Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Oavid A. Bell
Electronic Devices
and Circuits
Electronic Devices
and Circuits
2nd
Edition
David A. Bell
Lambton College of
Applied Arts and Technology
Sarnia, Ontario,
n
"^J"
Canada
Prentice-Hall
Company
Inc.,
Reston, Virginia
David A.
Electronic devices
and
circuits.
Includes index.
1.
3.
Semiconductors.
Electronic apparatus
TK7871.85.B3785
ISBN
1980
2.
Electronic circuits.
and appliances.
621.3815
I.
Title.
79-22957
0-8359-1634-0
1980 by
Reston PuUishing Company, Inc.
Prentice-Hall
Company
No
may
be
10
98765432
to
my
wife Evelyn
Contents
xv
Preface
Chapter
BASIC
SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
1-1
Introduction
1-2
The Atom
1-3
1-4
Energy Bands 4
Conduction in Solids 5
Conventional Current and Electron Flow 6
Bonding Forces Between Atoms 7
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 8
Semiconductor Doping 9
Effects of Heat and Light
1
Drift Current and Diffusion Current
12
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
1-10
1-11
Review Questions
13
15
vii
viii
Contents
Chapter 2
pn-JUNCTION THEORY
2-1
Introduction
2-2
2-3
19
2-4
2-5
2-6
Junction Capacitance
2-7
16
25
25
26
27
Review Questions
Chapter 3
16
16
29
29
3-1
Introduction
3-2
3-13
3-14
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
3-10
3-11
3-12
Review Questions
Problems
Chapter 4
58
60
61
62
4-1
Introduction
4-2
Transistor Operation
4-3
Transistor Currents
4-4
Transistor Symbols
4-5
4-7
Common
Common
Common
4-8
4-9
A-Parameters
4-6
65
65
65
70
and Voltages
Base Characteristics
Emitter Characteristics
84
91
90
89
73
74
Collector Characteristics
Review Questions
Problems
53
78
81
and r-Parameters
83
Chapter 5
5-1
93
Transistor Biasing
ix
Contents
5-3
93
The dc Lxjad Line and Bias Point
Fixed Current Bias 98
5-4
CoUector-to-Base Bias
5-5
5-6
5-2
5-7
5-8
Introduction
100
Review Questions
Introduction
6-2
6-7
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
6-8
Cascaded
6-4
6-5
6-6
113
114
116
Emitter Circuit
116
Base Circuit
126
131
132
Common
139
Emitter Circuits
Problems
141
141
142
Transistor
7-1
Introduction
7-2
on
Electrical
143
7-3
7-4
Transistor Fabrication
7-5
7-6
Integrated Circuit
7-7
Transistor
8-2
The
Transistor
152
Circuit Packaging
154
156
157
Transistor Specifications
Introduction
150
Components
Review Questions
144
146
and Integrated
8-1
143
143
Performance
Chapter 8
118
125
Review Questions
Chapter 7
116
6-1
6-3
102
114
Problems
Chapter 6
94
and Performance
158
Data Sheet
158
158
8-4
8-5
Miller Effect
8-6
8-7
Transistor Switching
8-3
171
175
Review Questions
Problems
Chapter 9
165
170
178
180
180
Basic Multistage
9-1
Introduction
182
9-2
9-3
9-4
The
9-5
IC
9-6
9-8
9-9
9-7
Differential Amplifier
Problems
Chapter 10
10-1
222
226
226
228
Introduction
Phase-Shift Oscillator
10-3
Colpitts Oscillator
234
10-4
Hartley Oscillator
237
10-5
Wein Bridge
230
240
Oscillator
Review Questions
Problems
230
230
10-2
Chapter 11
192
200
Differential Amplifiers
Review Questions
183
188
243
243
244
Zener Diodes
245
245
11-1
Introduction
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5
11-6
11-7
Review Questions
Problems
261
260
259
247
216
182
Chapter 12
262
12-2
12-3
Characteristics of n-Channel
12-4
The
12-5
12-6
12-7
12-8
12-9
xi
Contents
262
Principle of the n-Channel
12-1
Introduction
The
The
/(-Channel
JFET
JFET
JFET
262
264
268
269
MOSFET 278
V-MOSFET 282
Review Questions
285
287
287
Problems
Chapter 13
13-4
FET Biasing
289
289
dc Load Line and Bias Point 289
Spread of Characteristics and Fixed Bias Circuit
Self-bias
293
13-5
13-6
Design of
13-7
Biasing
13-1
13-2
13-3
Introduction
FET
300
303
Problems
Chapter 14
303
14-1
Introduction
308
308
14-2
14-3
ac Analysis of
14-4
Common
ac Analysis of
14-7
ac Analysis of the
14-8
313
Drain Circuit
Circuit
315
318
Common
Gate Circuit
322
325
319
Circuits
Chapter 15
310
Source Circuit
Circuit
14-6
Review Questions
308
Circuit
Common
14-5
Problems
296
298
Bias Circuits
MOSFETS
291
325
325
327
15-1
Introduction
15-2
15-3
327
332
xii
18-11
18-12
Optoelectronic Couplers
18-13
Laser Diode
404
405
407
409
410
Review Questions
Problems
xlii
Contents
411
Miscellaneous Devices
414
Piezoelectric Crystals
414
Chapter 19
414
Piezoelectricity
19-1
19-2
19-3
19-4
19-5
Thermistors
19-6
Lambda Diode
432
Review Questions
433
434
435
Electron Tubes
Chapter 20
437
437
20-1
Introduction
20-2
20-3
20-4
Triode Characteristics
20-5
Triode Parameters
20-6
Common
20-7
ac Analysis of
20-8
20-9
Common
Common
20-10
20-11
The
The
The
The
20-12
20-13
20-14
442
445
453
Grid Circuit
454
Tetrode Tube
Problems
Appendix 2
485
471
473
475
Answers to Problems
Index
454
457
449
Pentode 460
Variable-Mu or Remote Cutoff Pentode
Cathode Ray Tube 463
Review Questions
Appendix
422
427
Problems
421
479
477
478
462
Preface
This
renamed
is
Electronic Devices
of the book.
operation of
and
Circuits to
all
approach
to designing
The book
is
handbook
The
in electronics
It
text
commences with
Each
is
circuits.
and
engineers.
essential for
different device
is
and
now
the contents
an understanding of
and
all solid-state
ning, of course, with the semiconductor diode, then the bipolar transistor.
component
circuit
and
coverage and
xvi
Preface
tional amplifier
and
its
The
and oscillators.
Although useful background information
on
multistage amplifiers
made
for
each device
is
included in
For
example, transistor and integrated circuit fabrication techniques are covered
only from the point of view of how device performance is affected.
As
and integrated
JFET, MOSFET,
circuits,
VMOS
other devices
FET, tunnel
diode,
WC
are
still
forms:
in
wide use
vacuum
in existing
equipment, the
final
chapter covers
its
varied
to explain practi-
each device. Instead of rigorous analysis methods, practical approximations are used wherever possible, and the origin of each
cal applications of
already studied
It is
bjisic electricity.
David A. Bell
CHAPTER
1
Basic
Semiconductor
Tiieory
The
The
what
first
it is
function of an
electronic device is
to control the
how
it is
is
to
movement
understand
the.
of electrons.
electron (or
1-1
Introduction
of the
The atom
orbiting
is
1-1).
Thus,
it
may
force of gravity
1-2
The Atom
2
Basic
Semiconductor
Theory
'
(a)
Nucleus
(b)
Forces on
satellite
orbiting a planet
(c)
Forces on electrons
orbiting a nucleus
Figure 1-1.
Planetary atom.
exists
we may
about 1800 dmes the mjiss of an electron. For a given atom, the number of
protons in the nucleus normally equals the
number
of
orbidng electrons.
and
each other
electrically.
For
this
an atom loses an
electron, it has lost some negative charge. Therefore, it becomes fxjsiuvely
charged and is referred to as a positive ion. Similarly, if an atom gains an
additional electron, it becomes negatively charged and is termed a negative ion.
The differences between atoms consist largely of dissimilar numbers
and arrangements of the three basic types of pardcles. However, all electrons
reason, all atoms are normally electrically neutral.
If
protons and
An
atom
could replace an electron in any other atom. Different materials are made
up of different types of atoms, or differing combinations of several types of
Orbits and
Energy Levels
all
neutrons.
all
Electron
atoms.
The number
total
an atom
The
referred to as the
is
atomic weight
number
is
of the
is
14,
and
its
atomic weight
is
number
its
for
approximately 28.
Atoms may be conveniently represented by the two-dimensional diagrams shown in Fig. 1-2. It has been found that electrons can occupy only
certain orbital rings or shells at fixed distances from the nucleus, and that
each shell can contain only a particular number of electrons. The electrons
in the outer shell determine the electrical (and chemical) characteristics of
each particular type of atom. These electrons are usually referred to as
An atom may
valence electrons.
or only partially
The atoms
have
its
outer or valence
shell
completely
filled
filled.
of
-2. It is
silicon (Si)
and germanium
maximum
of eight.
say that their valence shells have four electrons and four
holes.
Thus, we
hole is
exist.
Even though their valence shells have four holes, both silicon and
germanium atoms are still electrically neutral, because the total number of
orbital electrons equals the total
number
^-00-.
e.0
-'~^~0. ^Q
e,0'
/
III/
cj^
i'
Nucleus
o A ^cr
(a)
Figure 1-2.
Germanium atom
Nucleus
(b) Silicon
Ki
atom
1-3
Electron
Orbits and
Energy Levels
The
Basic
bind
Semiconductor
Theory
amount
closer
Each
it.
of
shell
the shell. Since the electrons in the valence shell are farthest from the
nucleus, they require the least amount of energy to extract them from the
atom. Conversely, those electrons closest to the nucleus require the greatest
The energy
An
electron
volt
is
levels considered
defined as the
amount
1-4
Energy Bands
levels that
levels.
and semiconductors
is
The
distinction
between conductors,
insulators,
forbidden gap.
It is
is
simply a
Conduction band
Energy
Forbidden gap
level
Valence band
Figure 1-3.
To
in orbit
around the
nucleus of an atom; those in the conduction band are drifting about in the
Conduction occurs
in
move
electrons in
in
electron
the conduction
field.
may
they are repelled from the negative terminal of the applied voltage, and
attracted toward the positive terminal. Hole transfer involves electrons
which are still attached to atoms, i.e., those in the valence band.
If some of the energy levels in the valence band are not occupied by
electrons, there are holes where electrons could exist. An electron may jump
from one atom to fill the hole in another atom. When it jumps, the electron
leaves a hole behind it, and we say that the hole has moved in the opposite
direction to the electron. In this way a current flows which may be said to be
due to hole movement.
In Fig. l-4(a), the applied potential causes an electron to jump from
atom^ to atom x. In doing so, it fills the hole in the valence shell of atom x,
and leaves a hole behind it in atom^ as shown in Fig. l-4(b). If an electron
now jumps from atom z, under the influence of the applied potential, and
fills the hole in the valence shell of atom y, it leaves a hole in atom z
[Fig. l-4(c)]. Thus, the hole has been caused to move from atom x to atom^y
to atom z.
Holes may be thought of as positive particles, and as such they move
through an electric
field in
X
(a)
(b)
Conduction
in Solids
i.e..
1-5
Conduction
in Solids
Basic
Semiconductor
Theory
voltage. It
is
usually
them, because they are already disconnected from their atoms. For
reason, electrons have greater mobility than holes.
The
is
flov*^
From
this
this
An ampere may
be
(i.e.,
or
electron
1
1-6
Conventional
Current and
Electron Flow
C
1
is
1.602
10~'^ C, the
number
an increased amount
is
is
now known
it
it
of electricity
movement
of electrons
from
Conventional current
direction
-Electron motion-
(^* ^. 0r"
is
is
to
negative
referred
is
to
as
to
conventional
the
positive
is
known as
the
Bonding Forces
Between Atoms
It is
an electronic device
sequence of
con-
device operates,
it is
becomes a
positive ion.
The
electron gas
is,
gas.
This
is
and other
termed
bonding
is
or sometimes
bonding
metallic
electron
In the case of silicon, which has four outer-shell electrons and four
holes, the
Atoms
bonding arrangement
is
little
electrons behave as
In this
way each
shell of a
if
fills
in the valence
known
bonding every
and consequently there are
about within the material. The same
no holes and no
true for
for copf>er.
valence-shell electron
is
filled,
is
prepared for
device manufacture, the atoms within the material are aligned into a
definite three-dimensional pattern or crystal
bonded
to the four
In
process
some
is
lattice.
Each atom
is
The
also covalent.
and
plastics, the
ions.
positive ions,
bonding
become
covalently
surrounding atoms.
is
virtually
ionized;
negative
ionic bonding.
negative
and
The
situation
positive ions
is
may
1-7
Bonding
Forces
Between
Atoms
O wO ^o
Shared valence
oj oOo
"
electrons
Free electrons
0[jO\},o
(b)
(a)
Covalcnt bonding
Metallic bonding
Negative ion
(c) Ionic
Figure 1-6.
1-8
Conductors,
Insulators,
and
Semiconductors
As seen
Atomic bonding
in the energy
bonding
in
band diagrams
have a wide
have no forbidden gap at all. In the case of insulators, there are practically
electrons in the conduction band of energy levels, and the valence band is
filled. Also, the forbidden gap is so wide [Fig. l-7(a)] that it would require
the application of very large amounts of energy (approximately 6 eV) to
no
cause an electron to cross from the valence band to the conduction band.
Therefore,
when a
voltage
is
is
usually
full,
and
there
may be no
273.15C)
the
very
electrons
that of
an
for silicon
is
to the
Semiconductor
Doping
Conduction
band
(a)
Insulator
energy
(b)
Semiconductor
(c)
Conductor
Figure 1-7.
for this
temperature.
purpose
is
made
a potential
If
is
available
when
the semiconductor
is
at
room
movement
in the
numbers
is
even
at
extremely
lovk-
temperatures.
Conductor
10"^ n/cm^
Semiconductor
10 fi/cm'
Insulator
10'*
is
n/cm^
of
the
termed
material
is
possible,
donor
material
extrinsic
very
significantly.
Dojjed
semiconductor
doping and
acceptor
band
(i.e.,
an
Donor doping
electrons
is
and three
effected
since semiconduc-
one
1-9
Semi-
conductor
Doping
10
Fifth valence electron
Basic
Semiconductor
Theory
Impurity atom
Donor doping.
Figure 1-8.
is
no hole
-8 there
is
it
sfemiconductor material.
motion
in
field.
semiconductor
donor-doped
electrons)
is still
(i.e., it is
number
material.
The doped
(The number
of protons in
orbital electrons.)
The term
donor doping
trivalent)
and
gallium.
These atoms
form bonds with the semiconductor atoms, but the bonds lack one electron
for a complete outer shell of eight. In Fig. 1-9 the impurity atom illustrated
has only three valence electrons; therefore, a hole exists in its bond with the
surrounding atoms. Thus, in acceptor doping holes are introduced into the
valence band, so that conduction
may
semiconductor material
is
positive
charge, acceptor-dojjed
As with w-type
protons in
acceptor
its
atom
is
accept
number
doping.
Even
in intrinsic
(undoped) semiconductor material at room temperaof free electrons and holes. These are due to
number
11
Q O
J
Effects of
Heat
and
Light
Acceptor doping.
Figure 1-9.
thennal energy causing some electrons to break the bonds with their atoms
and enter the conduction band, so creating pairs of holes and electrons. The
process
is
termed
and
called recombination.
As the name
converse
is
a process
when an
its
many more
electron falls into a hole in the vsilence band. Since there are
electrons than holes in n-type material,
and
carriers,
the majority
When
and
electrons
carriers.
a conductor
is
carriers.
means
that there
has increased.
tance,
is
movement
of the
surrounding
resistance
resis-
i.e.,
When
no
free
This
is
because
all
electrons are in
normal
orbit
band
free
away from
electrons in
electron
at
is
in the valence
band and
the material
the conduction
movement and by
their
When
pairs.
As
in the case
dominating
factor,
to
be imp)edcd compared
The thermal
increjises
to the
generation of electrons
dense
is
the
a negative temperature
semiconductor.
coefficient.
1-10
Effects of
Heat and
Light
12
may
Basic
hole-electron pairs
Semiconductor
Theory
when not
illiuninated,
be generated by energy imparted to the semiconis intrinsic, it may have few free
and thus a very high dark resutance. When
decreases and may become comparable to that of
light. If
resistance
its
the material
illuminated,
a conductor.
1-11
Drift
Current
and
Diffusion
Current
The
situation
it
is
it vvdll
Current produced in
drift in
this
way
is
known
as
a conductor.
another kind
drift current,
and
does
that there
is
it is
it
of current.
result
the
Each time
1-10.
illustrated in Fig.
a force of repulsion
move gradually
constitutes
an
diffusion current.
electric current,
Both
drift current
and
and
this
movement
type of
diffusion current
is
known
devices.
Electron path
no
electric field
when
is
present
Electron path
electric field
Conductor
Atoms
or
semiconductor
Figure 1-10.
Drift current.
as
occur in semiconductor
when
is
the
present
13
Glossary of
Important
Charge
carrier
Terms
concentration
Figure 1-11.
Diffusion current.
Nucleus.
Electron.
Electronic charge.
.602
Terms
"
"
Glossary of
Important
particle.
C.
Proton.
Neutron.
no
Particle with
electrical charge,
an atom.
atom.
Path
Shell.
of electron orbiting
Atomic weight.
around nucleus.
Approximately the
in the nucleus of
total
an atom.
four holes in
outer
its
Atom
Silicon atom.
holes in
its
outer
Hole.
Absence
Energy
level of shell.
of
electron from
shell.
of
shell.
its
Amount
atomic
of
shell.
Energy required
potential difference of one volt.
Energy band.
Group
Conduction band.
atomic
to
Energy band
of
move one
may
electrons
electron
through a
be occupied by electrons.
that
orbits.
Valence band.
Energy band
Energy band
Charge
Electron or hole.
carrier.
Ease (or
difficulty)
at
normal atomic
Forbidden gap.
Mobility.
exist.
may
orbits.
exist.
be
moved
around.
|X)sitive to negative.
p>ositive.
Electrostatic attraction
Ionic bond.
14
Semiconductor
Theory
gives
an electron
to
Basic
Electrostatic attraction
Metallic bond.
Bonding
Covalent bond.
Bonding
force in semiconductors
and some
insulators.
Electron gas.
Large number
conductor.
electrical characteristics of
Donor atoms.
semiconductor material.
p-type semiconductor.
atoms.
n-tyi>e semiconductor.
atoms.
Intrinsic.
Name
Name
Majority carriers.
Drift current.
made
to another being
electric
field.
Charge
Diffusion current.
concentradon
of
carrier
movement
resulting
from an
initial
charge carriers.
Minority carriers.
Temperature
coefficient.
Ratio
of
resistance
change
to
temperature
change.
Dark
resistance.
Crystal lattice.
in a solid.
Recombination.
band
Review
Questions
1-1.
electron
fills
i.e.,
the conducdon-
1-2.
1-3.
What
Name
What
tors,
1-4.
1-5.
Draw
silicon
illustra-
your answer.
tions in
sketches to
in
tors.
1-6.
What
1-7.
Define
meant by
is
energfy levels
their
origin.
1-8.
Draw
the
band
structure
for,
difference between,
Define
intrinsic
semiconductors and
made
extrinsic material be
1-10.
What
meant by
is
why
How
can
Which
are
semiconductors.
intrinsic?
majority carriers
extrinsic
in (a)
and
minority carriers?
doped material?
1-11.
how
it
is
effected.
Use
illustra-
your answer.
1-12.
Repeat Question
1-13.
What
are the
1-11 for
donor doping.
names given
to
1-15.
semiconductor.
1-16.
Explain
diffusion
current
and
drift
current.
Use
in
doped
to the resistance of
in
your
electron motion.
State
illustrations
answer.
1-17.
Explain
why each
is
important.
and
15
Review
Questions
direction of
CHAPTER
2
Junction
Theory
2-1
Introduction
it is
^-junction theory. This requires an appreciation of the forces that act upon
charge carriers crossing the junction, and an understanding of the effects of
externally applied bias voltages.
knowledge
2-2
Tne
pn-j unction
Figure 2-1 represents a /jn-junction formed by two blocks of semiconductor material, one oi p-type material and the other of n-type material.
^.j^^
On
16
17
The pn-)unction
Electrons
Holes
Figure 2-1.
Initial
at
pn- junction.
Because holes and electrons are close together at the junction, some
from the n-side are attracted across the junction and fill holes
free electrons
on the
They
/(-side.
i.e.,
flow from a
Section 1-11).
The
on the
/(-side
number
of protons.
They
less
number
total
The
process
is
Before the charge carriers diffused across the junction, both the n-type
and the
/)-typ)e
are created on the /(-side of the junction, the region of the /(-side close to the
charge on the
(a)
/(-side
The accumulated
negative
Diffusion of charge
carriers across
Electrons cross
Holes cross
(create negative ion)
pn-junction.
Positive potential
(b)
Junction barrier
potential and
electric field.
Repels electrons
Figure 2-2.
Charge
and junction
barrier potential.
18
P"-
it
The
Theory
positive charge
on the
becomes
difficult for
final result
is
more charge
carriers
is
created at the junction, negative on the p-side and positive on the n-side
[Fig. 2-2(b)].
enough
to
The
electric field
movement
of electrons
and
is
large
junction.
By considering doping
is
barrier potentials at
and
0.7
shown
magnitude
temjjerature,
0.3
for
it
Typical
germanium junctions
for silicon.
The movement
either side
and
which
is
of
in Fig. 2-3(a).
On
is
On
doping
on each
the junction.
If
Conversely,
the/>-side
if
is
the n-side
is
the
field
potential at the junction opf>oses the flow of electrons from the n-side
and
the flow of holes from the ^-side. Since electrons are the majority charge
carriers in the n-type material,
majority carriers.
and
it
on
the n-side are attracted to the p-side through the negative barrier presented
to
them
n-side are
assists the
flow of
To Summarize:
sides of
side.
The
number
due
of ionized
atoms of
of the junction.
The
of majority carriers
electric field
and
assists
19
Depletion region
(~
(a)
Reverse-Biased
Junction
("p
("i
.+-+ (1+'ii
"+ .+ +
O u z
+ + +
J O C' o
I
Equal doping
>
<
~.
densities
'_
<
\1
(depleted of holes)
(depleted of electrons)
Heavily doped
'-'
(b)
Lightly
i_'
ij
',)
(~i
doped
+ + + +
II Q
'
.+~,+ +~ +
o n o O
+ -+ +
Unequal doping
\J
densities
o o o o o
2-3
If
an external
bias voltage
is
is
said to be reverse
biased.
Although there
is
no
possibility of
on each
side
can
ReverseBiased
Junction
20
pnJunction
Theory
Initial
width of
depletion region
unbiased junction
by
Barrier potential
increased by reverse
bias potential
Figure 2-4.
still
cross
Barrier potential
at reverse-biased junction.
the junction
base of
reverse characteristic,
reverse voltage
necessary to direct
when
all
all
(I/f)
may be
shown by
plotted to a
is
and
is
and
is
designated
This current
is
I^.
reverse resistance is
5 V
=500 kQ
Rfi=-
lOfiA
''
Reverse breakdown
Reverse voltage
21
voltage
Forward-Biased
Junction
1
10
Reverse
current
Reverse
breakdown
Figure 2-5.
For a
5 V,
with an
silicon junction
/j of
about
0.1 /tA
and a
reverse voltage of
is
R/f
normally not
is
is
taken into
circuit.
is
numbers
collision).
of
When
this
phenomenon, known
as reverse
employed
as
limited by a
breakdown is
discussed in Chapter 11.
is
destroyed. Reverse
a breakdoum
diode,
Consider the
shown
known
in a device
may be
effect of
the /(-side,
bias terminal
on the
and driven toward the
reduced in width, and the
junction.
The
result
barrier p>otential
zero,
is
is
disapf)ears,
is
and charge
gets progressively
carriers
is
increased from
smaller until
it
effectively
from the n-side are then attracted across to the positive bias terminal on the
and holes from the /)-side flow across to the negative terminal on the
//-side,
n-side.
forward biased.
flows,
is
said to be
2-4
ForwardBiased
Junction
22
pn.
Junction
Theory
unbiased junction
Barrier potential
reduced by forward
bias potential
Figure 2-6.
Figure 2-7 shows the forward current (Ip) plotted against forward
voltage
graph
is
known
junction. It
is
germanium and
silcon/)n -junctions. In
each
case, the
little
characteristics follow
is
Beyond
the knee of the characteristic, the barrier potential has been completely
23
Temperature
overcome, Ip
increjises
Effects
resistor.
From
p)oint x
on
calculated as
'^
20
mA
R.=
'
In practice,
the junction
Rp
V =
150
mA
0.3
20
is
is
The dynamic
is
also
known
resistance (r^) of
as the incremental
resistance
or ac
resistance.
resistance
^Vp
A/^
As discussed
in
0.1
40
mA
= 2.5
fi
semiconductor material
is
When
/j
is
made up
of
the temperature of
more electrons to break away from atoms. This creates more hole-electron
pairs and generates more minority charge carriers. Therefore, /y increases as
junction temperature
/j
density,
rises.
can be shown
and junction
temperature,
to
mately doubles
junction, there
It
With
the exception of
all
for
is
each 10C
a definite
increjise in
/j level for
It
each temperature
Ig increases
is
is
proportional
to
It
/j.
Therefore, as illustrated by the vertical line in Fig. 2-9(a), for a fixed level of
2-5
Temperature
Effects
24
pn-
Junction
Theory
/j at
25 C
l
-{- 20
/o at
Figure 2-8.
/p at
50C
45C
characteristics.
temperature increases.
temfjerature)
measured
is
if
Ip
moved
is
The
mV/ C
.8
left.
and 2.02
mV/ C
an
may
a capacitor.
is
it
It is
The
for
C^
is
is
is
approxi-
germanium.
medium
of
charge
situated between
value of the
depletion layer
typical value of
a region depleted
is
insulator or a dielectric
'""^''"
c
temperature
for the
it is
Vp,
for silicon
carriers. Therefore, as
capacitance,
The
results plotted,
vk-hile
(i.e.,
temperature coefficient
mately
to the
held constant
is
If
Vp and the
for
2-6
Junction
^3pac la ce
the width of the depletion layer can be changed by altering the reverse-bias
voltage, the capacitance of a given junction
is
utilized
in a
may
be controlled by the
variable-capacitance device
known
majority charge carriers in the depletion region. These charge carriers must
flow back out of the depletion region, which
The
result
/j.
The
effect
may
which
large initially
is
that
number
be directly prop>ortional to
p.?,
which
is
is
suddenly reversed, a
known
to the level
is
0.02
represented by a capacitance
shown
is
that,
is
very
Ip.
This
It
is
Ip.
be
to
must
much
it is
can be
is
pn
The
effect
produced by
is
variously
known
storage, or, in
storage.
in devices
to
The
diffusion capacitance
resistance /?
reo in/ M
[F'g2-10(a)].
The
in
parallel
with
the
depletion
layer
capacitance
^Circuit
is
represented by
Q.
battery (to represent the barrier potential) must be included in scries with
r^.
shown
in
the
dynamic
resistance
The complete
Fig. 2- 10(b).
2-7
lunction
Equivalent
r,
in parallel
is
26
-WW-
pnJunction
Theory
(a)
Equivalent circuit
for reverse biased
junction
(b)
Equivalent circuit
for forward biased
junction
Figure 2-10.
Glossary
of
Important
Terms
Barrier potential.
for
germanium,
0.7
for
silicon.
Depletion region.
of
charge carriers.
Avalanche
effect.
Charge
carriers increasing in
Reverse breakdown.
reverse-bias voltage.
Forward current.
Varicap.
tance.
Varactor.
Sjime as
varicap.
Reverse resistance.
Forward
resistance.
Reverse characteristic.
bias voltage.
Forward
Dynamic
resistance.
27
characteristic.
ward-bias voltage.
Reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristic
Review
Questions
Same
AC
dynamic
Same
resistance.
Recovery time.
as
as
dynamic
resistance.
resistance.
on time required
to
change
Hole storage.
Same
Same as
Reverse
Carrier storage.
bias.
as recovery time.
recovery time.
n-side, negative to
p-side.
Forward
bias.
/)-side,
negative to
n-side.
2-1.
Using
is
2-2.
2-3.
the
is
fi-side.
Show, by a
2A.
for
each case.
to the n-side.
2-5.
forward
2-6.
more important
and
Which
diffusion
of the
two
a reverse-
biased junction?
2-7.
Draw
compwnents
and reverse-biased
of each.
Fig.
2-11,
Review
Questions
mA
28
pn-
80 -
junction
Theory
20
_J
V
-60
-40
-20
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Figure 2-11.
2-9.
germanium
and
rent.
2-10.
and germanium
What
effect
carriers
CHAPTER
3
The
Semiconductor
Diode
The term
diode
is
simply a pn-junction.
The two
The semiconductor
3-1
Introduction
of the diode
3-1.
is
as a rectifier.
forward biased,
i.e.,
negative terminal.
the diode
is
in Fig.
when
The
is
when
the device
The
is
n-side
is
and
forward biased.
29
3-2
Diode Symbol
and
Appearance
30
Positive terminal
Negative terminal
The
Semiconductor
Diode
Cathode (n-type)
Anode
(p-type)
Arrowhead
indicates
convention current
direction
when
forward biased
Figure 3-1.
0.3
cm
Diode symbol.
diodes,
or
3-2(c)],
generate a
lot
of
heat,
and
31
Diode
air
Fabrication
bolt
mounting
to
a metal heat sink which will conduct the heat away. Power
hundred
many
One
of the
most
common methods
is
the
alloy
of
a /'-type crystal.
The
process
is
is
Cathode
/7tYpe substrate
(a)
Alloy diode
p-type
Impurities
diffusing
Silicon
oxide
CtS
Cathode
.
n-type substrate
(b)
Figure 3-3.
Diffused diode
3-3
Diode
Fabrication
32
The
diode manufacture
in
is diffusion
construc-
When
Semiconductor
Diode
By uncovering only
(the remainder has a thin coating of silicon dioxide), the size of the /(-region
finally electroplated
on the surface
of
3-4
Diode
Characteristics
and
Parameters
is
and integrated
circuits.
(less
than
mA)
Beyond
{Iff) is
is
very
much
plotted to
an expanded
scale,
/^j
is
mA
Forward characteristics
100
80
60
40
20
0.2
0.1
Reverse characteristics
Figure 3-4.
0.2
0.3
'
v,^
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
*jA
affected
be on the order of nanoamperes and is almost completely unby increases in reverse-bias voltage. As already explained in
Chapter
2, I^
shown
to
is
33
Graphical
Analysis
and
this current
component
Diode
of
Circuit
If
is
V,f
increased to 75
for
characteristics of Fig. 3-4, the device will go into reverse breakdown. This
line
on the reverse
characteristic. Reverse
is
breakdown
and
reverse
breakdown voltage
current (/^
) is also important. All these
quantities are normally listed on the device data sheet provided by the
(Vg/i).
approximately
0.1
and
fiA,
Vg/^
is
is
0.7 to 0.9
The dynamic
75 V.
V,
resistance
/j
is
is
de-
in the figure,
V =
2.5
mA
0.1
40
A/.
S2
Ky).
The
polarity of
F,,-
is
is
identified
is
is
/^.
To
determine the voltage across the diode and the current flowing
through it, a dc load line must be superimposed on the diode forward
characteristics.
The dc
all
exist
straight,
To
current,
it
determine two
and
resistance
Supply voltage
f>oints
must
on the load
first
V^) = (volts
drop across
V,
line,
= I,.R^+Vp
circuit.
+ (volts drop
From
Fig. 3-5,
across diode)
(3-1)
3-5
Graphical
Analysis
of
Diode
Circuit
34
The
Semiconductor
Diode
Supply
voltage
"s
Diode and
Figure 3-5.
Example
Draw
3-1
resistor in series.
shown
in Fig. 3-5.
The diode
solution
From Eq.
(3-1),
'F'^L^ 'F
When lp = 0,
Vs
= 0+Vp
is
Vp=Vs = 5V
Plot point
lf=0
and Vp = 5 V.
When Vp =0.
Vs
= IpR^^Q
^^
R,
5V
= 50mA
lOOfi
Plot point
A and
= 50
mA and
Vp = 0.
Now draw
the dc
B.
Since the relationship between the diode forward voltage Vp and the
forward current
p>oint
7,^
is
on the dc load
is only one
which the diode voltage and current are
conditions. That is {X)int Q_, termed the quiescent
line at
35
Graphical
Analysis
of
Diode
Circuit
Figure 3-6.
This
may be checked by
diode
circuit.
and Vp
at point Q_ into
Eq. (3-1).
From
point
states that Vs
on
= !fRl+
Fig. 3-6,
//r
= 40
^V; therefore,
mA
F^=(40
mAX 100
)+
V=5
(3-1)
V.
No
other values of I^ and Vp on the diode characteristics can satisfy Eq. (3-1).
In the circuit of Fig. 3-5, the resistor R^ determines the slof>e of the dc
load
line,
on the load
line.
Therefore, the quiescent conditions for the circuit can be altered by changing either
Rj^
When
or V^.
up a
it
may
line
is
drawn.
/?^ is
A and
the
then calculated
by determining the slojDe of the load line. The problem could also occur in
another way. For example, Rj^ and the required Ip are known, and V^ has to
be determined. This problem is solved by plotting pwints B and Q and
drawing the load line through them. The supply voltage is then read as Vp
at point A.
For the
resistance
circuit
shown
in
which
will give a
(3-1),
Fig.
3-5,
forward current of 30
mA.
solution
From Eq.
When
7^
= 0,
Plot point
Vp = b V.
A on
and
l''^
=5
V.
Example 3-2
36
The
Semiconductor
Diode
Figure 3-7.
/f^ for
and forward
current.
AF^
^
Example 3-3
For the
/;,
A/c.
2V
mA
15
will give
= 50 mA.
solution
mA
Figure 3-8.
is
calculated.
for a
given
7?^
and
Ip.
When
50
Ip changes from
The new
value of V^
mA
Alp = 50 mA
= 5 V.
V + 5 V) = 6.1 V.
at 7^ =
and F^ = 6.1 V
is
(1.1
The
Graphical
J2
A is now plotted
line is drawn through points A and
read from pwint A as F^ = 6. 1 V.
Point
37
to zero,
mAXlOO
Q^,
Analysis
of
(Fig. 3-8).
The dc
of supply voltage
b>e
taken.
To
determine the
drawn
as
is
exact levels of reverse current and voltage, the load line can be
Vs
is
before,
load
reverse quantities
= I^Rl+Vr
(3-2)
is
not drawn,
because the diode reverse current can easily be determined from the device
reverse characteristics.
/lA.
At F^
(a)
Diode
10 V,
circuit
with reverse
bias voltage
On
Iff is
around
/iA.
= 50
V, 7^
is
approximately
1.5
Diode
Circuit
3-6
Diode
Piecewise
Linear
Characteristics
When
is
The
characteristic.
and extending
it
is
may
line
3-10. Notice that the straight line cuts the horizontal axis approximately at
Vp = 0.1 V,
i.e.,
axis at approximately
Ff = 0.3V.
The
characteristics
is
the
dynamic
resistance
Ip,
and
r^.
From
Fig. 3-10,
an equation may
Vg.
Vp=Vg + Ipr,
If
characteristic
tance
rj
may
and the
The diode
is
(3-3)
for a
The
and Vg
germanium
value of
is
r^ is
resis-
approximately 0.7
for a silicon
device.
is
above the knee of the diode forward characteristic. Therefore, this approximate characteristic should be used only for diodes that are
normally biased into the near-linear region of the device forward characterfor values of Ip
istics.
mA
Draw
dynamic
resistance
r^
of 3.2
fi.
current Ip
is
100
Example 3-4
mA.
solution
Convenient Ip and Vp
to
its
maximum
marked
value of 100
at p)oint
Figure 3-11.
K. Point
mA.
is
up
as
shown
in Fig. 3-11,
Diode piecewise
linear characteristics
silicon,
is
with Ip going
a F^ of 0.7
is
tj.
The
(3-3):
linear
same
The
equivalent circuit
equivalent circuit.
This
circuit
is
Fig. 2- 10(b).
39
3-7
Diode
Equivalent
Circuit
40
The
Semiconductor
Diode
Figure 3-12.
which must be
An example
ac analyzed.
analyzed to determine
Sheet
To
circuits
is
its
3-8
Diode Data
of this
is
employed.
Most data
number
or diffused
switching
silicon
maximum
ratings
are then
listed.
It is
maximum
ratings at 25
is
for operation at
Also, the
maximum
temperatures greater
than 25 C.
There
is
normally a
list
maximum
ratings.
An
understanding of
all
the
parameters specified on a data sheet will not be achieved until circuit design
is
studied.
However, some
of the
below:
Peak
reverse voltage
peak
of voltage that
may
the device
may
This
is
the absolute
The minimum
reverse voltage at
which
break down.
This
is
the
maximum
is
current that
may
usually sfiecified
at higher
tempera-
tures.
FA/(surgc)
may
Peak surge
ture.
The
current
This current
surge current
is
very
much
SO- 1000
VOITS
AMP AVG
INSULATED CASE
'mechonicol data
C^>
NSUIATID ftOM THE CASf
'absolute
maximum
IN4001'1N4001' IN40O3
-<s-
41
Diode Data
Sheet
42
The
Semiconductor
Diode
mechanical data
absolute
maximum
6S
Vr
Rtvtru Voltogc
Averoge
if
ffiur,.).
ot
Fwd. Current at
lectitied
Surje Current,
to
Power Diftipotion
Ta
T,,g
IS
stf
maximum
ISO'C
electrical
characteristics at
maximum
when a
forward current.
circuit
is flrst
The
If,
reverse-bias
Vp
Static
It is
a current that
may
vohage and
43
flow briefly
Half-Wave
switched on.
Rectification
for
25 C
that
at higher temjseratures,
and
may
Cf
diode at a
sp)ecified
t^
on to
forward current.
Maximum
off.
3-9
Half-Wave
Rectification
The
bcksic
diode half-wave
alternating voltage
load resistor
is
rectifler circuit
is
shown
in Fig. 3-15.
(/f^).
of the input
An
Input
Output
/?^
(a)
Figure 3-15.
input
waveforms
(c)
circuit.
3-9.1
Basic Half-
Wave
Rectifier
44
The
Semiconductor
Diode
Ri^
the input. During the negative half-cycles, the diode behaves almost as
open
circuit.
The output
i?^ is
an
series of {X)sitive
voltage levels.
When
across
it
is
the diode
output voltage
is
forward biased
Vp,
voltage
is
[Fig.
(input voltage)
V^.
drop
The peak
is
Ep=Vp-Vp
and the peak load current
(3-4)
is
V.-V^
/p =
(3-5)
Rl
During the negative
waveform
reverse-biased diode offers a very high resistance, so that only a very small
reverse current
(/^j)
Eq-
Example 3-5
output voltage
-IffXRj^
is
(3-6)
solution
''--|-^~
From the forward
From Eq. (3-4),
p = 50V-0.9V
Peak output
From
voltage,
Ep = 49.1
V.
juA.
From
Eq. (3-6),
0=-! iuAXSOOn
Negative output voltage,
From Eq.
Eq= 0.5 m V.
(3-5),
/.=
Vp-Vp
R,
50
V- 0.9 V
500
9.
Output voltage
Li.
Circuit
Figure 3-17.
v^-^-'V'
Rectified
Current
waveform
pulse
for
smoothing.
Figure 3-18.
capacitor.
From
the figure
rectifier
it is
<,
circuit.
degrees through which the input waveform passes while the output
from
o(n,ax)
***
^O(min)-
Knowing
<,,
/^
is
and
V,,
going
/,
can
calculated.
sin^,
En^,r,in^
(3-7)
^O(max)
<,
= (time
for 90)
+ (time
for 180)
+ (time
as a constant quantity
for
9)
which
is
(3-8)
discharging
C= Q_/ V may
It,
C=
46
be
4x'i
(3-9)
The time
47
can be determined as
/j
Half-Wave
^2
= (time
for
90)
- (time
for
9')
Rectification
(3-10)
solution
From Eq.
V=2
V.
V=19V
o(min)
= 20V-l
'^
-O(max)
= 20V-l-l V=21 V
(3-7),
is
of the input
T= ^ = 16.6 ms
and
since
is
From Eq.
16.6
msx(3^) = 8.3 ms
= 4. 16 ms
= 16.6 msx(^) = 3 ms
(3-8),
<,
Load current
is
From Eq.
R,
500
(3-9),
^^40mAX^5.5ms^3^P^^
waveform
is
Example 3-6
The
48
must be specified
Semiconductor
Diode
subjected
survive.
voltage
rectifier
The
to.
The
in
minimums
it
will
be
and current
levels
minimum
values.
The
capacitor
is
proportional to /^ and
(<,
+ ^2) and
a load current of
if
capacitor in
ms a
current of 10
inversely proportional to
must flow
for the
For example,
<2-
ms time
period.
hih+h)
any surge
when
resistor.
of current that
the supply
is first
As
its
may
name
is
switched on to the
circuit. If
a small-value resistance
and
Rg
is
known
to limit
rectifier circuit.
behave as a short
(3-11)
Before svkitch-on,
at switch-on
it
will initially
=-^
If
is
maximum
surge current,
IpM(surgc)'
^^^
selected as
R.=
(3-12)
is
E. = 2Vp
Example 3-7
Specify the diode required for the half-wave rectifier circuit referred to
sheets in Figs. 3-13
in
(3-13)
49
solution
Full-Wave
From Eq.
(3-10),
Rectification
<2
(3-11),
7% diode peak
repetitive current
From Eq.
IpM(rep
current is
40
^^570 mA.
Iq=
1^^
= 40
mA.
(3-4),
K^ = 21+0.7
maximum
reverse voltage,
>=10
application.
V = 21.7V
A. Therefore,
Any one
its
of the
= 2X21.7 V
E^ = 43.4
V,
(3-13),
^
T^ diode
'jf
is
V.
stated as having
sjiecification
is
^'/^
= 50
V, /o=l A,
rectifiers
could also be
and
more expensive than the 1N4001. The 1N914 through 1N916
3-14) have large enough reverse voltage specifications for this
they are
all
diodes (Fig.
mA, none
of
them
is
maximum
is
225
suitable.
Use Eq.
= 30A
(3-12):
R =
27.1V
30
Two
types of
The
=0.7
are
shown
in Figs.
3-19 and
3-10
Full-Wave
^^ '^^"O^^
'
50
The
Semiconductor
Diode
AAA""'""'
1^
Full-wave rectifier circuit using
Figure 3-19.
a center-tapped trans-
former.
Input
JTD,
i:d.
Output
\f^L
irOj
(a)
-,iDt
'
P^
1-4
(b)
rT
,,
During positive
(c)
Figure 3-20.
During negative
half cycle
half cycle
), is
is
is
reverse biased.
Fig. 3-20 is the circuit most frequently used for full-wave rectification.
During the positive half-cycle of input voltage to the bridge rectifier, diodes
Z), and D^ conduct as shown in Fig. 3-20(b). At same time diodes Dj and D^
are reverse biased. Figure 3-20(c) shows diodes D2 and D.^ forward biased
during the negative half-cycle of input, while Z), and D^ axe reverse biased.
The result is that both p>ositive and negative half-cycles of the input are
is
/f^.
a continuous
voltage.
Since the bridge rectifier has two forward-biased diodes in series with
the supply voltage and
/f^,
is
Ep=Vp-2Vp
Full-wave
(3-14)
smoothing
circuits to convert
the pulsating output to direct voltage. Figure 3-21 show^ that for full-wave
rectification the capacitor discharge time
half-wave rectifier
circuit.
This means
both be
much
From
is
considerably
less
repetitive current
and
can
smaller.
= (time
<,
/,
for
is
E^ = 2
becomes
90)
-I-
(time for 0)
(3-15)
maximum
This
is
not true in the case of the bridge rectifier circuit. Referring again to Fig.
3-20(b), note that the f>eak cathode voltage of D.^
\
/
is
^'/>
( Vp across D^ Also
maximum reverse
).
Figure 3-21.
is
.90
D^
\tAVE
fotm..t
I
'
Jtx
fl
rectifier
circuit.
51
Full-Wave
Rectification
52
voltage across
D^ and
all
other diodes
is
Vp.
The
Semiconductor
Diode
(3-16)
Example 3-8
sjjecify
rectifier.
solution
From Examples
^0(nu)=19V
^,=65
time for 90
= 4.
6 ms
time for 0, = 3 ms
4 = 40 mA
^2= 1.16
From Eq.
(3-15),
t,
From Eq.
(3-9),
C=
Capacitor
ms
40mAx7.16ms
2V
== 143 nF.
FromEq.
(3-11),
40mAX
(7.16
1.16
ms-H. 16 ms)
ms
Exam-
Diode peak
53
JpM(np)f^287 mA.
repetitive current,
Diode Switching
Time and
is
current,
Frequency
Response
/o=4/2
= 40mA/2 = 20inA
From
and
Eqs. (3-14)
(3-16),
yp = 2l
E^ = 22.4
V.
k=
Diode maximum
reverse voltage,
is better
2(0.7
V)
than required.
-t-
Some
semiconductor diodes
Most diodes
is
will switch
always a longer
designated as the
the
maximum
frequency at
When
but
it
gradually
falls off to
(/y).
The
reverse current occurs because at the instant of reverse bias there are charge
carriers crossing the junction depletion region,
The
is
and
is
If
reverse current
is
such that
T= 2 X t^,
to
is
if
the
conducting almost
[Fig. 3-22(c)].
3-11
Diode
Switching
Time and
Frequency
Response
54
The
Semiconductor
55
Therefore,
Diode Logic
f
J(max)
=L.
J
L_
\OXt_
1
10X4X10"^
= 25 MHz
levels of several
AND gate
Circuits
and the
OR
input voltages.
is
bsisic logic
AND
gate.
The
any number
of input terminals
from 2
=5
V.
The
AND
and input
is
3-12
Diode Logic
Circuits
gate.
The two
56
The
Semiconductor
Diode
Figure 3-24.
The
circuit
diagram
of a three-input terminal
-(-
OR gate
5-V input
voltage
Z>2
(i.e.,
and
Z),
is
low
is
when
Z),
shown
is
It is fairly
A while
,
terminals
V Vp).
-(-(5
The output
Fq on the anodes
-1-
in Fig.
obvious that
Now
B and
all
applied to terminal
gate.
OR gate
supfxwe that a
OR
diode
Circuit of a three-input
is
cathode
its
high.
and ground
Diodes
at the
cathodes.
