Journal of the Geological Society

Tectonostratigraphic evolution of a Mesozoic graben border system: the Chachil

depocentre, southern Neuqun Basin, Argentina
J.R. Franzese, G.D. Veiga, E. Schwarz and I. Gmez-Prez
Journal of the Geological Society 2006; v. 163; p. 707-721
doi:10.1144/0016-764920-082

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2006 Geological Society of London

Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 163, 2006, pp. 707721. Printed in Great Britain.

Tectonostratigraphic evolution of a Mesozoic graben border system: the Chachil

depocentre, southern Neuquen Basin, Argentina
1

M E Z - P E R E Z 2
J. R . F R A N Z E S E 1 , G . D. V E I G A 1 , E . S C H WA R Z 1 & I . G O
Centro de Investigaciones Geologicas, Universidad Nacional de La PlataCONICET, Calle 1 #644, B1900TAC La Plata,
Argentina (e-mail: franzese@cig.museo.unlp.edu.ar)
2
Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme (CASP), West Building, 181A Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DH, UK
Abstract: The Chachil depocentre is one of a number of early Mesozoic extensional basins that form the
early depocentres of the southern Neuquen Basin in Argentina. The synrift volcanic fill is composed of
andesites, rhyolites and volcaniclastic deposits. Coarse-grained, non-marine facies dominate the sedimentary
fill, mainly in the form of sediment gravity flow deposits. Stream flow deposits and minor non-marine
carbonates are also locally present. The evolution of the graben border system was mainly controlled by
subsidence along the main boundary fault (the Chihuido Bayo fault system) and recurrent volcanic activity.
Marked changes in the thickness of the synrift megasequence indicate that episodic normal faulting in the
hanging wall was also important. The integration of structural, magmatic and sedimentary data from the study
area has led to the definition of three stages in the evolution of the synrift succession. The early rift stage is
defined by the interplay between bimodal volcanism and gravity-driven sedimentation. The mid-rift stage is
marked by the transition to acidic magmatism (rhyolitic and pyroclastic flows), also associated with coarsegrained non-marine deposition. The late-rift stage is dominated by fine-grained turbidites and pyroclastic falls
related to the first marine sedimentation in the Neuquen Basin.

fig. 4), a rift border system. The basin-scale concept of the

interplay of faulting and sedimentation in a rift border system is
here applied to a single depocentre within a more complex rift
system.
The aims of this study are: (1) to establish the sedimentological and stratigraphic characteristics of the fill near the faulted
margin of the depocentre; (2) to analyse the influence of
volcanism and tectonics in the development of sedimentary
sequences in such an environment; (3) to reconstruct the
tectonosedimentary evolution of the depocentre. The results
provide new details on the development of sedimentary sequences in continental rifts strongly dominated by volcanic or
volcaniclastic input. Recently the early rift basins of the Neuquen
Basin have been the focus of hydrocarbon exploration (Pangaro
et al. 2002a) and the results of the present study also provide
important information that will aid in understanding of the
petroleum systems of the region.

From Late Triassic to Early Jurassic time, part of the protoPacific margin of Gondwana was affected by continental extension driven by the thermomechanical collapse of a Late
Palaeozoic thickened crust (Franzese & Spalletti 2001). This led
to the creation of an ensialic back-arc basin (the Neuquen Basin)
that was active during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic at latitudes
between 308S and 408S. The initial (synrift) configuration of the
basin was characterized by the development of isolated deep
depressions bounded by normal faults and filled with volcanosedimentary successions (Vergani et al. 1995). Although there
have been a number of studies on the later evolution and fill of
the Neuquen Basin (Veiga et al. 2005, and papers therein) studies
of the early grabens of the Neuquen Basin have concentrated on
the limited well log and core data from oil fields in the east of
the area. The outcrops in the western portion have been largely
ignored. Previous studies on the stratigraphic development of
these depocentres have focused on their shared regional evolution
(Gulisano 1981; Gulisano et al. 1984; Legarreta & Gulisano
1989; Riccardi & Gulisano 1990), and detailed studies of
particular depocentres within the basin or in neighbouring areas
lvarez & Ramos 1999).
are rare (Gulisano & Pando 1981; A
Mesozoic and Cenozoic inversion in the central and southern
Neuquen Basin produced uplift and exposure of the faultbounded margins of the depocentres, providing good exposures
of the synrift succession. This study focuses on the tectonostratigraphic evolution of one of these early depocentres in the
southern part of the Neuquen Basin, located in the Cerro Chachil
area (central Neuquen Province, Fig. 1). Detailed logging along
the strike of an inverted hanging-wall section, combined with the
interpretation of aerial photographs, was performed to investigate
the structural styles and depositional sequences from the tip to
the centre of the boundary fault. The system is described as a
graben border system, after Magnavita & da Silva (1995), who
termed the architecture of a rift border, characterized by a main
boundary fault, adjacent step blocks and a clastic wedge (their

Geological setting
The Neuquen Basin is located in westcentral Argentina and
central Chile and was active from Late Triassic to Early Tertiary
time (Yrigoyen 1979; Legarreta & Uliana 1991). The basin has a
multiphase tectonic history that includes an initial extensional
phase, the development of the Andean magmatic arc during its
post-rift stage and several inversion periods related to active
tectonic movements during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic (Legarreta & Uliana 1991; Vergani et al. 1995; Franzese & Spalletti
2001; Howell et al. 2005).
The synrift depocentres of the Neuquen Basin were generated
during the Late Triassic to Pliensbachian as isolated troughs
following a complex multidirectional pattern, mainly subparallel to
the basin margins (Franzese & Spalletti 2001) (Fig. 1). Subsurface
studies show them as a series of half-grabens with variable polarity,
intersected by en echelon transfer faults (Vergani et al. 1995).
707

708

J. R . F R A N Z E S E E T A L .

Pre-rift units

OCEA
N

South America

Pacific
Ocean

Atuel
Rift

PACIF
IC

34 S

Valparaiso

Hualane Curepto

36

Sierra
Azul
Concepcin

38

Sierra Cara
Cura

Neuqun Basin
boundary

Sierra de
Reyes

Andacollo

CHILE

Atlantic
Ocean

Malarge
rift

Study Area
Lonquimay

Entre Lomas

Neuqun embayment

Synrift units

Co. Chachil

Catan Lil
Alumin

Approximate location of
cross section in figure 4b

40
Piedra
del Aguila

Valdivia

72 W

Rift depocentres

Bariloche

68 W

50 km

Fig. 1. Distribution of rift depocentres in the Neuquen Basin and Chilean

Coastal Cordillera with location of the study area. Modified from
Franzese & Spalletti (2001).

