Human

Physiology

PHYSIOLOGY
A

ACCOUNT

POPULAR

OF

THE

FUNCTIONS

OF

THE

HUMAN

BODY

BY

DR.

WILSON,

ANDREW

GILCHRIST

AND

COMBE

LECTURER

LATE
IN

THE

ON

TRUST

COMPARATIVE
MEDICAL

EDINBURGH

F.R.S.E.,
LECTURER
ANATOMY

SCHOOL,

ETC.

NEW

FREDERICK

A.

YORK
STOKES

PUBLISHERS.

COMPANY,

etc.,

CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER

vii

PREFACE
BODY'S

I.

THE

STORY

OF

THE

II.

THE

STORY

OF

OUR

III."

THE

STORY

IV.

"

THE

STORY

"

THE

"

V.

"

13

FOODS

30

DIGESTION

OF

HEART

THE

OF

STORY

CONSTITUTION

LUNGS,

THE

OF

56

SKIN,

AND

KIDNEYS
VI.

"

STORY

THE

77

OF

LIST

BRAIN

THE

AND

NERVE...

101

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

PAGE

FIG.

1"

Human

Skeleton

4
...

"

3"

Various
Goblet

Kinds

of

Cells

Body

7
...

...

...

Cells

7
...

4"

"

6"
7"

Section
Cells

of

in which

General
Teeth

Salivary Gland
the

View
of

the

of

Nerves

9
...

...

of Taste

Digestive Tube

First

9"

10"

Teeth
The
The

of One
Human

Half

of

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

end

10
31
37

Jaw

Upper

Tongue

...

in Position

38
...

...

...

39
...

...

Stomach

41
...

I I"Front

...

Set
...

8"

...

View

of

...

Digestive Organs

280862

...

...

...

...

...

in situ

47

vi.

LIST

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

FIO.

PAGE

Section

12"

13

"

14

"

15"

of

Body

Lymphatics

of

Diagram

of

...

Arm

Right

the

Capillaries

52

...

Course
the

of

Capillaries
Blood

17"

19

Corpuscles

Different

18"

"

White

its

20

"

Section
Left

21"

of

...

...

...

...

...

60
62

...

...

Corpuscles

63

of

Corpuscle
shape

Man,

showing

it

how

64
...

Human

of

Side

...

58
59

...

Blood

alters

...

Cells...

Blood

Red

...

Skin

Body

and

...

Circulation

of

...

16"

54

...

...

...

Heart

Heart

of

...

(right side)

...

...

...

...

68

Man...

69
...

22

"

23

"

of the

Diagram
The

Heart's

Action

71
...

viewed

Position,

in

Lungs

from

...

the

...

front

84
...

24

"

Larynx

Voice

or

Trachea

Box,

and

Bronchi...

85
...

The

25"

Relations

of

Heart

Lungs

and

86
...

...

26

"

Structure

of

in Air

Lungs

The

28

"

The

Dense

in

of

"

of

The

Base

in the

...

Lungs

88
...

Cord

...

the

"

...

...

Cerebro-Spinal
102

...

...

"ord,

showing

...

...

its connection

...

with

the

etc.

103
...

...

31"

...

95

Spinal

and

Spinal

Brain,

Bloodvessels

...

Brain

View

...

Position

System
30

ending
87

...

Network

Kidneys

The

29"

Tubes

Cells
...

27"

Bronchial

showing

...

of the

...

...

Brain

...

...116
...

Section

32"
33

34
35
36

"

"

"

"

of

Brain

in

Side

View

Section

Section
and

Brain

...117
...

...

...

...

Position
of

118

Brain

showing
through
Eustachian

...

...

...

...

...

...

Convolutions

and

Structure
the

...

of

External

Tube

Eye

119
125
...

Meatus,

Middle

Ear,
..126

PREFACE

THIS

general

deals

describes

the

Senior

acquaintance
also

the

in

of

life's

in

with

appeal

upon

the

to

the

the

body's

students

and

which

mechanisms.

kept

useful

in

as

at

basis

In

view

School.

of

afforded

functions,

the

text-book

knowledge

of

the

Science

the

action,

Physiology
of

rest

of

has

being

work

foundation

must

body

author

the

Classes

whole

Science

may

of

the

familiarize

to

outlines

the

working

preparation

possibility
for

with

the

intended

with

reader

which

its

is

Manual

this

Hygiene.

vn

As

Health-

by
volume

an

Physiology

Human

CHAPTER

OF

STORY

THE

INTRODUCTORY.

to

duties

the

even

between

high

rank,
its

of
is

sense,

than

his

own

comprehensive
constitution

are

and

through

to

gain

animal

any

of

that

its

duties

Yet

build

and

man,

in

this

and

the

actions

correct

of

mechanisms

it

is

within

possible

enough

considerations

an

tion
organisa-

of

constitution,
of

any

the

comprehensive

and

comprised

those

frame.

of

are

Far

its life is regulated.

complicated
invention

and

obtained.

case

of

body

By

its various
which

and

the

all

are

full

be

piece

broad

nature

in

performed
more

the

implied

people,

especially

more

constitution.

in which

manner

of

and

the

by

taxation,

of

impossible

complex

the

points of similarity

It is

first of all taking

without

own

such

is represented

as

view

of

idea

and

regulated

can

to

many

studies.

two

in

manner

before

country

find

shall

we

the

adequate
of

of

comparison

this

body

human

the

government,

the

studied

be

to

apply

of

history

knowledge

we

of the

nature

past

necessary

complete
If

to

first of all

privileges of citizens, modes

and

items

the

Thus

controlled.

and

its affairs

and

governed

it is

which

history of

the

attention

pays

land

of the

constitution

the

and

naturally

one

CONSTITUTION

investigating

In

"

country

new

BODY'S

THE

idea

man's
limits

the

gain

to

of

which

our

for
1

own

the

2
most

place in

of the frame
MAN'S
head
in

be

must

part

man's

he

and

as

the

chief

figure in

the

class

the

"

In
of

"

the

"

of

by certain

developed,

fishes, if

therefore

all

over

features

which

animals

back-boned
If

body

skull

of

"

and

back

we

find

the

whilst

Between

the

there

or

exists

"

brain

and

his

in

bodies

or

lower

of

and

one

main

all the

the

same

is

we

find

lowest

and

second

through
fish to

the
man.

heart.

back

known

nerve-knots

Now

the

this

whole

or

bone
as

typically

structure

of

middle

essentiallya

the

system

nervous

occupy

"

In the

which

digestive system

from

cord

region of the body.

situated

of the

centres

spinal

digestive system,

unbroken

of animals,

by

a
system,
sympathetic
chain
by a double
with connecting nerves.

and

represented

"

dorsal

class, and

elaborations

on

spine protecting the

the

tube

system

nervous

Man's

section, in the long direction of

find that the
fish, for example
we

make

we

is

the

built

are

ture
struc-

his

found

example,

spine itself

itself.

of

members

structures

For

neighbours.

bone

Vertebrates,

the

lowest,

very

animals

really represent

of

evolutions

the

all other

over

as

spine forms

bony

back

known

or

the

in such

representative of the
superiority

in

of

one

In all of these

bone

even

find

we

forms

forms.

back

animals

scientifically

of animals

type

back-boned

becomes

of

and

the

at

such

this class

turn,

feature, for

represented

"

quadrupeds

as

presence

distinctive

type.

stands

kingdom,

Vertebrates, or

is not

Man

"

animal

five divisions

animals

NATURE.

IN

"mammalia."

the

particular build

second, the

the

turn

as

ascertaining first,

to

owns.

PLACE

of

directed

nature

popularly known

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

the

sented
repre-

centres

runs

entire

Vertebrate

series

plan

THE

STORY

If the

OF

body of
same

of his

The

body.

be

man

precisely the

BODY'S

THE

CONSTITUTION

similarly bisected, we
and

bone

position

same

his hands

on

represent
to

it has

as

has

taken

alteration

front

the

because

so

instead

being

we

body,

is

he

of

disposition of

When

of his

represented

in the

of lower

kingdom

that

so

fact that

scale, does

animals

MAN'S

features
are

constitute

of the

animal

may
reposes

animals

selves,
them-

of the

knowledge

in the

its rank

on

its so-called

large.

animal

animal

the

type

or

it shares

"type"
Man

kingdom,

plan
that

of

number

at

zontally
hori-

uniformity

of

contrary,

world

lying

therefore

be

smaller

tems
sys-

animal,

erect

types

built

the

which

other
or

division
sub-

is therefore

and

not

it.
SPECIAL
are

simply

common

to

body

or

animal

that it does

the

larger

fact

heart

awaken

distinctly of the
outside

of

case

On

The

of back-boned

case

body

great

remarkable

This

to

legs, makes

the Vertebrates

show

itself.

plan with

and

animal, whatever

not

peculiar to

we

ceeding
pro-

of

an

grade than

we

each

is

those

four-legged and

build

speak of man's
merely mean

two-legged

placed creature.
of build of body in the
is

and

his hind

on

placed

therefore

seen

remarked,

walking

in the

if

neighbours.

been

to

of organs.
to

type

of

centre

dog and

the

or

knees, is

precisely similar

man,

which
no

and

fish

of all his vertebrate

that

that

the

as

back

skull lie in the

region, the digestive system

occupies the
the body, and the heart
lies below.
Man,
in the

note

of the great systems

arrangement
back

found
to

type

safely
on

FEATURES.
to

characterise

be

regarded as
just described.

assume

the

Whatever

"

that
animal

the

human

special
being

of the
developments
In other
words, we
is

specially human
scaffolding peculiar to the
what

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

distinctive
even

The

series.

back-boned

whole

of

man

balancing

of

of other

head

be found

to

are

characters

The

head

his

animals

in the

to be tied

speak,
the spine

has, so
to

well

spine (Fig. 1).

his

on

on

specially
equal and

to

in the

seen

feature

"

of the

case

horse, for example, where

a

of fibres

band

strong

very

constituting

ligament,

literallyties the
the

to

back

of

balancing
his

on

special

his

upright

also

The

man's

head

find

such

as

for

the

to

posture.

the
until

child

after
time

some

quadrupedal
assume

the

after

position
erect

the

perfect

more

body

large in the

erect

of

at

the

all

easily

alone

assume.

regard to the curves

the
be
spine, it may

child

human

can

of

man

perfectly

are

in which

and

these

and

noted

birth, and

no

head

With

erect

in

of

and

adaptation

curves

support

animals

Showing

of

and

position which

SKELETON

spine

specially adapted

are

curves

HUMAN

back

found

are

animal,

other

1."

his

of

series

as

particular

In the human

bone.

to

position,

conformation

Fig.

effort

reference

the

has

on

bone.

spine without

has

we

head

that
not

has

it at

these

in

appear

fully completed
risen

from

the

first crawls

posture.

It

to

is

THE

STORY

OF

fundamental
which

rule

we

with

those

are

doctrine
Man

in

We

the

of

case

develops these

therefore

be

must

character.

Again,

the

of

curves

as

spine.

the

such

to

curves

distinctlyhuman
of

shape

which

in relation

birth

posture, and

regarded

common

regarded
as
application of this

after

of the erect

assumption

in

be

to

the

curves

with

conformations

the

see

structures

share

we

animals, whereas
later
in life, are
on

specially human.

CONSTITUTION
that

lower

appear

his

science

of

born

are

BODY'S

THE

in

haunch

man's

or

in which
the thigh bones
pelvis,and the manner
are
jointed thereon, indicate a distinctive adaptation to
the erect

posture,

joining of

or

leg. When
find

the

of articulation

manner

of the thigh bone

end

special modification

the

to consider

come

we

also does

as

with

feet

man's

for the erect

the

again

we

The

posture.

sole of the foot is broadened

out, and

is especiallyprominent

prominent indeed in
length of the feet and

having

man,

regard

more

"

the

to

the

body, than in any other animal.

bone, it will readily be understood, forms
for the body in the
fulcrum
or
support

heel

size of

and
in the

prevents

direction.

backward

considered

greater

even

up

through

on

the

effective

an

tion,
posi-

erect

few

to

of

If

brain

discover

and

other

him

relations.

Although

man's

brain

which

is found

to

brains

of

all back-boned

the

man.

between

general type

are

man's

should

we

heel

over-balancing

to

peculiar
of

case

The

differences

animal

nearest

built

the

attributes,

mental

Such

characteristics

anatomical
we

tendency

any

bone

and

his
and
his
is
run

animals, he

highly developed than in any

certain brain regions, especially the
other creatures
frontal
forehead
is
region of the brain which
or
nevertheless

now

has

recognised

more

to

be

the

seat

of

the

higher brain

HUMAN

functions.

Indeed,
the

express

of

if

siderations,
con-

man's

account

powers

entitle the

human

animal

the

being

to

human

CONSTITUTION.

in

himself

to

is

there

all the

commonwealth.

compound

When

certain

that

human

included

into

discover

we

of

complexity

resolved

single personality which

the

The

"

becomes

body

of simplicity,when

degree

kingdom

sphere.

BODILY

OUR

of

into

take

correctly

scientific

by

warranted
we

well

very

alone, dependent upon the possession

would
highly developed brain, these characters

the

might

one

opinion
that

mental

PHYSIOLOGY

under

being

elements

presents,
re-

of

constitution

the

find
that
body is closely scrutinised, we
units become
resolved into
ultimately its component
of microscopic bodies to which
collections
the name
the

of cells has
it is true

there

the

fibres

are

represented by

the

by the

be

to

muscles

ligaments of bones

joints,and

In certain

given.

been

or

parts of the body

found, these

flesh of the

together in the

binding them

fibres of which

nerve

being
frame, by

the

nerves

composed, these last representing the telegraph

from
wires of the body conveying
to and
messages
are

the

world.

external

body

originate
is more
to the point,as the
is developed from one
single

with

to start

cell known

as

the

understand

how

ovum

the

fibres themselves

as

cells,and, what

from
whole

But

or

cell may

egg,

we

be taken

readily

may
as

the

typical

unit of the whole

forms

the

Hence
the history of cells
body.
siderations
starting point for all satisfactory conwhich

deal

with

body's constitution.
THE
CELL.
The
modern
conception of the cell is
that of a microscopic speck of protoplasm
or
living
the

"

matter

inch

which

may

in diameter

"

vary
a

size

from

the

1 -120th

part of

represented in the

ovum

an
or

THE

egg

STORY
the

to

"

OF

THE

1 -6,000th or

BODY'S

CONSTITUTION

the

even

1-1

0,000th part of

inch; dimensions

an

of these

last found

certain

of

cells.

Other

from

vary

1 -200th

of

in

inch

an

diameter

the

to

l-25th

of

part

inch; but
will

cells

may

the

part

brain

the

(Fig. 2)

an

cells,it

all

be

understood,
jects,
ob-

microscopic

are

and
be

CELLS.

fact

2."

VARIOUS
KINDS
BODY
CELLS

Including those found in mouth (F),

fairly windpipe (CD), digestivesystem (A),
brain (E).
eye (B), and
The

"

cell

being

is,in its essential

must

knowledge

that

be

not

cells

lost

thus

nature,

sight of,
in

undergo

speck of
livingthing.
a

with

even

the

course

their development

changes,

dying

and

replaced
whilst

Found

3.-" GOBLET

CELLS

in the intestine
bowel.

in the

and
formation

structures

scarcely be

called

vital in their

the

of

special
of

them

perishing, to be
by other
cells,
more

hardened
or

many

others

become
Fig.

OP

(Fig. 3).

power

protoplasm
This

of

of

microscope
ABOUT

Fig.

studied

aid

the

high

only

can

and

seen

by

in

nature.

again

may

or

less

take

part

of bodily
which
The

can

cells

epidermis or outer layer of the

face
surskin, for example, are produced from the upper
As layer after layer of these
of the under-skin.

which

compose

the

HUMAN

cells is formed

and

pushed upwards, the

dried and scale-like,and are

layers become
from
worn

in the

being removed
of

skin

friction

by the

away

act

of

many

of

clothes, and also

of washing.
The
history
our

indicates

cell therefore

history of

outermost

given off
of the skin in large numbers, being

surface

the

PHYSIOLOGY

in

living units

the

the

measure

of

body.

our

They begin as living vital structures, and pass, as

the body itself does, through a stage of decline and
in the livingsubstance
of
Included
finallyof death.
cell

usually find

we

attached

nucleus, and
of this latter
These

instance,

present

be

to

appear

essential

living units of

of the

our

this

the

last

wall

item

characteristic

are

cells.

new

cell

possess

in

they

production of

although

an

the

surface

to

that

remark

the

addition,

boundary-membrane,
not

in the

alluded

be

to

save

with

closely connected
cells, in
Many

imbedded

or

further

not

particle termed

the nucleohis.
particletermed
which,
important structures,

smaller

need

however,

to

highly

are

solid

or

does

of many

frames.

Recognising the cell as

in its most
typical aspect, we must
a living structure
and
tissue
further
note that every
important organ
frame
is composed
of cells.
of our
Naturally, as in
different grades of citizens,some
there are
a State
performing work of a higher grade than others, so
in our
bodily constitution, we find that whilst the
whole duties of the body are performed through the
WORK

THE

variations
units.

in the

skin

compared

composed,

"

cells,there naturally
of our
relative importance

cells which

The

the

CELLS.

wonderful

of these

work

of

OF

with,
or

thus

are

say,

when

the

compose

the

outer

appear

living
layer

relatively unimportant
cells of which

compared

with

the

those

as

liver is

which

HUMAN

10

of sweetbread
cells is

of

their way
its

point

kept in mind,

sight of the
and

necessary

of

which

identical

They

fact

the

said to

whether

their

is made

secreted

labour

Fig.

the

the

material, has

raw

the

of

work

development
of

mass

its

cells.

cells.

for

of taste

nerves

be

regarded

In the

Where

the

supervising
ing
assist-

to

Everything
body's use,

the

blood

the

as

CELLS

5."

to

of

tissues.

bodily

in fact from

whole

the

to

cells

large.

at

workmen

interests,or

body

of the
of

body

is devoted

in the

In which

the

in

discharging

work

the

we

are

upkeep

The

of

represent

manufactured

or

and

work

nutrition, to governing
in
the
building up
that

all cells

that

part.

importance

although

important, each

it forms

with
be

may

frame
its

be

to

the relative

Hence

duty in the maintenance

own

frame
is

juice.

lose

not

must

PHYSIOLOGY

earlier

frame

is

end,

as

representing
of

stages

by

represented
in

structures

strong

bodily

shape of bone, muscle-fibres, ligaments

the

and

the
like

be

with
such
structures
developed, we meet
cells
themselves.
The
directly originating from

have

to

view

which

constitution

of the

broad

it

as

may

human

really compound,

be

taken

therefore

body is that
or,

as

we

of

of the

regarding

might

term

it,

THE

STORY

colonial

under
the

It masks

guise of

which

BODY'S

THE

organism.

the

Ego

OF

built up.
to

convey

the

of

different

in himself
maintained

only be

direct

the

as

of which

view

of

his

adequate idea of the constitution

If

the

The

living organisms.
plants consist

of

each

of

all other

to

animals

lowest

single cell.

to

serves

apply

very

is

glance through
large, we
may

at

remarks

same

matters

our

plant worlds

and

that

extend

we

body

us

an

co-operation of

cells

broad

but

is

animal

discover

nature

Such

living frame.

the

compound

represents

man

every

thing, and can

single personality through
millions

its

11

single living personality,

compound
the

CONSTITUTION

The

and

animalcule

in the

pool and the yeast plant respectively illustrate

this fact.
advance
When
we
beyond these lowest
organisms
rise to the
animals
other

the

head

plants

basis
of the

we

already noted

single-cellstate

condition.

termed

are

multicellular

the lowest

multicellular.

stands

man

animals,

the

not

in this statement

teaches

gives

unicellular, whilst

recognise that

may

which

Hence

termed

are

interesting fact involved

that

us

at

least

being

that

wonderful

our

arises, like that of all other animals and plants,

It is,in fact, the wonderful
tiplicatio
mula single cell.

frame
from

of this
all the

into

egg

the

higher forms

and

this

that

many-celled

and

On

find

we

constitutes

one

single

cell

other

cells

of

the

term

we

of

the

the

or

body, which

remarkable

most

ovum

facts

of

living existence.
BODY'S

THE

regarding
be added

body
the

some

world

carbon,

CHEMICAL

the chemical
here.

There

fourteen

COMPOSITION.

composition
are

to

"

of the

be discerned

elements, all of them

word

body

may

in man's

common

to

large. They are represented by oxygen,

lime, potash, soda,
nitrogen, hydrogen,
at

HUMAN

12

iron,

sulphur,

familiar

PHYSIOLOGY

and

magnesium,

phosphorus,

substances.

therefore

elements

Our

less

other

sent
pre-

form

to

moreover,

salt,

common

also

in

are

of

Some

of

phosphate

lime,

formed

living

or

peculiar

and

latter

the

the

of

class

up

living

is

100,

at

of

composed

is

5*5;

and

O'l
;

fat,

bony

15*4.

matter,

are

of

this

which

compounds

of
a

18'0;

per

starch

tinguishes
dis-

taking

man,

61*0

water,
"

minerals,

etc.)

power

body

The

beings.

plasm
(proto-

sugar,

It

other

noted

starch,

plants.

etc.)

but

elements

fat,

matter,

animals

to

building

by

latter

chalk,

us

common

compounds,

the

around

world

the

combine,

elements

compounds.

(water,

it

These

distinctive.

nothing

and

cent;

sugar,

THE

STORY

OP

POODS

OUR

II

CHAPTER

THE

STORY

DEMAND

THE

is the first

FOODS

OUR

OF

FOOD.

FOR

13

"

nourish

To

ourselves

perform on entering the world,

and
it is the last we
discharge on leaving it. All
through life exists the necessity for finding our
Nor is this a feature
daily bread.
peculiar to man
alone.
The
fungus growing on the wall, the lofty
the

tree,

duty

we

animalcule

in

the

pool, and

existence
animal, through their whole
to try to discover
Indeed, if one
were
line of
the

should
the
is

of life and

find it in this

part of the animal

A

the

roof

of

simply by

stalactite
a

cave

the

sharpest

between
might be drawn
that of non-living matter, we

and

or

to

Growth

plant.
in the
lime

will grow,

additions

for

perpetual demand

certainly represented

matter.

be fed.

must

which

demarcation

world

higher

the

its

world

food
of

on

kind

of non-living

pillardepending from
enlarges its size
outside
surface, and
it

but

accretion, as it is called,
has
the stabilityof the object.
Not
The
is very
different with a living being.
case
but
merely is a constant
supply of food demanded,
of this process
little or no
effect on

stoppage

the

material

interior

of

taken

as

of

nutriment

is received

into the

has
a
to undergo
organism, and
and
of digestion whereby
it is assimilated
process
of the living
ultimately changed into the substance
the

being itself. In this latter respect

a

very

striking difference

between

we

again perceive
livingthings and

HUMAN

14

things that

geranium

equally with
supply. The
carbonic

inorganic

are

nature.