As
its
input level
Both
name
is
implies, the
OR gate
applied to terminal
AND
and
OR
terminal
or
or
terminal
form
3-13
Diode Clipper
Circuits
many
The
waveform.
is
to
clip off
an unwanted portion
it
of a
passes
only the positive (or negative) p>ortion of an alternating waveform and clips
off
series
clipper is
simply a half-wave
rectifier circuit.
The
connected in
is
series
fHJsitive half-cycle of
seen that
i?^.
The
Two shunt
clipper circuits
is
/?^.
For the
/?,,
due
positive.
/.
Only a small
58
output voltage
The
Semiconductor
Diode
output of the
V^ is
positive
shunt
Fig.
clipper,
fjositive
input peak
+ E.
3-26(b),
is
The
E,
F^ and
as
illustrated.
Example 3-10
5 V. The
be 4.5 V when / is 2 mA. Determine the
^,, and specify the diode forward current and reverse voltage.
f)ositive
value of
to
is
solution
When
the diode
is
reverse biased,
Vo =
E-IR,
Therefore,
R,=
5V-4.5V
E-Vo
mA
= 250n
Diode reverse voltage
When
the diode
is
is
F^2s = 5 V.
forward biased.
_^
~
=
3-14
Voltage
Multiplier
Circuit
The dc output
E-Vp _ 5V-0.7V
~
R^
17.2
250
mA
be produced which
Figure
3-27
is
shows
diode-capacitor
voltage
multiplier
circuit
and
When
is
forward
is
biased,
C,
When
is
very
much
less
than Vp.
and ZJj
becomes forward biased. The voltage V^ applied to the circuit of Cj and
D2 is the sum of the input voltage Vp and K^,,. Note that the ptolarities are
the input goes to
D^
is
reverse biased,
59
2
Input
Voltage
|2^.
1/^
Multiplier
)(-
Circuit
D,i
X"
O3?
0,4
-3
P4^
\/
(a)
-)i
-.---
X:n.
(b|
Vr-,
l/p
Tr4l-
Tl
(c)
Figure 3-27.
than
on the
Kj,
capacitor Cj
circuit
Now
is
charged
to
that Vp
much
is
jx)larity
shown
diagram.
when
circuit.
F^.,,
and
is
the
sum
of
Vp (at
Vq2-
Vc,
Vp + i-Vp) + 2Vp
= 2Fp
V,=
Capacitor C3
is
charged
to
and C3
is
now
3 Vp.
The
total
The
60
The
Semiconductor
Diode
and
across Cj
D^
gives
total voltage of
4 P^
C4.
Glossary
of Important
Terms
Diode.
Two-electrode device
Anode.
a /w-junction with
terminals.
the
diode the
junction.
Diode forward
for forward-biased
p-side of a pn-
n-side of
characteristics.
voltage.
voltage.
acteristic.
DC
load line.
all circuit
conditions.
Quiescent point.
is
biased, defined
Dynamic
resistance.
characteristic
Reciprocal of the
slojDe
of a forward-biased diode
Peak
repetitive current.
may be
Half-wave
Maximum
rectifier.
tive) half-cycles of
Full-wave
rectifier.
Diode
circuit
Bridge
rectifier.
Full-wave
Capacitor smoothing
rectifier circuit
circuit.
Capacitor and
resistor circuit
employed
to
Reservoir capacitor.
circuit.
Ripple.
Peak
repetitive current.
rectifier.
Peak
circuit.
through a
Current which
Surge current.
when
the supply
Surge limiting
is
may
61
Review
Questions
switched on.
Resistor connected in series with a rectifier to limit
resistor.
rectifier
is
forward biased.
Time
AND gate.
A and B and
at terminals
OR
gate.
C, etc.
at terminals
.^
or
fi
off.
Lx)gic circuit
or C,
when an
input
is
present
etc.
Positive clipper.
input.
Negative clipper.
Clipp>er circuit
of
an
input.
Voltage multiplier
Diode capacitor
circuit.
is
for
circuit
which produces a
direct
cathode, and showing the polarity and current direction for forward
the device
3-2.
movement
bias.
is
(a)
of charge carriers
when
3-3.
3-4.
3-5.
Draw
diode,
and
briefly explain
Sketch a half-wave
its
origin.
rectifier circuit
recti-
fier.
that
would
result in
each case
for
a sinusoidal ac input.
rectifier
and explain
its
operation.
Show
for use
with a
rectifier, (b)
sinusoidal input
3-7,
a full-wave
rectifier.
is
rectifier.
Show
the
connected to (a) a
waveform.
down
AND
operation.
3-9.
3-10.
for
a diode
OR gate.
series clipper circuit
Review
Questions
62
3-11.
The
Semiconductor
Diode
for
shunt clipper.
3-12.
voltage.
how
will
Problems
3.1,
mA
pass 75
from a supply of 5 V.
Draw
If
the supply
is
is
required to
will
series
and
with the
of
/ ^
mA
100 h
/p
'
60
40
20
Figure 3-28.
3-2.
diode vkdth the forward characteristic shown in Fig. 3-29 is connected in series with a 250-fi resistance and a 5-V supply. Determine
the diode current, and find the new current when the resistance is
changed
to 100
fi.
Figure 3-29.
3-3.
- 20
- 40
60
>
1.5
.0
10
V,
- 20
If,
- 30
Figure 3-30.
3-4.
Draw
dynamic
3-5.
resistance
characteristics,
each
3-6.
of 75
mA.
For the diodes in Questions 3-3 and 3-4 draw the piecewise linear
of dynjunic resistance in
case.
forward current of 20
mA
when
the supply
is
is
to pass
V. Determine the
If
is
when
3-8.
when
the
doubled.
the diode
is
resistor,
is
connected in
series
with a
as a half-wave rectifier.
voltage amplitude
is
The
50
V. Calculate the
is
kii,
pxjsitive
and diode
3-9.
3-10.
f)eak
power
dissipation.
63
Problems
64
'"^
Semiconductor
Diode
3-11.
3-12.
3-13.
for
a full-wave
for
1-V f>eak-to-peak
3-14.
Calculate the
op>erated.
3-15.
3-16.
rectifier circuit.
when connected
a dc output with a
ripple.
maximum
Repeat
3-14.
rectifier circuit.
a full-wave
Question
and
for
a 1N917 diode.
of series resistance
shunt clipper
is
to
and
fxjrtion of
7-V
square
CHAPTER
4
The
Junction
ifansistor
standing of
The
its
4-1
Introduction
currents that flow in a transistor are similar to those that flow across a
single junction,
and
is
simply an extension of
is
a three-terminal
which
its
performance
A junction
material
may
transistor
(/>-typ)e
is
be
sfjecified.
tyjje.
The
65
4-2
Transistor
Operation
66
Emitter-base
junction
The
Collector-base
junction
Junction
Transistor
emitter
(a)
pnp
T
^^^^^1
transistor
Emitter-base
junction
emitter
(b)
npn
collector
Collector-base
junction
T
^^^^^|
collector
transistor
Figure 4-1.
transistors.
^-junctions
each
exist within
emitter-base junction.
Each
of these junctions
has
all
Two
and the
3.
Figure 4-2(a) and (b) illustrates the depletion regions, barrier potentials,
and
in Section 2-2.
much more
heavily dojjed
layer.
emitter
and electric
and collector
fKwitive
potentials
fields
for the
Consider the npn transistor shown in Fig. 4-3. For normal (linear)
transistor operation, the
is
EB junction
is
The forward
CB junction
bias at the
EB
junction causes electrons to flow from the /i-type emitter to the /)-type base.
electrons are "emitted" into the base region, hence the name emitter.
Holes also flow from the /'-type base to the n-typ)e emitter, but since the base
is much more lighdy dof)ed than the collector, almost all the current flow
across the EB junction consists of electrons entering the base from the
The
an npn
device.
67
(a)
pnp
Transistor
transistor
Operation
on
side
(b)
npn
transistor
side, negative
on p
on
side
Figure 4-2.
Barrier potentials
for
unbiased
transis-
tors.
The
CB junction
t>ase,
to the
CB
as
shown
depletion region.
Since electrons have a negative charge, they are drawn across the
field.
They
are "collected."
in
base arrive
CB
68
-
The
(Emitter)
(Collector)
Junction
Transistor
Electrons ;-Hr
emitted
i-r^^^5s^ Electrons
-""""
collected
Reverse biased
h*']
(Depletion region''^
'"
(Depletion region
narrowed)
widened)
(Barrier potential
reduced)
\~
'
(Barrier potential
increased)
N
-^h^
Figure 4-3.
Some
Biased
npn
transistor.
reach the collector, but flow out via the base connection and around the
base-emitter bias
very
much
circuit.
to the
CB
depletion region
is
shorter than that to the base terminal, so that only a very small
percentage of charge carriers flows out of the base terminal. Also, because
the base region
is
CB
98%
junction,
back
The
result is
to the emitter.
transistor, the
CB junction
junction they appear as minority charge carriers, and the reverse bias
them
CB
assists
Since the
EB junction
is
forward biased,
it
forward-biased diode. Substantial current will not flow until the forward bias
is
about 0.7
EB
for
germanium. Reducing
EB
it,
Reducing
emitter
and
and the EB
collector currents,
EB
The pnp
from the
EB
junction into the base. In the lightly doped n-type base, the holes find few
electrons to recombine with.
drawn
Some
of
base
CB
junction.
EB junction
As
and emitter
currents.
of
charge carrier
is
in the majority,
two
typ>es of
charge carrier (holes and electrons) arc involved in current flow through an
npn or pnp transistor. Consequendy, these devices are sometimes termed
bipolar junction transistors
transistors
(Chapter
12),
(BJT). This
is
to distinguish
them from
field-effect
carriers
and are
To Summarize:
material.
The
center layer
is
transistor
is
outer layers are called the emitter and the collector, and the
Two
potentials are
Figure'
Biased
pnp
transistor.
69
Transistor
Operation
70
The
collector.
The
base
is
can
move
easily
junction
Transistor
available to recombine with the majority charge carriers from the emitter.
Most charge
carriers
4-3
Transistor
Currents
The
and
is
few
collector;
collector currents.
EB junction
4-5.
Fig.
The
and
pnp
device shown, I^ can be thought of as a flow of holes from the emitter to the
base.
shown external
and /o flow out
current Ig
and
collector current
is
the
Iq are also
/r-
U = ln-^U
As already
(4-1)
The
and only
is
is
typically
Because the
CB junction
is
is
termed the
to
99%
is
of 7^.
96%
is
shown
Iq^q
as Iq^o
is
''
made up
of minority
charge carriers, which in the case of a pnp device are holes moving from the
n-type base to the ^-type collector.
Figure 4-5.
Currents
in
a pr\p transistor.
The
collector current
is
obvioiuly the
sum
of
a^I^ and
71
Icao-
Transistor
Currents
(4-2)
Rearranging
Ekj. (4-2),
(4-3)
Since Iq^q
is
very
much
smaller than
/(.,
an approximation
for
a^
is
(4-1)
Therefore, a^^
current, a^^
is
is
may
When
be employed
instead of a^.
^c(l-dc)
In=
for I^ into
Eq. (4-2),
= dc^fl+^CBO
1-a.
(4-5)
1-a.
an npn
transistor as for a
fmp
device.
100 juA.
solution
From
Eq. (4-5),
a:
"dc^fl
'CBO
is
for
measured as
Example
4-1
72
Therefore,
The
Junction
I.=
Transistor
0.98
X 100 /lA
SftA
1-0.98
1-0.98
ntiA
(4-1),
I^ =
Ir-+h
Therefore,
/ = 5.15
According
equal
a^^.
to Eq.
to Tg should approximately
7^;
Equation (4-5)
may
be written as
(4-6)
less
than
7^,
an approxi-
(4-7)
Thus,
)8dc
current.
(beta^^)
/8j^ is
is
The
Example 4-2
collector
If,
is
= 5.202 mA,
Ig
of
= 50
juA,
Icbo
= 2 jtiA
(b)
to
make 7^=
10
mA.
solution (a)
From Eq.
(4-6), Ic
= PdJe + iP^c+^VcBO-
ThcreioTe, 5.202
mA =
and
j8j^.
-^
)2 /iA
( /8d^ +
( j8dc X 50 |tiA)
= i8d^(50 iiA+2iiA) + 2 /lA
1
and
73
Symbols
and Voltages
Transistor
5.202
'^-^
FromEq.
(4-1), /
mA- 2 ^A
52
(4-2), /p
^^
= /c + /a.
Therefore, 7^ = 5.202
From Eq.
mA
inA+ 50
fiA = 5.252
mA
= a^J^ + kao-
Therefore, 5.202
mA =
Oj^
X 5.252 mA)
5.202
"'-'
-t-
2 ftA
mA-2uA ^
5.252mA
'""^
solution (b)
From Eq.
(4-6), /^
= /S^Jb + ( j8<,e +
Therefore, 10
)/cbo-
mA = (100X/5)-l-(101 X2 /iA)
/-
4-6(a)
transistors are
shown
in Fig.
case
its
transistor, the
are indicated by the arrowhead direction. For an npn transistor (Fig. 4-7(a)]
(a)
r)pn transistor
n-type
collector
^^^^
symbol
(b)
pnp
transistor
symbol
4-4
Transistor
Symbols
and Voltages
(a)
74
npn
bias polarities
(b)
The
pnp
bias polarities
Junction
Transistor
VcB
>
0.7
0.3
V for silicon
V for germanium
0.7
0.3
is
for silicon
for
germanium
Figure 4-7.
the base
V
V
The
collector
is
then
biased to a higher {xwitive level than the base. For dt.pnp device [Fig. 4-7(b)],
the base
is
The arrowhead
and the
collector
pwints from
is
then more
Typical base-emitter voltages for both npn and pnp transistors are 0.7
and 0.3 V
might be anything from
The
and
its
transistor
BE junction
a transistor that
off),
for
to
is
CB junction
is
CB junction may
the
its
become forward
is
reverse biased.
of reverse bias
on the
Most
(i.e.,
either switched on or
become
reverse biased
by about
BE
0.5
V.
junction can
BE junction.
4-5
Common
Base
Characteristics
4-5.1
Common
Base
Circuit
Connection
To
The
and the
chjiracteristics of the
device are then derived by plotting the graphs of current against voltage.
Since a transistor
is
urations in which
it
may be
connected to study
its
Consider Fig.
terminal
voltage.
common
For
From each
be derived.
voltages
may
4-8.
to
configuration. Voltmeters
and output
characteristics.
and
is
currents.
to meastire input
75
Common
Base
Characteristics
Figure 4-8.
common
base characteristics.
is
recorded, /g
input characteristics
shown
is
4-5^
Input
Characteristics
in
Fig. 4-9.
Since the
EB
junction
is
common
base input
4-9 also shows that for a given level of input voltage more input current
flows
CB
when higher
levels of
CB
is
because larger
CB junction
to
penetrate deeper into the base of the transistor, thus shortening the distance
and the
EB and CB depletion
The
is
regions.
levels.
characteristics
may
values obtained
is
when
Tg
resultant characteristic
istics
output voltage
is
identified as /^
= 2 mA,
mA,
at
= mA.
1
mA
are plotted,
etc.
Vr,
Figure 4-9.
Common
and the
4-5.3
Output
Characteristics
The common
76
The
Junction
Transistor
each fixed
constant
bjise
when V^g
is
level of I^, Iq is
CB
is
!(.
so small that
depletion region,
the Ic increase
is
is
it
is
With
variations.
As shown
when
in Fig. 4-10,
when V^g
is
reduced
CB junction.
CB
junction,
make up
and
to zero I^
zero, there
is
illustrated, /^
CB junction
CB
V(.g)
Vf^g is
forward biased
is
(Fig. 4-10).
The
and
this
If
The
To
CB
active region,
is
Even
a barrier
is
flows.
still
still
is
increased positively.
known
is
reverse biased
CB junction
is
The
is
is
named
the
normally ojDerated.
maximum
When
it
is
known
is,
Active region
/f
= 4
mA
/,
= 2
mA
Figure 4-10.
Common
The
Output
characteristics
line (representing /^
is
this
always
77
Comnrjon
less
all
Base
Characteristics
/f
= 2
mA
J
-1
Figure 4-11.
V^g. Therefore,
it
The
convenient
/f.
I(-
according to the
Iq levels
measured
and the
graph
identified
is
along
characteristic
From
this line.
is
the
The
V^-g,
bsise
V^-g
common
is drawn
and I(. are
I^, and the
of /^
employed.
= 2 V and
=6
for Vf-g
V.
solution
On
draw a
vertical line at
^'cb~2
(Fig. 4-11).
A read
,
/^
= 0.95
mA for = mA. Now plot f>oint C at /^ = 0.95 mA on the vertical axis and
mA on the lefthand horizontal axis. Returning to the output char/f =
acteristics, read /^ = 3.95 mA at /^ = 4 mA and V^g = 2 V, point B. Now plot
point D at 7^ = 3.95 mA on the vertical axis and / = 4 mA on the horizontal
axis. Draw a line through f>oints C and D to give the current gain
/(T
Gain
Characteristics
line
common
A vertical
Where
4-5.4
Current
V(,g level.
fixed at a
V^^g
resultant
read
maximum
is
The
common
(Fig.
istics)
Derivation of
is
-6
-5
=2
for V^-g
V.
Example 4-3
Example 4-4
transistor connected in
shown
acteristics
I^
and
common
^^=0.7
V and
Pc.fl=6 V. Determine
Iq.
solution
From
= 0.7
4^
Common
Emitter
Characteristics
4-6.1
Common
Emitter
Circuit
Connection
common
To
4-6.2
Input
Characteristics
emitter characteristics.
E terminals,
levels are
shown
in Fig. 4-13. It
istics (like
the
common
F^.^ is
is
common
ased /wi-junction. However, Ig is only a small portion of the total current (/g)
which flows across the forward-biased BE junction. Figure 4-13 also shows
that, for
employed. This
is
less Ig
flows
when
higher levels of
F^.^
ak
CB
to be shortened.
Figure 4-12.
78
common
emitter characteristics.
79
Common
Emitter
Characteristics
Common
Figure 4-13.
To
characteristics, Ig
each fixed
of
I(~
is
maintained constant
is
adjusted in steps,
common
at several
is
and
emitter output
convenient
Z^- is
At
Since
levels.
common
4.
bjise
output
(when
Vqi; is incresised)
collector.
slojjc of
the
that of the
zero
when
in
F^^^,
and the
becomes
zero.
This
is
mA
Figure 4-14.
Common
4-6.3
Oufpuf
Characteristics
and
of K^^
80
horizontal axis
The
Junction
Transistor
is
V^e,
Vg^.
At the "knee"
forward biased.
The forward
which
constitute I^,
maximum
As
4-14,
if
the
CE
voltage exceeds a
in the case of
through.
These
4-6.4
Current Cain
Characteristics
common
/^^
To
selected level,
each step of
/g, the
value of 7^
is
(7^)
is
F^.^-
is
held at a
exactly the
is
same
common emitter
common
as for the
is
plotted against
7n instead of Ip.
Example 4-5
shown
the transistor
fi
of Ig
and
when Vg^
is
0.7
V and
Vce~^ ^- ^^^
calculate
value.
Figure 4-15.
Derivation of
common
solution
81
From
p>oint
is
3.3
Pdc
mA =
55
4-17.
The common
is
tics
The common
common
F^,^.
collector characteristics.
Ig =
>4A
100
100
^/A
80
Figure 4-17.
in Fig.
Figure 4-16.
shown
Common
Collector
Characteristics
60 /lA
common to both input CB voltage and output CE voltage. Using this circuit,
the common collector input, output, and current gain characteristics can be
determined.
Common
collector output
characteristics.
4-7
Common
Collector
Characteristics
82
The
It will
common
junction
Transistor
istics
common
The common
common
The
difference
largely determined
by the
when
is
the transistor
transistor (0.3
From
emitter circuit.
for
common
due
is
base or
level of
CE
is
V^g
is
because
Fig. 4-16,
'BE~ *CE
Consider the characteristic for
1),
common
FcbwI.3
'^CB
^^ = 2 V
(Fig. 4-18).
Vand
'^BE~
^CE~
''CB
= 2V-1.3 V = 0.7 V
Now
(
^cb)
suppMDse
F(;-
is
increased to
maintained constant at 2
1
.5
(pwint
2).
The
Kp = 2V-1.5
Because Vg^
is
Similarly,
reduced, Ig
when
V^,^
/iA
V=0.5
is
is
100
is
two
transistor consists of
/wi-junctions with a
common
center block.
use two /w -junction equivalent circuits. This has been done in Fig. 4-19, with
the exception that
now
r^
represents the
CB junction
resistance,
r^
and capacitances,
it
left
as a combination of
charge carriers from the emitter flow out of the collector terminal.
is
C and
equivalent circuit.
The
common
common
designated
emitter or
/j,
/^,
and
/,
B and
is
, and the
a common base
instead of Ig,
Z^-,
and
i.e.,
I^.
we
and a
r^,
r^,
r^,
To
included in parallel
BE
r,
Therefore,
junction.
fairly
small.
CB junction,
which
is
r,
r^
is
r^
r^
r,,
upon
r^
def>ends
larger than
On
is
The
resistance of the
but very
much
smaller than
r^.
\^
O*
^AAA^
'
Output
Input
Figure 4-19.
(common
Transistor
T-Equivalent
Circuit
represents
the
resistances
4-8
should be possible to
it
t>ase).
83
and
-Parameters
84
The
Junction
Transistor
Figure 4-20.
resistive
T^
compwnents are
= 100
to
300
r^=l Mfi
The BE junction
capacitance {Cg^)
CB
is
capacitance (C^.^)
is
that of a reverse-biased
may be
neglected. Also, instead of having the current generator {alj in parallel with
r^,
a voltage generator
generator
and low
is
alj^.
4-9
may
be employed in
circuits, either of
frequencies, are
as the T-equivalent
h-Parameters
Two
circuit,
now
series
which
with
may
or the r-parameter
r..
The
voltage of this
be employed at
They
medium
circuit.
In Fig. 4-21
common
The
resistance
circuit,
across
it is
r,,
A,,
a voltage
The output
1/A^
is
/</
represented
is
Looking
V^.
i.e.,
feedback voltage
resistance
A,,
I^
load
R[^.
I^
an input
at the r-parameter
of the
A-parameter circuit
is
represented as an output
as
Ay,/j is
where
/j is
the
produced by the
/j,
is
it is
The A-parameter
parts of the circuit,
seen that
all
resistor; part of
it
flows through
r^.
and consequently
t'.
V\AA<
"
Vs(^
i.J
Common
emitter /--parameter
equivalent circuit
L-_^
circuits.
85
is
/)
-Parameters
86
Definition of the
Common
Emitter A-Parameters.
The
Junction
Transistor
hi,
= input resistance =
(using ac quantities)
= ratio of
(when Vq^
is
held
constant)
AVc
Ke
variation in (input) bjise emitter voltage
(when
hf,
= forward
_
Ig
is
held
constant)
Mb
/,
(when
The dc forward
is
F(, is
held
constant).
Note
FE is used instead
of
fe.
h,
= output conductance =
A/c
.
,,
AFc,
i^
(when
..,
held
Ig
is
constant)
or can be
Example 4-6
For the
in
Fig.
common
emitter output
Common
Common
emitter
current gain
87
emitter
/i
output characteristic
-Parameters
characteristic
100
liA
80
60
40
20
Derivation of A and
Figure 4-22.
hy,
6V
Vr.
from characteristics.
solution
From
the output
characteristics,
= A^ = output
From
characteristics,
Ale
From
point
on Fig. 4-22, at 7^
= 3.5 mA and
point
on Fig. 4-22, at 7^
3.5
Fc = 4.5 V,
= 3.5 mA and
From
the
common
emitter input
h,.
and h
for
ixio-*s
^^^ = 4.5 V,
2.1
(foj-VSV)
transfer ratio
mA
V
0.35
=
(/j-60(iA)
From
conductance
mA 60
35 /tA
and
V^p = 4.5
and
7^
= 3.5 mA.
Example 4-7
The
Common
Junction
emitter
reverse transfer
Transistor
characteristic
Figure 4-23.
h^ from
characteristics.
solution
When
From
/c
point
'-'Mb
V,
4 = 60 juA
(Fig. 4-22).
89
Glossary of
Important
Terms
VsO
IJ
"i
'^^t
Common
Figure 4-24.
<^
"-^-(i)
u-
''"'-(p
B
Figure 4-25.
The
Emitter.
Common
The
Base.
and
the collector.
Collector.
The
CoUector-base junction,
Emitter-base junction,
I^,
emitter current.
Ig,
base current.
The
pnp or npn
transistor,
is
collected at the
beta
a, alpha.
P, beta.
npn
dc
The ac
equivalent of a^.
transistor.
Transistor
made
of a
sandwich
of a central
/3^.
p region and
Glossary of
Important
Terms
pnp
90
The
Transistor
transistor.
made
of
Junction
Transistor
Vf-g.
Vg^.
r,.
ry
r^.
terminal, typically
r^
typically
= 25
fl.
fi.
MQ.
Common base.
common
is
to
Common
mon
Common
emitter.
and output
to both input
to
Punch through.
com-
collector.
common
is
voltages.
is
re-
Reach through.
Same
as punch through.
r-parameter equivalent
with
its
Same
T-equivalent circuit.
isolate input
Hybrid parameters.
hj^.
h,^.
as r-parameter equivalent
circuit.
A-parameters.
which
circuit.
equivalent parameters.
Same
other.
as h-parameters.
hp^.
h^.
Common
Common
output conductance
for
Same
as )8^.
A-parauneter
equivalent
circuit.
h^^.
Common
equivalent circuit.
Review
4-1.
Questions
Draw
sketches to
block form.
Show
Briefly explain.
4-2.
Repeat Question
block according to
of
its
function,
trainsistor.
Label each
direction of
movement
pnp
for
transistor.
4-4.
Draw
and
show the
for
jwlarity of bias
91
transistor,
Problems
voltage values.
4-6.
common
how
experimentally.
4-7.
common
characteristics.
how
current gain
biise
may
the characteristics
be determined
experimentally.
4-8.
output
how
Explain
characteristics.
common
the
emitter input
characteristics
are
and
de-
termined exjjerimentally.
4-9.
how
common
the characteristics
may
be determined
experimentally.
4-10.
4-11.
common
Sketch the
acteristics,
and explain
their shape.
its
origin. Also,
show
Name
each compo-
4-12.
all resistors,
4-13.
for the
4-14.
for the
common
common
4-15.
Define h^,
4-1.
/j,^,
and
l^^y ^B
is
collector configuration.
base configuration.
a^=0.97 and
/xA.
= 5.255 mA,
7^
I^.
level of Ig required to
make
/(-= 15
mA.
Calculate the collector and emitter current levels for a transistor with
/(-
and
emitter
voltages.
A.
measured as 50
4-3.
common
and
IcBO~ ^^
4-2.
h,^,
for the
currents,
The
is
20
jiiA.
made on a
transistor in a circuit:
Ic
(a)
Determine
2.427
I^,
mA,
^^, and
/^
a^^.
= 200
fiA,
Icbo
=7
/iA
particular
Problems
92
(b)
y*'^
to
level of
/<;
which
will result
from reducing Ig
/tA.
Junction
Transistor
4-5.
shown
4-6.
From
of I^
and
the
common
when Vg^
transistor
Using the
and
V(.^
=&
V.
V(,g
= 5
V.
Determine I^ and
4-8.
0.6
is
/(-
common
and V^g = 6 V.
shown
derive the current gain characteristic for ^'c~3 ^the value of h,^ when /c52
and Pc.?w3 V.
in Fig. 4-14,
^^ determine
mA
4-9.
From
the
Fig. 4-15,
4-10.
From
the
common
termine h^ when
in
7^= 100
/nA
and
^'c
=6
V.
CHAPTER
5
"n^ansistor
Biasing
A
may
dc load
and voltages
in
a particular circuit.
The
The
it
when no
signal
is
applied;
i.e.,
may be
it
is
the
and the
affected by variations in
_ minimum
'^
As
will
25
value
is
typical
maximum
50
value
75
hpg^
can
used.
93
5-1
Introduction
5-2
The dc Load
Line and
Bias Point
To
common
it
is
shown
draw a dc load
necessary to
line
on the
in Fig. 5-1.
If
the circuit
was
to be used as
an
would
be base and emitter. The output would be taken from collector and emitter.
The emitter terminal is common to both input and output, so the configuration
is
circuit.
base junction
is
is
normal bias
device.
From
is
(b)
Common
Figure 5-1.
94
Plotting the
dc load
line.
If
and P'c=
then lc =
Fp^ = 20 V. This point
is
is
is
/c=lmA,
.5 mA,
/(; =
Kc.=10V,
point
V^E = 5 V,
point
= 2mA,
VcE = ^^'
points
/c
The
Ri_
drawn through
line
10
kS2.
these points
is
straight
straight,
is
it
At point
At
{Xjint
A and
the dc load
line
'^'^
^^'^
"-jj^^
gj^j Pojnt
for
The most
convenient two
point E.
and
^'c=^cc = 20V
V^E ~
and
/^
lc
/4,
E,
is
^^
and
95
not conducting,
^cc-(Ox^t)=
= -^ = 2 mA
The dc load line is a plot of Iq against Vqe for a given value of /?^ and
a given level of F^c- Thus, it represents all collector current levels and
corresponding collector-emitter voltages that can exist in the circuit. For
1.5 mA and V(.e= 16 V would not appear
on the dc load line in Fig. 5-1. Therefore, the load line shows that this
combination of voltage and current levels could not exist in this [particular
circuit. Knowing any one of 7^, Ig, or Vqe' '* is easy to determine the other
two from the load line.
The load line in Fig. 5- 1 applies only for the case of V(.(. = 20 V and
7?^ = 10 kB. If either of these conditions is changed, a new dc load line must
be drawn.
Draw
when
7?^ is
the dc load
changed to 9
and
kfl.
solution
When
7c
= zero, Vce=
I^cc
= 20
V.
and
7^
together to
draw
7,;.
Ri = 9
kft.
join points
Example
5-1
96
Transistor
Biasing
0.525
mA
Figure 5-Z
when no input
signal
is
is
When an
applied.
input signal
I(^
is
that exist
V^.^
applied, Ig varies
to vary,
consequently
At point Q: 7^ = 20
fiA,
7^=
set
up
as at point
Q_.
10 V.
nriA
and
Vf,^
When Ig
is
increased
from 20 juA
by
9.5
(from 10
to
mAXlOkQ) = 0.5
to 0.5
V), or a
V.
^IB= +20
/iA caused a
AKc=-9.5V.
When Ig
is
decreased from
20 fiA
to
jxA,
mAXlO
I^ becomes 0.05
kfi)=19.5 V, or a
mA
and
A7j=-20
to
point
Q^
Q^ At
.
97
The dc Load Line
and
point 0'.
'^
/c = 0.525niA
and
A4=10mA.
Fc=
14.75
Bias Point
AFc.=4.75V
The maximum equal positive and negative vjiriations in Fj,^. are now
4.75 V. This is also referred to as the maximum undistorted output, because
any larger output amplitude would be a distorted waveform; i.e., the
negative output change would be larger than the f)ositive output change.
At all bias points above or below pwint Q, it is seen that the maximum
equal positive and negative variation in F^^- will be less than 9.5 V.
Therefore, for
maximum
maximum
In some cases,
line.
and then
the bias p)oint can be at any other suitable f)oint on the load line.
transistor
connected as a
/g
= 40
fiA,
common
emitter amplifier.
= 2.2
If /?^
ki2,
Fig.
Vcc~
5-3
18 V,
is
and
maximum
undistorted output.
solution
The
in Fig. 5-l(a),
but with
Rj^
= 2.2
\dl
When/c = 0,
Plot point
When
A on
= 0, VcE=i8
Fig. 5-3 at lc
V.
VcE = 0,
18
2.2 kfi
B on
Draw the
Plot point
intersects the /^
Fig. 5-3 at /c
dc load line
= 40
= 8.2 mA, K =
from
jjoints
V.
to
B.
Where
/c
The maximum
(point
is
and AFc = 8 V.
undutorted output
is
7.5
V.
Example 5-2
98
A 00
Transistor
1*'^
Biasing
10 -
= 80
(lA
99
^
^^'^
Bias
a design example.
silicon transistor
having an
levels of /^
and
Kj-.^.
solution
First design the circuit, using the typical value of hf^
= 50.
value of Rj^
From Eq.
(5-1)
^CE~
^C^L
'^CC
and
Rl
_
= ycc-ycE
=
z
If.
value of
10V-5V
=5
mA
;
Rg
20 /lA
kS2
Example 5-3
100
IVhen hp
= 25,
Ig remains equal to
( V^^f,
Vg^)/ Rg
= 20
/xA
Transistor
Biasing
IchpElg = 25 X 20 juA
and
= 0.5 mA
VcE = ^cc - ^cRl = 10
V - (0.5 mA X 5 kfl)
= 7.5 V
When hp^ =
remains equal to
75, Ig
F^c ^be)/ ^b
Ic^hpplg = 75 X 20
and
^^0^=
~ 20 M^
/I
= 1.5 mA
^cc-/c^L = 10 V-(1.5 mAx5
kfi)
= 2.5V
From Example
/p
mA
and
5-3
it
V(~p-
is
=5
between l(. = 0.b to 1.5 mA and Vf^p = 2.b to 7.5 V. This wide range results
from the spread in possible values of hpp^. The fixed current bijis technique is
not
Example
and Rg
5-3, /?^
the actual
/j,
and
V^-p-
levels
obtained.
The
comparison
5-4
Collectorto-
Base
Bias
and
this
following examples
is
to
permit
transistor.
little
how
is
is
To understand
is
dependent upon Vq^. If /^ becomes larger than the design value, it catises an
increased voltage drop across R^. This results in a smaller level of Vc, which
than
From
its
101
Collector-
to-Base
Bias
tend to be reduced.
Fig. 5-5,
^'cc
= ^z.{4 + /c)+^'c.
(5-3)
and
'CF '"'" 'B
Example
'
5-3,
and
(5-4)
calculate the
levels of I^
and
re-
so\utton
First design the circuit, using Ayr
From Eq.
= 50.
(4-7),
Ir
Rearranging Eq.
mA
(5-4),
/e
'fF
'BE
Tb
V-0.7
V=
215
kfi
20|[iA
From Eq.
(5-3),
L =
Ib-^'c
10V-5V =
4.9 kfl
mA
20 /iA
-I-
The
Ap
circuit
V(.
= b V and
= 50. Now
75. In this
From
Ic
mA
when
Eqs. (5-3)
and
(5-4),
^'cc=z.(^fl
+ ^c)+^^B+^'|.
is
Example 5-4
102
Transistor
Biasing
+
^V
f^FE
f'FB
WhenhpE = 25,
/c
Substituting
Ib~^cI ^fe
'^CE~
mA
Eq. (5-4),
''^to
= 0.68
"fl+ ^BE
^|a68mA^215kn)+0.7V = 6.55V
For hp^ = 75,
^_
10V = /i4.9kn(^ + l) +-^|+0.7V
.\
215kft
/^=
1.19
mA
and
19
yc.-{^
mA
and Fp = 4.1
X215kfi j-l-0.7
75
V = 4.1V
circuit in
mA
is
bias
circuit.
5-5
Emitter
Current
Bias
(or Self-Bias)
An
is
shown
The
R^
is
and
i?2
Vg) at the
is
f^ = /^
X R^, and
103
Emitter
Current
Bias
(or Self- Bias)
Figure 5-6.
V
= V
V
' BE'^E
'B
h=
Therefore,
if
V-V
(5-5)
R.
is
is
stance.
The
's
very
much
is
t>e not
an extremely constant
very
much
level of
If
To
considered,
current
/j
through
supply voltage
F^^^;
is
resistor /?2-
Vr,
Si Vrr
Ro
Ri+Rj
(5-6)
and
/.=
y-
y
(5-7)
104
Transistor
fl.:
Biasing
Rg
'j_
I-
r^WW
and
105
Bias
Since Jg^Ic/hpg,
Substituting values,
5V.(,^.l^)..
R^ = 4.9kQ
Let
!,
= Ir=\ mA
then
R -^B _
_ 5V + 0.7V
t^+^^
2/2
/2
= 5.7
mA
kfi
and
/c
ri\
mA
^'cc-^B_ 15V-5.7V
lmA + 20piA
Ij + Ib
= 9.1
Now
kfl
/if
= 25 and
75:
R,
15
5.7 ki2
Vx
9.1
kn + 5.7kfi
5.8V
and
/?a
= /f,||/?2 = 5.7kn||9.1
kfi
= 3.5kn
From Eq.
(5-10),
VB^lBRB+^BE-^l^EilB+tc)
106
substitute
Transistor
Biasing
Thus
which gives
"b
Rb
'be ~
In
'c
^^l
Mi-)
V'-V
(^z/V) + (l/V +
/<" hpE
= 25,
5.8V-0.7
/..=
(3.5
= 0.97
/or Af
l)
mA
= 75,
5.8V-0.7V
In =
=
From Eq.
(3.5
1.02
mA
1)
(5-9),
VcE=Vcc-rcRL-RE{^^^+Ic)
For hpr
= 25,
Kc^=
15
V-(0.97
"^
+0.97
mAJ
= 5.2 V
For hp^
= 75,
Fcg=15V-(1.02mAX5kfl)-4.9kn/ ^'^^"^ -H.02mAJ
= 4.9V
circuit in
Example
5-5, /^
is
0.97 to 1.02
Examples 5-3 to 5-5 show the three types of basic bias circuits. Each
employs a transistor with a typical h^^ value of 50 and maximum and
minimum values of 75 and 25, respectively. Each circuit was designed for
mA. The maximum and minimum levels of I(- and V^^
Vf.^ = 5 V and /^ =
circuit
5-6
Comparison
of Basic
Bias circuits
mA
/c = 0.5 to 1.5
Ir
bias,
/c = 0.68 to 1.19
Kc = 2.5 to 7.5
and
mA
and
mA
and
^c^ = 4. 1 to 6.55
bias,
= 0.97
to
.02
is
^'
= 4.9
to 5.2
Two
of the
most
(^^be/^^)'
'*
approximately 2.2
An
raise the
/(.go
The
effect
is
to increase,
more minority
for
a silicon
Stability
coefficient
transistor,
approximately doubles
I(~
The temperature
mV/C
carriers,
and an
/^^
for
increase will
and
so increase I(~gQ
7^-
still
may
base junction
is
Measures taken
stability
burned
out.
to avoid
with spread
Changes
in
I(-
it
may
This
effect
is
known
as
thermal
runaway.
hp^ values.
may
in
and
However, because of the pxKsibility
of thermal runaway, the I^^gQ changes are by far the most imp>ortant. The
thermal stability of a circuit is assessed by deriving a stability factor S.
in
Vg^-
also
/(-.
p>oint.
S-
of
50
is
by
that
at least
(5-11)
5= 10
is
5-7
Thermal
good.
107
To
5-7.1
Evaluation
ofS
find
an expression
for Iq
is
From
~ "-Fe'b
'C
^^^
Ig, Icbo'
"*"
"*"
( 1
^c
Exq. (4-6),
"^FEj'cBO
When
A/^
A/^ao
Mr
1+A.
A/cflo
l-hpeiMg/Mc
S=
Equation (5-12)
expression for
^I^/Mq must
From Eq.
5-7.2
is
To
evaluate S, an
circuit.
(5-2),
Ig
5.
(5-12)
S for Fixed
Current Bias
When
+ A.
AA,
changes by A/^,
F^^-
F^^- F
since /^
is
not
Mb =
Mr
Substituting into Eq. (5-12),
bias.
S=
1-0
(5-13)
hpjf^
ranged from 25 to
75.
This gives a
value of S from 26 to 76. Thus, the fixed current bias circuit has |X)or
thermal
108
stability as well as
poor
stability against
A^^ spread.
From
and
Eqs. (5-3)
5-73
Sfor
(5-4),
Collectorto-Base Bias
= IcRL + h{RL-^RB)+yBE
When
there
If-Bo
is
no
effect
= McRt,+MB{RL + RB)
-M^R^=MB{R^ + Rg)
or
-Rl
+ Rb
A/^
Mc
Ri^
Ex}. (5-12),
bias,
\+h^
S=
(5-14)
l+h.
'[Rl + RbI
5-4,
S ranges from
7 to
28.
This
in
many
that, for
is
cases
it
smjill
From Eq.
may
stability factor,
it is
but
seen
p>ossible.
5-7.4
(5-10),
Sfor
yB
Emitter
= ^cRE+^B{RE + RB)+^BE
Current Bias
When
= A/c/? + A/a(^ + B)
or
-McRE^MsiRE + Ra)
A4_
Mc
-Re
Re + Rb
S=
(5-15)
1+A,
\Re + RbI
109
110
Transistor
Also, for
Rb = Re,
Biasing
It is
all
5^:^1.7,
which
is
= 5, S^6; and
Rb<^Re, S^l.
for
seen that the emitter current bias circuit can be the most stable of
is
5-8
AC
Bypassing
and the
AC
Load Line
In the discussion on the collector-to-base bias circuit,
5-8.1
AC Bypassing
that an increase in Ig
good dc bias
is
stability.
Ig.
This, of course,
is
The
was explained
which tends to
it
in Vq^,
when an
ac signal
tends to cancel the ac input signal, and this can result in the circuit having a
termed
ac degeneration,
amplification
is
and
it
its
input imjiedance.
must be eliminated
if
The
effect
is
reasonable ac voltage
to be achieved.
how ac
degeneration
is
to-base bias circuit. Instead of using a single bias resistor, two approximately
Rgi and Rg2, are employed. The two must add up to the
A bypass capacitor (Cg) is connected from the junction of
Rg^ and Rg2 to the low-voltage supply terminal, as shovkTi. Cg behaves as a
short circuit to ac signals, and the ac equivalent of the circuit is then as
equal
resistors,
shown
resjsectively,
and
in parallel
bias stability
effect
is,
no
of course,
is
~ h^^R,
A..=
A
Thus,
low.
it is
Cg has the
+ i?(l+A/J
R^ can keep
effect of
voltage gain.
5-8.2
The AC
Load Line
The
total
dc load in
line
series
is
is (R/^ + R^).
+ Rg). With R^
drawn
is /f^,
and a new
(R^^
ac load line
must be drawn
to
Output
(a)
^V
i
(b) ac equivalent circuit
Figure 5-8.
output
input
Figure 5-9.
)h
Ill
112
Transistor
voltage
Biasing
When
no signal
is
Q) on the dc load line (see Fig. 5-2). When an ac signal is applied, the
and current vary above and below point Q. Therefore, the
Q_ point is common to both the ac and dc load lines. Starting from the Q_
point, the ac load line is drawn by taking a convenient collector current
change {^Ic)y and calculating the corresponding collector emitter voltage
transistor voltage
change (A Fc.= A/^ /?/,). The current and voltage changes are then
measured from point Q_ to obtain another pwint on the ac load line. The ac
load line is then drawn through this point and point Q.
The common
Example 5-6
kfi, /?,
emitter circuit
12 kfi,
and
shown
/?2
= 2.2
R^
is
Ff,^,
= 20
V,
Rj^
= 3.9
bypassed to ac signals by
the large capacitor Cg, and the transistor employed has the characteristics
shown
in Fig. 5-10.
Draw
the dc
and ac load
solution
Total dc load =
i?^
-I-
/?
= 3.9
kfl
-I-
.2 kfl
and
Vce=Vcc-Ic(Rl + Re)
When
7^ = 0,
Vrr=Vrr = 20
/ =
Figure 5-10.
40 mA
= 5.
kfi
Plot point
A on
Fig. 5-10 at
= and
/c.
^^ = 20 V.
When
Vce = 0,
113
Glossary of
Important
0=Vcc-Ic{Rl + Re)
Terms
Therefore,
ypc
R,+R^
20
V =
3.92 mA
5.1 kfi
Plot point
mA
Draw
A and
The approximate
and ^^ = 0.
B.
is
Vg).
Thus,
Vg^Vr^r-X
/?,
I^R^=Vb-
and
f^B
Ro
20Vx2.2kK
+ /?2
12kfi-(-2.2kfi
= 3.1 V
= 31 V-0.7V = 2.4V
Re
2.4
V =
2mA
1.2 kfi
DC
Load
load line.
line plotted
on
circuit conditions.
DC
bias point.
no signal
is
Quiescent point
Fixed current
exist in
a circuit
when
Same
(Q.).
bias.
Method
as dc bias point.
of biasing
a transistor
in
is
held constant.
Collector-to-base bias.
is
con-
is
con-
Same
circuit.
Glossary of
Important
Terms
Thermal runaway.
114
Transistor
Biasing
Thermal
AC
5-1.
Questions
The
degeneration.
good dc bias
Review
bias circuit.
stability.
and current
5-2.
directions.
an equation
circuit, derive
resistors,
and
an equation
Repeat Question
5-4.
5-5.
Repeat Question
5-6.
Compare
!(,
to the
5-3.
5-7.
relating
an approxi-
Compare
stability factor S.
5-9.
Explain what
is
meant by
ac degeneration,
it
Problems
5-1.
For the
common
emitter circuit
dc load
(a)
(b)
Vcc=n
= 1.5
and output
5-2.
be
shown
in
kfl.
F,^^ = 8kn.
and
characteristics
may
circuits.
and
specify
it
in terms of /^
VcE-
A circuit
shown
in Fig. 5-1
is
to
Ir =
2inA
5-3.
minimum
value of 40 and a
maximum
value of 60.
5-4.
transistor
common
connected as a
emitter ampHfier.
^^=1.2
If
kfl,
is
V(^=
7.5
7^
estimate the
5-5.
the typical
h^g-
and lower
limits of
'CE5-6.
12 V. /?i
= 2.2
minimum
kfi,
= 3.3
kJ2.
maximum
5-8.
has A^
5-9.
levels of V^.^-
= 80
is
to
/p
= 3 mA.
typical,
Calculate the
The emitter
= 3.3 kS2,
levels of Vqe-
/?^
= 2.2
kJ2,
5-10.
= 60
A^-
typical.
are to be
and
5-11.
7?,
Vce~
The supply
10
^c~
F(-.p
maximum A^. = 80
An emitter current
The
^""^
bias circuit
available supply
is
F(;-
is
= 20
silicon transistor
and
/fj,
=6
kft.
to
5-13.
The
circuit
factor
5'
80 typical
20 maximum. Load
Rg and bias resistances
to
for
each of the
Draw
the dc
and ac load
shown
Problems
circuits in
characteristics
5-14.
Vqe (
have ^^ = 8 V.
