MODULE X

CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS
In this module the equation of motion of continuous systems or distributed mass systems
will be derived using both dAlembert principle and extended Hamiltons principles.
Different one-dimensional systems such as longitudinal vibration of rod, transverse
vibration of string, torsional vibration of rod and transverse vibration of Euler-Bernoulli
beams will be considered in this module.
Lecture 1
Introduction to Continuous systems
In the previous modules we have studied about discrete mass system, which are modeled
as single, two or multi-degrees of freedom systems. In these cases the system has a
definite number of lumped masses, stiffness elements and damping elements. For
example the cantilever beam with a tip mass as shown in Figure 10.1 is modeled as a
single degree of freedom system with a spring and a mass. The stiffness k of the system
was calculated using the following equation.

Fig 10.1
k

W
W
3EI

3
3
WL /(3EI )
L

Here W is the weight of the attached mass, is the deflection of the beam with length L,
Youngs modulus E and moment of inertia I. The natural frequency can be calculated
k
using the formula n
where m is the attached mass. In this calculation we have
m
neglected the mass of the beam. Hence it may be observed that by considering a point
mass at the tip we obtained one natural frequency of the system. Instead of modeling this
system as a single-spring mass if one consider the beam to be consist of several masses,
then the system can be modeled as a multi-degree of freedom system as shown in figure
10.2(a). But as the dimension of each elemental mass considered in the above case is
arbitrary, one may consider the beam as a continuous system with infinity number of
distributed mass and stiffness and hence has infinity number of natural frequencies.

Fig. 10.2(a,b)

So in contrast to the discrete mass system, in distributed mass or continuous

system the system has infinite number of natural frequencies and corresponding to
each natural frequency, the system will have a distinct mode shape.

It may be observed that the response of the continuous system depends time and
space coordinate (location). But in case of discrete system the response is only a
function of time. Hence while the equation of motion of discrete systems are
written in terms of ordinary differential equations, in case of continuous system
they are written in terms of partial differential equations.

It may be noted that all the real systems are continuous system.

A continuous system for analysis purpose can be reduced to a finite number of

discrete models. Each discrete model can be reduced to an eigen value problem.

In case of continuous system the solution yields infinite number of eigen values
and eigen functions where as in discrete system the eigen values and eigen vectors
are finite.

The concept of orthogonality is applicable to both discrete and continuous

systems.

The eigen value problem in case of discrete system takes the from of algebraic
equations while in continuous systems differential equations and some times
integral equations are obtained. Eigenvectors of the discrete system becomes
eigenfunction of the continuous system.

The response of the system will depends on the boundary conditions. There are two
different types of boundary conditions viz., geometric boundary conditions and natural
boundary conditions. Geometry boundary conditions also known as essential or imposed
boundary conditions result from conditions of purely geometric compatibility. For
example in case of a clamped-clamped beam in both the ends deflections and slopes are
zero (Fig. 10.3).
Free-free beam Bending moment
and shear forces are zero at both ends
(natural boundary conditions at both ends)
Fixed-Fixed beam : Deflections and slope
at both ends are zero which constitute
geometric boundary conditions

Simply supported beam

(mixed boundary conditions)

Fig. 10.3
Natural boundary condition also known as additional or dynamic boundary condition,
which results from the balance of moments or forces in the boundary. For example in
case of a free-free beam which may be a model of a flying aeroplane or a spacecraft, at
both the ends in this system shear force and bending moments are zero (Fig. 10.3). Hence
they constitute the natural boundary conditions.
In some systems one may find both the geometric and natural boundary conditions. For
example in case of a simply supported beam, both deflection and bending moment at end
points are zero. Hence the boundary condition in this case may be termed as mixed
boundary conditions. Now let us consider specific examples of continuous onedimensional systems.

