Thin Walled Pressure Vessels

Spherical Pressure Vessel

Thin-walled pressure vessels are one of the most typical applications of plane stress.
Consider a spherical pressure vessel with radius r and wall thickness t subjected to an
internal gage pressure p.
For reasons of symmetry, all four normal stresses on a small
stress element in the wall must be identical. Furthermore, there
can be no shear stress.
The normal stresses can be related to the pressure p by
inspecting a free body diagram of the pressure vessel. To simplify
the analysis, we cut the vessel in half as illustrated.
Since the vessel is under static equilibrium, it must satisfy Newton's first law of motion. In
other words, the stress around the wall must have a net resultant to balance the
internal pressure across the cross-section.

Cylindrical Pressure Vessel

Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with radius r and wall thickness t subjected to an
internal gage pressure p.
The coordinates used to describe the cylindrical
vessel can take advantage of its axial symmetry. It
is natural to align one coordinate along the axis of
the vessel (i.e. in the longitudinal direction). To
analyze the stress state in the vessel wall, a second
coordinate is then aligned along the hoop direction.

With this choice of axisymmetric coordinates, there is no shear stress. The hoop
stress h and the longitudinal stress l are the principal stresses.
To determine the longitudinal stress l, we make a cut across the cylinder similar to
analyzing the spherical pressure vessel. The free body, illustrated on the left, is in static
equilibrium. This implies that the stress around the wall must have a resultant to balance
the internal pressure across the cross-section.
Applying Newton's first law of motion, we have,

To determine the hoop stress h, we make a cut along

the longitudinal axis and construct a small slice as
illustrated on the right.
The free body is in static equilibrium.
According to Newton's first law of
motion, the hoop stress yields,

Remarks

The above formulas are good for thin-walled pressure vessels. Generally, a pressure
vessel is considered to be "thin-walled" if its radius r is larger than 5 times its wall
thickness t (r > 5 t).
When a pressure vessel is subjected to external pressure, the above formulas are still
valid. However, the stresses are now negative since the wall is now in compression
instead of tension.

The hoop stress is twice as much as the longitudinal stress for the cylindrical pressure
vessel. This is why an overcooked hotdog usually cracks along the longitudinal
direction first (i.e. its skin fails from hoop stress, generated by internal steam
pressure).

Pressure vessel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Horizontal pressure vessel in steel

A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at

a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.
The pressure differential is dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the history of pressure
vessel development and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and
operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed by legislation. For these reasons, the
definition of a pressure vessel varies from country to country, but involves parameters such as
maximum safe operating pressure and temperature.
Contents
[hide]

1 History of pressure vessels

2 Pressure vessel features

o

2.1 Shape of a pressure vessel

2.2 Construction materials

2.3 Safety features

2.3.1 Leak before burst

2.3.2 Safety valves

2.4 Maintenance features

2.4.1 Pressure vessel closures

3 Uses

4 Alternatives to pressure vessels

5 Design
5.1 Scaling

5.1.1 Scaling of stress in walls of vessel

5.1.2 Spherical vessel

5.1.3 Cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends

5.1.4 Cylindrical vessel with semi-elliptical ends

5.1.5 Gas storage

5.2 Stress in thin-walled pressure vessels

5.3 Winding angle of carbon fibre vessels

5.4 Operation standards

5.4.1 List of standards

6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

9 Further reading

10 External links

History of pressure vessels[edit]

A 10,000 psi (69 MPa) pressure vessel from 1919, wrapped with high tensile steel banding and steel rods to
secure the end caps.

Large pressure vessels were invented during the industrial revolution, particularly in Great Britain, to
be used as boilers for making steam to drive steam engines.
Design and testing standards and a system of certification came about as the result of fatal boiler
explosions.
In an early effort to design a tank capable of withstanding pressures up to 10,000 psi (69 MPa), a 6inch (150 mm) diameter tank was developed in 1919 that was spirally-wound with two layers of high
tensile strength steel wire to prevent sidewall rupture, and the end caps longitudinally reinforced with
lengthwise high-tensile rods.[1]

Pressure vessel features[edit]

Shape of a pressure vessel[edit]
Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres,
cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A common design is a cylinder with end caps
called heads. Head shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished (torispherical). More
complicated shapes have historically been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are
usually far more difficult to construct.
Theoretically, a spherical pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical
pressure vessel with the same wall thickness.[2] However, a spherical shape is difficult to
manufacture, and therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical with 2:1 semielliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and
two covers. For cylindrical vessels with a diameter up to 600 mm, it is possible to use seamless pipe
for the shell, thus avoiding many inspection and testing issues. A disadvantage of these vessels is
that greater breadths are more expensive, so that for example the most economic shape of a 1,000
litres (35 cu ft), 250bars (3,600 psi) pressure vessel might be a breadth of 91.44 centimetres (36 in)
and a width of 1.7018 metres (67 in) including the 2:1 semi-elliptical domed end caps.

Spherical gas container.

Cylindrical pressure vessel.

Picture of the bottom of an aerosol spray can.

Construction materials[edit]

Composite overwrapped pressure vessel with titanium liner.

Many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel,
rolled and possibly forged parts would have to be welded together. Some mechanical properties of
steel, achieved by rolling or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless special
precautions are taken. In addition to adequate mechanical strength, current standards dictate the
use of steel with a high impact resistance, especially for vessels used in low temperatures. In
applications where carbon steel would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant material should
also be used.
Some pressure vessels are made of composite materials, such as filament wound
composite using carbon fibre held in place with a polymer. Due to the very high tensile strength of
carbon fibre these vessels can be very light, but are much more difficult to manufacture. The
composite material may be wound around a metal liner, forming a composite overwrapped pressure
vessel.
Other very common materials include polymers such as PET in carbonated beverage containers
and copper in plumbing.
Pressure vessels may be lined with various metals, ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking and
protect the structure of the vessel from the contained medium. This liner may also carry a significant
portion of the pressure load.[3][4]
Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete (PCV) or other materials which are weak in
tension. Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or the vessel itself, provides the
necessary tension to resist the internal pressure. A "leakproof steel thin membrane" lines the internal
wall of the vessel. Such vessels can be assembled from modular pieces and so have "no inherent
size limitations".[5] There is also a high order of redundancy thanks to the large number of individual
cables resisting the internal pressure.

Safety features[edit]
Leak before burst[edit]

Leak before burst describes a pressure vessel designed such that a crack in the vessel will grow
through the wall, allowing the contained fluid to escape and reducing the pressure, prior to growing
so large as to cause fracture at the operating pressure.
Many pressure vessel standards, including the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the
AIAA metallic pressure vessel standard, either require pressure vessel designs to be leak before
burst, or require pressure vessels to meet more stringent requirements for fatigue and fracture if they
are not shown to be leak before burst.[6]
Safety valves[edit]

Example of a valve used for gas cylinders.

As the pressure vessel is designed to a pressure, there is typically a safety valve or relief valve to
ensure that this pressure is not exceeded in operation.

Maintenance features[edit]
Pressure vessel closures[edit]
Pressure vessel closures are pressure retaining structures designed to provide quick access to
pipelines, pressure vessels, pig traps, filters and filtration systems. Typically pressure vessel
closures allow maintenance personnel.

Uses[edit]
Pressure vessels are used in a variety of applications in both industry and the private sector. They
appear in these sectors as industrial compressed air receivers and domestic hot water storage
tanks. Other examples of pressure vessels are diving cylinders, recompression chambers, distillation
towers, pressure reactors, autoclaves, and many other vessels in mining operations, oil
refineries and petrochemical plants, nuclear reactor vessels, submarine and space
ship habitats, pneumatic reservoirs, hydraulic reservoirs under pressure, rail vehicle airbrake
reservoirs, road vehicle airbrake reservoirs, and storage vessels for liquified gases such
as ammonia, chlorine, propane, butane, and LPG.
A unique application of a pressure vessel is the passenger cabin of an airliner; The outer skin carries
both the aircraft maneuvering loads and the cabin pressurization loads.

A pressure tank connected to a water well and domestic hot water system.

A few pressure tanks, here used to holdpropane.