The study area is located in the eastern margin of the Andean

Cordillera in central Neuquen province, where the synrift units
are particularly well exposed (Fig. 1). In this area, the lithostratigraphic units involved in the evolution of the Chachil depocentre
can be divided into pre-rift, synrift and early post-rift units.

AGE

Orchuela &
Ploszkiewicz (1984)
(Subsurface)

Toarcian

Early
Pliensbachian
Jurassic
Sinemurian
Hettangian
Late Triassic

Late Carboniferous

Devonian?

Punta
Rosada
Fm

Puesto Kauffman
Fm

The basement of the Neuquen Basin is composed of metamorphic and igneous rocks linked to the evolution of a Late
Palaeozoic orogenic belt (Fig. 2). The Piedra Santa Complex is a
polydeformed metasedimentary unit that reached greenschistfacies conditions (low to intermediate PT ) during the Carboniferous (Franzese 1995). This complex has been correlated with
the eastern series of the Coastal Cordillera in Chile (Kato 1985;
Herve 1988; Franzese 1995). The Chachil Plutonic Complex
(Leanza 1990) comprises a series of calc-alkaline plutons,
varying from gabbros to pegmatitic granitoids that intrude the
Piedra Santa Complex. According to isotopic data (RbSr and
whole-rock KAr) the age of these plutons ranges between 300
and 281 Ma (Sillitoe 1977; Varela et al. 1994; Franzese 1995).
Pre-rift regoliths are also present and locally preserved as
granitic conglomerates.

Leanza (1990)

The synrift fill (RhaetianEarly Pliensbachian) is composed of

volcanic, pyroclastic and siliciclastic rocks collectively termed
the Precuyano Cycle (Gulisano 1981), Precuyo Mesosequence
(Legarreta & Gulisano 1989) or Sanico Subsynthem (Riccardi
& Gulisano 1990). In the study area these deposits constitute the
Lapa Formation (Fig. 2; Leanza 1990).
A volcano-sedimentary complex that overlies the igneous
metamorphic basement was previously correlated with Late
PermianEarly Triassic pre-rift units cropping out in other areas
of the Neuquen Basin (Choiyoi Formation, Leanza 1990; Gulisano & Gutierrez-Pleimling 1995). However, as the distribution of
this complex is restricted to rift depressions and shows significant thickness variations associated with the main rift structures
it is considered an integral part of the synrift succession and is
therefore included in the Lapa Formation (Fig. 2) in this study.
Although there are no absolute indicators of the age of the
synrift sequence in the study area, ignimbrites of the Lapa
Formation in neighbouring areas have been dated as Late Triassic
(219 Ma) to Early Jurassic (182 Ma) (Pangaro et al. 2002a).

Gulisano & GutierrezPleimling (1995)

This study

Los Molles Fm

Los Molles Fm
Los Molles Fm
Chachil Fm/
Sierra Chacaico Fm

Lapa Fm

Chachil Fm/
Sierra Chacaico Fm
Lapa Fm

Lapa Fm
Choiyoi Fm

Choiyoi Fm

Choiyoi Fm

Huechulafquen Fm

Chachil
Plutonic
Complex

Huechulafquen Fm

Chachil
Plutonic
Complex

Colohuincul Fm

Piedra Santa
Complex

Colohuincul Fm

Piedra Santa
Complex

Fig. 2. Stratigraphy of the pre-rift, synrift

and early post-rift units of the southern
Neuquen Basin.

E VO L U T I O N O F A M E S O Z O I C G R A B E N B O R D E R S Y S T E M

709

Plant remains collected in the Lapa Formation towards the south

of the study area were also identified as Late Triassic in age
(Spalletti et al. 1999).

Early post-rift units

Coeval siliciclastic and carbonate deposits of the Sierra Chacaico
and Chachil Formations represent the early post-rift accumulation in the study area (Fig. 2). They overlie both the synrift
succession and the pre-rift basement and are related to a
widespread marine transgression of the Neuquen Basin. These
units contain marine invertebrates assigned to the Early Pliensbachian (Chachil Formation) and Early to Late Pliensbachian
(Sierra Chacaico Formation) (Volkheimer 1973; Leanza 1990).
The Chachil Formation is composed of shallow-marine siliciclastic deposits that pass upward into spiculitic limestones deposited
on a low-energy carbonate ramp (Gomez Perez & Franzese
1999a). The Sierra Chacaico Formation is composed of volcaniclastic turbidites. Both units grade upward into a thick succession
of deep-marine black shales and turbidites of the Los Molles
Formation (Fig. 2). The Los Molles Formation represents deposition during the later post-rift phase throughout the Neuquen
Basin. The Los Molles Formation was deposited in a relatively
deep, open marine environment, under restricted sub-oxic conditions (Poire & del Valle 1992; Burgess et al. 2000).

The Chachil depocentre

Synrift depocentres are clearly identifiable in the southern
Neuquen Basin as many of their faulted margins (where synrift
and pre-rift units are in contact) have been inverted and uplifted,
initially during the Late Jurassic and subsequently since the Late
Cretaceous, in the Andean orogenic cycle (for a review, see
Howell et al. 2006). Locally younger volcanic and sedimentary
rocks overlie the synrift deposits, making it difficult to trace the
margins laterally and to define the complete geometry of the
grabens. However, it is possible to estimate the geometry and
dimension of the depocentres on the basis of the distribution and
stratigraphic relationship between the igneousmetamorphic
basement and the early post-rift units.
The faulted margin of the Chachil depocentre is at present a
partially inverted fault system (the Chihuido Bayo fault system,
Fig. 3). Only part of the fault is exposed, consisting of a NNWoriented southern segment and a NNE-oriented northern segment. This structural configuration seems to be inherited from
the grain of pre-rift rocks in which microstructures and fold axis
show the same structural attitude (Dalla Salda et al. 1994). The
Chihuido Bayo fault system separates the synrift succession in
the hanging wall from the granitic pre-rift basement in the
footwall. The pre-rift block to the west and NW of the fault
shows no record of synrift succession, and early post-rift deposits
directly overlie the pre-rift granites. This suggests that this block
acted as a topographic high throughout the evolution of the
trough. The synrift interval is also absent south of the southern
end of the Chihuido Bayo fault system, supporting the evidence
that this is the actual limit of the depocentre (Fig. 3).
The sedimentary fill of the graben can be traced for 25 km
parallel to and 10 km perpendicular to the boundary fault.
Beyond this to the north and west it is covered by younger
volcanic units (Fig. 3). Although the exact northern and western
limits of the depocentre are not exposed, these dimensions are
comparable with those of the synrift depocentres documented
in the subsurface (Vergani et al. 1995; Pangaro et al. 2002b;
Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. Geological map of the study area and location of logged sections.
AB, location of cross-section shown in Figure 4a.