V, and the transistor has an h^^
the bias
levels of
to be designed to
5-12.
with
= 30
is
line,
determine
Question
in Fig. 5-10.
5-9.
The
115
Problems
CHAPTER
6
Basic
ifansistor
Circuits
6-1
Introduction
but
it
impedance and a very low output impedance. The common base circuit
combines good voltage gain with the disadvantage of a very low input
impedance. However, the common bcise circuit can operate satisfactorily at
much
For each
one
common
emitter circuit.
more than
and imjjedances may be calculated from a knowledge of
and
6-2
An
Common
Emitter
Circuit
npn transistor
is
shown
provided with a
116
(^^
= 10 kfl)
= 20 V)
117
Common
Emitter
Circuit
Figure 6-1.
base current Ig
is
Common
emitter circuit.
and
is
this results in
The
output
is
a forward bias
/?,
is
capacitor coupled
Assume
let
that
Rg
is
= 50X20X10"^=1
The
/tA. Also,
mA
V-
to emitter voltage
= 20
= 50. Then
The
mA, Fc=
If
VgE
10 V, Fee
is
= 20
V=
increased until Ig
= 25
/tA,
-50X25X10-- 1.25 mA
The
Vcc-IcRi.
118
Basic
Transistor
Circuits
mV
or
circuit amplification
The
= 250.
transistor current
supply voltage
( V(.(.).
So,
and voltage
when
variations have
no
effect
on the
The A-parameter
6-3
Common
Emitter
h-Parameter
Analysis
is
shown
the
equivalent of the
common
common
equivalent circuit.
the circuit,
is
sis
becomes that
When
shown
in Fig.
6-4(a), the
(/?) is
Common
transistor in
A-parameter
included in
of Fig. 6-4(b).
Figure 6-2.
its
119
Transister h parameter
Common
equivalent circuit
Emitter
h- Parameter
Analysis
Figure 6-3.
Common
^cc
(a)
CE
circuit with
emitter resistance
(b)
Figure 6-4.
CE
CE
circuit
circuit
with
/?f
circuit.
The
6-4(b) are
6-3.1
Input
Impedance
Looking into the device bsise and emitter terminals (Fig. 6-3), h^ is
h^^ V^. For a CE circuit \^ is normally a very small
quantity, so that the voltage fed back (k V^) from the output to the input
circuit is much smaller than the voltage drop across h^. Thus,
Z^k.
typical value of A^
When an
is
1.5
(6-1)
kQ.
V-
becomes a
= I^k^ + I^R^
little
is
more complicated.
(again ignoring
A,,
K)
= hh^+REih + Q
= hh^ + REh-^REhfJ>,
and
Therefore,
2;
= A-t-/?(H-/!^J
(6-2)
An
circuit
= 50,
Z,
is
calculated as 52.5
if
^-=
kfl, A,^
and
6-4(b)]. Therefore,
6-3.2
CE
ki2,
and
Equations (6-1) and (6-2) give the input impedance to the device base.
is Rg in parallel with Z, [see Figs. 6-3
The
Z' = Rn\\Z.
Output
Impedance
= 1.5
kS2.
circuit,
(6-3)
little effect
upon
the input of a
determining the output impedance. Looking into the collector and emitter
terminals, a large resistance (l/h^) is seen. Thus,
Zasl/A,
120
is
The
(6-4)
ance
is
Z^ in parallel with
121
Ri^.
Common
Z:=UhJ\Ri.
(6-5)
Emitter
h-Parameter
Analysis
is
typically
Voltage gain
= A^=
V^/
6-3.3
V^
Voltage Gain
From
Fig. 6-3, F
= 7,/?^ and
The minus
V^
increases,
V^
parameters and
F,
= /j/!.
_I,
I,Rl
Rl
and
is
CE
^iAl
(6^)
vice versa.)
Knowing
CE
a typical
Therefore,
voltage gain
circuit
kR,
Ay,
can be quickly
= 50, and A=
1.5
kQ,
330.
is
= 10
(When
V^.
the appropriate h-
resistance
(/?)
in the circuit,
= /j/l,, + I,Rjr
= I,h + REh{l+h^,)
and
Usually /?(!
-1-
J/
A.,)
h,.R,
IR,
(6-7)
so that
A^^-RJR^
Using
/?=
ki2,
It is
is
If
in
Fig. 6-4
approximately
A =
CE circuit
gain of a
Ay,(load
and
(6-7)
resistance)
(input resistance)
with an external
7?^=10
VSL
and
10.
6-3.4
Current Gain
Therefore,
A.
= h.
(6-8)
This expression is true for CE circuits both with and without R^.
However, it is the device current gain, not the circuit current gain. Examination of Fig. 6-3 or Fig. 6-4(b) shows that the signal current (7^) divides
between Rg and Z,.
The
V;
and
and
/j
F,/Z,. Therefore,
=I
Rg and
Z^ in parallel is
Rb^Z^
R^ + Z
123
circuit
Common
Emitter
/i-Parameter
Analysis
A'=AXA'
(6-11)
typical
is
A^, is
also reduced.
6-3.6
Input impedance
Summary of
Typical CE
typically
Circuit
Circuit input imfiedance
Z/i^sA^HZ,
Output impedjince
Circuit output impedance
Zsl/A^=lMn
Z' as i?^
1
1
A^t^-^
Performance
typically
/ A^
=330
typically
">
A^x A^, = 50
Current gain
Circuit current gain
^4,'!*!
A'^
= A^X A',
Voltage gain
The common
CE
is
by
far the
+ R^l + A.
1
A^ts^R^^/ R^
when
and
Z^as A
Z/sw/f^HZ,
The
typically
in the Circuit
vice versa.
Rg + Z,
A^
Input impedance
i.e.,
-^
Power gain
With Rg Included
sion;
typically
^ft
all
amplifier, the
CE
configurations.
In the
are A
= 2.1
common
kfl, h,,
emitter circuit
shown
S.
parameters
Example
6-1
124
Basic
Transistor
Circuits
Figure 6-5.
Circuit for
Example
6-1.
solution
is
From Eq.
(6-4),
output impedance
Zail/A,=
Z;=l
From Eq.
is
Mfi||5kS2
= 4.98kB
(6-6),
-75X5 kn
^-^
From Eq.
gain
^_
2.1 kfl
(6-8), y4,ssA^,
= 75,
IS
75X250 kQ
'" 250kfi + 2.1 kn
From Eq.
(6-11),
/4;
79 X74.4 13,300
Determine the
in
Example
6-1
on the jjerformance
effect
when a 1-kQ
cominon emitter
of the
emitter resistance
is
included in the
circuit
Example 6-2
circuit.
solution
From
circuit input
impedance
Z;
From
Eqs. (6-4)
and
kfi)
= 78.1
ki2,
(6-3), the
is
= 78.1
kfi||250kfi
= 59.5 kB
output impedance
is
Z; = 4.98kfi
From Eq.
(6-7),
-75X5
"
From Eq.
(6-8), /4,as75,
2.1 kfi-H
A'
From Eq.
75
kfl
(76X1
kfi)
X 250
kfl
is
= 60.6
ka
gain
(6-11)
^: = 4.8X60.6 = 291
In the
common
supply
is
20
shown
bias voltage Vg
V,
Vcr = 20
/f
'
R.
in series with
^3
s^
is
is
jHt
Vf
^o
L_i
Figure bS.
Common
collector circuit.
125
6-4
Common
Collector
Circuit
126
Basic
Transistor
Circuits
Common
Figure 6-7.
potential divider
/?,
and
.ffj-
is
not
is
equal to the
'^
If
The dc
conditions of the
Fee = 20 V, and Fb
= 10.7
4=
*s
^'^
10 V,
V.
in Vg causes Ig to vary,
replaced with short circuits in order to study the ac f>erformance. This gives
the
common
parallel
collector,
the
6-5
Common
Collector
/7-Parameter
Analysis
combination of R^ and
and
The
i?2-
name common
collector
(or grounded
Note that Rg
is
the
and the
collector.
Hence,
collector).
of
Fig.
6-6.
its
The
CC
common
A-parameter equivalent
voltage polarities
shown
A-parameter circuit
is
drawn by
circuit.
The
current directions
when
and
the input
/.:
/,
128
and
Basic
Transistor
Circuits
With
V^
= 0,
/,
is
produced by
^'
h^
F:
+ iReWRs)
and
K^{Rb\\Rs)
Therefore,
Z=
^=
"
\^
^'
(6-14)
Note that the output impedance is (h^+ the total impedance in series
all divided by h^^. It is interesting to compare this to
the input impedance, which is {h^ + h,^ timv_s the impjedance in series with
the emitter terminal). As with Z,, it is possible to look at a CC circuit and
quickly estimate Z. For A= 1.5 kfi, Rb = 5 kfi, Rs = 5 kS2, and A^_. = 51, Z is
calculated as 78.4
Once again
S2.
z: =
Since
Ri^ is
usually
much
RdZ,
larger than Z
A,= VJV,
6-5.3
Voltage Gain
and
Therefore,
/?^ is in parallel
with
Z.
(6-15)
and
129
Common
Collector
i^/^RlV.
hf.RL
h-Parameler
Analysis
kRl/k
{hf^Rt/h.)
Pssl
(6-16)
This agrees with what was previously discovered about the CC amplithat it has a voltage gain of approximately 1, and that there is no
phase shift between input and output.
fier, i.e.,
6-5.4
Current Gain
(6-17)
Equation (6-17) gives the device current gain. Since the signal current
/,
divides between
Rg and
is
smaller
than the device current gain. Using the same reasoning employed to arrive
at the current gain for the CE circuit [Eq. (6-9)], the CC circuit current gain
A' =
For the
CC
circuit
Rg
is
R^ +
(6-18)
Z.
usually very
much
smaller than
Z,,
so that
Rg
has quite a significant effect upon the circuit current gain. Using the typical
values previously employed, Z,
A[ becomes
= 52.5
Rg = b
kfl,
and
= b\,
and
CE
kJ2,
h,^
A^
is
4.4.
The equation
for
CC
power gain
is
A=AXA.
and
The
since
A j^X,
circuit
power gain
6-5.5
Power Cain
A.^A.
(6-19)
a:^a:
(6-20)
is
130
Basic
value of A.
is
51
and Ai
is
of Aj
and A^ already
calculated, a typical
4.4.
Transistor
Circuits
Z^asA^+
Input imjaedance
6-5.6
A^^/?/,
= 52.5
typically
kfi
Summary of
Circuit input impedance
Typical CC
Circuit
Performance
Z- !^Rg\\Z^
Output imjjedance
= 78.4
Zas-
fi
typically
"fi
ZJ^si?^||Z
Voltage gain
A^ml
Current gain
/I,
It is
is
A-^a
=5
typically
Kg + Z,
aii4,
A'tvA^
common
gain.
/l^
Power gain
is
and
and
is
to
be supplied
this application it
is
known
as a buffer amplifier.
Example 6-3
In the
common
are A^
= 2.1
ances,
and the
kS2
and
hf^
= 76.
voltage, current,
Figure 6-9.
and power
gains.
Circuit for
Example
6-3.
131
solution
Common
From Eq.
(6-12);
Z,2.1
kJ2
+ (76x5
kB) = 382.1
kfi,
Base
(6-13),
Circuit
is
From Eq.
From Eq.
(6-14),
Zw[2.1
Z; = 38.6fi||5kn
From Eq.
From Eq.
From Eq.
fi.
= 38.3a
(6-16), /lwl.
(6-17),
/I,
= 76.
A'
'
From Eq.
kn)]/76 = 38.6
impedance is
(6-20), the
is
76x(10k||10kn)
0.98
382.1 kfi-l-(10kfl||10kn)
power gain
is
The common
(Ri^)
connected in
which
is
is
load resistance
its
An
10
The
base voltage
kn
Vcc
20V
IFigure 6-10.
Common
jy-l
base
circuit.
1-
Vg)
is
ss
Common
Base
Circuit
132
the
sum
of
Basic
and
y?2-
Transistor
I^Re
vary when
Circuits
^^'^ ^be- ^b
capacitor Cg
is
For the
7^=
mA.
Then
mAX5kfi = 5
Ve = IeRe=^
V,
and
^'c=^'cc-/c^i =
5.7
An
(
ac input signal
V^ is p>ositive
and consequently
7^=15
V^)
jaA,
going, F^^
7fl
It is
= 20
V;
12.5
/it
i.e.,
Iq.
Vg^
juA = 0.75
X 15
V^
an equal input of
produce an output of 2.5 V.
The ac
voltage
6-11.
equivalent circuit
I^ is
is
reduced (by
until
f^)
is
V^
drawn
as before
shown
applied between the base and the emitter, and the output
collector.
The A-parameter
shown
is
is
is
in parallel
common
transistor
As always,
in Fig.
taken
is
to
both
Note that
is
in Fig. 6-12.
common
Fig. 6-10
for
Similarly,
Analysis
is
becomes smaller.
Iq
dien 7^ = ^^^7^ = 50
When
Base
h -Parameter
Vg
became
6-7
.4=1 mA,
When
Common
defined as 7^
V,
voltage
20
10V
It is
this is
done by
base circuit of
substituting, the
(Fig. 6-11).
6-12) are
Once
shown
is
133
Common
Base
h-Parameter
Analysis
Common
Figure 6-11.
base ac equivalent
circuit.
''1
"l:
Q)'',^/
B
Figure 6-12.
Common
B
base h-parameter equivalent
circuit.
is
ac shorted to
ground via capacitor Cg (see Fig. 6-10). If Cg is not present, the parallel
combination of ./?, and /?2 apF>ears in series with the transistor base terminal,
and the A-parameter equivalent circuit becomes that shown in Fig. 6-13,
where Rg = ./?, y/fj- As will be seen, the omission of Cg can seriously affect the
circuit pjerformance.
In the
input;
i.e.,
CB
A,^
circuit,
is
Neglecting
{h^X FJ
in Fig.
CB
(A,^
gains
is
fed
back
to the
6-12 gives
Input
(6-21)
typical value of
determined from
h,^
is
30
S2.
When
capacitor Cg
Fig. 6-13.
is
absent, Z, must be
Impedance
134
Basic
Transistor
Circuits
Figure 6-13.
/>-parameter equivalent of
CB
and
^=T=T
Therefore,
Z,^h-, +
RB{\-h.
(6-22)
shunting capacitor
is
present.
Once
again,
it is
Equations (6-21) and (6-22) give the input impedance to the emitter
The actual circuit input imjiedance is Z^ in
Z' = ZMR,
6-7.2
Output
Impedance
resistance (1/Aj)
input of a
1/A,.
is
common
collector
(6-23)
of the
CB
circuit,
effect
may
a large
upon the
be taken as
Thus,
Z-^
As always, the equation
is
R^
(6-24)
output resistance.
The
z:=R,\\z
(6-25)
Rl
is
is
usually
approximately
much
/f^.
Here again a
circuit output
135
Common
Base
h-Parameter
Analysis
6-73
A =
Voltage
Gain
From
Fig. 6-12, V,
= I,Rl and
V^^I^h,,.
Thus,
^/h^L
(6-26)
CE
the
is
circuit.
327. This
is
No minus
sign
is
present in the
that
kfi,
and
A,4
= 30
Q,,
the
is
CB
Note
Eq. (6-26) was derived for the circuit with the base bypitss
^^=10
from
When
Cj
is
absent, V^
and
K,
are derived as
Fig. 6-13:
and
hn.Ri
(6-27)
A,+/?fl(l-V)
Again taking typical values of A^ = 0.98, R,=\0 kfi, /i,4 = 30 fi, /?,
and /?2~22 kfl, A^ is 33.3. This is significantly smaller than the
typical voltage gain of 327 obtained when C^ is included in the circuit. Note
that Eqs. (6-26) and (6-27) can each be written as
33
kfl,
hp,
A,=
X (output impedance)
:
mput impedance
6-7.4
Current
Gain
(6-28)
typical value of
0.98.
hf^ is
both with Cg included and without Cg. Once again, the expression developed for current gain represents the current gain of the device. The signal
current
is
divided between
R^ and
Z-,
A'
Since
A'^ is
R^
is
usually
for
CB
(6-29)
R. + Z
The formula
6-7.5
much
CB
circuit, the
value of
/i,j.
f)ower gain
is
all
other circuits.
Power
A^ = A^XA-
Cain
Where
A'^
is
significantly different
(6-30)
from
A-,
becomes
(6-31)
Cg
6-7.6
With Cg Included
of ^,
is
= 327 and
33.3
and Ap
= 0.98,
^,
is
A^, is
320.
32.7.
in the Circuit
Summary
of Typical
CB
Input impedance
Circuit
Performance
Output impedance
2|i:A,j
= 30fi
typically
Z-fs^h^^WR^
Zss -7
= Mi2
1
typically
Z^'rjT?^!
f^fb^L
A^
Current gain
^4, = /u = 0.98
A] =
Circuit
136
= 327
Voltage gain
Power gain
power gain
-I-
Z,
Ap = A^X A,
A'
typically
typically
= A^X A-
= 320
typically
Without
137
Common
Input impedance
+ Rg{ Ayj)
= /? Z,
Z^fah^^
Z,'
Base
h-Parameter
Analysis
Voltage gain
/4as
^*
The common
and
this
+ a(l-V)
renders
and pwwer
gain, but
its
input impedance
is
is
A,4
= 27.6
For the
common
S2, Ayj
h^^
\Q~^
S.
output impedance, and the voltage, current, and power gains for the
solution
From Eq.
(6-21),
From Eq.
Z,27.6
Z;w27.6
''
It
= 0.987, and
fl,
very
it
no
it
impedance
fi||5
is
kaas27.4
<18l<n
^kn
Figure 6-14.
Circuit for
Example 6-4
circuit.
Example 6-4
138
From Eq.
(6-24),
Basic
Transistor
Circuits
lQ-6
From
is
Eq. (6-26),
0.987
A.From Eq.
10 kfi
= 358
(6-28),
y4,
From Eq.
27.6
= 0.987
0;987X5kS2
is
''"27.6fi-h5kB"-^^
From Eq.
power gain
(6-31), the
is
Calculate the
circuit of Fig. 6-14
solution
R^ =
*
From Eq.
= 27.6
fi-t-
4.5
From Eq.
,,,
=4.5
kfi
(6-22),
2;
From Eq.
18kSx6ka
18kfi-(-6kB
= 86.1
impedance
is
n||5kn = 84.6^2
(6-27),
0.987
A
"
10 kfl
for the
first
stage
of stage
The
first
(a)
Two
shown
staged cascaded
CE
-Stage
the ac
The
transistor
amplifier circuit
iFTl
-r*
draw
capacitors with
in Fig. 6- 15(b).
i?
(b)
to
is
all
CE
amplifier
Stage 2-
/c,
fcj
(c)
Figure 6-15.
/?
&)'..
alent circuit.
139
6-8
Cascaded
Common
rircuits
140
^-parameter equivalent
Basic
The
circuit
is
then
Transistor
Circuits
Example 6-6
= /f^2 = 4.7
and ^,
kfl
power
= ^^2=330
circuit,
and the
kfl.
A^;,
= 100
solution
Circuit input impedance:
and
the input
*'
""
impedance
_,
2knx330kR
'
2kfl-l-330kfi
of stage 2
is
2;'2=A^||i?B2=1.99kn
The
load on stage
r.,
RLl
The
is
.,^. =
= ^L, 11^.2
r.
_
"""
4.7
A =
_ 100X1.4
~
2kn
^A2
100X4.7
.4 kfi
kS2
_^
~^"
kfi
= 235
2 kfi
is
^ = ^,X^2=
The
is
The
kfi
is
h.,
The
kfiX 1.99
M^/.ill'^-z)
70X235=
is
A/A
'
R^ +
h^
=2
gains.
^,
and
kB.
16,450
and
where
2|
is
141
Review
Questions
100X330
A =
Current
in Fig. 6- 15(c)
/^,
combination of
/f^,
and
kfl
330kn + 2kS2
'
is
=99 4
7?^2-
M^g2ll^z.i)
+ fiu2
{^B2\\^u)
_ ioox(4.7kni|33 0kn)
(4.7ki2||330kfi) + 2kn
100X4.63
kfl
4.63kn + 2kn~
The
The
circuit
is
is
= /lX^, = 1.645X10*x6.938X
output impedance
10'= 1.14X10*
is
Z!/?,, = 4.7kfi
Common
emitter circuit.
Common
collector circuit.
is
is
Glossary of
Important
Terms
collector,
applied
is
is
applied
circuit.
Common
base circuit.
is
is
applied
Emitter follower.
Same
Buffer amplifier.
resistance,
6-1.
and a gain
Sketch a practical
tions
and voltage
nents.
as common
of
collector circuit.
e.g.,
common
common
collector circuit.
{xjlaritics. Identify
all
current dirrec-
all
compo-
Review
Questions
142
CHAPTER
7
l^ansistor and
Integrated
Circuit
Fabrication
to
manufacture a
transistor
determine
Current Gain.
Good
and thus
7-1
its
which it may
be used. For example, low-current, fast-switching transistors must be designed differently from high-f>ower transistors.
An integrated circuit (IC) consists of many components making up a
complete circuit in one small package. The major types of IC's are monolithic,
Ihin-film, thick-film, and hybrid circuits. For mass production, the monolithic
process is the most economical, but it docs have some disadvantages.
electrical characteristics,
Introduction
7-2
little
outflow
Effects of
Transistor
charge carriers via the base terminal, and there should be few carrier
recombinations within the base region. These conditions dictate a very
Construction
Performance
of
High Power.
High-power
transistors
143
on
Electrical
144
areas are also required to dissipate the power involved without overheating
Transistor
and
Integrated
Circuit
Fabrication
Frequency Response.
For greatest
{x>ssible
minimum, and
this requires
highly resistive
(i.e.,
is
well as a
mum
and
junction
still
is
To
is
conflict
Switching Transistors.
strip.
Fast switching
and a
saturation voltages
A good
short storage
doping
is
voltage.
To
into the
is
op-
limited by
its
dof)ed.
most
the
the base.
If it
collector-base
collector,
and dangerously
said to exist,
is
depledon region
is
When
this
it
may
link
the
deep into
p>enetrate
will
The
is
The
by addi-
assisted
up with the
large currents
may
flow.
To
is
avoid punch-
7-3
Processing of
Semiconductor
Materials
It
copper
ores.
When
Silicon
is
Germanium
is
silicates,
or
Semiconductor material
refined.
it
is
is
normally
made up
of
polycrystalline
many
after
it
has been
individual formations of
atoms with no overall fixed pattern of relationship between them. For use
transistors the material must be converted into single crystal material; i.e.,
must be made
In
or
germanium
30
cm
long.
form
is
The
about
2.5
cm
manufacture, the
in
mm
thick,
and the wafers are polished to a mirror surface. Several thousand transistors
are fabricated upon the surface of each wafer; then it is scribed and cut like
glass.
Diffusion
When
each wafer.
The
The
some
is
absorbed or
diffused into
atmosphere containing
n-X.ypc impurities.
it,
and an n-type
center. This
is
Heating coils
Silicon
wafers
(a)
Processing wafers
in
an oven
f<
(b)
The
diffusion process
j"}
ntype
ptype
-*
I
|
p-type
silicon
""^^
n-tvpe
epitaxial layer
p-doped
by diffusion
Figure 7-1.
*pr^
(c)
The
epitaxial process
V''''.l'ALLLii
|rymT#
Semiconductor
Materials
silicon
145
Processing of
it
to follow
final refined
its
in
146
the
Transistor
and
and
(b).
is
very
slow (about 2.5 /xm/hour), very narrow difhised regions can be accurately
Integrated
Circuit
The
Fabrication
germanium
are contained
or silicon
in
the
gas
in the gas
grow on the wafer in the form of a very thin layer. This layer is single crystal
material, and may be /'-tyjje or n-type, according to the impurity content in
the gas.
7A
The
epitaxial layer
For manufacture of
Alloy Transistors.
Transistor
Fabrication
may
up
many
-type
into
collector-base junction.
will
most easily
collect
One
small sections or
is
dice,
is
a collector current of
P=
10 V.
The
total
Vn^X lr=\0
/c=10
mA
power dissipated
and a
fwwer
Supfwse a
collector-
in the transistor
is
Base
p-type
pellet
fiXypKyv?t^r"^
Collector
Collector
(a)
Alloy transistor
Figure 7-Z
(b)
Microalloy transistor
The emitter-base
voltage
Vcs
The
is
Vcs
Vss = 10
^BfiX ^7 = 0-7
is
VxlOmA=
is
mW
93
Microalloy Transistors.
.J^o"
VX 10 mA= 7 mW
f^cBX4 = 9-3
To improve
147
is
V -0.7 V = 9.3 V
made
to
difficult to
side,
first
Heat
is
then applied to
alloy the impurities into the base region. This process results in very thin
base depletion region p>enetrates deeply into the very thin base. Thus, a
major disadvantage
is
voltages.
initially
is
undop>ed. After the holes are etched in each side of the wafer to produce the
is dop)ed by diffusion from the collector side. The
can be carefully controlled so that the base region is heavily doped
at the collector side, with the doping becoming progressively less until the
diffusion
material
is
collector-base
f>enetrates
only
this
short
into
the base,
Diffused Mesa.
as a
region
depletion
whole disc
it
is
not diced
first).
is
kept
As
illustrated in Fig.
7-3 the
main body
become
becomes the
and the final n
arc deposited on the base and emitter
Metal
strips
of the wafer
the bases,
The
scribing lines
units.
it
into individual
This would give a very rough edge, however, and there would
high leakage between collector and base. So, before cutting the
transistors
away
the
likely
be
disc, the
unwanted portions
of
the
form separating
troughs
148
Transistor
and
Integrated
Circuit
Fabrication
Emitter contact
"Trough" etched
to separate devices
p-type
base
/7-tvpe
emitter
n-type collector
Mesa
Figure 7-3.
Epitaxial Mesa.
One
have a high
is
is
One way
employ the
is
to
to
epitaxial process.
is
(i.e.,
The arrangement
is
transistors.
Now
is
is
illustrated in
depletion region spreads deepest into the lightly dof)ed collector. Saturation
voltage
body
is
of the wafer
is
resistance.
High resistive
epitaxial layer
(p-type collector)
Low
resistive
substrate
(heavily
Figure 7-4.
Epitaxial
mesa
transistor.
doped)
149
Transistor
Fabrication
Silicon dioxide
layer
p-type
base
n-type
n-type
collector
emitter
Planar transistor.
Figure 7-5.
is
In
all
substantial charge carrier leakage can occur at the junction surface. In the
is
covered with a
leakage current.
I(~gQ
Annular Transistor.
transistors
is
may
be typically
0.
nA.
e.g.,
when a
is
in Fig. 7-6.
If
dioxide becomes positive, minority charge carriers within the lightly dop>ed
/(-type substrate are attracted
Contacts
Figure 7-6.
p-type emitter
Annular
transistor.
150
Transistor
and
Integrated
Circuit
Fabrication
channel from the base to the edge of the device. This becomes an extension
of the n-type base region and results in charge carrier leakage at the exposed
The annual
and
transistor, therefore,
is
from
a high-voltage device
7-5
In a monolithic integrated
circuit all
comfx)-
Integrated
Circuit
Fabrication
of the structure
as illustrated in
it is
Thin-Film Integrated Circuits. Thin-film integrated circuits are constructed by def)ositing films of conducting material on the surface of a glass
or ceramic base. By controlling the width and thickness of the films, and
using different materials selected for their resistivity, resistors and conductors
are fabricated. Capacitors are produced by sandwiching a film of insulating
oxide between two conducting films. Inductors are made by depwsiting a
spiral formation of film. Transistors and diodes cannot be produced by
thin-film techniques; tiny discrete components must be connected into the
circuit.
The
and the
inks
projjerties.
are
pastes
made
resistive,
mesh,
or dielectric
furnace to fuse the films to the substrate. Thick-film passive components are
circuits, active
Connecting
Silicon chip
151
wire
Integrated
Circuit
Fabrication
Conductors
Resistor
Connecting wires
Discrete
(c)
Capacitor
components
Hybrid or multichip IC
Substrate
(b)
Enlarged portion of
thick-film IC
Figure 7-7.
integrated circuits.
Circuits.
active
may
may
is
constructed by interconnecting a
b>c
As the name
number
transistors or diodes.
implies, the
of individual chips.
The
on a
passive
The
components
Circuit
Like thin- and thick-film IC's, multichip circuits usually have better
performance than monolithic circuits. Although the process is too expensive
for mass production, multichip techniques are quite economical for small
Fabrication
quantities
152
Transistor
and
Integrated
circuits.
7-6
Transistors
and Diodes.
Integrated
Section 7-3
is
Circuit
Components
diodes.
The
normally employed
Collector,
base,
substrate, as illustrated
connection.
tors
transistors in
is
normally used as a
a monolithic integrated
collector. If
circuit,
aU
transis-
substrate.
collector
regions are
completely isolated from the substrate. Figure 7-8 shows that a /w-junction
collectors.
is
to
Figure 7-8.
is
The unwanted,
when
still
153
Integrated
problem in circuits that are to operate at very low current levels. The
capacitance of the reverse-biased junction can affect the circuit highfrequency fjerformance, and the junction breakdown voltage imposes limits
on the usable level of supply voltage. All these factors can be minimized by
Circuit
performance.
The junction
serious
doped,
it
will
behave almost as an
i.e.,
if
is
it
very lightly
insulator.
Only two
collector region
may be
used
to
Resistors.
The range
resistors
strips of material as
On
all resistors
if
same
tolerance ratio can be good. For example, several resistors having the
same
nominal value may all be -I- 20% in error and have actual resistance values
within a few jjercent of each other.
Another method
of
producing
The
thickness, width,
is
deposited on a glass or
and length
is
the least
diffused to form
diffused capacitors.
The
circuit capacitors arc very small indeed, so that only capacitances of the
Components
7-7
Transistor and
Integrated
Circuit
Packaging
Low-power
connecting leads
transistors
left
may
protruding
[Fig.
method
device
with
its
low-power
of
is
packaging
transistor
[illustrated in Fig.
The
transistor
7-9(b)], the
mounted
is first
which are insulated from the base plate, pass through the plate for emitter
and base connections. The collector connecting wire is then welded direcdy
to the heat-conducting plate, and the covering metal can is finally welded to
the base plate.
employed
much
larger
and
is
is
-3)
is
usually
is
and the
connection
(TO
made by means
emitter,
and the
This
is
collector
form of power transistor package. For higher power dissipation there are
stud-mounted devices [Fig. 7- 10(b)], and for lower dissipation applicadons
plastic
[Fig. 7- 10(c)].
all
(a) Plastic
encapsuled
transistor (To -
Emitter
terminal
Transistor
92 package)
/collector in contacti
Iwith base plate
J
Heat conducting
base plate
(b)
Transistor
Figure 7-9.
154
in
Low-power
To -18)
transistor packaging.
Transistor
(collector in contact
with base plate
Metal can
Base plate and
collector terminal
Transistor
/
1^^^^^^^^^
Heat conducting
base plate
(a)
111
r'
(b)
fm
Figure 7-10.
(c) Plastic
Power
package
transistor packages.
Ceramic
pack
flat
Figure 7-11.
155
156
Glossary of
Important
Terms
the IC chip, which cannot be obtained with the plastic or ceramic packages.
The
is
plastic dual-in-line
package
is
high-temperature performance
are necessary where a circuit
and
is
much more
dual-in-lines are
is
TO-3
Large integrated
circuits
flatter
and allow
voltage regulators.
Glossary of
Important
Terms
Diffusion process.
is
heated in
material.
Epitaxial growth.
Layer formation of
it
is
silicon or
semiconductor atoms.
Device manufactured by a process in which small
Alloy transistor.
of
fjellets
Microalloy.
Microalloy diffused.
Diffused mesa.
raised
Mesa
Epitaxial mesa.
transistor
which
is
process.
Diffused planar.
is
Hybrid IC.
of heavily
and
insulating inks.
Multichip IC.
Same
Monolithic integrated
as hybrid IC.
circuit.
Thin-film IC.
films
on a
ceramic base.
7-1.
maximum
power
dissipation,
(c)
frequency
response,
(d)
for
device
manufacture.
7-3.
7-4.
these transistors.
7-5.
7-6.
Using sketches, explain the diffused mesa and epitaxial mesa transistors. Discuss the reason for the mesa construction and the advantages
and disadvantages of mesa transistors.
Explain the manufacturing process
transistors,
7-7.
Show
and
for diffused
power dissipation
in
collector-base junction.
7-8.
7-9.
and
thick-film
methods
of integrated
circuit
Using
illustrations,
integrated
circuits.
monolithic IC's.
7-10.
Draw
circuit
showing the
and
state
any
Briefly explain
how
diodes, resistors,
monolithic integrated
7-12.
Draw
in
circuits.
and integrated
circuit
157
Review
Questions
CHAPTER
8
"n^ansistor
Specifications and
Performance
8-1
Introduction
common
common
frequency
is
common
is
usually
an equation which
base cutoff
frequency. Other items that depend upwn the circuit configuration are input
8-2
The
Transistor
Data Sheet
and switching
time.
Most data
Figs. 8-1
158
and
8-2.
of
number
major applications
of the device.
This
is
2n3903
2n3904
= 60 V
= 200 mA
C<* = 4.0 pf (max)
Vc,
(SILICON)
Ic
NPN silicon annular transistors, designed for general purpose switching and amplifier applications
features one-piece, injection- molded plastic
package
for high reliability. The 2N3903 and 2N3904 are complementary with types 2N3905 and 2N3906, respectively
.
MAXIMUM RATINGS
(Ta
Characteristic
2N3903, 2N3904
(continued)
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
(continued)
Symbol
ON CHARACTERISTICS
DC
Current Gain
mAdc, VcE
(IC - 0.1
Oc
1.0 mAdc,
VcE
Vdc)
2N3>03
2N3t04
Vdc)
2N3S0J
2N3804
10
mAdc, VcE
Vdc)
2NS00J
2N3904
(Ir - 90
mAdc, V^e
Vdc)
2N3M3
(Ir -
2N3904
(Ic -
100
mAdc, V^E
Vdc)
2N3M3
2N3904
|Min
Mm
Unit
TYPE 2N3055
N-P-N SINGIE-DIFFUSED
MESA
SILICON
POWER TRANSISTOR
absolute
maximum
Collector-Bae Volrage
](jq
Note
7 y
I5
Continuoui Device Dissipation at (or below) 25'C Caie Temperolure (See Note 2)
Leod Temperature
Si Inch
'olocfrlcol characteristics at
70 y
1)
Emiller-Base Voltage
from Cote
for
10 Seconds
115
>^
-65*C
to
200*C
-A5*C
to
200*C
235"C
form of an
showing
162
usually followed
Transistor
^^^ package shat)e and dimensions, as well as indicating which leads are
Specifications and
Performance
by mechanical data
The
25C
in the
illustration
absolute
maximum
maximum
It is
For
the
reliability, the
maximum
is
quite jwssible.
maximum
tures greater
ratings must be adjusted downward for ojseration at temjserathan 25C. Following the absolute maximum ratings, there is
normally a complete
list
tem[)erature.
Again,
complete understanding of
all
for variations of
is
studied.
Some
of the
It is
If
these
BV(,gQ
dc
breakdown voltage
for
BV(,^Q
^^EBO
Vgg-
dc
collector to emitter dc
circuited.
emitter
to base reverse-bias
base-emitter junction.
^c-(sat)
dc
Iran or
I(^Q
Ices
dc
IcEO
and
and base
dc
**'"
reverse-biased
Ieo
hp^
emitter-base dc current
corrmion emitter
C^
Common
and
base.
ratio of
I^./ Ig.
measured between
collector
Common
tor
and
measured between
163
collec-
Power
emitter.
Dissipation
Noise figure
A^:-
ratio of total
Common
amount
Defines the
conditions.
common
noise
of
emitter operating
falls to
0.707 of
its
or f
Common
bsise cutoff
frequency
as above for
common
base.
25C means
310
mW at
maximum
For example,
V(^^
if
the
if
should be
(xjwer dissipa-
must be reduced.
A 2N3904
V. The circuit
Determine the
transistor
is
is
employed
a circuit in which
in
be ojjerated at a
to
maximum
air
free
its
V^.^ will
temjjerature of
be 20
125C.
solution
From
tion
25 C.
Free air temf>erature for circuit 125 C.
C in excess of 25 ''C= 125-25= 100C.
Maximum
mW/
mW=29mW
/>=310mW-281
The
Dissipation
mW.
8-3
Power
device dissipation
is
V(.g
X I(~.
20 Fx/c()
Thus,
= 29mW
29
'C(mM)
mW
20
1.45
mA
than
Example
8-1
164
Transistor
Specifications and
Performance
Maximum
necessary to
Then
levels,
maximvun power
the curve
is
plotted
dissipation.
on the device
characteristics.
Example 8-2
Assuming that the device characteristics given in Fig. 8-3 are for a
2N3055 transistor, plot a maximum power-dissipation curve for a case
temperature of 78C.
solution
Case temf)erature
in excess of
for device
= 78C.
W/ CX53C = 35 W.
Maximum
78C= 115
device dissipation at
Figure 8-3.
Transistor
maximum
W-35 W=80
power-dissipation curve.
W.
165
Decibels
and
Frequency
Response
/.-=
When
Fc = 60 V, /c = 80
Plot {X)int
on the
When
Fc
ct = 40 V,
/*-
When
Fc = 20 V,
/^
When
VcE
Now draw
at all times be
= iOV,
A.
I^cf"^ ^'
80
=
40
80
==
80
==
-^c" '-^ A.
Point 2
Point 3
Point 4
power-dissipation curve.
maximum
W/60 V=1.3
characteristics at
The
transistor voltage
maintained in the
maximum
below the
[X)wer-dissipation curve.
Decibels.
Pj, the f)ower
When
change
is
Power change =
I
log, qI
is
to
and
Frequency
Response
(bels)
decibels (dB)
(8-1)
is
K
Power change = 10
= 10 log,
dB
log,o
20 log
dB
dB
8^
Decibels
P^\
= 10 1ogJ^|
Thus, the decibel
/*,
(8-2)
166
Also,
Transistor
Specifications
and
Performance
dB
= 20 log,
By means
of Eqs.
(8-2)
and
(8-3), f)ower
dB
(8-3)
Example 8-3
power
is
falls
5 kHz.
to 25
solution
From Eq.
(8-1),
When
mW.
amplifier
the frequency
is
is
50
mW
when
the signal
It
seen from Examples 8-3 and 8-4 that the output power of an
is
amplifier
normal
dB when
reduced by 3
is
level, or
when
falls to
falls
0.707 of
its
to half
normal
its
level.
respectively.
is
operating
of
is
termed
Frequencies
points.
from
This
its
is
/,
and
because, as
normal
level
/2 are
shown
when P2
is
Example
half P^.
When
output
3 dB
is
is
and
(/,
/2)
The
occur
when
Kj
is
0.707
K,.
This
is
shown
in
Example
8-4.
in amplifier gain at
low frequency
is
fall.
As
their
impedances are
When
these imf)edances
to
shunt
Mid-frequency
power or voltage
level, ^,
or V,
3dB
\ ^, or
0.707
V,
Figure 8^.
167
Decibels
and
Frequency
Response
168
Transistor
Portion of Vj
lost across Cr
Specifications and
Performance
''\
n
(a)
Portion of Vj
lost across C^
at
low frequency
'Az-^^
"be
Portion of
capacitance
Stray
capacitance
(b)
Figure 8-5.
on amplifier
gain.
away some
of the input and output currents and thus reduce the circuit gain.
As the frequency gets higher and higher, the circuit gain continues to fall
until it becomes too small to be useful. It can be shown that the upper 3-dB
point for the amplifier can occur when the reactance of the stray capaci-
tance
is
Even
if
capacitances,
junctions
material,
limit
the
circuit
which
169
gain
Decibels
Frequency
Response
is
falls to
f^,
0.707 of
its
at
common
shown
is
the frequency at
X (mid-frequency
to 0.707
{hf,) falls
which the
h^,).
(Ayj) falls to
f^
is
0.707
common
and
X (mid-frequency
Ayj). It
can be
that
4Va.
maximum bandwidth
For
(8-t)
(/) at which the reactance of the stray capacitance equals the amplifier load
resistance.
transistor with
emitter amplifier.
is
The
f =5
MHz
and
h,^
= 50
when ;?^=100
is
employed
in a
when
/f^
common
measured
10 kfl and (b)
is
kfl.
solution
(a) /?t
10
/tJ2.
From Eq.
(8-4),
=' lMH=100kHz
;.^^
h,.
50
The
dB when
= iokn
/?,
2iTf,C,
1
159
/,=
2wC,/fi
Since
/^
(b) Ri^
<fj2=fa, =
100
^^
=
2'itC,R^
/,
''Hz.
kil.
/,=
Since
kHz
2wXlOOX10"'^X 10X10'
</,,/2=/,
15.9
27rXlOOX10''^XlOOXlO'
kHz.
15.9
kHz
Example 8-5
8-5
In Example 8-5
it is
The
Miller
are very
Effect
much
effect at the
base-emitter
capacitance
(Q,)
exist
f^) is
between the
is
by {A^ X
V^)
and a
terminals.
reduced
(C^/,)
transistor
^K=-A^X
collector voltage
internal
is
V,
when
= f;(i+^j
Since Qj
across
Qj
is
is
also
is
Q=(1+/1JC,,XP^.
Thus, the collector-base capacitance appears to be (1 +/4^)Qj; i.e., the
is amplified by a factor of (1 +'4). This is knovkTi as the Miller
capacitance
effect.
The
total input
is
(l+.4)Qj in
Cu,= C^ + (l+^jC,,
Example 8-6
and
value of C-.
C^,
imf>edance of
frequency response.
transistor used in a
Qj = 4 pF, and
170
affects the
(8-5)
10 pF.
common
If
is
h,=lb,
h^
=2
kS2,
solution
172
Transistor
Specifications and
Performance
7?,
and
The
/?2
total noise
e^ is
generating resistance
is
Ra = Rs\\{RA\R2)
In the noise equivalent circuit, Fig. 8-6(b),
generated by Rq.
resistance
is
It is also
is
is
*.
(b)
Figure
8^
R;
= X
is
if
R,
If
= A
(8-7)
+ Rc
due
to
e.
ac equivalent input
circuit for noise
R^
is
(8-8)
And
for
a load resistance
/?^,
173
is
Transistor
Circuit
(8-9)
^"=t
To
specify the
amount
noise output
produced by a
of noise
measured under
{NF).
To
transistor,
manufac-
amplifier input.
The
noise for a
At 25 C
2N4104
free air
Parameter
transistor
temperature
is
sp)ecified as follows:
Noise
174
Transistor
circuit in
Specifications and
Performance
is
If
the
which the transistor is employed does not have the value of source
resistance and the bias conditions specified, then the specified noise figure
does not apply. In this case the noise figures can still be used to compare
transistors, but for accurate estimations of noise a new measurement of noise
figure must be made.
The total noise output jxjwer due to Rq and the input transistor is
Pf^
= (noise
=
An
Example 8-7
ampUfier with
B=
factor X
/"
^^^
(8-11)
kHz, R- = 25
to 10
ki2,
and
/?g
= 50
kfi uses
The
From
/=1
7^ = 5 /iA, R(,
to
= antilog
NF
-
IdB
10
= 1.26
From Eq.
(8-6),
e=VikTBRG
A:=1.37X10-"
r=25C = (273-l-25)
[i.e.,
298
(degrees Kelvin)]
(8-7),
e..
= e,X
R.
+ Rn
= ^-^^^^
= 0.9
/iV
25kfl-H50kfl
= 50
kfi,
and
From Eq.
175
(8-8),
Transistor
e^
From Eq.
= -4 X
e,
= 30 X 0.9 fiV = 27
(8-11),
el
and
Ps=
Switching
p.V
^n
/ ^u where
total
V^
(27 itV)^
voltage:
(27 u.\Y
= ^1.26x(27/nV)^ = 30.3
Transistor as a Switch.
either biased off or biased
on
to
/xV
When a transistor is
its maximum {wssible
used as a switch,
it
is
Figure 8-7 illustrates the two conditions. In Fig. 8-7(a) the base input
voltage f)olarity
is
current flowing
is
collector base
is
biased
off.
(sometimes designated
>)
*^np
'r*i
Ir-R.
At cutoff
^CE
'CC
'CX>L^^
"o
^z..
maximum
the transistor.
-o*Vcc
la)
o^^biased transistor
Figure 8-7.
lb)
possible
/(
on-biased transistor
8-7
Transistor
Switching
176
InR,
Transistor
Specifications and
Performance
and
'^CE~ ^CC
^C^L
Therefore,
iOV
Now
consider the output characteristics and dc load line for the circuit
This
of Fig. 8-7.
plotting jxjint
/(,= Vqq/Rj^.
The
is
shown
a.t
When
in Fig. 8-8
Iq
When
Ig
saturated.
is
The
which a
maximum, V^g-=
^^c(sat)'
^^'^
The
transistor
is
left
and
termed the
is
is
seen that
said to be
termed the
the
active region
cutoff
and
^c(sat) '^
is
of VcEis^t)
is
^cfifsat)
is
*^
cutoff region.
'^
*^^ transistor
saturation region.
in
^^^
For the 2-kS2 load line shown as the broken line in Fig. 8-8,
kfl.
Saturation region
"Cf
(sat)
Figure 8-8.
Characteristics
and load
minimum
referred to as the
VcEitan)
I(,
The
and
and
Ri^
of V^.^
when
the transistor
is
^^^=10
Example 8-8
(b) saturated.
solution
(a) At cut-off
If;
= Ico- From
2N3904 data
Ico~ ^cex~^^ '^ maximum.
is
= 10V-(50nAxl kfl)
= 10 V-50 /iV = 9.99995 V
At
(y>)
saturation
IcK
and
10
1
From
the
2N3904 data
V=
10mA
k$2
Vrr
around
0.2
< 0.2
V max
at
1^=
10
mA.
and
F(,.
collector.
F^^
is
= 0.7 V
= 0.2
reverse biased,
With
If ''fl
is
in fact
in saturation.
is
drawn
and
is
lower than normal. For saturation to occur, the transistor must have a
certain
minimum
conditions.
In Example 8-8, .Rb = 2.7 kft, ^^^ = 0.7 V, and ^^ = 2 V. (a) Calculate
V, and the
minimum h^^^ for saturation, (b) If Kg is changed to
transistor minimum hp^^ is specified as 50, will the transistor be saturated?
the
177
Example 8-9
178
solution (a)
Transistor
Specifications and
If.
mA.
Performance
The
Rg
voltage across
Vg-VgE
Ib=
*
A/r.(,jj
2.7 kfi
-2^-^
mA
0.482
mA
=0.481
o.,.r.