An expansion vessel for heating systems.

A pressure vessel used as a kier.

A pressure vessel used for The Boeing Companys CST-100 spacecraft.

Alternatives to pressure vessels[edit]

Natural gas storage

Gas holder

Depending on the application and local circumstances, alternatives to pressure vessels exist.
Examples can be seen in domestic water collection systems, where the following may be used:

Gravity controlled systems[7] which typically consist of an unpressurized water tank at an

elevation higher than the point of use. Pressure at the point of use is the result of the hydrostatic
pressure caused by the elevation difference. Gravity systems produce 0.43 pounds per square
inch (3.0 kPa) per foot of water head (elevation difference). A municipal water supply or pumped
water is typically around 90 pounds per square inch (620 kPa).

Inline pump controllers or pressure-sensitive pumps.[8]

Design[edit]
Scaling[edit]
No matter what shape it takes, the minimum mass of a pressure vessel scales with the pressure and
volume it contains and is inversely proportional to the strength to weight ratioof the construction
material (minimum mass decreases as strength increases[9]).
Scaling of stress in walls of vessel[edit]
Pressure vessels are held together against the gas pressure due to tensile forces within the walls of
the container. The normal (tensile) stress in the walls of the container is proportional to the pressure
and radius of the vessel and inversely proportional to the thickness of the walls. [10] Therefore
pressure vessels are designed to have a thickness proportional to the radius of tank and the
pressure of the tank and inversely proportional to the maximum allowed normal stress of the
particular material used in the walls of the container.
Because (for a given pressure) the thickness of the walls scales with the radius of the tank, the mass
of a tank (which scales as the length times radius times thickness of the wall for a cylindrical tank)
scales with the volume of the gas held (which scales as length times radius squared). The exact
formula varies with the tank shape but depends on the density, , and maximum allowable stress
of the material in addition to the pressure P and volume V of the vessel. (See below for the exact
equations for the stress in the walls.)
Spherical vessel[edit]
For a sphere, the mass of a pressure vessel is

,
where:

is mass,

is the pressure difference from ambient (the gauge pressure),

is volume,

is the density of the pressure vessel material,

is the maximum working stress that material can tolerate.[11]

Other shapes besides a sphere have constants larger than 3/2 (infinite cylinders take 2),
although some tanks, such as non-spherical wound composite tanks can approach this.
Cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends[edit]

This is sometimes called a "bullet"[citation needed] for its shape, although in geometric terms it is
a capsule.
For a cylinder with hemispherical ends,
,
where

R is the radius

W is the middle cylinder width only, and the overall width is W + 2R

Cylindrical vessel with semi-elliptical ends[edit]

In a vessel with an aspect ratio of middle cylinder width to radius of 2:1,
.
Gas storage[edit]
In looking at the first equation, the factor PV, in SI units, is in units of (pressurization)
energy. For a stored gas, PV is proportional to the mass of gas at a given temperature,
thus

. (see gas law)

The other factors are constant for a given vessel shape and material. So we can
see that there is no theoretical "efficiency of scale", in terms of the ratio of pressure
vessel mass to pressurization energy, or of pressure vessel mass to stored gas
mass. For storing gases, "tankage efficiency" is independent of pressure, at least for
the same temperature.
So, for example, a typical design for a minimum mass tank to hold helium (as a
pressurant gas) on a rocket would use a spherical chamber for a minimum shape
constant, carbon fiber for best possible
possible

, and very cold helium for best

Stress in thin-walled pressure vessels[edit]

Stress in a shallow-walled pressure vessel in the shape of a sphere is
,
where
is hoop stress, or stress in the circumferential direction,
is
stress in the longitudinal direction, p is internal gauge pressure, r is the inner
radius of the sphere, andt is thickness of the cylinder wall. A vessel can be
considered "shallow-walled" if the diameter is at least 10 times (sometimes cited
as 20 times) greater than the wall depth.[12]

Stress in the cylinder body of a pressure vessel.

Stress in a shallow-walled pressure vessel in the shape of a cylinder is

,
,
where:

is hoop stress, or stress in the circumferential direction

is stress in the longitudinal direction

p is internal gauge pressure

r is the inner radius of the cylinder

t is thickness of the cylinder wall.

Almost all pressure vessel design standards contain variations of these

two formulas with additional empirical terms to account for wall
thickness tolerances, quality control of welds and inservice corrosion allowances.
For example, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) (UG27) formulas are:[13]
Spherical shells:

Cylindrical shells:

where E is the joint efficient, and all others variables as

stated above.
The factor of safety is often included in these formulas as
well, in the case of the ASME BPVC this term is included in
the material stress value when solving for pressure or
thickness.

Winding angle of carbon fibre vessels[edit]

Wound infinite cylindrical shapes optimally take a winding
angle of 54.7 degrees, as this gives the necessary twice
the strength in the circumferential direction to the
longitudinal.[14]

Operation standards[edit]
Pressure vessels are designed to operate safely at a
specific pressure and temperature, technically referred to
as the "Design Pressure" and "Design Temperature". A
vessel that is inadequately designed to handle a high
pressure constitutes a very significant safety hazard.
Because of that, the design and certification of pressure
vessels is governed by design codes such as the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code in North America,
the Pressure Equipment Directive of
the EU (PED), Japanese Industrial
Standard (JIS), CSAB51 in Canada, Australian
Standards in Australia and other international
standards like Lloyd's, Germanischer Lloyd, Det Norske
Veritas, Socit Gnrale de Surveillance (SGS S.A.),
Stoomwezen etc.
Note that where the pressure-volume product is part of a
safety standard, any incompressible liquid in the vessel
can be excluded as it does not contribute to the potential
energy stored in the vessel, so only the volume of the
compressible part such as gas is used.
List of standards[edit]

EN 13445: The current European Standard,

harmonized with the Pressure Equipment
Directive (97/23/EC). Extensively used in Europe.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII:

Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels.

BS 5500: Former British Standard, replaced in the UK

by BS EN 13445 but retained under the name PD
5500 for the design and construction of export
equipment.

AD Merkbltter: German standard, harmonized with

the Pressure Equipment Directive.

EN 286 (Parts 1 to 4): European standard for simple

pressure vessels (air tanks), harmonized with Council
Directive 87/404/EEC.

BS 4994: Specification for design and construction of

vessels and tanks in reinforced plastics.

ASME PVHO: US standard for Pressure Vessels for

Human Occupancy.

CODAP: French Code for Construction of Unfired

Pressure Vessel.

AS/NZS 1200: Pressure equipment.[15]

AS 3788 Pressure equipment - In-service inspection

API 510.[16]

ISO 11439: Compressed natural gas (CNG) cylinders[17]

IS 2825-1969
(RE1977)_code_unfired_Pressure_vessels.

FRP tanks and vessels.

AIAA S-080-1998: AIAA Standard for Space Systems Metallic Pressure Vessels, Pressurized Structures, and
Pressure Components.

AIAA S-081A-2006: AIAA Standard for Space Systems

- Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPVs).

B51-09 Canadian Boiler, pressure vessel, and

pressure piping code.

HSE guidelines for pressure systems.

Stoomwezen: Former pressure vessels code in the

Netherlands, also known as RToD: Regels voor
Toestellen onder Druk (Dutch Rules for Pressure
Vessels).

See also[edit]

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

Bottled gas

Cylinder stress
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Composite overwrapped pressure vessel

Compressed natural gas

Demister

Fire-tube boiler

Gas cylinder

Gasket

Head (vessel)

Minimum Design Metal Temperature (MDMT)

Pressure bomb - a device for measuring leaf water

potentials

Rainwater harvesting

Relief valve

Safety valve

Shell and tube heat exchanger

Vapor-Liquid Separator or Knock-Out Drum

Vortex breaker

Water well

Water-tube boiler

Components of cylinder orcircumferential stress.

In mechanics, a cylinder stress is a stress distribution with rotational symmetry; that is, which
remains unchanged if the stressed object is rotated about some fixed axis.
Cylinder stress patterns include:

Circumferential stress or hoop stress, a normal stress in the tangential (azimuth)

direction;

Axial stress, a normal stress parallel to the axis of cylindrical symmetry;

Radial stress, a stress in directions coplanar with but perpendicular to the symmetry axis.

