A Meta-Analytic Review of Work-Family Conflict and Its Antecedents

Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198
www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb
A meta-analytic review of workfamily conXict

and its antecedents
Kristin Byron
College of Business, Rochester Institute of Technology, 103 Lomb Memorial Drive,

Rochester, NY 14623, USA
Received 6 November 2003
Available online 2 March 2005
Abstract
This meta-analytic review combines the results of more than 60 studies to help determine
the relative eVects of work, nonwork, and demographic and individual factors on work interference with family (WIF) and family interference with work (FIW). As expected, work factors
related more strongly to WIF, and some nonwork factors were more strongly related to FIW.
Demographic factors, such as an employees sex and marital status, tended to relate weakly to
WIF and FIW. Overall the analysis supports the notion that WIF and FIW have unique
antecedents, and therefore, may require diVerent interventions or solutions to prevent or
reduce their occurrence. Lastly, the analysis suggests that demographic variables, such as sex
and marital status, are alone poor predictors of workfamily conXict. Researchers are advised
to attend to more Wnely grained variables that may more fully capture employees likelihood of
experiencing workfamily conXict.
2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
I thank Margaret LaSalle for help with coding the studies and Frank Schmidt and Allen HuVcutt for
their advice on calculations used in the analysis. I also thank Ross Rubenstein, Bill H. Bommer, Edward
W. Miles, Corinne Post, Tammy Allen, and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions. Some of the results from this analysis were presented at the 2002 Southern Management Association Annual Meeting in Atlanta, Georgia and at the 2004 Society of Industrial and Organizational
Psychologists Annual Meeting in Chicago, Illinois.
Fax: +1 585 475 4423.

E-mail address: kbyron@cob.rit.edu.
0001-8791/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.08.009
170
K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198
Keywords: Work; Family; ConXict; Interference; Meta-analysis; Review
1. Introduction
The increase in dual-career couples and single-parent households and the concomitant decrease in traditional, single-earner families mean that responsibilities for
work, housework, and childcare are no longer conWned to traditional gender roles.
Increasingly, employees Wnd themselves struggling to juggle the competing demands
of work and family. The problems and issues encountered by employees taking part
in this balancing act has prompted a burgeoning body of research and theory on the
intersections of individuals work and family lives (e.g., Kossek, Noe, & DeMarr,
1999; Perrewe & Hochwarter, 2001). One of the most studied concepts in the work
family literature is workfamily conXict. Workfamily conXict, also called work
family interference, is a type of interrole conXict (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, &
Rosenthal, 1964) that occurs when the demands of work and family roles conXict.
Since the construct of workfamily conXict was introduced, a large body of literature has examined its causes and consequences. Recent meta-analyses have examined
the relation between workfamily conXict and its consequences, such as job and life
satisfaction, burnout, and absenteeism (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000; Kossek
& Ozeki, 1998, 1999). These meta-analyses underscore the potentially negative eVects
of workfamily conXict for individuals and their employing organizations. However,
among the published meta-analyses on workfamily conXict, only one has examined
a potential antecedent, job/work involvement (Kossek & Ozeki, 1999). No meta-analysis to date has comprehensively considered the myriad causes of workfamily conXict that have been examined in the literature.
In addition, the concept of workfamily conXict has changed over time. Increasingly, researchers have acknowledged the direction of interference (ODriscoll, Ilgen,
& Hildreth, 1992). That is, workfamily conXict is increasingly recognized as consisting of two distinct, though related, concepts, work interference with family (WIF)
and family interference with work (FIW). WIF (also termed work-to-family conXict)
occurs when work interferes with family life, and FIW (known also as family-towork conXict) occurs when family life interferes with work (Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997). Support for distinguishing these two concepts comes from several sources.
First, in their meta-analysis, Kossek and Ozeki (1998) reported consistent support for
distinguishing between the direction of workfamily conXict. Second, recent theory
and research on WIF and FIW suggests that these two concepts may have diVerent
causes and eVects (e.g., Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992a, 1992b; Kelloway, Gottlieb,
& Barham, 1999).
In summary, while the potentially harmful eVects of workfamily conXict are recognized, we know less about the causes of workfamily conXict and their relative
eVects on WIF and FIW. Consequently, a systematic review of the literature on
workfamily conXict antecedents is needed to explain the experience of workfamily
conXict in employees lives. The present study oVers such an analysis by providing a
171
quantitative review of potential antecedents and their relation to two types of work
family conXict, work interference with family (WIF) and family interference with
work (FIW).
2. Workfamily conXict and its antecedents

Researchers have considered a number of diVerent variables as possible antecedents of WIF and FIW. Consistent with Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, and Brinley (in press) classiWcation scheme for antecedents of workfamily conXict, the
previously researched antecedents can be classiWed into three categories: work
domain variables, nonwork domain variables, and individual and demographic variables. Work domain variables consider the eVect of job and workplace factors, such
as schedule Xexibility and job stress. Nonwork domain variables consider the family
demands and other nonwork factors, such as marital conXict, number of hours spent
on housework or childcare, and age of youngest child. Demographic or individual
variables include personality, behaviors, and other individual diVerences, such as sex,
income, and coping style.
While other theories about the intersection of work and family exist, the constructs of WIF and FIW have their roots in conXict theory. ConXict theory proposes
that work and family domains are incompatible due to their diVerent norms and
responsibilities (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). The diVering norms and responsibilities
of work and family cause intrusion and negative spillover of one domain on the
other. Consistent with research and theory on WIF and FIW, antecedents related to
diVerent domains may have diVerential eVects on WIF and FIW. Factors related to
an individuals job (work domain variables) are expected to be more related to WIF
than to FIW. For example, the more hours individuals spend at work, the more likely
it is that their work will interfere with their family life. Similarly, factors related to
individuals family and nonwork life (nonwork domain variables) are expected to
relate more to FIW than to WIF. For example, individuals with more supportive
families may experience less FIW, yet may not have less WIF. In contrast, individual
and demographic variables, such as sex or income, are expected to have equivalent
eVects on WIF and FIW because they may simultaneously inXuence both work and
nonwork. I propose the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1. Work-domain variables relate more to WIF than to FIW.
Hypothesis 2. Nonwork-domain variables relate more to FIW than to WIF.
Hypothesis 3. Demographic and individual variables have equivalent eVects on WIF
and FIW.
Research examining proposed antecedents of WIF and FIW has produced mixed
results. Therefore, when warranted, I consider several potential moderators of these
relationships. DiVerences in sampling strategies may explain some of the variation in
results between studies. For example, some studies enlisted only parents, whereas
others made no such restrictions. In addition, some studies sampled only women or
172
only men, whereas others had a mixed sex sample. I explore whether diVerences in
sample composition, such as the percentage of parents or females in them sample,
may moderate the relationship between antecedents and WIF and FIW. In the
studies used in the analysis, the percentage of parents ranged from 16 to 100 percent; and the percentage of females in the sample ranged from 0 to 100 percent.
Previous research and theory suggests that being female or having children may
explain diVerences in results across studies (e.g., Eagle, Icenogle, Maes, & Miles,
1998; VoydanoV, 2002). Therefore, the present analysis considers whether the percentage of females or the percentage of study participants with children explains
between-study variance.
In addition, other meta-analyses have reported that variation in how variables
are measured account for signiWcant diVerences in results across studies (e.g.,
Verquer, Beehr, & Wagner, 2003). Therefore, in the present analysis, I consider
whether variation in how antecedents were measured accounts for diVerences in
results between studies. For example, many studies examined whether having more
children related to more WIF or FIW. Among the studies considering this
relationship, study participants number of children was measured in diVerent
ways. Some asked participants how many children they had living at home, others
asked participants how many children they had (with no restrictions), and others
asked participants whether they had children or not. The diVerent methods of
measuring this and other proposed antecedents of WIF and FIW may account for
observed diVerences in Wndings between studies. Therefore, I explored whether
diVerences in measurement moderate the relationships between proposed antecedents and WIF and FIW.
Fig. 1 demonstrates the relationships examined in the present meta-analysis. The
solid lines represent relationships that are proposed to be stronger (i.e., of higher
magnitude) than those represented by dashed lines. Dotted lines represent relationships of undetermined magnitude, and curved lines represent the relationship
between WIF and FIW. It should be noted that the relationships represented in the
Wgure do not imply that alternate relationships are implausible. Rather, some of these
alternate relationships are mathematically equivalent and their plausibility is not
being rejected, e.g., family conXict may also be a consequence, rather than a cause, of
WIF and FIW. It should also be noted that more complex relationships than those
represented in Fig. 1 are similarly plausible. For example, family support may moderate the relationship between spousal employment and WIF or FIW. Unfortunately,
the data available to meta-analytic researchers can preclude the investigation of more
complex relationships. Therefore, this meta-analysis focuses on the factors that have
been identiWed in the literature as potential antecedents and their relationship to
WIF and FIW.
In the next sections, I describe the method for Wnding, selecting, and coding studies for the meta-analysis. Then, I specify the method for quantitatively cumulating
the results in the studies. In the following section, I present the results of the review
for each of the three categories of antecedents of WIF and FIW, and the relationship
of WIF and FIW. Lastly, I discuss the implications of the results of the meta-analysis
and provide suggestions for future research.
173
Fig. 1. Proposed relationships between variables in meta-analysis. Note. Solid lines represent direct relationships hypothesized to be stronger in magnitude than those represented by dashed lines. The dotted
lines represent relationships of undetermined magnitude, and curved lines represent correlation rather
than causation.
3. Method
3.1. Search strategy
I searched the computer database Psych-Info of the American Psychological
Association using the keywords work, family, conXict, and work, family, interference for articles published in academic journals, resulting in more than 500 studies.
After eliminating duplicates and studies that were not related to workfamily conXict
(e.g., those that were related to family conXict), the 243 remaining studies were
reviewed for possible inclusion. In addition, I searched the reference lists of three
recently published meta-analyses on workfamily conXict (Allen et al., 2000; Kossek
& Ozeki, 1998, 1999) and one review article (Swanson, 1992) to locate articles that
174
had not turned up in my computer database search. Lastly, I posted a message on the
general on-line forum on the Sloan Work and Family Research Network website,
and on the Workfam Newsgroup of the Work/Family Initiative at Pennsylvania
State University soliciting research on workfamily conXict. Because so few studies
that were not subsequently published were located, the present analysis is restricted
to published studies. There are several factors that should mitigate concern about
publication bias. First, many of the relationships included in the present analysis
were from studies that were not explicitly considering the relationships. For example,
most of the studies included in the meta-analysis of sex and workfamily conXict
were not explicitly considering this relationship. Second, I included two estimates of
the stability of each eVect size, (1) the number of studies needed to meaningfully
change the estimated eVect size and (2) 95% conWdence intervals of each eVect size.
3.2. Criteria for inclusion
For a study to be considered for inclusion, the study had to meet the following criteria:
1. WIF and FIW had to be quantitatively measured; qualitative studies of work
family conXict were eliminated.
2. The study had to report the relationship between a previously proposed antecedent and WIF and FIW or between WIF and FIW in a form that could be converted to a correlation. Studies that merely stated Wndings without providing
details of those results, or did not provide data in a usable form were eliminated.
3. Only studies published by 2002, and written in the English language were
included.
4. Only studies that examined both WIF and FIW were included to increase the conWdence that observed diVerences were due to diVerences in the relationship rather
than due to diVerences in samples.
5. When fewer than Wve studies could be located for a particular antecedent, the
antecedent was not examined. For example, antecedents such as supervisory
responsibilities, job type or level, child care satisfaction, and self-eYcacy were
excluded.
Because the formula used in meta-analysis assumes that the studies used are statistically independent, I avoided violating the assumption of independence of studies by
eliminating duplicate results from the same dataset. When more than one study used
the same sample, only one was included, when a sample was a subset of a larger sample, only the study that used the larger sample was included. However, when studies
using the same sample considered diVerent antecedents, each was included in its
respective analysis, but only the one with the larger sample was included when they
considered the same variable. In all, 61 studies met these criteria and were included in
the analysis. Some of these studies had multiple independent samples, which were
included as independent outcomes. Table 1 lists the studies by sample included in the
meta-analysis, their sample characteristics, and the measure of WIF and FIW used.
175
3.3. Coding of variables

