Reefs Af

Inherency

Now Key
Time to act is now-reefs are in serious decline

Hughes, et al., ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, 2003(Terry Hughes,
et. Al, 08/15/13, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Climate
Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs,
http://lib.gen.in/7307c15734546c9af66431119eb8d815.pdf, 06/24/14, SJ)
Coral reefs are critically important for the ecosystem goods and services they
provide to maritime tropical and subtropical nations (1). Yet reefs are in serious
decline; an estimated 30% are already severely damaged, and close to
60% may be lost by 2030 (2). There are no pristine reefs left (3-4). Local
successes at protecting coral reefs over the past 30 years have failed to
reverse regional scale declines, and global management of reefs must
undergo a radical change in emphasis and implementation if it is to make
a real difference. Here, we review current knowledge of the status of coral reefs,
the human threats to them now and in the near future, and new directions for
research in support of management of these vital natural resources.

Although theyre suffering, reefs can still be saved.

Science Daily, 13

(Science Daily, 5/9/13, Science Daily, Coral reefs sufering, but extinction not
inevitable, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130509123414.htm,
7/1/14, JW)
Coral reefs are in decline, but their collapse can still be avoided with local
and global action. That's according to findings reported in the Cell Press
journal Current Biology on May 9 based on an analysis that combines the latest
science on reef dynamics with the latest climate models. "People benefit by
reefs' having a complex structure -- a little like a Manhattan skyline, but
underwater," said Peter Mumby of The University of Queensland and University of
Exeter. "Structurally complex reefs provide nooks and crannies for thousands of
species and provide the habitat needed to sustain productive reef fisheries. They're
also great fun to visit as a snorkeler or diver. If we carry on the way we have been,
the ability of reefs to provide benefits to people will seriously decline." To predict
the reefs' future, the researchers spent two years constructing a computer
model of how reefs work, building on hundreds of studies conducted over
the last 40 years. They then combined their reef model with climate models to
make predictions about the balance between forces that will allow reefs to continue
growing their complex calcium carbonate structures and those such as hurricanes
and erosion that will shrink them. Ideally, Mumby said, the goal is a carbonate
budget that remains in the black for the next century at least. Such a future is
possible, the researchers' model shows, but only with effective local
protection and assertive action on greenhouse gases. "Business as usual
isn't going to cut it," he said. "The good news is that it does seem possible to
maintain reefs -- we just have to be serious about doing something. It also means
that local reef management -- eforts to curb pollution and overfishing -- are
absolutely justified. Some have claimed that the climate change problem is so great
that local management is futile. We show that this viewpoint is wrongheaded."

Mumby and his colleagues also stress the importance of reef function in addition to
reef diversity. Those functions of reefs include the provision of habitat for fish, the
provision of a natural breakwater to reduce the size of waves reaching the shore,
and so on. In very practical terms, hundreds of millions of people depend directly on
reefs for their food, livelihoods, and even building materials. "If it becomes
increasingly difficult for people in the tropics to make their living on coral reefs, then
this may well increase poverty," said the study's first author, Emma Kennedy. It's in
everyone's best interest to keep that from happening.

Unprotected
MPAs are underprotected in the squo.
Rife et al, Oceans Program Coordinator @ Environmental Defense
Fund 12 (Alexis, Brad Erisman, Alexandra Sanchez, Octavio Aburto-Oropeza,

12/14/12, Conservation Letters, When good intentions are not enoughInsights on

networks of paper park marine protected areas,
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00303.x/abstract,
6/25/14, KM)
In eforts to protect the world's oceans, the Convention on Biological Diversity has
moved the goal of establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) to cover 10% of the
ocean from 2012 to 2020. This adjustment suggests that the rush to establish
MPAs without proper resources does not resolve conservation problems. In
fact, such actions may create a false sense of protection that camouflages
degradation of marine ecosystems on regional scales. To exemplify this
phenomenon, we reviewed MPA efficacy in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where
some 23,300 km2 have been decreed as MPAs. With the exception of Cabo Pulmo
National Park, MPAs have not met conservation or sustainability goals . We
examined MPA budgets and foundations investment in the region and found that
funding for management is not the limiting factor in MPA efficacy, although funding
for enforcement may be deficient. We conclude that MPAs have failed because
of insufficient no-take zones, lack of enforcement, poor governance, and
minimal community involvement. We need a new philosophy to implement
MPAs to take advantage of the scientific knowledge and monetary
investment that have been generated worldwide and ensure that they
complement efective fisheries management outside their borders.

Coral Reefs Declining: The World Is In Dire Need Of Regulation

Bellwood et all, International Weekly Journal of Science, 04
(D.R., C. Folke, T.P. Hughes, M. Nystrom, 6/3/04, International Weekly Journal of
Science, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v429/n6994/abs/nature02691.html,
6/25/14, TH) (fishing uniqueness)
The worldwide decline of coral reefs calls for an urgent reassessment of
current management practices. Confronting large-scale crises requires a
major scaling-up of management efforts based on an improved
understanding of the ecological processes that underlie reef resilience.
Managing for improved resilience, incorporating the role of human activity
in shaping ecosystems, provides a basis for coping with uncertainty, future changes
and ecological surprises. Here we review the ecological roles of critical
functional groups (for both corals and reef fishes) that are fundamental to
understanding resilience and avoiding phase shifts from coral dominance
to less desirable, degraded ecosystems. We identify striking biogeographic
diferences in the species richness and composition of functional groups, which
highlight the vulnerability of Caribbean reef ecosystems. These findings have
profound implications for restoration of degraded reefs, management of
fisheries, and the focus on marine protected areas and biodiversity hotspots as
priorities for conservation.

Reefs are currently at risk 60% threatened world wide

Burke, senior associate of the World Resources Institute, 12

(Lauretta, July 2012, World Resoursces Institute, Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral
Triangle, http://www.wri.org/publication/reefs-risk-revisited-coral-triangle, 6-24-13,
JW)
The World Resources Institute produced the report in close collaboration
with the USAID-funded Coral Triangle Support Partnership (CTSP). Reefs at
Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle was adapted from WRIs 2011 global analysis of
threats to coral reefs, Reefs at Risk Revisited, and supplemented with more recent
and detailed data for the Coral Triangle region. Threats to coral reefs in the Coral
Triangle are much higher than the global average. More than 85 percent of reefs
within the Coral Triangle Region are currently threatened by local
stressors (such as overfishing, pollution, and coastal development), which
is substantially higher than the global average of 60 percent. Nearly 45
percent are at high or very high threat levels. When the influence of
recent thermal stress and coral bleaching is combined with these local
threats, the percent of reefs rated as threatened increases to more than
90 percent, which is substantially greater than the global average of 75
percent. Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle studies current and future
threats to the Coral Triangle's reefs, evaluates social and economic vulnerability to
reef degradation and loss throughout the six countries, examines reef management
initiatives, and identifies solutions to help safeguard reefs.