Close to the faulted boundary of the depocentre, minor

NNWSSE faults cut the synrift sequence. The tectonic inversion of these faults has created a series of NNW-oriented folds
(Fig. 3). These structures may reflect the presence of downstepping blocks towards the east, where the synrift succession
shows an incremental increase in thickness. Part of the sedimentary infill is located in structurally controlled minor depressions
created by normal faulting of major lava flow deposits. Also,
minor high-angle normal faults are present, bounding smaller
troughs within the rift border system and affecting the upper
portion of the synrift succession.

Stratigraphy of the Chachil depocentre

To analyse the volcano-sedimentary fill of the Chachil border
system, five detailed sedimentary logs were measured along the
faulted margin (Figs 3 and 5). The lithofacies documented in
these logged sections are strongly associated with significant

710

J. R . F R A N Z E S E E T A L .

thickness. In contrast to the widespread andesites, the rhyolites

commonly show a limited distribution, with a lateral continuity
of only a few hundred metres.
Most of these andesites were deposited as subaerial lava flows
although the hyaloclastic texture suggests that some may have
been extruded under subaqueous conditions. The homogeneous
nature of the deposits makes it difficult to determine whether the
thick successions represent a very thick single flow event or
multiple, superimposed events. The lateral restriction of the
rhyolitic bodies indicates that they might have been emplaced as
shallow intrusions (sills?). The volcanic rocks of the Chachil
border system could have originated both from fissural events
fed through fracture systems and from isolated effusive centres,
although no evidence of volcanic cones was encountered in the
study area.

Fig. 4. Cross-sections showing synrift depocentres in the Neuquen Basin.

(a) Simplified cross-section of the Chachil depocentre. (See Fig. 3 for
location.) (b) Seismic reflection section and schematic interpretation of a
subsurface depocentre (Cerro Bandera; see Fig. 1 for location) after
Pangaro et al. (2002b).

magmatic activity, which occurred throughout the evolution of

the rift. Significant variations in the thickness of the synrift fill
were recorded, from .1000 m in the central part to only a few
metres towards the southwestern tip of the Chihuido Bayo Fault.
The proportion of volcanic lithofacies also increases towards the
central areas of the border system, with volcanic deposits being
less common towards the tip of the fault (Fig. 5). Five informal
groups of lithofacies have been identified in the Chachil synrift
succession. Two of these groups are a product of volcanic
processes (volcanic and pyroclastic) whereas the other three are
related to sedimentary processes (resedimented volcaniclastic,
siliciclastic and carbonate lithofacies). The main characteristics
of these lithofacies and an interpretation of their origin are given
in Table 1, where the facies code is modified from Smith (1986).
Volcanic lithofacies. Volcanic lithofacies locally form up to 40%
of the total thickness of the synrift succession. Two lithofacies
have been defined according to their composition: andesites and
rhyolites. The andesites (A) comprise thick lava successions up
to 50 m thick, which are commonly homogeneous. The andesites
show massive, brecciated (Fig. 6a) or flow-laminated fabrics, and
are red to purple in outcrop. Hyaloclastic textures were also
observed locally. The rhyolites (R) also show foliated, autobrecciated or massive structure (Fig. 6b), and are ochre to white in
outcrop. The superimposition of several flows with different
structures is common, leading to sequences of over 80 m

Pyroclastic lithofacies. The detailed description and identification of the complex processes related to explosive volcanism is
not the main purpose of this study and, consequently, the
pyroclastic lithofacies has been subdivided only into clastsupported and matrix-supported deposits, which are related to
primary fall and flow processes, respectively (Table 1). The
pyroclastic lithofacies is usually altered and silicified, making the
interpretation of detailed processes problematic.
Clast-supported deposits (facies T, Table 1) are locally very
common. They show a well-sorted tuffaceous texture (fine- to
coarse-grained tuff) and form massive, laterally continuous,
tabular bodies up to 1 m thick. They are light grey to greenish in
outcrop and occasionally show bioturbation (horizontal tubes).
This facies is strongly altered and silicified, but locally retains
the ghosts of glass shards. These deposits are classified as ash
tuffs (sensu Fisher & Schmincke 1984).
The lateral homogeneity, sorting and lack of structures indicate
mechanical reworking, and these deposits are interpreted as airfall tuffs that settled from suspension in a low-energy environment.
Matrix-supported deposits (I) are composed of thick, light
brown to green beds, which are very conspicuous in outcrop. The
deposits contain a high proportion of fine-grained matrix with
abundant quartz and K-feldspar, and a significant amount of
lithic fragments (mainly volcanic rocks) and pumiceous clasts up
to 10 cm in diameter (Fig. 6c). From a compositional point of
view they can be classified as rhyolitic ignimbrites. These
deposits are mainly massive but locally may show inverse
grading of lithic clasts. The thicknesses of individual beds vary
from 1 m to .50 m, and they stack into successions over 100 m
thick. Beds show great lateral extent, covering the whole outcrop
area of the depocentre. However, dramatic changes in thickness
occur over very short distances (up to 20 m vertical variation
over 100 m lateral extent), especially toward topographic highs.
The characteristics described above suggest that these matrixsupported deposits are rhyolitic ignimbrites laid down by pyroclastic density currents; probably as topographically confined
ignimbrite aprons (Branney & Kokelaar 2002).
Resedimented volcaniclastic lithofacies. These deposits have
similar lithological characteristics to the pyroclastic material and
are represented by volcaniclastic aggregates of texturally unmodified pyroclastic particles (McPhie et al. 1993). In the
Chachil depocentre they comprise tuffaceous sandstones and
fine-grained breccias with abundant pumice and lithic clasts
closely associated with the primary flow and fall deposits (Table
1). The deposits are composed of tabular bodies 1050 cm thick,
mainly massive (*Tm), graded (*Tg) or thinly laminated (*Tl).