When a study gave a range for the sample size, I recorded the lowest number.
Apparent typographical errors were clariWed with the studys lead author. To observe
the need for independence among studies, I averaged multiple time periods, and
multiple measures of FIW or WIF or the antecedent, which is consistent with other
meta-analyses of workfamily conXict (e.g., Allen et al., 2000). When provided, the reliability (internal consistency) for each measure was recorded. When it was not provided, the average reliability for that variable was inputted (except for measures that
were assumed to be perfectly reliable, e.g., sex and number of children). Table 2 details
how each of the antecedents were coded or measured in the studies used in the present
analysis. In addition, it includes the range of reliability (internal consistency) of the
measure used for each antecedent and the average reliability weighted by sample size.
To test for accuracy in coding, a quarter of the studies were randomly selected to
be coded twice. The interrater agreement between the two coders was calculated by
dividing the number of data points in agreement by the total number of data points
coded. The interrater agreement between the two coders was .99. The high level of
agreement between the two coders was likely due to the fact that most of the coding
in the present meta-analysis involved merely recording data and possibly applying
simple decision rules, and that both coders had prior experience coding studies for
meta-analysis.
3.4. Moderators
Several potential moderators were investigated to determine if they explained variation in the eVect sizes between studies. Two continuous moderators were considered, the percentage of females in the sample and the percentage of parents in the
sample. In addition, one categorical moderator was considered, the use of diVerent
coding schemes or measurement of antecedent variables. For example, most studies
coded spousal employment as a dichotomous variable (i.e., a spouse was either
employed or not); whereas three studies each used a diVerent coding scheme (e.g.,
trichotomized or number of hours spouse works). When diVerent coding schemes
were used, studies that used similar coding schemes were grouped and analyzed. I
analyzed sub-group analyses with Wve or more studies only. In addition, some antecedents were operationalized diVerently across studies (see Table 2). For example,
some studies used measures of overall job stress, which often combined role ambiguity and role overload, whereas other studies measured only role overload. When a
particular antecedent was measured using diVerent constructs, I conducted subgroup analyses for each diVerent construct when there were more than Wve studies for
a given construct. All moderators were coded by recording the sample characteristics
of each study (i.e., percentage of females in sample and percentage of parents in sample) and information about the types of measures used in each study (e.g., whether
the measure was continuous or categorical). Nearly all studies were conducted in the
US or Canada (as shown in Table 1), therefore, the country in which the study was
conducted could not be considered as a potential moderator.
176
Table 1
Summary of studies and their characteristics
Author(s) and Publication year/sample characteristics
FIW measure
Country
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
490
US
Kopelman, Greenhaus, and

Connolly (1983; 4)
Burley (1989; 5)
146
US
Gutek, Searle, and Klepa (1991; 4)
Gutek et al. (1991; 4)
320
Hong Kong
Netemeyer, Boles, and McMurrian

(1996; 5)
Netemeyer et al. (1996; 5)
243
Hong Kong
*Kopelman et al. (1983; 4)
141
Canada
Kopelman et al. (1983; 6)
177
US
144
US
691
New Zealand
Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams

(2000; 9)
Carlson et al. (2000; 9)
160
US
Burley (1989; 4)
527
Canada
Gutek et al. (1991); Frone et al.

(1992a,1992b; 5)

(1992a,1992b; 5)
314
US
225
US
Burley (1989; 4)
143
US
Adams and Jex (1999)

Part-time university students
Adams, King, and King (1996)
Varied professions, full-time and living
with a family member
Aryee, Fields, et al. (1999)
Varied professions
Aryee, Luk, Leung, and Lo (1999)
Public sector and university employees, parents in
dual-earner families
Barling, MacEwen, Kelloway, and
Higginbottom (1994)
University employees
Beutell and Witting-Berman (1999)
Varied professions, married, and employed
Boles, Howard, and Donofrio (2001)
Probation and parole oYcers
Brough and Kelling (2002)
Varied professions
Bruck, Allen, and Spector (2002)
Hospital employees, married or living
with partner or child
Burke and Greenglass (2001)
Registered nurses
Carlson and Kacmar (2000)
State government employees,
married or with children
Carlson et al. (2000)
Varied; employed full-time
Casper, Martin, BuVardi, and Erdwins (2002)
Female employees with preschool-aged child
WIF measure
Frone (2000)
National Commorbidity Survey, employed and
married or parent of child under 18
Frone, Russell, and Barnes (1996)
Longitudinal follow-up (Erie County, NY), Wave 2
Longitudinal follow-up (BuValo, NY), Wave 3
Frone et al. (1992a)
Longitudinal follow-up (Erie County, NY),
employed and married or with child at home
Frone et al. (1997)
Varied professions, married or with children living
at home
Fu and ShaVer (2001)
Gutek et al. (1991); Self-developed;

7
Gutek et al. (1991); Self-developed;

7
213
Israel
Shamir (1983; 6)
Kirchmeyer (1993; 8)
227
Canada
Bohen and Viveros-Long (1981; 4)
1989
Canada
Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

et al. (1991); Wiley (1987); 11

et al. (1991); Wiley (1987); 13
318
US

et al. (1991); Wiley (1987); 11

et al. (1991); Wiley (1987); 13
493
US
Self-developed; 2
Self-developed; 2
113
US

et al. (1991); 6

et al. (1991); 6
252
Canada
Self-developed; 2
Self-developed; 2
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
2700
US
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
496
605
US
US
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
631
US

et al. (1991); 6

et al. (1991); 6
372
Canada
267
Hong Kong
Cinamon and Rich (2002)

Lawyers and employees in computer or software
Weld, married
Cohen and Kirchmeyer (1995)
Nurses
Duxbury et al. (1994)
Varied professions, parents of child age 612
Eagle et al. (1998)
Varied professions, employed full-time, married or
living with child
Eagle, Miles, and Icenogle (1997)
University employees (married or with children at
home)
Fox and Dwyer (1999)
Registered nurses
Frone and Yardley (1996)
Financial services company employees
(continued on next page)
177
178
Table 1 (continued)
WIF measure
FIW measure
Country
659
Canada
Self-developed; 5
132
US
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985; 9)
DNR; 4
199
US
Self-developed; 4
Self-developed; 4
1986
US