PHYSIOLOGY

growing

the

man

which

gas,

items

The

in the

and

the

supply

to

of the

death
if

is absorbed

air

of

any

soil water,

the
of

amount

to

is

for

animal, that

the

kind

of

result

ment,
nourishremark

same

certainly different
be the

will
of

the

plant.

green

want

animal

the

plant, but whatever

necessary

ammonia;

items

these

much

so

by its leaves.

from

plant from

turn

we

Its food

applies.

the

constituting the food of the

failure

food-

constant

from

their

illustrates

pot

necessity for

it will take
By its roots
up
minerals, and also a certain
these

in

plant will draw

acid

in

non-living

or

from

nourishment

nutriment

WHY

EAT

WE

for

demand

represent
From

the

necessary

this
up

crops

in

inquiry why food-taking should

duty of the living being at all.
might

we

had

that

argue

differentlyconstituted, a very large number

fellow-beings might find existence a somewhat

our

easier

food

obtain

removed,

period
that

us,

feature
the

perhaps

is

part of many

of

so

might

is

human

prove

of nature,

laws

penalty of disease

founded

question,
not

There

represented to-day. It is

inexorable

are

to be.

stant
con-

beings

hence, if the duty of getting food

lest the

obeyed
upon

the

on

their existence

than

the

it proves

than

matter

struggle

to

with

Associated

"

consideration

point of view

social

will

been

we

of

DINNER.

OUR

water

end.

an

food, another
of

shape

the

to

come

be

must

supplied, otherwise, like the plant deprived of

and
other
of the
animal
food, the existence
assuredly

of

that

the
"

upon

very

Why

easily

do
or

we

want

easy

and

plain
our

were

less arduous

which

living constitution.

to

to show

have
death
and
An

to

be

come

tive
distincanswer

dinner?"

satisfactorily supplied

is
as

THE
be

might

imagined.

hungry

are

doubles

the

of

truth

is

of

that

we

machine

that

statement.

of

thought

and

to

to

convince

heart,

down, continue
of the night. There
are

of

certain

though

certain

our

destiny.

body is
with

Thus,

even

Its

suspended.

not

increased

addition, we

force

during

then

are

of

and

encompassed
of
an

The

undeniable

attending

waste

machine

axiom

is

wear

the
and

the

is

substance
tear.

But

work

of

the

there

therefore

ordinary

any

In

the

first

machinery

actual

machine

also

course

waste.

means

forms.

is

sphere
atmo-

It is of

work

the

bodily

continual

is

world

mere
are

all

of

of

We

labour.

in two

waste

the

by

fact,

another

in the

do

by

that

represented

instance, there
itself:

and

life,and, in

with

to

life.

our

environed

bodily work

workmen

is continued

waking

our

face to face

maintaining

cells,

brain

our

bodily work

namely, that the work we have

superadded to that represented
labour

work

and
ward
over
keep watch
of the
in sleep the work

system,

nervous

organs

the watches

which, representing the night shift of the

of the

rises

their

through

act

to

the

forces

chest

; our

It

of

even

liver, although

is slowed

that

us

worn-out

night,

the

as

life,

sleep, for

to

our

to beat

we

of

us

go

we

of breathing ; and

act

are

working.

recuperate

lessens, stillcontinues

why

teaches

always

our

shape of

view

is

When

the

body, such

in the

hungry

knowledge,

seek

single ; for

was

follow

we

thirsty, only

are

before

we

because

eat

we

scientific

this

falls in the
our

say

15

comprehensive

little

repose

its work

are

very

example, and
in the

FOODS

because

"

upon

requires

and

Why

ANSWER.

body

our

OUR

inquiry would
"

question,
thirsty?"
founded

OF

difficultywhich

the

THE

To

drink

and

inevitable

the

STORY

undergoes
a

constant

HUMAN

16

PHYSIOLOGY

expenditure of its energy, which we

power of doing work.
Obviously,
is

work

prolonged

to

certain

define

may

if the

supplied with additional material

it will repair its own
from
waste, and
derive
of

of working

store

new

ordinary engine,

an

derived

from

the

of water
be considered
tear

of

have

to

be

combustion

certain

itself.

engine

reckoned

with,

coal

of which

out

bodies
their

work

demand
be

and

is

repaired

and

thus

supplied

develop
ABOUT

engine
which

do

engine in respect of
frames
do not
merely

we

of

exist
as,

foods, otherwise

we

into

the

may

to

We

bodily waste,
the

the
take

material
and

we

with

the

foods

on

power.

comparison

naturally divide
chief

perform.

answer

of the

out

working

two

to

dinner?"

our

our

Bearing

"

they have

because

"

repair

we

mind,

be described

eat

words

FOODS.
in

of the body

new

is found

we

stores

new

supply of
Now, our

material, but they

that they may
develop new

considerations

in other

"

good

the

to

replaced by

question, "Why
food

and

made

developed.

require nutriment
for the work
supplies of energy
these

to

of waste

constant

that the waste

also

In

version
con-

wear

be

to

is

work

is also

sources

have

Our

repair.

food in order

actual

by

its energy

closely related

are

of

case

the

and

there

and

the

doing

coal

Both

by repairs to the engine and

In

whilst

amount

it will

which

of

of

of which

out

power.

power

into steam,
a

the

the

machine's

extent, it will require

be

to

the

as

the

classes.

These

may

first,body-building or tissue-forming
called nitrogenous foods ; and second,

these last being also termed

-producing foods
This
division is a
non-nitrogenous articles of diet.
A
food
is
perfectly natural
nitrogenous
one.
energy

"

"

one

which

composition.

includes
The

the
presence

"

element
or

nitrogen in its
absence

of

this

HUMAN

IS

albumens
other

also

of

singly

substances
that

is

take

the

distinction

in

substances.
the

amount

this latter view

The

support.
but

that

in

functions

the

foods

of

and

are

more

in the

WATER.

"

The

of two-thirds

weight

it may
importance of water
as

be, does
as

in

food.

their

individual

playing the
of the body.
to

consists
this

and

reveal
A

of

degree,

some

body
not

items,

functions

the

nutrition

water;

may

universal

received

limited

human

of

some

tissue-forming
not

may

itself

fat

healthy

less

or

parts just detailed

ABOUT

energy,

that

has

ordinary

under

that

body-building

interchangeable

are

the

practice between

probability is that

foods

two

sharp

no

It is known

physiologists have
argued
discharge the duties of the
although

foods

between

nevertheless

be drawn

can

certain

It is needful

it.

with

one,

circumstances

the

rule any food

with a number

as

ordinary

repair the bodily substance

working
or
supply us with energy
real

of

classes

yield

not

in

that

certain

and

up

very

line

boundary
certain

whilst

which

those

two

see

combined

to build

go

power

thus
do

we

with

minerals

by itself,but in combination

to remark

and

We

feeding

or

of other

which

fat and

contain

substances.

modes

PHYSIOLOGY

by

prising
fact, sur-

the

whole

supply

constant

of this fluid is required not

their

tissues

proper

supply is needed
being used
up

to

merely to give to the

further
a
composition, but
replace that which is perpetually

excreted
by the
body and
is
water
kidneys. Furthermore,
lungs, skin, and
of every
vital action, and
for the purpose
demanded
it is also
foods
organs

so

in

necessary

The

for

the

solution

of

our

solid

be presented to the digestive

they may
tion.
shape which favours their easy assimilafood is also
of water
as
a
importance

that
in

the

THE
revealed

by

course

twenty

man

thirty days

to

or

and

solid food

probably

end

in from

the

considerable

breathed.
various
In the

well, his existence

as

six to

blood

tissues

is

existence

for

per

cent

90

of water

large

very

air

the

to

contained

in the

body is very
exists,and

great.

water

of the

would

Water

days.

seven

will maintain

and

brain-substance

the

periods varying from

whereas, if deprived

more,

quantity of

organs

food

our

period, having also regard

The

(and of

of

really part
for

only food which

19

alone

water

on

is

exist

may

FOODS

OUR

fact that

the

of water

thus

OF

air, which

on

supply) a

STORY

in

even

is

of water

amount

contained.
MINERALS.
on

an

Our

"

about

to

average

minerals

mineral

of

by phosphate
in

from

Common

salt,or

which

appears

purpose

of

ways

itself containing

given off

be

to

required

ranging

Other

minerals

fair amount

from

the

the

its
is

the

hardness.

necessity of

for the

but

also

seems

body, the blood

of this mineral

in almost

excreted

or

body,

necessity for

sented
repre-

it forms

merely

not

The

is of extreme

derives

of sodium,

chloride

are

purposes

lime, which

bone

amounts

day.

per

digestion in the stomach,

to be in other

is

ounce

early life,seeing that

material

life,and

one

for nutritive

demanded

importance

food-supply

which

fluid of the

every

perspiration

to

the

tears.

required for the support of the body

include
this mineral
potash
being apparently of
much
importance seeing that a lack of it gives rise
"

to

the

serious

inevitably
disease

trouble

associated

of old

salt meat
The

in the absence

salt meat

alone

errors

known

voyages,

the

of fresh
could

scurvy,

as

with
well

was

ships making long

known

not

in

which
diet.

in connection

is
This

with

sailors being fed

on

vegetables.
be regarded as the
meat

or

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

20

of the

cause

in the

outbreak, but the lack of potash

food is supplied containing
proper

scurvy

When

meat.

disappears. Vegetables contain

potash, scurvy
and potatoes; and the
potash, as also do fresh meats
remarkable
where

fact

into the

THE

than

of the

thus

to

emaciated,
intimately

enter

body, and

famines

potatoes

starving and

demanded

are

diet.

our

ENERGY-PRODUCERS.

foods

energy-producing

The

"

stand
Fats
fats, starches, and sugars.
distinctivelyas heat-producing foods, but it is to
are

be noted

food

capable of producing
is also capable of developing energy
workingor

heat

that

power.

Probably

effective

as

are

little else
were

part of

Irish

in

that

Minerals

compositon

essential

an

out

people

the

appeared.

scurvy

as

had

sufferers

the

eat, though
no

noticed

was

which

the

is

starches

and

sugars

more

are

they
energy-producers than fat, because
speciallysupplied to the muscles; but the typical

diet

include

must

working
of

power

fats, starches, and

of

taking

supply of both items, greater

tion
being developed from the combinaa

of

one

of

seems

to

play

digestion

the

food

of

of the

of

part

out

the

in

item

formed

likewise

foods

these

extremely important
merely required as
being

sugars,

starch

other

only.

Fat

diet.

our

It

the
is

an

is not

bodily substance,

our

and

from

than

sugar

chiefly,but

important part in assisting

foods, whilst it is especially

an

Starch

system.

nervous

and

sugar

vegetable world, which

are

derived

from

the

also

yield us

forms

fatty food in the shape of oils.

of foods, starches
and
on
sugars

These
the

one

related
note

that

of

classes

two

hand,
in

and

chemical

the

body

starchy foods

may

fat

on

the

other,

composition.
possesses

the

into fat.

This

are

closely

It is curious

power

is well

of
seen

to

ing
convert-

in the

THE
of

case

which
to

obesity

great

extent

an

liver appears
transformation
of

the

specially takes

place.

artificiallyfed

upon

diet

the

reduced

to be

When

amount

the

to

and

geese

into

fats

ducks

are

(which contains

maize

same

in which

foods

starchy

dietary

the

organ

an

of

treatment

from

sugars

be

not

The

degree.

21

possible, whilst the

as

need

FOODS

OUR

and

starches

foods

fatty

OF

corpulence,

or

excludes

as

of

STORY

very

large proportion of starch),and are prevented from

taking due exercise, the livers of the birds become
of

masses

fat, which

the familiar

which

healthy nutrition
we

have

of

foods

of foods

class

one

are

the

from

this for the

discharges

in

engine
far

the

and

engine

the

the

classes

nutrition

and

the

that

reason

in

functions

different

it must

must

we

our

calculated
an

adult
of

the

its work

as

sources

human

is the

than

holds

consume

producing foods
renew

of

good

man

the

daily repair
The

so

far

in that

far larger amount

or

two

energy-

repairs,although

which

foods

day by

of work-

it has

Thus

are

parison,
com-

contribute

proportions required

of the

nitrogenous

of

machine.

bodily substance.
that

consumes

for the

of those

than

The

engine is somewhat

in its demands

however,
day

holds

water,

be confessed

good.

again

it requires iron for

its substance

of

body

and

imperious

more

The

performance

coal

more

other.

the

production, than

one

due

the

what

body-building foods
not
required in anything like the proportion of
The comparison between
energy-producing ones.
frame

the

of

for

required

of the body, and

support

from

be deduced

may

for

first rules

the

regarding foods, is that both

learned
are

of

One

"

preparation of

in the

of Strasburg.

pate de foie gras

NOURISHMENT.

OUR

used

are

in the

to

been
case

represented by

body-building

substance

to

HUMAN

22

four

four

or

foods.

and

We

of the

the

case

thus

naturally

must

than

foods

which

work

the

teaches

assume

much

us

the

shows

us

foods

for

the

Milk

fat and

in

to

minerals.

The

few
bird

not

In the egg

we

milk
of
for

and

plies
sup-

energyand

water

is similar.

egg

behind

far
find

combination

of

that

of

Out

for

necessary

FOOD-TAKING
of the

most

the

both

classes

taking foods
proportions
the

in
as

we

such

usually

nourishment

of foods

have

water

led him

of the
receive

to

combination
the

on

body.
the

due

of

the

whole
In

that

seen

with

and
in

of substances

teaching, has

minerals

consume,

we

as

frames.

building

the

minerals,

varying

experience of mankind,

The

scientific

foods

such

own

in after-life is also

We

"

articles of diet

exception of
contain

PRACTICE.

IN

our

fat,water, and

albumen,

body being essentially that which

required for the body's support.

to

of

teaspoonfuls of yolk and white the body of the

is built up, this body exhibiting a complexity of

structure

the

addition

of the

case

building

of tissue, but likewise

represent

substances,

she

merely casein

not

of milk, which

producing

tigate
inves-

classes

two

body-building

contains

formation

sugar

and

composition

of

Nature

which

nourishment

of the

In

foods

we

foods

or

have

working

when

the

The

purpose

for the

curd

of

perfect combination

energy-production.
or

lesson

animal.

young

still the

both

predominance.

for the

especially employs

casein,

of

proportions

same

composition

the

of

amount

greater

repair the tissues.

the

energy-producing

of albumen,

sugar

hard

the
far

slightly increased, but

to be

of

of

consume

other

of

half

starchy food and

any

PHYSIOLOGY

apart

the

portions.
pro-

from

practice of

and

in

best

conduce

such

such

tion
combina-

proportions

of

the

STORY

THE
different

by

fish is

white

form

some

; whereas

the

on

23

proportions

such

not

taken

by itself. Thus,
in fat, and
with this

largely deficient

article of diet
taken

food

one

FOODS

OUR

required,

substances

offered

being

OP

of

fatty

is

sauce

usually

hand, fish represented

other

by salmon, herring, and eels, containing a fair

eels especially containing much
of fat

portion
pro-

fat

"

do

"

are

made

and

oil ; and

very

of

eggs

which

are

more

savoury

of

rice

more

addition

ham

nutritious

more

much

them.

is taken

The

value

does

not

in

in

converts

it to

assist

wisdom,
why

undergo

the

but

such

respect has

salt of

thus
beef.

the
be

may

stated,

is to

has

as

when

change

science

has

combinations

given

been

modes

at
are

powerful

least

of

starch

said, have

into
in

originated
of scientific
reasons

beneficial,and

of feeding.

the

habits

supplied

sanction

we

sugar.

saliva

Such

which

into

convert

of experience than

more

of rational

Even

shown.

be

to

seen

of the

action

will be afterwards

result

the

mended
com-

and

of its starchy contents

taking of food,

the
as

as

be

to

potash

have

we

mouth, the duty of which

sugar

combination

way,

of the blood.

cause

much

thereby

We

of

shape

ment,
nourishaffording much
their supplying us with the minerals,

we

so

the

to

their

constituent

bread

toast

being made

vegetables, it

green

rendered

are

in

the

foods

way

the familiar

modify

especially potash, which

necessary

additions

containing
to

fat, is made

same

is, in its

greens

consist

the

tasteless

; and

greens

of

but

In

fowl, salt food

somewhat

tending

article

milk.

bacon

the

eggs

of diet by the

with

"

of

nutritious

be somewhat

and

addition

by the

by certain

beef

Salads

question.
in

and

to

apt

in

pudding, deficient

Thus
or

salt

addition

require the

not

to

the

in this

tion
adop-

HUMAN

24

DIFFERENT

DIETS.

in diet."

voice

habits

that

the

subsist

of

therefore

with

the

perfect

the

uncertain

no

underlies

Certain

represents

ideal mode

the

of

this

of

system

cheese, and

and

the

tain
main-

persons

advocates

milk, eggs,

on

"

which

law

great

of mankind.

Some

here

been

often

has

called

been

speaks

vegetarianism

feeding.

question

has

Science

regarding

feeding

"

regarding what

asked
way

PHYSIOLOGY

not

are

be

to
regarded as rigid adherents
their doctrine.
Others
again subsist on vegetable
of
advocates
matters
extreme
entirely,whilst some
vegetarianism reject most
starchy articles and
to

advocate

said

be

may

diet which

that

for

him

practically subsist
it is

climate,
of the

face

on

and

consumed,

which

he

the

the

far north

In

become
because

diet is almost

represented

mixed

in the

Here
the
Esquimaux.
teaching of
has again been followed, for fat is a typical

external

south,

on
or

more

the
and

In the

largely

of the

which
the

the

on

in the

is

meat

the

as

that

particular

heat-producing food, and the inhabitants of

regions therefore obtain from their diet a
heat

can

Thus

subsists.

world

great

man

words, his position

fatty order,

The

of food, and

determines

in the

exclusively of

kind

any

in diet

is adapted

is that

which

regions of

northern

nature

nutrition

on

earth

and

It

nuts.

way

perfect health.

in other

or,

articles of diet

habits

in

underlies

which

perfect

no

suits the individual

maintaining

law

is

there

except that which

largely of

consists

land

nature

the
less
he

vegetables

temperate

has

hand, man
vegetarian and

inhabits
are

climates

feeder, although

grows

cheap and

them.

tends

to

fruit-eater,

fruits in fusion,
proeasily obtained.

of the earth
certain

of

source

largely denied

other
a

the Arctic

man

becomes

nations, it is true,

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

26

fats, starches, and

latter

sugars

but

category,
associated

in the

the

development

of

which

functions
in

body.

the

of

work
He

done

was

for example,

such

foods, that

by

substance, and
of movement

in other

material.

own

for many
raise
to

This

This

view

in

the

carried

was

muscle

the

modern

the

that,

as

the

body

teaches, the

foods

those

are

machine.

DEMONSTRATION.

THE

"

Hence

scientists

which

mistaken,

was

of

the

human

of the

of energy

seemed

manner

food-usage
foods

nitrogenous
represent

field

experimentation.

doctrine

which

of its

physiologists

Liebig

typical body-builders, whilst

its

up

scientific

of

in

that

muscle

its power

circumstances

minds

the
food.

consumption

further

of

left nothing to be desired

and

used

the

practically demonstrated

who

of

chiefly by Continental

out

that

of Liebig's views.

correctness

necessity

special

consumed

when

action

held

the

element

the

developed

until various

doubts

the

arose

out

years,

regarding

of

work

or

in the

words

food

nitrogenous

on

the

with

men

doctrine

the

taught

assumed,

fed

of

discharge

not

words,

other

other

the

was

heat-producing

any

Liebig
body

the

as

it to

know

we

In

under

heat

of scientific

energy.

from

dissociated

was

minds

regarded

was

production of

the

then

classified

were

in
the

are

non-nitrogenous

the

coal

or

source

of experiments

series

stands out prominently

by two Swiss observers
of the researches
which
illustrating the nature
as
of paramount
information
importance regarding
gave
made

diet
were

They

to

made

the

at the

endeavoured
as

discover

world

the
the

at

Faulhorn

nature

of

of
the

work

the

experiments

in Switzerland.

Mountain

by practical
subjects

Their

large.

"

selves
taking them-

experiments

foods

which

"

were

to

STORY

THE

OF

FOODS

OUR

of
in
the
act
specially consumed
Estimating the height of the Faulhorn
of

10,000 feet, the basis

the

of

shape

bodily waste

their

given

off

by

weight

own

attention

given

task

as

bear

are

forth

up

of waste

of

that

as

which

urea,

of

at

as

two

waste

rest, they
have

of

foods

different

kinds

result.

the

this

We

genous
nitro-

The

chiefly by the kidneys,

being represented by

material

Paying
which

classes

two

man's

matter

conclusions.

living body,

give off

pounds,

140

represented

excreted

the

of

amount

course

waste

that

given forth

foods

as

the

accomplishment

definite

in the

are

this waste

the

with

in mind

used

known

in

certain

at

took

weighing

of

amount

compared

arrived
to

the

to

was

experimentation

the raising of
piece of work:
(140 pounds) 10,000 feet high.

measured

work.
as

man,

This

climbing the mountain.

bodily
Mountain

investigation of

the

27

represents

substance
final

in itself the

of nitrogenous
speak, in the breakdown
in the
On
the
other
substance
hand, the
body.
foods
is represented
of the non-nitrogenous
waste
the
lungs, skin,
given forth from
by substances

stage,

and

in

to

so

part by the

kidneys.

heat, water, and carbonic acid

being thus
fairly defined, the

These

are

gas.

The

two

in

chief,

problem

experimenters

of the
the
of waste
amount
carefully calculated
kinds
two
specified during their periods of rest
and during their climbing of the mountain
tively.
respecthe
The
result
the
discovery that
was

of

amount

food, did

urea,

not

that

is, the

materially alter

waste

whether

of

nitrogenous
they

were

at

engaged in their active

of nonOn
exercise.
the
other
hand, the waste
materially during
nitrogenous kind increased
very
their periods of activity,and decreased
during their
rest

or

whether

they

were

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

28

time

of inaction.

These

verified,clearly showed
bore

that

nitrogenous

the

proportion whatever
exercise or work
performed,
did
non-nitrogenous waste

the

to

no

relationshipto work, it became

nitrogenous foods represent

and

clear
the

active bodily work

the

that

true

the

distinct

very

non-

of

source

is performed, whilst

nitrogenous

became

settled in their proper

place as
producers and repairers of the bodily waste

to

of

amount

whereas

that

bear

waste

lished
In this way
the doctrine was
firmly estabthat it is on fat, starch, and sugar, that our

energy.

foods

and

experiments, repeated

certain extent

tissue-

which

is perpetually represented in

our

frames.
AN

INTERESTING

TABLE.

