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Chhaapptteerr 22:: S
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this module you will be able to:
Identify a research problem
List the criteria of a good research problem
Design a study to test selected hypotheses
Explain the different types of variables
Hence, a "research problem" is something that bothers you which needs to be resolved
by research. It is the beginning of the research process and ends with the solution to
the problem. So the next time, you are asked what is your research problem, would
you be able to state it orally or put it in writing.
But I don't have a research problem! Not to worry as there are several sources of
research problems:
1. You own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem
supply.
2. Scientific literature; you may read about certain findings and notice that a
certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem.
3. Theories could be another source. Shortcomings in theories could be
researched.
I have a problem, but it is TOO BROAD. What do I do?
BROAD AREA
NARROW RESEARCH
PROBLEM
State Purpose
RESEARCH
QUESTION #2
RESEARCH
QUESTION #3
State what should be done clearly and grammatically correct. Avoid meaningless
words.
There should be no doubt in your mind what are your intentions.
It is good practice to divide you problem into sub-problems which are called research
questions.
Research Questions guide the solution of the problem
Example: "Specifically, this study aims to answer the following research
questions:
a) Is there a difference in critical thinking male and female students?
b) Is there a relationship between academic performance and critical
thinking?
B) RESEARCH QUESTION
The word "research" means 'finding out' or 'discovery' using a systematic method.
You "research" by asking questions and searching for answers to the questions. You
cannot "research" if you do not want to know anything, that is, you must have
something you would like to know more about before you can do "research".
You begin with QUESTIONS. If you have none, you will find no answers or will not
know when you have found one. Your task is to conduct RESEARCH. A study
without a
question in mind will NOT be a RESEARCH study. You should
MAKE SURE that:
a) The Research Question is clear, straightforward and easily understood by
others
b) The Research Question states the relationship between two or more
variables.
c) The variables mentioned in the Research Question should be measurable.
d) The answer to the Research Question is not immediately obvious.
e) The Research Question indicates the method that is to be adopted, i.e.
the data collection techniques
f) The Research Question can be answered in the time available to you.
g) The Research Question can be answered with the resources available to
you.
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
Generally there are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:
1. Descriptive Research Questions
Here you describe what is going on or what exists. For example, you may want to find
the proportion of teachers who support the teaching of sex education in secondary
school. You are simply interested in describing something.
Statistical Tools:
- Mean, median and mode
- Frequency tables
- Histograms, Line graphs
2. Relational Research Questions
Here you want to know the relationships between two or more variables. For example,
you want to know the proportion of males and females who support the teaching of
sex education in secondary school. In other words, you are interested in studying the
relationship between gender and preference for teaching of sex education.
Statistical Tools:
- Simple correlation
- Linear regression
- Multiple regression
3. Causal Research Questions
Here, you want to know whether one or more variables (e.g., a programme or
treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. For example, you
conduct a workshop to the group of teachers to determine whether their opinion about
teaching sex education to secondary school students has changed.
Statistical Tools:
- t-test
- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
- Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
NULL HYPOTHESIS
The null hypothesis is a hypothesis (or hunch) about the population. It represents a
theory that has been put forward because it is believed to be true. The word "null"
means nothing or zero. So, a null hypothesis states that 'nothing happened'. For
example, there is no difference between males and females in critical thinking skills
or there is no relationship between socio-economic status and academic performance.
Such a hypothesis is denoted with the symbol "Ho:". In other words you are saying,
You do not expect the groups to be different
You do not expect the variables to be related
Ho: 1 = 2
OR
Ho: 1 2 = 0
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
The Alternative Hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the Null Hypothesis. For example,
the alternative hypothesis for the study discussed earlier is that there is a difference in
science scores between the discovery method group and the lecture method group
represented by the following notation:
The Alternative Hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the Null Hypothesis. For example,
the alternative hypothesis for the study discussed earlier is that there is a difference in
science scores between the discovery method group and the lecture method group
represented by the following notation:
Ha: 1 2
Ha: The Alternative Hypothesis might be that the science mean scores between
discovery method group and lecture method group are DIFFERENT.
Ha: 1 > 2
Ha: The Alternative Hypothesis might be that the science mean scores of the
discovery method group is HIGHER than the mean scores of the lecture method
group.
Ha: 1 < 2
Ha: The Alternative Hypothesis might be that the science mean scores of the
discovery method group is LOWER than the mean scores of the lecture method
group.
CONCLUSION:
Based on the findings of the experiment, you found that there was a significant
difference in science scores between the discovery method group and the
lecture method group.
In fact, the mean score of subjects in the discovery method group was higher
than the mean of subjects in the lecture method group. What do you do?
You REJECT the null hypothesis because earlier you had said they would be
equal.
You reject the null hypothesis in favour of the ALTERNATIVE HYPOTESIS
(i.e. 1 2).
specified that it can be observed and measured. e.g. administering intelligence tests,
interview teachers about their students.
Researchers somewhat loosely call constructs or properties they study as
variables. eg. gender, social class. A variable is something that varies. A variable is
a symbol to which numerals of values are assigned. For example, the symbol
"intelligence" is assigned a set of numerical values which may be IQ scores ranging
from 50 to 150. In the case of the variable "gender" there are only 2 values and they
are called dichotomous variables, i.e. male (1) and female (0). Other examples of
two-value variables are: graduate-nongraduate, low income-high income, citizennoncitizen. Besides dichotomous variables, some variables are polytomies, eg.
religion - Islam, Christianity, Buddhism. Hinduism, etc
TYPES OF VARIABLES
There are many ways of classifying variables but in educational research, the
two most common methods of classification are as follows:
Independent and Dependent Variables
Continuous and Categorical Variables
a) Independent and Dependent Variables
An independent variable (IV) is the variable that is presumed cause a change
in the dependent variable (DV). The independent variables is the antecedent while the
dependent variable is the consequent. See Figure 3 which describes a study to
determine which teaching method (independent variable) is effective in enhancing the
academic performance (dependent variable) of students.
Put it another way, the DV is the variable predicted to, whereas the
independent variable is predicted from. The DV is the presumed effect, which varies
with changes or variation in the independent variable.
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE (IV)
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE (DV)
Discussion
Academic
Performance
Teaching
Method
Lecture
Figure 3
Excellent
Principal
Operational Definition
The person:
listens to teachers
looks after the welfare of teachers
acknowledges effort
consults teachers
motivates teachers
LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. What is a variable?
2. What is the difference between an Independent Variable and
Dependent Variable? Give specific examples.
3. Why do you need to define variables operationally?
4. Make up operational definition for the following variables:
Underachievement
Parental bonding
Aspirations [of teenagers]
Autocratic Leader [principal or headmaster]
Teacher Burnout
Socioeconomic status
Leadership
Reading ability
Delinquency
Interests
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