Lateral vibration of a flexible taut string

T

u(x, o)
L
(a)

2u
mdx 2
t

dx
x

Fig. 10.4

T
Strings are mostly used in musical instruments and many other applications of domestic
and industrial in nature. A string of length L is shown in Figure 10.4(a), which is
subjected to tension T. Let at time t = 0, the string is pulled in the lateral direction (y
direction) as shown in figure 10.4 (b) and left. Hence the lateral deflection u along the
string is a function of the space variable x and time t i.e., u u ( x, t )
If the lateral deflection is small, the change in tension T due to the deflection is
negligible. Figure 10.4(c) shows the free body diagram of an elemental length dx of the
string. When the string is vibrating, in the y direction inertia force is acting. Considering
the forces in the vertical direction, applying Newtons second law one may have
2u

mdx 2 T sin
dx T sin
(10.1)
t
x

Here m is the mass per unit length of the string. Now assuring small deflections u and
slope , the equation 10.1 reduces to following equation.
mdx

2u

T
.dx T
2
x
t

(10.2)

u
in equation 10.2 one may write
x
2u
2u
mdx 2 T 2 dx
t
x
2
u
2u
or,
m 2 T 2
t
x

Now substituting the slope

or,

or,

2u T 2u

t 2 m x 2

2
2u
T
2 u

c
where, c
2
2
t
x
m

The above equation is known as Wave equation. One may use Hamiltons principle to
derive the equation of motion of this system also.

Longitudinal vibration of rod

Consider a rod of length l (Fig. 10.5) subjected to a force F at time t=0 and then released.
It will be subjected to longitudinal vibration.
x

dx
F
Fig. 10.5

Longitudinal vibration of rod

Let u(x,t) be the axial displacement of an element dx of the rod.

From Hooks law

P
u
E
A
x

(1)

Applying Newtons second law (Fig. 10.6)

dm

2u
p
p
dx p
2
x
t

Adx

(2)

2u
u
EA dx (3)
2
t
x
x

P
u

p
dx
x

u
dx
x

Fig. 10.6 Displacement of dx

P= force at x
A= Cross sectional area
E= Youngs Modulus.
d dm Adx is the mass of the element dx
= Mass per unit volume.
From equation (3) If AE is const
2u
EA 2 u

A x 2
t 2

or

2u
E 2u

x 2
t 2

(4)

(5)

2
E
2u
2 u
where c
(6)

c
2
2

t
x
It may be observed that we are getting the same wave equation in this case where only c
is different. It can be shown that c represent the velocity of the wave in the rod.

or

Lecture M10 L2

Derivation of equation of motion by Hamiltons Principle

Use Hamiltons Principle to find equation of motion of a rod in longitudinal
vibration.

Sol.:
L

2 Adx u&

Kinetic Energy T =

Fig. 10.7

1
2
= Au& dx ..(7)
2
0
P.E. = strain energy stored

1 du du
E
dv
2 dx
dx

1
1
1
du
du
du
E
dv E
Adx EA

dx (8)
2
2
2
dx
dx
dx
L

1
1
du
Adu&2 dx EA dx (9)

20
2
dx

1
1 du
2
&

Adu
dx

EA
dx (10)

2 dx
0 2

where , A, E are assumed constants.

Using Extended Hamiltons Principle

t2

1
t2

or,

2

1
1 du
2
&

Adu
dx

EA
dx

0 2
2 dx dt 0 (11)

where u t1 u t 2 0, Wnc 0
L

t
1
L

1
1
u u
&&
A 2 ududxdt
EA 2 dxdt
2
2
x x

t2

L t2

0 (12)

t l

12
1 2
u
u
& & Aududxdt
&
&
EA u EA udxdt 0 (13)
or, Audu
2 t1
2 t1 0 x
x
x
0
0 t1
t1
0

Asssuming EA to be constant, as u is arbitrary , setting the coefficient of udxdt equal

to zero will yield the equation of motion.

u
u
& c 2 0 where c 2 E (14)
0 or, u&

x
x
It may be noted from equation (13) that along with the equation of motion, one may get a
set of boundary conditions. The boundary conditions for some of the typical cases are
given in the following Table.
& EA
Au&