The classical example (and namesake) of hoop stress is the tension applied to the iron bands, or
hoops, of a wooden barrel. In a straight, closed pipe, any force applied to the cylindrical pipe wall by
a pressure differential will ultimately give rise to hoop stresses. Similarly, if this pipe has flat end
caps, any force applied to them by static pressure will induce a perpendicular axial stress on the
same pipe wall. Thin sections often have negligibly small radial stress, but accurate models of
thicker-walled cylindrical shells require such stresses to be taken into account.
Contents
[hide]

1 Definitions
o

1.1 Hoop stress

2 Relation to internal pressure

2.1 Thin-walled assumption

2.2 Thick-walled vessels

3 Practical effects
o

3.1 Engineering

3.2 Medicine

4 Historical development of the theory

5 See also

6 References

Definitions[edit]
Hoop stress[edit]
The hoop stress is the force exerted circumferentially (perpendicular both to the axis and to the
radius of the object) in both directions on every particle in the cylinder wall. It can be described as:

where:

F is the force exerted circumferentially on an area of the cylinder wall that has the following
two lengths as sides:

t is the radial thickness of the cylinder

l is the axial length of the cylinder

An alternative to hoop stress in describing circumferential stress is wall stress or wall

tension (T), which usually is defined as the total circumferential force exerted along the entire
radial thickness:[1]

Cylindrical coordinates

Along with axial stress and radial stress, circumferential stress is a component of the stress
tensor in cylindrical coordinates.
It is usually useful to decompose any force applied to an object with rotational symmetry into
components parallel to the cylindrical coordinates r, z, and . These components of force
induce corresponding stresses: radial stress, axial stress and hoop stress, respectively.

Relation to internal pressure[edit]

Thin-walled assumption[edit]

For the thin-walled assumption to be valid the vessel must have a wall thickness of no more
than about one-tenth (often cited as one twentieth) of its radius. This allows for treating the
wall as a surface, and subsequently using the YoungLaplace equation for estimating the
hoop stress created by an internal pressure on a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel:

(for a cylinder)
(for a sphere)
where

P is the internal pressure

t is the wall thickness

r is the mean radius of the cylinder.

is the hoop stress.

The hoop stress equation for thin shells is also approximately valid for spherical
vessels, including plant cells and bacteria in which the internal turgor pressure may
reach several atmospheres.
Inch-pound-second system (IPS) units for P are pounds-force per square inch (psi).
Units for t, and d are inches (in). SI units for P are pascals (Pa), while t and d=2r are
in meters (m).
When the vessel has closed ends the internal pressure acts on them to develop a
force along the axis of the cylinder. This is known as the axial stress and is usually
less than the hoop stress.

Though this may be approximated to

Also in this situation a radial stress

in thin walled cylinders as:

is developed and may be estimated

Thick-walled vessels[edit]
When the cylinder to be studied has a r/t ratio of less than 10 (often
cited as 20) the thin-walled cylinder equations no longer hold since
stresses vary significantly between inside and outside surfaces
and shear stress through the cross section can no longer be neglected.
In order to calculate the stresses and strains here a set of equations
known as the Lam equations must be used.

where

A and B are constants of integration, which may be

discovered from the boundary conditions

r is the radius at the point of interest (e.g., at the inside or

outside walls)

A and B may be found by inspection of the boundary

conditions. For example, the simplest case is a solid cylinder:
if
then
internal pressure so

and a solid cylinder cannot have an

Practical effects[edit]
Engineering[edit]
Fracture is governed by the hoop stress in the absence of other
external loads since it is the largest principal stress. Note that a
hoop experiences the greatest stress at its inside (the outside
and inside experience the same total strain which however is
distributed over different circumferences), hence cracks in
pipes should theoretically start from insidethe pipe. This is why
pipe inspections after earthquakes usually involve sending a
camera inside a pipe to inspect for cracks. Yielding is governed
by an equivalent stress that includes hoop stress and the
longitudinal or radial stress when present.

Medicine[edit]
In the pathology of vascular or gastrointestinal walls, the wall
tension represents the muscular tension on the wall of the
vessel. As a result of the Law of Laplace, if an aneurysmforms
in a blood vessel wall, the radius of the vessel has increased.
This means that the inward force on the vessel decreases, and
therefore the aneurysm will continue to expand until it ruptures.
A similar logic applies to the formation of diverticuli in the gut.[2]

Historical development of the theory[edit]

Cast iron pillar ofChepstow Railway Bridge, 1852. Pinjointed wrought ironhoops (stronger in tension than cast iron)
resist the hoop stresses.[3]

The first theoretical analysis of the stress in cylinders was

developed by the mid-19th century engineer William Fairbairn,
assisted by his mathematical analyst Eaton Hodgkinson. Their
first interest was in studying the design and failures of steam
boilers.[4] Early on Fairbairn realised that the hoop stress was
twice the longitudinal stress, an important factor in the
assembly of boiler shells from rolled sheets joined by riveting.
Later work was applied to bridge building, and the invention of
the box girder. In the Chepstow Railway Bridge, the cast
iron pillars are strengthened by obvious bands of wrought iron.
The vertical, longitudinal force is a compressive force, which
cast iron is well able to resist. The hoop stress though is
tensile, and so wrought iron, a material with better tensile
strength is added.

STRESSES IN THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

A pressure vessel is a type of container which is used to store liquids or gases under a pressure
different from the ambient pressure. Examples of pressure vessels can be diving cylinder, autoclave,
nitrogen tanks, submarine and storage vessels for liquefied gases such as LPG. Different shapes of
pressure vessels exist but most generally cylindrical and spherical shapes are used. Spherical
vessels are theoretically 2 times stronger than cylindrical ones but due to the manufacturing
difficulties, cylindrical ones are generally preferred in the industry.

A pressure vessel is assumed to be a thin wall pressure vessel when the thickness of the vessel is
less than 1/20 of its radius. [Ref-2] The walls of thin-walled pressure vessels have little resistance to
bending so it may be assumed that the internal forces exerted on a given portion of the wall are
tangent to the surface of the vessel. The resulting stress state on vessel is plane stress situation
since all stresses are tangent to surface of vessel.
The calculation tool was developed to analyze two types of vessels, cylindrical and spherical type.
According to geometric properties and pressure, principal stresses and maximum shear stress on
the surface of the vessel can be calculated. The formulas used for the calculations are given in the
List of Equations section.

Cylindrical

Spherical

Vessel type

INPUT PARAMETERS
Parameter

Symbol

Gage pressure of fluid

pg

10

Vessel wall thickness

10

Vessel inside radius

100

Calculate

Value

Unit

Note: Use dot "." as decimal separator.

RESULTS
Parameter

Symbol

Value

Hoop stress (Principal stress-1)

---

Longitudinal stress (Principal stress-2)

---

Maximum shear stress (in plane)

max(in plane)

---

Maximum shear stress (out plane)

max(out plane)

---

Thickness to inner radius ratio

t/r

--- *

Unit

MPa

---

Note: * Red color :t/r > 1/20 , Green color : t/r < 1/20

Definitions:
Gauge(Gage) Pressure: The pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Eq: p g=pa-patm : pa is the
absolute pressure of the system and patm is atmospheric pressure.
Hoop Stress: Stress acts in tangential direction. It's the 1st principal stress.
Longitudinal stress: Stress acts in longitudinal direction. It's the 2nd principal stress.
Principal Stress: Maximum and minimum normal stress possible for a specific point on a structural
element. Shear stress is 0 at the orientation where principal stresses occur.
Shear stress: A form of a stress acts parallel to the surface (cross section) which has a cutting
nature.

Supplements:
Link

Usage

Yield Criteria for Ductile After calculation of principal stresses on pressure vessel, yield criteria can be
Material
checked for ductile material.
Plane Stress
Transformations

After calculation of principal stresses on pressure vessel, plane stresses in

different orientation can be checked .