Burley (1989; 4)
Burley (1989; 4)
423
176
US
US
Bohen and Viveros-Long (1981;

8)
Self-developed; 8
Self-developed; 6
429
US
Self-developed; 8
Self-developed; 6
522
US
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
515
US
1062
US
Self-developed; 11
Self-developed; 11
236
Canada
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2); Brett

and Yogev (1985); 3
Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b);

Brett and Yogev (1985); 3
501
Finland
17
Canada
3616
Canada

Gignac, Kelloway, and Gottlieb (1996)
Work and family survey, employees caring for
elderly relative
Grandey and Cropanzano (1999)
University faculty
Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Collins (2001)
Public accountants, married and with one or more
children
Grzywacz and Marks (2000)
National Survey of Midlife Development
Gutek et al. (1991)
Psychologists
Senior managers in executive education
Hepburn and Barling (1996)
Higgins, Duxbury, and Lee (1994)
Federal and private-sector employees, married with
children
Hughes and Galinsky (1994)
Married employees of large corporation
Hughes, Galinsky, and Morris (1992)
Pharmaceutical company employees
Jex and Elacqua (1999)
Varied professions, employed students
Judge, Boudreau, and Bretz (1994)
Male executives from search Wrm database
Kelloway et al. (1999)
Healthcare and grocery organizations employees
Kinnunen and Mauno (1998)
Public sector, manufacturing, and home market
employees
Kirchmeyer and Cohen (1999)

School teachers, administrators, and staV
MacEwen and Barling (1994)

Police, employed full-time, married, and with child
at home
Mallard and Lance (1998)
Federal employees with children living at home
Marks (1998)
Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, varied; full- or parttime employees
Matsui, Ohsawa, and Onglatco (1995)
Employees at reWnery, advertising and HR
consulting companies
McManus, Korabik, Rosin, and Kelloway (2002)
Healthcare and grocery employees, married or
single mothers
Accountants, engineers, and banking and
telecommunications employees, married or single
mothers
Netemeyer et al. (1996)
Teachers
Small business owners
Real estate agents
Kirchmeyer (1993; 8)
200
Canada
Self-developed; 3
Self-developed; 3
573
US
490
US
Burley (1989; 4)
151
Canada
Thompson (1985); Wiley (1987);

Self-developed; 18
Self-developed; 12
156
US
Self-developed; 17
Self-developed; 15
143
US
Self-developed; 3
Self-developed; 4
5782
US
Self-developed; 5
Self-developed; 5
131
Japan
Gottlieb, Kelloway, and Barham

(1998; 11)
Gottlieb et al. (1998; 11)
178
Canada
72
Canada
Self-developed; 22
Self-developed; 22
Self-developed; 22
Self-developed; 21
Self-developed; 21
Self-developed; 21
40
182
162
186
Canada
Klitzman, House, Israel, and Mero (1990)

Manufacturing company employees
Kossek, Colquitt, and Noe (2001)
Leiter and Durup (1996)
Hospital employees with families
Loerch, Russell, and Rush (1989)
University support staV and administrators
Shamir (1983; 6)
US
US
US
(continued on next page)

179
180
Table 1 (continued)
ShaVer, Harrison, Gilley, and Luk (2001)

Married international assignees, varied professions
Shannon et al. (2001)
Hospital employees
Stoeva, Chiu, and Greenhaus (2002)
Senior civil servants
Thompson and Blau (1993)
Varied professions
Van der Hulst and Guerts (2001)
Postal service employees
Vinokur, Pierce, and Buck (1999)
Females who served in air force
Wiley (1987)
MBA students and graduate students enrolled in
evening classes
Williams and Alliger (1994)
Full-time employees
WIF measure
FIW measure
Country

(1992a, 1992b); 5

(1992a, 1992b); 5
272
US
Self-developed; 7
Self-developed; 7
121
US
Kopelman, et al. (1983; 6)
111
US
263
US
324
Varied
DNR; 3
DNR; 4
327
Canada
Burley (1991; 4)
147
Hong Kong
*Burke, Weir, and DuWor (1979;

DNR)
*Burke et al. (1979; DNR)
234
US
Geurts (2000; 9)
Geurts (2000; 6)
751
Netherlands
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)
525
US
Wiley (1987; DNR)
Wiley (1987; DNR)
191
US
41
US
Note. Measures of WIF and FIW indicate source of scale and number of items; *indicates that scale used in study was an adaptation. DNR, did not report.
Nielson, Carlson, and Lankau (2001)

Undergraduate business graduates, married or
living with child
ODriscoll et al. (1992)
Varied professions, working at least 20 h/week
Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, and Beutell (1996)
Business owners
Perrewe, Hochwarter, and Kiewtiz (1999)
Hotel managers
Table 2
Summary of measures used for antecedent variables
Antecedent
Work variables
Job involvement
Hours spent at work
Schedule Xexibility
Job stress
Nonwork variables
Family/nonwork involvement
Hours of nonwork
Family support
Family stress
Family conXict
Number of children
Age of youngest child

Marital status
Spousal employment
Demographic/individual variables
Sex
Income
Coping style and skills
Items
Reliability (weighted reliability)
Categories
Work involvement; Job involvement

Number of hours worked; hours worked outside
the normal work week (e.g., working on weekends or at
night or traveling for business)
Supervisor support; organizational support;
co-worker support; mentor support
Schedule (in)Xexibility
Job stress; role stress; role conXict; role
ambiguity; role overload; Psychological demands
410
1
.63.90 (.81)
N/A
25; #
335
.73.94 (.83)
17
352
.52.68 (.58)
.67.89 (.79)
Family involvement; child care involvement;

household involvement
Hours spent on family; hours spent on housework;
percentage of time spent parenting
Family support; spouse support (instrumental and
emotional support)
Role stress; role conXict; role ambiguity; role overload
Marital conXict; parental conXict; marital tension;
relationship agreement; marital anger
Number of children; number of family dependents; number of
children living at home; number of children under a
particular age; have children or not
Marital status (married coded higher)
Spousal employment; number of hours spouse works
211
.60.92 (.82)
N/A
4, #
244
.75.95 (.87)
49
519
.66.83 (.76)
.77.87 (.80)
N/A
24; #
1
1
1
N/A
N/A
N/A
35; #
2
23; #
1
1
533
N/A
N/A
.73.83 (.79)
2
322; #
181
Sex (female coded higher)

Personal income; family income
Active coping style; time management
behaviors; personal coping style
Work support
Measures
182
3.5. Analysis strategy