Table 1 Boundary Conditions for the longitudinal vibration of rod

Case
Boundary condition left
Boundary condition right
x=0
x=l
Free end

u
0
x

Fixed end

u
0
x

u (0, t ) 0

End spring
AE

u ( L, t ) 0

u
Ku
x

AE

u
ku
x

End man
AE

End dampes

u
2u
m 2
x
t

AE

u
2u
m 2
x
t

u
u
c
x
t

AE

u
u
c
x
t

AE

Torsional vibration of shafts

x

dx

dx

let (x,t) be the angular displacement of an element dx of the shaft.

T

G
Ip
x

(15)

The twist d of an element length dx

T
.dx
x

T GI p

(16)
x

Here GI p is the torsional stiffness of the shaft, G is shear modulus of the material and
I p is the polar moment of inertia of the rod.
Applying Newtons second law for the rotation in the direction
I p

2
T

dx T
dx T
t
x

(17)

Here = mass per unit volume

2

GI p

2
x
x
t
2 GI p
2

or 2
I p
t
x 2

I p

or

2
2
2

C
t 2
x 2

(18)
(19)

where c 2 G / (20)

So the equation of motion of all the three cases discussed can be expressed as
c 2 L(u )

2u
t 2

( L(u ) is a linear differential operator on function u (t ) .

The boundary conditions in case of torsional vibration of rod are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Boundary conditions for Torsional Vibration of rods
Case
Fixed end

Free end

Boundary condition left

x=0
(o, t ) 0

(l , t ) 0

0
x

0
x

Torsional spring
k
Please
modify the
spring

Boundary condition right

x=l

I pG

k
x

I pG

k
x

Inertia Jp
Jp

I pG

Jp 2
x
t
2

I pG

2
Jp 2
x
t

Torsional dampoo

I pG

I pG

C
x
t

C
x
t

Lecture M10L3
Solution of Wave Equation
In the last two lectures the equation of motion of lateral vibration of string, longitudinal
vibration of rod and torsional vibration of shafts were carried out using Newtons law and
Hamiltons principle. In all these three cases the equation of motion of the system reduces
to that of Wave equation, which can be given by
2
2u
2 u
C
(1)
t 2
x 2
where the values of

C2 are for different cases are given in the following Table.

C2

Case
Lateral Vibration of taut String

(T/ )

Longitudinal Vibration of rod

E/

Torsional Vibration of Rod

G/

To find the response of different system one may use the variable separation method by
using the following equation.
u ( x, t ) ( x) q (t )

(2)
( x) is known as the mode shape of the system and q (t ) is known as the time modulation.
Now equation (1) reduces to
2q
2
(3)
( x ) 2 C 2 q (t ) 2
t
x
1 2 q
1 2

2
x 2
q t

2
or C

(4)

Since the left side of equation (4) is independent of time t and the right side is
independent of x the equality holds for all values of t and x. Hence each side must be a
constant. As the right side term equals to a constant, it implies that the acceleration term
2 q
q (t ) , one may take the proportionality

2 is proportional to displacement term

t
constant equal to 2 to have a simple harmonic motion in the system. If one takes a
positive constant, the response will grow exponentially and make the system unstable.
Hence one may write equation (4) as
1 2 q
1 2

2
x 2
q

2
d q
Hence,
2q 0
dt 2
2
2
And

0
x 2 C 2
The solution of equation (6) and (7) can be written as
q (t ) C1 sin t C2 cos t
C2

x B cos x
C
C

( x) A sin

(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Hence,

u ( x, t ) A sin x B cos x C1 sin t C2 cos t .
(10)
C
C

The coefficients A and B are to be determined from the boundary conditions and the
coefficients C1 and C2 are to be evaluated from the initial conditions. Now let us
consider several examples to study the free vibration response of strings, longitudinal
vibration of rods and torsional vibration of shaft.
Example 1: Find the mode shape of a string fixed at both the ends.

