01;<>19'''' ""~ ,he",,,,I""';II di"i""i..., ""'Y'

lOr '"''''e.....me. ,II..

""I",r.l .. wJ chrolIDl"gicol """,.. ,,.

bosic Carolingi. n "",i,ion>. In 'urn. ct ..

Ch.p<cr 1 Op<n> wi,h .n in'I"",ion of.

r.... 1,,10 ,i,,,,,

o"e' lIy"n, i"e i<"""eI"", , E''''Y''ne 'g<=,h" ,I>< llrun'ine irooophi.

h",1<.< .", ...,j 'HIO solemn .lIi."""

P'''''''''' F",,.,ki.h po.i,ion>.

le' _ n h ofCarolingi.. di<rouon about . n . we <:an h<:a. them talkin8 .bout

",.1> " .....

CHA PTE R ONE

Art, icons, and Thei r Critics and Defenders

s.,..- "Gm> _ ..... _ ....... dok_1

toIJ."" ____ ?i ' 'Ii,....".,.,

..... tho- , _, A~.ou ~ _

&.,., if .. ..... 1fW""""

.. plon.,;"n i, hc"Cf., "='ibing wI,.. h.ppcn! ,h.n it i, .. apbini<>g ..... r....

r"",-.., Epipltonim ..yo [It"

whe=.. ,he F"h", (he mcon. Old

. od th .. no On< b.d <VCT m.dc a pinu,., of Ab .. h. m. lsue. J.cob. Moon. o. of

Another teStimony . urvive> ""Iy .nlOng the doCl"".nu prc<c,"..! at ,h.

..;d ,h., d", only