Current programs not sufficienthalf of reef ecosystems in

poor/fair condition
NOAA 08
(7/9/8, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Half Of US Coral Reefs In
'Poor' Or 'Fair' Condition, NOAA Report States,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080707112648.htm, 6/27/14, SM)
Nearly half of U.S. coral reef ecosystems are considered to be in "poor" or
"fair" condition according to a new NOAA analysis of the health of coral reefs under U.S. jurisdiction. The
report issued July 7, The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States:

nation's coral reef ecosystems, particularly those adjacent to

populated areas, continue to face intense human-derived threats from
coastal development, fishing, sedimentation and recreational use. Even the
2008, says that the

most remote reefs are subject to threats such as marine debris, illegal fishing and climate-related efects of coral
bleaching, disease and ocean acidification. The report was released by NOAA at the 11th International Coral Reef
Symposium in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. More than 270 scientist and managers working throughout the Gulf of Mexico,
Caribbean, the Atlantic and Pacific authored the 15 jurisdiction-specific chapters of the report. The scientists graded
the coral ecosystems on a five tier scale: excellent, good, fair, poor and unknown. "NOAA's

coral
program has made some significant progress since it was established 10
years ago, but we need to redouble our efforts to protect this critical
resource," said retired Navy Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher Jr., Ph.D., under secretary of commerce for
oceans and atmosphere and NOAA administrator. The 569-page document details coral reef conditions in the U.S.
Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Navassa Island, southeast Florida, the Florida Keys, Flower Garden Banks, the Main
Hawaiian Islands, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, American Samoa, the Pacific Remote Islands, the Republic of
the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam
and the Republic of Palau. "The report shows that this is a global issue," said Tim Keeney, deputy assistant
secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and co-chair of the United States Coral Reef Task Force. "While

the report indicates reefs in general are healthier in the Pacific than the Atlantic, even remote reefs are subject to
threats stemming from climate change as well as illegal fishing and marine debris." The

conditions of

U.S. coral reefs have been declining for several decades according to the report's
authors. As an indicator of this decline, since the last status report was released in 2005, two coral species -Elkhorn and Staghorn corals --- have become the first corals ever listed as threatened under the Endangered
Species Act.

Coral reefs under threatclimate change

Foster, BA in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Princeton,
14
(Joanna M., 1/3/14, MA in Science, Health, and Environmental Reporting from NY
University, Climate Progress, We Witnessing The End Of Coral?,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/01/03/3118001/coral-reefs-climate-change/,
6/29/14, SM)
Tropical coral reefs form the very foundation of marine biodiversity . Sadly,
their seemingly inevitable demise may prove to be one of the first
irreversible consequences of climate change . Thats the conclusion of a comprehensive

new report on abrupt climate changes from the National Academy of Sciences. Researchers have long hypothesized
about climate-induced points of no return, like sudden catastrophic melting of ice caps or a dramatic shift in the

ecosystem collapse as environmental

conditions steadily march past livable thresholds is much more likely in
the next few decades. And tropical coral reefs are one of the most precarious ecosystems, thanks to
increasingly warm and acidic oceans. Climate change poses a double threat to coral
reefs. Warming ocean waters lead to a potentially fatal process known as
coral bleaching, in which reef-building corals eject algae living inside their tissues that supply them with
Gulf stream, but the Academy report emphasizes that

most of their food. Coral bleaching occurs when water temperatures are just 2-4F above normal summertime

Bleached corals are weak and often succumb to disease. At the same
the oceans are
absorbing about one quarter of annual CO2 emissions from human
activities. Thats nearly 24 million tons of CO2 every day. CO2 dissolved in seawater increases ocean acidity.
temperatures.

time as warming waters are pushing corals to the brink of what they can tolerate,

More acidic oceans decrease the availability of carbonate ions, which coral use to build their calcium carbonate
skeletons. In short,

sour oceans spell the end to reef building.

Without preservation, coral reefs will go extinct

Lacey, BA in Journalism from Franklin Pierce University, 11

(Stephen, 9/12/11, Climate Progress, September 12 News: Coral Reefs Will be

Gone by the End of the Century, Thanks to Climate Change and Ocean
Acidification, http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/12/316476/coral-reefs-goneclimate-change-and-ocean-acidification/, 6/29/14, SM)
Coral reefs will be gone by end of the century Coral reefs are on course
to become the first ecosystem that human activity will eliminate entirely
from the Earth, a leading United Nations scientist claims. He says this event will occur before
the end of the present century, which means that there are children already born who will live to
see a world without coral. The claim is made in a book published tomorrow, which says coral reef
ecosystems are very likely to disappear this century in what would be a
new first for mankind the extinction of an entire ecosystem. Its author,
Professor Peter Sale, studied the Great Barrier Reef for 20 years at the University of Sydney. He currently leads a
team at the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health. The predicted decline is mainly
down to climate change and ocean acidification, though local activities such as overfishing, pollution and coastal
development have also harmed the reefs. The book, Our Dying Planet, published by University of California Press,
contains further alarming predictions, such as the prospect that we

risk having no reefs that

resemble those of today in as little as 30 or 40 more years. Were

creating a situation where the organisms that make coral reefs are
becoming so compromised by what were doing that many of them are
going to be extinct, and the others are going to be very, very rare, Professor Sale says. Because of that,
they arent going to be able to do the construction which leads to the phenomenon we call a reef. Weve wiped out
a lot of species over the years.

This will be the first time weve actually eliminated an

entire ecosystem.

Coral reefs under threatclimate change

Foster, BA in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Princeton,
14
(Joanna M., 1/3/14, MA in Science, Health, and Environmental Reporting from NY
University, Climate Progress, We Witnessing The End Of Coral?,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/01/03/3118001/coral-reefs-climate-change/,
6/29/14, SM)
Tropical coral reefs form the very foundation of marine biodiversity . Sadly,
their seemingly inevitable demise may prove to be one of the first
irreversible consequences of climate change . Thats the conclusion of a comprehensive

new report on abrupt climate changes from the National Academy of Sciences. Researchers have long hypothesized
about climate-induced points of no return, like sudden catastrophic melting of ice caps or a dramatic shift in the

ecosystem collapse as environmental

conditions steadily march past livable thresholds is much more likely in
the next few decades. And tropical coral reefs are one of the most precarious ecosystems, thanks to
increasingly warm and acidic oceans. Climate change poses a double threat to coral
reefs. Warming ocean waters lead to a potentially fatal process known as
coral bleaching, in which reef-building corals eject algae living inside their tissues that supply them with
Gulf stream, but the Academy report emphasizes that

most of their food. Coral bleaching occurs when water temperatures are just 2-4F above normal summertime

Bleached corals are weak and often succumb to disease. At the same
the oceans are
absorbing about one quarter of annual CO2 emissions from human
activities. Thats nearly 24 million tons of CO2 every day. CO2 dissolved in seawater increases ocean acidity.
temperatures.

time as warming waters are pushing corals to the brink of what they can tolerate,

More acidic oceans decrease the availability of carbonate ions, which coral use to build their calcium carbonate
skeletons. In short,

sour oceans spell the end to reef building.

Without preservation, coral reefs will go extinct

Lacey, BA in Journalism from Franklin Pierce University, 11
(Stephen, 9/12/11, Climate Progress, September 12 News: Coral Reefs Will be
Gone by the End of the Century, Thanks to Climate Change and Ocean
Acidification, http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/12/316476/coral-reefs-goneclimate-change-and-ocean-acidification/, 6/29/14, SM)
Coral reefs will be gone by end of the century Coral reefs are on course
to become the first ecosystem that human activity will eliminate entirely
from the Earth, a leading United Nations scientist claims. He says this event will occur before
the end of the present century, which means that there are children already born who will live to
see a world without coral. The claim is made in a book published tomorrow, which says coral reef
ecosystems are very likely to disappear this century in what would be a
new first for mankind the extinction of an entire ecosystem. Its author,
Professor Peter Sale, studied the Great Barrier Reef for 20 years at the University of Sydney. He currently leads a
team at the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health. The predicted decline is mainly
down to climate change and ocean acidification, though local activities such as overfishing, pollution and coastal

development have also harmed the reefs. The book, Our Dying Planet, published by University of California Press,
contains further alarming predictions, such as the prospect that we

risk having no reefs that

resemble those of today in as little as 30 or 40 more years. Were
creating a situation where the organisms that make coral reefs are
becoming so compromised by what were doing that many of them are
going to be extinct, and the others are going to be very, very rare, Professor Sale says. Because of that,
they arent going to be able to do the construction which leads to the phenomenon we call a reef. Weve wiped out
a lot of species over the years.

This will be the first time weve actually eliminated an

entire ecosystem.