E VO L U T I O N O F A M E S O Z O I C G R A B E N B O R D E R S Y S T E M

North

ireco

Piletas

Picn Leuf

Resedimented
pyroclastic deposits

Post-rift marine deposits

Pyroclastic fall
deposits

Fine-grained stream flow deposits

Ignimbrites

Coarse-grained stream flow deposits

Rhyolites

Reworked gravity flow deposits

Andesites

Hyperconcentrated flow deposits

Granites

Gravity flow deposits

Fining-upward
sequences

Coarsening-upward
sequences

Puesto Alfaro

711

South

Route 46

200m

Fig. 5. Sedimentological logs of Lapa Formation along the Chachil depocentre margin. (See Fig. 3 for location.) No horizontal scale is implied.

Graded facies, which show normal grading of lithic fragments,

inverse grading of pumice fragments, erosive bases and bioturbated tops (Fig. 6d), are interbedded with fine-grained thinly
laminated deposits.
The massive deposits are interpreted as the result of accumulation from subaerial and subaqueous gravity flows, which may
have been derived directly from the primary pyroclastic flows
(McPhie et al. 1993). The graded beds are interpreted to
represent accumulation as a result of low-density turbidity flows
intercalated with suspension fall-out deposits, laid down under
subaqueous conditions in a low-energy environment.
Siliciclastic lithofacies. The siliciclastic lithofacies is the most
common sedimentary facies within the rift succession. This
facies contains rhyolitic and andesitic clasts reworked from the
volcanic sequences and clasts of older, pre-rift rocks. Three
subgroups have been defined in terms of their textural characteristics: (1) breccias; (2) interbedded fine-grained breccias and

sandstones; (3) sandstones and conglomerates with minor mudstones (Table 1).
Breccias are characterized by a wide range of textures and
grain sizes. Although all of them have a matrix-supported
texture, the grain size of the matrix differs considerably. Matrixsupported breccias with coarse- to fine-grained sandy matrix
(Bm(a), Table 1) are the most common and form tabular deposits
up to 12 m thick (Fig. 7a and b). They range from fine- to
coarse-grained breccias with very angular clasts of varied
composition (volcanic, granitic and metamorphic) up to 40 cm in
diameter. Internally, these deposits are massive. They are interpreted as derived from non-cohesive gravity flows. The low to
zero content of pelitic material within the matrix suggests that
these deposits may have accumulated as a result of saturated
grain flows (Smith & Lowe 1991).
Matrix-supported breccias with fine-grained (muddy) matrix
(Bm(b), Table 1) are less frequent but they also occur as thick
tabular packages, up to 5 m thick, with a chaotic fabric (Fig. 7c).

712

J. R . F R A N Z E S E E T A L .

Table 1. Facies description and interpretation

Code Lithology

Structural features

Texture

Geometry

Thickness

Interpretation

Volcanic
A
Andesite

Massive, hyaloclastic

Porphyritic

Tabular

Intermediate lava
flows

Massive, foliated, and

brecciated horizons

Porphyritic

Tabular, domal

Flows <50 m
(superimposed
events?)
Superimposed
flows <100 m

Pyroclastic
T
Tuff

Massive

Fine-grained

Tabular

Up to 1.5 m

Massive; lineation

Lithic and pumice fragments

up to 10 cm

Tabular

Superimposed
flows 180 m
thick

Pyroclastic fall
deposits
Pyroclastic flow
deposits

Rhyolite

Ignimbrite

Resedimented volcaniclastic
*Tm Tuffaceous sandstone
and breccia
*Tg

Tuffaceous sandstone
and siltstone

*Tl

Tuffaceous sandstone
and siltstone
Siliciclastic
Bm(a) Breccia

Acidic lava flows

and sills

Tabular, channelled
Coarse- to fine-grained
tuffaceous sandstone intercalated
with fine-grained breccias (clasts
up to 2 cm)
Graded (normally for lithic Fine- to medium-grained
Tabular, channelled
fragments and inversely for tuffaceous sandstone
pumice)
Laminated
Very fine-grained tuffaceous
Tabular
sandstone and silt

<50 cm

Gravity flows

1060 cm

Low-density
turbidity currents

10 cm

Low-density
turbidity currents

Massive

Tabular; sharp and

horizontal base

212 m

Gravity flow
deposits; noncohesive

Tabular; sharp and

horizontal base

25 m

Gravity flow
deposits; cohesive

Massive

Bm(b) Breccia
*Bx

Breccia

Cross-bedding (lenticular
sets 4080 cm with finingupward trend)

BSg

Breccia/sandstone

Normally graded

BSh

Hyperconcentrated flow
deposits
Breccia/sandstone
Horizontal lamination

Gm

Hyperconcentrated flow
deposits
Conglomerate
Massive

Gx

Conglomerate

Sx

Sandstone

Sh

Sandstone

C*
C

Matrix-supported
coarse-grained breccia (very
angular polymictic clasts up to
40 cm); coarse- to fine-grained
sandy matrix
Matrix-supported breccia (very
angular polymictic clasts up to
2 m); muddy matrix
Matrix-supported, fine-grained
breccia intercalated with
crystal-rich sandstones
Fine-grained sandy matrixsupported breccias (clasts
up to 2 cm) transitional to
coarse-grained crystal-rich
sandstones

Lenticular to tabular; <15 m

erosive base; top
transitional to
sandstones
Tabular to lenticular; 3070 cm
irregular base

Alternation of centimetre-thick Tabular

horizontal laminae of coarsegrained sandstone and sandy
matrix-supported fine-grained
breccia; clasts up to 2 cm

<1 m

<4 m

Horizontal to low-angle
cross-bedding

Clast-supported conglomerate
with well-sorted coarse-grained
sandy matrix; clasts up to 50 cm
Clast-supported conglomerates;
clasts up to 10 cm
Well-sorted fine- to coarsegrained sandstones, sometimes
pebbly; intercalations of finegrained conglomerates
Poorly sorted fine- to
coarse-grained sandstones

Mudstone

Massive or horizontal
lamination

Claystones to siltstones; minor

fine-grained sandstones

Limestone

Horizontal, (contorted)
lamination

Fine-grained(?); highly
silicified

Large-scale trough crossbedding

Trough cross-bedding

Facies code is modified from Smith (1986).