10mA
^^^-Z"
Thus,
Vg^):
2V-0.7V
r.
Rg
Ic
F^
is (
must be at
solution (b)
Vg-VgE
/=
R^
1-0.7
mA
=0.111
2.7 kfl
If. is
required to be 10
mA
wiW
be
not
saturated.
Switching Speed.
tor
is its
When
of a switching transis-
on immediately. This
sv^ritch
is
is
because of the
junction capacitance and the transit time of electrons across the junctions.
is
termed the
the transistor begins to switch on, a finite time elapses before /^ reaches
maximum
level.
This quantity
is
The
when
time
(tgfi),
made up
The
10%
of
fall
its
is
is
known
If.
the
removed,
of a storage time
time
is
maximum
to
sum
If.
a transistor
is
rise
time
go from 10%
of
t,
and
t^.
The
(t^)
and
a.
The
of
rise
its
time
its
is
maximum
storage time
in saturation,
90%
to
(<,).
When
as the
when
is
If.
to
go from 90% to
a junction polarity
is
reversed.
junctions are forward biased. At switchoff, both junctions are reverse biaised,
and before
made
Glossary of
Important
terms
to
Decibel (dB).
Unit
Half-power points
of
(/,
and
f^).
is
Low and
half
its
179
ClosMry of
Important
Terms
'4\r
Figure 8-9.
Conunon
(_/i
orf^
).
is
0.707 of
B = {/2fi).
X (mid-frequency A,,).
Conunon base cutoff frequency (^ or/^). The high frequency
a transistor hp, falls to 0.707 X (mid-frequency A).
which a
Miller effect.
Noise.
transistor
h^^ falls
its
at
to 0.707
at
which
Unwanted
an electronic system.
source resistance).
Saturation region.
between Vce=
Active region.
cutoff.
Region
of transistor
Region of
^'c(-t)
Region
and
common
transistor
l^c
common
emitter characteristics
= 0-
of transistor characteristics
180
Saturation voltage
Transistor
is
Specifications and
Performance
Level of
V^e^m))-
V^.^
when
Delay time
ment
Rise time
Time between
(tj).
R^
forward biased.
is
and commence-
Time
(t^).
required for
If,
to
maximum
its
level.
Turn-on time
Storage time
ment
Sum
(<).
of
and
t^
tj.
(t^).
of input pulse
and commence-
of /c decrease.
Time
required for
to
I(~
of
maximum
its
level.
Turn-off time
Review
8-1.
List
Questions
Sum
(<!,).
and
t^
t^.
of
on a
quantities sf>ecified
high-power
transistor
transistors,
8-2.
an amplifier, using
at the output of
p)ower, voltage,
and current
ratios.
Explain
8-3.
why
and
Discuss Miller
8-4.
effect
on the graph.
tance.
Explain thermal
8-5.
noise,
and
noise figure
and
a transistor.
8-6.
which
line for
a transistor
and
briefly explain.
Vf^^f^ty
8-7.
transistor.
Show
origin of each.
Problems
8-1. (a)
2N3904
transistor
Calculate the
(b)
If
the device
80 C and
minimum
is
is
maximum
is
to be operated at a
to
mW
temperature at which
maximum
free air
it
of power.
can
ofjerate.
temperature of
level of
is
to be operated at a
maximum
case tempera-
maximum power
draw the
'
voltage
50
is
Ri_(miy
amplifier
mW
100
is
when
the signal
8-4.
is
The output
voltage of an amplifier
is 1
level of
is
when
it
has fallen
by 4 dB.
8-5.
transistor
employed
in
an amplifier has
= 75
h,^
and /
=b
kfl, (b)
MHz.
is
when ^^ = 20
kn.
8-6.
The
transistor referred to in
Problem 8-5
connected as an amplifier
is
with Ri_= 15 VSl. The upf)er 3-dB frequency of the amplifier is found
to be /j = 75 kHz. Calculate the value of stray capacitance at the
transistor collector terminal.
8-7.
The
input capacitance of a
/ly,
= 60,
common
/i= 1.5
kfi. If
is measured as
and the transistor
emitter circuit
of the circuit
is
7 kfi,
is
= 2.2
kJ2, C,^
pF, and
'i
when
Ci
base,
a 100-pF capacitor
is
new value
of
is
(b)
C^ = % pF
kS2.
(c)
emitter.
8-9.
An
transistor
25''C
8-10.
if /?,.
= 50
kfi
and
Vce~-^
/?,
10
^c~^
'"'^
1^^'
'^^
kS2.
100,
^^'^
is
kfi.
If
the
maximum
noise
is
8-11.
2N3904
Ri^
= 2.1
off,
8-12.
transistor
employed
as a switch
when
^^^ = 25
has
the transistor
is
and
(a) cut
(b) saturated.
Fcc
= 25
the
minimum
kS2
and
V,
/?B
h/^^
saturated?
= 4.7
kfi,
transistor
is
h^i..
specified
as
40 minimum,
will
is
the
2.7
kS,
(a) Calculate
changed
transistor
to
be
._.
Problems
CHAPTER
9
Basic Multistage
and integrated
Circuit Amplifiers
An
9-1
Introduction
amplifier
may
be
classified
how
it
fjerforms,
small- signal
amplifier,
also
known
it
method between
as
and
video
and
frequency,
performs the
preamplifier,
A power
amplifier,
drives
or large signal
an output current
intermediate frequency,
high
dc amplifier
input stages.
The
differential amplifier
terminals
that
they have very high internal gain, high input impedance, low output
182
Amplifiers
may
be descrihied as
or
183
trans-
Capacitor-
Coupled
(output transistors
Two-Stage
biased to give Vce'^2 ^cc)y class B, (output transistors biased at cutoff), and
class AB, (output transistors pzutially biased on). Circuit efficiency and lack
Circuit
to
classified as class
same way
the
first
dure
for
stage,
and then
stages.
This
an ac input
circuit functions in
signal
is
amplified by
is
The
proce-
for a particular
value of voltage gain normally requires the use of negative feedback to stabilize
the gain.
6-3,
is
The
one method
in Fig. 9-1
gain
is
stabilized at /!(
it
is
1(-
%c^h
1"
<"
ff.l
C,:
R,
4=^4
1
Figure 9-1.
circuit
designed to
9-2
Capacitor-
Coupled
Two-Stage
Circuit
The
184
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
in Fig. 9-1)
to
is
make each
R^ = Rg, C^ =
and C,
C4,
when
7?,
= R^,
/?2
= Rg,
R^ = R-j,
= C3.
Circuit
Amplifiers
i?
and
i? Selection.
From Eq.
is
Since ^^oc^^, designing for the largest voltage gain normally requires the
selection of the largest (xjssible values of i?^
The
greatest
(i.e., R.^
h,^
and
in Fig. 9-1).
/?,
be relatively
may
R^^ (for
a given value of
F^j^),
and
h^^
so a
may
large.
For a given
drop
^L
Therefore, to
The
make
the device
is
operating in
swing of about
much
its
V, which
maximum
output
drop
Figure 9-2.
minimum.
to ensure that
in
common
emitter circuit.
Vg^).
That
185
is,
Capacitor-
p.
"^
Coupled
Two-Slage
y"^
Circuit
Ve ^b~
because
is
fairly stable at
'
Then
and
R,
RL~
"CE
"CC
Rl = -j^
In Section 5-5
Bias Resistors.
resistors (/?,
and
/?2 in Fig.
The
bias stability.
and
it
is
-p
/?
9-2) should be
made
let
good
the potential
divider current {I2 in Fig. 9-2) be equal to the transistor collector current.
However,
coupled to stage
stage
1.
It
is
of stage
pKJSsible.
The two
is
reduced.
reasonable compromise
R^ and R^
1,
gain.
and
gain,
R^ and
/?g
good bias
stability,
and
(2) bias
current as /jJ^/c/lO. This keeps /23>/g while also resulting in fairly large
values of p>otential divider resistors.
Capacitors.
The
is
capacitance values are more expensive) and to minimize the physical size of
the circuit. Since each capacitor has
its
highest
impedance
at the lowest
operating frequency, the capacitor values are calculated at the lowest signal
The
circuit
(/,)
is
and C^
in Fig. 9-1).
186
Basic
Multistage
X=h..
and
Integrated
X=
Circuit
Amplifiers
+ A,.
Substituting
X=\{2itfC),
(9-1)
^^fA
When
Exj. (9-1) is
found that at
means
employed
to calculate
dB below
is
value. For a 3-dB reduction in overall gain at/,, the bypass capacitors
be calculated
to give
it is
must
The equation
for
now becomes
1
+h
C.=
(9-2)
2i7-(0.65/,)A
Tht coupling
in series with
is
made
To
little effect
achieve
this,
on the overall
the imf>edance
it:
_z;
*""
10
27r/,C
giving
C=
10
(9-3)
2,7/,z;
Example
9-1
Fig. 9-1) to
Use 2N3904
is
mA.
solution
Design stage 2
first
and
refer to the
as large as
and make
Iq =
187
stability,
Opacilor-
Circuit
Take F^ = 5 V.
For
maximum
K^,=
18
=3
V:
V-5 V-3V
= 10V
'
Ic
=:
10
m-A
kQ
(this
see
^~
/c
= 5 kQ
V/fg
is
a standard
Appendix
resistor value;
mA
now becomes
/c><^8=l
mAX4.7kQ = 4.7 V
and
^'i,=
Vbk+
^'8
Let
Ir
100
Ic
= 54 kQ
/g
niA
mA
now becomes
Referring to the
At
/(-
mA,
'
5.4
R^
47
2N3904 data
Vf^nun)
~ ^^
V =
115/iA
kfl
*^<^
'B(inji)
188
Vr5= Vccand
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
12.6
R.=
Circuit
4 + /a
Amplifiers
98
115fiA-f-14/iA
(use 100 kB, the next higher standard
kfl
value)
From
Eq. (9-2),
Q=
From
the
2N3904 data
A^,
sheet,
r*
\-^K.
27r(0.65/i)A,,
+ 'OO
2w(0.65xl00Hz)l
= 247
see
Z,'
From Eq.
kfi
jttF
Appendix
= 7?5||/?6P= 100
2)
kB = 973 n
kfi||56 kfl||l
(9-3),
10
C,=
277/, xz;.'
10
27rXlOOHzX973fi
=
For
kJ2,
The
9.3
Direct-
The
Coupled
Two-Stage
via
Circuit
Rj
Rs = 4.7
C2 =
= R^= 100
Q = 250
juF,
kS,
and
the emitter of
is
known
Q_2-
kfl,
R^ =
C,
/?3 to
16 juF
Comparing
as a dc feedback pair.
Q^,,
and
Q., is
biased
The
bias resistors
(/?,, /?2>
'"^
and only a single resistor (^2) is employed in biasing. As well, the emitter
resistor and bypass capacitor are eliminated from the first stage, as is the
coupling capacitor between stages.
189
Direct-
Coupled
Two-Stage
Circuit
Figure 9-3.
The redrawn
DC
feedback
pair.
the biasing of
Q_^ is
emitter current
is
only as good as Q,
is
Qj
biased,
Qj
bias
stability.
is
(when
A^^.
and/or temjaeraturc
varies) will
not remain as constant as those in the circuit of Fig. 9-1. However, the
stability
space)
is
is
The
first
adequate
for
many
purpxjses,
and
the saving in
components (and
and second
its
name (DC
and
is
drop across
/?,
down on
results in a
resistor R2,
V(.^.
This, in
and consequently
cuts
Q^,.
The
effect
is
if its
190
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
Circuit
Amplifiers
N_-,
1
DC
(a)
feedback pair
(b)
Collector-
to-base bias
Figure 9-4.
The
Q,
in
DC
feedback pair
is
similar to a collector-to-base
bias circuit.
making R^ look
like
1.
Cj also
an ac
short
circuit to
is
to
Equation
Example 9-2
(9-3).
Design a
DC
Vcc
12 V.
solution
F^j,
and
V^
good
gain.
For
V^
VsE,
V^.^b V.
let
-|9|
Direct-
R.=
Ic
= 2 kO
*~
Vlf^
=12V-3V-5 V = 4V
Coupled
Two-Stage
Circuit
kfi
Appendix
mA
/j,
= 2.5
Vr^
4V
2 mA
v..
now becomes
IcR^
^fl2
=2
^'c.=
^'a4
^'fl2
= 5.1V
^'/j.= ^'cc-^'c.
= 6.9 V
Ino
^2
mA
12
V-5.1V
=5.1
1)
192
From Eq.
(9-3),
Basic
Multistage
10
10
27r/,Z
2wX150HzXl.98kn
C,=
and
Integrated
Circuit
= 5.4
Amplifiers
jtiF
9-4
The
Differential
Amplifier
The
9-4.1
Basic
Circuit
because
it
differential amplifier
is
has both good bias stability and good gain without requiring large
bypass capacitors.
Figure 9-5 shows the basic differential amplifier
Q^i
and
Q.2 ^'"^
assumed
to
be identical in
all
respects
circuit. If transistors
voltages, then
4. = 4
The
= 4l+^
and
I.=
I^ remains virtually constant
Figure 9-5.
of the transistors.
193
Since 'ci'^/ei' ^""^ ^c2'^^E2' *^^ collector currents also remain con-
The
and Ici'^^c2-
stant,
Since /^
is
Differential
In addition,
Va
substantially indejjendent of
and
A^^-,
it is
seen that
Amplifier
V^.
arc also
Recall from Eq. (6-7) that the voltage gain of the single-stage
emitter amplifier in Fig. 9-6(a)
common
9-4.2
Voltage
is
Gain
-h,.R,
A^ =
where R^
is
an external
terminal.
Looking from
"seen"
is
the Z, to a
Q_^
CB
circuit;
may
and neglecting R^
since
R = h^^.
Now
it is
9-6(b),
the resistance
/i,j
typically
much
larger than
A,.
the gain of
is
-h,.RL
A^ =
*u,
It
f^'g-
''*
be replaced with
i.e.,
+ (l+A/.,K
h..=
l
+ h,.
Therefore,
V^L
A^ =
If
amplifiers, then A,
= A^,^
^
and
A^
is
4 -zMl
^"
2A
This
is
= h^^ and
(9-4)
amplifier.
stage with
capacitor
is
R^ bypassed; but
required.
194
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
>.
Circuit
Amplifiers
h,^ + (1
*h,^)Rg
1
(a)
Showing voltage
gain of single stage
CE
amplifier
WW^
(b)
Qj^
resistance "seen"
is hji.
- hR^
^s(^
(c)
Single-stage representation
Figure 9-6.
common
emitter amplifier.
Another way
the signal voltage
to consider the
vohage gain
when
the input
base-emitter of
Q_2,
Vg/2 appears
while
Q_2
receives
is
is
its
and
h,^
is
,
to think of
as
shown
Vg/2,
This
is
Across the
illustrated in
the signal
in
amplifier,
of this circuit
at
its
emitter
(its
emitter
base voltage
195
The
Differential
^..
^1
::f
(a)
Showing that V^
is
CE
(b)
Showing
that V^ causes
-^^
Showing output
signals at
as a
/'.e^d +^e,)/',j,
V^
input
and U^
input to
CB
to be applied as a
CB
input to O, and
Amplifier
input
CE
O,
U,A
(c)
for input to
Figure 9-7.
Q, and Q2 collectors
0, base
to
and
Output
at
(i,c=
J-
Output
at
Q2C "
2~ ^ ""^
j^
common
common
For
common
in
is
is
From Eq.
9-4.3
Input
emitter resistance
imf)edance for a
CE
an external
circuit with
is
and Output
Impedances
Z,
From
= h^ + {l + hj^,)RE
connected to the emitter of
Q^,
is /?||A,4
Since
h^i,
= h^/{^
"^
or
^fe)'
^'^^
assuming matched
Zi
= 2hi,
2[
= 2 X (2j
for
(9-5)
CE
transistors,
for
a single-stage
and
CB circuits,
CE
circuit)
is
Zq'^Rl
9-4.4
inverting
and
Noninverting
Input
is
provided at terminal
going input
is
is
the output
is
2,
V(.^.
They
If
is
a positive
or
level
2 V,
+ Vq^- and
and the input and
when no
signal
and 2
is
at the
present.
same
time,
ofjerating in parallel,
A/.
(Fig. 9-9)
1%
is
the input
and
9-4.5
is
the output
Note that in
provided at terminal
circumstance, terminal
Common
Mode Gain
(9-6)
Vs
is
197
The
Differential
Amplifier
Figure 9-8.
noninvertlng inputs.
;.
"
o,
Ir.
,0
'c
i
"1
Figure 9-9.
The
Showing
common mode
-McRi = {-
VsR,_)/{2Rf:),
is
AF^-,
where AVc =
an emitter
is
follower.
gain
is
'^^^~
A^'c
-Rl
V,
2/?.
(9-7)
198
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
Circuit
Amplifiers
Figure 9-10.
mon mode
reject
common mode
tail.
com-
and collector
would be reduced. The usual way to overcome this problem is to use
a constant- current tail as shown in Fig. 9-10. In this circuit I^ =
(Fg4 V^)/ R^, and /g- remains constant no matter how F^, and Vg^ vary.
The ac resistance now "seen" from the emitters of Q.i and Q_2 '^ the collector
resistance (1/A,) of Q4, which might typically be 1 Mfi. Therefore, common
increasing the value of R^, but then the dc values of emitter
currents
mode
gain
is
very small.
Ar-lul
R,
(9-8)
2X(l//(^
Example 9-3
The differential amplifier shown in Fig. 9-10 has /f^, = Rjji^=\^ kfi and
R^ = 3.9 ki2. The supply voltage is 1 2 V, and the voltage at the base of Q^^
is 3.5 V. If Q^, and Q^j bases are grounded, calculate the voltage at the Q^,
and Q2 collectors. Assimie Q, and Q,2 are jierfectly matched and that for
each transistor Fr = 0.7 V.
solution
Vg^ = ( Q4 base voltage with respect to ground)
Vc
and
199
The
Differential
Amplifier
7.8
niA
Ifn!^Ic->^
mA
^ci'==^i
and
12
V-(l mAX10kn) = 2 V
For the circuit of Example 9-3, calculate the voltage gain, input
and A= 1X10"^
if
A^
S.
solution
From Eq.
(9-4),
Ay =
2A
2X1
From Eq.
= 250
kfi
(9-5),
7 = 2h = 2
From Eq.
(9-6),
z;;?t
From Eq.
kii
iokfi
(9-8),
^r^AJ
10
2X(1/A^)
kn
2X1X10'^
= 5X10-'
kfl, h^,
= 50,
Example 9-4
9-5
IC
Differential
Amplifiers
Figure 9-11 shows the circuit of 'a CA3002 integrated circuit amplifier
manufactured by RCA. Transistors Q^j and Qg are emitter followers provid-
Q_^
impwrtant
comp)onent tolerance
is
kn20%
closely
matched
to hp^
(^,
and Q2
^^
"^o*
all
Figure 9-11.
200
same
Circuit of
CA3002 integrated
RCA
Corp.)
mance. Similarly, all resistors are diffused at the same instant, and thus all
resistors having the same nominal value tend to match each other closely.
These facts, and the lack of a requirement for large bypass capacitors, make
the differential amplifier ideal for application to integrated circuits.
CA3002 and
the /iA741
is
intended to be a general-purpose
is
operational amplifier
ance high-gain
it is
important to note
is
circuit,
operational
CA3002
IF
JEDEC
AMPLIFIER
AM
MAXIMUM RATINGS
DC Supply Voltage
Negative DC Supply Voltage
Input Signal Voltage (Single-ended)
Total Device Dissipation
V
V"
Positive
Operating
Storage
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS
V- = -6V)
(At
ambient temperature
Static Cbaracterlstlcs
Iic
Ii
....
Pt
Gain (Single-Ended
3-dB
Vn
Cliaracteristici
Differential Voltage
1.75
MHz)
....
Bandwidth
Output Voltage Swing
Maximum
Noise Figure
(R, = i ItO.
1.75
MHz)
Aoirr
BW
V,(P-P)
NF
1.75
MHz)
R,.
1.75
MHz)
Output hesisiance
3rd Harmonic
Distortion
(f
i.75
-t-10
-10
300
Temperature Range:
Dynamic
An
amplifter.
MHz)
C.
R.
Iniermodulation
IMD
AGC
AGC
detector
201
IC
Differential
Amplifiers
202
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
Circuit
Amplifiers
EUCTWUl dUMCnmSTICS
(V,
Input bias
The
ctirrent.
203
IC
The
Amplifiers
transistors.
Same
The
as input
offset current.
Same
The
Input resistance.
as input
offset voltage.
of
ratio
Output
The
resistance.
change
to
output current
change.
Slew
Rate
rate.
change
of
of
(jer
micro-
second.
The
specified
approximately
16,
for the
is less
than 100
The
kHz
when
the
CA3002
gain
is
is
The
1 1
reduced
for
IC
a voltage gain of
MHz,
to
is
specified as
while that of
approximately 24
dB
output terminal
is
Jire
amplifiers
ing diagram.
is
symbol employed
circuit
CA3002
the fiA741
Differential
The
inputs are
-f
components.
9+V^o
Inverting
input
9-6
Basic IC
Operational
Amplifier
Circuits
The IC
9-6.1
The
Voltage
Follower
circuit
applications.
shown
directly to the
an
infinite variety of
is
in Fig. 9-15(a).
The output
This
is
easily seen
Fig.
is grounded, terminal 6
(and terminal 2) must also be at ground level.
Note that the bias resistors (7?2 aid ^3) at the base of Q3 potentially
divide the collector voltage of Q_2, so that V^ can be lower than (^2Suppose terminal 6 were slightly above ground level; then terminal 2
When
is
faithfxdly.
The
differential input.
The
differential input
is
V.
F =
2-
To
calculate the
value of
M. From
maximum
differential
is
F.;,=
K^5 V,
5V =
0.1 mV
50,000
204
minimum
minimum value of
Fig. 9-15)
is -1-5
V,
205
9*Va
Basic IC
Operational
Amplifier
Circuits
(a)
(b)
*Vr,
is
actually
F
Terminal 2
minimum
is
then 0.1
differential
approximately 5 V.
= 5 V-0.1
mV
below the
mV = 4.9999V
level of terminal 3,
and
0.1
mV
is
the
206
Like an emitter follower circuit, the voltage follower has a high input
impedance, a low output imjiedance, and a gain of 1. The voltage follower
Basic
Multistage
performance
and
Integrated
Circuit
impedance
its
Amplifiers
output
very
is
normally
is
and output
is
mV
with a
may
be 0.7
for
a germsmium
device.
The
9-6.2
Nonmvertmg
Ampinier
The major
difference
is
output voltage being fed directly back to the inverting input terminal (as in
the voltage follower), only a portion of
potentially divided
There
that
V-
is
by
/fj
The output
fed back.
it is
As
voltage
/?,
in this circuit, so
The
current
is
/^
^'^i
3.
is
Therefore, the
V^.
is
through ^2
is
to terminal 2.
much
means
^3V,
(9-10)
Q + Vr,
Figure 9-16.
Noninverting amplifier.
The output
grounded,
/?2 is
voltage at terminal 6
F)
+ ^s).
207
Basic IC
a^nd
Operational
Amplifier
Circuits
/,=
The
(9-11)
is
^^-T
From
Eqs. (9-10)
and
9-11,
V,
= I2R3 and
Therefore,
Rn +
JR'i
A..=
(9-12)
R.
The
selection of /j very
much
amplifier.
50
mV.
solution
I^^Ib
For the juA741, /B(m) = 500 nA.
Let
7^= 100 X
/g
= 50/tA
100
X 500 nA
Example 9-5
206
The
;tiA741 has Z
= 70 Q
Example
209
9-5,
Basic IC
70
z:=
1
Operational
Amplifier
S2
+(200,000/40)
Circuits
= 0.014 fl
The name
inverting amplifier is
because the output goes negative when the input goes jxwitive, and vice
versa.
than
at
terminal
Because
3.
it
is
mV)
is
ground or
sometimes termed a
is
virtual
virtual earth.
If F, in Fig.
9-17
is
-I-
/.=
.
Since one end of
/?,
is
at V^
is
at
ground
(9-15)
''t
From
the j[iA741 data sheet in Fig. 9-13, the input bias current
is
very
level,
much
and
3)
is
maximum
Figure 9-17.
all of /,
Inverting amplifier.
of 7^
= 500
(i.e.,
nA.
If
9-6.3
Inverting
Amplifier
210
resistor
Basic
Multistage
/,
R2
and
discussed,
Integrated
Circuit
Amplifiers
(/,
X R2. The
is
left
side of /?2
K=-ir,xR2)
From Eq.
(9-16)
= I,R,
is
=ii=
^;=-(-10
mV
and
is
/?2//fi
"^^'^2
Ro
A=If
at
(9-15),
V,
When
is
i.e..
(9-17)
= 100,
then F=
- lOOX 10
positive.
is
mV= -
V.
similar kind of
feedback effect to that which occurs with the voltage follower and the
noninverting amplifier keeps the output voltage exactly equal to {R2/R1)
XP^.
The
is
quite simple.
is
An
Example 9-6
i?,
is
and
made approximately
is
/,
is
de-
equal
IC operational amplifier
solution
and
current
and R2
^j-
7fl(max)
= 500nA
/,4(max,
Let
/,100X4()
= 100X500 nA = 50 juA
is
typically 20
is
to
mV.
From Eq.
211
(9-15),
Transformer-
F,
'
= 400
From Eq.
mV
Coupled
50 fiA
Amplifiers
20
/,
Class
J2
Appendix
(9-17),
= 144X390 n
= 56.2 kJ2 (use 56-kn standard value)
/f3 = /f,||/;2 = 56kfi||390n
w.ff,=390Q
The
is
(9-18)
For Example 9-6, the circuit input imf>edance is only 390 i2, which
smaller than that obtained for the noninverting amplifier. It
much
is
very
is
seen
Example
70
Z=
1
is
calculated from
9-6,
S2
-(-(200,000/144)
= 0.05 n
Like capacitor coupling, a transformer
may be
used to ac couple
9-7
The dc
Transformer-
is
is
no
resis-
effect
on
The low
The
all
level
/?^
variations in /^ to
/?,
to flow,
while the
transistor
Q,
winding.
The
is
{Rpy+
resistance
transistor characteristics.
R-^),
where Rpy
is
and ac load
Coupled
Class A
Amplifiers
o *Va
212
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
Circuit
Amplifiers
(a)
Class
.f^L
(b)
Figure 9-18.
Class
and
voltage
/,
is
is
the
number
of secondary turns.
load resistance
The ac
primary
^^ number
are the primary voltage and current, while Fj and I2 are the
and current
The
A^2 '^
R^^
could be calculated as
is
calculated from
'^'I.
From
213
Transformer-
Coupled
N^
K,
N2
/,
Class
This gives
V,
and
7,=
-^J,
Substituting for V^
and
in the
7,
R'l
equation
for
^/,
R^,
=
{N,/N,)I,
--m-
(9-19)
Rl is frequently termed the reflected load, meaning that 7?^ is reflected into the
primary as R[. R[ is also described as the load resistance referred to the primary.
The
total
is
the
sum
of 7?^
The
kn, and
The
circuit
7?3
= 560
shown
S2.
load resistance
circuit
on the
in Fig. 9-18(a)
has Vcf.=
Transformer T^ has
is
7?/.^
V,
\\
= 40
fi,
7f,
=4.7
7?^
transistor
R^ = 2.2
kfi,
9-19.
solution
dc load line
= IciRpy+f^3)+ycE
ycc
When
7^
= 0, Vcc=
Plot point
Another
A on
p>oint
Vce-
Fig. 9-19 at 7c
on the dc load
= 0, VcE=ycc=^^
line
'^
line)
is
the
point.
Example 9-7
214
-DC
Basic
load line
/
Multistage
= 90
mA
and
Integrated
Circuit
Amplifiers
Figure 9-19.
DC
and ac load
lines for a
Ro
V=Vrr^
11
transformer-coupled amplifier.
circuit.
vx
2.2 kfi
2.2kfl + 4.7kn
= 3.5 V
^'=^'i,-^'i,^
= 3.5 V -0.7 V
= 2.8 V
Fg
/?3
2.8
560
= 5 inA/c
VVTien/c = 5
mA,
V = 5mA(40fi + 560fl)+Fcg
= 8V
= 5 mA and Vce = S V.
Q. point on Fig. 9-19 at /c
11
F^c.
Plot the
line
through points
A and
Q.
ac load line
Use Eq.
(9-19):
X56n
=156412
Draw
the dc load
215
Total ac load,
Transformer-
D" D J.
o
Kl-Kpy
+ Kl
= 40n+1564fi
= 1.6ki2
Coupled
'
When
Class
mA,
= 5mAXl.6kR
= 8V
On
Fig. 9- 19(b)
'^
^CE~
The
where the
p)oint
at
Draw
When the
= 40 ^A, the
an input signal
is
is
reproduced in
Fig. 9-20,
also illustrated.
transistor current
i.e.,
'
/ci=t;9
be calculated as
= |lx(4mA)
;21
It is
mA
in Fig. 9-19(a)
circuit
supply voltage.
The
is
referred to as a class
is
is
Amplifiers
ampltfirr.
class
216
Basic
Multistage
= 90 (iA
and
Integrated
Circuit
Input
Amplifiers
signal
Figure 9-20.
amplifier.
9-8
Transformer-
Coupled
Class B
and Class
AB
Circuits
One
efficiency.
is
no
circuit
class
transistor
power
dissipation
when
zero.
is
basic class
is
supply voltage
F^-.^,
connected.
The
sine
is
When
V^
^^^
Qjz
phase.
Q,i
trjinsistors Q.i
from
is
going jxwitive, V^
when
zero,
it
Q^, is
is
being biased
II
217
Transformer-
Coupled
Class B
and Class
AB
"'
"{f
(a)
(b)
Composite
Figure 9-21.
8 amplifier
When
signal to
transformer.
The
primary
first
in
is
effect of the
to
two half-cycles
produce a magnetic
which
flov\'s
links with
Circuits
218
Basic
output, which
utistage
j^
class
jjj^
wave
is
circuit,
The push-pull
action
best illustrated
by drawing
Integrated
operating in push-pull.
Circuit
'^'^P''''^''*
is
characteristics, as
Vne
and when
K^i-
Example
is
shown
in Fig. 9-21(b).
9-7).
^n^i
''rr^
= 0,
"^C
_
~
16
1.6
kQ
= 10mA
Plot p)oint
same
exactly the
on the ac load
Q_^
from the
line at V(.^
Q point
as that for
Q,i-
To
to fxjint B.
best see
The ac
the
Q,2 *
signal
is
applied, the characteristics for Q,2 ^r^ drawn as shovvTi in Fig. 9-21 (b), so
that the ac load line becomes one continuous line (from B to B') for both Q^i
and
0^2
**^
-6
Q^ at its center.
is
V
= V
V
"ce
"rl
"cc
= 16V-1.6V=14.4V
When
14.4
is
winding.
transformer.
is
only while
class
it is
circuit
conducting.
than with a
The wasted
class
fxjwer
is
considerably
with the
less
circuit.
due
distortion
and the
exists,
do not begin
as
to
the transistors
off.
With
may
for a
germanium
is
To
transistor.
becomes a
class
AB
AB transformer-coupled
A transformer-coupled driver stage.
The output
for
outfmt stage
with a
transistors, Q.i
resistors
The secondary
of
7",
and Q_2
becomes
off.
and
Class
At
that of
is
negative, as illustrated.
is
Q^, is
negative.
driver
The output
Class
AB
this
functions exactly as
output stage
stage
is
time ^| is on
the polarity reverses at T^ output, the base of Qj
When
p>ositive
Transformer-
Coupled
.o)h
Figure 9-22.
Class
AB output
driver.
Class B
and Class
amplifier.
positive
219
class
about 0.5
AB
Circuits
220
Basic
Multistage
for
a class
circuit,
its
and
the delay in transistor turn on, which creates cross-over distortion in a class
Integrated
amplifier.
Circuit
The
Amplifiers
because
it
class
is
stage
is
The
very
AB
much
output stage.
The
design of class
B and
class
AB
class
supply voltage
amplifier
is
V(.(,
is
= 'iQ
each
for
of the
components involved.
to supply 5
to a 16-fi load. The available
V. Specify the output transformer and output
transistors.
solution
P^
= -^
and
(where
V^ is
rms voltage)
Vp
V2
V2
2R.
R,
or transformer peak output voltage
is
Vp=V2R^
= V2X16QX5W
12.6V
Peak input voltage
to
is
f;Fcc=3ov
Transformer turns
ratio
of the
primary
to the
30
12.6
From
unimportant.
largely of
Example 9-8
is
N,
_ 60
12.6
is
secondary
is
The ac
221
using Eq.
is,
Transformer-
(9-19),
Coupled
Class B
and Class
^^ =
AB
(^f^^
:l6S2i%:91
The
il
total
16
is
Qw363 n
V12.6/
The
transformer
supplied,
and the
/,
The
its
= 5 W,
transistors
terms of
sfjecified in
is
/?i
have
6 n,
to survive
/?^'
= 363
'CE ~ 2
to
be
primary:
S2,
maximum
collector-emitter voltage of
V(,(^
= 2X30V = 60V
The
30
Fee
is
Ip
30
330
when
mA
w2.5W
The
^an.)
= 330 mA,
Fe(,)
mjiximum
= 60
V,
/p, V^e,
and P:
/'^ = 2.5
Vf^^
Circuits
9-9
Multistage
Emitter
Followers
500
mA
1+49
= 10mA
To
transistor
is
Darlington pair,
pnp
transistors
Q_2 is
transistor.
is
known
as a
The
-'no
\+h.
= Ie,
The
input current
is
/g,:
Ibi
=
1+Ap,
(9-20)
(1+A^,)(1+Af2)
A/
To,
V.
c^
(a)
npn darlington
pair
(b)
Figure 9-23.
222
pnp
darlington pair
223
Ie2
^^2')
*'*/i..,XA..,
^fet)^ the
termed a
The
combination
is
(A^
superbeta circuit.
and a 2N3904
4 V.
of the two-transistor
also
is
is
made up
of a
2N3055
for
(^
The
in
each
transistor.
solution
input voltage
=4
V-H0.7 V-l-0.7
= 5.4V
output current
^^
R,
100
= 400 mA
1 170
'
'Bi~ 1+A.
From
(Note that
this
is
minimum
at /c
= 4A.
At 400
mA
400
hpj;
mA
is
likely to
is
hpg = 20.
^a2(m)=-p:p^19mA
4,=
From
minimum
'bo
\+hpEi
Multistage
Emitter
Followers
7^=
mA)
is
around
70.
Example 9-9
224
Basic
Multistage
and
Integrated
Circuit
Amplifiers
inpi
method
of providing bisLS
drop across
it
of
When
positive,
(I2
/?2 limit
Q^,
and
Q^j
'*
large
Q,,
and
and going
is
not im-
under these conditions Q, base-emitter will be very definitely forward biased. Similarly, when a large input is going in a negative
direction, the base-emitter of Q, might become reverse biased, but Q_2
base-emitter junction will be forward biased. Thus, the complementary
{X)rtant because
input signal.
Figure 9-24.
Complementary emitter
follower.
all
conditions of
225
Multistage
Emitter
Followers
Glossary of
Important
Capacitor coupling.
means
of interconnecting capacitors.
Terms
Direct coupling.
DC
feedback pair.
stage
is
Differential amplifier.
tors.
Inverting input.
signal
is
applied.
Noninverting input. Input terminal of a differential amplifier which produces an in-phase output when a signal is applied.
Conunon mode
to
gain.
common
signal applied
Constant current
tail.
Operational amplifier.
differential amplifier.
impedance.
Voltage follower.
very
circuit in
Inverting amplifier.
is
in
Virtual ground.
Transformer coupling.
means
Class
of interconnecting transformers.
Reflected load.
due
to the load
primary terminals
of
a transformer
amplifier.
circuit
of the
ac load
is
line.
amplifier.
cutoff.
Class
AB
amplifier.
biased on.
Darlington pair.
Two
Complementary emitter
transistors
follower.
Two
transistors,
one
common
input
and
output terminals.
Review
9-1.
Questions
Sketch the complete circuit of two emitter current bias stages using
capacitor coupling. Briefly explain the function of every component.
226
9-2.
method
ju
uLji.
nent and the reasonmg behmd the
9-3.
method
for
nent in the
9-4.
each
DC
of calculatine
uj
method.
each compo-
and
transistor,
each compo-
circuit.
how
drops.
9-5.
common mode
common mode
9-6.
Also
how
the
9-7.
= {h,^Ri^/2h^.
terminals.
Explain
tail.
how
tail
functions
and how
it
9-8.
extensively
9-9.
Define
employed
the function
amplifier
is
in integrated circuits.
operational amplifier.
IC operational
9-10.
amplifier.
operational
amplifier
circuit
it
functions
as
voltage follower.
9-11.
for voltage
for input
9-12.
9-13.
9-14.
jm inverting amplifier.
how
reflected
it
functions.
class
how
it
class
with a class
AB
explain
and
9-15.
for
AB
transformer-coupled ampli-
how
ton pair.
pairs.
and
operation.
Identify all
227
Review
Questions
228
9-17.
Problems
and what
functions
how
its
follower.
Problems
9.1.
Use 2N3904
transistors
and make
mA
/p = 2
/(-
2N3904
.5
mA.
transistors with
possible gain
each
stage.
9-3.
9-4.
dc feedback pair
to operate
is
from a supply
9-5.
9-6.
15 V. Using
of
Fc29-7.
For the
common mode
Problem
circuit described in
voltage gain,
The CA3002 IC
amplifier
shown
in Fig. 9-1
has
2)= -
V, and F
(at terminals 5
and
10)
its
9)=
S.
10 V, F^^ (at
V, F(at terminal 7) =
V. Calculate the output voltage
terminal
and output
-I-
-5
at terminal 8.
9-9.
An
If
the
is
is
be
when
the input
75 mV.
120
An
An
of
when V^)=10 V.
9-13.
is
9-12.
voltage
The output
signal
9-11.
inverting amplifier
Determine suitable
is
The
to
is
45
mV.
resistor values.
the
to
have
100 mV,
is
Calculate
output
is
to
of
be
ki2.
When
3.3 V.
9-14.
class
Vcc = 20 V. The bias resistors are /?, = 3.9 kfi and R^ = 1 kfi, and the
emitter resistor is /?3 = 68 S2. The transformer has a primary winding
resistance of /?^
i?^
= 23
= 32
S2, A^,
= 80, and
A^2
~ 20. The
and ac load
to
load resistance
lotal
is
^^^^
is
on
and
/-
= (0
100
to
mA)
40 V).
B transformer-coupled
class
The
= (0
load resistance
primary turns of
= 23
ft,
and the
A^,
total
primary winding
100
the
circuit.
9-16.
9-17.
class
V(,f^
= 25
class
amplifier
is
to
supply 8
to
The
12-12 load.
supply
is
transistors.
the total
supply voltage
maximum
maximum
9-18.
is
is
and |X)wer
/f^
Determine the
fi.
circuit,
and
120
ft,
which
supplied with 6 V.
transistor has
each
specify the
dissipation.
transistor.
is
to
be
the input
Calculate
dissipated in
^^
Problems
CHAPTER
10
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators
10-1
Introduction
The
shifting network.
network, amplifies
of the network.
it,
phase
shifts
When
shift,
it
circuit
it
generating
its
and a phase-
is
own
before applying
and phase
the circuit
is
it
to the input
shifts
shift
it
back
to the amplifier
input,
and a
The
10-2
PhaseShift
Oscillator
to
criteria,
must be
fulfilled.
and
the
These are
phase
shift
around the
circuit
must be
must be
zero.
230
network provides a further 180 phase shift, the signal fed back to the input
can be amplified to reproduce the output. The circuit is then generating its
own input signal, and a state of oscillation is sustained.
Figure 10-1 shows an IC operational amplifier connected as an inverting amplifier (see Section 9-6) to give a 180 phase shift between amplifier
total of
The frequency
resistor values
of the oscillator
shift
is
RC
circuit analysis
180
when
methods,
it
/=
is
(10-1)
2itRCV6
Fed back
voltage
Figure 10-1.
can be
231
PhaseShift
Oscillator
232
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators
Figure 10-2.
output.
the network phase shift of 180 gives a loop phaise shift of zero. Both these
Another phase-shift
a single
common
oscillator circuit
is
criteria.
shown
mon
RC
network phase
shifts
233
Once
Phase-
again the amplifier must have a voltage gain of at least 29. Note that the
amplifier input resistance (Z) forms the last resistor of the
The
RC
Shift
Oscillator
RC network.
As
When
is
mum
is
most suitable
It is
ranging up to a maxi-
of
An
external load can also reduce the amplifier gain and cause the
10-1
for frequencies
it
less likely
is
in Fig.
to be affected
by
waveform
the output
is
For example,
Fig. 10-1)
is
if
likely to
fier
When
the gain
is
slightly greater
than 29,
output
the output
of
much
is
The amplitude
voltage
is
be distorted.
likely to
bias conditions.
the supply
is
be approximately
is
The output
go to approximately
likely to
be
Vf.^ or
F^jj,
whichever
is
least.
Design of a phase-shift oscillator commences with design of the amplito have a voltage gain slightly greater than 29. In the case of the
have to wait
account of
its
10-2)
may
loading
effect.
Then
is
phase-shift oscillator to
solution
amplifier
and
/,/i.
Example
10-1
234
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators
/,100x/a
= 100X50 nA = 50j[iA
Fo(Kcc-lV)=(10V-l)=9V
9 V
29
'
and
'
V.
9V
/,
29x50jaA
as6.2 kJ2
^2 = ^X7f,
i?3
62
Appendix
1)
= 29X5.6kn
(use
kfl
to give
> 29
= /?,||^25.6kB
RC network
Amplifier 2;
To
= ^, = 5.6
significantly,
kfi
make /?<^,.
From Eq.
(10-1),
2-nRp/l
1
2irX560i2xi kHzVe
= 0.1 16 jaF
10-3
Colpitis
Oscillator
Appendix
2)
The Colpitis oscillator circuit shown in Fig. 10-3 uses an LC network (C,,
and L) to provide the necessary phase shift between amplifier output
voltage and feedback voltage. In this case the network acts as a filter to pass
the desired oscillating frequency and block all other frequencies. The filter
(72,
^L ~ ^CT
where X^r
is
For resonance,
235
Colpitis
Oscillator
Output
Fed back
voltage
Figure 10-3.
an IC operational amplifier,
/=
(10-2)
lirVLCj.
where
C^ =
C^
Ck>nsideration of the
LC
(10-3)
C^
is
)8
its
236
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators
It can be shown that when the 180 phase shift is achieved (A'^ A'c) = A'(,2This gives ^ = Xq.^/ Xq2- For the loop gain to equal 1, ^A^= 1, and
(1(M)
As
Also,
before,
the output
may
Design
of
be employed.)
commence with
much
the choice of
Example 10-2
Design a Colpitts
larger than
oscillator
to
10
/=4
give
IC
V.
solution
A'(;23>than
any
= 0.1
/xF
and
(10-3):
C,C2
C,-l-C2
+ 0.1
= 0.05 juF
At/=4
kHz,
1
Xro~
27rX4kHzX0.1
= 398
and the /tA741 has Z^wTO
fi
^C2^^0
/xF
/tF
let
C^
= C2
Use Eq.
From Eq.
237
(10-2),
Hartley
Oscillator
L=
^ttYCt
4ff2x(4kHz)2X0.05/iF
32mH
Make
1-
R^
^as4.
>Xc^
Let
100X^c, = 100X398
as 39 kfi
For A^
fi
(standard value)
= 4,
= 4X39
=
156
kfl
kJ2
obvious.
Here Q,,
(b)
This
more
/?,,
is
and
its
R2, R^,
R.^.
is
is
in
fairly
Fig. 10-4(a).
However,
(RFC)
in
is
included in series with F^^ and L. This allows direct current /^ to pass, but
offers
ac isolated
is
(by
phase-shifting network
amplifier
input at Q,
RFC) from
is
V(^(;
coupled via C,
base.
The output
voltage
V^
is
derived from a
The
is
10-4
Hartley
Oscillator
238
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators
RFC
n
-'
"1.
Basic circuit
Figure 10-4.
Figure 10-5(a) shows the circuit of the Hartley oscillator, and Fig.
inductance
is
is
L7-=L,
where
As
is
+ L2 + 2A/
(10-5)
is
the
(10-6)
2irVcLj.
The
P=
Once
is
Xq)
can be shown
to
equal
A'^j-
239
Hartley
Oscillator
Output
(a)
*-nfnmir
i'
(bl
and
Z.,
L-2
wound on
single core
Figure 10-5.
least
(10-7)
The
circuit design
procedure
for
a Hartley oscillator
is
basically similar to
The
is
shown
in Fig.
10-6.
Figure 10-6(a) gives a basic circuit in which the phase-shift network and
amplifier are easily identified as distinct separate stages of the oscillator. In
Fig. 10-6(b) a practical circuit
shift
is
network, and here the inductors are directly connected in place of the
0+K:c
(b)
Basic circuit
Figure 10-6.
The
Practical circuit
(RFC)
upper terminal
of
from the supply voltage. Capacitor C, couples the output of the phaseshift network back to the amplifier input, as in Fig. 10-6(a). Capacitor Cj in
Z,,
directly
now be
The Wein
10-5
Wein
Bridge
bridge
is
an ac bridge
is
in
directly grounded.
used.
which balance
is
oscillator,
obtained only at a
the
Wein
bridge
is
Oscillator
7?),
equations are
obtained
and
Cj.
when two
fulfilled:
(10-8)
C,
(10-9)
V '^i ^l'^2
240
(a)
lb)
Wein bridge
oscillator circuit
Figure 10-7.
Wein bridge
oscillator.
241
242
If
^1
= i?2 = R, and
C,
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators
/=
and from Eq.
(10-10)
2itCR
(10-8),
R, = 2R,
The
(10-11)
is
noninyerting input,
it
is
is
applied to the
is off
balance;
i.e.,
all
other
Example 10-3
maximum
input current
is
Ig
= 500
nA. Let
/4/ through 4)
Then
9
'^^"'^*=500M
= 18ka
Use Eq.
(10-11):
R3^2R^
3R^=l8kQ
~ ^^ M^
243
and
18
^4 =
The
kn
Review
Questions
= 6ki2
/4>500/iA
3 = 2/?4 = 2x5.6ki2
=
This will
11 .2
kn
(use
From Eq.
kfl
= /?.