Need preservation nowmarine heat waves destroying coral

Valentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from
University of Georgia, 14
(Katie, 2/13/14, Climate Progress, Marine Heat Waves Have Caused Almost
Unprecedented Damage To Australian Coral,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/02/13/3288881/marine-heatwaves-damagecoral/, 6/29/14, SM)
The Earths oceans are warming rapidly, absorbing about 90 percent of the
heat created by anthropogenic climate change. Now, new research shows that this
heat has caused almost unprecedented damage to ancient corals of the coast of
Western Australia. The research, which has yet to be published but is part of a five-year study out of the University

a marine heat wave killed off 400year-old porites corals, which had previously been thought to be some of
the more resistant to the effects of climate change. The corals survival depends on
algae, but that algae was destroyed by the marine heatwave, causing the coral
to become bleached and more susceptible to death. The studys researchers told the
of Western Australia, found that, in the summer of 2012-2013,

Guardian that the damage these ancient corals sufered was a major shock. To see them badly damaged, or
completely dead, as a result of bleachings that happened over previous years, and likely the one in 2013, was
surprising, lead scientist Russ Babcock said. This isnt the first time extreme heat has damaged ocean coral. The

scientists said bleaching has been occurring for about 20 years, and that
records show it has become more common in recent years . In 2010, corals
across the worlds oceans became bleached shedding the algae that
provide them much of their food and color due to heat stress, just the
second known global bleaching of coral in history.

New Policies Still Insufficient

Reef protection programs doing enough, reefs need more
Queensland Conservation 13 (Current Practices Failing to Save the
Reef, 2013, http://qldconservation.org.au/current-practicesfailing-to-save-the-reef/, 6/25/14, CH)
We are not convinced that current management practices are adequate
to protect the Reef, a view borne from two Strategic Assessments that have been
undertaken by both the Great Barrier Reef Marine Authority and the Queensland
Government. Both assessments showed that key natural values of the World
Heritage Area are in poor and declining condition. Recent changes to
Queensland laws, including land clearing in some Reef catchments, and reduced
safeguards for coastal zones make matters worse. QCC wants the
government to take urgent and effective action to stop the decline and
turn around the health of the Reef. We do not accept that proposed
recommendations contained in the Strategic Assessments are adequate,
or effective enough to meet the requirement for the urgent protection of
the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area.

Preservation policies need improvement.

Palmquist, Senior Science Writer @ The Nature Conservancy 13
(Darci, 4/11/13, The Nature Conservancy, New Study: Marine Protection Goals Are
On Target, But Still Not Enough, http://blog.nature.org/science/2013/04/11/newstudy-marine-protection-goals-are-on-target-but-still-not-enough/, 6/25/14, KM)
MPAs of the Future: Protecting for Ecosystem Services The latest targets for
marine protection set forth in the Convention on Biological Diversitys Aichi
Target 11 include, for the first time, a mandate to protect for ecosystem services
and human wellbeing in addition to biodiversity. This is a positive step that will
undoubtedly make MPAs more efective. But, say the authors, it will require more
creative and critical thinking about where to place MPAs and how to design
them to provide benefits to people such as food, fuel, recreation, livelihoods
and more. This means were going to need to look in some new places,
says Spalding. Most ecosystem services are coastal, and thats where the majority
of the threats are. We need to really scale up protection efforts in these same
busy coastal waters where millions of people live and could benefit. Spalding
emphasizes that marine conservation in remote, pristine and diverse places is still
important. But we also need to ask, what can MPAs do for us? Can MPAs help shore
up all the ecosystem services on which billions of lives depend?

Need preservation nowhalf of reefs destroyed

Bawden, Environment Editor for the Independent, 13
(Tom, 9/23/13, The Independent, Coral alert: destruction of reefs 'accelerating' with
half destroyed over past 30 years,

http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/coral-alert-destructionof-reefs-accelerating-with-half-destroyed-over-past-30-years-8835480.html, 6/28/14,
SM)
The rapid decline of the world's coral reefs appears to be accelerating,
threatening to destroy huge swathes of marine life unless dramatic action is swiftly
taken, a leading ocean scientist has warned. About half of the world's coral
reefs have already been destroyed over the past 30 years, as climate
change warms the sea and rising carbon emissions make it more acidic. But the
trend now looks to be accelerating, said Professor Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, the
scientist in charge of the ocean chapter of the forthcoming report by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). "Our oceans are in an
unprecedented state of decline due to pollution, over-fishing and climate
change. The state of the reefs is very poor and it is continuing to deteriorate," said
Professor Hoegh-Guldberg, of the University of Queensland. "This is an ecosystem that has been around for tens of millions of years and we are
wiping it out within a hundred. It's quite incredible." In addition to working on
the IPCC report, Professor Hoegh-Guldberg is leading by far the most
comprehensive assessment of the state of the world's coral reefs, the Catlin
Seaview Survey (CSS). Its initial findings demonstrate that the reefs are getting
"increasingly hammered" from all sides, he said. "The coral reefs' decline
seems to be accelerating rather than decelerating, but I would add the caviat
that the ultimate evidence will come in about five years time," he added. That is
because the CSS will be the first to provide a detailed worldwide picture of coral
reefs, many of which have never been documented before. Only by comparing the
result of this survey with the situation as it develops in the coming years can the
true picture of the decline be known.

Coral reefs under threatGreat Barrier Reefs prove

Gammon, Masters in Science Writing from MIT, 12

(Katharine, 10/1/12, Live Science, Half of Great Barrier Reef Lost in Past 3
Decades, http://www.livescience.com/23612-great-barrier-reef-steep-decline.html,
6/28/14, SM)
Australia's Great Barrier Reef is a glittering gem the world's largest coral reef ecosystem
chock-full of diverse marine life. But new research shows it is also in steep decline, with half of
the reef vanishing in the past 27 years. Katharina Fabricius, a coral reef ecologist at the
Australian Institute of Marine Science and study co-author, told LiveScience that she has been diving and working
on the reef since 1988 and has watched the decline. "I hear of the changes anecdotally, but this is the first longterm look at the overall status of the reef. There are still a lot of fish, and you can see giant clams, but not the same

Fabricius and her colleagues surveyed

214 different reefs around the Great Barrier Reef, compiling information
from 2,258 surveys to determine the rate of decline between 1985 and
2012. They estimated the coral cover, or the amount of the seafloor covered with living coral. That
overall 50-percent decline, they estimate, is a yearly loss of about 3.4
percent of the reef. [Photos of Great Barrier Reef Through Time] They did find some local diferences,
color and diversity as in the past." To get their data,

with the relatively pristine northern region showing no decline over the past two decades. Cyclones and starfish
The reefs decline, detailed this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, can be chalked up to
several factors, they found. The biggest factors are smashing from tropical cyclones, crown-of-thorns starfish that
eat coral and are boosted by nutrient runof from agriculture, and coral bleaching from high-temperatures, which
are rising due to climate change. (Coral bleaching happens when ocean temperatures rise and cause the corals to
expel their zooxanthellae the tiny photosynthetic algae that live in the coral's tissues.) great barrier reef, health,
damage, changesPin It Horseshoe reef after crown-of-thorns invasion Credit: AIMS Long-term Monitoring TeamView
full size image Other coral experts say the precipitous decline matches what they have found. "This is a really grim
wake-up call," said John Bruno, a biologist at UNC Chapel Hill. " The GBR [Great

Barrier Reef], which

only 10 years ago was considered the world's most pristine and resilient
coral reef is clearly not better off and no less threatened than any other
reef. I am bullish on the long-term survival of reefs, but science like this is challenging that outlook."