Tabular; sharp and

irregular base

Lenticular (W/D5); <1 m

erosive base
Lenticular; irregular 40 cm1.5 m
and erosional base

Gravity flow
deposits;
reworked

Stream flow
deposits
Stream flow
deposits
Stream flow
deposits

Tabular; sharp base

and top transitional
to mudstones
Tabular; sharp base
or transitional from
fine-grained
sandstones

1050 cm

Stream flow
deposits

<8 m

Stream flow
deposits

Lenticular beds

<1.5 m

Non-marine
carbonate
precipitation

E VO L U T I O N O F A M E S O Z O I C G R A B E N B O R D E R S Y S T E M

713

Fig. 6. Volcanic and pyroclastic lithofacies. (a) Hyaloclastic andesite (facies A); lens cap is 52 mm in diameter. (b) Rhyolite with foliated structure (facies
R); pen is 11 cm long. (c) Ignimbrite with coarse-grained deformed pumice fragments (facies I); hammer is 33 cm long. (d) Bioturbation at the top of
graded reworked pyroclastic deposits (facies *Tg); lens cap is 52 mm in diameter.

These are the coarsest deposits of the synrift sequence, with

clasts up to 2 m in diameter. This facies is interpreted as the
result of cohesive debris flows (Smith & Lowe 1991).
Matrix-supported breccias with moderate sorting and very
diffuse trough cross-bedding in sets up to 80 cm thick with a
upward-fining trend are present (*Bx, Table 1, Fig. 7d). These
contain very angular clasts up to 40 cm in diameter and have a
coarse-grained sandy matrix. These deposits may represent the
result of partial reworking (probably by ephemeral stream flows)
of the original sediment gravity flow deposits. This reworking is
interpreted to have improved the sorting and organization while
preserving much of the original texture of the gravity flow
deposits (Smith & Lowe 1991).
All of the breccia lithofacies are here interpreted as sediment
gravity flow deposits that accumulated in the proximal areas of a
volcanic setting. The abundance of lithofacies related to noncohesive flows is a common situation in proximal volcanic
environments, compared with alluvial settings where deposits
derived from cohesive debris flows are more common (Fisher &
Schmincke 1984; Smith 1986).
Interbedded fine-grained breccias and sandstones are characterized by the close association of fine-grained sandy matrixsupported breccias (with clasts no more than 2 cm in diameter)
and porphyritic, crystal-rich, coarse-grained sandstones. They
form tabular bodies 0.301 m thick with a sharp and occasionally erosional lower boundary. Two lithofacies have been

identified according to their primary sedimentary structures:

graded (BSg) and horizontally laminated (BSh) interbedded
breccias and sandstones (Table 1). The graded lithofacies (Fig.
8a) shows normal grading and occasionally low-angle crossstratification or horizontal lamination. The BSh lithofacies (Fig.
8b) is characterized by the interstratifications of millimetrescale laminae with contrasting grain sizes (granule to mediumgrained sand).
These deposits may represent the accumulation of hyperconcentrated flow deposits as a result of rapid deposition from
sediment-laden currents (Smith 1987). The different sedimentary
structures present in these deposits may be related to variations
in the sediment content of the original flow that modified its
rheological behaviour (Smith & Lowe 1991). These facies could
have originated from relatively dilute flows with enough turbulence to erode the underlying sediments and to facilitate the
separation of particles, generating erosively based deposits.
Graded deposits with low-angle cross-stratification could be
related to the development of shallow bedforms in upper-flow
regime conditions (Smith 1986).
Sandstones, mudstones and conglomerates are infrequent and
localized. Conglomerates are relatively well sorted and coarse
grained with a clast-supported texture. Massive conglomerates
(Gm, Table 1) form tabular bodies, up to 2 m thick, with an
erosive, horizontal lower boundary. They usually stack vertically
to form sequences up to 4 m thick. They represent the accumula-

714

J. R . F R A N Z E S E E T A L .

Fig. 7. Siliciclastic lithofacies related to sediment gravity flow processes. (a) Coarse-grained breccia with sandy matrix (facies Bm(a)); hammer is 33 cm
long. (b) Fine-grained breccia with sandy matrix (facies Bm(a)); lens cap is 52 mm in diameter. (c) Coarse-grained breccia with muddy matrix (facies
Bm(b)); geologist for scale. (d) Cross-bedded breccia with matrix-supported texture and poor sorting (facies *Bx); hammer is 33 cm long.

tion of gravel longitudinal bars in well-developed, high-energy

fluvial channels (Hein & Walker 1977).
Cross-bedded conglomerates (Gx, Table 1) are finer grained
(maximum clast size 10 cm) and show large-scale trough crossbedding. This facies usually occurs as lenticular bodies, up to
4 m thick and 20 m wide (Fig. 8c), with a conspicuous erosive,
concave lower boundary. These bodies may represent coarsegrained channel fill deposits formed by the migration of sinuouscrested gravel dunes.
Coarse-grained, well-sorted, trough cross-bedded sandstones
(Sx, Table 1) are also present associated with the cross-bedded
conglomerates, and form lenticular bodies with erosive, concave
bases up to 1.5 m thick. These bodies may represent waningstage, channel-fill deposits (Miall 1996) associated with the
gravel bars and channels.
Poorly sorted fine- to coarse-grained sandstones with horizontal to low-angle cross-bedding (Sh, Table 1) form lenticular
bodies with flat bases and convex tops (Fig. 8d) up to 1 m thick.
These deposits are closely associated with massive to horizontally laminated red mudstones (F, Table 1) in tabular bodies up to
8 m thick (Fig. 8d). The Sh lithofacies represents accumulation
from ephemeral (unconfined) stream flows with variable discharge in the intermediate to distal parts of the fluvial systems
(Smith 1987). The lithofacies F, on the other hand, may represent
settling from suspensions in more distal parts of the volcano-

sedimentary environment (Smith 1987). Therefore, conglomerates, sandstones and mudstones represent stream flow deposits
associated with more diluted flows than those responsible for the
accumulation of the breccias and intercalated breccias and
porphyritic sandstones.
Carbonate lithofacies. The carbonate lithofacies is more restricted and localized than the other lithofacies. The carbonates
are always extremely silicified and show a very low preservation
of their primary sedimentary features (Table 1). They are
typically thinly laminated (C), ,20 cm thick, with an irregular
geometry. They show a corrugated structure and are intercalated
with fine-grained siliciclastic deposits (F). They may represent
the non-marine precipitation of carbonate in shallow, ephemeral
water bodies (Ridding 2000).