List Of Equations:
Parameter

Symbol

Formula

Hoop stress

pgr/t

Longitudinal stress

(pgr)/(2t)

Maximum in-plane shear stress

max(in plane)

(pgr)/(4t)

Maximum out-plane shear stress

max(out plane)

(pgr)/(2t)

Hoop stress

(pgr)/(2t)

Longitudinal stress

(pgr)/(2t)

Maximum in-plane shear stress

max(in plane)

Maximum out-plane shear stress

max(out plane)

(pgr)/(4t)

Cylindrical pressure vessel

Spherical pressure vessel

Examples:
Link

Pressure Vessel

Usage
An example about the calculation of stresses on a pressure vessel,
evaluation of yield criteria of material and stress transformation to find
shear and perpendicular stresses on welding of the cylindrical body of the
pressure vessel.

Pressure Vessel , Thin Wall Hoop and Longitudinal Stresses

Mechanics of Materials
For the thin-walled assumption to be valid the vessel must have a wall thickness of no more
than about one-tenth (often cited as one twentieth) of its radius. The classic equation for hoop

stress created by an internal pressure on a thin wall cylindrical pressure vessel is:
= PDm /2t for the Hoop Stress
Thin Wall Pressure Vessel Hoop Stress Calculator
where:

P = is the internal pressure

t = is the wall thickness

r = is the inside radius of the cylinder.

Dm = Mean Diameter (Outside diameter - t). Mean diameter of OD and ID...

= is the hoop stress.

The hoop stress equation for thin shells is also approximately valid for spherical vessels,
including plant cells and bacteria in which the internal turgor pressure may reach several
atmospheres.
Inch-pound-second system (IPS) units for P are pounds-force per square inch (psi). Units for t,
and d are inches (in). SI units for P are pascals (Pa), while t and d=2r are in meters (m).

Longitudinal Stress Thin Walled Pressure Vessel:

When the vessel has closed ends the internal pressure acts on them to develop a force along the
axis of the cylinder. This is known as the axial or longitudinal stress and is usually less than the
hoop stress.

Though this may be approximated to

Thin Wall Pressure Vessel Longitudinal Stress Calculator

Where:
P = Pressure
d = Mean Diameter (Outside diameter - t). Mean diameter of OD and ID...
t = Wall Thickness
= Logitudinal Stress

Thin Wall Pressure Vessels

A thin wall pressure vessel is a container that is under pressure that is considered to
have a thin wall. To classify as a thin wall pressure vessel, the inner radius r is more
than or 10 times greater than the thickness t; r/t > 10. If r/t = 10 then the predicted
stress can be up to 4 % less than the actual stress. This error is due to the fact that as
the thickness grows in relationship to the inner radius, there will be a greater variation
of stress across the thickness. However, if it is said to be a thin wall pressure vessel
then the stress difference isn't significant and it can be assumed as uniform.
When a thin wall pressure vessel is under stress, there can be multiple stresses that
need to be considered. The first stress is called the circumferential or hoop stress.
Refer to the figure and equation 1 below.

(1)
r = radius
t = thickness

The second stress that needs to be considered is the longitudinal stress. Refer to the
figure and equation 2 below.

(2)

Types of Pressure Vessels

There are different types of pressure vessels, but the two that will be discussed here
are cylinders and spheres. A pressure vessel that is cylindrical in shape has both a
hoop stress and a longitudinal stress. The hoop stress however is normally always two
time greater than the longitudinal stress. Due to this, hoses and other cylindrical type
vessels will split on the wall instead of being pulled apart like it would under an axial
load. Refer to the picture below.

On the other hand pressure vessels that are spheres do not have a hoop stress. Instead
they only have longitudinal stress. Due to this spherical pressure vessels can withstand
larger pressures then pressure vessels that are cylinders.

LECTURE 15
Members Subjected to Axisymmetric Loads
Pressurized thin walled cylinder:
Preamble : Pressure vessels are exceedingly important in industry. Normally two types of pressure vessel are used
in common practice such as cylindrical pressure vessel and spherical pressure vessel.
In the analysis of this walled cylinders subjected to internal pressures it is assumed that the radial plans remains
radial and the wall thickness dose not change due to internal pressure. Although the internal pressure acting on the
wall causes a local compressive stresses (equal to pressure) but its value is neglibly small as compared to other
stresses & hence the sate of stress of an element of a thin walled pressure is considered a biaxial one.
Further in the analysis of them walled cylinders, the weight of the fluid is considered neglible.
Let us consider a long cylinder of circular cross - section with an internal radius of R 2 and a constant wall thicknesst'
as showing fig.

This cylinder is subjected to a difference of hydrostatic pressure of p' between its inner and outer surfaces. In many
cases, p' between gage pressure within the cylinder, taking outside pressure to be ambient.
By thin walled cylinder we mean that the thicknesst' is very much smaller than the radius Ri and we may quantify this
by stating than the ratio t / Ri of thickness of radius should be less than 0.1.
An appropriate co-ordinate system to be used to describe such a system is the cylindrical polar one r, , z shown,
where z axis lies along the axis of the cylinder, r is radial to it and is the angular co-ordinate about the axis.
The small piece of the cylinder wall is shown in isolation, and stresses in respective direction have also been shown.
Type of failure:
Such a component fails in since when subjected to an excessively high internal pressure. While it might fail by
bursting along a path following the circumference of the cylinder. Under normal circumstance it fails by circumstances
it fails by bursting along a path parallel to the axis. This suggests that the hoop stress is significantly higher than the
axial stress.
In order to derive the expressions for various stresses we make following
Applications :
Liquid storage tanks and containers, water pipes, boilers, submarine hulls, and certain air plane components are
common examples of thin walled cylinders and spheres, roof domes.
ANALYSIS : In order to analyse the thin walled cylinders, let us make the following assumptions :
There are no shear stresses acting in the wall.
The longitudinal and hoop stresses do not vary through the wall.
Radial stresses r which acts normal to the curved plane of the isolated element are neglibly small as compared to
other two stresses especially when
The state of tress for an element of a thin walled pressure vessel is considered to be biaxial, although the internal
pressure acting normal to the wall causes a local compressive stress equal to the internal pressure, Actually a state
of tri-axial stress exists on the inside of the vessel. However, for then walled pressure vessel the third stress is much
smaller than the other two stresses and for this reason in can be neglected.

Thin Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure:

When a thin walled cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, three mutually perpendicular principal stresses will be
set up in the cylinder materials, namely
Circumferential or hoop stress
The radial stress
Longitudinal stress
now let us define these stresses and determine the expressions for them
Hoop or circumferential stress:
This is the stress which is set up in resisting the bursting effect of the applied pressure and can be most conveniently
treated by considering the equilibrium of the cylinder.

In the figure we have shown a one half of the cylinder. This cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure p.
i.e.

p = internal pressure

d = inside diametre
L = Length of the cylinder
t = thickness of the wall
Total force on one half of the cylinder owing to the internal pressure 'p'
= p x Projected Area
=pxdxL
= p .d. L

------- (1)

The total resisting force owing to hoop stresses H set up in the cylinder walls
= 2 . H .L.t

---------(2)

Because H.L.t. is the force in the one wall of the half cylinder.
the equations (1) & (2) we get
2 . H . L . t = p . d . L
H = (p . d) / 2t

Circumferential or hoop
Stress ( H) = (p .d)/ 2t
Longitudinal Stress:
Consider now again the same figure and the vessel could be considered to have closed ends and contains a fluid
under a gage pressure p.Then the walls of the cylinder will have a longitudinal stress as well as a ciccumferential
stress.

Total force on the end of the cylinder owing to internal pressure

= pressure x area
= p x d2 /4
Area of metal resisting this force = d.t. (approximately)
because d is the circumference and this is multiplied by the wall thickness

Hoop, Axial and Radial Stresses in Thick-Walled Pressure

Vessels
Created using ANYS 14.0
Problem Specification

Consider the following pressurized thick-walled hydraulic cylinder. The following figure
shows a section through the mid-plane.