(10-10),
C=
2iTfR
1
27rXlOkHzX5.6kn
= 2842 pF
Barkhausen
criteria.
greater than
1,
and
Phase-shift oscillator.
an
must be
Uses a
CR
network to phase
Glossary of
Important
Terms
the amplifier
shift
output.
Loop
gain.
and through
and one
Hartley oscillator.
tors
Wein
10-1.
and one
bridge oscillator.
a circuit to sustain
10-2.
criteria,
fulfilled for
how
and how
it
fulfills
of
Briefly explain
Review
Questions
oscillations.
how
and
state the
244
10-4.
for
a Colpitis
Basic
Sinusoidal
10-5.
for
a Colpitis
oscillator.
Oscillators
10-6.
for
a Hartley
oscillator.
10-7.
10-8.
for
10-1.
Design a phase-shift oscillator to have an output frequency of approximately 3 kHz. Use a jnA741 operational amplifier with V(,(.=
10-2.
Problems
Wein
oscillator.
bridge oscillator.
12 V.
phase-shift oscillator
is
to
have /=
10-3.
V. Design the
circuit to
transistor
kHz.
Redesign the
amplifier.
10-4.
Repeat Problem
10-5.
Colpitts oscillator
L = 20
is
mH
to
be designed
to
An
10-6.
to
with V(.Q=
10-7.
A Wein
Two
CHAPTER
11
zener Diodes
When
an ordinary
is
only a very small reverse saturation current (/$) flows. If the reverse voltage
is increjised sufficiently, the junction breaks down and a large reverse current
flow^.
reverse current
is
limited by
means
If
11-1
Introduction
the
operated continuously in
its
a very stable quantity over a wide range of reverse currents. This quality
gives the breakdown diode
many
useful applications as
a voltage reference
may
may
silicon /w-junctions
of
at
reverse
a high-intensity electric
field,
245
11-2
Zener and
Avalanche
Breakdown
246
of
Zener
Diodes
electric field
Applied potential_
(reverse bias)
Figure 11-1.
large
numbers
when
it
This
is
and
is
eilmost
made
is
to flow
Since
reverse voltage
a small reverse voltage can produce a very high intensity electric field within
a narrow depletion region. Thus, the narrower the depletion region, the
smaller the Zener breakdown voltage. The actual intensity of the electric
field strength that
With
is
estimated as 3 X 10^
V/cm.
for rela-
field intensity
their bonds.
is
made up
also increased.
When
is
The
is
increased,
is
and consequently
their
energy content
atoms within
Charge carrier
striking
atom
Charge
carriers
knocked out
247
Zener Oiode
Characteristic
ionization by collision
by
and
Parameters
collision
Incident minority
charge carriers
Figure 11-2.
away from
atoms and join the flow of current across the junction (Fig. 1-2). This
effect is termed ionization by collision. The additional charge carriers generated
in this way are also accelerated to a high energy state and can cause further
ionization by collision. The number of charge carriers avalanches and the
result is avalanche breakdown. As in the case of Zener breakdown, the depletion
region material is converted from a near insulator into a conductor. Here
again a large (reverse) current can be made to flow across the junction.
the depletion region, they cause other charge carriers to break
their
characteristic
is
11-3
Zener
Diode
Characteristic
1^2
~ Zener
Izr~
I^K
and
breakdoum voltage
^^^ current at
= Zener current
which V^
Parameters
is
measured
I^M
'^
maximum Zener
current;
limited by the
Forward
cliaracteristic
Reverse
characteristic
''
^'z
\ai/.
Figure 11-3.
(a)
(b)
Figure 11-4.
248
circuit
circuit.
how
is
the Zener
I^.
Z^
is
shown
in Fig. 11-3:
Figure
1 1
-4
only in
its
A/,
The
circuit
breakdown condition,
is
series
IN 746
thru
400
IN 759
mW
2.4-12V
1N4370thru 1N4372
CASE
51
(00-7)
MAXIMUM RATINGS
Junction and Storage Temperature: -6&C to +175'C
D-C Power Dissipation: 400 Milliwatts at 50T Ambient
Above
50'"
and
Parameters
^7T
249
Zener Diode
Characteristic
(Derate
Ambient)
TOLERANCE DESIGNATION
The type numbers shown have tolerance designations as follows:
1N4370 series: t 10%, suffix A for 5% units.
1N746 series: t 10%, suffix A for 5% units.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
iT,
= :vc
unit5oihc<>..st noicji
3. 2
mW/C
250
Zener
Diodes
low
iN3993ri.ru IN 4000
3.9
in
-7.5 V
hermeti-
CASE 56
(D0.4)
MAXIMUM RATINGS
Junction and Storage Temperature: -65C to +175C.
D-C Power Dissipation: 10 Watts. (Derate 83. 3 mW/C above 55C).i
of
Is
10%.
3,
Vf
1.5
max
If
251
Compensated
Reference
Diodes
Silicon diode
(with negative
temperature
coefficient)
*f
Zener diode
Vz
(with positive
temperature
coefficient)
Figure 11-6.
For Zener breakdown (F^<5 V), the temperature coefficient (a^) of the
breakdown voltage is negative. For a given value of /^, V^ decreases slightly
when
the temperature
is
increased. This
is
Compensated
Reference
Diodes
their atoms.
In avalanche breakdown, relatively wide depletion regions are involved. Consequently, charge carriers crossing the depletion region experi-
many
ence
vibrate
coefficient.
positive
of
positive
temperature
temperature
ficients of better
coefficient.
than 0.0005%/
coefficient.
The
partially cancels
With
this
negative temperature
the
breakdown
diode's
C are possible.
silicon
solution
^
-V/C= + 1.24mV/C
J';,change= +
^^
Example
11-1
252
Zener
Diodes
(
New
value of F^,
is
C= -0.56 mV/ C
+ 1.24-1.8) mV/
is
%/
6.9
The
value
of
V.
at
50
C= -0.008%/ C
C
= 6.9 V-[0.56 mVX(50 C-25
= 6.9 V- 14 mV = 6.886 V.
C)]
11-5
Zener
Diode
Voltage
Regulator
Figure
11-5.1
Regulator
Design
circuit,
series
and the
load.
The
The
resistor
load
is
Vo=Vz
Vn-Vs-Vz
/
=
to
's
rz
AF^,
Iji
will
= Iz+Il
Iz=lR-k
Figure 11-7.
When
the load
is
not connected, 7^
= 0:
253
Zener
Diode
//J.
minimum
below a
^= h
Ii,
i(nu)~'
fall
by
level /7,:^.
'Z(nun)-
maximum
keep
the current
to
is
The maximum
/^(min)
be
"^ /
'ZM' the maximum value of I7 as limited
pwwer dissipation. lz(^^) could be the value of /^ near the knee
much
larger than
at I^^, so
it is
best
/^j^
may
resistor that
to ojjerate at
an
so\ut\on
Consulting the Zener diode data sheets (Fig. 11-5),
it
is
seen that a
1N753
is
= 8.8V
F^
Power
be a
IW
dissipation
is
60
I^
/?5=
F^,
7^
mA
= 8.8
Vx 60 mA = 0.53
W. R^
should
resistor.
l^fi is
Voltage
Regulator
can
l7,^.^h,^.,^ "''*"
'Z(min)- 'Z(max)
all
should be
/g^.
= 60 mA= 50mA
The minimum value
of
/?,
is
/?t(nu),
V,
^'-<'"'"'
/,,.,
10
mA
where
V
wl24
mA
6.2
50
is
mA.
Example 11-2
Apart from output voltage and maximum load current, the perforof a voltage regulator may be specified in terms of the stabilization ratio
11-5.2
Regulator
Performance
mance
(^^y)
voltage.
Sy =
The
ideal value of
Zn defines how Vn
Sy
is
zero.
/,
AVo
Zr,=
To
A4
The
AVn =
R.+ Z;
XAF^
(11-1)
and
Sy =
AVr,
AF^
(11-2)
/e^-i-z.
The output impedance (also from Fig. 1 1 -8) of the regulator is the
impedance "seen" when looking into the output terminals. Since the source
resistance of F^
is
likely to
be
much
iZA\R.=
Figure 11-8.
254
AC
Z7+ Rq
(11-3)
Example
Example 11-3
11-2.
solution
From
2^=7 B
(Fig. 11-5).
Eq. (11-2),
70
Sy= .^^*^
This means,
change would be
for
147fi
example, that
^_, =0.045
+ 7J2
if
V^ increases or decreases by
V, Vq
(11-3),
^-7TtI7-"
Therefore,
when
/^ varies
The
regulation
P'o
by
mA,
example, Vq
for
= Zo X A4 = 67
will
change by
mV
and the
load regulation.
The
line regulation
is
method
V^
of
another
output imp>edance.
For a given
is
line
way
just another
change
(e.g.,
Vg
is
line regulation
A Vq
(A Vq for a given
A Vg) X 100%
(11-4)
full load),
is
load regulation
X 100%
(11-5)
For the regulator referred to in Examples 11-2 and 1 1-3, determine the
a 10% change in input voltage. Also determine the load
full load.
255
Example 11-4
256
solution
Zener
Diodes
^Vs= 10% of
= 1.5 V
= 67.5
From Eq.
F5
= 10% of
15
mV
(11-4),
line regulation
67.5
-^
6.2
X 100%
mV
V
X100%
^1.1%
Full load current
7^
= 50
mA
A4 = 50mA-0 = 50mA
AFo = A4xZo = 50mAX6.7i2 =335 mV
From Eq.
(11-5),
load regulation =
AVo
X 100%
-^
Vo
335
6.2
mV
X 100%
V
= 5.4%
11-5.3
Two-Stage
Keguiawr
1.2,
S^ =
"s\'^ ^Z\
(/z,
+'l
-VWV
+'zJ
(/z,
+4)
-vwv-
D^-it
Figure 11-9.
'^S2'^Z
^Z,
-iiO
in
Example
in Fig. 11-9.
257
Other
Zener
Diode
Applications
(b)
(a)
Figure 11-10.
single-stage
When
much
shown
in
p)ower
is
is
employed
load current
1-5, the
is
is
light.
The
emitter follower
11-6
Regulator
with
Reference
Diode
in Fig.
11-10
is
series regulator.
maximum
I^ that Q,
is
is
drawn from
the supply
voltage regulator
is,
is
When
approximately (/?+
therefore,
much more
/^
/c(min)]-
efficient
is
(specifi-
The
emitter follower
regulator.
11-7
Other
Zener
Diode
Applications
The
The
voltage across /?
The
I^^
is
shown
Vg^.
Ie-^K^
11-7.1
Constant
Current
Circuit
(-6)
258
Zener
Diodes
Ir = constant
^T^^
V,
-'<
Constant current
Figure 11-11.
and
Since V^
constant,
and
saturated.
Example 11-5
V,
/(-.
on the
restriction
keep
The
Therefore,
The only
enough
Vg^- are
If-^al^-.
circuit.
ofierating in
Q.i
circuit
/?,
that
Q.,
and the
new value of R^^
is
V^^^
i.e.,
Q,i
widely applied.
1N755 Zener
uses a
If
is
active region;
its
is
to give Iq
Zener diode.
= 2.5 mA.
solution
Ip
^
= Vz-
Vbe
-^
7.5
V -0.7 V =10
mA
R^
680
and
Ir^I^=\Q
mA
Neglecting /g
12
/.=
i
V- 7.5 V =
20.45 mA
220
fi
Power
dissipation in Z),
259
is
For /c = 2.5
From Eq.
mA,
l^'^-^
Glossary of
Important
mW
Terms
mA.
(11-6),
2.5
7.5
mA =
'
V-0.7 V
V-0 7 V
mA
2.5
ZLener diodes are used extensively to protect other devices from exces-
11-7.2
peak exceeds
F^,
Zener breakdown.
is
limited to
is
forward
F^-H Vp).
produced by
by
electric field.
Removal
atoms by
Ionization by collision.
Removal
of
IZK
I.ZM-
Maximum
of characteristic.
Zener current.
Figure 11-1Z
Voltage
Protection
circuit.
Glossary of
Important
Terms
260
Z^'
Pj.^
Z^r
Z^n'
a^.
Temjserature coefficient of
at /^y.
of characteristic.
f^.
Combination
of
Zq.
Output impedance
regfulator.
of regulator.
Combination
of transistor
to
to
Series reg^ulator.
Same
Constant cturent
circuit.
Combination
of transistor
Overvoltage protection
Review
11-1.
Questions
Name
circuit.
circuit.
tyjjes of
at
of
in
which
^ZM' ^^'^
^Z/C'
may
Draw
'^z-
a sketch to show
structed,
how a compensated
circuit for
reference diode
coefficient
is
is
con-
improved.
11-6.
the
Sketch the schematic symbol for a Zener diode and show the polarity
11-5.
how
of
11-4.
different
11-3.
breakdown diodes
involved.
how
Sketch the ac equivalent circuit for the simple Zener diode voltage
regulator. Derive the equations for Sy, Zq, line regulation,
and load
regulation.
11-7.
regulator.
11-8.
how
its
voltage regulators.
11-9.
(b)
A
A
11-1.
silicon diode,
A
of
2.2 mV/ C, is to be used with the Zener to construct a compensated reference diode. Calculate the value of V^f at 25 C and at
100 C. Also calculate the value of a^ for the compensated reference
diode.
11-2.
11-3.
of
11-4.
have an output
of approxi-
is
to
is
voltage change
from zero to
11-5.
mA
at the
same
time.
The supply
in series with a
11-6.
to the
current of approximately 2
mA. Design
is
to
have a collector
261
Problems
CHAPTER
12
Field
Effect
iransistors
12-1
(FET) are
Introduction
resistance.
12-2
The
rh
irr-r
this gives
of
and n-channel
devices.
field effect
transistor
(JFET)
and
Principle
Unlike
voitage-op)erated devices.
together
is
illustrated
and
their terminal
is
shown
in Fig. 12-l(a).
When
the gate
is
biased negative with respect to the source [Fig. 12-l(b)], the/w-junctions are
reverse biased
is
more
lightly
I
262
-o +
263
Drain
Principle
of Ihe
n-Channel
JFET
>G5
Vc
II
Source
No
(a)
bias voltage
(b)
on gates
Small negative
bias
behaves as an insulator.
it
narrowed,
its
resistance
is
is
increased,
junctions
is
a signal
is
The
result
and /p
is
is
the channel
that
reduced.
When
is
the negative
When
Large negative
gate source
bias
Figure 12-1.
carriers,
(c)
gate source
is
is
and decreased
us
it
goes pwsitive. Consequently, as the signal goes negative the depletion regions
is
increased,
reduced. Also, as the signal goes positive the depletion regions recede, the
is increased. As will be
comparable to a triode vacuum
The drain and source fserform the same functions as the plate and
channel resistance
is
JFET
is
FET
drain current. As
is
is
to
gate controls
be avoided, so
The name
fact
that
the depletion
regions in the channel are the result of the electric field at the reverse- biased
The symbol
for the
n-channel
JFET
is
shown
always
Some manufacturers
in Fig. 12-2.
p>oints
from p
/(-tyfje
to
As
n.
for other
For an
opposite the source [Fig. 12-2(a)]; others show the gate centralized between
264
Field
Effect
i-'
Transistors
(c)
(b)
(a)
Figure 12-2.
Circuit
Tetrode
connected
|FET.
drain and source [Fig. 12-2(b)]. The symbol shown in Fig. 12-2(c) is tised
where the terminals of the two gate regions are provided with separate
connecting leads. In
is
referred to as a
tetrode- connected
PET.
12-3
Characteristics
of n-Channel
JFET
12-3.1
Depletion
Regions
An
-channel
JFET
is
shown
in Fig.
When
is
applied, a
265
along the channel. In the portion of the channel between gate and source, /p
causes a voltage drop which biases the gate with respect to that part of the
Characteristics
is
resistive,
^4
by a voltage
Fig.
V^.
of n-Channel
)FET
This
will
Between f>oint B
is Vg, which is less than V^. Therefore, at point B the gate is at Vg with
respect to the channel, and the depletion region penetration is less than at
point A. From point C to the source terminal, the voltage drop F^ is less
than Vg. Thus, the gate-channel junction reverse bias (at point C) is V(~
volts, and f)enetration by the depletion regions is less than at A or B. This
difference in voltage drops along the channel, and the consequent variation
in bias, account for the shape of the depletion regions penetrating the
n-channel.
bias),
small drain current flows, causing some voltage drop along the channel. This
reverse biases the gate-channel junctions by a small
amount, causing
little
nearly linear,
value.
The channel
until the voltage
drop along
it
Drain
to cause considerable
Breakdown
-
region
saturation
current ('oss'
Pinchoff
voltage iVp)
Figure 12-4.
V^s-O.
12-3.2
Drain
Characteristics
when ^c=0
266
Field
significantly affected
Effect
Transistors
by the depletion
regions.
is
Because
resistance.
increasing
Vj)g
When
Fig. 12-4).
is
where /^
is
is
fairly constant
is
Z^,
(see
channel. For
off the
levels off
The
I^^
is
is
designated the
The
region
is
make up
the
effect
(see
Chapter
The normal
destroyed.
is
At
11).
point the drain current increases very rapidly, and the device
this
may be
the pinch-off
region.
When an
12-3.3
Drain
Characteristics
with
External
Bias
external
is
when {^^ =
Therefore,
when
Z^,
= zero.
this,
channel
voltage
(i.e.,
is
smaller than
when
reached at a lower
Z^,
Id/^ds
characteristics
is
If
|X)sitive
is
because
is
Vq^
shown by the
characteristic for
The
characteristic
is
is
is
for
V(^=
-t-0.5V
in
Fig.
12-5.
In general,
Ij)ss'
is
is
shows Vp = 4.5V.
off.
is
still
now
require
Gate-channel
Drain
saturation
current
268
Field
Transfer
Effect
Drain characteristics
characteristics
Transistors
V^, =
Figure 12-6.
Draw
12-4
The
p-Channel
JFET
and
I^cs
and
Fg^
mA
mA
and
F(js=-3V
Vgs= Vp= 45
is
at I^
Point 3
is
at I^
Point 4
is
at
7^= 0.9
Point 5
is
at
=
/fl
=- V
= -2V
= 5.4 mA
= 2.8 mA
Point 2
and
-tyf)e (Fig.
is
to 5.
/'-type material,
The drain-source
potential
is
source, negative to the drain. Thus, a current flows (in the conventional
direction)
is
applied,
on the
gate, negative
JFET
all
voltage
and current
269
)fET
Data Sheet
and
Parameters
M
Figure 12-7.
Principle of operation
and
circuit
symbols
for
p-channel JFET.
Drain characteristics
Transfer
characteristics
Vn, = - 0.5
V+6
+4
Figure 12-8.
-2
+2
-^
Vp
-6
-8
-10 V
characteristics.
12-5
)FET Data
Sheet and
Parameters
typical
transistor
FET
data sheet,
data sheet
it
is
shown
in
Fig.
12-9.
number and a
maximum
brief
These
the
12-5.1
Data
Sheet
2n5457
(SILICON)
2n5458
Silicon N-channel junction field-effect transistors depletion mode (Type A) designed for general-purpose
audio and switching applications.
2n5459
MAXIMUM RATINOS
Rating
CASE 29
(5)
(TO-92)
Drain and source
may be
interchanged.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
noted
FET
imf>ortant
The
parameters
listed
Some
of the
Vp)
The FET
12-5.2
Saturation
Current and
Pinch-off
Voltage
/n
When
'*
Iijss
and Vp are
1-
= /n
(12-1)
and
V^ may
be
can be constructed. One of the problems in using FET's is that each device
type does not have a single transfer characteristic. This is because I^ss and
Vp cannot be specified accurately. Instead, the manufacturer sfjccifies maxi-
mum
of 6
V.
(Fig.
2-9), construct
2N5459 FET.
solution
From
Fig. 12-9,
^F"
f'ao.o
/o^ = 4 mA
To
of Vp
construct the
=2 V
minimum
V (max)
mA (max)
(min), 8
(min), 16
minimum
levels
I^ss are substituted into Eq. (12-1) along with convenient values
and
of Kc^.
When
Kc^
Plot point
mA(Fig.
=
1
V, 7^ = 4
of the
mA
[1
minimum
-0/2f = 4 mA.
and
//,
=4
12-10).
= 4 mA
= 4 mA
/^ - 4 mA
7^ = 4 mA
- 0.5/2]^ = 2.25
- 1/2]^= mA
- .5/2]^ = 0.25
mA
[1 -2/21^ =
/^
7^
(1
mA
(point 2)
(point 3)
mA
(point 4)
(point 5)
271
Example 12-2
272
Field
Effect
Transistors
Figure 12-10.
Construction of
characteristics
transfer
for
2N5459.
The minimum
For the
/=
transfer characteristic
maximum
16
mA
is
above process
points
is
to 5.
repeated using
and F = 8 V.
WhenFGs = OV,
When ^'ca = 2 V,
WhenF(js = 4V,
When Kca = 6 V,
When Vcs = 8V,
The maximum
7^=
16
mA [1 -0/8f = 16 mA
= 9 mA
= 4mA
/o
/^ = 1 mA
/^ =0 mA
(point 6)
(point 7)
1^
(point 8)
(point 9)
(point 10)
transfer characteristic
is
the points as
plotted.
12-5.3
Trans-
conductance
It
7^^^^
Two
(r^).
The
and Vp can
transconductance
is
characteristic, and since the slop>e varies, the value of V(^ at vk'hich g^ is
measured must also be sjsecified. Forward transfer admittance or transadmittance
names given
/iS)
is
still
is
273
)f
ET Data
Sheet and
Parameters
use
defined as
is
maintained constant)
(12-2)
From
the
FET maximum
determine g^ at Vq^ =
Figure 12-11.
V and
V^^
Derivation of
= 4
V.
g irom
transfer characteristics.
Example 12-3
solution
274
Field
From
Effect
Fig. 12-11
and Eq.
(12-2),
Transistors
mA
=3-4 mA/ V = 3400jllS
V
3.8 mA
= 1.9mA/V=1900/i5
2V
43
atKc^=-lV,
in.
= TT^TTT
1.25
atFc.= -4V,
The
12-5.4
Drain
Resistance
drain resistance
when
terminals
FET
the
(r^) is
is
and source
is
also the
slope of the drain characteristics in the pinch-off region. Since the characteristics
may
or
are almost
megohms. Since
be expressed as an
The
flat, r^ is
r^ is
and
r^g^,
output admittance:
drain resistance
is
in
\Y^\= l/r^.
defined as
''
(when
r^
be designated as
also
is
maintained constant)
(12-3)
From
is
10 /xS typical,
The drain
12-5.5
Drain-Source
on
Resistance
resistance (r^)
is
and 20
kfi
and 50 juS
minimum.
when
i.e.,
when
the device
the characteristics. /^
X R^yg
is
and
less,
known
the
Current
and Input
Resistance
This
it is
is
typically 100
of
is
or
is
The gate-channel
since
may be
ohmic region
F^w^j which
as sampling gates. I^
FET
12-5.6
Gate Cutoff
r^ is
Rjyg
removed;
maximum. This
resistance
is
at
junction in a
JFET
is
^1^*^
flows.
the 2N5457, Icss=i "A at 25C and 200 nA at 100C (Fig. 12-9). The
device input resistance (Res) 's the resistance of the reverse- biased gate-channel junctions, and is inversely prof)ortional to lo^g. Typical values of R^g for
JFET
are 10^
J2
at
25C and
lO'
at 100C.
There are
circuited.
several
BVj^qq
specified.
BVq^^
is
ways
in
which the
FET breakdown
voltage
may
be
is
12-5.7
Breakdown
Voltage
All devices
can
dissipate.
Pd
FET
maximum
may be drawn
12-5.8
Maximum
Power
Dissipation
upton the
characteristics.
On
draw
FET
with
Pjy
= 200
mW
the
maximum pwwer
maximum
op>erating at a
is
mW/C.
solution
/'nat25C = 200mW
Derating factor = 2
Maximum
ambient
Pd
mW/C.
rise
at
above 25C
lOCC = />fl - (2
mW X VS'C)
150 mW = 50 mW
= 200 mW-
Figure 12-12.
Maximum power
275
Example 12-4
276
When Vos=
Field
Plot point
Effect
on
10 V, Id
= Pd/
= 50 mW/10 V = 5 mA.
7^ = 5 mA.
^z>5
Fo5=10 V,
Fig. 12-12 at
Transistors
AtFo5=15V,
/fl
= 50mW/15 V=3.3mA
(point 2)
At V^s = 20 V,
7^
= 50 mW/20
V= 2.5 mA
(point 3)
At V^s = 25 V,
7^
= 50 mW/25
V= 2 mA
(point 4)
Join
Noise
to
T= 100C.
12-5.9
Figure
shown
all
usually has
a bipolar transistor
that the
is
FET
is
FET. As
in the
bias resistance.
The
FET
if
any
circuit are
for
Capacitances
12-5.10
Capacitances
for
gate-source capacitance
{C
).
is
This
source input
FET
important for
Qii
12-6
JFET
Construction
'^
pP maximum and Q
Junction
is
pF maximum
7).
(Fig. 12-9).
is
diffu-
typ)e of construction.
diffused.
Then
/)-type
impurities are diffused into the ^-channel to form one side of the gate, the
substrate forming the other side of the gate. Finally, metal
place to
make
terminals.
With
this
symmetrical
is
deposited in
tyjse of construction,
the
is
ing the drain and source terminals would radically affect the device characteristics.
Silicon dioxide
Gates
Top view
Figure 12-13.
Input
Source
(a)
Complete equivalent
circuit
^.v',(T
o s
(b)
Figure 12-14.
Low
277
12-7
FET
Equivalent
Circuit
transistor
is
and output
shown
terminals.
(gmX
source
V^^)
The output
The
circuit
source
is
common
to
both input
is
and
Note that
(tj).
V^^ is
output terminals
tween the drain and gate terminals. Rq^ is normally very much larger than
the bias resistances, so it can be eliminated from the equivalent circuit. For
low-frequency operation the capacitors can also be eliminated. The simplified
is
as
shown
12-8
The
MOSFET
Figure 12- 15(a) shows the construction of an
12-8.1
Enhancement
Mode
MOSFET
oxide semiconductor
substrate,
substrate,
FET (MOSFET).
insulated gate
FET or metal
two blocks of heavily doped -type material are diffused into the
and then the surface is coated with a layer of silicon dioxide. Holes
make
Metal is deposited through the holes to form drain and source terminals, and
on the surface area between drain and source, a metal plate is depKwited.
This plate, as will be seen, can function as a gate.
Consider the situation when the drain
the source
and no
potential
is
is
j&-type substrate
there
is
is
now connected
with
induced
and the
When
the gate
substrate.
plate, so they
positive
carriers are
is
induced in the
made
increased,
is
to the positive
plate.
The
its
278
is
enhanced
by the
Source
(a)
Gate
Metal
(b)
mode MOSFET
is
(c)
Figure 12-15.
n-Channel enhancement
mode MOSFET.
279
280
Transfer
Field
characteristic
Drain characteristics
Effect
Transistors
Figure 12-16.
mode
MOSFET.
positive bias
on the
the device
gate,
known
is
as
an
enhancement mode
MOSFET.
The
MOSFET
mode
are shown in Fig. 12-16. Note that the drain current increases
with positively increasing gate-source bias voltage. Because the gate of the
MOSFET
is
is
from 1000
Two
shown
/iS to
2000
symbols
from
/tS, i.e.,
for the
to 2
MOSFETs
typically range
mA/V.
MOSFET
are
in Fig. 12-17. In
is
is
is
applied,
to
i.e.,
The
channel
is
until a
in the
enhancement mode.
A /^-channel
enhancement mode
MOSFET
/;-tyf)e
is
constructed by starting
and current polarities are then the reverse of those for the n-channel
and the direction of the arrowhead is reversed in the circuit symbol.
Go
GO
J'
Ij
n.
Figure 12-17.
Circuit
symbols
for
n-channel enhancement
mode MOSFET.
in Fig.
12-18
(a).
The
construction
is
same as for the enhancement mode MOSFET, with the exception that a
lightly doped n-type channel has been introduced between the two heavily
doped source and drain blocks. When the drain is made positive with respect
the
to the source,
gate
is
made
If
the
are induced in the n-type channel. These {XJsitive charge carriers absorb free
negative charge carriers and cause the channel resistance to increase. Drain
current
is
is
is
is
to deplete the
JFET.
channel
MOSFET.
If
JFET. Now
resjDect to
if
the gate
is
made
fXKitive
Source
(a)
n-channel depletion-enhancement
mode MOSFET with no bias
(b)
Figure 12-18.
Depletion
mode
operation
n-Channel depletion-enhancement
mode MOSFET.
281
12-8.2
Depletion
Enhancement
Mode
MOSFET
282
Transfer
Field
characteristics
Drain characteristics
Effect
Transistors
Figure 12-19.
mode MOSFET.
o
G
S
Figure 12-20.
depletion
mode
Circuit
mode
The
also.
symbols
MOSFET
Substrate
t-n
for
is
n-channel depletion-enhancement
mode MOSFET.
The symbols
now
is
MOSFET
mode
enhancement mode
(Fig.
solid.
i
12-9
'
"G
V-MOSFET
The
construction of the
MOSFET discussed
V-FET
V- MOSFET
is
in Section
illustrated in Fig.
n'*'
12-21.
,p,
V-FET)
12-8. The
(or
and
is
quite different
cross section of an
V-shaped cut penetrates
'*'
Source
Gate
Source
283
Silicon dioxide
The
V-MOSFET
Drain
Figure 12-21.
mode V-MOSFET.
substrate. The n '* layers are heavily dopied, low resistive material, while the
n ~ layers are lightly doped, high resistive regions. The silicon dioxide layer
covers both
horizontal
the
(insulated) gate
surface
of
The
the V-cut.
is
in the V-cut.
Source terminals make contact (through the silicon dioxide) to the upf)er n
and p layers. The n * substrate is the drain terminal of the device.
i.e.,
drain,
the
gate-source voltage
is
and
for
the
V-FET,
this n-tyjse
source
termination.
When
the
flow occurs.
The drain characteristics and transfer characteristics for the enhancement mode n-channel V-FET are similar to those for the enchancement
mode MOSFET (Fig. 12-16). As the gate is made more and more (xjsitive
with resf>ect to the source, the channel resistance is reduced and more drain
current flows.
The
level of Vf^, /p
/i-Channel
^-channel
remains
JFETS and
to those of the
fairly
VMOS
field effect
/^-channel
levels.
MOSFETS,
bottom
and source
for
As
size.
V-FET
This allovw
MOSFET
is
can have
much
at the surface.
In the
V-FET
MOSFET,
is
upon
By controlling the
VN88AF
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
doping density and the diffusion time, much shorter channels can be created
than are p)ossible with mask control of channel length. These shorter
channels allow greater current densities, which again contribute to larger
power dissipations. The shorter channel length also allows a higher transconductance to be achieved
in the
285
Glossary of
ImpKjrtant
Terms
the
factor in
V-FET
geometry
voltage
zero or negative
is
and
the drain
is
the presence of
When
substrate.
the gate
The
is
"''
reverse biased.
is
and
this, relatively
high
down.
V-MOSFET
The
transistor
fast-switching
op>eration,
and
VN88AF
the
for
SILICONIX
V-MOS
mode
'J
The
approximately 8 V.
VN88AF
is
of
its
length.
The
mA/V
2N5459 JFET
found in
gn'XR^
(see Fig.
MOSFETs.
12-9)
FET
the 20
than other
and with
V-FET
FET
mA/V maximum
amplifier
is
usually
approximately
much
larger gains
amplifiers.
n-channel JFET.
and
JFET.
and
Drain.
FET
most
n-channel JFET.
Source.
FET
channel terminal
Gate.
FET
for
input terminal
Unipolar transistor,
/y.
negative
n-channel JFET.
Glossary of
Important
Terms
286
Field
Transistors
FET with
two gate
regions,
terminals.
Depletion regions.
Drain
characteristics.
like
Region
Region
Pinch-off region.
of drain characteristics in
of drain characteristics in
Breakdown
which the
FET
is
resistor.
region.
Region
level of
gate-source voltage.
of drain characteristics in
loss-
Level of
at
Z^,
commencement
of saturation
Drain-source voltage at
which
Tjj
becomes
V^g at
zero.
Transfer characteristic.
Transconductance, g.
Same as transconductance.
Same as transconductance.
The drain-source ac resistance when
pinch-off region. The reciprocal of the
Drain resistance,
r^.
operating in the
the
FET
is
slope of the
The
Output admittance, Y.
inverse of
r^.
Drain-source on voltage,
VJ)s^ay
lo
^ ^ds-
Gate-source cutoff current, Iqss- Small current which flows across the
reverse-biased gate-channel junctions of a JFET.
Same
as /g^^.
Gate-source voltage
Common
C^
or
at
The gate-source
which
capaci-
MOSFET.
The drain-gate
capacitance.
287
Problems
or decreasing bias.
MOSFET
V-MOSFET.
in
is
V-shaped; high-frequency,
high-p>ower device.
12-1.
Using
Show
12-2. Sketch
typical
and explain
JFET, and
characteristics. Define
Repeat Questions
12-5.
Draw
g^
12-1
may
and
be derived from
it.
JFET.
parameters involved
12-6.
Review
Questions
their shaf>e.
explain. Indicate
12-3.
JFET.
illustrations,
Draw
sketches to
may
of
JFET
construction. Label
all
parts
and explain.
12-7.
Using
illustrations,
MOSFET.
ment
explain.
12-8.
Repeat Question
12-7
for
MOSFET.
12-9.
enhancement
MOSFET, and
depletion-enhancement
/^-channel
MOSFET.
12-10. Sketch the cross section of a
V-MOSFET
it
oper-
ates.
12-11. Sketch
typical
V-FET.
performance of
this device
for
and compare
a
it
to other FET's.
12-1.
From
12-12, derive
the transfer
characteristic.
12-2.
the
in the
2N5458 FET.
12-3.
From
lem
the
12-2,
FET maximum
^,
at 1'^^=
and J^cs"
-6
V.
Problems
288
12-4.
Field
l^^^'^y
.
Transistors
12-5.
On
From
Fig. 12-5,
FET
draw
the
operating at a
VN88AF
in Fig.
maximum
maximum
12-22, de-
termine the value of g^. Using the output characteristics given in Fig.
12-22, draw the transfer characteristic for Vj)g= 10 V. Determine g^
from
this characteristic.
CHAPTER
13
FET Biasing
Thermal runaway does not occur with field effect transistors; however,
maximum and minimum transfer characteristics
make
To
13-1
Introduction
obtain reason-
able limits on the quiescent values of drain current, bias techniques similar
to those used with vacuum-tube circuits must be employed. For both analysis
and design of FET bias circuits, a graphical approach is most convenient.
With few exceptions, MOSFET bias circuits are almost identical to those
13-2
DC
Load
Line and
Bias Point
The dc
istics in
FET circuit
is drawn upon the device characterwas done with the bip>olar transistor circuit
Consider the conunon source circuit and device character-
exactly the
same way
as
289
13-2.1
DC Load
'"^
290
FET
Biasing
(a)
Common
source circuit
mA
B
10
solution
291
Spread of
^DS~
'DL
*^DD
Characteristics
and Fixed
When/o = 0,
Bias Circuit
= 24V
^'nc=^'nn
Plot fxjint
A on
the characteristics at 1^
and V/^ = 24 V.
When Vds^O,
0=Vr,n-InR,
DD 'D'^L
'
In
Plot point
load line
on the
24
characteristics at 1^
is
The dc
V =
10.9inA
2.2 kfi
/fi
points
FET
circuit
is
mA
10.9
A and
and
^'o5
V. The dc
B.
V^^ levels for given values of load resistance and supply voltage.
Ri or
Vj)g is
The
load
dc bias point or quiescent point (Q^ pwint) similar to that for bip>olar
is selected on the load line. This p>oint defines the dc
transistor circuits
when no
For a
Where maximum
FET
may
may
input signal
is
applied.
be selected to give
in
As
13-2.2
The Bias
Point
maximum
fall
line.
below
the pinch-off voltage [Vp on Fig. 13- 1(b)]. Also, since the gain of a field
effect
device
nonlinear,
is
FET
The
Q_
point for a
FET
circuit
is
usually
selected for a convenient value of gate bias voltage. In Fig. 13- 1(b) the Q_
point is at Vqs^ ~ 1 V, giving 7^ = 5.5
and ^'0^= 1 1.9 V.
mA
For a given
FET
and Vp arc
specified
on
the device data sheet. These quantities cannot be specified to close tolerances, so as explained in Section 12-5, the
50%
or
more
are
shown
in
characteristics
13-3
Spread of
Characteristics
and Fixed
Bias Circuit
The
292
FET
Biasing
circuit of Fig.
13- 1(a)
is
an example
Rq
minimum
levels of
Z^,
to
a negative voltage
The gate is
The maximum and
of fixed bias.
V^.
drawn vertically on the transfer characteristics at the fixed level of Fg^. I^^^^^ and I^^^^s are then indicated at the
intersections of the bias line and the transfer characteristics.
graphical technique.
bias line is
Example 13-2
Fg =
V and
FET
determine the
corresponding F^^
shown
in Fig. 13-2.
the
levels.
Figure 13-2.
lo^wax)
^nd
'o(i)
circuit.
solution
Vq^
= Vq= I
V, Kgs being a
'z)(nxax)~^-5
vertically
from F<jj=
by Tq and F^^.
Eq. (13-1)
W35 ~ '^DD
~ 'D^L
characteristic,
in
for
For
^,,293
//>(),
Self-Bias
Fa5 = 24
For
1.9
^DCmin).
Fa5 = 24
V-(1.25mAx2.2kn) = 21.25 V
is
by no means
Hovifever, this
by adjusting
The
F^, to
is
FET
characteristics,
f)ossible to
make such
is
must be resorted
reliable. It
more complicated
techniques
circuit
to.
exactly the
is
same
as for
all
13-4
Self-Bias
In the self-biased
circuit
a resistance in
series
provides the gate bias voltage. Consider the self-biased circuit shown in Fig.
13-3.
The
ground
then F^
IV. In
or, in
is
Vk,= ^d
is
is
'^
^s-
terminal
IV
voltage
It
is
IV
= 1"^ a"d
Rg
kfi,
grounded via
R^;,
V(^= IV.
If //>
is
i.e.,
is
also
IV
is
is
(13-2)
^'=-/z)X/^,
To
minimum
values of Z^,
it
is
best to
upon the
transfer characteristics.
The
points
where
the transfer characteristics give lD(mMx) ^"'^ ^D(min)drops across /f^, the transistor, and R^ gives
From Eq.
(13-3),
the
/o(min)
^'"'^
determined.
Summing
levels
of
the voltage
V^s niay be
13-4.1
"'^^ Line
294
FET
+
Biasing
24V
3kn:
J^
Figure 13-3.
Self-biased circuit.
1
The
Example 13-3
transfer characteristics
and
/^(niin)
shown
FET
with the
in Fie. 13-4.
of
of //,
Vj^^.
solution
From Eq.
(13-2),
''GS
When
When
lj)
Ijy
~ ~ 'D^S
The bias line for 7?^ = 1 kfi is now drawn through points A and
Where the bias line cuts the maximum and minimum transfer
tics,
read
^CCmax)
= 2.5 mA
and
4(mi)=
From Eq.
(13-3),
1.2
mA
5.
characteris-
295
Self-Bias
Figure 13-4.
Icx^^t,-,
and
/o(min)
2.5
mA
1.2
mA
circuit.
For/n
KB5 =
24V-2.5mA(3kn+l kS2)=14V
For In
P'o5
= 24 V-1.2mA(3kn +
kfl)
19.2
seen from Example 13-3 that the self-bias technique gives closer
on 7^, and consequently on F^^, than the fixed-bias circuit. The Ip
limits can be even closer if a larger value of R^ is used. The bias lines drawn
as broken lines on Fig. 13-4 are for Rs = 2 kfl and 3 kJ2, as shown. Although
the limits of I^ are closer with large values of R^, Ip is reduced to quite low
levels, and this can be a distinct disadvantage.
It is
limits
resistance
Rg
is
drain current. R^ will also tend to stabilize Ip against signals applied to the
gate;
i.e.,
R^
will
circuit.
Q in Fig.
13-3
is
13-4.2
Bypass
Capacitor
13-5
Self-Bias
with
for
resistance
is
External
Voltage
^DD-
The procedure
for
'nv
f'
tv
(13-4)
^n^v
Vn=Vn.+ InR.
+ 24
(a)
negative supply
'
MO.
3kn? ^
T^
with
potential divider
Figure 13-5.
2%
Two
and
297
Self-Bias
With
Vn^
External
Voltage
'DP
2
In fir
The
minimum
each
lines
on the
b>e
(13-5)
levels.
transfer characteristics.
transfer characteristics
circuit,
solution (a)
From Eq.
(13-4),
when
/^
= and V^=+3V.
When 7^=1 mA, ^^^ = 3 V-(l mAX3 kfi) = 0.
Plot point fi at 7^ =
mA and K^^ = V.
istics (Fig.
13-6) at 7^
Figure 13-6.
/()
and
'>(,,
Example 13-4
296
Draw
FET
Biasing
A and
B.
Where
^"d
^D(inin)= l-^
mA.
solution (b)
From Eq.
(13-5),
when
7^
24VX1
^''^nc
Mfl
3Mfi+l Mil
= 6V
C on the
= 2 mA,
Plot point
When
/^
transfer characteristics at
24VX1 MR
-(2mA X
(3MB+1 MB)
V =
Plot point Z) at 7^
Draw
= 2 mA and
3kfl) =
= V.
C and D. Where the bias line intersects
= 2.8 mA and //)(min)~2.2 mA.
/D(max)
Fc;y
It is
Example
1.3
mA,
cases. It
instructive to
13-3.
The
compare the
difference between
results of
Io(^^^-.
0.6
is
mA in
bijis
voltage as well
which
R^ is
The
13-6
The
Design
analysis process.
of FET Bias
first
specified.
Circuits
bias line
is
7^,
made
FET
bias circuits
is
that
to a very
low
level.
acceptable levels of
is
characteristics,
7^,
are
and the
determines the value of the source resistance, and the point at which the bias
line intersects the horizontal axis of the characteristics indicates the required
external voltage.
Example 13-5
A JFET
voltage of
^,,
= 30
constant to within
V.
Fj, is to
is
to be
and a supply
be approximately 20 V, and is to remain
V. Design a suitable
self-bi2is circuit
with external
bias voltage.
fl
-2
-1
300
FET
The
convenient range.
From
points
A and B on
is
Biasing
R.=
The
AF
A/
10
2.5
V =
4kn
mA
external bias of 7
is
Vc =
Vf^
= l V;
required.
-^^ X Vdd
^2
see Fig.
3-5(b)
]
V^
therefore,
an
301
Biasing
MOSFETS
I)
^,, =
(b)
(c)
Figure 13-6.
Two
Vr.. = +
Vc
Graphical analysis
for
depletion-enhancemenl
MOSFET.
The
the similar
JFET
is
13-7.2
MOSFET
circuit.
Self-Bias
The depletion-enhancement
the transfer characteristics
of
//,
shown
MOSFET
in Fig.
13-11.
Determine the
solution
Vn =
'DD ^ "2
20Vx200kn
" 3ookn+2ookn = 8V
^cs" 'c~ 'ds
has
maximum
Example 13-6
(a) Vr..
=+Vr,
Graphical analysis
(b|
'
Figure 13-9.
enhancement MOSFET.
-^Vnn =20V
:/?,
300 kn
L 1
kn
'd
Figure 13-10.
When
7^
self-bias
= 0,
Fcy,
Plot point
When
1
^i
A on
= 8V-0 = 8V
and V^^ = 8 V.
Fcy =
= 8 V- (7^X1
kfl)
8V
Plot point
302
on the
characteristics at V(>s
= and
7^
= 8 mA.
voltage.
303
Problems
Draw
MOSFET
Figure 13-11.
intersects the
hnc
bias
= 8.5 mA
= 7.2 mA
/n,^M
D(inin)
/n/m..)
')(mx)
Fixed
bias.
voltage
Self-bias.
is
resistance
is
Bias line.
is
resistance,
and a
Glossary of
Important
Terms
is
and a
fixed
all
possible
bias conditions.
13-1.
13-2.
line
and determine a
/,Z>(n
X).
'D(n
the
the
,),
and
has the
Fig.
mjiximum and
13-11.
Draw
bias
Problems
304
FET
+ 30
Biasing
R^
<
2.2
kn
Mn
Figure 13-12.
13-3.
Draw
circuits
to
show a
JFET
circuit
shown
in Fig.
13-14.
Draw
The
circuit in
is
to
be redesigned to give
Z^,
maximum
within the
mA. Draw the new bias line and determine the new
value for R^ and the new ratio for /fj/^iDetermine the maximum and minimum values of V^ for the circuit
of Fig. 13-15. The FET transfer characteristics are shown in Fig.
limits of
13-6.
Problem 13-4
to
.3
13-16.
Figure 13-13.
mA
mA
306
FET
Biasing
6
5
4
3
2
J
10
14
12
16
18
20 V
Figure 13-16.
13-9.
shown
load line for each circuit. Note that the total dc load
13-10.
13-11.
is R/^
Determine the
levels of Vj^g
bias voltage in
Example 13-2
to
is
changed
when
the gate
V.
in Fig. 13-14. If
the
1.5
dc
Rg.
Figure 13-17.
307
Biasing
MOSFETS
Vn, = - 2
J
4
Figure 13-11
13-12.
If
Rg
10
A FET
= 25
13-14.
is
changed
18
Figs.
to 2.7 kfi,
20
Volts
levels of V^.
13-13) has
Vj)D
16
14
Problem 13-11
in
12
/?i
V.
= 3.3
kB,
The FET
Determine the
/?5
= 3.3
R^
kfl,
MQ, R^=\30
kSi,
shown
and
in Fig.
levels of Vq.
13-14.
13-15.
The
13-7.
circuit of Fig. 13-10
and 18 V.
/?^ is to
The
MOSFET
circuit
in
Fig.
the ratio of
13-17.
to be redesigned to
kfl.
new
tics in Fig.
13-16.
is
be changed to 6
/?2 to
./?,
which
^^ =
will give
kfl
(b)
values for
uses
/?,, /?2,
and
R^.
V^ between 10 and 15 V.
in Fig. 13-10)
is
have
/?^
= 3.3
13-8
ki2
CHAPTER
14
Basic
FET
Circuits
14-1
Introduction
There are three basic FET configurations: Common source, common drain,
and common gate. These are similar to the three bipolar transistor circuits. Of
drain and
common
14-2
The
Common
Source
The common
common
its
source circuit
is
the
FET
transistor
frequently because of
n -channel
common
cathode
Circuit
its
circuit
circuit.
is
Like
used very
JFET connected
as a
common
source amplifier.
and
resjsectively.