Spatial and stratigraphic distribution of the lithofacies

Distribution of volcanic and pyroclastic lithofacies
The large volume of volcanic and volcaniclastic material within
the graben border system indicates that there was a close
interplay between magmatism and tectonism during the synrift
evolution. Systematic variations in the distribution of the volcanic lithofacies have been documented throughout the synrift

E VO L U T I O N O F A M E S O Z O I C G R A B E N B O R D E R S Y S T E M

715

Fig. 8. Siliciclastic lithofacies related to hyperconcentrated (a, b) and stream flow processes (c, d). (a) Normally graded fine-grained breccias and
sandstones (facies BSg); hammer is 30 cm long. (b) Intercalation of millimetre-thick fine-grained breccias and sandstones (facies BSh); lens cap is 52 mm
in diameter. (c) Lenticular cross-bedded conglomerates and sandstones (facies Gx and Sx); erosive lower boundary should be noted; geologist for scale.
(d) Intercalation of massive and laminated mudstones (facies F) with horizontally stratified sandstones (facies Sh) related to distal stream flows; geologist
for scale.

sequence. Volcanic rocks are volumetrically the most important

in the lower part of the section and are less frequent in the
middle and upper parts of the synrift succession (Figs 5 and 9).
Deposits of acidic pyroclastic flows (I) and tephra derived from
pyroclastic falls (T) replace the volcanic lithofacies in the
uppermost part of the rift section.
There is a clear compositional trend within the magmaticrelated lithofacies from intermediate to acidic. In the lower
ireco section (Fig. 5), successive deposits show
portion of the N
contrasting composition (andesite and rhyolite). Andesitic lavas
form most of the lower part of the succession, reaching a
ireco and Piletas sections, and
thickness of .100 m in the N
thinning towards the southern margin of the depocentre (with a
thickness of 50 m in the Picun Leufu section). Rhyolites
associated with these lower andesites occur as thin intercalations.
The andesitic rocks do not occur in the middle and upper parts
of the succession, where the increasingly acidic magmatic
composition resulted in the development of rhyolitic domes, lava
flows and explosive volcanism. Whereas evidence for andesitic
volcanism is present in all of the studied sections, rhyolite lava
ireco). In
flow deposits are restricted to the thickest section (N
this area, rhyolitic flows and domes compose up to 140 m of the
section. This restricted distribution could reflect a limited disper-

sion of acidic flows away from localized eruptive centres in the

deepest section of the graben border system.
Pyroclastic flows dominate the magmatic-related lithofacies
from the middle part of the succession to the top. The most
remarkable pyroclastic event is recorded by a locally thick
(.50 m) ignimbrite that can be correlated throughout the study
area (Fig. 9). Ignimbrites and rhyolites (facies I and R) are
ireco and Piletas
closely associated in the middle portion of the N
ireco
sections (Fig. 5). The rhyolitic lava domes observed in the N
section may be the potential source areas for the pyroclastic
density currents that led to the accumulation of the ignimbrite
layers.

Distribution of siliciclastic and carbonate lithofacies

The sedimentary record of the synrift succession is mainly
dominated by the alternation of sediment gravity flow deposits
and hyperconcentrated flow deposits (Table 1, Fig. 5) accumulated in a proximal continental environment. Although the lateral
correlation of individual beds between sections is difficult
because their distribution is controlled by internal volcanic and
structural highs, the overall vertical facies trend in every studied
locality is persistent. Towards the top of the succession resedi-

716

J. R . F R A N Z E S E E T A L .

Fig. 9. General view of the Piletas section

(a) and interpretation (b), showing the
overall trend in lithologies. At the base
hyperconcentrated flow deposits (HFD) and
gravity flow deposits (GFD) are intercalated
with andesitic lavas and stream flow
deposits (SFD). At the top, an ignimbrite
flow and pyroclastic deposits are
intercalated with reworked pyroclastic
deposits and minor gravity flow deposits.

mented volcaniclastic deposits appear and are more common

than the other sedimentary lithofacies. Also towards the uppermost part of the synrift succession, an abrupt change from
continental to marine sedimentation is recorded. Stream flow
deposits (see Table 1) are present throughout the succession with
no discernible vertical trend (Fig. 5).
Although the intercalation of gravity flow deposits, hyperconcentrated flow deposits and stream flow deposits does not show
an observable organization at the scale of the whole synrift
succession, it is possible to define sequences of c. 30 m thickness
with both fining- and coarsening-upward grain-size trends that
can be related to gradual changes in the depositional processes
(Fig. 5). Fining-upward intervals are dominated by coarsegrained, gravity flow-related facies at the base (Bm(a), Bm(b)
and BSg) that are transitional to finer-grained hyperconcentrated
flow deposits towards the top (BSh) (Fig. 10a). Horizontally
stratified sandstones and conglomerates (Sh) or massive mud-

stones (F) sometimes typify the upper portions of these intervals,

and represent more diluted conditions. In contrast, coarseningupward intervals show an inverse array of the same lithofacies
(Fig. 10b).
As all these processes may be laterally linked and related to
the downstream transformation of original sediment gravity
flows, the general fining-upward pattern could represent the
gradual contraction and retrogradation of the facies belts towards
the active margin of the depocentre. The profusion of gravity
flow deposits at the top of these intervals suggests the progradation of the depositional system from the active margin towards
the depocentre.
ireco
Eleven of these sequences were recognized in the N
section, six in the Piletas section and two in the Picun Leufu
section (Fig. 5). These sequences are separated by lava or
ignimbrite deposits, or by intervals not showing any conspicuous
trend in grain size (Fig. 5). Fining-upward sequences are

E VO L U T I O N O F A M E S O Z O I C G R A B E N B O R D E R S Y S T E M

717

Fig. 10. Example of fining-upward and

coarsening-upward sequences with their
facies distribution and relation to normal
fault activity (a, accommodation; s,
sediment supply). The fining-upward
sequence is from the Piletas section and the
coarsening-upward sequence is from the
ireco section.
N

common on top of major andesitic deposits or form minor clastic

ireco and Picun
wedges near volcanicpyroclastic highs in the N
Leufu areas. Coarsening-upward intervals typically occur above
fining-upward units or below main lava flow events (e.g. the
ireco section, and the base of
basal and middle portions of the N
the Picun Leufu section, Fig. 5).