Solution:

For the string fixed at both the ends the boundary conditions are displacement at both the
ends are zero.
Hence, u (0, t ) 0 and u ( L, t ) 0 .
This implies that
(0) 0 and ( L) 0 .

()

( a,b )

Now from equation (9)

x B cos x
C
C

( x) A sin

Substituting condition (a) in equation (c) one obtains B 0 .

Now substituting (b) and (d) in (c) yields

A sin L 0
C

(c)
(d)

(e)

Here constant A is not equal to zero as this will lead to the trivial solution of the system.
Hence

sin L 0 sin n , n 1, 2,L
(f)
C
or,

C L

n T
L m
And the mode shape is given by

n
( x) A sin x A sin x
C
L
So,

(g)

(13)

(14)

Hence the string will have a number of frequencies. The fundamental frequency can
T
be given by 1
and the overtones are integer multiples of the fundamental
L m

frequency. So it may be noted that the frequency of the string depends on three factors
viz., tension in the string, mass per unit length of the string material and length of the
string. In the musical instrument as m is constant and T is kept constant, the artist vary
the length of the string to produce a mixture of different overtones.
Equation (14) represents the eigen modes of the fixed-fixed string. Hence one may write
the frequency equation as
n T
(15)
n
L m
and eigen function for a string fixed at both ends as
n
n ( x) An sin x
L

(16)

It may be noted that in equation 15, the constants An are arbitrary. Like in the case of
multi degree of freedom system, here also one may normalize the eigen modes by using
the following expression
L

( x)( x) ( x) 1
n

(17)

It may be recalled that in case of weighted modal matrix P%

MP% 1 . Similarly to
normalize the eigen function one can use equation (17).
So in this case now substituting equation (16) in equation (17), one obtains
L

n
n
x An sin 1 (18)
L
L

A sin
n

Or,

n
x dx 1
L

An2 sin 2
0

As sin 2

1
(1 cos 2)
2

(19)

(21)

Equation (19) can be written as

L
2nx
2 1
An 1 cos
dx 1 (22)
2 0
L
1 2
sin 2nx / L
A x

or, 2 n
2nx / L

1
0

(23)

1 2
An L 1 (24)
2
2
An2
or,
L (25)
or,

Hence the normalized modes of the lateral vibration of string are

2
n
n ( x)
sin x
(26)
L
L

Orthogonal properties of the eigen modes

As it is observed in the multi degree of freedom system that the eigenmodes are
orthogonal here also it can be shown that the eigenfunctions are orthogonal.
L

x x dx
r

2
r x s
x
sin
sin
dx

L 0
L
L

2
r x s
x
sin
sin
dx

L0
L
L

1
Recalling that sinsin= cos cos
2
L
2 1
r s
r s
cos
x cos
dx
L 0 2
L L
L L

x
x
sin r s
L
L

r s
r s
L
L

sin r s

1

L

r s
r s
sin
sin

L L
L L

r s
r s
L L
L L

0 when r s
1 when r s

When r=s

0
L

2
r x
sin 2
dx

L0
L

L
2
2r x
1 cos
dx

L 0
L
2L

L2
=1

Hence we can write

L

x x dx
r

rs

r,s=1

r s is the Kronecker delta

To verify equation
L
d r x d s x
T
0 dx dx dx
L

2 r s
r x
s
x
cos
cos
dx

L L L 0
L
L

2 r s L
T
r s
L L L 2
Trs2

r s
L2
2r r s
T

r 2 2
L2
This shows the orthogonality property of the eigen modes.
Where 2r

Lateral Vibration of Euler-Bernoulli Beam

Lateral vibration of beam was discussed by Euler in 1744 and Daniel Bernoull in 1751
Eqn below appears to have been introduced by Jacob Bernoullin 1789.
y
u

x
x

dx

Y M

M
dx
v x

M
V

dx

X
When the deflection u ( x, t ) of the beam is assumed to be due to bending, then the beam is
called an Euler Bernoulli beam.
From strength of material it is known
2u
M EI 2
x
M ( x, t )
V ( x, t )
x
In the Y direction net force Fy
v
v