"

An

interesting

table

compiled by the late Dr. Frankland, the eminent

chemist, on the results of the experiments just
described.
He calculated the quantity, the cost per
was

pound,

and

the

actual

cost

of the

food, which, if

and utilised within the human

perfectly consumed
enough to raise
body, would
supply it with energy
man's
a
weight (140 pounds) 10,000 feet high. The
following items represent the chief particularsof the
calculations

thus

made

"

Total
Cost.
d.
8.

3J

3J
5J
5}

11*

Oi

6i

From

this

table

it appears

clear

that

the

non-

THE
foods

nitrogenous
producing

form

of

is shown

meat,

is valuable

enough

by Dr. Frankland's
and

contains;

in

the

quantity of this substance

to

afford

also

the

teach

us

combinations
in

fed

man

would

meat

he took

supply.

These

the

more

alone,

bread

or

large

be eaten

to

researches

to

The

cal
economi-

are

food
another
supplies what
quantity of bread and
proper

diet himself

meat

fat it

the

of food.

use

already alluded

on

shown

which

meat

require

in

food

one

lean

would

economy

of food

that

lacks.

necessary

meat

as

of

out

got
of

case

other

working-power

only be

can

fair

The

tissue-former, but

the

or

erroneous.

table, the

affords

meat

to be

as

is beef-steak

do

to

that

having

man

energy-

as

idea

popular

feed

to

29

front

the

to

The

which

on

FOODS

OUR

come

of physical work

amount

the

OF

substances.

food

best

STORY

economically
alone

if

than

economically,

"

is,in respect of his obtaining sufficient material

for his support.
bread
The
and
meat
together in
suitable quantities would
building
supply him with both body-

that

food

and

with

of the bread,

shape of the starch

of the

If he took

meat.

working-power,
nitrogenous
for

elected

to

subsist

himself

over-load

on

bread

with

on

the

starch

in

the

basis

the

it is to

be

midst.

to

the

of economical

prevent

our

Teachings

large amount
feared, is too

feeding and
of waste

commonly

he

hand,

order

as

of fat

would

of such

nation

body with

amount

just sufficient body-building substance

gluten of the bread.
of great importance

fat

the

as

other

alone, he

in the

gain sufficient
his

bare

the

If,

energy-production.

to

over-load

to obtain

matter

well

as

alone

meat

would

he

food

energy-producing

greatly
to

obtain

found

in the

kind

are

showing forth
as

tending

of food

to

which,

represented

in

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

80

CHAPTER

THE

WHAT
the

of
of

entirely

erroneous

such

be

that

it

is

be

in many
chemical

certain

but

whilst

physical kind, it is also

chemical

recombined

are

and

being

treated, may
of the body

currency

the

body

adapted
one

being

take
to

sense
a

THE

simple,

kind

out

and

renew

the

blood

by

in many

of

presents

itself,
of

series

blood,

as

to

renew

topic
the

to

been

well

be

common

of
is

which

repair their vitality,so

has

of

food

the

all the tissues

nourishment

split up

available

of which

in

which

cases

regarded

precisely the

that

described

epitome of the body itself.

It is possible to form
SYSTEM.

as

of fluid

DIGESTIVE
and

be

and

actions

elements

The

verted
con-

blood

the

certain

made

thus

eat

we

to

the

repair the vital fluid.

hereafter

in

after

dissociated, and

or

food

represented

wherein

aspects

an

might truly be

It

resemblance

not

blood

the

fluid with

identical.

digestion involves

is

to

that

the

is

as

by digestion into

added

respects

it

This

Food

changed

can

it becomes

said that

regarding

defines

which

that

definition.

blood, but

season

notion

common

readily incorporated with

due

"

converting food into blood.

form

Is.

DIGESTION

digestion is

the work

into

OP

STORY

DIGESTION

nature

III

at

"

the

same

time

correct,

idea

of

the

of any digestive system

ranging from that of
the lowest
such a system
animal, in which
appears,
onwards
himself.
to
that
of man
Any digestive
nature

THE
is really

system
an

STORY
tube

running through

animal, having the mouth

opening, and
intestine
may

the

anus

bowel,

or

be

as

31

DIGESTION

OF

or

its

described

as

its anterior

terminal

of

body

the

front

or

of

aperture

the

tion
posterior opening. Digesthe
journey of food
as

";...

Fig. 6." GENERAL

VIEW

OF

DIGESTIVE

TUBE

(1)gullet,(2)stomach, (3)beginning of intestine,

(4) small intestine, (5)large intestine,(6)caecum
with appendix, (7)rectum.
in the course
along this tube, the nutriment
travels being acted upon
by various fluids

poured

upon

it and

so

changed

and

of
or

its

tions
secre-

resolved

HUMAN

32

for

its

ultimate

the
blood
destination, namely,
animals
of simple organisation the

In

current.

digestive system

nothing

In

more.

the

other, but in

most

From

vary

the

mouth

calibre

animals

from

find

tube

spoken of

idea has

arisen

bag

or

The

true

thus

expanded

part

order

the

that

that

certain

food

again

long, and

the

of the

which

it.

body.

merely

an

two

so

hereafter

Succeeding
part of

is termed
it is

man

into

time

tubular

the

In

the

twenty-six

chief

portions,

immediately succeeds

which

bowel

and

stomach,

be

portion

This

is divided

namely, the small

resembles

it is

to

upon

upon

(Fig. 6).

bowel

or

the

in it for

changes,

come

digestive system.

intestine

and

organ,

is that

effected

we

stomach

The

interior

remain

may

be

length.

its

digestive tube; expanded, in

the

may

the stomach

feet

in the

important

chronicled,
the

of

is

tube

ing
gulltt (Fig.6) lead-

or

stomach

the

of the stomach

view

the

to

the

of

separate

as

depending

sac

of

the stomach.

that

and

first part of the digestive

the

directlyto

itself is often

end

one

sections

tube, called the cesophagus

as

tube

width

the

different

we

as

for example, it exhibits

worm,

same

in

to

itself

presents

pretty much
found

PHYSIOLOGY

twenty

measures

feet in

large boivel forming the terminal

part of the digestive tube, extending in length to
The
six feet.
about
digestive system, therefore, is
undoubtedly a tube, as has been described, with the
length, and

stomach

as

the

an

DIGESTIVE

of the

food

may

be

than

do

GLANDS.

"

The

digestive system

the

possess

expanded part thereof.

upon

which

remembered

longer and
those

which

an

that
more

live

length and

show

distinct

animal

complexity

subsists.

relation
The

to

rule

vegetable-feeding animals
complex
on

digestive systems

carnivorous

or

flesh

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

34

subjected
the

to the

of the

glands of the small

which

being

known
of food
the

as

possessing

tube

along this tube, and

action

of certain

is

stages

secretions

THE

DIGESTIVE

its

on

of

digestive journey
these

stomach,

into

and

three

and

third

action

duty, that

or

is

devoted

digestive system
which
note,

remains
a

certain

of

to

the

into

the

in the

of

upon

the

food

the
at

food

the

to

of

find

we

of

blood

the

another

This

latter

from

conveyance

the

intestine.

in the

absorption.

the

in

notes

stage

the

in the

digestion

last

our

first of

The

the

digested food

intestine,although,

amount

thus

divide

may

stages.

changes which the food undergoes

Following upon
digestion itself
function

sides

we

with

deals

the

tion
por-

the

Simplifying

"

happens

second

the

mouth,

expanded

fluids contributed

or

digestion

what

concerns

now

journey.

JOURNEY.

of the process

are

accomplished through

digestive glands placed at

tube, such secretions
being poured
different

bowel

the

We

an

by the

view

of

Digestion is the journey

the stomach.

as

digestive

in

other

or

general conception of the

has
just been stated, is a

the

which,

shorter

or

part

some

review

to

digestive system
longer

intestine

imperfectly understood.

position

provided by
(intestinalglands)

secretions

duty of the secretion

exact

yet

as

play

to

appear

action, the
in

action

shall

we

as

digested food

leaves

into the blood

at a
digestive system and passes
considerably earlier than that representing
stage
the close of the digestive work.
MOUTH.
That
DIGESTION
digestion
IN
THE
the

"

really

in

commences

appreciated.

generally
digestion

as

stomach

alone.

if that
As

the

Many

function
a

mouth

matter

was

is

fact

not

speak of
discharged by the
of fact, and
curious
persons

THE

has
at

stomach

the

appear,

may

action of the stomach

large. The
highly important, but it does not by any

doubt

no

at

include

means

larger

ready

digestive
of

The

essential

with

second, because

it cannot

saliva

which

is in itself

perfect digestion

of

consider

illustrate

the

axiom

the

"

"

water

or

by three
the

into

of

the

an

be

thoroughly

thoroughly

mixed

essential

for the

Returning

ently
pres-

duties

the

of

performed
This

mouth.

Of

glands.
ears,

The

Each

mouth.

glands,

these

being known
pairs, called

two

sub-lingual glands,

situated

are

pours

the

fluid is furnished

these

other

by

in

its secretion

mouth

through a special tube or duct, the

secretion
it is termed,
representing a
as

the

saliva

of

parotid glands.

floor

is

themselves, we
may
digestion begins in the

that

sets

sub-maxillary and
the

an

teeth

exists in front of the

set

one

be

starchy foods.

mouth, by considering the

saliva

is

teeth

the

by

food

unless

teeth

to

This

unfortunately

one

food

by the

the

is

mouth

the

first,because
; and

the

The

majority of people.

vast

the

form

healthy performance of digestion,

of
the stomach
cannot
digest masses

for

divided

of

division

proper

food

action, but

neglected by the

much

the

into the blood.

by and

accomplished in
food
by the teeth.

important

extremely

into

work

the

which

through

diet is converted

be assimilated

division

too

actions

those

of the

amount
to

first

as

35

really very little to do with the digestion of food

all,that is, when
compared with the bulk of the

digestive work
is

DIGESTION

OP

circumstance

the

though

STORY

"

by cells.

manufactured

"

The

essential

units

in the

the
living cells, which, from
salivary glands are
blood supplied to the glands, elaborate
ture
manufacor

the
organs.

particular
Each

cell

secretion

in

this

way

afforded
may

by

these

therefore

be

HUMAN

36

regarded

as

not

certain

actual

material

of

process

SALIVA.

largely of

constituent

ptyalin.
of

work

first step in
starch

into
is

that

the

is intended

by

the

form

be

remembered

of

rule holds
to the

in

To

saliva
that

of

to

grape

as

the

of

action

taught the
largely as food,

the

of

stomach,

in

not

It may

sugar.

digestion this

throughout

Starch,
It may
in the

known

so

to

pass

all

assigned the
of converting the
is

therefore

starch, but in that

that

known

such, is practically useless

as

be,

as

form

shall see,

we

of

starch, but
be applied
to

the

stored
when
to

muscles

the
as

be presented
substance, it must
form
portance,
of sugar.
Another
point worthy of imbecause
possessing a distinct bearing on
of

nourishment
does

ptyalin
until
Prior

not

it attains
to

this

starch
want

its-

energy-producing

in the

the

very

discharges in

by the

consumed

nature

liver

the

ptyalin depends

sugar

are

we

starch

body.

of

case

saliva

the

form

and

good.

the

which

to
required for bodily purposes
tissues as
food, and especially
a
an

stance
sub-

new

ferment

of

accomplished

ptyalin ferment,
lesson

raw

consisting

or

presence

digestion,namely,

This

sugar.

up

the

digestion.

eat

we

substance

particular action

the

the

containing minerals, while

is

Upon

the

fluid

colourless

and

water

fluid in

This

"

salivary glands is

the

of the

blood

by the

of

out

fluid.

ABOUT

as

manufacture

represented
or

chief

secretion

chemist, seeing that

little

of
the blood
merely a separating from
products already formed
therein, but also

implies

an

PHYSIOLOGY

of starch

appear

the
age

children, is the fact that

young

age

in the
of

seven

it is therefore

into sugar,

by placing

nature

sugar

saliva
or

of

the

child

eight months.

incapable of

verting
con-

making up for the

in the
ready made

THE
milk.
foods

To

giVe

containing

material

which

be regarded
the infant
THE

OF

child

under

the

mortality due

of

cause

to

37

specified

age

any

supply it with
indigestible,but may

merely

being the

TEETH."

DIGESTION

is therefore

starch

is not

as

of the

care

STORY

to

large

amount

of

feeding.

erroneous

The

teeth

daily attention

in

importance of attending to the

and of preventing tooth decay by
the way
of brushing the teeth and

Fig.
Showing

here.
teeth

importance
the

minds

decay

and

TEETH

the second

cleansing the
the

7."

teeth

FIRST

THE

in

of

course

SET

development.

cated
scarcely requires to be inculAt the same
time, the duty of preserving

mouth,

by all

of which
of

OF

the

tooth

in

means

should

young

by

our

be
way

degeneration

is

power

one

the

early impressed on
of avoiding tooth
which

are

only

too

HUMAN

38

conspicuous

PHYSIOLOGY

features

of

thoroughly dividing the

food

already insisted

Two

exist in man,
The

Fig.

; the

second

OF

from

as

(a),and

above

UPPER
from

numbering

teeth

IN

the side

been

(Fig. 7)
number

additional

twelve

JAW

of

animals.

teeth," and

milk

OF

has

neighbour

possessing

ONE-HALF

teeth, and therefore

his

teeth

of

sets

"

set

by the

of

known

are

8.-" TEETH

Seen

in most

and

first teeth

twenty

upon.

importance

The

age.

our

POSITION

(fc).

thirty-two.

In each

and the same

number
arrangement
vail
prejaw the same
four front teeth or incisors,
are
(Fig. 8). There
canine or eye teeth, four premolars or bicuspids,
two
and

finallysix

molars

or

back

teeth

in each

jaw.

STORY

THE
The

molars

last

"wisdom

in

The

molars

in number
of

the

composed

of

is

which
denser
with

The

The

termed

find

third

second

each

dentine

bone
each

ence
differ-

and

and

tooth

is

or

ivory,

of

much

is coated

tooth

stance
sub-

root

we

resembling

in

known

of

top

presence

substance

somewhat
bone

from

not

enamel,

the

at

of

called

different

still harder

whilst

bulk

late

are

for the

of the

teeth

substance

jaw

set, the

accounting

first set.

texture.
a

thus

milk

of

name

their

to

in each

in the

the

very

the

presumably

between

39

receive

six molars

teeth

any

of the twelve

those

jaw

the

teeth," owing

development.
preceded by

DIGESTION

OF

structure

and

cement.

The

as

be added,
teeth, it may
tures,
typically skin-strucare
that is to say,

closely with

correspond
nails

and

mode

of

hairs

with

the

This

action

work

of

inwards

food

from

small

as

masses

at

the

organs

food

all parts

(Fig. 9)
of

boluses

membrane.

mucous

complicated

is somewhat

tongue

or

what

mixed
by the teeth and
is ready to be swallowed.

Divided

"

or

TONGUE

mouth, constitutes

the gum

briefly described

the

HUMAN

the papillaeor
of taste.

Showing

saliva, the

be

THE

layer,

popularly known
SWALLOWING.

Fig. 9."

that

from

skin

delicate

It may

velopment,
de-

origin and
seeing

which, folded
is

in their

originate

they
the

they

the

in its nature.

as

consisting first in the

in

gathering particlesof

mouth

suitable

and

gullet into

for swallowing

or

HUMAN

40

deglutition,
The

tip of

the mouth

received
known

which

the

tongue

and

the

food

tube

lid-like

time

therefore

passes

the

part of the

muscular

tube

does

weight

squeezed
wave-like

and

the

to

muscles

the

nose.

Cupper
to

entrance

gullet itself is

the

to

stomach.

by its

stomach

but

own

is rather

by the

stomach

of the

stomach, called the cardia,

Choking, we may
perceive, will be
action (such as speaking or coughing)
during

narrow

the

"

epiglottisprotecting

In

of

lying to
end

stomach

the

man,

of

the

being found

(Fig. 10) is

digestive tube,

the

the left side of the

the

pear-shaped

given off,this junction between

the bowels

swallowing

windpipe.

expansion
pear

of

process

of the

closure

to the

large end of the

is

the

gullet which act in

fashion, ultimately forcing food through

pear-shaped

bowel

food

of the

STOMACH.

the

of

of the

perfect

From

the

closely approximated

are

into the

the entrance
THE

be

windpipe into

popularly supposed,

interferes
the

of

the

pressed down

into that organ.

caused
by any
with

walls

pass

front opening

which

to

lungs guarded by a
the
epiglottis. This

gullet. The

passage

not

or

contraction

the

of

prevent

reaches

behind

and

whose

is often

as

as

to

find the

we

to the

over

the

during

Food

roof

swallowing is naturally performed,

food
and
the
windpipe entrance,

the

upper

channel

known

when

over

the

where

passage-way

structure

structure,

closed

still backwards,

windpipe

or

being

fluid from

passing

part of the

save

to the

tilted backwards

food-mass

same

of any

closes

placed

grasped by the upper part of the throat

This
is a
muscular
the pharynx.
bag
as
is drawn
the
to meet
food, the hinder
up

escape

that

is next

and

nostrils at the

The

is scientificallytermed.

action

the

as

PHYSIOLOGY

on

the

body.
bag the

the stomach

right side

of the

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

42

circulate

to

mixed
out

with

it is

layer, as

mucous

with

contact

onwards

This

into

in the
upwards
gullet.
naturally differ according

discharged
this

found.

These

into

stomach

the

which

by

named

the

Again

cells, for

the

to

of

makers

glands.
the cells

deep down

are

gland

each

part of the

tube

GASTRIC

JUICE.

fluid of

shall see,

much

with

the

upon

of

the work

line the tubular

which
has

also

that

shown

to

seems

undergo

from
into the

poured

the lower
stomach.

gastric juice of the stomach

The

It

importance.
definite

very

through

it advances

as

until it is
"

aperture

gastric juice of the

therefore

secretes

opening

those
glands differ from
tubes.
The
gastric juice

the

of elaboration

process

is

in the
of

mouth

the

nearer

lining and

face

the

microscopic cells
Microscopic research

stomach

peptic

or

embedded

tube

gland is poured

face

come

we

stomach

the

gastric

minute

of

minute

of the

secretion

the

food.

are

of the stomach's

substance

in the

glands

It is in

tube.

the

the

consisting of

glands, each

of

tinued
con-

functions

various

the

to

in

it appears
it contains

as

glands

The

or

comes

layer is

mucous

parts

layer that

mucous

are

different

at

which

intestine

the

pours

stomach,

the

called, is that

food.

the

stomach

the

coating of

inner

The

thoroughly

become

so

which

secretion

the

it.

upon

it and

within

of

action

exercises,
certain

upon

as

we

foods.

called

(amongst
salt bulks somewhat
largely),an acid
common
found
hydrochloric acid, and a specialferment

in

other

find

We
which

no

it to

consist

of

secretion

water,

the

minerals

and

body

known

as

pepsin. The digestive action of gastric juice is no

doubt
specially due to the action of the pepsin and
the

acid, but

ignore

at

the

the part which

same

may

time
be

we

cannot

played

afford

in such

to

action

STORY

THE

likewise
and
by the minerals
represented in the secretion.
adult

the

considerable

very

in

be

The

cubic

water

capacity

of

pints and

five

ated
gastric juice is elaborof a single day's
course

of

amount

secreted

and

by the

it may

is about

stomach

human

43

DIGESTION

OF

the

that the
It is interesting to note
digestive work.
obtained
first accurate
analysis of gastric juice was
of Alexis
St. Martin, a Canadian
from
the
case

early in the nineteenth

trapper, who
from
This

wound

sense

that

healed

somewhat
left in the

flap was

penetrated his side.

too
perfectly in the

which

wound

gunshot

suffered

century

lifting this flap the interior of the

medical
His
be
could
inspected.

by

side, and

man's

stomach

man's

attendant, Dr.

exceptional
an
recognised that this was
of digestion.
opportunity for investigating the process
He
samples of gastric
accordingly obtained
Beaumont,

likewise

juice for analysis and

with

of

analogous
much

thrown

It

digestion.
foods

are

than

light

to

seems

be

more

the

and

easy

in

vegetable

that

for digestion

longer time

of digestion than

foods,
readily
mutton

meats,

amongst

have

stomach

diet ; whilst of animal

be
to
more
appear

purely animal

fowl
fish, tripe, and
digested than meat;

of

work

require

to

Cases

foods.

occurred, and

briefly said

be

may

found

the

on

times

ascertaining the
since

have

nature

ments
experi-

many

digestion of various

in the

occupied

of

view

the

made

and

beef

pork.
THE

STOMACH'S
its

stomach
On
to
raw

the
the

WORK.

lining membrane
of food

entrance

walls

of the

material

elaborate

"

and

out

stomach
of

which

manufacture

food

Before
is of
rush

the

pale pink hue.

of blood

in order

the

enters

to

takes

place

supply

gastric glands

gastricjuice.

the
may

Accord-

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

44

interior

ingly, the
said

blush

to

during

the

the

food.

food, and
we

in

hinder

The

which

into

leads

muscular

valve-like

it is

is, when

that

food

for the

arrives

completed

the

out

digestion in

the

STOMACH
made

already been

the

the

discharged

Hence

is only

there

which

stomach

exert

can

any

food

the

exists

has

of

"

or

in
to

intestine.
that

which

upon

action.

has

is inferior

interesting fact

decided

the

stomach,

the

foods

the

Allusion

the

"

been

forces

bowel

of

in

into the intestine

stomach

time

proper

the

at

class

one

as

ring uncloses, and

work

say

arrive

now

we

by,

stomach,

which

of its labours

respect that the amount

that

in

the

DIGESTS.

to

proceed

cardia, as we
pylorus is kept closed by

pass

THE

figure-

remains

of the stomach
subsequent contraction
digested material into the bowel.

WHAT

is made

to

by

aperture

that this muscular

"

secretion

the food

of

only when

to

the

food

arrangement

situation, and

that

unconscious,

intestine, is known

the

The

already noted.

have

the stomach's

appear

being termed

stomach

the

gastric

somewhat

aperture

(Fig. 10), the

pylorus

enters

period that

The

with

that

appear

literallybe

are

food

the

the stomach

whole

stomach.
that

or

of

fashion, and this again would

of-8

the

mix

to

within

circulate

may

in health

It would

of the organ.

stomach

the

upon

which

thoroughly

serve

the

entrance

out

of

movements,

to

the

on

juice is poured

of

These

the

foods

have
nitrogenous ones, represented, as we
by albumen, casein, legumin, gluten, and the
seen,
the
like. They
typical bodybuilding
represent of course

are

the

As

elements.

of

daily

our

starch,

sugar,

stomach's

meals
and

share

by

far

consists

the

larger proportion
of non-nitrogenous

fat, it therefore
in the work

of

follows

that

the

digestionis relatively

THE

small;

STORY

small, however, it must

nevertheless
of high importance.

that

if

certain

and

starches

minor

sugars

45

DIGESTION

OF

regarded

be

as

denied

It is not

non-nitrogenous
be exerted by the stomach,

action
may

on

is the action
all-important part of its work
which it exerts
on
nitrogenous articles of diet.
The
PEPTONES.
gastric juice thoroughly mixed
but

the

"

with

the

contained

sugar

have

may

mouth

leaving practicallyunaltered

food, and

in the

escaped

articles
or

of

as

into bodies

known

chief

differences

between

directed.