Stress directions in cylindrical coordinates:

hoop is in the circumferential direction (out of the plane here)

a = inner radius = 1.5 in

b = outer radius = 2 in
Assume the cylinders are 18 inches long and the vessel is pressurized to 1000 psi.
Here, we will be interested in finding the hoop, axial and radial stresses at the midlength of the cylinders (@ 9 inches), to neglect the local effects of the end caps.
Compare the finite element results obtained from axisymmetric analysis to those
calculated with the theoretical formulae for both thin-wall and thick-wall approximations.
Note: For this problem, the material choice will not affect the stresses; it will only affect
the displacements and strains.

Learning Goals

The purpose of this tutorial is to showcase, in a relatively simple situation, where thinwall pressure vessel theory is no longer as valid as it is in the limit of large radius-tothickness ratios. The point is that inadequate theory should not be used for validation
purposes in the limit that the physical assumptions on which the theory is based break
down. In this problem, this happens gradually as the vessel walls become thicker. This
tutorial is meant to highlight where it is relatively straightforward to apply axisymmetric
FEA and resolve a solution correctly that disprove analytical treatment with simple
formulae derived for thin-walled vessels.

Pre-Analysis & Start-Up

Pre-Analysis
The equations for stresses in thin- and thick-wall cylinders can be found in many
mechanics of materials references, and are summarized here, with a = inner radius, b =
outer radius, r = radial position where stress is to be found, and t = wall thickness.

Notice that in thick-wall theory, the hoop stress varies with the radial position, while the
stress is assumed to be constant in thin-wall theory. Comparing the substitution of a and
b for r in the hoop stress thick-wall equation will convince you that stress is greater on
the inner surface. The hoop stress variation in thick-walled vessels can be depicted as
follows (the view shown corresponds to looking from above the pressure vessel):

By using the parameters given in the problem statement and the above formulae for
hoop stress, we find that the maximum hoop stresses using the thin-wall and thick-wall
approximations yield 3000 psi and 3571 psi, respectively. This corresponds to a 16%
difference which tells us that the thin wall theory might not be adequate for this
geometry. Thin-wall theory actually gives good results when b/a ratio is less than 1.10,
and that is not the case here.
Notice that the axial stresses are constant for both theories since they do not depend on
radius. For this example, the thin-wall and thick-wall approximations yield 1500
psi and 1285 psi, respectively.
The radial stresses at the inner and outer surfaces can be deduced from the boundary
conditions:

The radial stress at the outer surface is 0 psi since the traction is zero at a free
surface.

The radial stress at the inner surface is -1000 psi since it has to equal the
applied normal traction (radial direction is also the normal direction here). The negative
sign indicates that the applied traction is compressive.

The following tables display the results of these approximations:

We will fill in the missing information by performing an axisymmetric analysis using

ANSYS. We will then compare the numerical results from ANSYS to the analytical
results.

Geometry
Icon

For users of ANSYS 15.0, please check this link for procedures for turning on the Auto
Constraint feature before creating sketches in DesignModeler.
For axisymmetric models, we use cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z) with no variation
in the direction. So we can just model a slice in the (r, z) plane as shown below.

In ANSYS, the radial direction is x (rather than r) and the axial direction is y (rather than
z). Confusing! We recommend that in an axisymmetric analysis, you think of the
directions in ANSYS as radial & axial rather than x and y.
Note that for axisymmetric models in ANSYS, the y-axis is always the axis of symmetry.
The corresponding 3D geometry can be generated by revolving the 2D section 360
about the y-axis (well do this later in the Numerical Results step).

Below is the 2D geometry we need to model:

We use symmetry to model only half the total length of the cylinder.

ANSYS Learning Modules

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Created by Steve Weidner, last modified by Sebastien Lachance-Barrett on Dec 31, 2014

Go to start of metadata

List of Learning Modules

Each learning module below contains a step-by-step tutorial that shows details of how
to solve a selected problem using ANSYS, a popular tool for finite-element analysis
(FEA). The tutorial topics are drawn from Cornell University courses, the Prantil et
al textbook, student/research projects etc. If a tutorial is from a course, the relevant
course number is indicated below. All tutorials have a common structure and use the
same high-level steps starting with Pre-Analysis and ending with Verification and

Validation . Pre-Analysis includes hand calculations to predict expected results

while Verification and Validation can be thought of as a formal process for checking
computer results. Both these steps are extremely important in practice though often
overlooked. The pedagogical philosophy behind these modules is discussed in this
article from the ANSYS Advantage magazine.
Finite Element Analysis Using ANSYS Mechanical: Results-Interpretation
The following ANSYS tutorials focus on the interpretation and verification of FEA results
(rather than on obtaining an FEA solution from scratch). The ANSYS solution files are
provided as a download. We read the solution into ANSYS Mechanical and then move
directly to reviewing the results critically. We are particularly interested in the
comparison of FEA results with hand calculations.
Tensile Bar

MAE 3250

Static
Structural

Plate With a Hole

MAE 3250

Static
Structural

Bending of a Curved
Beam

MAE 3250

Static
Structural

Finite Element Analysis Using ANSYS Mechanical

The following ANSYS tutorials show you how to obtain an FEA solution from scratch
using ANSYS Mechanical.
Introductory Tutorials
Plate With a Hole

MAE 3250/ MAE

4700- 5700

Static
Structural

Bike Crank

MAE 3250/ MAE

3272

Static
Structural

Bike Crank: Part 2

MAE 3272

Static
Structural

Cantilever Beam

MAE 4700- 5700

Static
Structural

Plane Frame

MAE 4700- 5700

Static
Structural

A stepped shaft in axial

tension

Prantil et al
textbook

Static
Structural

A non-slender
cantilever beam
under point tip loading

Prantil et al
textbook

Static
Structural

Hoop and axial

stresses in
thick-walled pressure
vessels

Prantil et al
textbook

Static
Structural

A four-point bend test

on a T-beam

Prantil et al
textbook

Static
Structural

Planar approximations
for a
two-dimensional beam
analysis

Prantil et al
textbook

Static
Structural

Three-dimensional
analysis of
combined loading in a
signpost

Prantil et al
textbook

Static
Structural

Plate With a Hole:

Optimization

MAE 3250/ MAE

4700- 5700

Optimization

Heat Conduction in a
Cylinder

MAE 4700- 5700

Heat Transfer

2D Steady Conduction
in a
Rectangular Domain

MAE 3240/ MAE

6510

Heat Transfer

Cantilever Beam
Modal Analysis

MAE 4700- 5700

Dynamics

Modal Analysis of a
Wing

Dynamics

Advanced Tutorials
High Resolution FE
Model
of Bone

MAE 6640

Static Structural

Hertz Contact
Mechanics

Undergrad
Project

Static Structural

Wind Turbine Blade

M.Eng Project

Stress due to Gravity

Static Structural

Static Structural

Advanced FEA for

Large
Telescope Truss

CCAT
Telescope
Project

Static Structural

Crack Between NeoHookean

Material and Rigid
Body

MAE 5700

Static Structural

Wind Turbine Blade

FSI (Part 2)

MAE
4020- 5020

Static Structural,
FSI

Linear Column
Buckling

Structural

Thermal Stresses in
a Bar

Coupled Static
Structural
and
Heat Transfer

Transient 2D
Conduction

Heat Transfer

3D Conduction

Heat Transfer

Radiation Between
Surfaces

Heat Transfer

Modal Analysis of a
Satellite

Cornell CubeSat
Team

Modal Analysis of a
Composite
Monocoque

Cornell Formula
SAE team

Dynamics

Tips and tricks

Tips and Tricks

Finite Element Analysis Using ANSYS APDL (These tutorials are no longer being
updated)
Two-Dimensional Static
Truss