For the meta-analysis, I calculated eVect sizes with the Hunter and Schmidt (1995)
meta-analytic method, which provides the most accurate method of estimating population eVect sizes from heterogeneous eVect sizes (Field, 2001). To estimate the population eVect size, I calculated a frequency weighted mean eVect size (corrected for
measurement error, when applicable). Before proceeding, I determined whether there
were outliers in each analysis by calculating the sample-adjusted meta-analytic deviancy statistic (SAMD) and inspecting the plot of SAMDs for each relationship analyzed (HuVcutt & Arthur, 1995). A study was removed from the analysis for a
particular antecedent when a study was identiWed as an outlier for both WIF and
FIW. One antecedent, job insecurity, was not further analyzed because there were too
few studies (k < 5) remaining after removing outlier studies. For the remaining
relationships considered, I continued the analysis after removing any outliers by
assessing the stability of the estimated population eVect size by inspecting its modiWed fail-safe N (MFN) (HuVcutt, Roberts, & Steel, 2004) and by inspecting its 95%
conWdence interval. The MFN for each eVect size indicates the number of additional
studies (not additional subjects) with results diVering by two standard deviations that
would need to be discovered to eVect a meaningful change (deWned as plus or minus
.10 based on Cohens (1998) framework for evaluating eVect sizes) in the estimated
eVect size.
In addition, I subjected each analysis to two tests of homogeneity to determine
how diVerent the results for each analysis are. First, I examined the percentage of variance explained by artifacts. Possible moderators were investigated if the percentage
of variance explained was less than 60%. The use of a lower threshold when eVect
sizes are only corrected for reliability is consistent with Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch,
and Topolnytsky (2002). Second, I inspected the range of the 90% credibility interval
to determine if zero was included, which may indicate that moderators are present
(Whitener, 1990).
To test the moderating eVects of continuous variables, I Wt a series of weighted
least-square regression models for each eVect size and moderator, weighted by the
inverse variance of each eVect size (Callendar & Osburn, 1988; Hedges & Olkin, 1985;
Sanchez-Meca & Marin-Martinez, 1998), which provides the most accurate results
for testing continuous moderators in meta-analysis (Steel & Kammeyer-Mueller,
2002). The correlations were transformed to Fishers Z, and the inverse sampling
error variance was estimated by the sample size for each study minus three (Callendar & Osburn, 1988; Steel & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2002). To test the signiWcance of
moderators, I calculated ZHO, the unstandardized regression coeYcient divided by
the corrected standard error (Hedges, 1994; Sanchez-Meca & Marin-Martinez, 1998),
and determined whether it exceeded the critical value. I included studies that were
previously identiWed as potential outliers because it was possible that the aberrant
results were due to diVerences in sample composition.
To test the moderating eVects of categorical variables, I split the group into
subgroups based on the categorical moderator and conducted a separate meta-analysis on each subgroup. However, in some of the analyses, there was no comparison
183
sub-group because the coding schemes in the remaining studies were all diVerent or
because the sub-group contained too few studies. The percent of variance explained
by artifacts for the subgroup(s) was compared to the percent of variance
explained by artifacts for the overall group analysis to determine if the moderator
explained some between-study variation.
4. Results
Meta-analytic results of correlations between work interference with family and
family interference with work and the proposed antecedent variables are presented in
Table 3. As anticipated, all work variables had a greater impact on WIF than on FIW
in the expected direction. For all of the six work variables, the relationship between
WIF and the work-related antecedent was of greater magnitude than the relationship
between the antecedent and FIW, and the 95% conWdence (not credibility) intervals
did not signiWcantly overlap. Employees who have higher job involvement or job
stress, or spend more time at work have more WIF than FIW, and employees who
have less supportive co-workers or supervisors or less Xexible schedules have more
WIF than FIW. Among work variables, job stress ( D .48) and schedule Xexibility
( D .30) were most strongly correlated with WIF. Employees who have more job
stress have more WIF, and those with more Xexible job schedules have less WIF.
Contrary to expectations, the correlations between nonwork variables and FIW (as
compared to WIF) did not have consistently stronger relationships in the expected
direction. Several of the nonwork variables showed similar relationships to WIF and
FIW. The 95% conWdence intervals for the estimated population eVect sizes for family/
nonwork involvement, family support, family conXict, age of youngest child, and
spousal employment overlapped in their relationships to WIF and FIW. The remaining four nonwork variables, hours of nonwork, family stress, number of children, and
marital status, demonstrated a pattern that was consistent with expectations. The
more hours spent on family, housework, childcare or other nonwork-related activities,
the more FIW experienced ( D .21), but not signiWcantly more WIF, as indicated by
95% conWdence interval that included zero ( D .02, 95% CI: .06/+.02). In addition,
employees who experienced more family-related stress experienced more FIW ( D .47,
95% CI: +.44/+.50) than WIF ( D .30, 95% CI: +.27/+.33). Employees with more children or who were single had more FIW ( D .16, 95% CI: +.14/+.17, and D .05, 95%
CI: .07/.03; respectively) than WIF ( D .09, 95% CI: +.07/+.11, and D .03, 95%
CI: +.01/+.05; respectively). Among all nonwork variables, family stress ( D .47) and
family conXict ( D .32) were most strongly related to FIW. Employees who had more
stress and more conXict at home had more family interference with work.
Demographic and individual antecedent variables were expected to have equivalent eVects on WIF and FIW. To determine the extent to which the variables have
similar relationships to WIF and FIW, I inspected the 95% conWdence intervals of
the estimated population eVect sizes for each demographic variable and its
relationship to WIF and FIW. Of the demographic and individual variables, only
one, coping style and skills, tended to have a similar relationship to both WIF and
184
Work interference with family (WIF)
Family interference with work (FIW)
SDO
SD
95% CI
MFN
SDO
SD
95% CI
MFN
Work variables
Job involvement
Hours spent at work
Continuous only
Work support
Schedule Xexibility
Job stress
Overall stress only
Role overload only
10
22
18
17
8
19
7
10
2766
9527
8092
4165
2620
7034
3183
4402
.14
.26b
.27b
.19b
.30
.48b
.48b
.65b
.15
.12
.10
.09
.26
.13
.07
.16
.14
.11
.09
.07
.26
.12
.07
.16
+.11/+.18
+.24/+.27
+.25/+.29
.22/.16
.34/.27
+.46/+.49
+.46/+.51
+.63/+.67
5
17
18
21
2
12
15
5
.07
.01
.01
.12b
.17
.29b
.29b
.40b
.11
.07
.07
.11
.14
.12
.10
.18
.09
.05
.05
.09
.13
.11
.09
.18
+.03/+.10
.01/+.03
.02/+.03
.15/.09
.21/.13
+.27/+.31
+.26/+.32
+.38/+.42
9
75
60
15
4
15
8
4
Nonwork variables
Hours of nonwork
Continuous only
Family support
Family stress
Overall stress only
9
10
9
14
8
5
2741
2875
2764
2886
2937
2008
.02
.02
.01a
.11b
.30b
.32
.08
.09
.07
.10
.13
.12
.05
.07
.04
.07
.12
.11
.07/+.00
.06/+.02
.04/+.03
.14/.07
+.27/+.33
+.28/+.36
18
13
26
14
5
4
.02
.21b
.21b
.17b
.47b
.49
.15
.14
.14
.13
.18
.20
.14
.12
.13
.11
.18
.19
.05/+.02
+.17/+.24
+.17/+.24
.21/.14
+.44/+.50
+.46/+.52
5
6
5
10
3
2
Table 3
Work, nonwork, and demographic antecedents of WIF and FIW
8
27
8
15
9
14
9
6
1674
10,467
2557
6700
7303
9378
4358
3413
.35b
.09
. 05
.08b
.17 a,b
.03
.01a,b
.01a
.10
.12
.12
.08
.04
.10
.05
.05
.07
.11
.11
.06
.02
.09
.00
.03
+.31/+.40
+.07/+.11
+.01/+.09
+.06/+.11
.20/.15
+.01/+.05
.02/+.04
.04/+.03
9
21
6
28
N/Ad
14
189
299
.32b
.16b
.17b
.15b
.22b
.05
.03
.02
.16
.12
.12
.12
.08
.08
.10
.09
.15
.11
.11
.11
.07
.07
.09
.08
+.28/+.36
+.14/+.17
+.13/+.21
+.13/+.18
.24/.19
.07/.03
+.00/+.06
.02/+.05
4
19
6
11
16
25
10
7
Demographic variables
Sex
Income
27
13
6
18,125
7046
2002
.03
.10b
.12a,b
.11
.08
.03
.10
.07
.00
.04/.01
+.08/+.12
.16/.08
24
22
14
.06
.00
.15b
.12
.08
.11
.11
.07
.10
+.04/+.07
.03/+.02
.19/.10
21
21
5
Note. WIF, Work interference with family; FIW, Family interference with work; k, number of independent samples included in each analysis; N, combined
sample sizes of studies included in each analysis; , weighted average corrected correlation; SDO, observed standard deviation of corrected correlation; SD,
estimated true/population standard deviation of corrected correlation; 95% CI, 95% conWdence interval, MFN, modiWed fail-safe N (indicates the number of
additional studies needed to cause a meaningful change in the estimated population eVect size).
a
More than 60% of the observed variance is accounted for by sampling error.
b
Zero is not included in the 90% credibility interval.
c
Number children living at home includes studies that asked individuals to report how many children were living at home, how many children were living at
home under a particular age, or how many family dependents they had. In contrast, when studies asked participants to report how many children they had, the
number could include older children, adult children, or other nondependents.
d
The ModiWed Fail-Safe N was negative, indicating that no number of studies could exact a meaningful change in the estimated population correlation.
Family conXict
Number of children
Number of children
Number living at homec
Marital status
Spousal employment
Dichotomous coding
185
186
FIW. Having a positive coping style or having better coping skills seems to provide
some protection from WIF and FIW ( D .12 and D .15, respectively). The other
two demographic and individual variables, sex and income, tended to vary in their
relationship to WIF and FIW, as indicated by nonoverlapping 95% conWdence intervals. Male employees tended to have slightly more WIF ( D .03, 95% CI: .04/
.01) and female employees tended to have more FIW ( D .06, 95% CI: +.04/+.07),
although the diVerences between sexes and the diVerence between sexs relationship
to WIF and FIW were small. There were also signiWcant diVerences between the relationship of income to WIF and FIW. Employees with higher incomes had more WIF
( D .10, 95% CI: +.08/+.12), whereas income was not signiWcantly related to FIW
( D .00, 95% CI: .03/+.02).