Discussion: evolution of the synrift megasequence

The graben border system of the Chachil depocentre includes a
boundary fault system (the Chihuido Bayo fault system), the
associated downstepping blocks and the volcano-sedimentary
wedge that accumulated in the hanging wall of the main
boundary fault. The systematic variation in thickness of the
volcano-sedimentary infill, the change of magmatic composition,
the development of upward-fining and upward-thickening clastic
sequences, and the structural reactivation of the graben border
system are the key elements of the tectonostratigraphic evolution
of the synrift succession.
Significant and progressive increases in the thickness of the
volcano-sedimentary wedge towards the centre of the graben
border system could be a response to along-strike variations in
fault displacement that produced a lateral increase of subsidence
from the tip to the centre of the main boundary fault (Schlische
1992; Gawthorpe et al. 1994; Howell & Flint 1996). Minor
normal faults may control the accumulation locally through the
development of small troughs, although this does not affect the
general pattern of thickness increase along the Chihuido Bayo
fault system.
The clear trend in magmatic composition throughout the
synrift megasequence is interpreted to relate to the tectonic
evolution of the basin. The initial bimodal volcanism requires a
mixed mantlecrust magmatic source. This type of source can
be related to mantle upwelling and thermal perturbation of the
crust during the early stages of gravitational collapse (Liu 2001),
which caused extension and rifting in the Neuquen Basin. The
ascent of intermediate to basic magma from deep sources ended
in the middle part of the synrift sequence. The acidic explosive
volcanism that dominated the upper section implies the emplace-

ment of shallow silicic magmatic chambers closely associated

with normal faulting at upper crustal levels.
The fining- and coarsening-upward sequences identified in the
synrift megasequence may also record episodic tectonomagmatic
activity along the main boundary fault. Differential subsidence
rates and the development of topographic highs can alter the
relationship between accommodation and sediment supply over
time, generating a stratigraphic response that can be distinguished by the analysis of the depositional sequences recorded
(Blair & Bilodeau 1988; Paola et al. 1992; Gordon & Heller
1993). The fining-upward sequences may result from an increase
in the rate of accommodation creation compared with the rate of
sediment supply. During rapid, episodic, fault-generated subsidence sediment entering the basin would have been trapped near
the basin margin, resulting in aggradation or retrogradation of
the sedimentary systems (Blair & Bilodeau 1988; Gordon &
Heller 1993; Marr et al. 2000). In contrast, the upward-coarsening units suggest progradation of the depositional system,
potentially during periods of tectonic quiescence, when the
subsidence rate was reduced or even suppressed (Morley 1999).
The development of thick sequences without a conspicuous
change in grain size suggests a continuous aggradation of the
system. Such a trend may be the result of equilibrium between
sediment supply and accommodation creation during limited
periods of the synrift evolution. Although active normal faulting
may have increased the topographic relief within and at the
margins of the basin, the association of the fining-upward
successions with minor normal faults indicates that subsidence
rather than localized sediment supply was the main control on
the migration of the facies belt.
The upward change in magmatic composition associated with
the record of tectonically controlled clastic sequences and the
change in sedimentary conditions from continental to marine
document a significant trend in the evolution of the synrift
megasequence. Therefore, the synrift megasequence in the
Chachil area can be divided into three major evolutionary stages,
termed here the early rift, mid-rift and late-rift stages (Figs 11
and 12). The boundaries between these evolutionary stages are
locally associated with structural reactivation, generation of
minor normal faulting and changes in subsidence along the

718

J. R . F R A N Z E S E E T A L .

Fig. 11. Evolution of the synrift megasequence. Sequence distribution, volcanic evolution and correlation of major units. (See Fig. 3 for location of
sections.)

graben border system. Therefore these boundaries could be

related to major tectonic reorganizations of the entire depocentre.
The early rift stage is characterized by the interplay between
bimodal volcanism (facies A and R) and gravity-driven sedimentation (gravity flow deposits and hyperconcentrated flow deposits). The base of the mid-rift stage is represented by the change
from andesitic volcanism to rhyolitic lava flows and pyroclastic
flows, which record a transition to more acidic magmatism. The
late-rift stage is characterized by resedimented pyroclastic deposits in continental to marine environments, which are associated
with protracted explosive volcanism.

The early rift stage

Volcanic rocks form half of the stratigraphic thickness of the
early rift stage. The sedimentary fill is composed mainly of
continental gravity flow deposits and hyperconcentrated flow
deposits. Localized stream flow deposits occur in the Piletas
section (Fig. 5), where a NE-oriented drainage system may
reflect the activity of minor faults oblique to the main boundary
fault. Thin calcareous deposits (C) and associated mudstones (F)
in the Piletas section indicate subaqueous accumulation in
ephemeral water bodies. This feature contrasts with other synrift
depocentres in the Neuquen Basin, where thick lacustrine successions related to the development of deep, perennial and stratified
water bodies occupy most of the sedimentary record (Legarreta
et al. 1999).
The initial sedimentary fill of this stage is composed of a
coarsening-upward succession of gravity flow deposit and hyperconcentrated flow deposit units (Figs 5 and 11). This upward

coarsening suggests the progradation of coarse-grained, proximal

fluvialalluvial systems over the pre-rift topography during a
time when the displacement rates of the main faults were low.
Such conditions are characteristic of the early stages of rift
evolution (Cowie et al. 2000; Gawthorpe & Leeder 2000).
The volcaniclastic nature of the early rift infill indicates that
volcanic activity was associated with the normal faulting from
the onset of basin evolution. Minor reworking of pre-rift deposits
is limited to the Picun Leufu section (Fig. 5), where coarsegrained, gravity-driven deposits containing abundant granitic
fragments occur.
The thickness of early rift deposits is very variable, reaching
250 m in the central part of the graben border system and no
more than a couple of metres near the tip of the Chihuido Bayo
boundary fault (Fig. 11). Volcanic andesite lavas, a key lithology
within the early rift stage, are present in all the studied sections,
suggesting that the rift system had reached its full length by the
end of the early stage. Variations in thickness along the Chihuido
Bayo fault system may have resulted from the infill of small
isolated depocentres during the early evolution of the basin (Fig.
12). This is common in the early phase of rift evolution, in which
a number of distinct minor depocentres would be expected
(Cowie et al. 2000; Gawthorpe & Leeder 2000).