ANSYS 11.0 12.0

APDL

Basic

Plate with a hole

ANSYS 11.0 12.0

APDL

Basic

Three-dimensional bicycle
crank

ANSYS 12.0 APDL

Intermediate

Three-dimensional curved
beam

ANSYS 11.0 APDL

Intermediate

Vibration analysis of a frame

ANSYS 7.0

Intermediate

Semi-monocoque shell

ANSYS 10.0 APDL

Intermediate

Semi-monocoque shell,
Part 2: Parametric study

ANSYS 10.0 APDL

Intermediate

Orthotropic plate with a hole

ANSYS 11.0 12.0

APDL

Intermediate

Disks in point contact

ANSYS 7.1 Classic

Intermediate

Frequently Asked Questions

About the ANSYS learning modules

This ANSYS short course consists of a set of learning modules on using ANSYS to
solve problems in solid mechanics. The learning modules lead the user through the
steps involved in solving a selected set of problems using ANSYS. We not only provide
the solution steps but also the rationale behind them. It is worthwhile for the user to
understand the underlying concepts as she goes through the learning modules in order
to be able to correctly apply ANSYS to other problems. The user would be ill-served by
clicking through the learning modules in zombie-mode. Each learning module is
followed by problems which are geared towards strengthening and reinforcing the
knowledge and understanding gained in the learning modules. Working through the
problem sets is an intrinsic part of the learning process and shouldn't be skipped.
These learning modules have been developed by the Swanson Engineering Simulation
Program in the Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Cornell
University. The Swanson Engineering Simulation Program has been established with
the goal of integrating computer-based simulations into the mechanical engineering
curriculum. This program has been endowed by Dr. John Swanson, the founder
of ANSYS Inc. and an alumnus of the Sibley School. The development of these learning
modules is being supported by a Faculty Innovation in Teaching award from Cornell
University.

What is ANSYS?

ANSYS is a finite-element analysis package used widely in industry to simulate the

response of a physical system to structural loading, and thermal and electromagnetic
effects. ANSYS uses the finite-element method to solve the underlying governing
equations and the associated problem-specific boundary conditions.

Stability of thin-walled high-pressure vessels

subjected to uniform corrosion

Abstract
The stressed state in real metal constructions changes in the process of operation even
under permanent external loading. It takes place due to changes in the cross-sections of the
loaded elements, resulting from the surface corrosion. This paper proposes a method for
determining the critical time of stability loss in thin-walled high-pressure vessels subjected
to uniform corrosion from the inside. The method is based upon the model of a thin elastic
cylindrical shell. It is shown that this critical time can be established if the solution of the
respective problem of the static stability loss for the vessel, not subjected to corrosion, and
the law of corrosion rate change are known. Several special cases of the law of corrosion
rate are examined.

Thin-walled pressure vessels and method of manufacture

US 3184092 A
ABSTRACT available in
IMAGES(1)

CLAIMS available in
DESCRIPTION (OCR text may contain errors)
May 18, 1965 H. J. c. GEORGE THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS AND METHOD OF
MANUFACTURE Filed Sept. 9. 1960 INVENTOR. HENRI d. C. GEORGE W mm mm B W W n m
ATTORNEYS United States Patent 3,184,092 THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS AND METHDD 9F
MANUFACTURE Henri J. C. George, Paris, France, assignor to Quartz &
Silice S.A., Paris, France, a corporation of France Filed Sept. 9, 1960, Ser. No. 55,080
Claims priority, application France, Sept. 10, 1959,
804,785, Patent 1,243,920 1 Claim. (Cl. 220-3) This invention relates to thin-walled pressure vessels and
the manufacture thereof, and more particularly to improved means for reinforcing a pressure vessel
comprising a thin wall of metal or other material which is to be used under high temperature conditions.
Many metals used in making hollow pressure vessels, even those having high melting points, exhibit a
rapid decrease in mechanical properties with rising tempera ture, particularly with regard to elasticity and
yield point. The material of an unrcinforced metallic pressure vessel must therefore be of sufiicient
thickness to retain the design pressure on the basis of considerably lowered elasticity and yield point
when the vessel is intended to be subjected to greatly elevated temperatures in use.
It is the primary object of the present invention to provide an improved reinforced thin-walled pressure
vessel, which will maintain relatively high mechanical strength under high temperature operating
conditions, in spite of reduction in the mechanical strength of the material of the vessel.
It is a further object of this invention to provide an improved method for manufacturing a reinforced
thinwalled pressure vessel.
Further objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent as the following description
proceeds.
According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a thin-walled tube, receptacle, or other
pressure vessel is formed of thin metal, and is subsequently wound circumferentially with one or more
windings of fine quartz filaments which are subjected to a high tension, which is preferably the maximum
tension compatible with the yield point of the filaments. Because quartz has a considerably lower
coetficient of expansion than metals, the metal will expand more rapidly than the quartz filaments with a
rise in temperature, and the compression caused by the winding will increase. A very substantial increase
in the mechanical strength of the pressure vessel is provided even at these high temperatures. Quartz
maintains its elastic properties even at temperatures of 1000 C., at which most metals become relatively

soft. The resulting pressure vessel is thus capable of withstanding high pressures at relatively higher
temperatures than those which can be contained by comparable metal pressure vessels of equal or even
greater thickness, particularly at elevated temperatures.
The quartz filaments may have widely varying diameters, within a range which is compatible with good
winding characteristics. The most convenient range of diameters falls between one and about thirty
microns; thinner filaments are difficult to manufacture and to wind, while thicker filaments have higher
fragility and are also quite difiicult to wind.
According to an additional feature of this invention, the winding of the filament about the pressure vessel
can be accomplished concurrently with the drawing of the filament from a heated quartz rod, by
employing the pressure vessel as a drawing drum. The vessel is rotated to draw the filament under
tension from a crucible in which the heated quartz rod is maintained at a drawing temperature.
Alternatively, the filament may be drawn onto a drawing drum and then rewound under tension onto the
pressure vessel.
3,184,92 Patented May 18, 1955 "ice While the specification concludes with claims particularly pointing
out and distinctly claiming the subject matter which I regard as my invention, it is believed that the
invention will be better understood from the following detailed description taken in connection with the
accompanying drawing, in which:
FIG. 1 is a view showing a method of reinforcing a pressure vessel according to the invention;
FIG. 2 is a sectional view taken along line 2-2 in FIG. 1, looking in the direction of the arrows;
FIG. 3 is a schematic view showing a modified method of reinforcing a pressure vessel; and
FIG. 4 is a schematic view showing a further modification of the improved method.
Referring to the drawing, a metallic pressure vessel 1 is shown by way of illustration, and is formed with
hemispherical end walls 2 joining a cylindrical wall 3 to enclose a pressure chamber 4- which is intended
to contain gases under high pressures at elevated temperature conditions. Such a vessel has good
strength characteristics at low temperatures, but these characteristics diminish rapidly with increasing
temperature, particularly with regard to the elasticity and yield point of the metal. A metal pressure vessel
to be used at elevated temperatures on the order of hundreds of degrees centigrade must therefore be
made with relatively thick and heavy walls.
According to the method of this invention, I wind the vessel 1 with a filament 5 of quartz to form a winding
6 about at least the cylindrical portion of the vessel, and carry the winding on under a substantial tension.
The winding may be subjected to the maximum tension compatible with the yield point of the filament, and
I prefer to carry on the winding under a filament tensile stress at least within the range of to 300 kilograms