Next, I considered whether a search for potential moderators was warranted. For
nearly all antecedents, there seemed to be signiWcant variation between studies used
in the meta-analysis. In fact, the two tests of homogeneity used in this analysis indicated homogeneity in their relationship to WIF or FIW for only two antecedents, age
of youngest child and coping style/skills. However, the 90% credibility intervals suggested homogeneity for most of the relationships. Because the results for the homogeneity tests failed to be consistent for the majority of analyses, I proceeded to
conduct the proposed moderator analyses.
First, I considered the categorical moderator, diVerences in coding scheme or measurement (as shown in Table 3). Six variables that did not meet the two tests of
homogeneity had diVerences in coding schemes between studies, hours spent at work,
job stress, hours spent on nonwork, family stress, number of children, and spousal
employment. The estimated population eVect sizes for the overall group analysis and
the sub-group analysis of those that measured the variable continuously do not diVer
greatly, however, for nearly all analyses, the sub-group analyses explain more of the
variance by artifacts or have more stable eVect size estimates. When considering only
studies that measured time at work continuously, employees who spend more time at
work experience slightly more WIF but the same amount of FIW ( D .27 and D .01,
respectively). On the other hand, employees who spend more time in family or household duties and activities experience less WIF although the same amount of FIW
( D .02 and D .21, respectively).
Studies that examined the relationship between job and family stress and WIF and
FIW diVered in their measurement of job and family stress. Some studies used overall
measures of job or family stress, some used more speciWc measures of job stress, such
as role overload or role ambiguity. For job stress, the sub-group analysis of those
studies that used overall measures of job stress explained more variation than did the
overall analysis, suggesting the sub-group analysis may reXect more accurate estimates of the relationship between job stress and WIF and FIW ( D .48 and D .29,
respectively). When considering only studies that examined role overload, the estimated eVect sizes in regard to WIF and FIW tended to be greater but less stable and
homogenous ( D .65 and D .40, respectively). For family stress, the only sub-group
analysis that could be conducted was on those studies that used overall measures of
family stress. The estimated eVect sizes for this sub-group analysis did not signiWcantly diVer from or improve upon those of the overall analysis.
187
Lastly, I considered whether diVerences in coding might account for betweenstudy variation for two other family domain variables, number of children and
spousal employment. Some studies asked employees to indicate how many children
(with no restrictions) they had; whereas other asked employees to indicate how
many children they had living at home or under a particular age. The coding
scheme for number of children explained signiWcant between-study variation,
although the 95% conWdence intervals for the estimated eVect sizes tended to overlap across each coding scheme for WIF ( D .05, 95% CI: +.01/+.09, and D .08,
95% CI: +.06/+.11; respectively) or FIW ( D .17, 95% CI: +.13/+.21, and D .15,
95% CI: +.13/+.18). Most studies dichotomized spousal employment (i.e., either the
spouse works or not); the remaining three studies each used a diVerent coding
scheme, and therefore were not considered in a sub-group analysis. Compared to
the overall analysis, the sub-group analysis for studies that dichotomized spousal
employment accounted for less between-study variation and had larger 90% credibility intervals. This suggests that the overall analysis provides a more accurate
estimate of the relationship between spousal employment and WIF and FIW
despite the fact that there were diVerences in coding schemes. In summary, for most
of the relationships considered, diVerences in coding schemes tended to explain
some of the variance between studies or provide more stable estimated eVect sizes
over the overall analyses.
Next, each of the two proposed continuous moderators were Wtted into a separate
weighted least square equation for each relationship considered. The antecedent, coping style and skills, was excluded for the proposed moderator, percent of sample with
children, due to too few studies (k < 4) that provided data. I excluded other antecedents because their interpretation lacked conceptual meaning (i.e., for percent of parents in sample, number of children and age of youngest child, and, for percent female
in sample, sex was excluded). The results of the regression models for percent of sample with children are included in Table 4, and the results of the regression models for
percent female in sample are included in Table 5.
The percent of parents in the sample related signiWcantly to the study eVect size for
over 32% of the relationships considered, suggesting that diVerences in the composition of the sample explains between-study variation for some relationships. In particular, the percent of parents in the sample seems to aVect the relationship between job
stress and workfamily interference. The more parents in the sample, the stronger the
positive relationship between job stress and WIF and FIW. While sex had a very
small direct eVect on WIF or FIW, the percent of parents in the sample does moderate this relationship. Namely, when there are more parents in the sample, there is a
greater sex diVerence in the experience of WIF and FIW, such that mothers experience more WIF and FIW than fathers. When there are fewer parents in the sample,
men tend to experience more WIF and FIW. Lastly, while there tended to be no
diVerence between married and single employees in their experience of WIF and FIW
overall, marital status is negatively related to WIF and FIW as the number of parents
in the sample increases. This suggests that single parents have more WIF and FIW
than parents who are married; whereas married and single employees without children tend to have similar levels of WIF and FIW.
188
Table 4
Percent of study sample with children as a moderator of eVect size
k
WIF
FIW
ZHO
ZHO
Work variables
Job involvement
Hours spent at work
Work support
Schedule Xexibility
Job stress
10
21
14
5
13
.21
.12
.35
.72
.01
.20
.08
.31
.72*
.29*
1.20
1.29
1.14
4.73
3.21
.00
.05
.39
.18
.13
.23
.10*
.30
.55
.43*
0.95
2.13
1.79
1.30
2.88
Nonwork variables
Hours of nonwork
Family support
Family stress
Family conXict
Number of childrena
Age of youngest child a
Marital status
Spousal employment
9
4
11
7
7
13
10
.19
.02
.26
.31
.08
.17
.59
.10
.34
.26
.07
.01
.45*
.52
0.00
0.41
1.16
0.00
0.04
2.54
0.88
.35
.12
.23
.24
.48
.35
.02
.24
.22
.33
.01
.72*
.78*
.36
0.95
0.98
1.70
0.06
3.89
3.50
1.58
Sex
Income
Coping style and skillsa
23
14
.06
.05
.65*
.09
4.85
0.00
.24
.02
.46*
.03
19.52
0.00
Note. r, Pearson correlation; , standardized regression coeYcient WLS regression; ZHO, test of null
hypothesis that D 0; * indicates 95% conWdence that does not equal zero.
a
Both antecedents concerned with children, number of children and age of youngest child, were
excluded from analysis because considering the percentage of parents as a moderator of their relationships
to WIF and FIW lacked conceptual meaning. Only three studies that considered coping style and skills
provided data on the percent with children in the study; therefore, these analyses were excluded.
The percent of female employees in the sample related signiWcantly to the study
eVect size for more than half of the relationships considered, suggesting that diVerences in the sex composition of the sample explains between-study variation for some
relationships. For example, having a higher percentage of women in a sample associated with a weaker positive relationship between job involvement and WIF and FIW.
Job involvement seems to relate more positively to WIF and FIW for men than for
women. Conversely, family involvement related more positively to WIF and FIW for
women than for men (although only approaching statistical signiWcance at the level
of .05 for WIF). For men (as compared to women), being more highly involved in
their jobs is linked to more interference whereas, for women (as compared to men),
being more highly involved in their family lives is linked to more interference. In
addition, a higher percentage of females in a sample is negatively related to the study
eVect size for schedule Xexibility and WIF and FIW. Flexible schedules appear to
provide more of a protective beneWt for women than for men. However, family stress
and family conXict are more positively related to WIF and FIW for men than for
women. Stress and conXict in the family domain is linked to more interference for
men as compared to women. When more women are represented in the sample, the
189
Table 5
Percent female in study sample as a moderator of eVect size
k
WIF
FIW
ZHO
ZHO
Work variables
Job involvement
Hours spent at work
Work support
Schedule Xexibility
Job stress
13
27
18
8
20
.66
.10
.20
.10
.04
.71*
.03
.10
.39*
.08
6.47
0.28
0.00
2.83
0.00
.33
.14
.06
.63
.32
.35*
.12
.24
.78*
.22*
3.24
0.00
1.39
5.19
2.80
Nonwork variables
Hours of nonwork
Family support
Family stress
Family conXict
Number of children
Marital status
Spousal employment
11
10
16
9
8
31
12
15
11
.33
.12
.15
.45
.22
.22
.17
.02
.16
.53
.39
.30
.56*
.30
.34*
.14
.32*
.20
1.91
1.48
1.35
3.67
1.28
2.09
0.00
2.49
0.00
.35
.02
.56
.62
.15
.24
.03
.18
.26
.23 *
.21 *
.40*
.78*
.13
.27*
.22*
.57*
.15
2.02
2.42
3.03
11.44
1.12
2.37
2.19
3.38
0.00
Sexa
Income
14
6
.17
.11
.16
.12
0.00
0.00
.30
.66
.43
.60*
1.57
2.36
Note. r, Pearson correlation; , standardized regression coeYcient WLS regression; ZHO, test of null
hypothesis that D 0; * indicates 95% conWdence that does not equal zero.
a
Sex was excluded from analysis because considering the percentage of females as a moderator of its
relationships to WIF and FIW lacked conceptual meaning.
employees number of children is less positively related to WIF and FIW. For example, the weighted mean average correlation between number of children and WIF is
.15 for all male samples and .02 for all female samples; and, for FIW, is .21 and .08,
respectively. The percentage of female employees in the sample also moderates the
relationship between marital status and WIF and FIW. For men, more so than for
women, being married is associated with more WIF and FIW. For women, marital
status had a near-zero relationship to WIF and FIW, suggesting that being married
or single has little eVect on female employees experience of WIF and FIW. In particular, the percentage of females in the sample aVected the relationship between the