The
load resistance ^^
is
The
Vq which
is
connected in
gate
is
biased
connected via
series
with the
drain and the supply voltage Fp^. Input signals are capacitively coupled to
308
309
The
Common
Source
Circuit
Figure 14-1.
and
terminal
To
Fg
is
is
common
Common
the output
to
The
source
study the operation of the circuit, assume that the gate bias voltage
such that Ip
mA.
Also
let
source voltage
a +0.1
is
signal
/?^
is
now
The new
value of I^
7^
be
FET
= 5000/iS
= /q^^ = mA X 10 kB = 10
^^5= K^b -(//>/?/,) = 20 V- 10 V= 10
If
is
The
source amplifier,
is
reduced, and /^
to
is
is
is
= mA + {gxAVcs)
1
= mA+(5000X10~x0.1)
= mA + 0.5 mA= 1.5 mA
1
of drain voltage
is
= 20-(1.5mAX10kn) = 5 V
of +0.1 V at the gate causes V[, to decrease from
V; an output change of 5 V.
Similarly, if an input signal of 0.1 V is applied to the gate, the gate
negative bias is increased by 0.1 V, the depletion regions f)enetrate deej>er
into the channel, and /^ is decreased.
Tp then becomes
10
to 5
/o=lmA + (^xAFc)
= mA + (5000xl0"*X -0.1)
= mA- 0.5 mA -0.5 mA
1
and
310
F^
Basic
V^d
- Id\
= 20-(0.5mAXlOkn)
= 15 V
FET
Circuits
Now, an input
signal of 0.1
on the gate caused F^ to increase
V, an output change of +5 V.
The above analysis shows that the common source circuit provides an
from 10
to 15
It
when an input
also
there
is
a 180 phase
shift
and
signal
14-1,
is
that a
vice versa;
i.e.,
14-3
AC Analysis
of Common
Source
Circuit
To draw
14-3.1
Equivalent
Circuit
common
is
replaced with
its
own ac
equivalent circuit
From
14-3.2
is
shown
circuits,
source amplifier of
common
FET
source ampli-
in Fig. 14-2.
Fig. 14-2,
Voltage
Gain
and
K=-gKx
Voltage
,xR,
gam = A^==
^
If,
as frequently
is
rj
^^
+ Rj^f^rj,
and Eq.
(14-1)
(14-1) becomes
Tia
^d
or
A^^-g^Rt
i
(14-2)
311
AC
of
Analysis
Common
Source
Circuit
Figure 14-2.
This
may
is
AC
an approximate expression
for
common
common
source amplifier.
be useful occasionally.
The common
source amplifier
shown
a 2N5457 FET.
Example
14-1
solution
From
Fig. 12-9,
=
'
From Eq.
\YJ
100
kfi
10xlO-
(14-1),
A =
- 3000 X
10"^ X 100X10^X10X10^
-27.3
(100X10^) + (10X10^)
Using Eq. (14-2),
Z=R^\\r,^R^
At high frequencies,
R^^
and
r^
is
14-33
simply
(14-3)
Output
Impedance
Example 14-2
For the circuit of Fig. 14-1, rj= 100 kfi and 0,5 = 3 pF. Calculate the
low-frequency output impedance, and determine the output impedance at a
signal frequency of
MHz.
solution
Z.
lOOkfiXlOkfi
= .
9.09 kfl
lookfl-i-ioka
1
X=
27r/0,
At/=1 MHz,
X=
= 53 kO
2wXlX10^x3xlO"'^
R.y-x,
and X^
(/? is resistive
is
reactive)
yJR^ + Xf
|ZI
9.09kflX53kn
= 8.96
kfi
[(9.09kfi)^-l-(53kfi)^
At low
14-3.4
Input
Impedance
To
be
strictly correct, Z^
impedance
= R^WR^g,
Z-
is
is
usually very
much
Z.^Rr.
At higher
effective. It is
input signal
is
is
effect
and vacuum-tube
circuits.
Cin=C,,+ [l+^(/?J|rJ]C^,
The
input resistance
resistance. Consequently,
312
Rq becomes
where A^
(14-4)
is
usually
when
much
(14-5)
is
is
potentially divided
313
Common
across
is
Xn and
^*
Drain
Circuit
The common
source amplifier in
Fig.
14-1
2N5457 FET.
uses a
Example 14-3
solution
= 4.5 pF
and
C,
2N5457 FET,
= C^^ =
.5
pF
-^ =
r,=
^
From Eq.
-=100kn
10x10"*
y^,
= |y^j = 3ooo,iS
(14-5),
=3
pF-H
pF
= 45.4 pF
In the common drain amplifier, also called the source follower, the load
resistance {Ri)
This circuit
is
is
the
FET
common
equivalent of the
^
.,
and the vacuum-tube common
.
circuit
F^
is not
14-3.
i.rr
equal
to the
Instead
yn=yr..+
Assume
that /^
yr..+ InR,
/xS:
mAxlOkn=10 V
F;=-2V-H0V = 8 V
/o/?/,=
and
Note that the gate
V^.
is
ahwve ground
level,
is
14-4
The
v_ommon
Dram
Circuit
314
Basic
FET
Circuits
Input
3.3 ivin
Common
Figure 14-3.
10
gate;
The do
conditions are
/a
Now
where
F/j
now
is
established as
= lmA,
Vs=lOV,
Fc =
8V
and
drain amplifier.
V- is
The new
The new
=10 V+1V=11V.
A/n =
and
11
Thus,
lOkfi
FET
/n
11
value of F^
is
V=(/^ + A/o)X 10
(/^
+ V
1
gate
is
change
Fg+
+ A/,)X 10
V^,
kfl
kfi.
= 0.1 mA
A/fl=^^xAFcs
AF^_.=
Mm
AF^.c
0.1
mA
= 0.02 V
5000X10"
and
8
F=-1.98V+11
mA)
10 kfl
V-8V= + 1.02 V
14-5
AC
of
Analysis
Common
Drain
Circuit
As
common
common
drain amplifier
is
14-5.1
Equivalent
Circuit
From
14-5.2
Fig. 14-4,
Voltage
Cain
= IjX-
IT
and
Therefore,
K=gn.iK-K)Solving for
TT
V^,
K{r, + RL)
V
'
= g.Kr,RL-g,.Kr,RL
=s*" V
'
Rl
^-^
r,-^
(14-6)
Rl+ gr,R,
9..V^
Figure 14-4.
AC
common
drain amplifier.
315
The
316
voltage gain
is
Basic
FET
r.R,
Circuits
'"^.
(14-7)
+ ^L+5.'-A
if5.'-A('-.+^J.4i-
The common
Example 14-4
solution
From
Fig. 12-9,
r,=
g^
From Eq.
- = lOOk^
=
I
}^J
= 3000 juS
(14-7),
A=(
100 X 10*)
= 0.965
14-5.3
Output
Impedance
t.Rl
K=g,ny.
gVf
is
an output current
h-^K^gmURL
directly proportional to
,Rl
Z=
r.
+ Rdi+gmr,)
Wil+g,r,)]R^
V-,
and
{rjRi^)/{rj
+ R^^ +
317
AC
Analysis
of the
Common
9^K&)
Modified equivalent
Figure 14-5.
Using
drawn
this
for the
= 3000
juS.
circuit for
common
drain amplifier.
common
The common
g
Drain Circuit
FET
kfi
Example 14-5
solution
100X10'
^+gm^d
From Eq.
= 332n
+ (3000X10~^X 100X10')
(14-8)
Z=10kfi||332n
10kfix332
J2
10kfl-l-332n
=322 n
input resistance
resistances
the circuit
still
exists
is
(14-9)
The
gate-source
source voltage follows the gate voltage, only a fraction of the input signal
appears across the gate-source terminals. All the signal voltage appears
across
The
C j,
however, so
to several
Input
Impedance
is
Z = R,\\R^
capacitance
14-5.4
when
X(~ ^
is
reduced
14^
The
Common
Gate
Circuit
circuit,
is
is
appHed
The
to the source
is
included.
is
is
grounded,
i?^ is in series
signal voltage V-
V^ is
is
also develojjed
Assume an
The
Ijj
of
mA and a g
drain voltage
of
5000 nS
is
is
Vs
= IoXRg
= mAXl kn=l V
1
it
source terminal;
i.e.,
is
grounded,
it
is
is
IV
IV
is
with
respiect to the
IV with
V^= IV.
also
source
resf>ect to
the
Io
= lmA-{gX^Vcs)
= 1 mA-(5000Xl0"^X0.1)
= mA 0.5 mA
= 0.5 mA
1
Figure 14-6.
318
Common
gate amplifier.
of drain voltage
319
is
AC
Analysis
of the
Common
= 20-(0.5mAXlOkB)
= 15 V
Gate Circuit
and
phase with the input voltage at the source. Another very important
is
f>oint
in
is
that since I^ flows through the source as well as the drain, the signal voltage
Z^,
common
14-7
AC
Analysis
of the
Common
Gate Circuit
Replacing supply voltages and capacitors with short
ac equivalent circuit in Fig.
circuit gives the
complete ac equivalent
is
14-7(a).
circuit
shown
in Fig. 14-7(b).
Note
14-7.1
Equivalent
Circuit
source terminals, as always. However, since the source and the drain are the
iSm
^is)
terminals,
for
resfiectively,
the
common
gate circuit,
The output
voltage
14-7.2
is
Voltage
Cain
and
am
om
gs
y=gv,x
The
voltage gain
p
Tj+ H,
is
r.
+ R,
(14-10)
320
Basic
FET
Circuits
ac equivalent circuit
(a)
^
V
:^L
Figure 14-7.
This
is
the
same
o G
(b)
Complete ac equivalent
circuit
AC
common
gate circuit.
is
f)ositive
quantity.
is
in
common
The absence
phase with
V^,
source
minus
shown in
of a
as
Fig. 14-6.
The common
Example 14-6
solution
The
calculation
is
exactly the
same
change.
A =
= 27.3
(see
Example
14-1)
,^Rl
14-7.3
Output
impedance
common
is /?^
in parallel
Z=R,\\r,^R,
with
r^.
(14-11)
Z^
is,
this will
At high frequencies,
The ac
14-7.4
Input
is 1^.
Impedance
^d
= gm^gs=gmK
The
is
Actually, /?^
is
and
r^
(14-12)
can be shown
to
be involved in
R^,
but the
quite negligible.
common
is
z=-L
difference
V,/Ij
Assume
is
a 2N5457.
solution
From
^^
2N5457
K^J
= 3000 /iS
1
=333 n
3000X10"
gn,
From Eq.
(Fig. 12-9),
(14-12),
Z.=
gn,
333
The common
limits
kfl
kfi
= 250n
common
333 -t-l
source circuit, the Miller effect amplifies the input capacitance and
the
high-frequency response.
output voltage
is
common
Where
the output
is
in
phase with
321
Example 14-7
322
Basic
FET
is
Circuits
14-8
BI-FET
and BI-MOS
Circuits
of
The
much
transistors
is
is
considerably
less
= 200
This low
better high-
only input
MOSFET's,
than that of a
to 500, typically.
For a FET, A^
= gRj^. With
give multistage circuits which have a very high input resistance. Where
JFET's are combined with bipolars, the circuits are known as BI-FET
circuits. When MOSFET's and bijx)lars are combined, the name BI-MOS is
applied. Several BI-FET and BI-MOS amplifier circuits are illustrated in
Figs. 14-8
through 14-10.
common
JFET
The
less
circuit has
a very high
bipolar circuit.
o^Vc,
Figure 14-8.
Figure 14-9.
BI-MOS
DC
feedback
"Tr^
>
(a)
Figure 14-10.
(b)
used
pair.
F ^<
,
in BI-FET
operational amplifiers.
323
Example 14-8
FET
has ^
= 5 mS, and
solution
where ^,
d2
o\
= /?2||.R,||.R^||A2.
/4,
= 5 mA/V[3
^"^^kS^^
=:;1600
The
(^,
is
is
BI-MOS
level,
Consequently, Vg2
is
there will
/?g) of Q_2.
The base
Q.i-
If
/,
level.
than intended, and V^g is less than the design level. The
is reduced toward the intended design level. The same
feedback
DC
The
BI-MOS DC
feedback pair,
this
is
is
line of
BI-MOS
of components.
circuit
is
a two-stage
common
FET
operational amplifiers.
Z^, is
result
FET
The
when
minimum number
differential
is
-^oi
also lower
that
of Q_2
if 2-
DC feedback pair
version of the
self-biased with
and
11-11). This
arrangement
one
of these
FET
differential circuits
is
connected as an
Again, the FET's are employed essentially for the very high input
resistance; however,
result.
324
improved slew
rates
and
Common
FET circuit
source circuit.
and
gate
Common
FET
drain circuit.
and
gate
Common
FET
gate circuit.
Source follower.
appHed between
is
Glossary of
Important
Terms
circuit in
Another name
applied between
is
is
is
circuit in
drain,
in
source,
is
for the
common dram
amplifier.
BI-FET.
BI-MOS.
Multistage
combining
circuit
transistors
bipxslar
with
MOSFET's.
14-1.
common
JFET
source
Draw
common
common
Review
Questions
ance.
14-3.
Repeat Question
14-4.
Draw
common
14-1 for a
drain amplifier.
common
Repeat Question
14-6.
Draw
common
14-1 for a
gate amplifier.
common
impedance.
14-7.
14-1.
BI-MOS
each
circuit,
A common
Fig.
and
12-9) has
^^
= 6.8
and
kS2
/?c
circuits,
advantages of such
2N5458 FET
= 2.2
circuits.
(sp>ecification in
Problem
14-1.
(b)
MHz.
A common
of
14-3.
in the circuit of
signal frequency
source amplifier
of at least 40.
Rj^ for
If
a 2N5459
is
to
FET
of
the circuit in
14-5.
A common
Problem
14-3.
/{^^
=6.8
kS2, /?,
= 2.2
325
Problems
326
cft"'
Circuits
14-6.
A common
14-9.
minimum
r^
drain amplifier
approximately 200
Fig.
has
If
Ri^
20
to
kfi
Select a suitable
fl.
is
is
calculate the
kfl,
typical,
maximum, and
circuit.
14-7.
14-8.
is
and output
the
FET g
is
The
the
FET
2N5457
gain of 36.
If
resistance.
fi.
2-mA
values of A^.
uses
= 2.2
kfi,
voltages.
Problem
FET
to
its
Chapter 9
for guidance.
CHAPTER
15
The
Tunnel
Diode
A
Esaki)
tunnel diode
is
an amplifier, an
inputs,
it
a two-terminal negative
is
oscillator, or
resistance
diode after
its
inventor,
Leo
a switch. Because of
its
very
15-1
Introduction
fast resp)onse to
electronic devices.
15-2
Theory of
Operation
material has a narrow region. In the case of the tunnel diode, the junction
formed
region
of very
is
is
very narrow.
327
15-2.1
Depletion
Region
The
328
depletion region
is
an insulator
The
Tunnel
enough
Diode
to
mately 0.7
enough
to
since
it
when
V
is
for
Diagrams
Consider the
material
is
silicon
it
15-2.2
tunneling
When
band
and
large
extremely narrow,
Energy Band
is
much
only
it
of
fill
is
If
the
all
the
empty
[Fig. 15-l(a)].
Empty
energy
levels
Forbidden
gap
Filled
Valence
energy
band
(a)
Normally doped
p and n type
(b)
Very heavily
doped p-type
levels
Conduction
band
Forbidden
gap
(c)
Very heavily
doped n-type
Figure 1S-1. Energy band diagrams for normally doped and very heavily doped semiconductor material.
When
semiconductor material
p-type), there
is
(i.e.,
329
Theory of
Operation
is
filled. The result is that at the top of the valence band there is a
empty energy levels. This is illustrated in Fig. 15- 1(b). With very
heavily doped n-type material, there is an abundance of electrons. Consequently, electrons fill the valence band and create a layer of filled energy
levels at the bottom of the conduction band [Fig. 15-l(c)].
regarded as
layer of
in Fig.
15-2(a).
for
is
is
that the filled levels on the -side are exactly opposite those on the/)-side. In
15-2.3
ReverseBiased
Tunnel
Diode
levels to
15-2(b)].
is
current flows. Figure 15-2(c) shows that with increasing reverse bias more
electrons tunnel from the p-side to the n-side
is
flows.
of a resistor.
When
to
when
it
on the
levels
is
is
results in
behavior
is
similar
now
more tunneling
however, a
increased,
ally,
its initial
When
forward biased,
is
of electrons
maximum
from the n-side to the p-side. Eventuis reached when the band of
level of tunneling
a forbidden energy
due
to
tunneling
is
reduced.
With continued
bottom
of the
When
all
gap on the
current flow
the
is
band
due
to
15-2.4
ForwardBiased
Tunnel
Diode
Depletion region
Conduction "
band
(a)
Unbiased tunnel
diode junction
(b)
Small reverse
bias
1
Electrons
Conduction
band
'a^
^^
(a)
Small
forward
bias
-Ef-
(d)
Forward
bias further
increased
Tunneling
Figure 15-3.
331
332
tunneling
The
current flow across a forward-biased junction begins to take over, as the bias
Tunnel
Diode
is
to
forward characteristics
15-3
Tunnel
Diode
Symbol,
Parameters
is
shown
The
peak
minimum
levels,
resjsectively,
forward biased.
The peak
the
(V^)
valley voltage
the device
is
is
voltage
K)
is
(L) and
current
current (/^)
Characteristics,
and
is
being completely
Vp
is
The broken
line
on
Negative
I
resistance
(a)
Characteristics
(b)
Figure 15-4.
valley
maximum and
Symbols
Fig.
and
when
15-4(a)
When
for
is
It is
333
seen that
Piecewise
approached.
Linear
a voltage
is
is
increased.
Between
/.
and
/,,
Characteristics
on the tunnel
Rp of the
The value of
resistance
tunnel diode
is its
From
If /?, is
= (A'^/A/q), and
measured
the
= (A/fl/A'^).
on the negative resistance pwrtion
at different p>oints
R^
is
mA
mV
0.
to 5 mA
350 to 500 mV
0.5 to
V
Peak current
Peak voltage
V.
Valley current
Valley voltage
Forward voltage Vp
Negative resistance
=
=
=
=
/?o
to
100
50 to 200
1
to
200
fl
In Chapter 3
characteristics
and determine
= 0.12mA,
F^
= 350
1^-65 mV.
Point
= 65mV,
solution
Refer to Fig. 15-5. Point
2
is
plotted at
/,,
is first
= 0.12 mA and
plotted at /^=
F
straight line
is
initial
is
plotted at
origin
and
point
are
F^ = 500
is
given so
mA and
tal line is
and point
1.
of the characteristic.
15-4
Piecewise
Linear
Characteristics
Example
15-1
334
The
Tunnel
Diode
1100
65
t
Figure 15-5.
R^
200
^^
500
mV
is
Rn =
15-5
Tunnel
Diode
Equivalent
Circuit
The
in
Agp ^
-Mo
350mV-65mV ^
-(lmA-0.12mA) ~
285
mV =
-324B
mA
-0.88
is
it
for
consists of
the negative
of Q, range
from 5 to 100 pF. R^ represents the resistance of the connecting leads and
the semiconductor material, and is of the order of 1 fl. Lg, vkfhich is typically
0.5
nH,
is
-D-r
Figure 15-6.
circuit.
335
Tunnel
self-
its
a parallel amplifier.
The
is
connected
in parallel
with
Diode
Parallel
Amplifier
15-6
Tunnel
Diode
Parallel
Amplifier
Example 15-2
Cg
current gain, voltage gain, and power gain for the tunnel diode parallel
amplifier circuit in Fig. 15-7(a).
solution
When
= 0,
Eb +
es
mV
= Eg = 200
mV
Ij^
=2
mA
and
Ejf
= {Eg + eg) =
mV.
Jr
200
mV
Rl
fi
/B = /n + /, =4.5mA
When 5=
100 mV,
E +
From
point
A on
e^
= 300
mV = En = E^
the characteristic,
= lmA and
/,
7^
= 300 mV/
When
in
es=-lOOmV,
Eg + es=lOOmV = Ej, = Eg
From
point
on the characteristic,
Ij)
8012=1.25 mA.
4 = 3 mA + 1.25 mA = 4.25 mA
A4 = 1.25 mA-2.5 mA= - 1.25 mA
seen that,
Also,
A4
is
output current
336
when
^^
100
an input current
(i^)
mV,
(ij
A4 =
.25
mA and A4 = 0.25
resistor 7?^.
e^,
and
A4
mA.
is
an
The
current gain
337
is
Cain
_io _
1.25
I.
0.25
'
Equation
mA ~^
mA
for a
Parallel
Amplifier
The output
voltage
is
<
The
voltage gain
= AEd =
is
A=- =
The power gain
e.
is
A=A.XA=b
It is
seen that a tunnel diode parallel amplifier has current gain and
From
R^ can be determined
Rn =
Ao
200
A/
-2
mV
mA
15-7
Cain
as
Equation
= -ioon
for a
Parallel
Amplifier
From Example
mV,
15-1,
when
(//,)
A/fl = -
A/^ can
changed from 2
mA
to
for <-,=
-(-
(;,)
changed by
mA. Thus,
100
mV
also be calculated as
_
"~
andj
^s
"
_
~
inn
100
mV = -1
mA
100
= A4 = <r^//f^.
.,
= A/ = A/^-A/a
^L
A.=
^D
1^
'JRl
1/^/,
'.
{'JRl)-{'JRo)
(i/^J-(i//fo)
-=
-1-100
338
The
Tunnel
Diode
A:
Note that
Rjy
is
For
R^
no negative
(i.e.,
Rj)
= 100
fi
and ^^
= 80
it is
When
15-8
Practical
Parallel
Amplifier
Circuit
employed
in
R[^
Example
Q, as in
100
-
100-80
likely
to
15-2,
=5
seen that
and
oscillate.
sign) should be
/4,.
A.=
From
(15-1)
Rn~ Rr
calculating
= R[), A -=00,
When Rj^^Rjj,
A,^l
Wheni?i^fl,
A.<1
Rj^
should be slightly
circuit
less
than
is
Rj^.
The
signal voltage e^
and
/fj.
is
and load
coupled to
is
best understood
equivalent circuits.
Example 15-3
Draw
the dc
Figure 15-8.
Practical tunnel
diode
339
solution
Practical
Parallel
dc equivalent circuit
Amplifier
The
and
Z), as
shown
/?,,
R2, Rfy,
in Fig. 15-9(a).
ac equivalent circuit
R^^.
of L,
is
much
/?2>
^^^ C, are
all left
and
dc load line
y,
R^,
),,
and ^^
[Fig. 15-9(b)].
bias conditions
/?,, and R2 can be replaced by the open-circuit voltage across ^2 *"<^ *he
dc source resistance {Rg) seen when looking toward Eg at /?2 (Fig. 15-9(a)].
This is simply the Thevenin equivalent circuit of Eg, /?,, and /?2-
Eg,
The
op>en-circuit voltage
En =
=
and
To
this
The
12VX47n
'r^+^
/i|
X R2
2.2knx47n
Rt
+ R^
2.2kfi-(-47n
is
bias of 250
mV
and a
in Fig. 15-10(a).
total resistance of
The dc
= 250mV
=46 n
typically about 35
is
now
fi.
approximately 80 U. This
now
is
shown
/^^^(d^j
= /?a + Rw When
/^
point
A on
(a)
dc equivalent circuit
Figure 15-9.
15-8.
DC
and
AC
lb)
ac equivalent circuit
Fig.
Circuit
340
son
The
_^AMr-
Tunnel
Diode
(a)
100
200 \
204
(b)
Figure 15-10.
Simplified
DC equivalent
300
dc load
circuit
400
500
mV
mV
line
and dc load
diode
parallel amplifier.
When 7^=1 mA, E^ = 250 mV-(l mAX80 fi)= 170 mV. Plot point
= mA and ^ = 170 mV.
Now join points A and B together to give the dc load line. It is seen
the dc load line for R^ = 80 Q intersects the device characteristic at
at 1^
that
point
Q in
From
and
it
current gain
acload=7?^ = 300i2
is
the quiescent
and current
mA,
Q=i::204
conditions.
mV.
= 324 Q
From Eq.
Example
^D
Rn Ri
341
15-1).
Glossary of
Important
A =
device
(see
(15-1),
connected in
series
324
may
Terms
324-300
13.5
is
may
heavily dojied
di-
Terms
Filled
energy
Semiconductor energy
levels.
levels
occupied by electrons.
Empty energy
are absent
levels.
Semiconductor energy
with holes.
filled
levels
Depletion region.
narrow region
in
very
a tunnel diode.
Tunneling.
being given sufficient energy to overcome the barrier p>otential are said
to
Negative resistance.
resistance region.
Peak voltage
V^).
Valley current
(/).
tance region.
Valley voltage
( V^).
current.
linear
characteristic.
Straight-line
approximation
of
device
characteristic.
Self-resonance frequency.
Glossary of
Important
Frequency
at
342
Value
The
Tunnel
Diode
less
of tunnel
Frequency
at
which negative
resistance goes to
zero.
Parallel amplifier.
Series amplifier.
Review
15-1.
Questions
Sketch energy band diagrams for (a) normally dojjed p-type and
n-type semiconductor material; (b) very heavily doped p-type; (c)
Draw
the energy
band diagrams
effect of
Make
acteristics for
bias.
Explain the
band diagrams.
regions
tics.
15-5.
Sketch the equivalent circuit for a tunnel diode and explain the
origin of every component. State typical values for each component,
and
15-6.
15-7.
Draw
how
it
op>erates.
pairallel amplifier.
i
Problems
15.1.
tunnel diode
is
specified as
mA,
F^
wise
linear
having
F^ = 550
characteristics,
mV
of
negative
and a load
resistance of 47
i2.
Bias voltage
is
R^
= 0.21 mA,
225
F^
for
= 65
Problem 15-1
from a dc
mV
IN3715
piecevkfise
to
is
Draw
and power
linear characteristics
drawn
for
Problem
15-2,
and
15-5.
e^.
draw an
/?^,
Rg, Eg,
practical tunnel diode parallel amplifier circuit (Fig. 15-8) has the
tunnel diode
mV. Draw
the ac
following components:
R^ = 0.5
fi, Z.,
V^,
and dc equivalent
circuits
for
the
amplifier.
343
Problems
gain.
CHAPTER
16
The
Silicon
Controlled
Rectifier
The
16-1
Introduction
rectifier
The
of as
an ordinary
is
may
control device.
based on the
thyristors.
Many
SCR
This term
principle. Collectively,
is
16-2
SCR
Uperation
Figure
is
like
DIAC, TRIAC,
etc.,
an SCR.
pnpn
shows
device.
and r!2 in Fig. 16-l(a). Three junctions are produced: y,,y2' ^^'^Ji^
there are three terminals, anode {A), cathode (C), zxid gate (G).
p2,
344
are
four-layer device or
^^^ material,
The SCR
^^^
345
SCR
Operation
U'-
(bl
(a)
Figure 16-1.
(a)
and
SCR
(b)
(d)
symbol.
To
connected to
n\,
anything. However,
and
n[,p2,n2 as
and p^
it is
an npn
is
now
SCR
is
shown
To
positive
Q_^
this
Since
n,
is
circuit
tivo- transis-
16-l(c)]. It
collector
/>2,
necessary to imagine
is
in Fig. 16-l(b).
juction of the
it
^ shown
/>2)
connected to
transistor.
and
is
and the (^
base.
The
circuit
symbol
for the
is
the
SCR
and both
transistors
remain cut
off.
[Reference to Fig. 16- 1(a) shows that the leakage currents are the result of
junction ^2 being reverse biased when A is positive and C is negative.)
When a negative gate-cathode voltage is applied, the ^2 base-emitter
junction
is
transistors
reverse biased,
remain
off.
positive
gate-cathode voltage
flow, so both
[Fig. 16-2(b)|
forward
SCR
346
The
Silicon
Controlled
>
Rectifier
V^k
Vak
<
11
'Tr^ t^I'
(a)
(b)
Figure 16-2.
The
is
ability of the
SCR
to
remain
on
SCR
operation.
when
is
removed
referred to as latching.
To
switch the
Once switched
on,
SCR
is
required.
on
is
made
(positive
large enough. Consider Fig. 16- 1(a) again. With a forward bias
on A, negative on C), junctions y, andyj are forward biased while
junction J2
is
down due
to
reverse biased.
avalanche
When
effect
Vp
is
(Chapter
made
11).
The
Each
and both
16-3
SCR
Characteristics
and
Parameters
SCR
are shovkn in
and
refer
again to Fig.
When
a reverse bias
is
current.
voltages
(-1-
f^/c),
Forward
347
characteristics
SCR
Characteristics
and
Forward
Parameters
conduction
region
Forward
blocking
region
'Gj
Figure 16-3.
100
With
/iA.
typical value of
at this point
V^^
voltage
is
VprBoy
When
Vp^gQ^
is
on into saturation as
of
and has a
I^ji
to
/g=o
reverse characteristics.
approximately equal to
's
'g,
Q,i
Vp).
So far the forward characteristics have been discussed only for the case
Iq = 0. Now consider the effect of Iq greater than zero. As already shown,
when +
This
is
V^j( is less
When
occurs.
currents,
see
/(ji
'*
it
I^
will
made
is
have a negligible
Now
in Fig. 16-3.
remains
when Iq
effect
larger than
on the
level of
-I-
When
/(j
is
made
minimum
off until
junctions of ^,
just slightly
and
V^^.
Qj. This
is
on occurs when
Ic^ switch
where
it
is
seen that
voltage of y^.
Between
/g,
and
switch on at levels of
less
than yp^goy
348
The
i^'^BE?'^
Controlled
saturation
transistor
Rectifier
made up
is
total volue of Vp
is
biased
switch an
known
level
minimum
the
F^^,
Vce2)
'"'
is
for a silicon
is
known
of
as the forward
SCR
rectifier.
To
a
on
after switch
region.
of
is
is
V^)
SCR off,
is
{Iff 2,
///3>
Iff
Iffji,
gate
and cathode.
Two
may
blocking voltage.
This
designated
is
SCR
Vf^gj^
to
conduct
or Vf^xM
^''
is
^^
blocking
voltage
forward current
is
called
K^o^ or
The maximum
Vf^j^f.
allowable
two
of these
is
is
16-4
SCR
Specifications
j
is
and
TO-5
transistor-type
can.
Note
is
of
that,
only 6 V.
of
handling
for the
voltage
partial
by the
200 V, the
to
relatively
standard
illustrated
is
16-5.
The
device
is
bolt
mounted
for
example.
1800 V.
To remove
requiring a flow of
is 1
200
C35
800
much
higher powers
devices
is
35 A, and
repetitive, or
960
{xjssible
A and
for
is
for
maximum
dissip>ation.
1.6A
C6
Tlfptt
349
SCR Control
Circuits
350
The
Silicon
Controlled
CSS
Rectifier
Tpt
351
SCR
Specifications
(a)
Trigger
pulse
Load
||_
;
I'l
SCR
control circuit
352
solution (b)
The
Silicon
From
Controlled
Rectifier
Fc = 0.5V
and
1^^0.01
mA
Vc
0.5
V
V
/j-
= 0.5 mA
1
solution (c)
The SCR
1
mA
when
/^ falls
below
e.= V,^
' AK
+ I,R,
'i"L
7^.
From
Fig.l6-6(a),
'
AtI, = I,
e,
The SCR
16-5.2
90 Phase
Control
= V+{\ mAX
l
when
e,
falls
current
is
15 fi)= 1.015
below 1.015 V.
shown
in Fig.
mencement
will trigger
SCR may
is
adjusted to a
the
resistance,
SCR
/?,
is
set to
a high
f)Ositive
half-cycle. For resistances between these two values, the SCR will switch on
somewhere between the commencement and the f)eak of the p)ositive halfcycle, i.e., between 0 and 90. If Iq is not large enough to trigger the SCR
at 90, then the device will not trigger on at all, because Iq is greatest at the
peak of input and falls off as the voltage falls. The purpose of diode /), is to
protect the SCR gate from the negative voltage that would otherwise be
applied to
it
presence of
From
current Iq
/?2
makes the
calculation
more
7?2
keeps the
SCR
Fig. 16-7,
+ 12
7?,
is
it
353
SCR
SCR Control
Circuits
R^
Load waveform
0.
<
1/
'=^
".
90
Figure 16-7.
SCR 90 phase-control
',=(^2+4)^1+
switch on
^'fli+ ^'c
/
*
90
circuit,
+ (^2 + ^c)^L
= U;^)[^--^o.-{i.^io)R.]
R^
,.
(16-2)
is
0.5 V.
solution
let
= 90/iA
/2
r=5.6kfl
,= rr
90 /xA
/j
At 5,
;,
From Eq.
30sin 5
+ /c = 90
= 30X0.0872 = 2.6
'
V.
= peak
R '<""'
[2.6
= 30
V.
jn
voltage
1
100
30
15 fl)]
100
c,
(16-2),
/?,(^i)=
At 90,
juA
mA
[30
V-0.7 V-0.5
V- 1.2015 V
100 /iA
28.8
V =
288 kfl
100 /lA
Example 16-2
354
The
Load waveform
Silicon
Controlled
180
Rectifier
C, voltage
Figure 16-8.
The
16-5.3
780 Phase
Control
circuit
that diode
shown
D2 and
in Fig. 16-8
is
circuit.
is
its
charged negatively as
When
anode (connected
to C,)
is
cathode. C, then
of C,
commencement
it
may
retain a
partially negative charge until almost 180 of positive half-cycle has passed.
While C, remains negatively charged, Z), is reverse biased and the gate
cannot go pKjsitive to trigger on the SCR. Thus, /?, and/or C, may be
adjusted to effect SCR triggering anywhere from 0 to 180 of input
waveform.
The
Fig. 16-9.
addition of rectifier
D^
is
shovkn in
half-cycles.
The
16-6
TheTRIAC
and DIAC
The
are
shown
and
Fig.
16-11.
The
common
characteristics of a
TRIAC
and
p.^
in
has the transistor equivalent circuit Q3 and Q*- ^2 '^ *^^ layer common to
both SCR's, and it functions as a gate for both devices. Because of the
inverse parallel connection, the other terminals cannot be identified as
anode and cathode; instead they are designated A^ and A2. When the gate is
made positive with resf>ect to ^4,, and ^^2 is also made jxwitive vkdth resfiect to
i4,, transistors Q^ and Q^ switch on [Fig. 16-1 1(b)]. In this case A2 is the
anode and A is the cathode. When the gate and A are made p>ositive with
respect to A2, Q.i and Qj^ switch on. Now A is the anode and A 2 the cathode.
,
355
Other Four.
SCR,
&
Layer
Devices
"
Control
circuit
Load waveform
Figure 16-9.
rectifier.
Control
6.
SCR,
SCR,
circuit
Control
circuit
Load waveform
/
]\
f^L
'
'
'-V-
Figure 16-10.
It is
TRIAC
connected SCR's.
Inverse parallel
can be made
to
conduct
in either direction.
SCR
a forward-biased
A TRIAC
is
composed
of
and
[Fig. 16-n(c)].
negative half-cycle,
Z), is
is
is
forward biased, D2
reverse biased
and Dj
is
is
reverse
During the
No
are those of
control
biased,
TRIAC
/?,
A DIAC
effected
is
simply a
TRIAC
characteristics
to the
breakover voltage.
is
The DIAC
in Fig. 16-13.
16-7
Other FourLayer
Devices
The
William Shockley,
is
essentially a
low-current
SCR
its
inventor
without a gate.
To
switch the device on, the anode-to-cathode voltage must be increased to the
16-7.1
356
The
Silicon
Controlled
Rectifier
^^"
Vl
(a)
Construction
(b)
0P2
Equivalent circuit
==~-^
(c)
Figure 16-11.
-7
Characteristics
circuit,
and
characteristics.
Load waveform
'
^
Figure 16-12.
TRIAC
V
V~V
control circuit.
357
Other FourLayer
Devices
A,
Symbol
(a)
(b) Characteristics
Figure 16-13.
forward switching
voltage.
minimum
(/j).
the
is
The
shown
circuit
characteristics.
in Fig. 16-14.
The
SCK forward
breakover voltage,
Holding current
(Ifj)
for the
voltage
is
and the
SCR.
One
circuit
shown
resistance
/?,
in
Fig.
16-15.
is
is
The diode D^
Reverse
breal^down (V)
Cathode
(a)
Symbol
(b)
Figure 16-14.
Characteristics
charged via
and
characteristics.
358
The
Silicon
Controlled
Rectifier
Figure 16-15.
switches off
When
falls
so low
less
when
current through ^,
7^,
be large enough
is less
than
to prevent
Example 16-3
If
/? ,
is
the
must
dis-
off.
solution
Summing
E={IXR^)+Vc
= /.
E-V,
^. (max)-
(16-3)
30V-10V
=40kn
500X10"^
At the diode forward conducting
E-
voltage, Vq
V^
^ 30V-1 V = 19.3kn
1.5
mA
(16-4)
359
Other FourLayer
Devices
(a)
Figure 16-16.
The
Characteristics
Characteristics
(b)
and symbol
name
is
because
suggests,
is
Symbol
it
is
is
sometimes referred
a one-way device.
bilateral
The
the
unilateral
device
[Fig.
parallel
16- 16(a)].
shown
The
in Fig.
Four-Layer
Diode
and
16-7.2
Bilateral
circuit
16- 16(b)
The
essentially unilateral
and
in Fig. 16-17.
^^^
Ci>
(a)
(SBS) are
Figure 16-17.
Circuit
symbols
for
SUS and
switch
SBS.
are
shown
16-7.3
The SUS
and SBS
360
The
Silicon
off
Anode
Controlled
Rectifier
pulse
gate
>
Anode
[I-
gate
pulse
I
on
Cathode
^^
pulse
gate
Cathode
gate
off
pulse
u,
Ac
(a)
Figure 16-18.
The
16-7.4
The
Silicon-
Controlled
Switch
terminals.
Equivalent circuit
(b)
silicon-controlled switch
An anode
gate
(SCS)
is
a low-current
Symbol
and symbol.
SCR
is
shown
in Fig.
16- 18(a),
it
is
seen that a
negative pulse at the anode gate causes Q, to switch on. Q^, collector supplies
base current to Q_2 ^'^^ both transistors switch on. Similarly, a positive pulse
at the
cathode gate can switch the device on. Since only small currents are
SCS may be
one
Glossary of
Important
of the gates.
SCR.
rectifier
Terms
mences
Thyristor.
pnpn
to conduct.
SCR.
name for SCR-tyjje devices.
Another name for SCR-type devices.
Control element on
Gate.
Collective
device.
Four-layer device.
The
Latching.
is
Another name
ability of the
SCR
for
to
SCR-type
remain on
devices.
after the triggering current
removed.
SCR
is
Ifu^.
when
reverse biased.
SCR
breaks
down.
Reverse blocking region.
breakdown
Region
of
SCR
Region
of
SCR
occurs.
voltage,
when
switches on
Forward conduction
forward biased.
is
Forward voltage
^'J^(BO)
voltage,
is
SCR
Vp.
at
SCR
which an
zero.
when
anode-to-cathode voltage
conducting.
Gate current,
device conducting
open
when
gate
is
when
voltage,
op)en circuited.
Forward blocking
gate terminal.
device conducting
may be
SCR
Iq.
Maximum SCR
P^oa/-
when
gate
is
circuited.
Forward blocking
voltage,
Same
Vp^M-
as
resistance at gate.
Maximum SCR
Same
as
may
is
oj>en circuited.
resistance at gate.
RMS
forward current, h.
Maximum
Maximum
permissible
permissible
SCR
SCR
average
for-
rent.
TRIAC.
Two
gate,
DIAC.
Similar to a
Shockley diode.
TRIAC
Low-current
Four-layer diode.
Same
commence
without gate.
/j.
Forward voltage
Minimum
at
conduction.
SCR
four-layer diode.
Another name
Two-way
device
two
inverse
parallel
con-
SUS.
SBS.
SCS.
Silicon-controlled
cathode gate.
gate.
bilateral
gate.
and
361
Glossary of
Important
Terms
f?ev/eiv
16-1.
Questions
SCR
the
construction.
Label
rectifier.
Also sketch
device operates.
16-2.
Sketch typical
SCR
and
all
SCR
levels.
all
for:
In each case show the load waveform and explain the circuit ojDeration.
16-4.
Show how an
SCR) may be
connected to
16-5.
Draw an SCR
Draw
and negative
show the
sketches to
characteristics of a
TRIAC.
Show
the
briefly explain.
SCR's
to provide
phase
construction,
Sketch a
TRIAC
Show
control circuit.
and
Sketch the characteristics and circuit symbols and briefly explain the
following:
(a)
DIAC.
16-9.
(a)
and explain
its
op>eradon.
and
Problems
16-1.
(3)
and
A C6G SCR
be supplied.
SUS,
(2)
SBS,
SCS.
If
the
SCR
is
employed
minimum
to switch a 115
ac
may
the required gate trigger voltage and current. Also calculate the
load resistance of 33
ft is
362
off.
by an
V peak.
SCR triggered
SCR
in Figs.
16-4
and
voltage
(d)
16-3.
An SCR
SCR
and
select a suitable
The
V,
50
SCR
from the
C6
range.
is
0.6 V.
SCR
holding current
it
is
mA.
Calculate the
four-layer diode
1^
= 600
juA,
is
trigger current
The
fiA
16-5.
required,
16-4.
with a
load resistor.
jtiA.
four-layer diode
is
used
in
hjis
a 25-
supply, a l-/nF capacitor, and a 12-kfl series resistor, (see Fig. 16-15).
The
capacitor
approximately
is
1
to
in
terms of forward
The supply
and
16-5.
TRIAC
dimmer
uses a
components.
16-10.
A TRIAC
^,
circuit as in Fig.
lOOkfl to 2
TRIAC
3^
Problems
jg.5
kfl.
=
at
100 Q, and
which the
CHAPTER
17
The
Unijunction
Transistor
17-1
The
Introduction
that of bipolar
operation of a
and
unijunction transistor
field effect
17-2
Theory of
Operation
useful in timing
and
(UJT)
although
is
it
a bar of
which rapidly
is termed a
which makes the
and
it
is
the characteristic
oscillator circuits.
a three-terminal
is
UJT
transistors
doped p-type material joined to one side. The concept is illustrated in Fig.
17-l(a). The end terminals of the bar are designated base 1 (fi,) and base 2
(fij) 35 shown, and the p-type region is termed the emitter (E). Since the
silicon bar is lightly dof)ed it has a high resistance, and it can be represented
as two resistors, r^, from B^ to C and rg2 from fij ^o C as shown in Fig.
17- 1(b). The sum of r^, and rgj is designated Rgg. The p-type emitter forms
364
365
Theory of
Operation
Basic construction
(a)
Figure 17-1.
(b)
and equivalent
Basic construction
Equivalent circuit
circuit of unijunction transistor.
r^i
is
represented by a diode
equivalent circuit.
V = y
as
^'
'
=
where Rbb
F,
= ''b[ +
'
roo
(17-1)
tin
''b2-
is
/wi-junction.
flowing
y.B\B2^
is
is
^BIB2
(17-2)
Ran
If
a small
is
is reverse
biased
and
Now
to flow
When
this
366
The
Unijunction
Transistor
VB^B
4s,
UJT
Figure 17-2.
circuit
symbol.
occurs, charge carriers are injected into the r^, region of the bar. Since the
resistance
of
a semiconductor material
is
additional charge carriers cause the resistance of the rg, region to rapidly
decrease.
With decrease
in
resistance,
also
still
The
is
input voltage
also "pulled
a very low
The
is
The
(/g)
is
device remains
is
reduced to
level.
circuit
arrowhead pwints
symbol
for
it
UJT
is
shown
in Fig.
17-2.
As always, the
and current
voltage {Xjlarities
The
shown.
17-3
UJT
plot of emitter voltage (f^^^i) versus emitter current (/g.) gives the
Characteristics
When
Ig2 = 0,
(i.e.,
^fliB2~*^)>
The
resultant plot of V^
When
Vgig2
reverse biased
on the
bias.
/g
appriximately 20
's
and
series
/g
is
simply
resistance.
When V^=
= 0.
some
is
this
point begins to forward bias the emitter junction. At the p>eak point where
Vebi=
F,
the junction
emitter current
point, the
beyond
tance of
UJT
is
is
is
flowing. This
is
Up until this
When /g increases
current Ip.
rapidly
and V^
falls to
the
of r^,.
367
UJT
Parameters
and
Specification
Figure 17-3.
region,
where V^
is
equal to the
sum
of
F^andC/fXr^).
When
will switch
Vgg
on
is
at
reduced below 20 V, F,
will also
UJT can
UJT
levels of Vgg,
be plotted as shown in
Fig. 17-3.
17-4
U)T
Parameters
and
Specification
The
current
is
inlerbase resistance
(Rgg)
is
the
sum
of r^,
and
r^^
when
the emitter
zero.
Consider
Fig. 17-4
variations,
17-4.1
Inlerbase
Resistance,
2n4948
(SILICON)
2n4949
Silicon annular unijunction transistors designed for
military and industrial use in pulse, timing, triggering,
sensing, and oscillator circuits. The annular process
provides low leakage current, fast switching and low
peak-point currents as well as outstanding reliability
and uniformity.
CASE 22A
(TO-18 Modified)
(Lead 3 connected to case)
This
is
ture increase.
The
= 0, maximum power
maximum
value of
dissipated in the
Pn =
maximum Vg^g^
Rgg
i.e.,
UJT
(
the
be used. With
vf^BB
^ ^d
(17-3)
solution (a)
To
25C,
= 360mW,
Rgg = 'ikil{min),
^BlB2(max)=
This
is
V4
kSi
maximum
12 kJ2(max)
^-"^ ^flfl(min)-
X 360 mW 38
^fl2)
which
is
30
100 C
First note,
from
The temperature
at
increase from
2.4
mW/C.
75
Pa
= 360
80
mW =
80
mW
The minimum increase in Rgg is 0. 1%/C, from aRgg. For a tempera75C this is only a 7.5% increase in Rgg, so for calculation of
ture increase of
^aifl2(mui)'
From Eq.
(17-3),
and
'1B2)
100C.
/'o
Parameters
Specification
is
Fig. 17-4, at
U)T
pKJvver dissipa-
2N4948
From
369
maximum
Vb\b2 ^^^^ ^^y
vjilue of
= V4kfiXl80mW = 26.8 V
Example
17-1
The
17^.2
Intrinsic
Stand-off
Ratio Tj
which
letter eta),
is
t)
(Greek
r^, to
P^),
tj
^B\
and the
p)eak voltage
is
Vp-
"
'fl2
F,.