The
and

stomach
the

veins

result

is

of the

with

it converts
of the

One

food

the

it

peptone,

"

it

can

whole
course

business

which

leave

the

bloodvessels

into the

in

themselves

join

the

large vessel

very

the

portal vein
liver,so that

the

the

stomach

representing

the

have

to

been

the

been

the

out

from

the

as

we

What

in the liver will hereafter

be noted

that

direct

it has

nitrogenous

consumed*

appears
it dis-

that

liver is the

separate

peptones,

changed

find

we

which

peptones

of the food; these

but it should

be

of

of

peptones

peptones

find

then

here

may

of

of

diet which

the

last is the

portal vein," returning blood from

In
the
tracing
digestive organs.

the

as

this

attention

is that

They

stomach

destination

the

that, as

genous
nitro-

on

contact

and

peptone

described

as

pass

into the

rest

in

"peptones."

which

to

organ.

known

the

of the

seen,

characteristics, but

other

special feature

the

saliva

pass

possesses

of

which

and
through the walls of the stomach
The
absorbed
by the bloodvessels.
peptone

easily
be

starch

of this class

as

previously represented

have

Coming

foods

them

any

of the

we

diet.

other

any

and

action

the

its power,

exerts

albumen

food

the

already from

have

seen,

articles

of

happens to
be described,
the

stomach

HUMAN

46

have

PHYSIOLOGY

the

absorption into
highly important articles of

we

seem

the

if nature

as

nitrogenous

purposes

be

taught

foods

of

are

food.

the

most
al-

lesson

that

body-building

for

required

would

It

us

certain

of

blood

the

high importance, and,

such, have

as

quickly passed into the

the
on
circulation; the starches, fats, and sugars,
other
hand
being less important, and requiring to

to

wait

readily and

more

for digestion in the

stomach

may

half-way

house

progress

of

in order

that

there

food

ultimate

is for

be

with

destination, namely
LIVER.

journey

be said

may

of the food

from

the

to

into

blood

into

stomach

liver,

the

the

their

digestive

the

with

commence

into

current.

of

stage

arrested

fitted for

and

the

third

The

"

The

converted

foods

onwards

passed
dealt

being

time

the

nitrogenous

the

further

be

to

THE

on

should

peptones

intestine.

or

of
as
a kind
regarded in this sense
the digestive journey in which the

be

the

bowel

passage

intestine

the

or

bowel.
the

this portion of
Immediately the food enters
the liver
with bile from
digestive tube it meets

(Fig. 11)

and

sweetbread.
the

tube

food
from

of the
and

secretions

two

the

liver is

the

diameter
an

The

body, weighing
the

to

the

lower

are

pancreas or
poured upon
duct

or

frequently joining that

liver.

the

the

point, the

same

sweetbread

lying

beneath

of

These

the

from

pounds,

part

juice from

practically at the

coming
organ

sweetbread

liver

between

right of

is

the

three

the

largest
and

stomach

ribs of that side.

four
tered
shel-

Essentially

colony of "hepatic" or liver cells,

of each
cell averaging the
1-1,000th

great
inch.

Into

the

liver

there

passes

from

ous
portal vein already mentioned, a continufrom
the digestive
returned
supply of blood
at large. This
blood, as we shall see, is laden
organs

the

great

STORY

THE
with

DIGESTION

47

products of digestion in the shape of foods

the

absorbed

of the

OP

from

the

intestine.

liver lies the

of bile.

bile,and

As

the

is

it is stored

gall-bladder

in the

whence

special duct, joining that coming

it to

Fig.

liver

at

are

else.

the

it has

the

work.

of

been

well

engines

work

least

the

The

of

from

duties

of

the
the

DIGESTIVE
VIEW
OF
in situ.

it makes

highly

making

the

be termed,
As

is

The

bowel.

threefold.

is that

This

because

FRONT
ORGANS

11."

least

of this organ

the

for

constantly demanded

purposes,

liver, conveys

house
store-

liver is perpetually secreting

the

digestive
a

surface

under

gall-bladder which

this fluid is not

as

On

common

bile and
erroneous

of bile represents,

conception
does
nothing
supposition,
if it may
so
of the organ.

important labour
discharged from
put, the water

steamer

vessel, but
secretion

does

merely

not

represent

the

result

of

of bile similarlyrepresents

the
that

in

HUMAN

48

reality a kind of
is made

useful

THE
the

is to

deal

nitrogenous

foods

conveyed

it from

deal

to

with

chemical

action

of peptones

to

disorder

that

liver's work

of

in this respect.

That

blood

give rise

to

little

seems

bilious

so-called

interference

to

selves
them-

the

there

cases

to

history

the

into

pass

many

really due

are

is to

If peptones

liver, they would

the

doubt

to

reason

certain

point in

of body-poisoning, and

symptoms

cells

being added

for

be noted.

to

allowed
from

liver

The
exert

curious

be

to

seen

stomach.

suitable form

refuses

unchanged

have

and

changed

or

them, the effect of which

upon

somewhat

were

peptones

we

duty of

first

The

"

the

the

product which

of the body.

peptones

into

blood.

the

with

which

these

them

change

product, only

waste

in the economy
PEPTONES.
AND

LIVER

liver

PHYSIOLOGY

with

the

wise
food, other-

our

of perfectly healthy character, may

therefore
chemical
injuriouslyaffect us if proper
changes are
not

of

effected
our

be

constitution.

between

food

the

other.

It is

to the

liver's work

body

may

be
than

perhaps

obviously

The

to

the

on

hand

detected
in any

in

liver
as

THE

LIVER

liver is that

either

which

have

digestive action.
and

"

taken

sugar
seen

From

are

of the

readily
body, the

as

such

of digestion.

duty of the
sugar-foods which
such,

converted
the

into the

more

the process
The
second
the

on

in relation

filteringaction

of dealing with

represent
we

SUGAR.

AND

blood

the

liver

organ

exercising here, the same

it discharges naturally in

stands

poisons taken
the

other

and

interest

some

actual

might

filter which

one

fact of
that

fact

remarkable

liver in this respect

somewhat

compared

the

it is

upon

intestine

starches

or

into

sugar

sugar

by

is absorbed

carried to the liver by the portal vein.

In

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

50

will be

The
result is an excess
presently described.
of sugar-supply
condition
enfeebled
inducing a much
of body, associated
with kidney-trouble, represented

by

of

this

the

disease
to

appear

increased

much

very

arise

from

defect

liver

and

duty carried

out

specially devoted

of

of

lack

sugar-producing

its
some

centre

nerve

in

the function

regulation of

to the

of

working

shape

by

it would

but

in the

taking the

origin

The

undetermined,

some

the

over

functions

still

system

nervous

control

is

flow of urine.

question.
THE

BILE.
which

matter

from
the
to

is

is

Bile

"

the

the

blood.

is

be

cells of

the

liver

liver may

thus

The

skin, lungs, and

deal

with

from

inseparable
a

dark

character.
made

useful.

the

the

Poured

and

fats

globules of the

the

which

waste

Bile

complicated

product

waste

food, it exerts
of

tends

of life.

fluid of

the

on

with

which

tear

seen,

separated

be ranked

organ

an

wear

the

on

as

waste

as

have

proportion of the

greenish-coloured
It is,as we
have

digestive action
down

kidneys,

certain

regarded

to

special

food, breaking

fat, emulsifying them

and

readily incorporated with

Bile
also more
other
foods and
readily absorbed.
also exercises
the food a certain antiseptic action
on
preventing the food in the intestine from undergoing
thus

rendering

them

whilst

injurious changes,
stimulating the
attributed

to

constipation
other
THE

We

see

becomes

of

function, that

be
intestine,may
lack of this stimulating

of the
a

of the

account

on

third

marked

deficiency of bile,
amongst

symptom

signs of digestive irregularity.

SWEETBREAD.

lies below
organ

movements

it.

action, when,

more

in

and

in

"

front

shape somewhat

sweetbread

The
of

the

or

stomach.

resembling

pancreas
It is

an

dog's tongue,

THE
the

tip of
body. The

into the

the

duct

The

of

the

manufactured

It is

organ.

At
contained

in

substance

known

it.

foods

stomach
the

any

of these

of

the

and

amylopsin, this substance

acting

saliva and

again,

we

meet

foods

starchy
into the

therefore
fourth

ferment

milk.

The

which
and
to

is

is known

act

upon

all kinds

internal
the

blood.

It is

destroy
has

or

otherwise

this internal

verted
con-

secretion.

fats, and

on

bile, whilst
its

food, nitrogenous

of

secretion

that
to

researches

seem

passed

be

what

meant

not

to

to

into

this latter ferment

change

mentioned,
secretion

importance
only digestive fluid

passed into the blood.

diabetes, already

Here,

duly

derives

Recent

food, but

supposed

ptyalin

also manufactures

the sweetbread

an

as

rennin, this last curdling

it is the

alike.

in

whereby
unchanged

and

of the

secretion

can

that

of nature

upon

work
as

fact that

upon

where

the

the

called

acted

the

known

sugar.

by the sweetbread
called
steapsin, acts

non-nitrogenous

which

be

sweetbread

poured
to

will

from

show

have

have

of

the

passed

assist

must

does

as

which

intestine

ferment,

is that

genous
nitro-

into peptones

into

into sugar
third

juice

changing starch
with an expedient
may

by

which

foods

changed
ferment

the

on

gastric

second

of the

acts

are

first

represented

trypsin which

position.
com-

ferments

different
are

will be altered

intestine.

fluid of complicated

These

action

to the

or

four

that

devoted

organ

an

pancreatic juice,
blood supplied to the cells of

clear

as

so

the

escaped

is

least

leads

join the duct of the liver

may

the

sweetbread

the

sweetbread

from

51

right side of the

the

to

of

tube

or

sweetbread

secretion

DIGESTION

OF

lying

tongue

intestine,and

itself.

the

STORY

or

Hence

it is
of the

be
the

tends

utilise sugar
in

cases

supposed
sweetbread

of
that
fails

HUMAN

52

act, the

to

attain

in the

sugar

dimensions

and

thus

phase in the history of

ABSORPTION.
of

of

excess

great

serious

PHYSIOLOGY

the

We

"

have

through which
noted

that

the

food

has

considerable

12."

at

the

the

Reviewing

already passed, we

OF

very

of diabetes.

arrived

amount

SECTION

constitute

cases

now

digestive journey.

to

is likelyto

blood

of the

close

stages
have

nutriment

BODY

Showing (a)windpipe; (6)junction of thoracic

duct; (c) junction of right duct with vein in
neck ; (d) aorta, or main
descending artery ;
(e e) lungs ; (/) diaphragm ; (g)kidney.

already been

has

conveyed

into the

blood.

Thus

and
reached
the
early left the stomach
through the liver,supplying nitrogenous foods
circulation and thus placing them
quickly at

peptones
blood
to

the
we

the

service
saw,

of

passes

the
up

body.
the

Sugar

from

portal vein and

the

intestine,

is dealt with

STORY

THE
liver.

At

the

close

receives

the

name

of

it leaves

the

by the
which
when

chyle is

It is absorbed

of vessels
on

the

from

which

cells

the

through

by

forming
is

the

on

the

of

wall

these

absorbent

termed

tube

(Fig. 12) lying

Passing

villi.

by the

conveyed
a

duct

case.

in appearance.
delicate series

outer

to

thoracic

called

mentioned

already

left side

the
of the

into this tube, the chyle is passed

Received

spine.

milk

intestine

intestine

projections,the chyle
vessels

really the

to be

their origin in little projections

take

of the

walls

consist

therefore

must

resembling
the

food,

the

chyle (itis called chyme

this is found

fluid

53

digestion

of

stomach),

largely of fats,and
The

DIGESTION

OF

find the thoracic

duct
upwards, and ultimately we
ending in a large vein at the root of the neck on the
left side (Fig. 12). At this point we
regard in one
may
sense

situated

as

the blood.
has

absorbent

The

duties

other

to

the food

junction between

the

system

of

and

vessels,however,

discharge in addition to that of

the digestive system to the blood.

bringing chyle from

the
All through
body

find

we

delicate

absorbent

lymphatics (Fig. 13). They are found

This
fluid
clear fluid known
lymph.
as

vessels termed
to

carry

really represents colourless blood, and the lymphatics

of the blood which
receive this lymph as the overflow
has
so

of

escaped from the finest bloodvessels of the body

minute
structures
directly to nourish the most
as
back

lymph

As

body.

the

to

absorbent

the

thoracic

the

duct

vessels
and

to

carry
a

this

smaller

neighbour duct situated at the right side of the

of the lymph
spine (Fig. 12),the ultimate destination
and

is

to

seen

it is

stream
seen

be

to

the food

be
we

the

blood

current,

ultimately poured.

nourished

eat, and

from

second

two

from

and

into the blood

body

The
sources,

the

is thus

first from

lymph, which,

HUMAN

54

representing
from

up

the

What

exist in various
with
as

the

blood-supply, is gathered

of

excess

part of the frame

every

circulation.

PHYSIOLOGY

known

are

of

prominent

in the

(Fig. 13), in

sides

the

of

vessels

find

We

groin, and

in

to

the

Lymph

circulation,the duty of these

it and

elaborate

being added
repair and
THE

to

the

renewal

gland," and

stomach
as

to

blood

fit it

by

of that
The

SPLEEN."

side of the

thus

therefore

be

absorbents

these

glands
arm-pits
of

parts

the

ARM.

RIGHT

on

its way

back

glands being

more

to

perfectly for

of assisting in the

way

fluid.

spleen
may

or

13.

OF

through them

passes

connected

other

Fig.
LYMPHATICS

body.

are

neck, in the

the

the

to

lymphatic glands

as

called.

also

are

returned

parts of the body, and

lymphatic system

they

and

situated

regarded

closely related

the

to

"

as

left
blood

in its nature

STORY

THE

the

to

lymphatic

described.

body,

issuing

is

from

therefore

into

the

say,

it

it

like

the

But
A

large

vein

leaves

blood

is

current

of

organ.

It is found

has
than

blood

the
the

regard

in

of

the

in

of

opinion
of

known

as

substance

of

that
red

to

it

spleen,

in
be

may

added,

removed

from

the

existence

being

materially

is to

really
for
which

by

be

found

lymphatic

the

work

it belongs.

other

of

body

in

the

gland,
of the

in

other

the

capable

animals

that,

glands

seem

of

are

ture
manufaclatter

of

organs

its absence

white

authorities

are

the

body.

of

being

without

impaired.
idea

the

may

corpuscles

these

is

we

corpuscles

these

although

elaborated

spleen

examination

aids

also

corpuscles,

be

red

Some

spleen

this

it would

show

to

breakdown.
the

of

of, because

The
as

corpuscles

that

so

worn-out

seems

the

or

Furthermore,
old

it and

through

cells

it,

with

continuous

manufactory

disposed

are

stages

white

enters

the

spleen

blood

all

The

spleen

the

spleen

the

which

in question.

corpuscles
that

of

of

system

leaving

blood

be

to

enters

passing

the

and

supplied

that

so

always

that

well

artery

it,

number

larger

large

very

other

or

is

duct

or

secretion

any

spleen

the

tube

the

sweetbread,

or

tube

of

glands
no

liver

been

already

ductless

possesses

digestive

55

have

elaborate

not

bloodvessels.
very

the

to

the

body.

of

one

does

poured

which

glands

It is

that

DIGESTION

OF

the

their

tion
explanaspleen

is

is compensated
of

the

system

to

HUMAN

56

PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER

THB

THE

STORY

CIRCULATION.

service

OP

THE

In order

"

the food

from

obtained

IV

should

HEART

that the nourishment

be duly placed at the

of every
tissue, and cell of the body,
organ,
This
be duly circulated through the frame.

it must

find

function

we

through

the

pumping

tubes
engine, and by the bloodvessels
or
directly or indirectly in communication

which
with

are

the

of

and

nook

of

medium

itself.

heart

currency

accordingly

The

body,

the

heart

blood,

performed

as

the

as

and

system,

central

common

find its way

must

of the

corner

the

be

to

to

every

shall

we

of distribution
perfect mode
nutrient fluid is secured
by the arrangements

that

and

heart

difference
we

stand

return

the

these

between

us,

river

to note

flow.

mere

things

that

note

we

to be

"circulation"

not

two

of

banks

the

on

importance

it is

that

dealing with, and

passing

water

It is of

bloodvessels.

are

we

the

existing in the shape of the

as

first instance

in the

blood

of

very

presently described

note

The

is obvious.
and

the

of

If

watch

the

will not

water

again, but will flow to the sea or lake in which

the
other
river ends.
Circulation, on
hand,

implies a return of
at
or
starting-point,
which

tends

of the
idea of

in

circulation

which

is circulated

least includes
to

sense

distribution
a

that

of

repeat

blood

journey

itself.

through

the

the

to
or

In the

cycle
case

body,

is really represented; for if

the
we

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

58

in order
with

that the

it has

which

of the

results

and

bodily wear

should

encumbered

become

tear

be

excreted.

duly
THE

COURSE

followed

OF

"

The

in its circulation

blood

the

by

CIRCULATION.

THE

described

be

may

present stage of

the

at

course

propriate
ap-

our

quiries.
en-

from the lungs, enters

blood, returned
is the
left auricle (Fig. 14) of the heart, which
Pure

the

and

smaller

of

chamber

upper

acting

as

that

side, the auricle

receiver

the

auricle

From

the

passes

directly to
this last

blood

left ventricle,

the

being the pumping

and

chamber,

of the blood.

by the

tions
contrac-

of this cavity of the heart

blood

is

sent

whole

body
arteries.
Becoming
the

body the

the

throughout
by
conveyed

the

impure

in

is returned

blood

right auricle of the heart,

the
it passes
to
whence
right
to

in turn
sends
ventricle, which
it to the lungs for purification.
From
the
lungs the purified

DIAGRAM
COURSE
OF
CIRCULATION

Fig. 14."
THE

OF

blood

THE

and

Impure blood is represented

by

the

auricle,
its

resumes

circulatory journey. In

tion
connec-

the black

the circulation

with
to note

are

left

the

more

once

tint.

which

to

passes

employed

to

the bloodvessels

distribute

blood

we

have

or

tubes

through the

body.
ABOUT
are

with

BLOODVESSELS.

THE

bloodvessels
the

which

left side

left ventricle

is

of

are

the

"

The

in direct

heart, and

perpetually pumping

arteries

(Fig.14)

communication
into
pure

them

the

blood

for

THE

possessing

the

body.

of

wave

of

stroke

the

heart.

serving

artery,

tube, assists

the

which

pulsation
propelled

is

in part

be

every

the

found

in

artery

of

the

about

it is the

of
to

blood

of

wave

the

the

vessels
blood-

non
phenome-

wrist

inch

an

above

or

the base
thumb

the

on

that

particular

side

of

where
called

artery

the

artery

the

radial

lies

course

of the

familiar

artery

divide

and

Fig.

CAPILLARIES

15."

OF

SKIN.

THE

near

fast

how
any

arm

an

surface

the

body.
and

the

To

convenient
heart

is

until

we

pulse is of

fashion

beating.

sufficientlyfar in its
sub-divide

the

count

course

reach

If
we

branches

of

taining
ascer-

trace

we

find
so

it to
fine

by aid of the microscope.

only be seen
of these
finest divisions
of
perfect view
very
arteries
called capillaries (Fig. 15) can
be obtained

that

the

the

body, but it is

felt at

of

"pulse"

definitely

of

each

at

the

contraction

gives rise

which

most

so

the

the

to

coating of

heart, and

by

up

length

contraction

the
the

more

the

as

pulse.

set

by

themselves
known

its

muscular

of

work

of

coating

little resistance

offers

The

vessel

It is therefore

produce

to

is

artery

propelled along

blood

59

developed

elastic tube, and

less

can

An

fairly well

HEART

THE

fibres in its walls.

muscular

the

OF

over

conveyance

or

STORY

they

can

by observing the web

of

frog's foot under

the

microscope.

bloodvessels
the

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

60

of

the

minute

most

and

has
the

already been noted in

of
work
absorption."

the

"

continued

beyond

circulation

The

of vessels

of

veins.

As

further

parts

veins

of

last

at

vessels
the

Fig.

16.

CAPILLARIES
BODY

"

AND

fluid
through the

passes

capillarywalls
nourishes

entering

of the

heart.