Need preservation nowcoral reef extinction in 40 years

Burgett, Researcher for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 14
(Jef, 2/18/14, PhD, Reef Relief, New study reveals timeline of future coral reef
decline, highlights urgent need for action, http://reefrelief.org/2014/02/new-studyreveals-timeline-of-future-coral-reef-decline-highlights-urgent-need-for-action/,
6/28/14, SM)
An international team of coral reef scientists has used the latest global climate models to reveal timelines for the

accelerating decline of the worlds coral reefs through the end of the
century. If global emissions of greenhouse gases keep rising at or near the
current rate, within 40 years, nearly all coral reefs globally will be
subjected to stressful conditions so regularly that reefs are unlikely to
persist as we know them, says study co-lead Dr. Ruben van Hooidonk. Dr. van Hooidonk and his colead Dr. Jefrey Maynard developed interactive online maps of their study results, showing the timelines for when

each coral reef area will experience critical levels of temperature stress and
ocean acidification. The study is published in Global Change Biology in its January 2014 issue. Coral reefs provide
food and commercial fisheries, protect coastlines from waves, support tourism, and are inextricably interwoven into
the cultural foundations for millions of people throughout the tropical oceans. Seychelles Ambassador for Climate
Change and Small Island Developing State Issues, Ronald Jumeau noted that, "It is a common misconception that
sea level rise is the greatest threat to small island countries, when in fact the decline of the coral reefs that help
feed and protect us and contribute to our wealth and well-being is a more immediate threat to the economic
viability and the very physical existence of many of our islands."

Need preservation nowworst coral die-off since 1988

Climate Progress 10
(10/20/10, Climate Progress, Scientists: Caribbean coral die-of may be worst ever,
Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean bleaching may prove to be the worst such event
known to science, http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2010/10/20/206901/coralbleaching-die-of-worst-ever/, 6/28/14, SM)
Scientists studying Caribbean reefs say that 2010 may be the worst year ever for coral death there.

Abnormally warm water since June appears to have dealt a blow to shallow
and deep-sea corals that is likely to top the devastation of 2005, when
80% of corals were bleached and as many as 40% died in areas on the
eastern side of the Caribbean. So Eli Kintisch reports at Science online. He explains: Bleaching
occurs when crucial microorganisms leave coral reefs during stress. Corals, which shelter a quarter or more of all
marine species, get bleached, and may die, after prolonged heating. A few weeks of water temperatures a few
degrees above normal can be fatal. During the 2005 die-of, for example, water temperatures of the Virgin Islands
rose just 3C above the average in Augustbut stayed that way until November. There has been little recovery in
the Caribbean since, says reef specialist C. Mark Eakin of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) in Silver Spring, Maryland. But, as this NOAA graphic shows, 2010 is worse than 2005:
Kintisch reports: Ive never seen bleaching like [it] in Panama, said Nancy Knowlton, a coral biologist at the
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama who has been studying the local flora for 25 years. She and
colleague Hector Guzman have seen massive reefs die in recent weeks in the enclosed lagoon of Bocas del Toro in
Panama after becoming coated with giant sheets of slime, the remains of dead microorganisms. This is NOT a
normal condition on reefs, even bleached reefs. Where last year there were healthy corals, this year there was only

A number of factors besides water temperature

can cause coral bleaching and die-offs, including pollution and storms. But
temperature is the number-one culprit in such a massive die-off , says Eakin. The
gray ooze, she wrote in an e-mail.

warmest 12-month period in the NASA temperature record ended this summer; June through August was the fourthwarmest such period in the record. The extent of the devastation across the Caribbean will become clear in the
coming months as biologists measure the deaths. The rest of this post is from Nick Sundts piece on the WWF blog,
Scientists Report One of the Worst Coral Bleaching Events on Record in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.

The Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies said in press release yesterday
(Worst coral death strikes at SE Asia, 19 October 2010) that [m]any

reefs are dead or dying

across the Indian Ocean and into the Coral Triangle following a bleaching
event that extends from the Seychelles in the west to Sulawesi and the Philippines in the east and include reefs
in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and many sites in western and eastern Indonesia. It is
certainly the worst coral die-off we have seen since 1998. It may prove to
be the worst such event known to science, says Dr Andrew Baird of the ARC Centre.

Fishing Advantage

Uniqueness
Income Generated Is Not Sufficient
Frontani et all, Professor at Elon University, 12
(Heidi G., Alexander Hopkins, 9/01/12, The Encyclopedia of Earth, 6/25/14, TH)
The management of coral reef fisheries generally involves restricting
fishers access to marine resources of economic value (food fish, edible
invertebrates, fish for the aquarium trade, decorative shells for tourists, etc.) through licensing fishers
and fishing vessels, restricting the use of certain fishing gear, setting catch
limits, or designating waters as closed to all commercial and artisanal
fishing short term or more permanently as is generally the case with
marine protected areas. Given that coral reefs are of interest to multiple user groups whose interests

vary considerably, from commercial and sport fishers to snorkelers, divers, researchers, glass bottom boat
operators, and other stakeholders, managers are faced with the challenging task of addressing the needs of
stakeholders, while protecting the biological richness of reefs. The establishment of marine protected areas that
prioritize research and recreational uses is a widely used approach in the management of coral reef fisheries; such
marine protected areas often promote tourism and species conservation but conflict with the livelihood interests of

marine
protected areas offer economic benefits via park entry fees and
recreational services. Nonetheless, the income generated is rarely
sufficient to offset the management costs (patrols, mooring buoys, educational placards,
lifeguards, etc.) and an unfortunate reality is that most coral reef-based marine
protected areas are undermanaged due to lack of funds and corruption. Managing coral reef
fishers. The majority of the worlds coral reefs are located in poorer, tropical countries, and

fisheries is further complicated by the fact that the benefits from marine parks (jobs and recreational opportunities)
tend to accrue to non-local people, whereas the costs in terms of lost livelihood opportunities tend to afect local
fishing communities. Finally, many modern approaches to fisheries management do not support the informal
management systems historically practiced by indigenous people, potentially fueling local fishers discontent with
marine protected areas. Local fishing communities receiving few benefits and experiencing notable costs due to the
presence of marine protected areas often leads to the illegal extraction of resources, increased law enforcement
costs, and ultimately the failure to achieve conservation aims.

Degradation of Fisheries and Food Security

Coral Triangular Initiative, 14
(Coral Triangular Initiative, 14, Coral Triangular Initiative,
http://www.ctknetwork.org/wp-content/documents/pdf/SCTR-PNG.pdf , 6/26/14,
TH).

Fish is a major source of animal dietary protein in Papua New Guinea

(PNG). Annual per capita fish consumption is 13 kilograms (kg), but reaches 53.3 kg
(Bell et al. 2009) in coastal communities. Subsistence fishing accounts for approximately 64%
of total fish consumption in rural areas. However, access to fish is poor for residents living
more than 5 kilometers (km) inland. This is reflected in their estimated annual per
capita fish consumption, which is less than 5 kg. Significant loss of coastal
fisheries is evident along PNGs coastline. Marine resources in provinces that have
depended heavily on them to sustain livelihoods have come under
increasing stress because of fish catches that exceed sustainable levels, destructive
fishing methods, and use of outboard engine-powered crafts to access
distant or protected fishing grounds. Agroforestry projects are active in many of the 14 maritime
provinces. Over the past 20 years, many of these projects have contributed to marine
resource degradation. Siltation from seasonal heavy rainfall has likewise contributed to degrading
marine resources, particularly when it follows extended droughts. Even coastal provinces with

major gold and copper mines have suffered from food insecurity . In the Western
Province, which borders Indonesia, flooding in MayJune 2012 caused by heavy rain along the Fly River inundated
15 coastal villages, destroying food gardens, smothering seagrass meadows, and causing tributaries of the Fly River
to flood. Following this, health concerns were widespread, and most marine-based food was deemed unsafe to eat
for several months.