V
dx V
dx
x
x

2
2u
dx
Fy 2 EI
x
x 2

Applying Newtons second law

m

2u
2
dx

t 2
x 2

EI

2u
dx
x 2

m=mass per unit length of the beam

4
2u
2 u

c
0 , c 2 EI / m
t 2
x 4

or,

4u
1 2u

x 4 c 2 t 2

Exercise problem: Derive the Equation of motion from Hamiltons Principle

Hints Kinetic energy T

1
u&2 dx

l
2u
1
Potential energy V EI
dx
2 0 x 2

Essentially the problem of the vibration of a one-dimensional structural member can be

described by a linear hyperbolic partial differential equation
1 2
c 2 t 2
Boundary conditions on the geometric configuration (displacement or slope) are
Dirichlet or geometric boundary conditions.
Boundary conditions on the forces and moments are Neumann or Natural
boundary conditions.
Combinations of the two types are mixed boundary conditions.
L( )

The boundary conditions for transverse vibration is given in Table 3.

Table 3 Boundary conditions for transverse vibration of beam
Case
Clamped (deflection,
slope=0)

Pinned (deflection,
moment=0

BCs left x=0

y (o, t ) 0
y
0
x

BC.s right x=l

y (l , t ) 0
y
0
x

y ( o, t ) 0

y (l , t ) 0

2 y
0
x 2

2 y
0
x 2

Sliding (slope, Shear =0)

y
0
x
3 y
0
x 3

y
0
x
3 y
0
x 3

Free (moment, shear =0)

2 y
0
x 2
3 y
0
x 3

2 y / x 2 0
3 y / x 3 0

Mass m and moment of

inertia Jp

m,Jp
Damper c and spring k

2 y
3 y

Jp
x 2
x.t 2
3 y
2 y
EI

m
x 3
t 2
EI

3 y
y
ky C
3
t
x
2
y
0
x 2

EI

2 y
3 y

Jp
x 2
xt 2
3 y
2 y
EI

m
x 3
t 2
EI

3 y
y
ky c
3
t
x
2
y
0
x 2

EI

Lecture M10L4
Transverse vibration of Beam with various boundary conditions
Solution of Euler Bernoulli equation
In the last two lectures the equation of motion of lateral vibration of string, longitudinal
vibration of rod and torsional vibration of shafts were carried out using Newtons law and
Hamiltons principle. In all these three cases the equation of motion of the system reduces
to that of Wave equation, which can be given by
2u EI 4u

0
(1)
t 2
x 4
To find the response of the system one may use the variable separation method by using
the following equation.
u ( x, t ) ( x)q (t )
(2)
( x) is known as the mode shape of the system and q (t ) is known as the time modulation.
Now equation (1) reduces to
2 q (t ) EI 4( x )
( x)

q (t )
(3)
t 2
x 4
1 2 q
EI 1 4 ( x)
or

2
( x) x 4
q t

(4)

Since the left side of equation (4) is independent of time t and the right side is
independent of x the equality holds for all values of t and x. Hence each side must be a
2 q
constant. As the right side term equals to a constant implies that the acceleration
2
t
is proportional to displacement q (t ) , one may take the proportionality constant equal to
2 to have simple harmonic motion in the system. If one take a positive constant, the
response will grow exponentially and make the system unstable. Hence one may write
equation (4) as
1 2 q
EI 1 4 ( x)

2
(5)

2
( x) x 4
q

d 2q
Hence,
2q 0
2
dt
4
( x ) 2
And

( x) 0
x 4
EI
2
Taking 4
EI
The above equation can be written as
4( x )
4 ( x) 0
4
x
The solution of equation (6) and (9) can be given by
q (t ) C1 sin t C2 cos t
( x) A sinh(x) B cosh( x) C sin(x) D cos( x)

(6)
(7)
(8)

(9)
(10)
(11)

Hence,
u ( x, t ) A sinh x B cosh x C sin x D cos x C1 sin t C2 cos t .