Another

blood

and

for

purposes

We

have

and

as

capillaries,and
pumped

by the

through

the

flow
the

veins.
force

system

of

river current

have

from

the

three

sets

in the

blood

the

is

left side

liver

mentioned.

body, namely
The

seen,

digestive

it to the

already

of arteries

slowing down

of blood

force of

the

through

blood

large

large vein,

we

carries

thus

from

right auricle

the

portal vein,

large

parts of the

upper

concerned
of

blood

veins

organs

the cells.

two

respectively, these

returns

blood

in

return

and

larger,

body

the

CELLS
The

lower

the

in their course,

ending

which

in

they

body

the

receiving branches
and

leave

larger and

become

in

begin

veins

the

name

end

arteries

Thus

capillaries, and

to

by the

known

them.

ever,
is,how-

and different

into another

set

tend

the

bloodvessels

finest

these

onwards

with

contact

(Fig. 16). This fact

section dealing with

nourish

to

vessels,
blood-

minute

the

to

itself

blood

The

directly in

comes

parts it is intended

of

blood

the

tissues.

and

finest

the

are

convey

fine walls

the

thus

capillaries

body, and

cells

through

passes

These

of

vessels
of bloodtion
distribu-

arteries,
naturally
the

heart

and

capillaries,the
in the capillariesjust as
is much

lessened

when

THE

begins

river

the

STORY

the

to

the

HEART

THE

out

61

ground into

level

over

circulation

The

channels.

of
return
veins, that
is, the
right side of the heart, is due
There

causes.

which
side

flow

to

of small

larger number

in

OP

is

is first of

force

all the

perpetually being

sent

various

to

blood

of the
from

out

blood

the

left

the

of the

heart, each oncoming rush of blood, so to

of the lower
speak, forcing onwards, and, in the case
part of the body, upwards, in the veins, the blood
which

it.

preceded

has

muscular

Again, the

ments
move-

of the

body compressing the veins, assist the

of the blood, any tendency to backward
flow

return

being prevented by the

The
pocket-like valves.
towards
in

the

heart,
direction,

that

which, meeting in the

regurgitation of
THE

BLOOD."

whilst

blood

back-flow

any

vessels

of

of the pockets open

mouths

that

so

in these

presence

easily passes

fills the

middle, offer

pockets,

obstacle

an

to

blood.

the
With

of the blood

regard

to

find that

we

chemical

the

it contains

position
com-

large
proteid
a

proportion of water, so much

nitrogenous or
held
in solution, this matter
matter
being derived
from
the food, and
certain
of mineral
amount
a
in

matter

addition.

body gives
and

rises above.

in

the

an

twigs it did

not

falls to the

bottom

the

the

serum,

are

clot
tangled
en-

developed when
body, and known
as

apparently
from

the

experiment

animal
clot.

of

liquid which

corpuscles of the blood which

old

from

from

ultimately

separates

liquid is termed

is removed

"fibrin." An
blood

it then

substance

drawn

layer of straw-coloured

This

consistingof
blood

for

parts, the clot which

vessel, and

the

when

idea of its physical characteristics

an

composition,

into two
a

us

Blood

was

The

taught
switched

reason

that
with

for this

if fresh
willow

change

in

62
the

behaviour

fact

that

the

HUMAN

PHYSIOLOGY

of

blood

the

switching

explained

is

fibrin

removes

blood, this substance

being found
whitish
attached
jelly-like threads
Blood, therefore,
fluid part to

which

solid parts

and

which

blood

are

the

for

be

may

shape of
the
twigs.

of two

parts,

is

plasma

regarded

given,

have

of

speck of blood

which

are

body. The
highly important

the

their

also

real

the

as

substances

the

nourishment

the

corpuscles, however,
uses.

the

represented by the corpuscles of the

of two
The
kinds, red and white.

plasma of the blood

blood, for it contains
essential

from

to

of

name

the

in the

be said to consist

may

by

between

pressed

two

thin plates of glass and

examined

microscopically,

the

shows

clear

plasma of the blood liquid,whilst

puscles
corfloating in it are innumerable
be
(Fig. 17). Blood
may
regarded

(a)
in

less.

corpuscles
rouleaux;
(c

It is not
be

viewed

in

and

the

seen,

tumbler

to

which

float in it.

is
and

due

to

it is

treated

as

the

infinite
So

if

immense

of
the

number

blood
the
only when
described, that the

to

ditch
the

in

eye.

itself

water

is then

number

wav

of this water

some

clear

the

with

in

cor-

blood

the

in this

mi^ht
in colour

colour

green

be due

the

float in

to water

green

to the

of red blood

number

because

really green,

blood

the

its red colour

owes

compared

appears

plasma," is itself colour-

puscles which
lic*uid- Blood
be

which

It

immense

red

summer

"

liquor,or

BLOOD
CORPUSCLES.
17."

really

as

fluid,seeing that

clear

Fig.

therefore

perceived

small

green

blood;

is
to

plants

its colour

of

red

is

microscopically

eye

is

corpuscles,
capable

of

THE

STORY

HEART

THE

fluid in which

clear

the

perceiving

OP

63

the

corpuscles

float.
BLOOD

THE
it has

to

"

Two

kinds

of corpuscles
,

been

noted, exist in the blood, the red and the

far more
The red (Fig 18) are
than
numerous

white.
the

CORPUSCLES.

being 1 white
white, the proportion on the average
the proportion
600 or 700 red, although after meals

of white

corpuscles

to

appears

be increased, but

soon

just stated.
apparently lessened down to the amount
be set down
The
size of a red corpuscle may
the
on
about

at

average

the 1 -3,200th of
inch
a

in

diameter;

white

is

an

corpuscle

somewhat

ger,
lar-

about

the

1 -2,500thof

inch

an

portant
im-

Very

across.

ences
differbe

to

are

noted

between

white

and

the

Fig.
red

not

in
their

ly
mere-

(a) those
of

respect

oval and

but

nature,

also with

18."

puscles,
cor-

reference

to the
a

bin

which

very

iron.

This

substance

giving colour

to

as

fact

just related

of the
oxygen

from

red

blood

may

BLOOD

(6) those of a frog

nucleated, that is,having a
central particle.
of

man

they perform. The

substance
called hcemoglo-

corpuscles contain
a

RED

duties

red

contains

DIFFERENT
CORPUSCLES.

of
appreciable amount
be regarded as therefore

minister
blood, and the value of iron adfinds in the
blood
tonic, therefore

the

justification. The haemoglobin

with
corpuscles readily combines

full

in
breathe
all-important element
we
the atmosphere, this gas
being readily parted
gas,

the

HUMAN

64

PHYSIOLOGY

to the tissues ; for in the

with

vital action
utilised.

We

red

of the

be

can

blood

performed

discover

thus

result

from

the

great function

corpuscles is that of acting

and

of carbonic

acid

consists

lungs, is breathed

be
this gas may
tissue of the body.

also

carriers

that

if

the

on

in

the

serve

as

scavengers

arterial

acid

THE

the

the

they
The

of pure

lightred

the

darker

other

of

of waste.

or

of impure

colour

haemoglobin

WHITE

WHITE

HOW

Each

IT

CORPUSCLE

ALTERS

CORPUSCLES.

microscopic
red.

BLOOD

"

bodies

of very

white

blood

ITS

The

or

bonic
car-

darker

white

blood

corpuscle is

seen

MAN

OF

SHAPE.

white

corpuscles

different nature

from

corpuscle is in fact

living cell,and as such, possesses

in the blood
independent existence
Studied
under
special conditions by
a

the

on

so

is produced.

SHOWING

the

between

unites with

gas

Fig. 19."

are

distributors

as

oxygen,

lungs,

blood, is explained by the fact that when

venous

hue

and

blood

act

the

to

gas

for the removal

in colour

difference

they

of

shape

part of this waste

which, conveyed to the

red blood corpuscles are

acid

hand

food

waste

gas,

of carbonic
one

duty.

representing the

tear.

The

out.

the

as

that

so

the tissues, this waste

of bodily wear

food

other

no

perpetually conveyed to every

The red blood corpuscles discharge yet another
It has been
shown
that
the
blood
gathers
material

no

and

that

carriers of the blood,

oxygen

of oxygen

absence

to

kind

in which
the

move

of semiit lives.

microscope,
through the

HUMAN

66

PHYSIOLOGY

the signs of conflict

really represent
If
which is being waged in the bodily domain.
the white corpuscles be defeated and the inflammation,

of

inflammation

instead

of

pus

matter),

being allayed and subsiding, proceeds to

the length of suppuration, (that is the formation
of
or

consists

discover

we

of the dead
As

left dead

it may

such
a

on

bodies

battlefield,a

to

of

source

set

white

is the

danger

disease

up

puscles.
cor-

the

to

in

other
white

history of the

discharge the duty of

the alert to combat

on

really

practically in all animals

corpuscles which

appear

defeated

of the

"

matter

constitute, like the soldiers

territoryaround, and may

Such
parts of the body.
blood

"

that

thus

sanitary force, ever

of the body by disease-

invasion

producing particles.
THE

HEART.
at last

have

By

"

returned

it may

by which
through

our

in

substance

composed
is

is,it acts

which

frame.

butcher's

hollow

at

at

the

once

with

this

about

of

energy

legs,

or

the

animal's

to the

muscle

as

form

same

glance

shop will

is similar

of

The

circulates

that of the

mystery

no

fingers, arms,

our

force

the

heart, from

is thus

There

move

we

culation
of the cir-

cular
blood, and it is musexpel that fluid in the

to

its action.

and

heart

we

receive

to

contract

directions.

proper

route

system

be described

may

It is hollow

that

heart

of man,

to that

muscle.

the

to the central

itself. Any

the heart
insect

circuitous

somewhat

sents
repre-

nutrient
heart

show

of
us

flesh.

fluid
a

that

Both

difference

lock
bul-

that

its
are

the

of

involuntary muscle fibres,that

the ordinary
independently of the will, whereas

composed

muscles

of arms,

voluntary because
desire

they

when

we

same

time, the heart

movements
can

legs and
can

be
to be

so

forth,are

brought

termed

into action

At the
performed.
be affected, as will be seen,

THE

by and

it exists
A

relationship.
of

OF

the heart

semi-detached

of the

in

blood

In

houses.

heart

can

into

have
and

other.

sides.

two

of

ventricle,and

duty of

have

we

of

idea

the

is

heart

there

of

the

is

no

houses

partitionwall, so

the

side

one

of the

heart

of

heart,

the

as

we

called

auricle

that

it is the

also noted

the

it to two

As

chambers,

two

left side

the

one

side

Each

consists

seen,

words

other

directly from

pass

the

to

intimate

and

sufficientlycorrect

in
possibilityof the tenant
visiting his neighbour through
no

system,

nervous

gained by comparing

be

completely divided

67

close

very

plain but

may

HEART

THE

through the medium

which

with

STORY

propel

to

pure

blood

everywhere
through the body, the function
of the right side being to send impure blood brought
it

the

veins

Having

regard

to

sides

the

to

by
of

the

heart

the

to

that

see

purification.

performed

duties

we

for

lungs

by the

left side

the

two

(Fig. 21)

has

of the
do.
share
work
to
by far the greater
Hence, as might be expected, the left heart is the
much
being three
stronger side of the two, its muscle
four

or

THE

WORKING

auricles

similarly
has

to

OF

in

act

heart

diastole,whilst

when

*we

find

the two

that

into

ventricles

cavity of the

cavities

The

receives

the

the
tricles
ven-

expansion
the

cavity of the

each

heart

from

and

them,

the

name

heart

tracts,
con-

smaller, it naturally sends out

of contraction
being known
as systole.

is,grows

its blood; the act

Returning

the

studying the

we

themselves.

the auricles
of

right side.

blood, the auricles

pouring blood

dilatation

that

works

Each

the

In

"

together, and

dilate to receive

from

HEART.

unison.

of

of that

THE

the

contract

bloodvessels

or

thickness

the

in which

manner

two

times

for
must

moment

bear

to

in

the

mind

of

course

that

as

the

each

lation,
circuauricle

HUMAN

68

it sends

contracts

ventricle.
sent

out

other
these

As

case

blood

each

in the

there

the

corresponding

contracts,

(left)to the

case

(right)to

into its

below

ventricle

one

actions

PHYSIOLOGY

regard
minds

our

upon

is

blood

body, in the

Having

lungs.

dawns

the

to

the

V-

"

3.

Fig. 20."

SECTION

OF

HUMAN

HEART

(rightside).

(7) wall of right ventricle ; (2)left ventricle ; (3)right

auricle ; (4} appendix ; (5 and
6) great veins opening
into auricle ; (7)aorta ; (8) pulmonary
artery leading
the tricuspid
cords
of
to lungs showing valves (10)
; (P)
auricle and ventricle.
valve between

necessity for
any

reflux

direction.

blood

to the

or

contrivance

some

back-flow

When

lungs

each
or

of

by

the

ventricle

body,

so

much

way

blood

of

preventing

in the

contracts

wrong
to

of the blood

send
if not

THE

duly prevented
reflux

and

20

is

STORY

OF

by the valves
constitute

points connected
remarkable

into the

might return

prevented
21) which

HEART

THE

There

organ.

of

one

69

auricle.

the

of

heart

the

This

(Figs.

terestin
in-

most

with

the

structure

are

two

valves

of that
on

each

LV.

Fig.

21."

LEFT

SIDE

HEART

OF

OF

MAN.

(la)left auricle ; (Iv) thick wall of left ventricle : (mv)

mitral valve ; (pa) pulmonaryartery,and (sv1)its valve ;
(sy) semilunar valve of aorta (ao).
side

of the

heart, each

replicaof its neighbour

side

we

find

valve

called the mitral

neighbour

on

being

the other

between

more

side.

or

On

the auricle and

bicuspid valve

less

the left

ventricle

(Fig. 21 mv),

the

right side being called the tri(Fig.20, 9). Each of these valves may

valve

cuspid valve

or

valve

on

the

HUMAN

70
be described

consisting of flapsof the heart's lining

two
flaps existing on the left side, and
into the
right. These
flaps hang down
as

membrane,
three

the

on

cavity of
attached
blood

PHYSIOLOGY

ventricle, to the walls of which they are

by thin yet strong cords (Fig.20, 9.) When
the

from

downwards

passes

ventricle,these flaps,fallingdown,

against the

of the blood.

the

of

floated up

accurately and

the free

the ventricle

When

top of the blood

the

on

allow

so

instant, the flaps of the

an

into the

pressed closely

are

of the ventricle and

walls

downflow
work

auricle

the

is

valves

that their

so

filled,
are

edges

meet

brought into perfect tion

apposi(Fig.22, a)tthus forming a complete partition for

the

time

being between
of the

function

cords

understood.

be

ventricle

As

to

blood

the

on

cords

flow.

When

before

ventricle

the

muscular

to

of the ventricle (Figs.20, P,

the walls

of the

The

flaps can
now
the flaps of the

the

attached

in

22, a) pull the flaps down

pressure

ventricle.

under

is pressing upwards

prominences

back

and

auricle

attached

itself,these

empties
and

are

blood

opposition to the

and

the blood

thus

prevent

ward
upany

left the ventricle and

has

dilates,the flaps once

more
assume
a
dependent position,and thus permit of a fresh flow of

the

ventricle

blood
The

from

the auricle above

action

of these
in

compared
into

water

of the water,
or

valves

are

has

been

rough

way

to the

the

pond

and

raised

so

partition between
The

other

the great
are

called

valves

in

as

to

similar

bloodvessels
semilunar

up

cavities

rush
by the in-

flaps

the

perfect

porary
tem-

of the heart.

ventricle.

(Fig. 20, 10}

ning
run-

of the

exist at the entrance

leaving each
valves

of

leaves

fashion

constitute

the two

of the heart

effect

floated

are

below.

ately
inappropri-

not

The

pond.

empty

lying in

duckweed

ventricle

valves
a

an

to the

and

to

They
consist

THE
of three

STORY

OF

pockets placed in
The

edges of these

Fig. 22."

DIAGRAM

OF

HEART

THE

71

circle around

vessel.
the blood-

pockets being crescentic

HEART'S

THE

ACTION.

semilunar
valve
(") is open to allow blood to pass to lung. The valve (a)
passing back into the auricle (ra).
keeps blood from
to the left auricle
the lung purifiedblood returns
From
into the left
(la) by the pulmonary veins (pv) passes
the
the
and
aorta (ad).
out to
ventricle (Iv)
body through
(Note the cords which in the valve (a) prevent the flaps
from floatingup into the auricle.)

The

in

tricuspidvalve (a) is shut,

shape have

"half-moon"

given rise

to

shaped.

These

and

the

the

term

valves

"semi-lunar"
are

somewhat

or

already described

similar to those
The

from the ventricle,

of the pockets open
away
of blood from the ventricle into the
the passage

blood

If,however,
place, the
and

centre

THE

flow

BEATS.

of

individual

an

sound

as

heard

diagnosing

the

familiarity with
The

first sound

the

valves

of

are

sound

closure

of the

feature

connected

shorter

in their

to

describe
these

the heart

much
sounds, inashis

and

is

the

beats.

in disease.

by the action

takes

of

certain

contraction

mere

producing it. The

undoubtedly produced
valves.
the work

perfect working, it
What

his

on

in

semilunar
with

of

power

largely

is that of their instantaneous

long lifetime.

time

aids

nouncing
pro-

of these

caused

of opinion that

first

sharp.

ventricles, whilst

the

also

and

tain
cer-

It is of great

in health

to be

by the

moreover

d"p."

depend

must

appears

and

heart

sounds.

fairly by

physician

sounds

these

second

of the

is short

"

and

the

trouble

ventricles

the

"

of

between

authorities

over

show

imitated

be

lubb

case

heart

ear

distinct

observed

the meaning

to note

in

as

our

conscious, after

two

be

may

"

the words

importance

become

we

loud, the second

is long and
sounds

The

place

we

they proceed in pairs. The

in that

rhythm

If

"

it will further

sounds

These

in the

meet

regurgitation of

the

to

observation, of

little accurate

edges

takes

they regulate.

HEART'S

the heart

their

barrier

whose

reflux of the blood

or

fill and

oppose

blood

the

flow

back

pockets

of the pockets.

past the mouths

rushes

any

cause
(Fig. 22 6),be-

unfettered

is therefore

vessel
the blood

existing in veins.

as

mouths
and

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

72

even

The

vellous
mar-

of the valves

action, and

may

limited

be, during
space

of

taneously,
accomplished in the heart instanvalves
acting practicallyas often as
is

HUMAN

74

by the
and

twenty-four hours.

in scientific

what

to

in say

organ

PHYSIOLOGY

this statement

of work.
that

means

by the heart

in

raise

in

if all the

applied

and

hundred

one

Put

to

tons

twenty

hundred

one

plain language
work

expended
could
be gathered
it would
huge lift,

twenty-four hours

concentrated, and

up,

is called

language

foot-tons

twenty

This amounts

off the

foot

one

ground.
THE

HEART

familiar

AND

fact of life that

influenced

are

"

the

NERVOUS

THE

by

the

It is

"

of the

movements

emotions.

our

pulse of hope," and

individual

SYSTEM.

The

heart

poet speaks of

it is undeniable

that

when

is

happy, contented, and healthy, his

heart beats
freely and with vigour. On the other
hand, the play of a different emotion, such as grief,

an

in the

acts

opposite direction.

of

become
carried

of the

fully to appreciate

two

of organs,

brain

composed
the ordinary
exists

system

nervous

which

This

controls

it

latter system

performs,

with

in the

termed
the

might

very

the

itself,

of the

body,
of the

shape
of the

spine.

actions in the body which

own

or

Four

and
Jjeart

its

heart

to

the

nerves

find

we

ganglia.
the organ

These

system,
to

are

ded
Imbed-

masses

sympathetic

little government

well compare

of

sets

regulation.

of the heart

belonging

cardiac

heart's

in the

brain

of the

substance

cells

nerve

nerves

lies in front

of the heart.

work

concerned

in addition

that

of the

the

other duties
will,and amongst
it is responsible for controlling the

independent

ordinary

between

ourselves

system,

sympathetic system

are

relations

the

remind

to

spinal cord, and

second

then

but it is necessary,

system,

nervous

in order

the

beats

character, and the circulation is

less vigorously.
The
heart is well under

the control

to the

heart

slower

on

sets

The

of

system,
represent

so

that

we

territory like

Man

Isle of

the

OF

which

illustrates

regulating
for
of

the

that

heart

requires
muscle

the

sympathetic

of

branch

into the

and

heart

the

of

branch

known

dual

Connected

when,

that

whilst

is also

is made

for the

result

and

THE

it

the

reverse

of that

of
parent
ap-

becomes

stimulate

it,the
tends

and

thus

vagus

discover

the
nerve

slow

to

that

the

provision

of the heart

in health.

the other

down, the

vagus

hand, the heart

will then

nerve

play.

nerve

OF

THE

nervous

direction.

"

So

is exercised

control

which

HEART.

There

demands

discovered, instead

central

certain

action

nerves

quicken

If,on

of the circulation.

was

nerve

arise when

RELIEF

fourth

with

tem
sys-

experiment, it is shown

perfect control

be slowed

nervous

organ

important

heart's

of

brain

meaning

direction

will effect this end.

into

we

it is necessary
for the
to be increased, the sympathetic
nerve

work

to

the

We

If circumstances

requires

The

over

opposite

movements.

the heart

the

connected

sympathetic

of the heart

heart's

large and

heart.

the

as

the

in the

come

discover

we

with

from

Also

very

control

clear

heart's

like

sympathetic system
passing
connecting itself with the cardiac

ganglia of the

acts

action

to
so

muscle

the

the vagus

as

action

and

sible
respon-

The

stimulated

body,

ganglia just mentioned.

a

are

at work.

Keys,

of

system,

is circulated.

blood
a

House

Rule

represented by these
parts in the heart substance, will duly supervise
control
the ordinary actions whereby
the

and

find

of the

Home

ganglia

duly

be

to

75

the

own

These

keeping the heart

detached

the

its

that

other

every

THE

it possesses
its local affairs.

principlein

HEART

STORY

THE

of

system,
In other

far
over

very

the

plete
com-

central

yet remains, however,

attention.

This

conveying

orders

carries

messages

words, its

purpose

nerve,

from
in the
is to

warning

give

of

side
its

the

of

name

depressor
is

message

on

is

centre,

of

the

in

the

example

acting

and

gain

it

is

wide

in

the

the

just

described
under

forth

conditions

of

The

heart

the

through

in

as

the

case

obtained.
an

can

the

vessels
blood-

expand

than

of

mechanism

vessels
blood-

to

for

thus

body

this

by
the

made

relief

whereby

duties

itself.

heart

the

is

its

large

channels

heart

whole

the

to

be

may

to

easier

ones,

of

what

of

are

obviously

self-governing

relief

of

lates
regu-

received

sent

vessels

through

fatigue

better

to

especially

contracted

and

that

and

neighbourhood

blood

sudden

or

these

of

heart,

reflected

body

as

propel

narrow

than

once

The

which

relaxation

or

the

given.

centre

overworked

an

that

and

widely,

of

at

is

result

to

of

part

help

be

result

which

to

may

nerve

The

represented,

be

nerve,

nerve,

the

to

for

appeal

an

the

conveyed

bloodvessels,

the
called

relief

or

in

fagged

to

fourth

right

the

somewhat

begins

this

along

passes

if

Thus,

be

nervous

modification

labours.

fatigue

heart

the

necessary

particularly

if

of

part

of

heart's

heart

message

brain

the

the

and

work,

particular

in

in

made

be

to

to

situated

system

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

76

accurately
be

obtained
contrives

heart

strain

No

and

stress.

THE

STORY

OF

SKIN

LUNGS,

THE

CHAPTER

STORY

THE

WORK

THE

OF

LUNGS.

THE

SKIN

KIDNEYS

AND

ing,
of breath-

function

The

"

it is also

respirationas

or

77

LUNGS,

THE

OF

KIDNEYS

AND

termed, is discharged

Even
a casual
body with a double aim in view.
reveals at once
breathing movements
study of our
the fact that by the one
inspiration or
movement,
breathing in, we inhale air from the atmosphere, and
of expiration
by the succeeding and opposite movement
in the

breathing out,

or

air

the

examination

casual

very

breathed

that the two

to show

serves

of the

atmospheric

presently noted, whilst

lungs.

breathe

we

further
two

represent

composition

air,the

lungs.

between

out

movements

distinct phases of the work

in

breathed

that

the

difference

of the

and

in

air from

exhale

we

We

breathe

of which

will be

in addition

out

to

altered in its composition, certain

air, somewhat
other matters
representing part of our bodily waste.
By inhaling air we supply the body with the oxygen

the

which

gas,

all the
the

has

already been
of

processes

pure

blood

breathed

out

life,this

circulated

frame.

cell of the

On

from

the

the

much
thus

be loaded

warmer

learn

with

than

body

the
hand

with

exhaled

air

vapour
is

place regarding

gas

every

matters

air which
acid

air which

to

the

carbonic

watery

the

in the first

other

for

to be essential

being conveyed

lungs include

far

to

gas

through

larger proportion of
air breathed
in, whilst the

noted

shows
than

the

is found

wise
like-

and

to be

also

inspired.
the

duties

We
of

HUMAN

78

PHYSIOLOGY

lungs that whilst inspiration is really the

expiration is
feeding the tissues with oxygen,
the

devoted

which

waste

If

breathe

we

water

is

attends

through

given forth after each

and

milkier

becomes

water

ultimately

has

been

the

lime

of the water,

breathe

to

on

easier
cold

to

proves

gas

expiration.