Vp=V^-i-r,Vg,,,
(17-4)
p, is
Example 17-2
2N4948
solution
From
Fig. 17-4,
TJ
From Eq.
max
(17-4)
fp(min)
= 0.7
V-t- (0.55
X 30) = 17.2
and
Vpcn^) = 0.7-1- (0.82
Therefore, the device will
and
17-4.3
Emitter
Saturation
Voltage,
^EBI(sat)
Veb i(at)
^^
it is
the
minimum
and
7^
= 50 mA,
Ip
pai(sat)
370
F^^^^,, for
was explained
emitter current.
Emitter
Current, Ip
17.2
'^
when
the
UJT
is
If
in Section
in
its
saturation
17-4.4
Peak Point
25.3 V.
region. Therefore,
is
fire at
X 30) = 25.3
7-3. It is
for
3.0
^^2^1"^*^ ^
V maximum.
is
then the
Ip,
UJT
will
17-4).
some
circuits as
an
is
This
The
is
current
so
low that /^
when
is
said to be
in
17-43
Valley
Point
Current,
It is
important
If
modulated by the
B2
UJT
being
is first fired.
1^
17-4.6
Modulated
fired.
Interbase
Current,
'82(mod)
The
relaxation oscillator
is
UJT
shown
When
UJT
and a
then cuts
off
and
fires
17-5
UJT
Relaxation
Oscillator
the capacitor
much
less
The
than
t,
is
determined approximately as
difficult to calculate
because the
UJT
1//.
The
is
in its negative
is
normally very
solution
The
15
~t
C
k'* *
'd
0.1
pF
1
Figure 17-5.
UjT relaxation
oscillator.
371
Example 17-3
372
series resistor
is
The
Unijunction
Transistor
= 2.3CTlog
EE
(17-5)
C = capacitance in farads
R = resistance in ohms
E = supply voltage
= capacitor voltage at time
E^ = initial voltage on capacitor
where
e^
UJT
Since the
is
to fire at
=
From
ratio
is 7)
time
VD-^^Vg,B^
= 0.7.
Also F^
= 0.7
,
V.
= 0.7V-I-(0.7X15V)
= 0.7 V-l- 10.5 V= 11.2 V
When the UJT fires, the capacitor is discharged to yEBHsnty This is the
capacitor voltage E^ at the start of each charging cycle. For the 2N4948,
^Bi(0 = 2-5V typically.
= 2.5
From Eq.
(17-5),
<
= 2.3X0.1 /iFxlOkiixlog
= 2.3 XO.l X IQ-^X lOX
The frequency
UJT
Xlog-^ =
1.16
ms
msa860 Hz
The
10^
15-2.5
15-11.1
is
/=
^^ - =
output
1.16
inclusion of resistors R^
spike
fires,
and produces
the
373
UJT
Relaxation
Oscillator
C,:
C, i:
Figure 17-6.
fall
ciz
and ^2
's
UJT
/?,
fi.
A wide
R^
is
select
UJT there is an
UJT to fire in
minimum
voltage
Vp.
is
The upper
limit
on R^
when
limit to
1
7-6,
the emitter
is
(17-6)
R^ must be
oscillator,
large
enough
to prevent the
UJT
The lower
limit
on Re
is
f^ao
'e.
(17-7)
The
the
2N4948 UJT.
values for
R^-.
If
V^g
is
15
V, determine
Example 17-4
374
solution
The
Unijunction
From Eq.
(17-4),
Transistor
'^P~ '^D'^V'^BlBi
The
7-4), use
17
F, = 0.7-I-(0.82X15)=13
From Eq.
For smallest
'p
.ffgjnuu.)' *ise
maximum
Ip.
From
7-4),
= 2MA-
15V-13V =
2/iA
From Eq.
Mfi
(17-7)
Therefore, from
(17-6),
*^Dn
'^prmaxi
Re^,^,^-,-
= 0.82.
^(nun)> "^^
minimum
f^^aKsat) ^'^^
minimum
nun)
^^'^> =
In practice,
R^ should be
15
selected
V-25 V
= 6.25 kfi
^2 mA
;
somewhere between the upp)er and lower
limits.
17-6
UJT Control
of
SCR
/?,
when
the
UJT
fires.
half-cycle of the supply to charge C, via R^. Z), also isolates the UJT circuit
from the negative half-cycles of the input. By adjusting R^, the charging rate
of C,, and therefore the UJT firing time, can be selected. The waveforms in
Fig. 17-7(b)
of control of
375
Programmable
Unijunction
Transistor
Load
SCR
(a)
a.
f\
UJT
SCR
nput voltage
\J
firing
point
Capacitor voltage
I\.
(b)
Figure 17-7.
The programmable
tor at all,
Circuit
unijunction transistor
for
(PUT)
is
two
Waveforms
and waveforms
resistors.
(t))
UJT
may
and the
intrinsic
The pnpn
and
Rj-
The
its
gate
four-layer construction
in Fig.
the
is
resistors /?,
17-7
Programmable
Unijunction
Transistor
376
The
^
Unijunction
Transistor
Programmable UJT
(a)
'
'^il
^G
'M
fl,
ffj
circuit
of programmable
(c)
UJT
Characteristic of
programmable UJT
Figure 17-8.
the device conducts heavily until the input voltage becomes too low to
sustain conduction.
shown
Example 17-5
r^j
/?,
and
and
It is
The
typical
Rgg,
ij,
in Fig. 17-8(c).
Using a 20
V supply, determine R^
and
voltage
mA.
tj
is
V when
on,
and
be programmed to
0.7.
Vp) of
to
and Rgg-
solution
V=
Glossary of
Important
=0.7
+ R,
=
=
nX
^55 0.7X20 V= 14 V
^,
If /,
too small, Fg
is
ensure a stable Vq
may
make
level,
/,
/,
R,
Terms
be significantly altered
>
when
Z^,
flows.
To
10/g.
= 10X0.1 mA = mA
l
14
^G
20V-14y^^^^
mA
1
^Bfi
Kp=
V[y
+ i\Vgg, wHcre
Vj)
= ^i + ^2 = 20kfi
(anode-to-gate forward voltage drop)
is
about
0.7 V.
Kp = 0.7-(-(0.7x20)=14.7
and an n-type
Base
1,
UJT
fi,.
resistive region.
Another name
Double-base diode.
Terms
for
a UJT.
is
is
connected.
Base
2,
UJT
fi2*
connected.
UJT
Emitter, E.
input terminal.
rg,.
UJT.
TgY
UJT.
sum
mr
of Tg,
and
Resistance of
UJT measured
between B, and B2
r^j.
emitter current
at
peak point on
at instant of firing.
at valley pwint
on character-
istic.
Peak voltage,
Vp.
acteristic.
Saturation resistance,
tg.
Glossary of
Important
Resistance of
r^, after
UJT
has
fired.
on char-
378
Region
Cutoff region.
The
of
UJT
becomes
forward biased.
Unijunction
Transistor
Region
UJT
of
characteristic
between peak
Region
Saturation region.
beyond valley
Ratio
UJT
which
at
UJT
of
pxaint.
r^.^/ R^g
determines
emitter-to-5, voltage
fires.
UJT
fi(,).
Emitter-to-5,
/B2(mod)'
voltage of
in
saturation region.
PUT.
Progranunable UJT,
Review
17-1.
Questions
Draw
of
17-2.
sketches to
^ unijunction
show the
basic construction
and equivalent
circuit
UJT
Sketch typical
UJT.
UJT
fired.
UJT
all
important
f)oints
on the
Show
all
waveforms and
Sketch a
UJT
capacitor,
briefly explain
how
input,
the circuit
operates.
17-5.
Using
a programmable unijunc-
how
explain
Problems
17-1.
Determine the
UJT
the
maximum
maximum
Calculate the
UJT
2N4948
17-3.
2N4948
value of
and
may be programmed.
Vg^g2 that
for the
2N4948
may
is
The
= 20 V.
2N4948 UJT and has
on when
be used at 125C.
Fgifl2
Vgg
= 25
V. The
capacitor employed has a value of 0.5 /nF and the charging resistance
is
17-4.
33
kl2.
For the
mum
Problem
maximum and
mini-
oscillations.
17-5.
17-6.
379
to
Problems
A UJT
to
of)erate
the
UJT
in
kHz
is
of
is
series
resistance,
and
voltage.
17-7.
A UJT
17-8.
The UJT
in
programmable
The gate
grammed
UJT
trigger current
to switch
on
at
is
Iq
and Rrr.
/?,
and
/?2,
is
when
on.
to be pro-
CHAPTER
18
Optoelectronic
Devices
18-1
Introduction
Optoelectronic
devices
are
light-op)erated
devices
(photoelectric),
or
upon a cathode
photovoltaic.
Photovoltaic
cells
is
changed when
it
is
illuminated.
intensity.
Any
wavelength
which
is
is
graph
termed the
or wavelengths.
of
affected by light
frequencies.
is
sensitive only to
An
electronic device
radiation frequency
material there
is
minimum
or threshold wavelength.
380
is
known
maximum
wavelength)
The
measured
total light
(mW)
in milliwatts
flux,
18-2
Light
or in lumens (Im).
Units
lm=
Light intensity
intensity
is
square meter
is
also
is
amount
the
(Im/m^), or
as
on a unit
area. Light
(mW/cm^),
in lumens per
known
which
z.
The
mW
1.496
approximately 10,000
on the earth
or
107,640
W/m^.
fc,
Im/ml
At a distance
total surface
of
is
spread over a
Light mtensity =
T-
luminous flux
/,o i\
(18-1)
\itr
an area
of 0.25
cm^
at 3
determine the
total
25
solution
From Eq.
(18-1),
Light intensity
47rX(3m)'
= (light
intensity)
= (221 X
ci:5.5
10"*
lO-*
mW/cm^
(area)
X (area)
mW/cm*) X (0.25
cm^)
mW
381
Example
18-1
382
Light energy
Optoelectronic
is
related
by the equation
<:=/X
where
(18-2)
= velocity
meters or
380X10~' m)
to red at
extremes are
and
380X10"^
^^2iiO!_~4xlO'*Hz
720X10-^
18-3
Photomultiplier
Tube
Although many
is
A photomultiplier tube
still
termed
dynodes.
an
anode,
consists of
and
it
an evacuated
is
an
glass
When
number
of electrons
is
multipUed.
383
Photomultiplier
Tube
Dynode
#'2
Figure 18-1.
After
^
+ 200
o"v
400 V
+ 600
at
to
In this
the anode.
levels.
up>on the
The
18-2.
Current amplifications of up
number
of
to 10*
photoemission
vk-ay
ampere
more
useful milli-
dynodes employed.
shown
The anode
in Fig.
voltages
The
dark
which flows when the cathode is not illuminated, results from thermal
emission and the influence of the high-voltage electrodes. For incident
current,
number
of emitted
Thus,
electrons
Microlumens
Level of
incident
ligfit
Dark
current
200
400
Anode
Figure 18-2.
voltage
600
is
for a p>articular
384
Dynodes
Optoelectronic
Devices
Amplifier
- 2000 V
(a)
Photomultiplier
circuit
(b)
symbol
Figure 18-3.
is
increased.
current always adds to the anode current produced by illumination, and the
Since
measured
the
illumination
in microlumens
it
applied to
its
is
characteristics
is
are
very
if it is
electrodes.
on the
indicated
levels
is
when
levels
nm,
voltage
is
in photo-
or from 400 to
1000 nm.
The symbol for a photomultiplier tube and a typical circuit arrangement are shown in Fig. 18-3. The cathode is provided with a high negative
voltage, and the dynodes are biased via a potential divider arrangement
between ground and the negative supply. The anode is connected via a high
value of load resistance to a level more positive than ground. Although the
device requires high operating voltages, the circuit arrangement enables the
18-4
The
Photoconductive
Cell
electrons
material,
and
holes
and consequently
(i.e.,
its
away from
resistance
is
reduced.
The
is
may be
to connecting pins
From
circuit
shown
or plastic cover
Thus,
their atoms.
included.
added
symbol and
in
Fig.
18-4.
zigzagged
strip,
protection, a glass
resistance
the
cell.
shown
may
When
in Fig. 18-5,
it is
seen that
kfl.
This
is
385
The
Photoconductive
Cell
Circuit
r^^
Side
Figure 18-4.
may
fall
symbol
to a few
The
cell sensitivity
scales
may
cell.
on the illumination
be expressed
in
terms
rather slowly
to
changes in
light
intensity.
For
cadmium
selenide
the
is
0.1 kS2
1000
100
Im/m?
400
Figure 18-5.
Illumination
cell.
386
excessive.
Optoelectronic
Devices
the
and extends
Two
18-3.
photoconductive
relay
acteristics
end
of the visible
cell
Example 18-2
is
spectrum
is
shown
the cell
required to be de-energized
and calculate
The
is
and
relay
is
18-9.
by a photoconductive
to be controlled
in Fig. 18-5.
in Figs. 18-8
cell
be supplied with 10
to
mA from a
when
the cell
is
and the
is
dark current.
solution
The
circuit
is
shown
in Fig. 18-6.
A series
resistor 7?,
is
current.
+6
30 V
Figure 18-6.
The
current
is
30
/=
i?,
Rj
From
30
(cell resistance)
(cell resistance)
V
mA
400 Im/m^ssl
30
10
cell
-I-
R,=
and
cell.
kJ2
Dark currents
ki2
= 2kS2
30
V
0.3
2kn-(-100kn
mA
kfi:
An
npn transistor
and
dark,
off
when
it
is
to
illuminated.
is
to
is
If
solution
The
circuit
and the
is
as
shown
transistor
in Fig. 18-7.
base
Figure 18-7.
From
When
is
dark the
above
below ground
its
grounded emitter.
When
level.
when photoconductive
dark resistanceaslOO
cell
is
illuminated.
ki2.
Cell current
The
= 6.7 V
(for
silicon transistor)
=^|^= 67 mA
current through R^
Cell current
The
When
biased
is
is
-1-
/^
= 67 A
fi
Vg^ = b.'i
5.3
R,.
-f-
^A
V
s20kn
267 /iA
When
is
at or
below zero
volts.
Fa56V
387
Example 18-3
388
Optoelectronic
Devices
Figure 18-8.
and
Since Ig
= 0,
cell
on when
cell
is
illuminated.
= 6V = 300 nA
20 kn
voltageasG V.
cell
6V =
20kfl
Cell resistance =
300 /iA
50
Figure 18-9.
when
Light
^A
cell.
Therefore, Q, will be off when the cell resistance is 20 kfl or less, i.e.,
the illumination level is above approximately 7 Im/m^ (see character-
istics).
18-5
The
Photodiode
When
flows
due
a ^n-junction
is
and
will
be
increased.
The same
effect
occurs
if
the junction
is
number
and
increases the level of reverse current flowing. Increasing the reverse voltage
all
available
Reverse
voltage
3V
[S/,
390
Optoelectronic
Devices
and
now
to n will
The
electrons
which
is
and
/^-terminal
f)Ositive terminal.
In fact, a
-side.
is
photovoltaic device as
for
conductive device.
When
as a photovoltaic device.
it
When
functions as a photoit
operates
(a)
0.5 V
0.4
Photodiode
symbol
Photoconductive
Photovoltaic
region
region
0.3
_^
0.2
0.1
Reverse
voltage
(b)
Figure 18-11.
Symbol and
0.1
I
0.2
Forward
0.3
0.4
0.5
voltage
Illumination characteristics
A
is
connected
in series
Draw
V supply.
Fig. 18-11
The supply
determine the diode currents and voltages at 1500, 10,000, and 20,000
Im/m^
illumination.
solution
The
circuit
as
is
shown
in Fig. 18-12.
'D"-l
-S
When
7^
'
= 0,
Vn
A on
Plot point
When
= 0,
Fa
= E,= -0.bW
=
Fig. 18-11 at 7^
and
-0.5
Vr,
200
5,
= 0.5
at
Id=- 2.5 mA
and F^
From
^^
lm/m^
S2
V.
A and
mA
10,000 lm/m^ 7o- 1.9 mA
20,000 lm/m^ 7o- 3.6 mA
At 1500
At
Id
Draw
At
V.
Figure 18-12.
Plot point
Fo= -0.5
Vf,=Es.
7a -0.2
of
B.
and
K^w
-0.45
and
K^aB -0.12
and
P'oSs+0.22V
391
Example 18-4
18-6
The Solar
Cell
The
solar
cell,
or solar energy
converter,
is
much
current capacity.
cell for
The
of /-type material
junction.
The
is
maximum
The
surface layer
cells
is
is
the jx)sitive
the negative
flat strip
form
for
Symbol
(a)
Light energy
Qj
yQ
(b)
Figure 18-13.
Systems, Inc.)
392
Cross section
cell.
(Courtesy of Solar
393
The
Solar
Cell
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Output voltage
Figure 18-14.
power photocell
for
circuit
symbol normally
efficient
The
100
mW/cm^.
Since the
cell
If
the cell
voltage
is
is
is
also
power
is
is
50 mA.
is
op>en
(wwcr is again
zero. For maximum output p)ower the device must be operated on the knee
of the characteristic. As in the case of all other devices, the output power
must also be derated at high temperatures.
circuited, the output current
An
earth
satellite
has
is
12-V'
batteries
employed
to
12 hours in every 24
number
is
125
mW/cm^,
If
shown
total
of cells required.
solution
The
must be connected
in scries to
charger
is
shown
in Fig. 18-15.
The
cells
Example 18-5
W-t
-AAAA,
394
Optoelectronic
Devices
Battery
Figure 18-15.
12
groups of series-connected
cells
must be connected in
parallel to
produce the
necessary current.
maximum
For
approximately 0.45
-,
V and 57 mA (Fig.
maximum
18-14).
,,
cells
output voltage
7;
cell
Allowing
output of approximately 13
voltage
13
drop
required.
V ,^
<29
V
^ ,.
0.45
is
.,,
24 hours X 0.5
is
or 12 ampere-hours.
must be 12 amjjere-
cells
hours.
The
i.e.,
for
12 hours in every 24. Thus, the necessary charging ctirrent from the solar
amp>ere-hours/ 1 2 hours, or
cells is 12
A.
cells in parallel
rr.
cell
1
57
The
total
series)
18-7
The
Photo-
number
of cells required
is
(number
current
A
mA'
;18
in parallel)
X (number
in
=18X29 = 522
phototransistor
transistor
is
is
is
similar to
light.
and Photo-
with
darlington
its
an ordinjiry
^ * hiLse current.
18-16).
The
collector-base
395
The Phototransistor
and
IcBO ^^^C
Photodarlington
'ceo
ceo - ^l~
>"CBO
Figure 18-16.
Currents
in a transistor
with
its
Since
^c
= /9dc4 + ()3dc+
(4-6)
)/ci,o
and
In this case, /^
^ceo'
ojDen circuited.
it
was shown
current was incresised by the light energy incident on the junction. Similarly,
in the phototransistor Iq^q
illuminated.
When
increases
when
is
i.e.,
much
the phototransistor
is
the
more
sensitive of
the two.
The
sistor
and
are
rely
circuit symbol and typical output characteristics of the phototranshown in Fig. 18-17. Some phototransistors have no base terminal
upon the incident illumination to generate a base current. Others
The
device
is
circuit
may be
The
For a given
level of illumination
is
produced by a
compared
to typical phototran-
3%
Optoelectronic
Devices
mA
397
The
PhotoFET
Figure 18-18.
a junction
If
The photodarllngton.
its
gate-channel
is
also susceptible
generated and hence causes /^^^ to increase. /^^ flows through bias resistance R(; and causes a voltage drop across R^ with the polarity showTj. Thus,
if
junction
is
voltage to increase
biases
off
and
the device on
bias the
FET
on.
to
the
increase
and decrease. In a
). Iq^
XI^.
oJunction
Figure 18-19.
when
dark, then
is
when
FET
circuit
vu
Photolet circuit
18-8
The
PhotoFET
The gate-source
398
Optoelectronic
Devices
^^^
jjjg
and
= gJ^,RG
The selected value of Rq determines the sensitivity
X/^=10nA, ^ = 8 niA/Vand^G=l Mfi,
X/^ =
8mA/VXl0nAXl
of the
photoFET. For
Mfl
= 80/tA
If
Rq
is
increased to 10
MB,
X/^
becomes 800
/xA.
18-9
Light-
rv
ri"^^
cross
\/^
= 50nA/juW/cm2
\/rf
= 500/iA//iW/cm2
band
band. Therefore, electrons are at a higher energy level than holes, and some
of this
energy
takes place.
is
If
is
when recombination
i.e.,
vvdll
light- emitting
be
diode
(LED).
cross
The semiconductor
arsenide phosphide
material employed
is
LED
is
shown
in Fig. 18-20.
is
grown uf)on a
substrate,
and the
/(-region
is
the device,
399
Light-
Emitting
Diodes
Charge carrier
recombination
Figure 18-20.
Figure
18-21
LED
shows the
circuit
numerical display.
typical seven-segment
to
The
actual
employed,
ats
LED
9 can be displayed by
LED device
light pipes
Q1^3HSB1BB
.U
(a)
Circuit system
(b)
Light pipe
Light pipe
LED
(c)
LED
Figure 18-21.
display
Light-emitting diode
and seven-segment
display.
is
are often
400
Optoelectronic
If.
becomes
401
Liquid-
9V-1.2V-0.2V
680
From
'^^
when
= 11.2 mA
/c-aslQ
11.2mA
mA.
^
= ,.
^^2MA
V.-Vbe
7V-0.7V
Is
112/nA
556 kfl
Displays
(LCD)
'-=-i00-
R,=
Crystal
(standard value)
18-10
LiquidCrystal
Displays
(LCD)
The molecules
in
When an
electric field
is
Charge
18-23.
When
is
is
illustrated in
transparent.
W^en
known
as dynamic scattering.
several organic
The
phenomenon
compounds which
nonanoate
and
liquid-crystal
is
be one of
may
compunds
arc
p-azoxyanisolt.
cell
of
consists
a layer of
liquid-crystal
material
The
When
is
rear or edge lighting through the cell in straight lines. In this condition the
cell will
When
is
diffusely
18-10.1
Dynamic
Scattering
LCD
402
Optoelectronic
Devices
CD CD
cz^
:^
Molecules
(a)
when no
in liquid crystal
(b)
current flowing
Molecules
Figure 19-23.
in a liquid crystal
and
Spacer
Mirror surface
in reflective
type
Figure 18-24.
shown
scattered forward, as
cell
Construction of liquid-crystal
in Fig.
18-25(a),
cell.
and the
appears quite
cell
The
cell
operates from
activated, light
is
light
incident
on
its
way from
front
reflective-
When
surface.
18-10.2
Field
Effect
LCD
The
field effect
LCD
is
type (Fig. 18-24), with the exception that two thin p)olarizing optical
are placed at the surface of each glass sheet.
employed
is
The
cell.
Fig.
filters.
Thus,
filters
liquid-crystal material
passing through
to pass
not
and the
phenom-
background.
When
and
disappears
18-10.3
Electrical
Characteristics
Since liquid-crystal
light generators,
about 25 /J.A
However, the
for
cells
dynamic
The only
The
scattering cells
is
typically
Light transmitted
Light scattered
403
LiquidCrystal
Displays
(LCD)
Transmittive type
(a)
Light reflected
Light scattered
(b) Reflective
is
dynamic
this
problem.
scattering
LCD
is
a 30
peak-to-f)eak
f>eak-to-p>eak.
liquid-crystal cells.
is
cells.
cell electrodes,
type
Operation of liquid-crystal
Figure 18-25.
The
back plane,
which
is
one terminal
similar square
wave
common
is
to all cells,
applied to each of
the other terminals. These square waves are either in phase or in antiphase
cells
in Figure
off.
The
segment are
with square waves
of the
cells
at
the
with the back plane input have an ac voltage develojjed across them
fxwitive square
when
waves with 15
pteak effectively
produce 30
same
in antiphase
(e.g.,
pcak-to-f)cak
in
antiphase with the back plane input arc energized and appear bright.
LED
displays,
mW
404
Bacl< plane input
Optoelectronic
Devices
Bacl< plane
V,
Effective voltage
waveform across
energized segment
Figure 18-26.
150
ms
LED's.
of
In
LCD
fact,
the
segments
is
LCD
human
its
is
rise
decay time of
and
fall
times of
sv^-itching off.
At
\o\n
is
considerably increased.
18-11
GasDischarge
Displays
The
18-27
is
typ>e of
gas-filled tube.
It
is
actually a
the base of the device, and the anode (for each seven-segment group)
is
is
contained
When
a red-orange glow; however, other colors are available with different gases.
The supply
of 140 to
200 V. This
is
is
on the order
is
when
jU.A.
50-/i,A current
405
Connector pins
Opto-electronic
Couplers
Base with
7 segments and
I
decimal point
per digit
Figure 18-27.
is
Inc.)
keep alive cathode (see Fig. 18-27) to ensure that the device switches
An
transistor
on
and a
rapidly.
a photo-
light-emitting diode
circuit
When
phototransistor
is
directed to the
be operated as a
normally
off.
LED causes
the transistor to be
is
optical, there
They
^
Figure 18-28.
SCR
output,
and
-o 6
-I
o 5
o 4
(c)
TRIAC
18-12
Optoelectronic
Couplers
406
Optoelectronic
Devices
(a)
Darlington output
(b)
(c)
In
(a)
output current
SCR output
:sk
Triac output
Figure 18-29.
output.
for
LED
a given
current) than
is
much
higher
possible with
The output stages in (b) and (c) are a UghtSCR and a Ught-activated TRIAC, respectively. They are appUed
activated
requirement
is
Chapter
16,
where an additional
control device.
The
following
is
list
of
an
optoelectronic coupler:
(LED)
output stage
TRIAC
and
the
LED)
/,
may
Laser
radiation.
CTR
to
150%. For a
407
SCR
^'^'
/,.
be 500%.
is
and
be
t^
jtis
rise
time (<,)
and fall
time
or
less
while
t,
could be 17
(t^).
/is.
For phototransistor
With a Darlington
/is.
narrow band of wavelengths). This means that the light has a single color (is
monochromatic); i.e., it is not a combination of several colors. Laser light is
referred to as coherent light as opfxjsed to light made up of a wide band of
wavelengths, which is termed incoherent.
The unique
in the
light
is
the energy
LED,
the light
is
incoherent;
i.e., it is
made up
level).
wide
of a
spectrum of wavelengths.
In a laser the atoms are struck by photons (or packets of energy) which
and
results in
when recombination
two identical photons
The
beam
result
is
an emission
of energy in the
form of a
of coherent light.
The
is
is
GaAs combined
with other
(Z-) [Fig.
18-30
Consider the
when
the junction
increases,
and
'
of interest.
is
output stages
output,
10%
anything from
photodarlington,
effect of
is
charge carrier
injection
excite the
energy randomly, as electrons are raised to a high energy level and then fall
back to a lower level. Sooner or later several photons strike the reflective
18-13
Laser
Diode
408
Optoelectronic
Devices
Reflective end
(a)
^^o^^^=r^
*iV^'
Depletion region
Reflective end
I
(b)
Random
depletion region.
Figure 18-30.
and operation.
ends of the junction f>erpendicularly so that they are reflected back along
409
Glossary of
Important
Terms
initial reflected
GaAs
laser diodes
up
light.
The beam
of laser light
of the junction.
threshold current
any-
levels,
At low current
to tens of amperes.
LED. Beyond a
level
levels the
the light
bandwidth decreases as lasing comthe high-energy density a laser beam can be quite
and
mences. Because of
end
mA
dangerous. Eye
photons of
reflective
protection
its
in
a pulsed
manner
devices.
are termed
injection laser
Optoelectronic device.
light,
operated by
Photoemissive device.
to
is
or modifies light.
Photoconductive
Device
device.
which
changes
its
resistance
when
illuminated.
Photovoltaic device.
Spectral response.
tion frequency.
Threshold wavelength.
/(threshold frequency)
maximum
produce a photoelectric
will
wavelength
effect in
a given
device.
Lumen.
Microlumen.
Lumen
of
Unit
of
Photomultiplier.
usable current
Photocathode.
Unit
(mW/cm*).
Electrode
illuminated.
is
levels.
with
surface
that
emits
electrons
when
Glossary of
Important
Terms
410
Dark
Optoelectronic
Devices
current.
illuminated.
Dlumination characteristic
Cadmium
sulfide.
Cadmium
device
device
of resistance, voltage,
time as 100
rise
ms spectrsd
time as 10
rise
ms
human
eye.
selenide.
region.
Diode
Photodiode.
when
in
the junction
illuminated
is
level
changes
photoconductive-photovoltaic de-
vice.
Solar
cell.
Photovoltaic
junction
cell
Transistor in which
Phototransistor.
7^.
illuminated.
is
Photodetector.
of light.
Photodarlington.
with another
Phototransistor connected in
Darlington arrangement
transistor.
PhotoFET.
Junction field
gate-channel junction
effect
is
transistor
in
illuminated.
Diode
in
which charge
carrier recombination
cell.
material can be
Electronic
made
to
display
Arrangement
Seven-segment display.
device
in
of seven
liquid-crystal
Gas-discharge display.
which
Gas-filled
tube
in
to 9.
numerals.
Combination
Optoelectroruc coupler.
of light-emitting diode
Laser.
Review
18-1.
Questions
SCR
or
and photo-
TRIAC.
Using
illustrations,
18-2.
Draw
18-3.
photoconductive
cell.
of material usually
employed.
18-5.
Draw
circuit
employed
cell
may be
(a) Biasing
411
Problems
for
a pnp transistor
when
off
the cell
is
illuminated.
(b) Biasing
(c)
it
18-7.
when
illuminated.
cell,
and
briefly explain
how
employed
as a
operates.
an array of solar
for
cells
Explain
how
it
18-10.
Using
illustrations,
Show
emitting diodes.
LED
numerical display
LED
Using
illustrations,
how a
is
constructed,
18-12.
and
and
Draw
field
transmittive-typ)e cells.
cell.
Show
light-emitting diodes.
LCD
Sketch a seven-segment
controlling the
18-13.
liquid-crystal cell
reflective-
is
numerical displays.
cells.
in
Explain.
how
discuss
its
18-15.
Draw
sketches to
show the
how
an LED.
diode. Explain
to that of
18-1.
photoconductive
light
cell
basic construction
cm
7
all
in
diameter
is
to receive
directions,
400
Im/m
of
the
lamp
light
cell. If
total
luminous flux
The
as
total
12.5
mW. The
Problems
412
Optoelectronic
Devices
evenly in
18-3.
A pnp
transistor
is
photoconductive
The supply
current
The
all directions.
cell is
voltage available
to be 10
is
to
mA
when
emits light
it
if
is
6 cm^.
is
level of illumination
Im/m^ and
off
when
on a
dark.
and
shown
in Fig. 18-5,
The
light
V, ^, = 13.8 kfi,
photoconducdve
cell
when
photodiode
is
connected in
18-11
and
is
The
400 Im/m^;
(a)
Im/m^
series
resistance required,
18-6.
is
5000
Im/ml
Im/m^. Calculate
when
at
of illumination.
nected in
-f-0.2
series
Fig.
18-11
is
con-
Two
lm/m^ and
5000 Im/m^.
and a
0.5
supply.
voltmeter
rural
resistors
is
is
10,000
12,500
Im/m^
incident
Im/m^.
mA. The
from an array of solar cells which each have the characteristics shovvTi
in Fig. 18-14. The average level of sunshine is 50 mW/cm^ for
number
and determine how they should be connected.
of solar cells
The
cells
18-10.
characteristics
shovm
in Fig. 18-18.
If
V^^
to
be 10
when
the!
illumination
level
30
is
mW/cm^,
18-11.
connected in
Two
when
light-emitting
is
to
falls
10
mW/cm^.
connected in
series.
The
current
mA. Design
ycc~
^2 V.
The diode
current
is
to
be
a suitable circuit.
light-emitting diode
switched on.
circuit
coil
the illumination
diodes are
approximately 15
18-13.
with a relay
series
413
Problems
CHAPTER
19
Miscellaneous
Devices
19-1
Piezoelectricity
If
a mechanical pressure
is
is
amount proportional
termed
piezoelectric.
vibrate at
its
An
to the voltage.
is
when a
distorted
by an
is
it
to
a very
19-2
Piezoelectric
Crystals
Consider the
19-2.1
Theory of
Piezo-
Fig. 19-l(a).
flat
The broken
lines join
groups of
ions. It
electricity
414
is
an equilateral
triangle
andl
415
Piezoelectric
Crystals
System
System
(a)
^^^ System
Piezoelectric
crystal structure
Charge + Charge
center
Pressure applied
center
+ Charge
center
Z)j\
applied pressure
Pressure applied
Movement
(c)
Crystal distortion
resulting
from
applied voltage
Figure 19.1
Flat plan diagrams of piezoelectric
cryslai, showing how voltage
ated by applied pressure, and how
distortion is produced by applied voltage.
is
gener-
416
Miscellaneous
Devices
the
is
ions,
is
concentrated at the
ions.
Since these
geometric centers are coincident the charges cancel, and each group of ions
is
electrically neutral.
the
shovsfs
The
now no
c is
and
increased.
b is
The
The
and
(Kjsitive
To
measurable.
is
effect,
to vibrate.
which
19-2.2
Manufacture
of Quartz
Crystals
maximum
Crystals of Rochelle
profjerties.
is
Rochelle
salt,
tourmaline,
and
made
to occur.
salt
it is
effect,
but
and
its
heat.
its
is
ap-
Z axis,
The
No
piezoelectric effect
the
cross
The
produced by
is
electrical or
is
known
mechanical
stresses
along
[Fig. 19-2(b)].
The
axes,
Y axes
X axis.
great variety of
characteristics. Figure
417
Piezoelectric
Crystals
Approximate shape
(a)
(b)
Cross section
of natural crystal
Figure 19-2.
crystal.
the
the
GT
cut
and the
temperature coefficient
rtng-shaped cut,
shown
in
Fig.
is
tc.
is
of
termed
desirable.
Two
coefficients.
a K-cut
The change
The
flat sides of
edges.
its
Each blank
resonance frequency. After grinding, silver or gold electrodes are plated onto
opf>osite sides of the
mounted
blank
to
form
electrical connections.
The
crystal
is
then
Figure 19-3.
418
Miscellaneous
Devices
(a)
Figure 19-4.
(b)
GT-cut
Ring-shaped cut
temperature coefficient.
metal can. Figure 19-5 shows a ring-shaped crystal mounted on a base and
its
19-2.3
Crystal
tquivaieni
Performance
can-type enclosure.
The
xhe
crystal actually
behaves as a
series
a crystal
LCR
is
circuit in parallel
with C, the
Figure 19-5.
Ring-shaped
crystal
[Fig. 19-6(b)].
One
of these
is
the
series
419
Piezoelectric
Crystals
Frequency
Equivalent circuit
(a)
Figure 19^.
(b)
Resonance frequencies
When
a circuit
is
operating at
its
is
can cause
dissipation
drift of the
termed the
Q^ factor.
is
If
out,
the resistance
resonance frequency.
measure
of the
is
circuit tends to
factors
Most
crystals will
maintain frequency
stability,
crystal oven.
Fig.
19-7.
power
is
The temperature
To stabilize
either
its
is
circuit.
drift to
the crystal
is
typical crystal
oven
is
shown
an
in
6 to 24 V.
may
be operated at
is
combined
vyith
R^, R2,
symbol
RFC, and R^
is
op>erating in
Transistor Q,
constitutes a common base circuit.
for the crystal.
19-2.4
Crystal
Oscillators
Thermostat
420
Miscellaneous
Devices
Oven body
Crystal
Figure 19-7.
Technological Prod-
Erie
ucts, Inc.)
transistor base
level.
voltage divider which returns a portion of the output voltage to the emitter
of Qj.
increases,
supplying
its
own
parallel with Cj
emitter
when
and C3
its
to increase positively.
V(,
impedance
maximum
is
is
to
The
circuit
is
crystal in
very high,
i.e.,
at
parallel
its
The
Thus, the
exists.
low,
is
resonance
oscillations.
the crystal.
The
could be employed in
its
series
10-4
is
one
circuit in
resonance mode.
The
which a
crystal
crystal should be
A
^c
<'0,
'Ft-,
xC
r\
Figure 19-8.
ICrystal
when
is
C(,.
a minimum,
Maximum
i.e.,
at
feedback occurs
421
Synthetic
Piezoelectric
frequency.
Devices
It is
waveform.
in the oscillator
the crystal
necessary to obtain
produces distortion
is
It
pwwer fed
pwwer
crystal
More
may be melted
an overdriven
crystal, destroying the device. In older types of crystals where more solid
plates were employed, the crystal was sometimes shattered by overdriving.
important
is
maximum
Typical
and consequently
crystal,
maximum drive
may be calculated.
A
drive
may
as well as a
voltage
mW.
The maximum
circuits.
off
certain crystal
power
is
may
maximum
is
mW,
not to exceed 10
ac voltage that
From
power.
calculate the
maximum
crystal ac
625
J2.
If
the
Example 19-1
p)eak-to-peak
solution
Power
where V
is
an rms
dissipated
= P= ^
H
voltage.
and peak-to-peak
volts
is
1.414
limited
to
applications
a few
of
manufactured
shaf>es.
natural
in
This
is
crystals.
X Vrms = 7.07V.
disadvantage because
Synthetic
piezoelectric
it
limits
devices
the
can be
where quartz
The manufacture
in a
and then
firing
is
19-3
Synthetic
Piezoelectric
Devices
422
Miscellaneous
Devices
(a)
Cylindrical transducer
(b)
Bimorph
Figure 19-9.
subjected to a high direct voltage. This has the effect of polarizing or aligning
the atomic groups within the material into a pattern which can produce a
piezoelectric effect.
The
when an
Two
electrical p)otential
is
an
electrical
movement
when
output
at the
mechani-
applied.
19-9. Figure 19-9(a) shovi^ a cylindrical-shaped ceramic device with electrical contacts plated
it is
preamplifier
is
is
frequently used
a buoy or a boat at the surface. Every noise (ship engines and the
causes a change in pressure on the sides of the transducer.
The
and
like)
pressure
are amplified
is
These
When
supfwrted at one end, electrical signals are generated at the internal and
moves
19-4
VoltageVariable
Capacitor
Diodes
and
(WC's)
are also
known
as varicaps, varac-
WC
is
by several trade names. Basically, a
simply a reverse-biased diode, and its capacitance is that of the junction
tors,
epicaps,
as well as
depletion region. Recall that the width of the depletion region at a /m-junction
[Fig.
19- 10(a)].
large reverse
423
Depletion region
VoltageVariable
width
Large reverse bias
Capacitor
Diodes
I
Conducting
plates
Reverse bias
Principle of voltage variable capacitance diode
(a)
Figure 19-10.
and
Principle of operation
circuit
(b) Circuit
symbol
symbol
diode.
depletion region tends to be very narrow. Since the depletion region acts as a
dielectric
of a capacitor.
As with
all
(C^)
is
C^
reverse-bias voltage,
This
is
is
is
prof)ortional to the
C^
cc
density.
l/V", where V
The
circuit
reverse bias
is
symbol
WC
for
WC
diode. C,
is
inductance, and C^
small and R,
is
is
is
is
the package
normally very
19-1
1(b).
is
for
of different
WC's.
A
from 6
wide selection
550 pF. The
to
reverse voltage to
profile of
Cf
the device,
of device
nominal capacitances
TR
is
is
available, ranging
TR may
profiles
be as small as 2 or as large as
for an abrupt junction diode and
upwn
15.
for
the doping
Figure 19-12
a hyperabrupt
vwvf
'Tfw^
Rj
(a)
Equivalent circuit
-4^
-AAAAr-
(b)
Figure 19-11.
Abrupt change
from constant
p to
constant density
of n
'density of
Density
Density
(a)
Abrupt junction
Density
Density
(b)
Figure 19-12.
424
Hyperabrupt junction
Doping
profile at abrupt
semiconductor
425
VoltageVariable
Junction device.
material
is
profile, the
the junction. In the case of the hyjjerabrupt junction, the doping density
region
Capacitor
Diodes
capacitance.
It
and thus
is
it
be more sensitive
to
Figure
The major
application of
WC
which
is
diodes
is
An example
of this
is
WC diode
shown
the circuit
circuit load.
TR.
The
amplifier
circuit.
Since
altered by adjusting the diode bias, the resonance frequency of the circuit
can be varied.
of the
WC
Q.
is
much
diode.
and 10
for the
pF
200
in
Example 19-2
426
i'
3e. ces
,
i
Bias control
Cr
adjusts
1(
Hgure
VVC
diode capacitance
19-14.
^-olifiec with
solution
From
At IV,
At 10 V,
C*150pF
C=e60 pF
At 1 V,CsK220pF
At lOV, Ca= 15 pF
For the hyperabrupt junction device,
IRflV- V)="J5"
I'^-o
ExAmple 19-3
R2=i0
kQ. and
acteristic
Z),
is
circuit.
solution
F^._;-
Ri
=
R,
+ R,
V^=
^
4.7kQ
4.7ka+10kQ
and
,= Kn
= 9V
X9V = 2.9V
From
427
Thermistors
Atr=2.9V CsslOOpF
At
F=9
V,
CaslSpF
At resonance,
27i/Z.
l/2fl/C,
/=
2ir( Z.C)'/^
For K
1.6MH2
/=
10-'^)'/^
V,i>(iiuut)>
/=
w4.1
The
The word
is
thermistor
is
is
MHz
10"'^)'^^
1.6 to 4.1
MHz.
resistor.
thermistor
(NTC), but
(PTC)
devices are also available. Thermistors are widely applied for temperature
compensation,
devices.
i.e.,
They
Silicon
ture,
for thermistor
manufac-
sintered
iron,
(or baked) at
connections are
made
by including
fine wires
the shape of beads, probes, discs, washers, etc. (Fig. 19-15). Beads
glass coated or enclosed in
evacuated or
and
EUectrical
made in
may be
Tiny
foil
Fig. 19-16. It
is
is
shov^-n in
19-5
Thermistors
428
Miscellaneous
Devices
Figure 19-15.
Some
500 times when heated through 150C. Current through a thermistor causes
power dissipation which raises the device temperature. Thus, the device
resistance is dejsendent upon ambient temperature and self-heating. For a
own
fKJwer dissipation.
the device.
Example 19-4
19-16
employed
resistance of 5 ki2 at
a current of
mA,
in
kfl at
19-18.
50C.
If
The
the relay
is
energized by
15C and
50C(a) with the thermistor and /?2 not in circuit; (b) with the thermistor in
circuit; (c) with the thermistor and /?2 in the circuit.
solution
(a)
1=
Ri
Ri-
+ Rc
-R,
I
lU.UUU
430
3i<n
Miscellaneous
Devices
,N^
|:> Relay
Figure 19-18.
at
circuit.
-15C
20
1mA
atSO'C
R,
(b)
With the
20
- 6.5
= =-
1mA
= 13.5
kfl
thermistor,
/=
/v I 4"
^,
From
kfi
Fig. 19-16,
Rt=3
Ry "^ R-c
y -Rj. Rc
- 15C and
kfi at
100
at
50C.
at-J5C
i?,
20 V
= -P
-3
1mA
kfi-5 kfi= 12
kfl
a<50C
/?,=
20 V
-=^ - 100 - 6.5 kfl = 13.4 kfl
mA
fi
(c)
With
/?2 ^i<i
the thermistor,
/=
R^
.R,
+ {RJ.\\R^) + Rc
y (^rll^2)~^C
431
Thermistors
(a)
Temperature measurement
(b)
Figure 19-19.
at-J5''C
20V
A,
= -P -(3kn|l3kfi)-5*n=13.5An
1mA
20 V
-p
mA (3
at50C
;?,
kfl||
100
12)
-6.5
kfl
13.4
ka
reduced
from 15
to
when
kJ2
/?,
is
from
15
to
and 3
kfl
circuit, virtually
when
the thermistor
no adjustment of
/?,
is
compensates
ture
Two
Example 9-4 One is that only the temperaextremes were looked at, and obviously the adequacy of compensation
is
that the
negligible.
19-6
Lambda
Diode
The
lambda diode
is
is
A
shown
lambda diode
is
of different types.
two
transistors
which
would be a pnp tyjje and the other an npn. For FET's one
device and the other is a/)-channel FET.)
is
an n-channel
9 Anode
X
X
(a)
Two FETs
(b)
Figure 19-20.
432
connected
Forward
Circuit
as a
lambda diode
characteristics
and
characteristics of a
lambda diode.
Note
FET
connected to the
433
source terminal of the other transistor. Note also that the two drain termi-
Glossary of
Important
each
is
Terms
To
V)
cathode.
large
The
gate of Q,
is
0.5
is
gate of
0^2'
Again,
this is
enough
FET,
is
with respect to
its
source. This
0.5
p)ositive
with
off.
not
is
Similarly, the
FET
to bias the
off.
conducting. Consequently,
increased from zero through 0.5 V, the current flowing increases in pro{X)rtion to the applied voltage.
each device
Section 12-2).
The
|x>int at
which the reverse-bias voltage becomes effective is the point on the characteristic at which the current is a peak. As the lambda diode forward
voltage is increased beyond this point, the FET channels are narrowed and
the current falls steadily to a very low (drain-source leakage) level. With
both FET's biased off, further increases in (forward) voltage have no effect.
At some high voltage level device breakdown would occur, of course.
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to the lambda diode, the gate of
the n-channel, FET is always f)ositive with respect to its channel, and the
FET
/(-channel
always has
its
the
sum
The
of
reverse characteristic
FET
is,
channel resistances.
Like the tunnel diode, the negative resistance of the lambda diode
allows
it
switching circuits.
The
laboratory situation.
Piezoelectric crystal.
distorts
Rochelle
when
salt,
a voltage
is
applied to
tourmaline, quartz.
its
when
pressed,
and
surface.
lectric properties.
Optical axis
is
(Z axis).
exhibited.
Electrical axis
{X
mechanical
axis).
stress
is
when
Glossary of
Important
Terms
434
Miscellaneous
Devices
A'-cut.
its flat
causes
stress
axis.
F-cut.
its flat
mechanical
axis.
GT-cut.
Ring-shaped
and
cut.
at a particular angle to
Frequency
at
which
impedance
a minimum.
is
Frequency
Q^ factor.
Overtone
at
Frequency
with
resonates
electrodes
which
crystal
at
reactance
impedance
is
of
the
crystal
of the
circuit.
maximum.
circuit.