antecedents and FIW (as compared to WIF), as the percentage of females in the sample was a signiWcant moderator in 11 of the 16 (69%) relationships considered.
Lastly, I considered the relation between WIF and FIW. The weighted average
corrected correlation is .48 (SDO D .11; SD D . 10; 95% CI: +.46/+.49), which is the
result of cumulating the results of 47 studies with a total sample size of 13,384 (after
eliminating 9 studies identiWed as outliers). In all studies, WIF and FIW related positively. More interference in one domain tends to associate with more interference in
the other. In fact, only one antecedent, job stress, related nearly as strongly to WIF
190
( D .48), and only one antecedent, family stress, is nearly as strongly related to FIW
( D .47) as WIF and FIW related to each other.
5. Discussion
The results of this meta-analytic review support the diVerentiation between work
interference with family and family interference with work. Employees seem to diVerentiate between the source, or direction, of interference, and the two types of interference appear to have diVerent antecedents. The results of the analysis partially
support the pattern of relationships expected: work-related antecedents tend to associate with more work-related interference than nonwork interference. Nonworkrelated antecedents tend to relate to more family interference with work than work
interference with family, although the diVerences were not always statistically signiWcant. However, of all of the antecedents, job stress, family stress, and family conXict
have among the strongest associations with both WIF and FIW, suggesting that
while there is diVerentiation, some work and family factors can have simultaneously
disruptive eVects on employees work and family lives.
Surprisingly, the two demographic variables, sex and income, which have often
been proposed in the literature as antecedents of WIF and FIW, had relatively low
relationships to WIF and FIW. For example, sex, which has been proposed as an
antecedent in dozens of studies, had a near zero relationship to WIF and a weak, positive relationship to FIW. Contrary to hypotheses in many studies, the present analysis suggests that overall men and women have similar levels of WIF and FIW. This
Wnding coincides with other research that has reported no sex diVerence in the experience or perception of occupational stress (Martocchio & OLeary, 1989). The only
individual variable considered in the analysis, coping style and skills, seemed to oVer
some beneWt to employees. Those with better time management skills or a better coping style tended to have less WIF and FIW.
While demographic variables tended to be weak predictors of WIF and FIW, they
did tend to have indirect eVects on WIF and FIW. The percentage of women or parents in the sample explained between-study variance in more relationships than
would be expected by chance. This coincides with recent theory that supports the use
of social categories as moderators in the workfamily literature (VoydanoV, 2002). In
general, being male appears to exacerbate any negative eVects of family domain antecedents, such as family stress, family conXict, number of children, and marital status,
related to workfamily conXict. Paradoxically, females tend to enjoy greater protective beneWts from those antecedents, such as Xexible work schedules, and, to some
extent, supportive families, that lessen the experience of interference. While not as
consistently as the percentage of females in the sample, the percentage of parents in
the sample also explained some diVerences in results across studies. For employees
with children as compared to those without children, having more job stress, being
single, and being is related to more workfamily conXict.
Overall, the results provide partial support for the hypotheses of the study. In view
of that, some exceptions and other surprising results deserve note. First, for WIF and
191
FIW, only one antecedent each was as correlated with WIF and FIW as they were
with each other. While the diVerential eVects of antecedents provides support for discriminating between the two constructs, the strong positive relationship between
them deserves further study. Perhaps the perception of interference between domains
can be explained by a common third variable, such as being high in negative aVect or
having expectations of separate domains. Second, contrary to expectations, nonwork
domain variables did not have a consistently stronger relationship to FIW than to
WIF. Nonwork domain variables that have been referred to as family demands (i.e.,
number of children, age of youngest child, marital status, and spousal employment)
were nearly as related to FIW as to WIF. Perhaps this speaks to the asymmetric permeability of domains, such that family demands cause family life to interfere with
work and for work to interfere with the relatively greater family demands. Lastly,
family involvement had a near-zero correlation with FIW (and WIF), rather than
being positively related to FIW as expected. Employees who had higher family
involvement experience the same amount of FIW (and WIF) as those who were less
involved with their families.
5.1. Theoretical implications
Several theoretical models can glean support from these Wndings. Overall, the
results provide support for conXict theory (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). They highlight the potential incompatibility of work and family roles and ensuing conXict from
having multiple roles, at least for some people. For example, the present analysis
found that employees who experience more stress on the job are more likely to experience interference from their work into their family lives. Likewise, employees who
experience stress at home are more likely to experience interference from their family
lives into their work day.
Furthermore, the results suggest that both spillover and congruence are apparent
linking mechanisms between the work and family domains (Edwards & Rothbard,
2000). Spillover as a linking mechanism occurs when stress or strain from one
domain surface in another domain. Congruence as a linking mechanism between
work and family domains occurs when a third variable links the domains of work
and family domains by having a congruent eVect on both (Edwards & Rothbard,
2000). Support for spillover as a linking mechanism can be seen in the positive relationship between job stress and WIF and between family stress and conXict and FIW.
Stress from one domain is interfering with the other domain. While the results suggest that negative spillover can occur from one domain to another, the results also
support the notion that positive spillover can occur. For example, employees who are
employed in more supportive workplaces or who have more supportive families tend
to experience less workfamily conXict. Support for congruence as a linking mechanism is found in the similar relationship employees coping style and skills to both
WIF and FIW. Employees who have better time management skills and coping
behaviors experience less WIF and FIW.
The results of the meta-analysis provide some support for the rational view, which
predicts that the more time one spends in a role, or the more one specializes or is
192
involved in a role, the more he or she will perceive interference in the secondary role
from the participation in the primary role (Pleck, 1977). Consistent with this view, the
number of hours spent on work was more positively related to WIF than to FIW,
and the number of hours spent on nonwork was more positively related to FIW than
to WIF. Similarly, employees with higher job involvement had more WIF than FIW.
However, inconsistent with the predictions of this view, employees with more family
or nonwork involvement did not tend to have more WIF or FIW.
Alternatively, the results do oVer some support for the sex-role hypothesis, which
proposes that sex or sex roles moderate the relationship between role involvement
and psychological distress (VoydanoV, 2002). As mentioned above, the present analysis found an inconsistent relationship between role involvement in a given role and
WIF and FIW, which is surprising given the frequency with which these relationships
have been explored in the literature. Employees sex does seem to moderate the relationship between job and family involvement and WIF and FIW. For three out of the
four eVect sizes, having more females in the sample related to the strength of the relationship between role involvement and workfamily interference. Namely, job
involvement seems to relate more positively to WIF and FIW for men than for
women. In addition, when more of a studys participants were parents, there was a
greater sex diVerence in the experience of WIF and FIW, such that mothers experience more WIF and FIW than fathers. When there were fewer parents in the sample,
men tended to experience more WIF and FIW. Perhaps because women tended to
take on greater responsibilities for childcare, mothers experience more distress from
the greater workload but only when they are also highly involved in their work.
In summary, the results provide support for multiple theoretical models. This suggests that no single model can fully explain how employees experience the intersection between their work and nonwork domains. Future theorizing should work
toward creating an integrative model that more fully explains the complexity suggested by the results presented here.
5.2. Future research
The present study also oVers some suggestions for future research. First, the
continued use of bidirectional measures is supported. The present results provide
support for the discriminant validity of these constructs. Second, the relative
importance of these antecedents may guide future research aimed at better understanding the causes and prevention of workfamily conXict. Factors such as job
stress and family conXict, which were strong predictors of both WIF and FIW, are
important topics for future research. Lastly, diVerences in the composition of the
study sample (i.e., percentage of females and percentage of parents) and the lack
of homogeneity in many of the analyses suggest that researchers should be
thoughtful about choosing their sample. In cumulating these studies, diVerences
between sampling strategies became apparent. For example, some studies only
considered parents (e.g., Duxbury, Higgins, & Lee, 1994), some only included married participants (e.g., Beutell & Witting-Berman, 1999), and some did not employ
restrictions (e.g., Aryee, Fields, & Luk, 1999). Future research should further
193
investigate whether diVerences in sampling strategies explain diVerences in results