(12)

Here constants C1 and C2 can be obtained from the initial conditions and constants
A, B, C , D can be obtained from the boundary conditions. Let us now determine the mode
shapes of simply supported beam, fixed-fixed beam, cantilever beam and free-free
beams.
Simply supported beam
For beam simply supported at both the end the boundary conditions can be given by

u (0, t ) 0
2u (0, t )
0
x 2
u ( L, t ) 0

Figure 1

13 (a-d)

2 u ( L, t )
0
x 2
Using equation 2 in 13(a-d) the boundary conditions reduces to
(0) 0
2
0
x 2 x 0
( L) 0
2
0
x 2 x L

14(a-d)

Now using the expression for the mode shape (equation 11) and its second order
derivative can be given by the following expression.
( x) A sinhx B cosh x C sin x D cos x
.
2 ( x)
2 A sinhx B cosh x C sin x D cos x
2
u
From 14(a) B D 0
From 14(b) B D 0

(15)

Hence both B D 0

(16)

Now from 14(c) and 14(d)

A sinh L C sin L 0
A sinh L C sin L 0

17(a,b)

From equation 17, A sinh L C sin L 0

(18)
As shown in Figure 1It may be noted that the hyperbolic function sinh L is not equal to
zero. Hence A 0 .
Now as out of the four constants three constants A, B and D are zero, the other remaining
constant C should not be equal to zero. It may be noted that C = 0 correspond to the
trivial solution i.e, u = 0 of the system. As we are studying the vibration of the system i.e,
about the nontrivial solution of the system, from equation (18) one may obtain
sin L 0 sin n

(19)

Hence, L n

(20)

Figure 2
Now from equation 8 and 20 one may write the expression for the frequency as
EI
EI
2
2
L
(21)

L4
EI
L4
and the mode shape can be given by
n

( x) C sin x C sin

n
x
L

(22)

(23)

Hence from equation (22) and (23) it may be noted that the simply supported system has
a large number of frequency and corresponding mode shapes. As E , I , , L are the system
parameters and are fixed for a particular system, the frequency of the nth mode is n2times
the fundamental frequency. For example, the second mode frequency is 4 times the
fundamental or first mode frequency and the third mode frequency is 9 times the
fundamental frequency.

Fig. First four modes of simply supported beam

Cantilever beam
In case of cantilever beam the boundary conditions are
At left end i.e.,
At x 0
u ( x, t ) 0
(Displacement =0)
u ( x, t )
0
(Slope=0)
x
At the free end i.e.,
xL

At x 0

At x L

2u( x,t )
0
x 2
3u( x,t )
0
x3
( x) 0 and

(24)

Bending moment = 0
Shear force = 0
( x)
0
x

(25)

(26)

2( x )
3( x,t )

0
and
0
x 2
x 3

Substituting these boundary conditions in the general soulution

( x) A cosh x B sinh x C cos x D sin x

(27)

(28)

From (26) A C and B=- D

(29)
( x) A cosh x cos x B sinh x sin x (30)
From (27 and 30) one may have
A
sinh l sin l
cosh l cos l

B
cosh l cos l
sinh l sin l

(31)

or, cos l cosh l 1 (32)

Hence one may solve the frequency equation cos l cosh l 1 to obtain frequencies of
different modes. For the first five modes the values of l are calculated as 1.875, 4.694,
7.855, 10.996, 14.137.
Since for higher roots cosh l will be quite high, so cos l 0 . Hence for more than 5th
mode one may write

nl (2n 1) 2 for n>5 (33)

In this case the first 4 modes are shown in the following figures. The points with zero
displacements i.e., the node points are marked by circles.

Here the expression for mode shape can be given by

cosh l cos l
( x) A cosh x cos x
sinh x sin x
sinh l sin l

which are plotted in the above figure.