per square millimeter. A winding 2 millimeters thick produces a tangential compression force on the vessel
in the order of to 400 kilograms per millimeter of length of the vessel. While the winding may be formed of
a single layer, I prefer to wind the filament at least several layers thick, depending upon the strength
required in the vessel.
The win-ding is carried on by rotatably mounting the vessel 1 on the axis shown by any suitable shaft and
bearing means (not shown), and rotating the vessel to wind the filament thereon in a helical conformation.
The filament 5 is supplied by means of a reel 7 rotatably supported upon an axle 8 and constrained by
suitable tension braking means of any well-known type (not shown) to provide the desired winding stress.
The spool 7 is prepared in a conventional manner by drawing the filament from a suitably heated quartz
rod, using the spool as a drawing drum. In an alternative method which is a feature of this invention,
however, the filament may be drawn directly onto the vessel 1 from a heated quartz rod, the latter being
suitably heated within a crucible according to conventional practice. The method of directly winding and
drawing the filament onto the vessel is illustrated in alternative forms in FIGS. 3 and 4. In FIG. 3, a vessel
1 is shown mounted for rotation in the direction shown by the arrow upon a shaft 10, and arranged to
draw a quartz filament 12 from a suitably sup orted quartz rod 14, which is heated by a torch 16 to a
fusing temperature. In FIG. 4, a vessel 1" is supported upon a shaft 18 for rotation in the direction shown
by the arrow to draw a filament 20 from a molten charge of quartz 22, contained within a suitably heated
crucible 24, the bottom of which has an orifice 26 to form the filament in a manner well known in the art. I
have found that the direct drawing of the filament onto the vessel may afford a tensile strength as much
as two or three times greater than that of filaments which have been wound on a spool and subsequently
rewound on the vessel. Upon completion 3 of the winding operation, an end or" the filament is fused to
the winding by local heating means, such as a torch.
The diameter of the quartz filament may vary within a Wide range, but should be compatible with good
winding characteristics. A particularly convenient range of diameters is from one to thirty microns.
Filaments of lesser diameter are difficult to prepare and wind, while filaments of greater diameter are
relatively fragile and also present difficulty in winding.
I have found that my improved pressure vessel provides greater resistance to bursting than a metal
pressure vessel having a wall thickness equal to the total thickness of the metal wall and the quartz
filament winding of the pressure vessel of this invention. Furthermore, my improved pressure vessel
preserves its strength at high temperatures, because the quartz filament maintains its elasticity and
strength up to temperatures which may reach l000 Q, at which most metals become relatively soft.
Under high temperature conditions, the metal or other material of the pressure vessel 1, having a higher
edeflicient of expansion than the quartz, expands more rapidly and increases the compression of the
quartz winding on the vessel. The compressional strength of my improved pressure vessel is thus
increased with rising temperature, in a range of temperatures lower than the melting point of the metal or
other material of the vessel.

It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the vessel may assume any desired shape, and is not
limited to a cylindrical vessel. Furthermore, the ends as well as the side wall of the vessel may be wound
with the quartz filament.
Various other changes and modifications will occur to those skilled in the art, and I intendto cover all such
changes and modifications in the appended claim.
What I claim and desire to secure by Letters Patent of the United States is:
A pressure vessel capable of maintaining high bursting strength at temperatures in the order of about
1000 (3., comprising a hollow metallic vessel which would normally be weakened at temperatures in the
order of about 1000 C. to a point where said metallic vessel would rupturc under its designed pressure
limit, said metallic vessel having a coefiicient of thermal expansion substantially greater than that of
quartz, said pressure vessel having a plurality of windings of a quartz filament wound under a tension less
than the yield point of said filament, said windings maintaining their tensile strength at a tem- 1 perature in
the order of about 1000 C. and restraining thermal expansion of said metallic vessel.
References Cited by the Examiner UNITED STATES PATENTS THERON E. CONDON, Primary
Examiner.
EARLE I. DRUMMOND, Examiner.

PATENT CITATIONS
Cited
Patent

US2405036 *

Filing date

Oct 1, 1941

Publication
date

Applicant

Title

Jul 30, 1946

Linde Air
Prod Co

Method of and
apparatus for
making glass
products, such as
fibers and rods
Manufacture of
reinforced concrete
pipes

US2569612 *

Oct 27, 1945

Oct 2, 1951

Pont A
Mousson
Fond

US2579183 *

Jun 8, 1945

Dec 18, 1951

Eugene
Freysainet

Method for
tensioning
reinforcements

US2652943 *

Jan 9, 1947

Sep 22, 1953

Williams
Sylvester Vet

High-pressure
container having
laminated walls

US2744043 *

Jan 23, 1950

May 1, 1956

Fels &
Company

Method of
producing pressure

Cited
Patent

Filing date

Publication
date

Applicant

Title

containers for fluids

US2827195 *

Jul 7, 1954

Mar 18, 1958

Thomas F
Kearns

Container for high

pressure fluids
Pressure vessels
and methods of
making such
vessels

US2848133 *

Oct 28, 1954

Aug 19, 1958

Einar M
Ramberg

US2984868 *

Mar 20, 1958

May 23, 1961

Engelhard
Ind Inc

Method of making
fused quartz fibers

US3045278 *

Apr 3, 1959

Jul 24, 1962

Engelhard
Ind Inc

Fiber forming torch

Thin-walled Pressure Vessels

Key Concepts: A pressure vessel is generally a "thinwalled" structure (the ratio of radius to
thickness is large) subject to internal pressure, p. The pressure produces normal stresses
in the plane of the structure which are determined from equilibrium of an element.

In a Nut Shell: Thin-walled pressure vessels store and transport gases or liquids under
pressure such as pipelines, water towers, silos, and tanks. For example, compressors store air
pressure in tanks used at gas stations for tire inflation. Pressure vessels include:
Spherical Pressure Vessels
Cylindrical Pressure Vessels
Capped Pressure Vessels Cylinder capped at each end by a hemisphere
If r is the inner radius of the sphere or cylinder and t is the wall thickness, then the
sphere or cylinder is considered to be thin provided r/t 10.
First consider the case of a thin-walled spherical pressure vessel with wall thickness, t,
internal radius, r, and internal pressure, p, as shown below.

1 = 2 = pr/2t
where
1, 2 are the normal stresses on the outer surface in (lb/in 2), (lb/ft2), (N/mm2), (N/m2)
p is the internal pressure in (lb/in2), (lb/ft2), (N/mm2), (N/m2)
r is the internal radius of the spherical pressure vessel in (in), (mm), etc
t is the wall thickness of the spherical pressure vessel in (in), (mm), etc
Note: The normal stresses, 1 and 2 are the same in any direction tangent to the outer
surface and constant throughout the thickness. They are the principal stresses at every point.
Click here to continue with discussion of a thin-walled, cylindrical pressure vessel.

Thin-walled Pressure Vessels (continued)

Next consider the case of a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel with wall thickness, t,
inner radius, r, and internal pressure, p, as shown below.

1 = pr/t (hoop stress)

2 = pr/2t (longitudinal stress)
where

1 is the hoop stress on the outer surface in (psi), (N/mm2), etc

2 is the longitudinal stress on the outer surface in (psi), (N/mm2), etc
p is the internal pressure in (lb/in2), (lb/ft2), (N/mm2), (N/m2)
r is the internal radius of the cylindrical pressure vessel in (in), (mm),etc
t is the wall thickness of the cylindrical pressure vessel in (in), (mm),etc
Note: The normal stress, 1 and 2 are constant throughout the thickness.
Note further: In the case of a cylindrical pressure vessel the hoop and longitudinal stresses on
outer surface of each face of are the principal stresses. However an element rotated by 45o will
carry the maximum shear stress as well as a normal stress as seen on a Mohrs Circle.

Click here for discussion of the use of Mohrs Circle for pressure vessels.

Thin-walled Pressure Vessels (continued)

Recall Mohrs Circle provides a convenient way to determine the normal and shear stresses
on any face on the outer surface of a pressure vessel.
Mohrs Circle for a spherical pressure vessel for in-plane stresses on the outer surface of
the cylinder is as follows:

where 1 = 2 = pr/2t
Note: 1 and 2 are the principal stresses and are the same in any direction for any
element on the outer surface of the spherical pressure vessel. There are no in-plane shearing
stresses on any element on the outer surface of the sphere.

Click here for Mohrs Circle involving cylindrical pressure vessels.

Thin-walled Pressure Vessels (continued)

Recall Mohrs Circle provides a convenient way to determine the normal and shear stresses
on any face of the element. Consider the following cylindrical pressure vessel of inner
radius, r, thickness, t, and with internal pressure, p.

Mohrs Circle for a cylindrical pressure vessel for in-plane stresses on the outer surface
of the cylinder is as follows:

where 1 = pr/t (circumferential) and 2 = pr/2t (longitudinal)

Note: 1 and 2 are the in-plane principal stresses. The maximum in-plane shearing
stress is rotated 45o from the faces of the element shown above. The value of the maximum
in-plane shearing stress for an element on the outer surface of the cylinder is just

max =
Click here for examples.

Pressure Vessels

( 2 1 ) / 2 = pr/4t

Example: The cylindrical, steel tank shown below is under a gage pressure of 1.5 MPa. Its
inner diameter is 750 mm with a wall thickness of 9 mm. The seams forming the tank using
butt welds are at an angle of with the longitudinal axis of the tank. Determine the normal
stress perpendicular to the weld and the shearing stress parallel to the weld for = 60o.