For

the

of

that

us

into

it,

in the

chalk.

of carbonic

than
still.

matter

pane

being

warmer

glass

to

such

It

acid

to

that

the

air

the

air

we

We

have

notice

simple

only

which

scuring
ob-

the

ment
experi-

is exhaled

water

of vapour

in the form

breath

acid

demonstrate

of the service, whilst

also

carbonic

being chemically known

To

lungs is

life.

lime

addition

chalk

of lime.

the
given from
breathe
in, is an

bottle

longer we breathe
precipitate falls down

the

by

of

the

white

formed

carbonate

as

of

tion
ac-

of

that

act

work

vessel, this substance

of the

bottom

into

tube

evidence

find clear

we

continual

the

an

of part of the inevitable

ridding the body

to

of

act

in the

condenses

the

on

in every
crowded
familiarly seen
glass,a phenomenon
of which
closed.
are
railway carriage, the windows
function
of breathing has therefore
to be defined
The
in which
the nutrition of the body is
a double
one
as
in the first

served

in the

partly excreted
Am.

ABOUT
not

"

chemical

nitrogen.

instance, and the

The

body

second.

air

compound

Roughly

of the

waste

breathe

we

of

speaking

two

is

gases,

there

are

mixture

and

oxygen

and

about

twenty-

seventy-nine parts of nitrogen

air has
in a hundred
parts of air. Absolutely pure
for
this composition, but ordinary air, which
may
in
contains
be regarded as
practical purposes
pure,

one

parts of oxygen

addition

other

acid is
but

where

to

elements.

comprised

the

certain

in all air

quantity of this

save

gns

amount

the very
does
not

of

bonic
car-

purest,
amount

THE
to

STORY

OF

ozone

sea,

of

when

as

under

certain

realise

the

clink in the

closed

of mineral
to

be ranked

bodies.

The

by

and

but

the

head

cumstance
cir-

light is

darkened

sent

room

dancing

beams

in the

of this dust

Much

certain

or

proportion

derived

from

sists
con-

of organic matter,

itself alive

or

of invisible

sunlight passing in through

livingdust of

germs

in

when

matter,

either

is,matter

certain

we
can
air, and
of floating dust which

shutters.

under

through

motes

of

active

certain

of electric

beam

contain

may

beam

in the form

amount

countless
of

track

contains

visible under

conditions

immense

ordinary air
see

very

stimulating effects
credited
with giving to
their invigorating
ocean,

matter

dust becomes

This

dust.

being

air in addition

suspended

and

to have

that of the

The

properties.

mounts

mountain

of the

this last

therefore

air and

gas

confined

presumed

body, and

amount

purity

places, the air then

able
health.
In ordinary air a variis always found, and in
vapour

occurs,

of oxygen

the

to

acid

carbonic

air, especially that

mountain

we

of

of watery

pure

form
on

quantity

in close and

amount

the

for

deleterious

becomes

very

be taken

the

it does

as

up,

to

hand

other

79

granted, that is, having

the
When
its being safe for breathing.
on

of the air may

regard

KIDNEYS

AND

parts in 10,000 of air, the

four

than

more

LUNGS, SKIN

THE

has
that

living

is repreatmosphere
sented
of various
kinds, many

the

microbes

of them

of them
undoubtedly diseaseharmless, some
also of dead material is
A certain amount
producing.
out cells
represented in the air,consisting of the worn
and particles derived
and
from animal
plant bodies.
It may
be added
that from the lungs with each breath
and
there is also expelled,in addition to heat, water
carbonic

acid,

representing

the

certain
worn

amount
out

of organic matter

tissues

and

particles

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

80

from

brought
derived

all

from

the

VENTILATION.
life is to

air.

pure

might
abodes

One

This

of the great

is

task

that is without

exposing

so

problem
in

exposing
risks

to

us

Our

in modern

rarely

of course,

of cold

and

and

therefore

simple and

on

opening
to the

well

expectations of
One

practice.
a

room

ventilated

five inches

or

wood

of

bar

result

sash

above

draught than
drawn
be

ventilators
the

from

only

is the

from

down

placed

whilst

bottom

of

the

near

case

the

is

when

up

of

at

cost

no

of

sash

window

the open
a
space
The
sash
rests.

is to raise the top of

of

bottom

when

top.

the

to

ventilators

Outlet

out

pass

room.

Such

pressure

much
is

window

the

into the
a

valve

the

sash.

upper

with

sashes

prevented by
the

come

in which

ceiling,the ordinary form

entering the
act

the

in the matter

lower

the two

allowing air
smoke

case

placing in

the

the

in between

comes

theory, rarely

practically

at

of this arrangement

bottom
Air

and
which

on

means

latter

simple fashions

most

all,is that of raising the

four

in the

their inventors

of the

be

may

in

act

may

is

fixingof ventilators which,

the

or

they

Such

expedients, represented by

crude

of windows

however

air

fresh

ordinary dwellings,

to

to fall back

have

we

The

chill.

can

applicable

not

tion,
ventila-

perfect

of ventilating fans
through the use
brought in and the foul air expelled.
are,

sent
pre-

injurious draughts

to

us

and

rooms

times
and

than

only be adequately solved

whereby
means
by mechanical

of ventilation

scientific fashion

difficult

more

free

human

supply of

constant

much

facilities for securing

and

problems of

sight be supposed.

constructed

as

in part

body, and

adequate and

an

first

at

the

lungs themselves.

"

secure

of

parts

less

simply
may

of these

chimney,
ment
arrange-

ever,
ventilators,how-

of air

in the

room

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

82

five per

and

oxygen,

cent

carbonic

more

acid

of oxygen
amount
inspired. The
in twenty-four hours
by an adult has been

consumed

air

the

at

about

eighteen cubic

at

rest.

The

might be figured forth from

piece of

whilst

lungs

the
in

day

half

about
inhaled

the

on

additional

ounces,

from

the

down

at

amount

of

air

inches

be

may

by taking

breath

deep

inches

may

into the lungs, this additional

amount

along with

inches

being expelled
represented as

an

taken

hundred

in

quantity taken in at each

will be given forth with

breath, but

outcoming

the

out

set

be

thirty cubic

breath

regarded as the average

inspiration. A like amount
the

nine

forth

may

Concerning

pint.

each

at

average

man

contained

about

given

to

given

gas

carbon

the

of water

amount

acid

weighing

charcoal

estimated

feet, this applying

of carbonic

amount

than

cubic

thirty cubic

the

be

drawn

haled
inby an ordinary inspiration. The amount
in quiet breathing (thirty
cubic inches) is called
in

in scientific

language, tidal air, from the suggestion

that it represents
the quiet inflow and outflow of the
tide.
in

air.

The

additional

deep breath

prevent

the

we

cubic
for

the pressure
BREATHING

supply

that

reason

and

lungs from

AIR.
may

"

A
be

regarding the

of pure

amounts

amount

about

to

residual

or

it is

required to
collapsing through

air.

of the external
BAD

This

It is termed

inches.

personal health
obtained

lungs.

the

chest

give forth,a certain

can

in the

hundred

safety air,

taken

responding
complemental air, the coramount
expelled being called supplemental
It must
be noted, however, that over
and above

of air remains

and

inches

constitute

the deepest breath

one

cubic

hundred

great

lesson

in

public

ledge
by the knownecessity for securing

taught

air in order

that

us

our

health

and

STORY

THE

OF

physical welfare
Black

of breathing and

incidents

Other
influence

marked

exercises

in

leading

which

inducing

results

The

fetid air

taminated
con-

occurred

have

the

to show

highly polluted atmosphere

effects

ill-health,and

to

to all.

products of human
beings,
historiobject lesson of cal
an

waste

that occasion

on

kind.

is familiar

83

story of the

The

re-breathing foul and

by the
received

KIDNEYS

AND

be conserved.

may

of Calcutta

Hole

SKIN

LUNGS,

THE

of

serious

in extreme

nature

death.

to

cases

Whatever

difficulties exist in the way

of procuring fresh
air,it is at least something to realise its importance
in the

maintenance

for the

large

of

health.

of

amount

polluted air
action
to

body.

which

is being

experiment

of Claude

in mind

under

sparrow

sufficient
At

hours.

at

thus

done

by

with

bell

appreciate

bearing

worth

topic.

He

placed

size calculated

bird

alive

second

the

dying

to

tain
con-

for

three

fresh

hour

of

account

on

the

The

into the jar,this second

introduced

collapsing and

once

in their

accustomed

is well

keep the
of

breathing

inhaling it.

our

this

jar of

end

of

insidious

fail to

Bernard

air to

the

was

sparrow

and

exists
air supply,

pure

effects

the

and

in connection

rapidly become

We

foul atmosphere,

harm

that

generally slow

are

the

on

fact

the

to

reasons

which

public apathy

regarding the necessity for securing

is due

of the

One

bird

the

purity
im-

atmosphere produced by the first bird,

the latter could live for
which atmosphere

of the
amidst

but

another

This

experiment, it is true,
in humanity, but
counterpart

hour.

find its exact

less is the
pure

air is

of health
at
not

grave
even

than

lesson
more

pure

taught

necessary

food

and

us

that

for the
pure

does

not

none

the

supply

preservation

water,

in respect

always breathing, whilst

perpetually eating and drinking.

least, that

we

are

of

we

are

HUMAN

84

THE

LUNGS."

The

lungs,

are

contained

This

cavity is bounded
by the breast bone

and

PHYSIOLOGY

in the

cavity of

of the ribs in front.

thorax

the

by the spine and

and

It is

rib

cartilagesor gristlyends
highly elastic part of the

cartilagesjust noted.

THE

Fig. 23."

LUNGS

They

the
of

be

and

with

(Fig. 24)
the

the

which

open
can

air

at the

larynx

kept

the

lungs

or

and

by

upper
organ

means

when

ence
pres-

need

for

VIEWED

regard

chest

the

of

of the trachea

voice

patent by the

we

(1). The

pressure

easily be felt in the

freely in

cavity of

part of which

is had

to

exhibits in the act

suspended

are

with

communicate

and

chest

appreciated

The

breathing.

The

the

on

movements

constant

to

the
midriff.
diaphragm
or
heart is shown
in outline.

rest

The

elasticitycan

POSITION
FRONT.

IN

THE

FROM

chest.

or

ribs behind,

skeleton, the elasticitybeing due largely

of the

(Fig.23),

in number

two

of

or

the

the mouth

windpipe

find situated

windpipe is
gristly rings

front of the

throat.

THE
Free

STORY

OF

LUNGS,

THE

of the neck

SKIN

KIDNEYS

AND

85

is thus

permitted, whilst
the passage
of air to the lungs continues
tedly.
uninterrupThe
heart lies between
the lungs (Fig.25),a
situation admirably adapted for the easy maintenance
of the close relationship we
have
already noted to
movement

exist between

the

two

Fig.24 ."LARYNX

(2) windpipe

bronchial tubes

and

the

or

lungs covered

chest

is lined

Box, TRACHEA

VOICE
BRONCHI.

OR

AND

(7) larynx;

The

organs.

or

trachea; (3}
windpipe

main divisions of
in lungs.

with

delicate

smooth

and

called the pleura. In the movements

glisteningmembrane
the
of the lungs in breathing it is therefore
layer of the pleura covering the lung which moves
A
little
smoothly on the layer lining the chest.
the
out between
fluid secretion is perpetuallythrown

HUMAN

86

surfaces

two

obviated.

With

of the

track

pleura and

friction

undue

of

regard to the structure

as
a bag of air cells.

be described

may

the

of the

PHYSIOLOGY

air breathed

in

we

If

is thus

lung it

follow

we

come
readily be-

may

nation
merely with the actual destiof the air,namely the blood current, but also

acquainted,
gain

the

at

time

same

of the

structure

not

of

the

at

the

windpipe divides

The

lung.

notion

correct

larynx.

aorta

Fig. 25." THE

root
a

(Figs.

into the

passes

to

smaller

branches

(Fig. 26).
by

feature

The

24

which

and

are

windpipe
own

LUNGS.

branches, each called

main
26). The
division
side and

own

sub-divide

and

AND

main

delicate membrane

of its

HEART

OF

lung of its

divide

begins

lined

RELATIONS

into two

of the neck

bronchus

rightlung

heort

leftlung

in the

into

known
and

as

smaller

and

bronchial

tubes

bronchial

which

fact

immediately

tubes

exhibits

that

are

special

its cells each

THE

STORY

living matter.
in

up

towards

whilst

in the

inhaled

and

certain

of minute

air.

They
to

serve

the fluid secretion

possess

tubes

cilia.

as

movement

the mouth

the bronchial

known

are

constant

they also

KIDNEYS

AND

87

fringe of lash like threads

These

of

state

SKIN

LUNGS,

THE

microscopic

possess

OF

are

waft

of the lungs,

effect in clearing

particles which

These

of

be

may

brushes

microscopic

in

teryn*

leftbronchiot
'powerfully

Uit"e

air-ce//*

magnified

Fig. 26."

STRUCTURE
TUBES

other

words

tubes

only be

exercised
which

matter

ENDING

clear.

has

in
been

wafted

it is due

that any

secretion, as

is brought

action

within

of which

reach

CELLS.

to

of

of

action

bringing

windpipe, and
extra

AIR

IN

The

CHIAL
BRON-

SHOWING

function

the

possess

bronchial

LUNGS

OF

the

of

to

the

it is expelled from

case

cough
the

cough
root

of

the
can

lungs

the

the

action

in the

from

up

up

keeping

of

these

the

cilia

of bronchitis,

through

body.

the

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN
AIR

THE
the

Tracing

CELLS."

windpipe
into

to

its

clump

end,

little cells

of

inch.
be

may

compared

to

arranged in

series of little rooms

fashion.

little rooms

These

of

in this way

which

circular

somewhat

of the
All

lung.

a-

air

the

round
cells

network

of

opens

the air cells

are

pands
ex-

l-70th

to

tube

from

passage

of

compartments

or

bronchial

of the

end

The

ultimately

l-40th

from

(Fig. 26) varying in diameter

an

it

find that

we

divisions

of the

one

fine

very

bloodvessels
exists.

These
the

represent

(Fig. 27)

work
net-

which

rises

a-

from

division

the

of

the

bloodvessels
from

coming
Fig. 27."THE

DENSE

BLOODVESSELS

the
blood

to

the

IN

when

heart's
a

air is breathed

sub-divisions

THE

heart, whilst
they also
present
rethe

the vessels

left side.

lung

on

in and

right side of

OF

LUNGS.

beginnings of

air cells is in fact

the

NETWORK

its

returning

Each
own

passes

little

.of

clump

account,
down

pure

the

so

that

minute

of the windpipe it ultimately arrives

at

the air cells of the

lung, encompassed, as we have seen,

side,by bloodvessels
bringing impure blood
on
every
from the body.
The real work
of the lung takes place
in the air cells,for according to a physical law, that
air breathed
in
of "the
of gases," the
diffusion
passes

through

the

thin

walls

of

the

air

cells

and

HUMAN

90

for that of

exchanged
face

face with

to

in its nature,
In

the

of

act

of the

from

makes

which
in.

breathing

in this respect

THE

SKIN.

fact

disturbed

tion
posi-

by the
is the

as

mechanical

working

act

Nature

power.

example which
might be
instances, of an economical

powers.

lungs do not stand alone in the

of
bodily belongings. As a matter

in different

the

lungs

of

number

of organs
forming
peralthough the labour is carried

one

work

same

out

fashions.

The

of
neighbour organs
the skin and kidneys, so that the three
of physiologicaltrio whose
action is that

are

kind

an

other

they represent

form

to their

The

our

the

action,

muscular

were

out

our

supplies

"

of

category

largely mechanical

expenditure of muscular

an

upon

paralleled by many
of her working
use

come

Inspiration, therefore,

while

demands

we

the recoil of the chest,

see

they

involves

no

is

elastic structures

which

energy,

Here

out.

involve

not

simply

we

breathing

act

one

which

does

out

return

of rest

breathing
act

an

and

breathing

and

PHYSIOLOGY

of

from the body, the lungs

matter
excreting waste
wise
acting in a highly important fashion because
they likeThe
perform the function of absorbing oxygen.
functions
addition

of the
to

its under
the

serving

whilst

The

the

minute

which

organ

in mind

teach

it may

us

the

In
of

nerves

of exercising

means

glands of the skin

stitute
con-

for the getting rid of

to

These
that

renders

tained
con-

the

skin

large degree the

varied
the

structure, and

be described

character.

large supply of blood

regulates

complex

the

bloodvessels

of the body.
borne

with

us

of excretion

organ

matter,

varied

body-covering,

as

of touch.

sense

in these
an

of

are

layer supply

it an
waste

skin

skin

functions
is

being

really an

in respect

legitimatelyas

perature
tem-

tremely
ex-

of its functions
kind of

lung

THE

STORY

spread

OP

the skin exhibits

neither

possesses

epidermis

lying below

skin.

THE

GLANDS

small

which

OF

in

two

are

of the

These

of

which

and

moist,

whilst

hairs

it may

be

represent

to

important

action

it is to

certain

The

the sweat.

prominent), and
the

skin's

acid

gas

certain

surface.

is also

physiologistsagree

that

The

of absorbing oxygen.
minute

upwards
are

to

coiled
the

the

active

up

large

amount

salt is

from

of carbonic

amount

skin

ing
constitut-

derived

matters

the

may

whose

common

skin,whilst

has

limited

most
power

glands consist each

sweat

tube, the end

skin and

part of the tube

the

the

bloodvessels

fine

which

given forth from

to

pomade.

or

products

certain

pliant

glands

sweat

fatty

itself.

skin

oil

consists of

sweat

also

secretion

natural

(amongst

minerals

of water,

the

their

waste

and

relation

the

of

fatty material,

or

their

from

separate

the

glands

skin

the

keep

the

are

them

surrounding

oily

come

tubes

or

hairs

of

that

we

as

glands of

of the

from

assumed

More

up

layer known

ducts

the

is to

and

nerves

sebaceous

surface
an

skin,

under

both

The

The

the

secrete

function

held

face
sur-

being contained

"

sheaths

to

the

SKIN.

THE

the

pass

glands

also be

the upper
or

nerves

number.

into

frequently

of

dermis

The

pocket-like organs,

open

sists
con-

layer of the skin

including fat.

tissues

other

and

this under

papillcs. Below

are

from

little projections of this under

within

skin

or

layer, contains

the outer

bloodvessels, the ends

upon

layers. The
scarf skin, which

bloodvessels

nor

nerves

of the under

91

In its structure

body.

perpetually renewed

of cells

KIDNEYS

AND

division into two

main

coating is the

outer

of the

the surface

over

SKIN

LUNGS,

THE

in

of which

passes

pore. The coiled

especiallyis lined by cells,which

agents

in

opens

a.

taking from

the

blood

the

HUMAN

92

waste

which

matters

skin

surface.

the

per

Sweat

inch.

square

glands

at
an

most

are

It has

and

neck

been

to the

upwards

passes

in

numerous

sole of the

and

In the

millions of these
human

gland

foot,the

regions being estimated

numerous.

of

the

palm of the hand

in these

out

PHYSIOLOGY

about

at

back

estimated

ber
num-

they

that

3,000
less

are

two

over

glands exist in the skin surface

of

stretched
body. If the coiled up tube was
full length it would
about
measure
a
quarter
inch, so that according to one
estimate, in a
inch of skin from

square

length of the

palm of the

the

hand

the

tubing would be found to be over

seventy-three feet. The total length of sweat tubing
in the body has been variously given as amounting
estimates
to ten
miles, some
vastly exceeding this
sweat

calculation.
THE

ACTION.

skin

The

glands are
always
acting,and hence perspiration which is poured forth
of quietude of the
circumstances
under
body is
insensible perspiration. After exertion, when
termed
SKIN

the sweat

skin,it
body

become

may

is then

of

man

liable to

exercise

or

SKIN
the

temperature
to

of
heat

the

remember

the

the

maintained
as

that

control
in

between

from

the

two

pounds,

an

where

skin

In order

"

as

have

amount

of

blood

of the

medium

violent

first of all

state which

and

which

is

skin in its minute

bloodvessels

system,

nervous

contraction

to appreciate

regulator of the

we

perpetually circulating through the

bloodvessels
or
capillaries. These
under

average

of the body,

vast

The

represented.
HEAT.

BODILY

AND

or

is

of the

perspiration.

vastly increased

be

heavy work
duty

sensible

as

surface

the

on

given off on an
day is about
per

amount

THE

visible

known

of sweat

amount

"

may

and

are
are

be described

expansion.

If,

THE

STORY

is

with

the

SKIN

LUNGS,

THE

from

however,
control

OF

circumstances

any

the

dilate

lessened, the bloodvessels

result

that

93

nervous

expand,

or

of blood

flow

greater

KIDNEYS

AND

passes

and
through them
activity of the sweat
greater
bath
A
glands is produced.
produces this
warm
effect.

blood

more

the

It relaxes

skin

the

to

perspiration. Cold
diminishes
time

the

the

fashion

reverse

in

produced
difference

skin

and

kidneys

and

at the same

thing
perspiration given off. Someand
the
regulation of temperature

in the

when

summer

in

acts

resulting alteration
kidneys

bloodvessels, brings
surface, and this favours

of

amount

of this skin

the

and

supply of blood, lessening

the

appreciated

skin

in

between

the

freely, the

acts

may

be

work

of

in winter.

and

summer

skin

the

its work

In

work

of

in cold weather
skinlessened, whereas
action is apt to be in some
and
the
degree checked
fully. It is the evaporation of
kidneys excrete
more
perspiration from the skin surface that aids largely
in the

is

regulation of temperature.

fluid,evaporates
removes

with

certain

the

other

and

of

result

lessened; and
life and

of
the
much

the

THE

CARE

under

to

"

health

our

duty

is the

encouraging

the functions

of the

"

the

body

On

cold, less
the

the

sweat

is

body

circumstances
of

temperature

maintained

Of

care

functions

to the

at

very

degrees F.

98.4

SKIN.