(34)

Fixed at both the ends

Applying the fixed-fixed boundary condition and proceeding in the way mentioned in the
above two boundary conditions one will get the frequency equation as
cos l cosh l 1 (35)
The first five roots of l are
l = 0, 4.7300, 7.853, 10.996, 14.137, 4.730

For higher values nl %(2n 1)

for n>5
2

The first solution l =0 represents the rigid body mode of the fixed-fixed beam.

Thus the higher modes of a fixed-fixed beam have approximately the same
frequencies as those of the cantilever beam with same physical properties. But the
mode shapes are different.

The mode shapes are shown below.

Exercise Problems: In case of fixed-fixed beam the mode shape expression can be
given by

cosh l cos l
( x) A cosh x cos x
sinh x sin x
sinh l sin l

(36)

Free-Free beam
Frequencies for free-free beam are same as those of fixed-fixed beam, but the
displacement curves are different as the boundary conditions are different.
Exercise problem: Show that the frequency equation in case of a free-free beam can be
given by
cos l cosh l 1
The first five roots of this equation are
l 0, 4.7300, 7.853, 10.996, 14.137, 4.730

For higher values nl %(2n 1)

for n>5
2

Summary

Rigorously speaking, all real system are continuous system

A continuous system for analysis purpose can be reduces to a finite number of

discrete

models. Each discrete model can be reduced to an eigenvalue problem.

In case of continuous systems the solution yields infinite number of eigenvalues

and eigenfunctions where as in discrete system the number of eigenvalues and
eigenvectors are finite.

The concept of orthogonality is applicable to both discrete and continuous

systems.

The eigenvalue problem in case of discrete system takes the from of algebraic
equations while in continuous systems differential equations and some times
integral equations are obtained. Eigenvectors of the discrete system becomes
eigenfunction of the continuous system.

For one dimensional systems like transverse vibration of taut string, longitudinal
vibration of rod, torsional vibration of rod the equation of motion reduces to the
Wave equation i.e.,

2
2u
2 u
where C are given in the following table.

C
t 2
x 2

C2

Case

Lateral V. of taut String (T/ )

Longitudinal V. of rod

E/

Lateral Vib. Beam

EI/

Torsconal Vib. Rod

G/

L( )

d 2 y / dx 2

2 u / x 2
4 y / x 4

2 / x 2

Exercise Problems
1.

A shaft 40 mm diameter and 2.5 m long has a mass of 15 kg per m length. It is

fixed at both the ends and carries three masses 90 kg, 140 kg and 60 kg at 0.8 m,
1.5 m and 2 m respectively from the left support. Taking E = 200 GN/m2, find the
frequency of the transverse vibrations. (Hinds: 1 L = 4.730).

2. A rotor has a mass of 12 kg and is mounted midway on a 24 mm diameter

horizontal shaft supported at the ends by two bearings. The mass of the shaft is 2
kg and bearings are 1 m apart. The shaft rotates at 2400 rpm. If the center of mass
of the rotor is 0.1 mm away from the geometric center of the rotor due to a certain
manufacturing defect, find the amplitude of steady state vibration and the
dynamic force transmitted to the bearing. Take = 0.01 and E = 200 GN/ m 2 .
3.

A rotor has a mass of 15 kg and is mounted midway on a 24 mm diameter

horizontal shaft supported at the ends by two bearings. The mass of the shaft is 2
kg and bearings are 1 m apart. Find the first two natural frequency using energy
principle. E = 200 GN/ m 2 .

4. Derive the equation of motion of the following system using extended Hamiltons
principle (a) Lateral vibration of taut string (b) torsional vibration of shaft (c)
transverse vibration of a cantilever beam with tip mass and supported by spring in
the middle.
5. Find the normalized mode shapes in case of (a) longitudinal vibration of rod (b)
transverse vibration of beam with (i) simply supported boundary conditions, (ii)
fixed-fixed boundary conditions, (iii) fixed-free end conditions (iv) free-free end
conditions.