across studies.
In addition, in reviewing the primary research that considers antecedents of work
family interference, several gaps in the literature became apparent. Few studies
explicitly considered the diVerence between caring for adults and children. This gap
in the literature has been noted by others: [H]uman resource and organizational
behavior scholars often overlook how caring for a parent diVers from caring for a
child (Kossek et al., 1999, p. 114). In addition, most studies began with the assumption that having multiple roles would necessarily lead to distress. However, research
in other areas supports the idea that individuals who hold multiple roles reap beneWts
from doing so. In the management literature, there should be more recognition of the
beneWts (rather than detriments) that arise from the participation in multiple roles
(e.g., Thoits, 1992). Research should discard the overly simplistic notion that distress
must be found at the intersection of work and family, and instead focus on determining the conditions that distinguish when multiple roles leads to distress and when
multiple roles leads to increased fulWllment (Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Greenhaus &
Parasuraman, 1999). Lastly, few studies considered individual variables, such as personality or skill level. It seems as though workfamily conXict research, for the most
part, has not focused on individual diVerences in success at handling workfamily
conXict (Baltes & Dickson, 2001, p. 53). Future research should consider whether
other individual variables are useful at explaining diVerences in outcomes in the
workfamily literature.
5.3. Practical implications
In addition to providing guidance to workfamily researchers, the results of the
analysis oVer some practical implications. Namely, employers who seek to reduce
their employees perceived stress from competing demands should focus on reducing
job-related stress. Job-related stress, such as role conXict, ambiguity, and overload,
seems to be spilling over into employees lives away from work. Furthermore, while
outside of the work domain, employers may consider oVering guidance to their
employees on improving their relationships with their spouses and children to reduce
family conXict. Employees who reported more marital strife or more conXicts with
their children had more interference between their work and family lives. Perhaps
more employers should oVer training to their employees on managing family conXict,
although the beneWts of this type of training to employers are not well established.
Clearly, employees are not checking their family concerns at the workplace door, suggesting that employers may have an interest in helping employees with these concerns.
The analysis also suggests that employers can eVectively reduce the experience of
workfamily interference among their employees. Namely, employees who had more
Xexible schedules or who had more supportive coworkers or supervisors reported less
WIF and FIW. This suggests that some employer interventions may be beneWcial at
reducing distress for employees.
While the present analysis does provide guidance for future research and has some
practical implications, the analysis is not without its limitations. One of the primary
194
limitations is that meta-analysis cannot partial out the eVects of other variables on
the relationships considered. For example, spousal employment relate more strongly
to WIF and FIW when the presence of young children in the home is simultaneously
considered. In addition, some of the eVect sizes were cumulated from a small number
of studies. Field (2001) warned that estimates and signiWcance tests from meta-analytic studies containing less than 30 samples should be interpreted very cautiously
(p. 179). However, the two estimates of eVect size stability generally provide support
for the relative stability of the eVect sizes. As with all meta-analyses, more stable and
accurate estimates may be obtained with the addition of more primary research.
Lastly, as mentioned previously, the eVect size estimates have signiWcant betweenstudy variation. The present analyses suggest that sample composition is one source
of between-study variation, and future research should seek to identify other sources
of variation between studies of workfamily interference.
This study provides support for the bidirectional nature of workfamily conXict,
and it suggests that researchers should employ measures that distinguish between
WIF and FIW. Furthermore, it supports the notion that WIF and FIW have
unique antecedents, and therefore, may require diVerent interventions or solutions
to prevent or reduce their experience. Lastly, the analysis suggests that demographic variables, such as sex and marital status, are alone poor predictors of
workfamily conXict. Researchers are advised to examine more Wnely-grained
variables that may more fully capture employees likelihood of experiencing work
family conXict.
References
Note. References marked with an asterisk (*) indicate studies included in the
meta-analysis.
*Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, workfamily conXict, and strain. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 7277.
*Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family
social support, and workfamily conXict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology,
81, 411420.
Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E. L., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conXict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5,
278308.
*Aryee, S., Fields, D., & Luk, V. (1999). A cross-cultural test of a model of the workfamily interface. Journal of Management, 25, 491511.
*Aryee, S., Luk, V., Leung, A., & Lo, S. (1999). Role stressors, interrole conXict, and well-being: The moderating inXuence of spousal support and coping behaviors among employed parents in Hong Kong.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 259278.
*Barling, J., MacEwen, K. E., Kelloway, E. K., & Higginbottom, S. F. (1994). Predictors and outcomes of
elder-care-based interrole conXict. Psychology and Aging, 9, 391397.
Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American
Psychologist, 56, 781796.
Baltes, B. B., & Dickson, M. W. (2001). Using life-span models in industrial-organizational psychology: The theory of selective optimization with compensation. Applied Developmental Science, 5,
5162.
195
*Beutell, N. J., & Witting-Berman, U. (1999). Predictors of workfamily conXict and satisfaction with family, job, career, and life satisfaction. Psychological Reports, 85, 893903.
Bohen, H. H., & Viveros-Long, A. (1981). Balancing jobs and family life: Do Xexible work schedules help?
Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
*Boles, J. S., Howard, W. G., & Donofrio, H. H. (2001). An investigation into the inter-relationships of
workfamily conXict, familywork conXict and work satisfaction. Journal of Managerial Issues, 13,
376390.
Brett, J. M., & Yogev, S. (1985). Restructuring work for family. How dual-earner couples with children
manage? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 3, 159174.
*Brough, P., & Kelling, A. (2002). Women, work & well-being: The inXuence of workfamily and familywork conXict. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 31, 2938.
*Bruck, C. S., Allen, T. D., & Spector, P. E. (2002). The relation between workfamily conXict and job satisfaction: A Wner-grained analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 336353.
*Burke, R. J., & Greenglass, E. R. (2001). Hospital restructuring stressors, workfamily concerns and psychological well-being among nursing staV. Community, Work and Family, 4, 4962.
Burke, R. J., Weir, T., & DuWors, R. E. (1979). Type A behavior of administrators and wives reports of
marital satisWcation and well-being. Journal of Approval Psychology, 64, 5765.
Burley, K., 1989. Workfamily conXict and marital adjustment in dual career couples: A comparison of three
time models. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
Callendar, J. C., & Osburn, H. G. (1988). Unbiased estimation of sampling variance of correlations. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 73, 312315.
*Carlson, D. S., & Kacmar, K. M. (2000). Workfamily conXict in the organization: Do life role values
make a diVerence. Journal of Management, 26, 10311054.
*Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., & Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional measure of workfamily conXict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 249276.
*Casper, W. J., Martin, J. A., BuVardi, L. C., & Erdwins, C. J. (2002). Workfamily conXict, perceived organizational support, and organizational commitment among employed mothers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7, 99108.
*Cinamon, R. G., & Rich, Y. (2002). ProWles of attribution of importance to life roles and their implications for the workfamily conXict. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 212220.
Cohen, J. (1998). Statisical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Cohen, A., & Kirchmeyer, C. (1995). A multidimensional approach to the relation between organizational
commitment and nonwork participation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 46, 189202.
*Duxbury, L., Higgins, C., & Lee, C. (1994). Workfamily conXict: A comparison by gender, family type,
and perceived control. Journal of Family Issues, 15, 449466.
*Eagle, B. W., Icenogle, M. L., Maes, J. D., & Miles, E. W. (1998). The importance of employee demographic proWles for understanding experiences of workfamily interrole conXicts. Journal of Social Psychology, 138, 690709.
*Eagle, B. W., Miles, E. W., & Icenogle, M. L. (1997). Interrole conXicts and the permeability of work and
family domains: Are there gender diVerences?. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 168184.
Eby, L. T., Casper, W. J., Lockwood, A., Bordeaux, C., & Brinley, A. (in press). Work and family
research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature (19802002). Journal of Vocational
Behavior.
Edwards, J. R., & Rothbard, N. P. (2000). Mechanisms linking work and family: Clarifying the relationship
between work and family constructs. Academy of Management Review, 25, 178199.
Field, A. P. (2001). Meta-analysis of correlation coeYcients: A Monte Carlo comparison of Wxed- and random-eVects methods. Psychological Bulletin, 6, 161180.
*Fox, M. L., & Dwyer, D. J. (1999). An investigation of the eVects of time and involvement in the relationship between stressors and workfamily conXict. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 164
174.
*Frone, M. R., & Yardley, J. K. (1996). Workplace family-supportive programmes: Predictors of employed
parents-importance ratings. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69, 351366.
*Frone, M. R. (2000). Workfamily conXict and employee psychiatric disorders: The national commorbidity study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 888895.
196
*Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Barnes, G. M. (1996). Workfamily conXict, gender, and health-related outcomes: A study of employed parents in two community samples. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 5769.
*Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992a). Antecedents and outcomes of workfamily conXict:
Testing a model of the workfamily interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 6578.
Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992b). Prevalence of workfamily conXict: Are work
and family boundaries asymmetrically permeable. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 723
729.
*Frone, M. R., Yardley, J. K., & Markel, K. S. (1997). Developing and testing an integrative model of the
workfamily interface. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 145167.
*Fu, C. K., & ShaVer, M. A. (2001). The tug of work and family: Direct and indirect domain-speciWc determinants of workfamily conXict. Personnel Review, 30, 502522.
Geurts, S. A. E. (2000). SWING: Survey workhome interference Nijmegen. Internal research report. Nijmegen, Netherlands: University of Nijmegen.
*Gignac, M. A. M., Kelloway, E. K., & Gottlieb, B. H. (1996). The impact of caregiving on employment: A
mediational model of workfamily conXict. Canadian Journal on Aging, 15, 525542.
Gottlieb, B. H., Kelloway, E. K., & Barham, E. (1998). Flexible work arrangements: Managing the work
family boundary. New York: Wiley.
*Grandey, A. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1999). The conservation of resources model applied to workfamily
conXict and strain. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 350370.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conXict between work and family roles. Academy of
Management Review, 10, 7688.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1999). Research on work, family, and gender. In G. N. Powell (Ed.),
Handbook of gender and work. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
*Greenhaus, J. H., Parasuraman, S., & Collins, K. M. (2001). Career involvement and family involvement
as moderators of relationships between workfamily conXict and withdrawal from a profession. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 91100.
*Grzywacz, J. G., & Marks, N. F. (2000). Reconceptualizing the workfamily interface: An ecological perspective on the correlates of positive and negative spillover between work and family. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 111126.
*Gutek, B. A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for workfamily
conXict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 560568.
Hedges, L. V. (1994). Fixed eVect models. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research
synthesis. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. San Diego: Academic Press.
*Hepburn, C. G., & Barling, J. (1996). Eldercare responsibilities, interrole conXict, and employee absence:
A daily study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 311318.
*Higgins, C., Duxbury, L., & Lee, C. (1994). Impact of life-cycle stage and gender on the ability to balance
work and family responsibilities. Family Relations, 43, 144150.
HuVcutt, A. I., & Arthur, W., Jr. (1995). Development of a new outlier statistic for meta-analytic data.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 327334.
HuVcutt, A. I., Roberts, D. C., & Steel, P., (2004). Assessing the stability of meta-analytic mean estimates.
In J. D. Kammeyer-Mueller & P. Steel (Chairs), Making meta-analysis easier and more accurate. Symposium presented at the 19th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago.
*Hughes, D. L., & Galinsky, E. . (1994). Gender, job and family conditions, and psychological symptoms.
Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 251270.
*Hughes, D., Galinsky, E., & Morris, A. (1992). The eVects of job characteristics on marital quality: Specifying linking mechanisms. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 3142.
Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1995). Methods of meta-analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
*Jex, S. M., & Elacqua, T. C. (1999). Time management as a moderator of relations between stressors and
employee strain. Work and Stress, 13, 182191.
*Judge, T. A., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R. D. (1994). Job and life attitudes of male executives. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 79, 767782.
197
Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress. New
York: Wiley.
*Kelloway, E. K., Gottlieb, B. H., & Barham, L. (1999). The source, nature, and direction of work and family conXict: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 337346.
*Kinnunen, U., & Mauno, S. (1998). Antecedents and outcomes of workfamily conXict among employed
women and men in Finland. Human Relations, 51, 157177.
Kirchmeyer, C. (1993). Nonwork-to-work spillover: A more balanced view of the experiences and coping
of professional women and men. Sex Roles, 28, 531552.
*Kirchmeyer, C., & Cohen, A. (1999). DiVerent strategies for managing the work non-work interface: A
test for unique pathways to work outcomes. Work and Stress, 13, 5973.
*Klitzman, S., House, J. S., Israel, B. A., & Mero, R. P. (1990). Work stress, nonwork stress, and health.
Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13, 221243.
Kopelman, R., Greenhaus, J. H., & Connolly, T. F. (1983). A model of work, family, and interrole conXict:
A construct validation study. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32, 198215.
Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work-family conXict, policies, and the job-life satisfaction relationship:
A review and directions for organizational behavior-human resources research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 139149.
Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1999). Bridging the workfamily policy and productivity gap: A literature
review. Community, Work, and Family, 2, 732.
Kossek, E. E., Noe, R. A., & DeMarr, B. J. (1999). Workfamily role synthesis: Individual and organizational determinants. The International Journal of ConXict Management, 10, 102129.
*Kossek, E. E., Colquitt, J. A., & Noe, R. A. (2001). Caregiving decisions, well-being, and performance:
The eVects of place and provider as a function of dependent type and workfamily climates. Academy
of Management Journal, 44, 2944.
*Leiter, M. P., & Durup, M. J. (1996). Work, home, and in-between: A longitudinal study of spillover. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32, 2947.
*Loerch, K. J., Russell, J. E. A., & Rush, M. C. (1989). The relationships among family domain variables
and workfamily conXict for men and women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 35, 288308.
*MacEwen, K. E., & Barling, J. (1994). Daily consequences of work interference with family and family
interference with work. Work and Stress, 8, 244254.
*Mallard, A. G. C., & Lance, C. E. (1998). Development and evaluation of a parentemployee interrole
conXict scale. Social Indicators Research, 45, 343370.
*Marks, N. F. (1998). Does it hurt to care? Caregiving, workfamily conXict, and midlife well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 951966.
Martocchio, J. J., & OLeary, A. M. (1989). Sex diVerences in occupational stress: A meta-analytic review.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 495501.
*Matsui, T., Ohsawa, T., & Onglatco, M. (1995). Work-family conXict and the stress-buVering eVects of
husband support and coping behavior among Japanese married working women. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 47, 178192.
McManus, K., Korabik, K., Rosin, H. M., & Kelloway, E. K. (2002). Employed mothers and the work
family interface: Does family structure matter?. Human Relations, 55, 12951324.
Meyer, J. P., Stanley, D. J., Herscovitch, L., & Topolnytsky, L. (2002). AVective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: A meta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, and consequences.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 2052.
*Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of workfamily conXict and familywork conXict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 400410.
*Nielson, T. R., Carlson, D. S., & Lankau, M. J. (2001). The supportive mentor as a means of reducing
workfamily conXict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 364381.
*ODriscoll, M. P., Ilgen, D. R., & Hildreth, K. (1992). Time devoted to job and oV-job activities, interrole
conXict, and aVective experiences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 272279.
*Parasuraman, S., Purohit, Y. S., Godshalk, V. M., & Beutell, N. J. (1996). Work and family variables, entrepreneurial career success, and psychological well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 275300.
Perrewe, P. L., & Hochwarter, W. A. (2001). Can we really have it all? The attainment of work and family
values. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 2933.
198
*Perrewe, P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., & Kiewitz, C. (1999). Value attainment: An explanation of the negative eVects of workfamily conXict on job and life satisfaction. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 318326.
Pleck, J. H. (1977). The workfamily role system. Social Problems, 24, 417427.
Sanchez-Meca, J., & Marin-Martinez, F. (1998). Testing continuous moderators in meta-analysis: A comparison of procedures. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 51, 311326.
*ShaVer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., Gilley, K. M., & Luk, D. M. (2001). Struggling for balance amid turbulence on international assignments: Workfamily conXict, support and commitment. Journal of Management, 27, 99121.
Shamir, B. (1983). Some antecedents of worknonwork conXict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 23, 98111.
*Shannon, H. S., Woodward, C. A., Cunningham, C. E., McIntosh, J., Lendrum, B., Brown, J., et al. (2001).
Changes in general health and musculoskeletal outcomes in the workforce of a hospital undergoing
rapid change: A longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 314.
Steel, P. D., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. (2002). Comparing meta-analytic moderator estimation techniques under realistic conditions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 96111.
*Stoeva, A. Z., Chiu, R. K., & Greenhaus, J. H. (2002). Negative aVectivity, role stress, and workfamily
conXict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 116.
Swanson, J. L. (1992). Vocational behavior, 1989-1991: Life-span career development and reciprocal interaction of work and nonwork. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 101161.
Thoits, P. A. (1992). Identity structures and psychological well-being: Gender and marital status comparisons. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55, 236256.
Thompson, C. A. (1985). The eVect of coping on the relationship between worknonwork conXict, stress, and
work and nonwork outcomes. Unpublished dissertation, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN.
*Thompson, C. A., & Blau, G. (1993). Moving beyond traditional predictors of job involvement: Exploring
the impact of workfamily conXict and overload. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 635
646.
*Van der Hulst, M., & Guerts, S. (2001). Associations between overtime and psychological health in high
and low reward jobs. Work and Stress, 15, 227240.
Verquer, M. L., Beehr, T. A., & Wagner, S. H. (2003). A meta-analysis of relations between person-organization Wt and work attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 473489.
*Vinokur, A. D., Pierce, P. F., & Buck, C. L. (1999). Workfamily conXicts of women in the Air Force:
Their inXuence on mental health and functioning. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 865878.
VoydanoV, P. (2002). Linkages between the workfamily interface and work, family, and individual outcomes: An integrative model. Journal of Family Issues, 23, 138164.
Whitener, E. M. (1990). Confusion of conWdence intervals and credibility intervals in meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 315321.
*Wiley, D. L. (1987). The relationship between work/nonwork role conXict and job-related outcomes:
Some unanticipated Wndings. Journal of Management, 13, 467472.
*Williams, K. J., & Alliger, G. M. (1994). Role stressors, mood spillover, and perceptions of workfamily
conXict in employed parents. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 837868.