Strategy: Use the expression C = pr/t and L = pr/2t to determine the circumferential and
longitudinal, normal components of stress on an element oriented along the cylinder as shown
below. Then use Mohrs circle to find the components of stress for an element oriented along
and perpendicular to the weld seam.

C = pr/t = (1.5)(375)/9 = 62.5 MPa

L = pr/2t = (1.5)(375)/(2)(9) = 31.25 MPa
Next construct Mohrs Circle for this element in plane stress.
Use it to determine the normal and shearing stresses on the face of an element rotated
so that a face of the element aligns with the weld. Remember that rotation of an element
through an angle is equivalent to rotation through an angle 2 on Mohrs Circle with
both rotations in the same direction.

Click here to continue with this example.

Pressure Vessels
Example: (continued)
Identify face A and face B on the element oriented along and perpendicular to the axis of
the cylinder. Then show the circumferential and longitudinal stresses on each face.

Plot Mohrs Circle. Rotate the element so it aligns with the weld line as shown below.
Note face A becomes face A along the weld line with a rotation of 30 o on the element
or 60o on Mohrs Circle.

The radius of the circle is r = (62.5 31.25)/2 = 15.625 MPa

The center of the circle is at (31.25 + 15.625), 0) = (46.875,0)
The shearing stress on face A along the weld line is then 15.625 sin(60) = 13.53 MPa
The normal stress on face A perpendicular to the weld line
is then 46.875 15.625 cos(60) = 39.1 MPa
Suppose the allowable shearing stress in the cylindrical pressure vessel without failure is 15 MPa
and instead of 60o the weld line is at 45o to the longitudinal axis of the vessel. For the same
internal pressure and wall thickness will the tank rupture? Yes, since the shearing stress on a
face along this new weld line is 15.625 MPa which exceeds the allowable shearing stress.
Click here for another example.

Pressure Vessels
*Example: A spherical pressure vessel has an I.D. of 220 mm, a wall thickness of

5 mm, and an internal pressure of 4.0 MPa. Find the maximum in-plane shearing
stress and the maximum absolute shearing stress in the pressure vessel.
Strategy: Use the expression 1 = 2 = pr/2t to determine the normal components of stress
on an element of the sphere as shown below. Then use Mohrs circle to find the components
of stress at any point on the sphere.
1 = 2 = pr/2t = (4.0)(110)/(2)(5) = 44.0 MPa
Mohrs Circle for this element is shown below.

For in-plane stress Mohrs Circle is just the common point with concident normal stresses
1 and 2 . So the in-plane shearing stress is (1 2 )/ 2 = 0 MPa.
For an element with internal pressure acting on a face of the element, the Mohrs Circle has a
diameter of 1 ( p) = 1 + p . So Mohrs Circle for out-of-plane surfaces is a circle
with radius r = (1 + p )/ 2 . Thus the maximum absolute shearing stress
max = ( 44 + 4 ) / 2 = 24 MPa. (result)
Note: If the in-plane surface is the xy-plane, then the out-of-plane surfaces are the
planes in xz and yz surfaces.

PRESSURE VESSELS

Pressure vessels have two stresses to check - hoop stress and

axial stress. Hoop stress is always twice the axial stress.

STRESS IN A THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL

Hoop Stress H (MPa)

= PD/2t

Axial Stress A (MPa)

= PD/4t

Where:
P = pressure of the fluid (MPa)
D = diameter of the tank (mm). This is the inside diameter, but with a
"thin-wall" it doesn't matter.
t = thickness of tank wall. (mm) Should be pretty small compared to D.

Here is a
typical
pressure
vessel made
of welded
steel. The
cylindrical
portion is
made from
flat plate
rolled into a
circle and
then welded
(Joints A).
These joints
must
withstand
the hoop
stress.
The vertical
joints
(Joints B)
handle only
axial
stresses,
which is half
the hoop
stress.
The ends
are pressed
to form a
partially
spherical
shape (a
complete
hemisphere
would have
1/2 the
stress of
the cylinder
- so they
make an
ellipsoid,
which also
happens to
be much

easier to
press into
shape).

Pipes
Pipes, hoses and tubes under pressure are another type of pressure vessel. Being cylinders,
they will fail in hoop stress. Reinforced flexible hoses have cross-ply fibres that absorb both
hoop and axial forces.

Hydraulic hose assembly undergoing a pressure test to failure. Hoses typically have a safety
factor of 4. This 2 inch (50mm) hose is rated at 420 bar (42 MPa) and reached 1650 bar
(165MPa) before it failed...like this:

Bird's nest failure of hydraulic hose. This is typical for an overpressure (burst) failure, the
ruptured fibres release the pressurized oil with considerable energy (explosively). At the
same pressures, compressed air would be even more dangerous than pressurized oil
because air expands, creating an even more explosive effect. In hydraulics, the level of

danger is in proportion to how much fluid is constrained elastically - in flexible hoses and
accumulators. A large diameter, long hose will explode more violently than a small, short
one, which is one reason to use solid steel tube wherever possible.

Whiteboard
SUMMARY

MECHANICS - THEORY
Thin-walled Pressure Vessels
Both cylinderical and spherical pressure vessels are
common structures that are used ranging from large
gas storage structures to small compressed air tanks in
industrial equipment. In this section, only thin-walled
pressure vessels will be analyzed.
A pressure vessel is assumed to be thin-walled if the
wall thickness is less than 10% of the radius (r/t > 10).
This condition assumes that the pressure load will be
transfered into the shell as pure tension (or
compression) without any bending. Thin-walled
pressure vessels are also known as shell structures
and are efficient storage structures.
Cylindrical Pressure Vessel with
Internal Pressure

If the outside pressure is greater than the inside

pressure, the shell could also fail due to buckling. This
is an advanced topic and is not considered in this
section.

Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

Only the middle cylindrical section of a cylinder
pressure vessel is examined in this section. The joint
between the end caps and the mid-section will have
complex stresses that are beyond the discussion in this
chapter.

Cylindrical Vessels will Expierence

Both Hoop and Axial Stress in
the Mid-section

In the mid-section, the pressure will cause the vessel

to expand or strain in only the axial (or longitudinal)
and the hoop (or circumferential) directions. There will
be no twisting or shear strains. Thus, there will only be
the hoop stress, h and the axial stress, a. as shown
in the diagram at the left.

Pressure vessels can be analyzed by cutting them into

two sections, and then equating the pressure load at
the cut with the stress load in the thin walls. In the axial
direction, the axial pressure from the discarded
sections will produce a total axial force of p(r2) which
is simply the cross section area times the internal
pressure. It is generally assumed that r is the inside
radius.
The axial force is resisted by the axial stress in the
vessel walls which have a thickness of t. The total axial
load in the walls will be a(2rt). Since the cross
section is in equilbrium, the two axial forces must be
equal, giving
Cross Section Cut of
Cylindrical Vessel

p(r2) = a(2rt)
This can be simplified to

where r is the inside radius and t is the wall thickness.

In addition to the axial stress, there will be a hoop

stress around the circumference. The hoop stress, h,
can be determined by taking a vertical hoop section
that has a width of dx. The total horizontal pressure
load pushing against the section will be p(2r dx) as
shown in the diagram.
The top and bottom edge section will resist the
pressure and exert a load of h(t dx) (each edge). The
edge loads have to equal the pressure load, or
p(2r dx) =h(2t dx)
This can be simplified to
Hoop Section Cut from
Cylindrical Vessel

where r is the inside radius and t is the wall thickness.

Spherical Pressure Vessel

A spherical pressure vessel is really just a special case

of a cylinderical vessel. No matter how the a sphere is
cut in half, the pressure load perpendicular to the cut
must equal the shell stress load. This is the same
situation with the axial direction in a cylindrical vessel.
Equating the to loads give,
p(r2) = h(2rt)
This can be simplified to
Spherical Pressure Vessel
Cut in Half

Notice, the hoop and axial stress are the same due to
symmetry.