Consumers In Rhode Island Hurt by Declining Fishing

Industry
Bari, The Jamestown Press, 09
(Sam, 09, The Jamestown Press, http://www.jamestownpress.com/news/2007-0927/news/014.html, 6/26/14, TH)
every kind of license holder in between, are
feeling the effects of state Department of Environmental Management
(DEM) regulations designed to downsize the industry. However, more than the fishermen
are feeling the effects of the fast-shrinking local fishing industry .
"Consumers are affected too," said Greg Zeek, a local commercial fisherman and owner of Zeek's
Local fishermen, from draggers to lobstermen, and

Creek Bait and Tackle on North Main Road. Zeek's store is also a popular retail outlet for fresh, of-the-boat seafood
that includes locallycaught tuna, mahi-mahi, swordfish, striped bass, shellfish and lobster. Inventory is more difficult

Zeek said. "It's the worst I've ever seen it," he added. "Little is
available and the wholesale prices for good, local seafood are ridiculous. To stay competitive leaves little room
for even a modest profit," Zeek said. He noted that along with less volume, good quality
is harder to find, yet the demand is still there. That has not changed. "The
state DEM has regulated commercial fishing into obscurity . And the efects of their
regulatory policies trickle right down to the consumer. Fishermen are selling their boats and
getting out of the industry because they can't afford to stay in business.
Pretty soon, anyone wanting fresh seafood will have to go out and catch it
themselves, or buy from a store supplied by an importer, because we will no longer have a local fishing
to come by every day,

industry," Zeek said. Zeek cited rules that he and other fishermen deemed ridiculous, that are blatantly designed to
impede the ability of Rhode Island fishermen to earn a living. "For instance, guys that had to stop fishing and do

other work to make a living, now only fish part-time on the weekends . They were just dealt
another blow. The state DEM made a new rule that they can't fish commercially for fluke on Fridays and Saturdays.
What purpose does that rule have other than to put even part-time fishermen out of business?" Zeek asked. He said
that he doesn't have a problem with the supposed goals of the DEM to replenish the fishery. He emphasized that
responsible commercial fishermen believe that

all fisheries need to be managed to assure

the future of the resource. He does, however, have a problem with the way the DEM is managing the
Rhode Island fishery. Zeek and other commercial fishermen feel that the state is making every efort to privatize the
industry. The Rhode Island Fishermen's Alliance, an advocacy group with more than 200 members, has challenged
the state and taken them to court over their unfair regulatory policies. The group claims that many of the rules
imposed by the state are unconstitutional. Their eforts have been rewarded, but not without a long and costly legal
battle for each small victory. One of the recent victories challenged the DEM imposed RI boating registration
requirement on federally documented commercial fishing vessels. Rhode Island fishermen received a favorable
decision in RI District Court from Judge Patricia Moore, who ruled the registration requirement to be
unconstitutional. The Department of Fisheries opposed the decision and has filed for a judicial ruling in the RI
Supreme Court. The case is pending. The state has succeeded in prolonging their eforts with legal maneuvers to
"avoid being held accountable," according to Alliance president Richard Fuka. " The

people of Rhode
Island need to understand that their precious fishing industry will be gone
forever if the current Carcieri administration continues to promote privatization and
corporate streamlining of the fishery," Fuka said in recent letter to Alliance members. He said the Alliance is
currently hoping for a negative court decision to deny the state request for a change of venue to try the case
against them in federal court instead of state court. He and members of the Alliance believe the state knows that
many of their regulatory policies oppose provisions made in the state constitution for fishermen's rights. The
Alliance has cited RI Constitution, Article I, Section 17 as proof of their accusations. The current restrictions set by
the state DEM do not allow commercial fishermen to "continue to enjoy and freely exercise all the rights of fishery,
and the privileges of the shore, to which they have been heretofore entitled under the Charter and usages of this

state," as written in the state constitution. Zeek, who is a member of the RI Fishermen's Alliance, said that his
biggest complaint is how the DEM used regulations, that he followed, to drive him out of the lobster business. Todd
Lander, vice-president of the Alliance, as well as all the other members have similar stories. Lander said, "In 2001,
when they (DEM) told us that we had to cut down on the number of lobsters taken, I only caught lobsters for
personal use that year. I thought that was the right thing to do. However, I fished part time commercially in 2002
and 2003. When I applied to renew my license in 2004, I was told that the number of traps I could run would be
based on my productivity over the previous three years. My productivity was way down for this period. For this, I
was punished. The number of traps I can run was reduced from 800 to 42. I can't make a living on 42 traps. They
put me out of business." That scenario is a common lament among Rhode Island fishermen, for Alliance members
as well as non-members. They want to see the fishery recover, but they also want to have assurances for their
future, and they don't want to be punished for their eforts to comply. They do not feel the state has a right to
regulate them out of business. They believe they have a right to know that upon recovery, the fishery will be open

the fishery
needs to recover, they want the recovery level defined so they know what the recovery level of the fishery
is. They want better management, with rules designed to replenish and
sustain the fishery, not privatize the business for the benefit of the few. NEW BEDFORD A
plummeting number of cod, haddock, and flounder; rising fuel costs and other economic
factors; and a host of government regulations account for the rapid decline in this citys
historic groundfish industry, according to a report released Tuesday by the New Bedford Harbor
Development Commission. Last year, the citys fishermen caught $19 million worth
of groundfish, about half of what they brought to shore just two years
before, the report said. Between 2006 and 2013, the number of groundfish
vessels operating out of New Bedford fell more than 50 percent , to 47 boats.
Groundfish have supported generations of Massachusetts families , state
Senator Mark Montigny, a New Bedford Democrat, said in a statement. Poorly implemented federal
regulations have failed to protect our ecosystems, but succeeded in
crippling our fishing fleet. The report, which calls for new technology to survey fishing stocks, also
to anyone who wants to participate. They are fighting to retain their right to make a living. If

urged the government to reform its quota system and other regulations that govern fishermen. Much of the decline
came after a 2010 assessment of cod estimated there were 26 million pounds of the regions most storied fish in
the Gulf of Maine, 19 percent of what scientists view as necessary for a healthy population. Last year the New
England Fishery Management Council cut the catch limit of Gulf of Maine cod by 77 percent from the year before
and the US share of Georges Bank cod, whose stock is shared with Canada, by 55 percent. The quotas have
combined with rising fuel costs to deepen the pain for fishermen. The average cost of a trip for a groundfish vessel

Fewer trips and

reduced catch have meant an estimated 164 fewer fishing jobs. Fifty firms
that supplied products or bought fish from New Bedford fishermen ceased
between 2003 and 2013, resulting in 227 lost jobs between 2010 and 2012 ,
75 feet or longer tripled to nearly $30,000 between fiscal 2009 and fiscal 2012.

the report said.

Sharp Decline in Fish and Lobster Exports

Constant, Sub-editor of the Daily Observer, 10
(Cherisse, 4/08/10, The Daily Observer, Bachelors Degree in journalism from Baruch
College, http://www.antiguaobserver.com/author/cherisse-constant/, 6/26/14, TH).
The Fisheries Division within the Ministry of Agriculture has recorded a
sharp downward trend in its fish and lobster exports since 2007. Senior
Fisheries Officer Ian Horsford said between 2008 and 2009 exports of
fisheries products, in terms of tonnage, contracted by 30 per cent. In 2008
the total export was 88.5 metric tonnes for both islands and in 2009,
55.90 metric tonnes for Antigua and 11.90 metric tonnes for Barbuda a
considerable decline. This is the largest contraction in fishery exports since the mission by the
European Commission in 2002 to assess the conditions of production and export of fishery products from Antigua &