A Meta-Analytic Review of Work-Family Conflict and Its Antecedents

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Meta-Analytic Review of Work-Family Conflict and Its Antecedents

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

A meta-analytic review of workfamily conXict

College of Business, Rochester Institute of Technology, 103 Lomb Memorial Drive,

Fax: +1 585 475 4423.

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

Keywords: Work; Family; ConXict; Interference; Meta-analysis; Review

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

2. Workfamily conXict and its antecedents

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

3.3. Coding of variables

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Kopelman, Greenhaus, and

Gutek, Searle, and Klepa (1991; 4)

Gutek et al. (1991; 4)

Netemeyer, Boles, and McMurrian

Netemeyer et al. (1996; 5)

*Kopelman et al. (1983; 4)

*Kopelman et al. (1983; 4)

Kopelman et al. (1983; 6)

Kopelman et al. (1983; 4)

Netemeyer et al. (1996; 5)

Netemeyer et al. (1996; 5)

Netemeyer et al. (1996; 5)

Netemeyer et al. (1996; 5)

Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams

Carlson et al. (2000; 9)

Kopelman et al. (1983; 4)

Gutek et al. (1991); Frone et al.

Gutek et al. (1991); Frone et al.

Carlson et al. (2000; 9)

Carlson et al. (2000; 9)

Kopelman et al. (1983; 4)

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

Adams and Jex (1999)

Gutek et al. (1991); Self-developed;

Gutek et al. (1991); Self-developed;

Bohen and Viveros-Long (1981; 4)

Bohen and Viveros-Long (1981; 5)

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Frone et al. (1992a,1992b; 2)

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Frone et al. (1992a, 1992b); Gutek

Carlson et al. (2000; 9)

Carlson et al. (2000; 9)

K. Byron / Journal of Vocational Behavior 67 (2005) 169198

Cinamon and Rich (2002)

(continued on next page)

Gutek et al. (1994; 4)

Gutek et al. (1994; 4)

Kopelman et al. (1983; 6)

Greenhaus and Beutell (1985; 9)