THE

elaborate

in

degrees

as

air,and thus

large.

from

varying

regulated and

the

and

the

varying

degree
OF

importance
taught

is

of heat

loss

sweat,

from

at

is

atmosphere

the

under

same

of heat

amount

the

so

bodily heat

off into the

passes

cooling the body

hand, when

being produced,

The

the

most

extreme

of the skin.

nising
Recog-

it

we

performs,

are

skin in maintaining its cleanliness

its work.

skin may

Interference

with

be productive of very

HUMAN

94

PHYSIOLOGY

checking of these functions

of the body and
the internal
organs

results,a sudden

serious

reacting upon
producing congestion
troubles

at

with

free

the

large.

fatal

result.

body

of

represent

in

the

by the skin.

the

of

care

THE
skin

health

our

KIDNEYS.
and

fashion

kidneys

organs

perform

Where

the

retention

within

the maintenance
is

to ourselves

when

falls to be considered.

interdependence of

that

which

the

lungs,

in yet another

teaches

that

the three

same

kind

of work.

the

much

very

Age.

high cleanliness

owe

we

to

naturally secreted

be demonstrated

may

from

apart

of

state

leaf

veritable

of baths, and

use

The

"

from

the

to

of the duties

one

Golden

products

proper

of the skin in
therefore

due

waste

The

of the

the

Rome,

at

gold

hours

lung
have

with

over

few

suffocation

body of

the

procession

covered

was

died

of

process

Papal

and

of

interference

material

any

figure in the pageant

child

The

In

cold

to

of perspiration may

excretion

child

Again,

first stage

is the

giving rise

thus

inflammation,

which

affected, part of the rational

medical
of lung troubles is to increase the
treatment
action of the skin by administering medicines
which
is true
cause
profuse perspiration; and the same
when

the

capable

lungs

are

kidneys

are

to

certain

their

work.

each

side of the

The

term

The

on

loins

or

serves

is
the

convex

inner

to

vena

cava,

organ

is thus

is

the

side.

on
number, one
region of the body.
a

very

the

familiar
the

outer

in

in

indicate

to

artery, given off from

kidney, and
the

two

are

"kidney-shaped"

kidney which
renal

kidneys

One

of relievingthe others

extent

lumbar

expression, and
indented

affected.

side

form
and

enough
of

the

deeply

large artery, the

aorta,

enters

each

large vein, the renal vein, joining

leaves it (Fig 28). The blood leaving

very

THE
the

STORY

it

from

the

by the
is

body

vena

thus

blood

purest

mixes

soon

SKIN

LUNGS,

THE

is the

kidneys

course

OF

with

the

KIDNEYS

AND

in the

general

body,

95

but

of

stream

venous

large, passing back to the lungs

(Fig. 28) for purification. There

at

cava

the
perpetual flow of blood
through
kidney, and although it is pure blood which enters
blood
contains
nevertheless
by the artery, such
a

KIDNEYS
POSITION.
IN
Fig. 28. THE
(4) aorta, (5,5)
cava,
(1 and 2) kidneys, (3) vena
ureters
leading to bladder.
"

certain

of

in the

the breakdown
destined

are

by the
of the
The

products

those

to

be

which,

body of

the

resulting from
nitrogenous foods,
from

removed

the

blood

structure
considering. The
of a complicated nature.
kidney is somewhat

feature

essential

presence

containing

of
a

are

we

organs

of

the

large number

ball

or

network

organ

of

consists

little

of fine

in the

bodies, each

capillarieswhich

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

96

of

of the renal

end

the

represent

renal

the

vein.

and

artery

The

blood

ning
begin-

the

which,

to

so

speak, circulates in and out of the kidney, finds its

turning point in the little bodies (Malpighian bodies)
These

just noted.

active

the

represent

structures

little artery

The
wider

in diameter

hence

the

the
at

matters

vein

of the

Each

certain

Malpighian

bodies

filters out

from

filter which

of the

matters

bodies

tube

in

out

passes

the multitude

would

given off,
into

pressure

fashion

the waste

of tubes
certain

on

that

seem

is in fact
the

kidney secretion.

forms

really forced

filtration

within

the other

matters

varied

little

projections

the fluid part of

from
the

the

blood

little bodies

removed

probabilityseparated by

from

the

of these

somewhat

of the

hollow
or

It

papilla.

urine

or

water

of
by a process
described, whilst
the

blood

cells of the

the

waste

of the kidney,

in the

ending

the

and

of

kind

each

From

urine.

blood

to the centre

complicated arrangement
kidney

is

which

is

body

excreted, especiallywater, which

bulk
of the kidney secretion
or

are

great

is

Malpighian

bodies, and in this mechanical

these

the

entering the

is forced

blood

in the

agents

than

by cells which
kidney's work.

lined

are

are

in all

Malpighian

themselves, and by those which line the tubes

and
in question
which
the
bodies
leading from

bodies

conduct
each

kidney

bladder
its

the

urine
a

to the

of the kidney.

outlet

special tube, the

in which

the

urine

to

the

preparatory

to

ureter, leads

is stored

From

expulsion.

healthy adult will

between
from
the kidneys in twenty-four hours
pass
of urine, although the
fifty and sixty fluid ounces
stances
quantity varies materially according to the circumof life, and
according to the outer
even
THE

KIDNEY

SECRETION.

"

HUMAN

98

to amount

8,000 grains of solid food, 37,650 grains

to

of water,

PHYSIOLOGY

and

making
13,000 grains of oxygen,
8" pounds of material by weight.

total of about

from

expenditure

the

of

lungs

the

up

His

matter

waste

to 20,000 grains, the skin

given forth will amount
giving off 11,750 grains, the kidneys 24,100 grains,
the intestines 2,800 grains of waste
digestive matter.
The
8$- pounds,
expenditure, amounting to about

would

found

be

impossible for
exactitude

balance

to

of

us

the
to

course

income.

mathematical

obtain

when

dealing with living beings, but

figures just given offer as near
approach as
an
possible to the real facts of the case.
OUR

BODILY

PROFIT.

interestingquestion, namely,
which

is derived

of the income
of

are
one

which

on

be

of

lines

on

the commercial

regarded

nothing which

showing

gain.

This

extremely

an

Unless

as

the business

from

different

widely

of

transactions

founded, it is clear the business

sense

is

that

expenditure.

life is conducted

those

the

regarding the profit

this apparant
exact
balancing

from

and

arises

Here

"

is

It

men

of

livingmust
highly unprofitable,and
be reckoned

may

conception,

in the
is

however,

in
as

light

extremely

for the

profitderived out of the business

of life really represents
transactions
an
enormous
in a single
gain. The profitwe obtain, summed
up
of doing work."
Whatever
word, is "the power
work
man
performs in the world, his ability to
erroneous,

bone, muscle, and brain, is derived from the

of the engine
transaction
The
just chronicled.
case

exercise

we

bodily
work

again recall

may

balance

of the

develops
respect

out

of

to

sheet.

mind
The

by the

man's

the

fuel

of the

profitrepresented by the

engine is found
of

statement

in the

supplied

inventions

this

power
to

it.

which

Now

profit is by

it
in
no

STORY

THE

OF

SKIN

LUNGS,

THE

the best
large. Even
limited
will only give a very
means

when
The

with

compared

engine, for
it gives

startlingwhen
whereof

food

to

body

the

it consumes,

of fuel it consumes.
with

small

calculated

items

the

power

out

of the

find that according to

we

fuel

positively

is

living engine

as

of

the various

up

we

human

the

amount

which

sum

If

composed.

developed by

of power

energy

come

we

it is

percentage

different

of

amount

an

machine

comparatively

on

99

constructed

the amount

is extremely

case

KIDNEYS

AND

lation,
calcu-

one

work, that of maintaining the body

be reckoned
equal to 2,800 foot tons
as

the internal

itself,may
per

day

that

"

of

fuel

to

the

supplied to

tremendous

Thus

we

tons

in

man

in

internal

the
at

day.

300

to

In the

The

350
case

the
of

work

lightwork

per

in the

hard

worker

500

foot tons, and

500

and

600

foot tons.
that

out

plus
the
This
the

represents

transactions

we

out

carry

food, and

our

of

150

calculated, a

to 200

is estimated

work

and

us

food.

our

of the body, be

450

teaches

tons

all, developed from

obtaining

average

will

tons,

get 1,500 foot

develops from

foot tons
of

an

of
digesting it. If the amount
the work
we
perform daily,apart

assimilating it and
from

the

that

foot

shape of
of working power

amount

expended

maintains

in the

us

profit we obtain from

day, in the way
every
power

from

times, namely, 1,500 foot tons,

quantity required for the body's

4,300 foot

or

be

would

of energy
foot
one

300

of

shape

five

maintenance.

2,800,

about

day's work,

in addition

tons

estimate

same

really be increased

own

amount

raising 2,800

The

ground.
ordinary

if applied in the

say,

work, this

mechanical

capable

is to

of

case

he

may

work

from

worker.

between

of calculation

mode

of his daily food

at

develop between

in laborious

Another

hard

foot tons

man

requires

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

100

daily

to

his

mechanical

to

energy

which

work

equal

of

store

renew

lift

would

nearly

ton
a

height

of

Differ

yards.

1,094

estimates

the

may

as

regarding

food

working

man's

consumption,

when

ground

standing

least

at

on

are

we

that

assert

his

from

derived

profit

he

profit

the

sure

exhibits
as

we

working

in

engine,

the

shape

likely

that
ever

inventions.

to

be

developed

far

of

exceeds

energy,

of

by
any

his
own

STORY

THE

OF

SYSTEMS.

NERVOUS

Two

THE

living body, like the

found

to

to which

by

This

Two

of

systems

nervous

animals,
dealt with

the

important

brain

and

general
whilst

exhibiting

being of vastly

some

exist in the

fact already alluded

of these

two

boned
of all back-

bodies

to

the

as

main

when

of the body.

line of the

we

The

consists of the

systems

spinal cord (Fig.29 and 30),which

described

of

name

of elements

composed

general constitution

the

more

be

is

country,

others, judged by the special

of government
they perform.

work

the

than

greater importance
share

of

specially appointed

system,

importance,

parts of diverse

101

control

The

of

distinct unity, is nevertheless

or

NERVE

"

apply

we

system.

nervous

AND

government

determined

be

organisation
the

BRAIN

THE

OF

STORY

NERVE

VI

CHAPTER
THE

AND

BRAIN

THE

last may

nervous

system,

ing
issulying protected within the spine, and the nerves
from both brain and cord supplying the body with
the
outer

means

of communication

world.

second

The

between
system,

itself and
known

as

the
the

sympathetic system, exists in the form of a double

cells lying in front
chain of ganglia or masses
of nerve
of the spine. This latter system has an individuality
of its own,
with

though

the brain

it is connected

system

of

nerves.

at

certain

The

term

points
cerebro-

scientificallyapplied to the latter in

contra-distinction
to the term
sympathetic, denoting

spinal system
the other

main

is

portion of the

nervous

apparatus.

In

the

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

102

presence

of these

two

face to face with what

of

systems,

nervous

termed

be

may

in

the

especially

The

words, of doing

which

the

brain

the

tary
volunexercise

in other

this

nervous

the

commands

sends

forth

capable of being executed

body

information

way,

from

senses

the

large, whilst

at

brain

as

same

by the

world

to

be

appreciated, and,
acted
by the
upon
sympathetic system,

can

other

the

in the

outer

are

by the

conveyed

the

if necessary,
The
body.
on

are

like,depends

we

whereby

system

which

power,

as

cises
exer-

with

possession of

our

upon

presented
re-

of

system

and

will.

as

government

associated

movements

of the

principle

functions

all those

come

labour

brain

The

body.

the

the

of

division

the

we

the

system.

hand,

be

may

scribed
de-

"

involuntary" nervous
be directly
It cannot

brought into play by the exercise

of the will,but can
lated
only be stimu-

indirectly,as, for example,

when

stomach,

food

take

we

the

into
of

movements

the
the

regulated by the nervous

stimulated.
being thus
system,
organ,

Fig.
SPINAL
THE

SPINAL

29.

CoRAi^Actions, of
CEREBROSYSTEM.

of automatic
and

or

supervised

which

able number

are

body"

as

such

machine-like

by

the

very

consider-

performed
are

character,

sympathetic

more
are

by the
or

less

regulated

system.

For

THE

STORY

the

example,

OF

heart

bloodvessels

THE

BRAIN

NERVE

AND

103

and

are

trolled
con-

by this system,
and

the

the

intestine

of

movements

in

tion,
diges-

depend

for

their

upon

the

pathetic
sym-

control

The

nerves.

of

division

labour

ciple
prin-

is, therefore,
be

to

illustrated
of the two

work

in the
nervous

seeing that

systems,

of

number

vast

seen

actions

tant
importhe

upon

of

performance

due

which

itself

existence

said

be

depend,
regulated not by us,

may
are

but for

to

The

us.

of

work

sympathetic centre
in supervising
consists

the

what

be called

may

ordinary

actions

the

of the

with
connected
body
circulation,
digestion,
the

and
brain

like, while

of

remains

system

free for the

the

supervision
important

more

actions of

questions and
the

day and

WHAT

the

the

hour.
"ig.

NERVOUS

THE

DOES.

SYSTEM

CORD,

broad

"

VIEW

OF
ITS

SHOWING
WITH

THE

SPINAL
TION
CONNEC-

BRAIN,

AND

"

THE

If

3u.

but

SPINAL
FROM

NERVES
THE

CORD.

ISSUING

104

HUMAN

comprehensive

view

/forms,

in

\of

body

is

implied
"

relation

from

with

the

be

be

take
All

holds

of

absence

the

impressions

to

system

nervous

we

generalisation of
the

understand
of low

and

intimate

example,
nervous

service

the

the

acts

system
a

which

in
a

dog

these

of

us

higher
perfect

between

it lives.

to

system

The
more

the

another

yet

nervous

developed

posesses.

upon

with

highly organised

act

enabling

possesses

in which

world

of

to

of high degree.

one

of

lower

view
to

between

relationship

and

of exercising

advance

some

speck

of

contact

this

From

may

in the

that

of sensation, is able to

the

of animals

system

possessor

which

as

itself is

small

body

for

has

matter

particles, and

difference

degree and

nervous

the

opinion
also

and

understand

function

rise.

particles gives

this

system

living

as
can

of food

contact

possessing

as

nervous

constituting

matter

non-living objects.

or

apparatus,

nervous

animal, exercises
the

But

sensitive,we

everywhere

it might, therefore,

animals,

of

trace

no

in other

It would,

regarded

lowest

its

or

the impressions

upon

sensitiveness, and

the

Apart

living being

the

thing, and

be

discovered.

yet been

feel the

system

inorganic

of

plants in which

living

nervous

world.

may

for

good

By this latter
it lives.

forms,

outer

with

amount

of

purpose

in which
a

non-sensitive

living things

definite

of

lowest

the

rank

for the

apart

of Relation.

world

the

the

from

higher

particular series

incapable of reacting

received

words,

in

in

or

of

bringing of the livingbeing into

possession

equivalent
would

the

as

set

exercising the function

term
"

it

functions

in lower

whether

animal

an

of the

taken

define

might

we

j organs

be

system,

nervous

any

PHYSIOLOGY

its

Take, for
brain

and

It is capable

high degree of intelligence,yet it falls

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

106

from

body

if it may

be

This

cells.

brain, it requires the co-operation and,

to

because

termed,

so

definition

most

essential

NERVE

feature

FORCE.

which

nerve

which

stimulate
the

arouse

rate

fibres has
about

been

represents
is

this

is

force

the

represents
action

body

to

brain

and

nerve

messages

the

on

centres

force

nerve

flows

which

hand,

one

the other.

on

along

passes

animals

in warm-blooded

estimated

nerve

This is a slow rate as

feet per second.
with that of electricity or with the speed

200

compared
of

It

the

which

at

energy

bodily telegraph system,

fibres, and

along

of

form

which

and

generate,

electricityof our
termed
nerve
force.

apparatus.

nervous

particular

The

"

cells

nerve

of the

the

at

"

is
nerve
language the term
if the bodily telegraph wires represented the
common

as

The

kept fairly in mind,

be

must

nerve

"

in

used

and

supervision of

the

which

light waves,

of 1 86,000 miles

only, though
speeds along nerve
perfect carrying

The

second.

per

is therefore

thought"

through

pass

the

sense

be

to

fibres

which

quick as

relative

in

our

work

the

force

nerve

of

rate

as

for

quite sufficient

is

of

out

"

phrase

accepted

at

rate

at

space

the

the

nervous

system.
NERVE
one

Like

CELLS
the

sense,

all other

FIBRES.

AND

central
cells

figure of the

of the

regard

safely conclude

may

nervous

cell is

nerve

protoplasm, and, having

we

Nerve

"

system

is of

form, in

cells

system.

nervous
a

to the

of living

mass

duties

that the

it discharges,

protoplasm

higher order

than

that

represented in the other cells of the body. This

much, indeed, we are legitimatelyentitled to assume
from

the

all other
some

of

character

cells, nerve
them

of the
cells

extremely

work
are

it

performs.

microscopic

minute.

They

in
vary

Like

size,
in

THE
diameter
inch

from
the

to

in

cells

STORY
the

the

of these
rule

it

the

processes

possesses,

the

This

be

can

the

body.

other

words,

so

become

just

cells

forth and

as

become
to

in the

and

spinal cord
dendrons

or

cells, whereas

typicalof
branch

the brain

the

at each

element

of

the

with

in the

already been
nerves

which

of the

in that
to

axis cylinder is
In

nerve.

telegraph

the

the

wires

veritable

of the

which

are

and

to record

save

are

body.

forms

different

elsewhere, the

that

give off

cells

called

multi-polar
characteristically

triangularin shape, giving off a

angle, and

nervous

cylinder,

batteries, so
axis cylinders, which

branches, and

brain.

than

cell outwards

of

wires

from

one

base, this last representing

ultimately will pass to become
nerves

axis

fibres of

cells assume,

are

cell

dendrons

or

detail the

those

are

nerve

traced, this
the

cells

as

the

the

branches

give off their

It is unnecessary
shapes which nerve

many

is termed

of the

one

Certain

prominently

more

directly connected

are

nerve

pass

which

out

or

general
applied. Amongst

been

passing from

When

to

system

other

traced

found

the

process

differs from

and
it

stands

which

to

dendrons

or

one

rest.

has

threads

spinal cord

groups

typical

cells,for

neighbour

brain and

centres

nerve

of

dendrons.

called

cell with

find in the

of

feature

the

minute

more

even

an

of

many

gives off branching

the

connect

we

inch,

107

part of

1 -600th

an

exhibiting

gathered together into

name

of

part

of its substance

processes

the

or

NERVE

AND

characteristic

cell is that

nerve

1 -500th

brain
The

BRAIN

THE

1 -5000th

dimensions.

OF

The

the
a

the

sufficientlyindicated.

body are made

originate from nerve

up

in

of

which

of the

one

the

nerve

Even

of bundles

cells.

and

centre

process

fibre

nature

system,

the

If these

second

fibre,has
the

finest

of

fibres

fibres

be

HUMAN

108

traced
their
skin
of

into

outwards

endings
find

we

the

olfactory

of

are

of

the

body,

diverse

touch.

nerves,

devoted

In the
those

or

discover

we

character.

endings

nerve

sense

PHYSIOLOGY

of

Thus

the

in the
exercise

the

to

nose,

that

of the

ends

in

smell, terminate

be prespecial cells called olfactorycells,which may

sumed
is
to be the organs
whereby the smell sense
excited
with odoriferous
through contact
particles
which
in contact
with them.
More
come
complex are
the

of sight and

endings of the nerves

with
being connected
of

shape

and

eye

ear

point to be noted is
body, apart from

that

the

each

that

sense

brain

from

body, the other

opposite direction, from

in the

to

THOUGHT.

ABOUT
animals

in

be

or

mind.

world

on

advance

find, with

the

system,

new

aspects

are

nervous

to

their
in the

rise and

to

shown,

messages

carrying

messages

to brain.

of

case

the

phases of
associated

lowest

considered

living machines, which

the impressions made
by

sensitive
animal

parts.

scale,
work.

nervous

with

apparatus,

represent

be

may

we

development of the

ever,
As, how-

begin
nervous

These

fresh

higher development

to

of

this

mostly
development
massing together, especially

taking the form of the

in the head region, of nerve
seen

be

conveys

body

They

position of

the

the outer

the

set

the

In

respond automatically
we

performing

question arises regarding the possession

no

of will,intellect
to

"

of fibres

telegraph wire, in the

its fibres

of

kind

will afterwards

as

(eye,

organs

other, but

double

set

one

each

Thus,

is like

nerve

respectively. An important
each ordinary nerve
of the
of sensory
to include two

etc.),will be found
indistinguishable from

in the

apparatus

nerves

ear,

different duties.

complex

hearing, these

centres, which

collections

of

nerve

we

cells.

have

The

STORY

THE

higher animals

OF

NERVE

AND

from

raised

become

thus

109

the

matic
auto-

kith and

life of their lower

machine-like

or

BRAIN

THE

kin,

develop accordingly degrees of intelligence and

independent action, which vary with their rank ; this
and

attaining naturally its highest development

advance
in

his neighbour

and

man

domain

meet

we

of the

work

still further

the

human
of the

development

In addition

system.

nervous

In

animals.

to the

play of instinct, a higher intelligence

as

well,

which

to

consciousness.
of

nervous

because

is

to

understand

is

in the

or,

the

regard
items

highest

fact

the

in

man's

these

This

of

the

other

enabled

is also

that

his

of

cells,

nerve

science

of

the

control

and

govern

actions
can

kinds.

be

arising from

brain
either

into movements

the

the
lead

can

in

manner

existence.

thought
cells

nerve

energy

or

arising in,
be converted

can

simple

play of

force

into

converted

Thus

produced by, certain

once

which

certain, at least,that the living matter

of those
cells is the seat
particular

brain

changes and
force, which
of

cells

is

much

under

bodily structure,

question naturally arises whether

to a
us
perfect understanding
which

and

out

discussion, brain cells,represent

under

case

own

more

the

to

his

reason

he

man,

readily than
varying conditions

much
to

of

of

conditions

passed, whilst

adapt his life

animal
neighbours
Having

to

and

highest level

case

merely

not

appears

reason

the

enabled

also

to

life.

in

generally the

existence

that

found

conscious
is

existence, but

terms

be said that the

It may
is
work

he

the

apply

we

lated
regu-

or

complex.

or

at

The

speaking, for example, involves

of
feature
series of brain actions, the main
a whole
need not
of thought
which
which is the conversion
into a
itself externally at all
necessarily manifest

act

of

writing

or

of

"

"

HUMAN

110

PHYSIOLOGY

variety of actions, having for their

We

purpose.

brain

cell is the

which

of

seat

"thought"

of

the

processes

the

of

name

which

and

are

bodily actions.

the

through

that

or

under

"consciousness,"

and

manifest

actions

those

definite

conclusion

the

generally spoken

are

made

arrive at

thus

object

One

in the
of
proof of this fact is found
phenomena
certain cells undergo degeneration,
disease, for,when
the

of naturally exercising the brain

power

much

very

the

cases

Here, it would
in

ground

which, in

that

and

stand

we

seem,

assuming

of that subtle

generator
to

in

as

may,

abolished.
firm

responsibilityof the
of insanity,be practically

altered, and

individual

fairly

on

is

cell

brain

the

particularkind

of its manifestations

one

becomes

of energy

least, we

at

"

of
apply the name
thought."
Beyond this stage of
reasoning it is impossible to proceed with exactitude.
What
We
do not know.
thought is in its essence
we
indicate

merely

can

the

action
phase of mental
the
highest protoplasm
brain
the
of

cells

nature

the

matter

of

gives

brain

cells

NERVOUS
to

person

aimed

at him.

at the

eye,

mere

which
rise

SYSTEM

ACTS.

underlie

the

To

reflex action is given.

working of the nervous
a

ignorant to-day
the

to

the

living
higher

of consciousness.