Barbuda, Horsford said, adding that the European Commissions visit was to determine whether Antigua & Barbuda
would continue to export to the European Union. The second largest contraction in exports, 29.9 per cent, occurred
in 2008. Export of fishery products to the European Community accounted for 100 per cent of domestic fishery
exports in 2009. The decline in exports, according to the Fisheries officer, is attributed to the general strikes in
neighbouring French territories Guadeloupe and Martinique on the tourism sector, as the trends in monthly exports
coincided with the tourist season there. The strikes ran from January to March 2009. The recession in those French
territories was also a major factor. Usually the demand for fisheries products is driven by the demand from the
tourist sector in these islands, he told The Daily OBSERVER. So if people are travelling less, you have less people
in the hotels; you have less demand for seafood. But this relationship is stronger for the high valued product like
lobster. He added, Were hoping that with improvement in the French economy (they exited recession I think last
year or so) things will pick up. Explaining the reason why the Fisheries Division has not expanded its customer
base much beyond the French territories, Horsford said this is due to operational costs. In the past, there have
been exports to a few Caribbean territories like Barbados but they have been minimal. The reason for that is
operational costs; our production cost is high so it doesnt really make sense for us to export, to say, the US or
Canada. He added that its the reason the division imports so much fish from Trinidad and Guyana. The fish that
we tend to buy from Guyana is usually a buy-catch of their shrimp fisheries (meaning) when they actually go out
targeting shrimp, theyd also catch fish and this fish is basically used to export to diferent Caricom islands while
the high value shrimp is sent to the US he said. In our case, since production cost, like electricity and all these
things are high here, things are much more expensive. With the price of fish, we have to look for markets that give
us better returns on investments. Recently, sod was turned for the construction of a Japanese-funded fisheries
project. Horsford said the initiative is welcome as it helps the industry on Barbuda to conform to the standards of
the European Union which constitutes 94 per cent of the islands market. If (the Barbudans) cant meet the
European standards, they no longer have a market, Horsford said. About 25 per cent of the population directly
depends on the lobster situation on Barbuda. So from that alone you can see the massive dislocation if Barbuda
cannot maintain access to the European Union market.

Fishing Regulations In Alaska Will Hurt Economy

Clarion et all, Fairbanks Daily News, 12
(Peninsula, Brielle Schaefer, 12/26/12, Fairbanks Daily News,
http://www.newsminer.com/news/alaska_news/alaska-board-keeps-status-quo-insport-fisheries/article_5431fc1a-8014-57c9-acc4-600681c5b26b.html?TNNoMobile,
6/27/14, TH)
KENAI, Alaska As hundreds of people were watching the start of the Iditarod in downtown Anchorage, a few

the Alaska Board of Fisheries finished up its decision-making on

fish policy that affects thousands. The 14-day meeting that wrapped up Saturday included public
blocks away

testimony and board deliberations on some 211 proposals concerning Upper Cook Inlet finfish dug into the
commercial fisheries, but left the sport and personal-use fisheries pretty much unscathed.

The mood inside

the boardroom Saturday was tense. Sport and commercial fishermen sat on opposite sides of the aisle
for the majority of the deliberations, sometimes murmuring under their breath about certain board members'

Commercial
fishermen were especially upset on the board's decision to define a "fishing period"
as a time period open to commercial fishing not to exceed a 24-hour calendar day in terms
of the "1 percent rule" Saturday. The 1 percent rule was created as a
management tool to minimize the catch of coho salmon when low numbers of sockeye salmon are being
allegiances or leaving the deliberations to take a breather during the final decisions on policy.

caught. The rule states that if after July 31 there are two consecutive fishing periods where less than 1 percent of
the sockeye run up to that point is caught, the eastside set net fishery closes and drift gillnet fishermen fish in
designated areas on the west side of the inlet. Otherwise, the season ends Aug. 15. Fisheries board vice-chair Karl
Johnstone, of Anchorage, put forward this definition and championed the change. "Historically there have been
some issues here of extending the fishing periods to a certain period of time that you'll catch more than 1 percent
of your harvest," he said. "When there's so few sockeye caught and so many coho caught maybe it's time to turn it
over to the in-river people." According to Robert Begich, area manager of sport fisheries for the Department of Fish
and Game, the commercial fleet on average harvests about 4 percent of the coho run, 2.5 percent by setnetters

Board chairman Vince Webster, of King Salmon, spoke

against the restricted fishing period. He said the fixed closure window on Tuesdays for
commercial eastside setnetters that the board passed on Thursday broke up the fishing periods
enough that a defined fishing period was unnecessary. "By fixing that window it takes
and 1.6 percent by drifters.

away the department's ability to manage for abundance," he said. "We've tied the department's hands with the
fixed window and now we're going to tie the department's hands further." Webster lobbied the board to hold of on

making more restrictions to the commercial fishery. "Let's let all these changes we've made take efect," he said.
"Why can't we hold of for another three years? The department understands now that we have a real concern of

other
board members, like Mike Smith, of Fairbanks, were convinced a fishing
period needed to be defined. "The perception was that this rule because of the unclarity was not
them going out there if the majority of the fish are coho and there's not very many sockeye." But,

allowed to work in the way it was intended to," he said. "I'm convinced that this particular proposal is an orderly

The board passed the proposal 4-3. Setnetters and drift

fishermen alike are concerned this new definition of a fishing period will make the
fishery meet the 1 percent rule sooner and close, or restrict, the season earlier.
"It might even be the nail in the coffin," said David Martin, president of the
United Cook Inlet Drift Association (UCIDA). "It was strictly allocative and
punitive against the commercial fisheries." He said this restriction could lead to
system over escapement, and in turn lead to poor future returns of fish. "The industry
cannot survive on that," Martin said. "We're being restricted so the in-river fishery just can play with
transition for the fishery."

those fish." Dyer VanDevere, a UCIDA member, said he was unhappy with the board's decision. The sport fishery's

Paul Shadura,
executive director of the Kenai Peninsula Fisherman's Association, said
that the board's actions in terms of the 1 percent rule were a "travesty ,"
"catch-and-release mortality on the Kenai is more than what the commercial fleet catches."

especially in light of the board's actions this week to create a pink salmon management plan for commercial fish.
"Many parts of the beach will be closed down before we even have the opportunity to harvest those pinks," he said.

the 24-hour fishing period in relation to the 1 percent rule is a

tremendous expense and loss for the industry. "This is not just a negative situation for
Shadura said

just Cook Inlet fisherman; this is precedent setting from this board on how priorities changed from one of biological
management to one of social management," he said. But Ricky Gease, executive director of the Kenai River
Sportfishing Association, saw the board's actions as managing for biology. He said he was pleased with the passage
of most of his organization's proposals. "The positive action on our proposals demonstrates our intent of acting in a
very professional, scientific manner in the Board of Fisheries process," he said. Gease said the board did the right
thing by clarifying the fishing period. "I think it was unclear in regulation about exactly what the timeframe was and
how you did measure the 1 percent," he said. There were a few proposals he would have liked to see passed in
terms of the sport fishery though. He wanted to see the slot limit on early-run Kenai River king salmon repealed and
liberalizations to retain smaller, jack kings and keep fishing, as well as a three-coho bag limit in August. Gease said
he intends to put at least some of those things into proposals again for the next meeting cycle in three years. But
Gease was not the only angler mifed by the board's rejection of certain sport fish proposals. Dwight Kramer, a
private angler and head of the Kenai Area Fisherman's Coalition, had put forward a few proposals to conserve the
king salmon runs, which were not passed by the board. "This process seems to be consistent in that they continue
to support economic opportunity over conservation concerns," he said.