The mid-rift stage

During the mid-rift stage the Chachil border system was fully
developed, possibly as a result of the linkage of the initially
isolated fault segments (Fig. 12). Up to 500 m of gravity flow
deposits, hyperconcentrated flow deposits, pyroclastic flow and

E VO L U T I O N O F A M E S O Z O I C G R A B E N B O R D E R S Y S T E M
sea level

maximum
depocentre
integration
development of
new faults
acidic
volcanism

marine
deposits

late-rift
reactivation of
older faults
development of
new faults

acidic
volcanism

719

ireco section, Fig. 11) suggests that volcaniclastic supply

(N
locally outpaced subsidence rates. The composition of the
volcanic rocks becomes more acidic upward as the intermediate
magmatic deposits disappear, and rhyolitic and explosive volcanic rocks dominate in the mid-rift stage. Rhyolites are restricted
to the central and northern portion of the study area, suggesting
a dramatic reduction in the area covered by lava flows (Figs 4,
11 and 12).
Major variations in thickness occur within this stage; however,
the thickest sections in the mid-rift stage do not coincide with
ireco and Piletas
those in the early rift stage (compare the N
sections, Fig. 12). This may be the response to changes in
subsidence pattern triggered by fault linkage during the early
evolution of the rift sequence. However, the development of
minor faults in the hanging wall of the Chihuido Bayo fault
system locally modified the distribution of highs and lows within
the graben border system and the general subsidence trend of the
graben border system (Picun Leufu section, Fig. 11).
The extrusion of thick acidic pyroclastic flows that covered
almost all of the Chachil and neighbouring depocentres during
this stage (Fig.11) suggests that these flows were part of a main
explosive event, probably the collapse of a caldera located
beneath one of the principal depocentres.

The late-rift stage

mid-rift
bimodal
volcanism

reactivation of
older faults

Main
Boundary
Fault

isolated
troughs

early-rift

~ 10 km

Fig. 12. Schematic 3D blocks showing the main features of the three
synrift stages (see text for explanation).

The last evolutionary stage of the synrift sequence is characterized by a significant change in environmental conditions and the
accumulation of marine deposits (*Tr; *Tg) in a moderately deep
environment dominated by turbidity currents, which provides the
first record of marine sedimentation in the evolution of the
Neuquen Basin (Figs 11 and 12). Outside of the graben border
system, in areas where subsidence rates were lower, coeval
deposits attributed to a restricted shallow marine environment
were described by Gomez Perez & Franzese (1999b). Volcanism
occurred as ash falls and thin ignimbritic units.
The late-rift stage started with the reactivation of normal
faulting, which produced narrow troughs filled with fine-grained
successions c. 50 m thick, particularly evident toward the southern margin of the Chachil depocentre (Fig. 11). Rapid subsidence
of these newly formed sub-basins is marked by the strong
divergent stratal pattern of the deep-marine sedimentation.
The general stratigraphic pattern of upward-fining successions
and the transition from continental to deep-marine sedimentation
reflect the interplay between high rates of accommodation
creation and a major transgressive event that affected the Chachil
depocentre as a whole at the end of the synrift stage. In the
graben border system this tectonically enhanced transgression
generated the starved conditions that dominated the uppermost
section of the synrift megasequence. The decay of normal fault
activity and persistence of marine flooding provided the tectonostratigraphic setting for the transition to the Lower Pliensbachian
post-rift sequence.

Conclusions
acidic lava flow deposits accumulated in the northern part of the
study area, where subsidence was highest (Fig. 11). The transition from the early rift to mid-rift stage is marked by the base of
an upward-fining unit. This stacking pattern may result from the
increase in accommodation associated with increased activity on
the main faults and fault linkage. The presence of some
coarsening-upward sequences within the mid-rift succession

(1) The Chachil depocentre is one of the small extensional halfgrabens that were active during early rifting of the Neuquen
Basin. The faulted border of the trough was uplifted and exposed
during Andean inversion. The graben border system of the
Chachil half-graben was controlled by the Chihuido Bayo fault
system and associated structures.
(2) Subsidence along the Chihuido Bayo fault system was
variable, allowing the accumulation of .1000 m of synrift fill in

720

J. R . F R A N Z E S E E T A L .

the central part of the system. Close to the southern tip of the
half-graben no record of synrift rocks was found.
(3) Volcanic lava flows (andesites and rhyolites), primary and
resedimented pyroclastic flows and falls, and epiclastic and
carbonate rocks form the fill of the synrift megasequence. Most
of the sedimentary record was derived from transverse flux as
gravity driven deposits.
(4) Volcanism shows a compositional trend from bimodal to
acidicexplosive types during the evolution of the synrift succession.
(5) The Chachil synrift megasequence evolved through three
stages: the early rift, mid-rift and late-rift stages. Major bimodal
volcanism and the accumulation of gravity-driven deposits
dominated the early rift stage. The final extent of the depocentre
was probably reached during this stage. The mid-rift stage saw
the transition from bimodal volcanism to more acidic events and
the accumulation of the first important pyroclastic flow deposits.
Gravity driven deposits and hyperconcentrated flow deposits were
still important throughout this stage. The late-rift stage was also
marked by newly formed faults that generated a completely new
pattern of palaeohighs and grabens. A more generalized subsidence pattern combined with a transgressive event continued
through the post-rift stage and led to the accumulation of
subaqueous deposits in a relatively deep marine environment.
These are the oldest marine deposits in the Neuquen Basin.
This research was carried out with the financial support of CONICET
(PIP 02148; PEI 0495/97), ANPCYT (PICT 07-08467) and CASP
(Cambridge Arctic Shelf ProgrammeSouth Atlantic Project). Our thanks
go to S. Gupta and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive and
helpful reviews. We are grateful to the Societys editor J. Howell for his
significant contribution to the final version.

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Received 21 May 2003; revised typescript accepted 15 February 2006.

Scientific editing by John Howe