THE

of

remain

we

understand

cannot

we

under

principle is found
complicated system.

case

As

precise conditions
the

this

manifested, namely, by
of which
living matter

or

are

expressions
How

is

composed.
of life itself,
so

by which

apparatus

"gateway

of

general
of

working

this

principlethe name
simple illustration of

is afforded

system

the

which, like

One

this

withdrawing
Here

"

action

every

the
he

other

knowledge"

head

from

of

devoted

the

in the
a

performs
organ

of

blow

begins

sense,

to

is
the

THE

STORY

particular channel.

BRAIN

THE

through

brain

to the

of imminent

impression

The

111

NERVE

AND

affording information

of

purpose

OF

that of
or
danger is conveyed along the optic nerve,
conscioussight,arousing in other parts of the brain ness

of the
received

thus
"

attack

reflected
the

other

to

from

head

the

incoming,

message

instantly

is

centres

namely, those governing

neck, the result being that

the

the

action, withdraw

stimulated

to

threatened

blow.

this

In

It

efferent message.

be, however, that the simple reflex action

may

become

more

range.

For

in

reflex

of the
out

the

street

coming

action

of

hears

the

behind

up

of

reach

the

of

him.

In

by his

ear,

message

is received

is gone

through

message

is "reflected"

muscles

by
the

hasten

this

and

the

on

pavement.

process

to the

sent

as

to

him

to

so

organs

enable

When

The

eyes.

and

thus

primary

same

the

the brain

footsteps,and

man's

the

of

case

the

case

the

mouth

good to eat, the

conveyed from the brain is reflected,"in this
the salivary glands of the mouth, producing

at

waters

from

vehicle

rapidly driven

governing these

centres

safety

seek

in the

as

tion
stimula-

body, carrying
A man
crossing

danger.

sound

the

to

of the legs and

muscles

safety

individual seeks

will extend

may

in its

extended

more

if the threatened

the
flight,

him

and

complicated

the

case,

is "reflected," and

afferent message
into an outgoing or
or

converted

The

centres,

of

muscles

muscles,

these

brain

by certain

"

made.

to be

about

the

sight of something

"

message
case,
a

to

copious flow

of

saliva.

Many

more

illustrations

might be given, but suffice it to say

of
that the principleanimating all our
acts, whether
Occasionally
simple or complex nature, is the same.
of reflex action

reflex

as,

action

starts

for example,

when

from
the

the outside

finger

comes

of the

body,

in contact

HUMAN

112

with

the

hot

surface

incoming

which

the

to

which

arms,

that

governing

operate

to withdraw

of

details,are

outgoing
A

reflex

unconsciously
attention.

An

in face of
and

and

fibre, an

cell

centre

or

it receives.

message

performed

be

course,

of closing the

that

as

danger, for example,

is all the

nerve

of

involving the arousing

without

act, such

intricate

place

takes

lids
eyematically,
auto-

quickly performed

more

on

account.

THE
brain

SPINAL

CORD.

contained

spinal cord

nerve

and

and

when

make

we

its cells to

much

great line of

cells and

of the

in what

of the

centre

spinal cord, it

The

nerve

section

be contained

in the

both

within

given off from

than

more

representing

contained

nerves

together.

It contains

and

system

(3) the various

noted, is

fibres.

brain

the

nervous

spinal cord

be

matter

to the

attention

our

this

issuing from

spine, and

should

find

we

line of the

the main

brain

Confining

"

portion of the nervous

(Fig. 30) to include (1) the brain itself
and
the
skull, (2) the
protected within

system,

apparatus

the

of

may,

more

nerve

reflects the

and

action

from

find

therefore

we

incoming

fibre, and

nerve

the

For

limb.

the

action,

essentiallyan

deals with

that

reflex

of the

muscles

the

of

sensation

of the

conveyance

is required, apart

what

which

the

action

the

starts

message

centres

performance

Here

it is instantly withdrawn.

afferent

or

involves

heat

PHYSIOLOGY

cord

is called

cord, the

white

fibres,
find

we

the

grey

matter

fibres which
place
outside, representing the nerve
brain and body in connection.
Thirty-one pairs of
(Fig. 30) are given off from the spinal cord.
nerves
One

of

the

connection
when

the

most

with
reason

interesting discoveries
the

nervous

for

each

system

spinal

was
nerve

noted

in

elicited

being

HUMAN

114

motor

name

destined
is

to

given

PHYSIOLOGY
because

root,
the

posterior is

anterior

known

being

the

means

made

on

the

ends

onwards

to

that

nerves

the

the

only

convey

THE

SPINAL

of

supply of

and

cord

fibres,since

CORD

because

nerves,

they
body

direction, from

one

CENTRE.

AS

cells,we

may

more

than

contains

abundant

an

again remind

ourselves
of

collection

regard

Having

"

possession of cells confers

the

of acting

as

centre,

nerve

and

functions,

other

to

as

that

bodily

carried

be

can

it

upon

rather

or

of actions, having reference

large number

nerve

is little doubt

There

centres.

nerve

movements

ears,

eyes,

cord.

it is much

series of

to

"

in

It follows

brain.

belonging

sense

impressions
proceeding

and

nerves,

the

root, such

conveying

sensory

nerve

power

are

whilst

root,

sensory

fact that the spinal cord

to the

of

messages

and

the

for

spinal

are

to brain

that

the

"

etc.,

nose,

front

or

as

root

fibres

nerve

resulting in movement,

messages

convey

to

its

out

by the spinal cord independently of the brain, whilst

the cord may
also be regarded as acting in harmony
with

the

acts

which

brain

in the

characterise

that the spinal cord

action

of the

which

mustard
It will

brain, is afforded

the

substance,

and

movements

to attain

of

human

foot

other

will

being

has

to

by

resulting

in the

division

of

therefore

unable

to

any

move

of

one

Proof

independent
experiment

in

of

or

vinegar

feet.

its hind

wipe off the offending

variety of complex
a

Similarly,in

this end.
has

an

drop

of

execute

who

life.

certain

possesses

of the

many

voluntary

our

decapitated frog
placed on the web

use

of

performance

suffered
his

the

case

accident

an

spinal cord, and

part

below

if the foot be tickled the legs will be

the

drawn

is

break,
up.

In

THE

frog
a

and

STORY

in the

BRAIN

THE

centres

nerve

headless

frog

of its movements

the

the feet

upon

the
the

passing

cells below

nerve

of the legs.

the

part of the

upper

centres,
a

command

there

in

that

shown

nerve

are

certainly exercise
other

and

heart

the

over

the

produce

so

spinal cord

by

"reflect"

thus

has

of cells,which

groups

or

and

Research

made

with

is dealt

cord

muscles,

in the

body

impression

break, which

the

movement

its

the

man

the

up

the

to

message

in

cells of the

nerve

govern

as

for

control

the

brain, and

spinal cord

the

demonstrated,

only be effected through

which
far
spinal cord
so
of its

115

is thus

can

absence

NERVE

AND

independence of

the

man

series of

OF

the

organs,

by the sympathetic
in
shown
It has
nervous
already been
system.
dealing with the heart how, for example, the vagus
has
the power
of slowing the heart's movements.
nerve
So also, the regular movements
of breathing
be regarded as controlled
from the spinal cord,
may
and
in its lower
exist exercising a
portion centres
of

working

certain
the

is governed

which

of governance

amount

bowel, bladder,
is thus

cord

brain
the

to be

seen

itself,and

share

which

find

spinal cord

the

bodily actions, leaving

for the discharge of more

free
THE

EVOLUTION

trace

from

type

or

the

division

OF

fish

upwards

plan in the

so

to

to

It is

"

man,

an

brain.

possible to
identity of
fishes,

In

frogs,and reptilesthe brain is represented by

of

or

masses

of

in
distinctly,
enumerate

nerve

line.

these

masses

cells

placed,

convenience

For
as

speak,

important duties.

of the

build

control

in the

brain,

the

BRAIN.

THE

in

illustration in the

an

assumes

of the

spinal

The

organs.

effective deputy of the

very

may

of

functions

the principle of labour

system

nervous

other

and

the

over

more

series
less

sake, we
may
consistingof the olfactory

HUMAN

116

or

smell

PHYSIOLOGY

parts in front,the forebrain

coming

order, whilst there

respectively succeed

brain

brain.

and

hind

the

As

we

in

next

the

advance

middle
towards

reptiles,we discover that the fore brain tends to

overshadow
by its greater prominence the middle
the

brain, and

when

we

Fig.

31."

arrive

THE

the

at

BASE

THE

OF

bird,

we

find

this

BRAIN

the cerebellum
behind, and the origin
The olfactorylobes lie in
of the spinal cord.
behind them.
the
and
optic nerves
front,

Showing

part with its disproportionate size arising from

increased growth, and also with the enlargement of
the

hind

brain, completely

In the lower
is
the

seen.

fore

quadrupeds

As

brain

to

the

much

advance

we

covers

increase

the
same

tendency
in

size, and

middle

brain.

development
is shown
to

grow

for
not

THE

STORY

OF

BRAIN

THE

merely
to

forwards, but backwards

This
overlap the hind brain.

development
The

man.

its

has

fore

in

exceeding its dimensions

smell
front
the

under

as

attains

The

animal.

other

far

size

projecting prominently in
in fishes,frogs, and reptiles,are
found
on
surface of man's
brain (Fig.31),a feature

parts, instead
as

so

principle of brain
exemplification in

man

in any

117

well,

as

supreme

brain

NERVE

AND

Fig.

of

SECTION

32."

BRAIN

OF

of left half of cerebrum, the

in
bridge of the lobes, cerebellum
connecting
medulla
of
at
section,and
spinal cord.
top

Showing

inside

also

illustrated

man,

the backward

extreme,
and

and

hidden

in

growth

the

as

brain

is

the

brain

is viewed

is

well.

of the fore brain

hind

when

(Pig, 32.) Such

quadrupeds

many

In

is also

completely covered

brief account

from

above

of the evolution

of the brain ; and in the development of man's brain

able to trace with a fair degree of accuracy
we
are
the

various

condition

of

stages
the

which

brain

represent

in lower

forms

the

permanent

of life.

The

-1
HUMAN

118

principle here
together
regions;

PHYSIOLOGY

and

extreme

that

which

certain

of

growth

massing

of the

is that

represented

brain

being the
distinguishes man
higher degree of growth and development represented,
not
itself,but
merely in the fore brain
throughout

the

of

constitution
THE

BUILD

other
the

OF

organ

legitimate to speak of
in

the

of

singular, seeing

It is

"

"

brains
that

in

than

perhaps

to

but

is

not

array

Thus,

part of the brain

one

find

may
centres

to

is the

case

mass

of

be

included,

with

as

the great

brain

the
in

we

different

many

cerebrum)

(or

which

man,

the

principal
important part

represents
and

one

complex

of different centres.

clmi

more

the word

use

brain

the

organ,

in

the

mind.

BRAIN.

THE
"

included

parts

most

The
brain
organ.
regarded in a side view as

of the
Fig. 33"

BRAIN

IN

POSITION

(cb) Cerebrum.
(com) Cerebellum.

(Fig.33)

it lies in the head

would

to consist

appear

of

large masses
only. Of these, one is much larger
than the other, filling
the greater part of the cavity
two

of the skull.
we

hitherto

have

33). The
below

This

second

and

behind

the cerebellum, or
anatomical
centres

is the cerebrum,

part to which

or

fore-brain (Fig.
applied the name
prominent portion of the brain lies
the

lesser brain

examination

and

cerebrum,

(Figs.31

of the

lying deeply imbedded

is known
and

brain
in

brain, and to these parts the general

ganglia has been applied. Regarded

33). An

reveals

the
name

as

base

other
of the

of central

externally the

THE

STORY

cerebrum
halves

be

connected
known

are

119

lengthwise into

division

two

extending

to

they are found

bridge of nervous

lobes, where
by

corpus callosum.

is thrown

into

of distinctly

series

characteristic

surface

The

(Fig. 34).

convolutions

or

NERVE

AND

divided

the

the

as

folds

marked

be

together

brain

man's

BRAIN

THE

(Fig.32), the

depth between

matter

of

to

seen

lobes

or

short
to

is

OF

of many

These

volutions
con-

animals,

other

PO.F

Fig. 34."

BRAIN
VIEW
OF
CONVOLUTIONS.

SIDE
AND

REGIONS

The
area.
The shaded
part corresponds to the motor
the
front
is
or
the
brain
left lobe of
representedhere,
forehead
region lying to the left side.

but

are

absent

the beaver,
The

of certain

in the brains

forms, of which

rabbit,and the like animals

do

convolutions

not

in

vary

one

are

examples.
from

individual

they form a definite

pattern, presenting occasionally variations, but still
similarity and
semblance.
remaintaining a close anatomical

those

of another

For

convolutions
The

surface

into certain

are

"

is to say

that

scientific and
all

duly

of the brain
areas

or

has

medical

marked

and

purposes

the

numbered.

similarly been

regions corresponding

divided
with

the

HUMAN

120

bones

of the

forehead

brow, and

the

back

of

BRAIN
that

the

CELLS.

of

from

to and

be the

cells

fibres

nerve

brain

case

found

are

In the cerebrum

layer, whilst

external

composed

the

the

white

which

carry

forms

the

be said
It may
portion of the cerebrum.
most
important brain cells are those of

that

messages

the

is the

matter

affording

would

Groups of brain

parts of the brain.

posed
com-

following and

matter

than

shows

matter

thereby

of cell material
brain.

smooth

of grey

convolutions

the

amount

matter,
inner

of the cerebrum

section

layer consists
of brain cells,this grey

in the other
grey

"

its outer

larger
a

head.

the

dipping into
in

speak of the frontal or

the parietal
(Fig 34, /.c.),

thus

temporal region at the side of

occipital region (o.L),or that at

region, the

the

us

We

region of the brain

side

or

skull.

PHYSIOLOGY

the

centres,

this

exist in
layer of the great brain.
They must
millions, one estimate
giving over
800,000,000 as an

outer

number.

approximate
a

is

section

to

seen

The

its brain

have

cut

in

cells arranged

in

cerebellum

when

different fashion.

Externally it presents a layered

(Fig.32),and in section the white matter

appearance

forms

tree-like pattern to which

of arbor
white

vit"z,or

"

tree

of life

"

has

the fanciful

been

of the brain, consisting

matter

as

name

given. The
we

have

seen

fibres,is arranged in definite bands or tracts, and

thus, like the telephone system of a great factory,
of

provides
various

for

groups

communication
BRAIN

of

to

brain

between

FUNCTIONS.

functions

storey

inter -communication

"

cells, as
brain

The

brain

it discharges might
a

of the

three-storied
warehouse

and

be

between
well

as

may

affording

body.
in respect
not

of the

inaptly

warehouse.
we

the

suppose

The

pared
com-

lower

is given

HUMAN

122

who

does

their

work, but

impart

give the

horses

controls

their

regular motion

in

that

not

PHYSIOLOGY

disease

muscular

of

power

movements

to the vehicle.

cerebellum

the

should

movements

the

of

doing

so

as

to

It is natural

irregularity of

be noted

as

prominent

sympton.
THE

CENTRAL

below
find

the

GANGLIA.
brain

upper

certain

certain other

with
have

their

of the

which

in the

relation

their

employer.

known

as

to

and

which

stand

to

of

the

these

"brain

clearing house"

motor

messages

and

assorted

are

deputies

as

latter structure

that

to

occupy

central

It is believed

of

act

is

ganglia

corpus striatum, the other

the

nearest

explanation of

private secretaries

One

the brain

The

an

optic thalamus.

kind

parts along

regions in

assuming that they

brain

upper

made

we

constituting the

of these

associated

be

can

is that of

use

cells

function

and

of the organ

centre

nerve

down

deeply

clearly determined.

been

not

approach

the

The

ganglia.

central

in the

of

masses

Buried

"

being called
the former

is

which

through

parcelledout
the body.
to

when

the cerebrum
The
proceeding from
neighbour mass, constituting the optic thalamus, may
it is supposed act as
a
receiving house," wherein
from the body passing to the cerebrum
are
messages
"

and

received

in

fashion

some

appreciation by the
It is highly probable
under

certain

cerebrum

supposed

to

In persons

the

faculties

be

switched

leaving the central

parody of conscious
state.

that

conditions,

itself.

mesmerised,

cells

other

or

of the

fitted for
brain

upper

itself.

the

central

act

independently of

who

of the

are

ganglia

hypnotised

cerebrum

off for

may,

the

time

may

the
or

be

being,

the
ganglia largely to carry
on
life represented in the mesmeric

THE

research

cerebrum

BRAIN

THE

"

large

definite

in any

in

and

confused

be

to

sense

of the

mapping

revealed

as

123

of investigation

the

regions

of the cerebrum,

NERVE

AND

amount

resulted

has

into

centres
not

OF

CEREBRUM.

THE
and

STORY

The

centres.

by science,

which

those

with

are

figure in the old phrenological systems

of localisation

of brain

effete mode

functions.

explaining either the

of the organ.
centres

each

that

parts (Fig.34).

into three

be regarded

may

mind.

of

credited

This

in

region
the

motor

the

the

is divided

to the

functions

find

middle

since

the

of brain

and

be termed

the
we

sented
repre-

cells

hinder

and

third

centres

government

may

be

may

termed

be

The

The

lobes

consciousness

our

brain.

area,

half of the cerebrum

Here

suppose

which

therefore

of the body.

muscles

we

forehead

or

those

of

arrangement

devoted

are

frontal

may

of the

area

the

term

may

of brain

higher operations

to the

the exercise

section

intellectual

ing
the work-

exercising the highest mental

with

of

these, the front third

undoubtedly

are

-represented by
will.

devoted

as

if

cerebrum,

Of

cells of the

The

brain

of the

remembered

half of the

or

or

general distribution

The

lobe,

an

constitution

brain

easily be

may

is

Phrenology

this

in

control of

third

of

the sensory

each
area.

with
specially connected
and
receiving of impressions from eyes,
ears,
we

other

the

centres

and
of sense,
it is probably in these
fitted for
also, that such
are
messages

organs

centres,

transmission
their

have

to

the

meaning

intellectual

translated

centres,

there

to

and

appreciated by

two

halves

consciousness.

our

THE

DOUBLE

cerebrum,

BRAIN.

right and

"

left,govern

side of the body, although in

also

exercises

The

certain

each

limited

amount

of

the

of

opposite

degree each
control

the

over

half
its

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

124

The

side.

own

in the

cross

part of the spinal cord

upper

side of the body, and

associated

half of the

fibres of each

nerve

with

give

so

to the

posite
op-

right-handedness
of the brain, as

us

left lobe

the

brain

the left
right side of the brain in turn controls
left side of the brain is thus
The
side of the body.
figured forth as the superior half or lobe, seeing
the

its functions

that

are

complex

more

and

involve

the

of
important duties (the conduct
those
the right hand, for example) than
performed
this
To
what
by its neighbour, the right half.
superiority and selection of the left half of the

discharge of

brain

more

determine.

is

controlling lobe

the

as

due, is difficult

this superiorityarose

Whether

from

to

the

ness
right-handedbody acting on the brain, or whether
was
developed through the left half of the brain
the right half, it is
over
acquiring a dominant
power
One
important fact, however,
impossible to say.
teaches us the superiorityof the left half of the brain
in an unexampled manner.
This fact is found in the
that the speech centre of the left side
demonstration
is that
the ordinary rightof the brain
by which
mortal
exercises this special human
handed
gift. A
exists on the right side,for the
similar speech centre
of the brain are
in duplicate ; but the right
centres
centre

in the

only
the

to remain

"eems

right lobe

from

the

known

in

right side.

that

of the

practically unimpaired,
has

been

recovery

be

affected.

destroyed and
of

speech

has

In

power

faculties

other

left

the

taken

certain

disease

of speech

is

remain

may

speech
where

cases

where

is controlled

of the

cases

the

whom

persons,

speech

In

aphasia, in which

as

to

that

dominates,

brain's

lost, while
found

left-handed

of

case

it is probably

abeyance, and

is

centre

this

centre

amount

of

place, it is believed

STORY

THE
the

that

OF

BRAIN

THE

AND

centre, hitherto

right speech

NERVE

125

dormant,

has

into play.

come

THE

SENSES."

The

senses

to be five

estimated

are

including, sight (Fig.35), hearing (Fig.

It is, however,
most
36), touch, taste, and smell.

in number,

probable that

we

that of temperature
in the

to believe

existence

of other

also

incline

authorities

Some

heat.

or

of weight, and

sense

possess

amongst

senses,

Copticnerus

posterior chamber.

Fig.
them
in

SECTION

35."

of direction

sense

The

man.

corresponding

the

in turn

submitted
Thus
the
acts

we
ear.

to

are

stillimperfectly developed

"gateways of

mere

ledge"
know-

ation
words, they simply receive informthe outer
world, modify it,and transmit

from

which

senses

EYE.

THE

OF

in other

"

to

STRUCTURE

SHOWING

pass

forward

for judgment
do

not

really

Seeing
which

the

and
work

the

by the
see

in

centres

with

hearing
of the

information

intellectual
the

eye

represent
eye

brain,

the

and

to

centres.

hear

or

be

with

intellectual
ear

is only

for treatment

complicated

It is

The

preliminary.

necessary
too

PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN

126

devoted

Fig.

to

36."

the

MIDDLE

in the

present

THROUGH

EAR,

AND

the

interest, and

aid

the

exposition of

SECTION

of

of vast

topic, however,
investigation by

repay

work

of

manuals

the

subject.

THE

EXTERNAL

EUSTACHIAN

instance.

"

THE

END.

well

will

specially

MEATUS,
TUBE.

auditory passage
(a) External
; (") attic of tympanum
internal
tube
Eustachian
auditory meatus
(c)
; (d)
tympani,
(e) cochlea
; (/) ossicles
; (g) membrana
drum
or
; (h) styloid process.
"

is

senses

;
;

INDEX

127

INDEX

128

HILNBR

AND

COMPANY,

LIMITED,

PRINTERS,

HALIFAX.