Global Fish Stock Depleted

Harrabin, Environmental Analyst, 12
(Roger, 6/17/12, BBC, http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-18353964,
6/27/14, TH)
In the first of a series of five essays on declining global resources, the BBC's
Environment Analyst Roger Harrabin looks at the depletion of fish stocks.
There's widespread
agreement among nations on the need to conserve fish stocks but often
disagreement on the details of how to do it. And the need for unanimity in the UN process
The sea exemplifies the world's on-going failure to govern shared natural resources.

consistently allows a handful of countries to put the short-term interests of fishing crews before the fish stocks

globally about 85% of stocks are said to be fully

exploited, over-exploited, depleted or slowly recovering. Through the lens of history the depletion of fisheries
looks even worse. Using data from 1889, researchers assessed catches of bottom-feeding fish
like cod, plaice and sole in England and Wales. They calculated that over 118 years of
industrial fishing, the productivity of this fishery dropped by 94%. Not to
themselves. It all means that

94% but by 94%. Anyone with a snorkel and mask - and a tolerance to cold water - can attest that much of
the sea bed resembles a desert. The year of Peak Ocean Fish was 1996. Crews hauled in 87.7
million tonnes of wriggling protein. The total sea catch has since fallen to about 80 million
tonnes and stabilised. Industrial scale fishing has depleted the species we love the best But we're depleting the
species we like best and making up the diference in low value substitutes. Tuna, the world's favourite, has
declined in the Atlantic since 1993. Catches of cod in the North-East Atlantic have been
tumbling since the late 1960s. The total catch is being deceptively bolstered by unloved species
like blue whiting and sandeels. Meanwhile fishermen are hunting farther from home for new favourites, using
methods like bottom trawling where the ocean floor is scraped clean of life, and long-lining where hooks strung of
lines often haul in by-catch that beggars comprehension. Take the longline fishery for mahi mahi in Costa Rica. Its
collateral damage over a decade included 402 silky sharks, 625 stingrays and 1348 olive ridley turtles. Turtles of
course eat jellyfish, an increasing scourge of the seas. In some areas nine out of ten large sharks have been killed.
Callum Roberts, author of the excellent "Ocean of Life", says we're tugging blindly at the web of life in the sea. Big
sharks eat cownose rays and, without their predators, the rays in US waters have been free to gorge on the scallops
that adorn the tables of top restaurants. Fishermen are now muscling into the icy waters of the Southern Ocean in
an increasingly desperate search for new stocks to feed a world population that's growing and getting richer. And
our impact on fish stocks isn't just through nets and lines.

Food Uniqueness
GLOBAL food scarcity coming by 2050population increase
Phillips, Texas A&M AgriLife Communications media relations
manager, 14.

(Fred, 4/17/14, cites Davies, US Agency for International Development senior

science advisor for food security EurekAlert, Food shortages could be most critical
world issue by mid-century, http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/taacfsc041714.php, 6/24/14, SM)
WASHINGTON, D.C. -- The world is less than 40 years away from a food shortage
that will have serious implications for people and governments, according to a
top scientist at the U.S. Agency for International Development. "For the first
time in human history, food production will be limited on a global scale by the availability of land, water and

Dr. Fred Davies, senior science advisor for the agency's bureau of
food security. "Food issues could become as politically destabilizing by
2050 as energy issues are today." Davies, who also is a Texas A&M AgriLife Regents Professor of
energy," said

Horticultural Sciences, addressed the North American Agricultural Journalists meeting in Washington, D.C. on the

world population will increase 30

percent to 9 billion people by mid-century. That would call for a 70 percent
increase in food to meet demand. "But resource limitations will constrain global food systems,"
"monumental challenge of feeding the world." He said the

Davies added. "The increases currently projected for crop production from biotechnology, genetics, agronomics and
horticulture will not be sufficient to meet food demand." Davies said the ability to discover ways to keep pace with
food demand have been curtailed by cutbacks in spending on research.

Reefs K2 Fishing
Coral reefs key to fish and the fishing industry
NOAA, 12 (11/30/12, NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program : Fisheries,
Fisheries, coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/fisheries/, 6/24/14, CH)
Coral reefs serve as habitat for many commercially important species
targeted for fishing. Fisheries related to coral ecosystems range from artisanal subsistence fishing,

commercial fisheries, aquaculture, the live reef fish for food industry, recreational fishing, the aquarium/marine

The fish that grow and live on coral

reefs are a significant food source for over a billion people worldwide many
of whom live far from the reefs that feed them. Of that number, at least 85 percent rely
principally on fish as their major source of protein. [a] With 350 million people living
within 50 km of the coast, communities in Southeast Asia are heavily reliant on
marine and coastal resources for their livelihoods . This is particularly true of small-scale
ornamental trade, and the curio and fashion industries.

fishermen living in rural areas and relying, at times solely, on these resources both as a source of income and for

In fact, of the estimated 30 million small-scale fishers in the

developing world, most are dependent to some extent on coral reefs for
food and livelihood, [c] with 25 percent of all fish caught in these regions coming from coral reefs. [d] In
food. [b]

the Philippines, more than 1 million small-scale fishers depend directly on coral reefs for their livelihood. [c]
Unsustainable fishing results in shifts in fish size and species composition within coral communities, which may
precipitate large-scale ecosystem changes alone or when combined with other threats. For example, unsustainable
fishing of large predatory and herbivorous fishes is credited as the beginning of the end for some Caribbean reefs.
In the absence of predators and competing herbivores, the long-spined sea urchin became the primary control of
macroalgae levels on these reefs. Their increased population density left the sea urchins extremely susceptible to
an unknown disease that killed of over 90 percent of the species in the Western Atlantic in 1982. This in turn led to
algal overgrowth and the decline of reefs in the region. [l] The live reef fish trade has two main componentslive
food fish and ornamental aquarium fish. Accurate figures are not available on the total value of these trades, but
extrapolation from partial estimates indicates that the total value of the trade exceeds $1 billion per year.
Southeast Asia is the hub of this trade, supplying up to 85 percent of the aquarium trade and nearly all of the live
food fish trade. [e] However, the US is the primary importer of marine ornamentals. Trade in live reef food fish and
marine ornamentals are both a source of income for many in Southeast Asia and a source of local reef degradation

Approximately half of all

federally managed fisheries in the United States depend on coral reefs
and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. [g] The NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the annual commercial value
of US fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million. Reef-based recreational
due to destructive capture techniques such as blast and cyanide fishing. [f]

fisheries generate over $100 million annually in the US. [h] Globally, one estimate shows fisheries benefits account

Sustainable coral
reef fisheries in Southeast Asia alone are valued at $2.4 billion per year. [i]
These numbers do not take into account the value of deep-sea corals,
which are themselves home for many commercially valuable species and
thus additional fisheries value. Properly managed reefs can yield, on
average, 15 tons of fish and other seafood per square kilometer each year.
for $5.7 billion of the total $29.8 billion global net benefit provided by coral reefs. [h]

[ ]

j However, destructive fishing practices; such as dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing, and trawling; and unsustainable
fishing, are threatening the world's coral ecosystems and limiting the long-term productivity of reef-related
fisheries. Dynamite, cyanide and trawling gear physically damage coral ecosystems and their inhabitants and these
fishing practices are not solely afecting just a target species. More than 80 percent of the world's shallow reefs are
severely over-fished.

Coral Reefs essential to fishing industry

RJD Marine Conservation Program, 13

( Artificial Reefs, Biodiversity, and Biodiversity,

http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/artificial-reefs-biodiversity-and-ecotourism,
6/25/14, AVEN and CH)
Coral reefs are a very important part of the ecosystem, and over the years, the
condition of the worlds coral reefs has changed drastically ; this condition has
not changed for the better. There are many resources that coral reefs provide
to the world. Some of these include tourism value and the fact that they provide
a natural nursing area for fisheries. A lot of research has been done on corals and what features
of a reef, give the reef more monetary value. This research has found some conflicting results. While, some claim
that fish biodiversity is more valued than coral biodiversity, some claim the opposite. Although, this research has
looked at many aspects of what makes a reef valuable, not a lot has been done with looking at the value of each
component of the biological attributes of a reef. This study aimed to look at diferent levels of biodiversity in fish
and corals, in addition to, looking at each condition under diferent levels of conservation efort. This study also
looked at whether or not artificial reefs could be used to cause an increase in ecotourism across the world.
Researchers from the Ben Gurion University of Negev and the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences at Eliat in
Israel created a survey to give to divers in the city of Eliat in Israel to see what monetary values they would put on
these artificial reefs. The survey presented a number of diferent biological conditions of artificial reefs and at
varying levels of conservation efort. These biological conditions were coral size, coral diversity, fish abundance,
coral abundance, varying numbers of fish and corals, and diferent levels of biodiversity of fish and coral. The
survey also asked about how much money they would be willing to pay for each scenario and why they decided on
that monetary amount.