Crystal oven.
is
Synthetic
device.
piezoelectric
exhibits piezo-
electric characteristics.
WC
diode.
capacitance
is
WC
WC diode
Other names
Capacitance tuning
Ratio of
ratio.
for a
diode.
capacitance at a small
Doping
profile.
density at a /w-junction.
vidth
tempera-
ture change.
Lambda
diode.
Two
field
effect
transistors
Review
Questions
^ piezoelectric
diagram
to
axis, and show how a mechanical stress can cause voltage generation,
and how an applied potential can produce crystal distortion.
435
19-2. (a)
K-cut, GT'-cut,
and
Problems
the
origin
of
Explain the
an ordinary
of
Q_ factor
operation of
19-5.
a crystal to that
how
greatest
is
crystal.
Q_ factor of
circuits,
one using a
crystal in
circuit.
of synthetic piezoelectric
devices.
19-7. (a)
Using
illustrations,
19-8. (a)
WC
WC
diode.
circuit
may
be simplified.
WC
diodes.
Draw
WC
(c)
and
diode.
compensation
diagrams
to
show applications
of thermistors to (a)
temper-
diagram
to
of a
lambda
diode. Also
Explain the
What
would the
look
like?
Briefly
explain.
19-1.
power
of
mW.
kQ has
a specified
maximum
drive
crystal.
Problems
436
19-2.
Miscellaneous
Examine each
Describe
how
piezoelectric crystals
(TR)
at 2
and 8
V for the
abrupt junction and hyperabrupt junction devices wdth the characterin Fig. 19-13.
istics
19-4.
The
/nH, R^
the
19-5.
=3.3
kfi,
7?2~20
characteristics
in
and
kfl,
19-13.
Fig.
F(,c
= 20
L = 80
V,
Z), is
the meter
when
if
80C. Assimiing
that the variable resistance remains unaltered, calculate the meter
readings for temperatures of 50, 20, and 10C.
19-6.
is
the temf)eature
The
relay
series
is
thermistor
is
15C and
mA from a
is
to
5 kfi at 80C.
10
V supply
be connected
and
at
in
in series
15
80C.
is
With
/?,
at
kfi
resistance,
15 and 80C.
again
CHAPTER
20
Electron Tubes
Electrons can be
also
be
made
to travel
made
to travel
One
of the electrodes,
emits electrons.
The
termed the
They can
two electrodes
has been evacuated.
through a metallic
is
crystal.
dtode,
is
it
main-
tained at a positive pKJtcntial with resf>ect to the cathode. Since electrons arc
negatively charged they are attracted toward the plate, so that a current
flows (in the conventional direction) from the positive plate to the negative
cathode.
cut
off.
If
is
is
and
trode tubes.
437
20-1
Introduction
20-2
The
Vacuum
Diode
Vacuum
20-2.1
Construction
cylinder
and with
may
it may
cathode
be a simple filament of
tively,
The
or
tungsten
thoriated tungsten.
oxide
or strontium
The
Alternaoxide,
and
is
may
age tubes, the plate voltage limit is determined by the insulation resistance
between electrodes, rather than by the tube dissipation. For this resison, the
plate terminal is frequently at the opjxjsite end of the tube from the other
terminals.
Typical
20-2.2
Diode
Characteristics
When
vacuum diode
is
characteristics are
zero, very
When E
is
shown
(L)
is
near zero.
the cathode. Initially only a small quantity of the electrons flows from
cathode to plate. As the plate voltage increases, more and more electrons
flow to
it
until there
is
Nickel tube
-with oxide-coated
Glass
envelope
surface
Plate or
anode
Cathode
Heater
(b) Circuit
Heating filament
symbol
(c)
Oxide-coated cathode
Cathode
(heater inside)
(a)
Construction
Figure 20-1.
438
Vacuum diode
flow to
in
it
until there
is
With a continued
plate voltage.
saturation
Ep produces only a
increased,
level,
more
slight
increase in
At
level.
drawn
/..
and
this
to the plate.
all
available
Further increase in
If
/.
p>oint
is
raised to a
new
is
saturation
T^ in Fig. 20-2).
There are two major regions of the diode characteristics, the spacecharge limited region, and the temperature- limited region. The diode is operating in
its space-charge limited region when more electrons are being produced at
the cathode than are being drawn to the plate. In this condition the plate
current is dependent on the plate-to-cathode voltage. In the temfjeraturelimited region, the plate {jotential is so great that all the electrons produced
at the cathode are being drawn to the plate.
In the space-charge limited region, there
is
around the cathode (because more electrons are emitted than are
drawn to the anode). Positive ions, which are formed by electron collision with
gas molecules, are accelerated toward the cathode, but enter the electron
cloud and become neutralized by recombining with electrons. When operating in the tempierature-limited region, there is no protective cloud of
electrons around the cathode, so jxwitive ions can strike the cathode and
electrons
seriously
damage
For
this
Plate
Space-charge
Temperature
limited region
limited region
/^
current
Plate voltage
Figure 20-2.
Vacuum diode
characteristics.
439
The Vacuum
Diode
20-2.3
Vacuum
Diode
Applications
Therefore,
its
vacuum diode
disadvantage that
30
same
is
The vacuum
its
a one-way device.
as the semiconductor
is
The semiconductor diode, by contrast, has an approxidrop across it when operating. Also, the vacuum diode requires
(or greater).
mately
an additional supply
for the
cathode heater.
When
of the
is
a semiconductor diode.
Example
20-1
the characteristic
plate voltage.
Figure 20-3.
Vacuum diode
characteristics
in Fig. 20-4.
From
and dc load
solution
The
circuit
is
as
shown
the circuit.
E = E^ + LR,
When/. = 0, = . + 0.
=100 V
440
line.
441
The Vacuum
Triode
Figure 20-4.
Plot point
When
E^
A on
the characteristic at
/.
series load.
=0, .= 100 V.
= 0,E = + I^Rj^.
100
B at E^ = 0, 7^ = 25 mA.
Draw the dc load line between pxjints A and B.
From the intersection of the load line and the characteristic
/ =17 mA and^ =32 V.
Plot point
20-3
The Vacuum
Triode
Consider the
effect of
and the
the cathode
plate.
When
the grid
all
is
made only
it
so that
When
many
20-3.1
Grid Effect
no
the grid
electrons
are able to pass through the grid wires to the plate. Thus, by varying the
grid jx)tential
is
completely.
If
the grid
attracted to
it,
The
made
is
and a
is
With
fxjsitive
a condition to be
rcsfjcct to
vacuum
The cathode and plate arc normally of the
a diode tube. The grid is usually a nickel
of construction as for
wire, spiral
is
same type
20-3.2
Construction
442
Electron
Tubes
(b)
(a)
Circuit
symbol
Construction
Figure 20-5.
is
The
at the base of
the tube.
20-4
Triode
Characteristics
When
20-4.1
Plate
Characteristics
is
cathode, the triode plate characteristics are similar to those of a diode. Thus,
in Fig. 20-6 the triode L/ Ep characteristic for E =0 is exactly as would be
expected from a diode tube operating in the space-charge limited region. If
Ep
is
reached.
{E
for
barrier for electrons to cross before they can pass from cathode to plate.
E^ has to be
made
not
commence when E^
is
around zero
any
plate current will flow. Also, at each subsequent level of E., the plate current
is less
than when
moved
E = 0.
The
is
effect
is
illustrated
= characteristic being
E = V characteristic in Fig.
that of the ^^
by the
20-6.
When
characteristic
is
of grid voltage,
the figure.
If
moved even
a.
family oi
the grid
is
on the grid
is
gfreater
than
V, the plate
L/Ep
made
characteristics
in
11
444
Electron
Tubes
Figure 20-7.
of
and E^ can
h>e
vacuum
triode.
voltage values can be plotted against the plate voltage values to obtain the
4= 10
mA.
if
a vertical line
is
produce
all
may
be used
Figure 20-8.
vacuum
triode.
to
solution (a)
^P
Example 20-2
446
Electron
Tubes
(a)
Plate characteristics
10
be altered by
447
Common
to
mA. Typical
tube
life.
useful as
is
an indication
Circuit
of
at .
= V
1
20-5J
Amplification
Factor ( fi)
is
^=(aratio) = M
From
Cathode
mA characteristic
L = 20
useful
a figure of merit).
is (i.e., it is
From
the
Thus g^
its
(20-3)
the characteristic
V _
30
The
amplification factor
plate voltage
and
characteristics
is
it
( /i)
is
of
will
10
mA
when
E^,
remains constant.
To
From
= 30
the
change L by
is /i
with
times as
Typical values of
fi
fi,
effective as
E^,
in controlling
(|U
in this case).
The
g^,
and
r..
The
expression for n
as multiplying by
is
multiplied by
A/^/AA, which
is
the
same
20-5.4
Relationship
Between
1.
Parameters
fi
r.
A.
A.
^E. ^ AA
where g
AA
AA ^ Af,
AA
A.
is
in
A.
/4
V, not
mA/V
20-6
Common
Cathode
Circuit
The
is
shown schematically
plate,
may
in Fig. 20-10.
20-6.1
Circuit
Configuration
448
Electron
Tubes
Output
Input
^V
^(
^
Common
Figure 20-10.
It
and
grid leak,
function
its
cathode amplifier.
The
resistance
is
is
biased
referred to as the
is
signal "sees"
The
input signal
is
is
The
is
Using the above equation, the dc load line may be drawn on the plate
Take ^^ = 10 kS2 and ^^ = 200 V. When 7^ = 0,
20-6.2
DC Load
^ Er>p A/t/
characteristics.
Line
4=0
line,
point
and Ep = 200
A on
Fig. 20-11.
/
''
".
and
The dc
This
is
L = 20 mA
= ^-0 = 200 V
When
200
=
/?,
on the dc load
^ = 0,
V=
20 mA
10 kfi
on the
characteristics.
altered, a
new
is
449
AC Analysis
Common
of
Cathode
Circuit
DC
Figure 20-11.
E = 2
V,
/.:=::
9.5
105. If
is
now
line.
At
p>oint Q,.
/.
20-6.3
Amplification
mA
becomes
13.5
in this case
equal to 20
and
common
of the
The
is
obtained. Also,
(positively)
\,,
increases
is
increases
decreased.
So
cathode amplifier
in
is
increased
phase with
is
increased
is
20-7
be regarded as short
shown
E^
From
e^,
when
changes
when E
voltage
A,
and with
circuits.
E and
input signal
e, is
Redrawing
From
it
is
AC
of
Analysis
Common
Cathode
Circuit
450
Electron
Tubes
^
(a)
(b)
pfij
and
Developing ac equivalent
Figure 20-12.
is
is
jie^
now
volts.
r^.
to
The
r.
replaced by a
vacuum
triode
resistance of
and R^
cathode amplifier.
r,.
The complete ac
shown
divided across
r^
common
From
circuit for
is
common
voltage generator of
internal resistance
to
equivalent circuit
is
seen that
jie^
V^.
is
potentially
Therefore,
R,
Fo=-iu^,X
The
voltage gain
^V^^
-fiR^
r^
+ R,
(20-5)
= 30,
/i
A =
"Looking in"
=5
'e
30xl0kn
/?i
= 10
451
kfl,
AC Analv-sis
Common
of
= -20
Cathode
Circuit
common
/f^.
and
Skfi+lOkfi
with
ki2,
cathode amplifier
it
is
seen
in parallel
is r
is
cathode, no grid current flows, and the circuit has a high input resistance
equal to
Z=rJ\R,
(20-6)
Z = R.
(20-7)
and
circuit
and
its
common
configuration
is
A vacuum
triode used in a
shown in
175 V, and
common
all
common
vacuum-tube
circuits.
plate characteristics
supply voltage
is
its
cathode
is
is
V, determine
7 kfi,
the
and
E..
/.
Calculate the input impedance, output impedance, and voltage gain of the
amplifier.
solution
Epp
when
/.
= 0,
E^+
Epp =.-- 0.
=
Plot point
A on
When
Ef,
the characteristic at
= 0,
Epp
= 0+
Plot point
I^Ri^
at 7^
1^
75
= 0, E^=\ 75
I^R^
175
= 25 mA,
V=
25 mA
7kn
^
V.
V.
Example 20-3
Figure 20-13.
Draw
the , =
and parameters
V characteristic,
to B.
Where
for
Example
read
A = 10mA
and
'.=
105V
input impedance
From
Eq.(20-7),
Z,
=R
=IM^
typically
output impedance
From Eq.
(20-6),
Z = rA\R,
and
AE
50 V
= - =
M^
10
mA
Output imfjedance =
20-3.
=5
Rl\\''p
_ 7kax5ka = 2.9
~ 7kB + 5ki2
kfi
kfl
453
voltage gain
From Eq.
Common
(20-5),
Plate
Circuit
A =
r.
From Eq.
+ R,
(20-3),
M=
At the bias
10
mA when
point,
E^ remains at
produces a change of
IX
1^
The
voltage gain
V = ,
25
2V
50
is
25X7
kfl
is connected
with the cathode of the tube. The grid bias voltage Eg is now
positive, but the grid-to-cathode voltage E is not equal to the grid bicis
in series
drop across
/?^,
input
<Mf
Figure 20-14.
Common
20-8
Common
Plate
Circuit
454
If
Electron
Tubes
^^
10
kS2,
drawn
cathode
From
circuit.
Eg=-2V
and
7^
= 9.5 mA
Eg=-2 V+ (9.5 mA X 10
= +93V
To
+ 93
V. This
with
common
resfject to
common
kfi)
Q^,
is
cathode
circuits.
is
still
negative with
the cathode.
20-9
Common
Grid
Circuit
This
is
is
common
base
input voltage must supply the plate current changes, and so the circuit has a
low input
resistance.
and cathode,
a voltage gain
so
is
is
The
achieved. Like
its
circuit
as a high-frequency
is
means that
the grid
20-10
Triode
Biasing
Methods
There are
several
methods
is
to
on
Fig. 20-16.
Lx R^.
The
E^ By
method
far
is
is
if
a suitable
and most
may
is
455
Triode
Biasing
Methods
Output
_r
^-
Input
>
\{
Common
Figure 20-15.
cathode.
To
so that Rn
is
is
ac gain, R^
bypzissed
by large capacitor
C,,
in series
must be drawn
The
grounded via
maximum
With the
dc load
is
obtain
grid amplifier.
bias jX)int
with the
for (Rj^
+ R/^).
on the dc load
If
load line
line
is /?^.
bias line.
A common cathode amplifier has /?^=9.7 kfi, R^ = 210 S2, and Epp =
200 V. The triode employed has the plate characteristics shown in Fig.
20-1
1,
and
/7^ is
Figure 20-16.
Draw
Cathode bias or
self-bias.
and
Example 20-4
456
Electron
Tubes
Determining
Figure 20-17.
Q point
circuit.
solution
7?^
+ /f^ =9.7
kfi
+ 270 fi 10
kfi
The dc
load line
is
When
When^=-3V,
When
= -2
= 3V =
7^
''"
When
.=
270
14.8
11.1
mA
mA
(Fig. 20-17).
(point 2)
S2
= 2V = 7.4
mA
(points)
(point 4)
V,
7
''
Now draw
I'
-4
:^=
Plot point
7?^
270
1
= 270
S2
J2
through points
1, 2, 3,
and 4
457
The
Tetrode
Tube
dc load
line
ac load line
Figure 20-18.
AC
The bias line intersects the dc load line at point Q_, giving a; 2.4
V, /^8.8 mA, and ^=112 V. Note that E^ is the tube plaU- to -cathode
voltage. The voltage from ground to plate is {E + LR^). Since R,^ is bypassed
to alternating current, the ac load
to
kQ.
(xjint
Let
A/^=10 mA.
On
^= 10
= ./?^ = 9.7
One
mA and A^=
Draw
-97
10
from the
the characteristic
by measuring
AA =
(^ point.
is
close to the
20-11
The
Tetrode
Tube
Interelectrode
capacitance
in
appears
in
a vacuum triode
The grid-to-cathode
and
is
limits
the
high-
capacitance (C*)
20-11.1
Theory of
Operation
capacitance.
Electron
tance.
Tubes
The
458
control grid
and the
plate.
The
construction
is
When
a tetrode
is
connected in a
circxiit
is
grounded
to
alternating current, so that signals fed back from the plate are channeled to
ground instead of reaching the control grid. The screen grid must also be
maintained at a high positive (dc) potential with respect to the cathode;
otherwise, it would repel the electrons from the cathode. A large capacitor
must be connected from screen grid to ground to provide an ac path to
ground. The tetrode circuit symbol and the biasing arrangement for the
screen grid are shown in Fig. 20-19.
20-11.2
Characteristics
of the
Tetrode
is
a pwrtion of the
it
from the cathode. The plate collects the remaining {xjrtion of the cathode
The cathode current remains constant, being determined by Eg and
current.
R^. Therefore, I^
= Ip-if I^^
When
Figure 20-19.
E =0
459
The
Tetrode
Tube
Figure 20-20.
and screen
grid characteristic,
flows. Therefore,
At
this
time
When
As E^
At points
all
/.
increases
mA and /
as50
and consequently /
decreases.
current
is
then /j;85
is
mA.
emission.
more
is
positive
the secondary electrons are attracted from the plate to the screen grid. This
constitutes a decrease in
parts
/.
and an increase
in
giving parts
to
be
made more
positive,
now
is
The
C and
to
and D', E^
to
is
and
secondary
the
decresiscs
parts
and L
D' of
to
in
the
tetrode characteristics
C of the characteristics.
fi' to
is
a distinct disadvantage,
D)
ol the characteristics
approach resulted
in
typical characteristics
the beam
shown
tetrode,
circuit
beam
is
One
symbol and
trons flowing to the plate are concentrated in dense channels by the negative
potential
plate.
on beam-forming
The
result
is
plates
the kink
is
and the
and thus
y'TN.
-12
26-12.1
JSseoty
of
Qpwuiiuw
maKOsa
(a)
Pentode
symbol
circuit
f,
^
50-
25
=0
20-13
The
Variable-Mu
or
Remote
Cutoff
Pentode
The transconductance
pentode and
for
characteristics for
remote cutoff
cutoff pentode the characteristics are almost completely linear. Also, the
plate current
is
cut off
(i.e.,
11 and
achieve
in Fig. 20-24(a)].
cutoff.
In a normal pentode, the control grid wires are evenly spaced along
the length of the cathode, as they are in a triode (Fig. 20-5). Consequently,
electrons emitted from all parts of the cathode are equally affected by the
grid p)otential. In a remote cutoff f)entode, the grid wires are either unevenly
spaced, or the cathode ends are allowed to project beyond the ends of the
grid.
With
this
which are
potential.
relatively
To
far
rejjel electrons
grid
The
result
is
it
to be.
60
V.
is
AL/AE,
i.e.,
the
slof)e of
( fi)
Input
Ar-.^
Figure 20-23.
462
Pentode amplifier
circuit
for
each electrode.
463
The
Cathode- Ray
Tube
(a)
Transconductance
characteristics for
Figure 20-24.
-28-24
-20
-16
-12
Transconductance characteristics
-8
for
pentodes.
20-14
The
Cathode-Ray
Tube
The
basic constniction
Fig. 20-25.
The
and
system of electrodes
is
shown
in
vertically
and
20-14.1
General
The
20-14.2
Triode
Section
all
electrodes in a triode
hole in
cathode, also
made
vacuum
tube.
The
grid,
which
is
(see Fig.
it
and an
of nickel,
is
flat,
The
oxide-coated,
heating
is
approximately
The cathode
is
is
typically held at
mately 2000 to 2050 V. The grid p)Otential controls the electron flow
from the cathode, and thus controls the number of electrons directed to the
screen. A large number of electrons striking one point will cause the screen
to
The
first
is
anode {A^)
vkdll
brightness control.
is
and
closed at
the other end with a hole at the center of the closed end. Since
is
A^
is
/I,
is
highly
from the
cathode through the holes in the grid and anode to the focusing section of
the tube.
20-14.3
The
Focusing
System
The
lens.
Figure 20-25.
464
Basic construction
tube.
from the cathode, and the hole in ^4, limits the initial cross section of the
beam. A^ and A^ are held at ground potential while the Aj fwtential
is adjustable around 2 kV. The result of the potential difference between
electron
anodes
lines
is
that equipotential
are set up as
lines
a potential of
might be
700 V
500
divergent beam.
V
On
exp)erience a force
along
over
its
its
in Fig. 20-26.
for
The
Tube
These are
/I,
as a
which changes
shown
constant. Line
is
465
Cathode- Ray
lines.
The
toward right
The
can be altered by adjusting the potential on A2. This adjusts the point at
which the beam is focused, /^j is sometimes referred to as the/oou ring.
The
negative potential on
same
as
when
entering
/!,.
^42
^4 3,
The
tends to slow
so that the
is
is
volts.
f)ositive plate
The
and
also
When
is
E/2,
rep)elled
new
(negatively
have a horizontal
beam
p>osition.
Direction of
force on
When
beam-
convergent force
Figure 20-26.
Electrostatic focusing.
is
deflected
normally
and the
20-14.4
Beam
Deflection
466
Deflecting
Electron
Tubes
Deflection
Figure 20-27.
The beam
Electrostatic deflection.
positive or negative potential to the other plate. In this case, the potential at
voltages
The
20-14.5
The
Screen
of the
is
fields.
tube face.
When
the electron
strikes the screen, electrons within the screen material are raised to
beam
a higher
may
persist
for
the screen
insulators, and,
beam
to pass through,
to ground.
The aluminum
the brightness of the glow by reflecting the emitted light toward the
further advantage of the film
is
that
damage
it
acts as
the screen.
a heat
sink,
glass.
conducting away
20-14.6
Brightness
of Display
is
number
of the
of electrons
glow produced at
the beam.
making up
Since the grid controls the electron emission from the cathode, the grid
voltage control is a brightness control. Brightness also depends upon beam
maximum
speed; so for
However,
if
is
very high
when
passing through the deflection plates, the deflecting voltages will have a
posldeflection acceleration
is
sensitivity will
provided;
i.e.,
be
fX)or.
It is for this
is
The
20-14.7
Waveform
Display
-J- 1
kV and
at the other
end
is
cm/V,
sensitivity of 2
deflection
is
When = 0.5
/
cm
left
If
is
is
zero
on
Fig. 20-28(c)].
is
cm
left
1.5 V;
deflection of
up and
data
cm
--
2.8
left
cm
(jxtint 2).
The
following
At
1
ms
Horizontal
Vertical
Point
is
a table of
468
Electron
4 ms
Tubes
(b)
(c)
to repeat the
appHed
waveform
display
on cathode-ray
It is
A 500-Hz
Example 20-5
Display
Waveform
Figure 20-28.
tube.
to the
triangular
CRT. A 250 Hz
of
40
savytooth
is
applied
wave with a
CRT
solution
470
Electron
Tubes
Horizontal voltage
Horizontal deflection
12.4
+25V
V +50V
+37.5
+2 cm
+3cni
+4cm
Point
The
+lcni
Vacuum
section
triode
diode.
Cathode.
Negative
terminal
vacuum tube
of
emits
electrons
when
heated.
Positive terminal of
Plate.
Same
Anode.
Filament.
Cathode, or heater
Element used
Tungsten.
collects electrons
for indirectly
heated cathode.
vacuum tube
from cathode.
as plate.
in filaments.
Thoriated tungsten.
cathodes.
Barium oxide.
heated cathodes.
Voltage at plate, or voltage measured from cathode to
Plate voltage, L.
plate.
Plate current, L.
conventional
Plate characteristics.
Graph
of
/.
Region
which space charge exists-region
of
in
which device
is
ojjerated.
Temperature-limited region.
which
Vacuum
Grid.
all
triode.
Wire
in
spiral
current.
Transconductance, g^.
Ratio of change
Graph
change.
Transconductance
characteristic.
Graph
constant.
sp>onding
values, with
471
20-14.8
Double-Beam
Cathode-Ray
Tubes
Glossary of
Important
Terms
472
Plate resistance,
(AEJMJ
Electron
...
Tubes
Reciprocal of the
r^.
Amplification factor,
plate characteristics
/i.
cathode
Vacuum
circuit.
for
a given value of
same AA.
Common
of
slof)e
ohms.
triode circuit in
is
and cathode.
Common
Vacuum
plate circuit.
and
Cathode
which input
triode circuit in
Same
grid circuit.
triode circuit in
as common plate
Vacuum
circuit.
and
is
plate.
follower.
Common
Grid
signal
is
grid.
leak.
Cathode
bias.
cathode.
Self -bias.
Same
as cathode bias.
Leakage capacitance.
Input capacitance.
Output capacitance.
Tetrode.
Plate-to-grid capacitance.
Grid-to-cathode capacitance.
Plate-to-cathode capacitance.
and cathode.
Screen grid.
effects of
Beam
tetrode.
emission.
Pentode.
control grid,
Suppressor grid.
and cathode.
Grid employed
to suppress
secondary emission.
Variable-mu pentode.
according to grid bias voltage. Also requires large negative grid voltage
to cut off plate current.
Remote
cutoff pentode.
Same
as variable-mu pentode.
Ordinary pentode
(i.e.,
not variable-mu)
requires
Electron gun.
beam
Electron
(or ray)
which
is
cathode-ray tube.
Electron beam.
Stream or ray
Brightness control.
Focusing system.
beam
to
473
a point
Questions
Same
Electron lens.
as focusing system.
Ek]uipotential lines.
ix>tential
Focus ring.
focus of electron
beam
when a
deflecting voltage
beam
CRT
when a
horizontally
is
varied to obtain
the electron
beam
applied.
electrodes
which
deflecting voltage
Isolation shield.
is
CRT.
in
is
applied.
Deflection factor.
screen of
CRT (V/cm).
Deflection sensitivity.
by
Screen.
Flat portion of
produced
inside coating of
phosphor
(cm/V).
Aquadag.
CRT
at deflecting plates
struck by electrons.
of
CRT,
collects
secondary
emitted electrons.
Postdeflection acceleration (PDA).
tron
beam
Resistive helix.
after
Film of
CRT
neck of a
Double-beam CRT.
Arrangement
to accelerate
CRT
elec-
it
resistive
CRT
electron beams.
20-1.
Draw
show the
sketches to
circuit
in
two
typ>es of
and
briefly
thermionic cathode.
and disadvantages of each, (b) List the materilow-p>ower and high-p)Ower vacuum tubes.
vacuum
20-4.
shaf>e,
and show
Draw
sketches to
triode
vacuum
of a
tube.
vacuum
Review
Questions
474
values of negative grid voltage. Also show the effect of positive grid
^'\^'^"
voltage.
*
Tubes
diagram
for
input,
and
output terminals.
20-7.
Draw an
common
cathode amplifier.
Draw
and
derive expressions for voltage gain and output resistance. Also state
the input resistance.
common
common
cathode,
common
plate,
and
gain, input
and output
of,
resistance, etc.
and
maximum
typical
value
for,
a grid leak
20-10.
Draw
sketches to
grid of a
vacuum
Draw
triode
vacuum
tube.
Name
may be
triode
self-bias).
exist
within a
state
which
is
how
the tetrode
name each
electrode
and
state
its
and
function.
istics.
and operation
of
beam
tetrode.
Sketch the
circuit
for this
device.
vacuum
family of plate characteristics and the circuit symbol for the device.
20-16. State typical values for
20-17.
Draw
/x,
g^,
and
r^
self-bias.
for
common
and
and
its
20-20.
Draw
a sketch to show
how an
electron
functions.
lens
475
Briefly
Problems
explain.
it
operates.
20-22. Describe the screen of a cathode-ray tube. Explain the function of the
20-1.
A vacuum
Explain
why
PDA
is
required and
how
connected in
V.
acceleration.
achieved.
Draw
series
is
kQ and a supply of 90
values of L and .
is
as
shown
in Fig. 20-3,
draw
the dc
From
From
^
20-5.
= 80 V;
= 4 mA.
= 60
V,
E^=-\
A triode used
istics of Fig.
and
in
common
is
g^,
and
V.
Draw
is
at
is
12 kQ,
Figure 20-30.
/t
grid bias
r.,
V.
Problems
476
20-6.
fciectron
A common
jqq
'Yhe.
triode
20-7.
A common
shown
voltage
to be ^
is
The
Rj^
and calculate
Problem 20-7
circuit in
draw
capacitor,
A common
for
/f^.
Assuming
shown
bypassed by a large
Taking
/?
= 100
kfl,
of the circuit.
=9
characteristics
A^.
to use the
is
in Fig. 20-1 7.
level of L.
20-10.
A
to
common
pentode tube in a
tics
shown
be 150
of
cathode
is
in Fig. 20-22.
resistor
pentode
common
^^ = 4
kfl
and
L,
= 300 V
uses
20-13.
Ip,
A CRT
has a deflection of 5
its
bias voltage.
cm when
75
deflection factor
is
and
applied to the
deflection sensi-
tivity.
20-14.
kHz
of 40 V
applied to the horizontal deflecting
CRT has a vertical deflection sensitivity of 0. cm/ V and
peak amplitude
plates.
25 V is applied to
CRT. A 500 Hz sawtooth wdth a
The
is
The
sawtooth waveform
is 1
kHz.
triangular
Appendixes
Appendix
kQ
kit
kU
MSI
Ma
Appendix 2
478
Appendix 2
pF
~5
pF
pF
pF
50
500
510
5000
5100
560
5600
6000
6200
6800
7500
8000
8200
9100
56
62
68
75
82
91
10 100
110
12 120
130
15 150
160
51
18
180
20
22
200
220
24
240
27
250
270
30
33
300
330
36
360
39
390
43
430
47
470
620
680
750
820
910
1000
1100
1200
1300
1500
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2500
2700
3000
3300
3600
3900
4000
4300
4700
fiF
iiF
nF
(xf
/xF
fiF
005
OS
50
500
0.056
0.56
_ _ _
5.6
56
6
0,06
_ _ _ _
\i.F
5000
5600
6000
______
0.01
0.082
0.82
8.2
82
0.1
10
100
1000
_
1500
_
18 180
2
20 200 2000
22
240
25 250 2500
27 270
0.012
0.015
_ _ _ _
0.12
_ _ _ _
0.15
15
150
_ _ _ _
0.018
0.18
0.02
0.2
1.2
1.5
0.22
0.25
1.8
2.2
0.027
0.27
0.03
0.3
30
300
3000
0.033
0.33
3.3
33
330
3300
0.039
0.04
0.047
2.7
_ _ _ _
39
0.39
4 400
_ _ _ _
0.47
47
3.9
4.7
10,000
Answers to Problems
3-1
Chapter 4
2.0
4-2
4-3
2.08
4-4
mA, 0.301 mA
mA, 2.1 mA
12.627 mA, 61.5, 0.984, 9.66 mA
4-5
40 nA, 2.3
4-7
4-8
50
4-9
0.06XlO-^53.3
2.7 kS
4-10
Chapter 5
2.9
mA
(0.97
5-2
4.5
5-3
(2.325
5-4
2.3
mA
mA
mA
6 V)
kQ
5-11
5-12
5-13
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-10
Chapters
mA,
5-1
5-5
Chapter 6
mA
4-1
mA,
V
- 132,
5240
6-1
992
6-2
kfi,
6-3
Si,
6-4
6-5
i2,
3.289 kS,
39.7,
1,
0.945, 0.945
6-6
6-7
4029, 1211
6-8
7.74, 5
8-1
64.1 C, 155.4
8-2
8.1 kfl
mW
8-3
-1.25dB
8-4
1.262
8-5
8-6
8-7
pF
2.79 pF
8-8
8-9
19.13 /iV
8-10
2.4
8-11
25 V, 0.65
8-12
90.4,
480
V
kHz
141
dB
no
to 0.85
10^
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6
12.2
9-7
9-8
5.25
9-9
7.9998
9-10
^,
=
/?, =
9-12
9-13
/f,
9-14
Point A: (20 V,
9-11
9-16
1.5 kS2,
1
ki2,
kS2,
2 = 33
kfi, /?3=1 kn
mA), Point Q: (15 V,
49.7
mA), Point
(AK=20
B:
9-15
Chapters
/?,
mA, 4 W
W, Transistors: 90 V, 900 mA,
7.4 V, 0.95 W, 35 mW
50 V, 644
9-17
18 V, 20
9-18
37.6 juA,
10-1
=6.8
/?,
0.033
kfi,
R^ = 220
kfi,
Rj = 6.8
10
kfi, /?
= 680
ft,
C=
Chapter 10
nF
10-2
/?,=4.7
kfi,
2=150
10-3
/?,
= 5.6
kn,
/?2
= 3-3
kfl, /?3
kfl,
Q.
kfi,
C,
5.6 >iF
10-6
10-7
/?,
10-4
10-5
C,
C,
= 2=^4 = 3.3
kfi, /?3
= 6.8
kfl
Chapter 11
V, 8.9425 V, 0.002%/ C
11-1
8.8
11-2
11-3
3%, 14.7%
11-4
IN757,
11-5
10.91
11-6
IN755, g = 3.3
12-3
12-5
259
/?j
= 470
/fi
n, 0.115
103 n,
5^-
= 0.128, Zg-
14.83
mA, 679 B
mA/V,
0.35
kft, /?,
-680
ft,
2.06
mA
mA/V
Chapter 12
mA/V
481
Chapter 13
= (1.4 Mft
16-8
C6B, ,
16-9
/?,=(129
16-10
1.5
to8.5 Mfi)
kfi to 1.55
MU),{V
483
for Z),
& D^)>3U V
mW, 21.9V
17-1
120
17-2
11.7
V, 17.1V
17-3
50.8
Hz
17-4
17-5
33
17-6
270n,
12
kfi,
Chapter 17
Mfi
18.95
kfi,
V,
1.5
V, 45
kfl
IV
0.34,
17-7
17-8
17-9
820
1.8 kfi,
W,
fl,
mW
Chapter 18
18-1
368
18-2
1.18
18-3
6.5 kfi
18-4
50
22 fiA
Answers to
Problems
kW
fiA,
0.25 V, 0.9
-f-5
mA
18-5
162
18-6
43n,
18-7
0.04
18-8
70
18-9
18-10
2.5 kfi
fl,
116fi, 326fi
cells,
16kWh
mA
18-11
1.4
18-12
;?,
18-13
1.2 kSi
19-1
10.58
19-3
1.5,
= 27
kfi, /?2
= 680 n
Chapter 19
12
MHz,
MHz
19-4
1.7
19-5
200 n, 3.75
19-6
20-1
17
mA, 34
20-2
70
20-4
5 kS, 4
20-5
3.5
2.5
mA,
2.1
mA,
0.65
mA/V,
mA
14.%
kfi
Chapter 20
20
20-6
20-7
14.1
484
Index
Amplifier {Contd.)
10
ac degeneration, 110
ac equivalent
circxiit
{See
under
device
name)
acload
line,
110,214, 257
ac resistance, 23
Acceptor doping, 10
313,
Active region, 76
half
318;
frequency
FET,
response,
308,
167;
Alpha, 70
209; multistage,
Ampere, 6
101;
non-inverting,
Amplifier:
sistor,
bandwidth,
313,
454;
167;
130,
204,
coupled,
183;
buffer,
capacitor
class
(CB),
131;
common
cathode,
447;
335;
And
125,
vacuum
131,
139;
triode,
tunnel diode,
447
gate, 55
4SS
Atom, 1
Atomic bonding, 7
Atomic number, 3
titanate, 421
(of transistor),
65
467;
Characteristics
Base-emitter voltage, 68
tetrode,
shield,
acceleration,
post
Base current, 70
Beam
deflection
465;
waveform
junctions, 65
isolation
464;
focusing,
230
criteria,
Barrier potential:
Base
CRT,
double beam
Bandwidth, 167
Barium oxide, 438
Barkhausen
control,
Barium
deflection, 465;
brightness
467;
brightness,
Atomic weight, 3
Avalanche breakdown, 247
{See
Diode, Transistor,
etc.)
459
Charge
carriers,
Beta, 72
majority,
Bias circuits:
300, transistor
tube,
454
MOSFET,
303;
vacuum
tube, 455
Bi-FET
circuits,
322
Bi-MOS
circuits,
light,
68;
minority,
11,
407
A driver, 219
A amplifier, 211
Class AB amplifier, 219
Class
301,
Class
Class
322
216
amplifier,
Collector, 67
Bipolar transistor, 69
Collector-base junction, 66
Collector-base leakage current, 70
Collector current, 70
Bonding:
Breakdown
Bridge
diode, 245
rectifier,
selenide,
sulfide,
385
Capacitance:
depletion layer, 25; diffusion, 25; intcrclectrode, 457; storage, 25; stray,
167
Capacitive tuning ratio, 423
Capacitor:
by-pass, 110, 185, 295, 455; coupling,
Cascaded
CE
circuit,
base characteristics:
current gain, 77; forward transfer, 77;
input, 75; output, 75
Common
385
Common
50
Cadmium
Cadmium
68;
Bias line:
FET,
Coherent
11,
smoothing, 51
139
132;
input impedance,
Common
cathode
circuit,
power
447
450
Common
collector characteristics:
81
Common
sis,
Common
Data
Index
sheet:
SCR,
202;
dc bias point:
emitter characteristics, 78
FET,
diode, 35;
triode,
dc feedback
gion, 176
dc load
FET,
390;
(bipolar),
parameter
circuit,
214;
vacuum
triode,
120;
im-
impedance,
output
289; photodiode,
phototransistor,
396;
transistor
transformer
94;
tunnel
coupled
diode,
340;
448
Decibels, 165
121
Common
Delay time,
323
pair, 189,
input
vacuum
line:
118;
454
120;
(bi-
UJT,
pedance,
IC, 201,
transistor
249
analysis,
270, 284;
349, 350;
polar), 158;
dB, 165
Common
FET,
diode, 40;
Common
487
input impedance,
321; output
78
mode MOSFET,
Depletion region,
18, 19,
Derating of
Conmion
Common
transistors,
281
67
163
DIAC, 354
common mode
gain,
constant
196;
IC
current
impedance, 31
1;
put,
tail,
196;
198;
impedance,
output
Conduction band, 4
Conduction in solids, 5,6, 12
Conductor resistivity, 8, 9
Diffusion capacitance, 25
ENffusion current, 12
Diffusion process, 145
196;
Constant current
differential
254
Diode:
ac
resistance,
23;
alloy,
31;
AND
Conventional current, 6
Covalent bonding, 7
35;
capacitance, 25;
31;
clipper,
56;
characteristics,
currents,
40;
data
dc load
31; double based,
Crystal lattice, 7
line,
fabrication,
33; diffused,
31;
forward
resistance,
Dark
Dark
current, 383
resistance, 12,
384
IC
488
Index
Diode
{Contd.)
OR
gate, 56;
Extrinsic semiconductor, 9
piecewise
characteristics,
333;
linear
power
FET
262
dis-
ohmic
38,
state
30;
temperature,
327;
vacuum
ode,
WC
tunnel diode,
23;
voltage
422;
symbol,
multiplier,
58;
common
266;
region,
drain
{See
construction,
circuit);
MOSFET,
262;
dc load
276;
enhancement
depletion
289;
line,
depletion
281;
regions,
323;
stage,
differential
drain,
262;
ON resistance, 274;
drain-source ON voltage, 274; drain-
Donor doping, 9
drain-source
33
tance,
273; gate,
262;
gate reverse
scattering, 401
graphical
analysis,
290,
299;
Ipssy
465;
deflection,
bonding,
circuit, 292;
resistance, 23,
Dynode, 382
Electron,
279; equiv-
Dynamic
Dynamic
MOSFET,
enhancement
Drift current, 12
emission,
438;
gas
7;
gate
FET
(IGFET),
278;
FET
MOSFET,
278;
(JFET), 262;
n-channel FET, 262;
Electron-volt, 4
Electron charge,
sulated
junction
274; /(-channel
Electronic mass, 2
269;
ters,
Electrostatic deflection,
466
FET,
268; paramecurrent,
pinch-off
271;
power
Emitter, 66
Emitter-base junction, 65
Energy bands,
Energy gap, 4
Energy
levels,
Enhancement
4,
ductance, 272;
MOSFET,
279
tics,
267;
name)
self bias,
transfer characteris-
V-MOSFET,
Filament, 438
Equivalent
Epicap, 422
Equipotential
dissipation, 275;
lines,
circuit,
465
{See
282
under device
Forbidden gap, 4
Forward
transfer admittance,
273
Forward
transfer ratio,
86
FET, 278
Insulated gate
489
Index
Insulator, 8, 9
Frequency response:
201;
amplifiers,
capacitors,
153;
Free electrons, 5
Full-wave rectification, 49
amplifier,
line,
Germanium,
155;
hybrid,
monolithic,
151;
152;
3
device
name)
153;
150;
thick
film,
can,
155;
TO
vacuum
Grounded emitter
Ion, 2
(See
common
emitter)
Ionization:
by
72,
Junction
hp tolerance, 93
common
base,
tor, 126;
common
electric field,
246
effect
transistor
QFET),
collec-
emitter, 118;
com-
circuit, 85,
89
diode, 432
Lambda
Latching, 346
oscillator,
field
conunon
132;
A-parameter equivalent
Hartley
by
262
Half-wave
collision, 247;
86
A-parametcrs, 84, 86
mon
9
370
Ionic bonding, 7
tor)
hy;,
thin
150;
transbtor,
evap>oration, 150
Intrinsic semiconductor,
Grid, 441
hpE,
150;
film,
152; dual-in-
Germanium atom,
191; diodes,
43
237
dynamic
Hole, 3
type, 401
Hole-electron-pair, 11
Load
Hole storage, 25
Hole transfer, 5
Hybrid IC, 151
regulation, 255
Logic gates, 56
Lumen, 381
Luminous flux, 381
Hybrid parameters, 84
Metal
common
collector,
emitter)
Input resistance, 86
common
or
base,
common
1 1
68
semiconductor
(MOSFET). 278
oxide
Metallic bonding, 7
FET
Mu
fi),
amplification
447
461;
factor,
biasing,
sharp
n-type semiconductor, 10
Negative ion, 2
Negative resistance:
tunnel diode, 333; unijunction transistor,
Negative
366
temperature
cut-off,
11,
427
selenide,
385; cadmiimi sulfide, 385; characteristics, 385; dark resistance, 384; re-
Neutrons, 2
Noise, 171
calculations, 172; factor, 173; figure,
Photodarlington, 394
Photodetector, 394
171
Photodiode, 388
characteristics, 389;
dc load
line,
390;
npn transistor, 65
Nucleus,
cadmium
applications, 388;
coefficient,
Photofet, 397
Offect current, 203
Open
Phototransistor, 394
Operating
point {See
dc bias point)
common mode
202;
offset current,
cuts,
axis,
nance, 419;
nance,
419;
salts,
reso-
parallel
419;
419; quartz,
(I factor,
416; rochclle
Oscillator:
synthetic
piezoelectric
420;
237; phase
colpitts,
shift,
230;
240
234;
Wein
hartley,
bridge,
ducer, 422
Planar
Plate,
Oscilloscope, 463
Output conductance, 86
Oxide coated cathode, 438
/(-channel
tone operation,
OR gate, 56
crystal,
414
Piezoelectric crystal,
rejection ratio,
FET, 268
p-type semiconductor, 10
transistor,
149
438
Plate characteristics:
vacuum
diode,
tetrode,
459;
junction,
16;
capacitances,
439;
triode,
pentode,
442,
barrier potential,
25;
416;
443; pn-
depletion
18;
region.
characteristics, 22;
23;
forward resistance,
reverse
20;
saturation
reverse
temperature
pnp
transistor,
current,
20;
Semiconductor,
491
index
8,
Series clipper, 56
Series regulator, 257
24
effects,
296
forward
65
Shell, 3
Shunt
Positive ion, 2
Silicon, 3
Silicon atom, 3
Proton, 2
56
clipper,
(SCR), 344
Push-pull, 218
PUT, 375
374;
dau
circuit, 345;
(^factor,
419,423
Q, point (See
dc bias point)
1 1
346;
68
for-
Recombination,
surge
current,
phase
348;
peak
control,
Rectifier:
full
257; stabiliza-
86
Ripple waveform, 45
Rise time,
breakdown
RMS
78
voltage,
leakage current,
346;
UJT control,
374
ratio,
reverse
346;
Reverse transfer
pedance, 253;
360
359
Smoothing
Solar
cell,
circuit, 46, 5
392
Superbeu
Suppressor
SCR, 344
Surge current
Surge limiting
circuit,
grid,
223
460
(of diode),
resistor,
48
48
Transistor types:
83
492
T-equivalent
circuit,
Index
Temperature
coefficient, 23,
427
planar,
458
annular,
146;
alloy,
Thermistor, 427
TO can,
TRIAC, 354
Triode (See Vacuum
construction,
427;
resistance,
148;
triode)
154
Tungsten, 438
load
Thin
diffused
mesa,
429;
149;
epitaxial
147;
line, 340;
dc
forward
forward
parallel
Thyristor, 344
Transadmittance, 273
triode,
446
amplifier,
triode,
reverse
biased,
parameters,
335;
329;
self
resonant
444
Tunneling, 328
Transistor (bipolar):
131;
volt
Transfer characteristics:
125,
329;
Transconductance
FET, 267;
biased,
annular,
beta,
149;
72;
breakdown,
76,
100; construc-
acteristics (See
cut-off,
167;
line,
94;
SCR,
stand-off
ratio,
370;
modulated
UJT
region,
366; programmable
(PUT), 375; relaxation oscilla-
tor,
371;
fabrication,
circuits,
83;
current
bias,
98;
143;
forward
fixed
current
tance
saturation
region,
367;
tion, 367;
circuit, 85;
noise,
171;
65;
packages,
155;
tion,
163;
164;
r-parameters,
83;
saturation
mal
sym-
73
Vacuum
diode, 438
anode, 438; applications, 440;
barium oxide, 438; cathode, 438;
characteristics,
439;
construction,
438;
plate
voltage,
438;
Vacuum
charge
strontium
limited
oxide,
region,
439;
temperature
438;
Vacuum
438
454;
443;
442,
grid,
442;
441;
con-
Valence band, 4
Valence shell, 3
Variable voltage capacitor diode, 422;
ratio,
doping
423;
capacitive
profile,
junction, 423;
diode, 422
Wein
y/.'
273
>'.
274
tuning
WC
parameters,
ductance, 446
junction,
interelec-
abrupt
Voltage multiplier, 58
447; biasing,
( /t),
characteristics,
struction,
Index
triode, 441
amplification factor
493
diode (Contd.)
space
424;
Q factor,
hypcrabrupt
423
breakdown
tics,
constant
248;
current
sheet; 249;
circuit,
257;
data
equivalent circuit,
249;
overvoltage
Varicap, 422
protection,
V-FET, 282
259;
parameters,
247;