Coral reefs are crucial for economy

NOAA 2014
(NOAA, 6/26/14, Fisheries, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/fisheries/,
6/25/14, AG)
Fisheries
related to coral ecosystems range from artisanal subsistence fishing,
commercial fisheries, aquaculture, the live reef fish for food industry,
recreational fishing, the aquarium/marine ornamental trade, and the curio
and fashion industries. The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a
significant food source for over a billion people worldwide many of whom live far
Coral reefs serve as habitat for many commercially important species targeted for fishing.

from the reefs that feed them. Of that number, at least 85 percent rely principally on fish as their major source of

With 350 million people living within 50 km of the coast,

communities in Southeast Asia are heavily reliant on marine and coastal
resources for their livelihoods. This is particularly true of small-scale fishermen living in rural areas
and relying, at times solely, on these resources both as a source of income and for food. [b] In fact , of the
estimated 30 million small-scale fishers in the developing world, most are
dependent to some extent on coral reefs for food and livelihood, [ c] with 25
percent of all fish caught in these regions coming from coral reefs. [d] In
the Philippines, more than 1 million small-scale fishers depend directly on
coral reefs for their livelihood. [c]
protein. [a]

Artificial fisheries increase fish production

Grossman, professor of animal ecology at the University of
Georgia, 97
(Gary, 1997, Mexico Beach Artifical Association, Do Artificial Reefs Increase
Regional Fish Production? A Review of Existing Data,
http://www.mbara.org/pdf/grossman_97_avp.pdf, 6/25/14, JW)

The basic philosophical assumption underlying the continued deployment of artificial reefs is that regional fish
production is limited by a paucity of hard-bottom habitat(Bohnsack 1989). However, this assumption is supported

mostly by short-term descriptive studies of individual reefs(Bohnsack 1989; Bohnsack et al. 1991). Nonetheless, if

new reefs can potentially increase fish production through

three mechanisms: (1) an increase in the foragin habitat of adult, juvenile,
or newly recruited fishes: (2) an increase in the nesting habitat of adult
fishes; and (3) an increase in the amount of resting habitat or refuges
from predators. As a result, stock sizes of economically important species
increase, and both recreational and commercial fishers benefit.
habitat is limiting,

Coral reefs provide economic and fishing benefits- NOAA

estimates $100 million
NOAA (NOOA, Coral Reefs- An Important Part of our Future,
http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, accessed 6/28/14 SH)
The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for
half a billion people worldwide many of whom live far from the reefs that feed
them. Millions of people in coastal villages of tropical developing countries
depend on reefs for their livelihoods, with 25 percent of all fish caught in
these regions coming from coral reefs. These benefits are not limited to
developing countries approximately half of all federally managed fisheries
in the United States depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of
their life cycles. The NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the
commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million.

Coral reefs are used in important new medicines and productsprovides habitat
NOAA (NOOA, Coral Reefs- An Important Part of our Future,
http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, accessed 6/28/14 SH)
Coral reef plants and animals are important sources of new
medicines being developed to treat cancer, arthritis, human bacterial
infections, heart disease, viruses, and other diseases. In the future, coral
reef ecosystems could represent an increasingly important source of
medical treatments, nutritional supplements, pesticides, cosmetics, and
other commercial products.

Reefs increase fishing by creating conditions ideal conditions

Department of Fisheries Western Australia, 14
(Department of Fisheries Western Australia, 5/16/14, Government of Western
Australia, Artificial Reefs, http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Fishing-andAquaculture/Recreational-Fishing/Pages/Artificial-Reefs.aspx, 6/26/14, JW)
Artificial reefs are designed to enhance fish habitats by providing
additional structure that can increase the production of fish and other
aquatic organisms. Fish and other aquatic organisms are attracted to the
new structures and begin to populate and breed in and around them. This
in turn attracts more fish and aquatic life as a food chain develops.
Purpose-built artificial reefs are designed to: Create complex spaces and

habitats with differences in light, shade and water flow to encourage

further colonisation of marine organisms. The reef structures can be
tailored to suit the requirements of specific target species such as rock
lobster, abalone, demersal (living on or near the seafloor) or pelagic finfish
(living near to the surface or higher up in the water column); and in some
cases Create an up-welling effect diverting more nutrient-rich colder
water from the seabed up in the water column. This creates food for
plankton and larval fish, which attracts small fish, which in turn attracts
larger fish. International experience has shown artificial reef structures
provide clear environmental benefits and, in some cases, can support
greater biodiversity than adjacent natural reefs. Artificial reefs can
generate social and economic benefits to the State and local communities
by enhancing the local recreational fishing experience and tourism
opportunities as a result.

Fishing Key to Economy

The fishing industry created over 200 million jobs and
generates over 51 billion dollars
Allan et.al 01

(Geof L et.al, 11/15/01, EMBO Press, Fish for Food: aquacultures contribution,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/, 6/25/14, AG)
Fish also has substantial social and economic importance. The FAO estimates
the value of fish traded internationally to be US$ 51 billion per annum (FAO,
2000). Over 36 million people are employed directly through fishing and
aquaculture (FAO, 2000), and as many as 200 million people derive direct
and indirect income from fish (Garcia and Newton, 1997). Consumption of
food fish is increasing, having risen from 40 million tonnes in 1970 to 86
million tonnes in 1998 (FAO, 2000), and is expected to reach 110 million
tonnes by 2010 (FAO, 1999). Increases in per capita consumption account for only
a small portion; it is the growing human population in many countries in Asia, Africa
and South America that is primarily responsible for this steadily growing demand for
food fish. These data illustrate that a consistent source of fish is essential
for the nutritional and financial health of a large segment of the worlds
population.

Empirics prove fishing is key for economic growth

Global Fish Alliance 02

(The Global Fish Alliance, 2002, The Importance of Fisheries for Food Security in
Malawi, http://www.globalfishalliance.org/pdfs/Malawi_072310.pdf, 6/25/14, AG)
The fisheries sector in Malawi is an important source of employment, rural
income, food security, import substitution and biodiversity. In 2002, fish
had a beach value of about MK1.5 billion (approx. 21 million US$), and
contributed about four percent to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The fish
industry supports nearly 1.6 million people in lakeshore communities and
makes substantial contributions to their livelihoods, by supporting
approximately nine percent, 18 percent, 15 percent, nine percent and 30
percent of the people in Karonga NkhataBay, Nkhota Kota, Salima and
Mangochi districts, respectively. Furthermore, 13 percent of the people in Zomba,
Machinga and Phalombe districts, as well as six percent of the people in the Lower
Shire Valley derive their livelihood from fishing

Fishing brings in billions of dollars to the US economy each

year
Cesar et.al 2003
(Cesar, et.al, 2003, Environmental Economics Consulting, Arnhem, and WWFNetherlands, Zeist, The Netherlands, The Economics of Worldwide Reef
Degradation 6/25/14, AG)

Potential net benefits from fisheries are esti- mated at US$ 5.7 billion a
year. Yet, over- fishing and destructive fishing have taken their toll and reef
fishery benefits in most places in the developing world are now close to
zero fishers merely fish to stay alive with- out making any profits. The
aesthetic beauty of coral reefs attracts millions of tourists worldwide who come to
dive and snorkel amongst these natural treasures. Reef tour- ism is growing
rapidly and is estimated to provide potential annual net benefits of US$
9.6 billion. Coral reefs also act as natural sea walls by providing a bufer to protect
in- shore areas from the pounding of ocean waves. This protective function of reefs
is estimated to be valued at US$ 9.0 billion per year. Finally, reef biodiversity has
a high re- search and conservation value, as well as a non-use value,
estimated together at US$ 5.5 billion annually. In addition to these quantified values, reefs have drawn a mass of medi- cal and pharmaceutical research
interest in the pursuit of finding cures for human diseases. These estimates provide
new data on how much reefs can be worth in economic terms and give insight into
the costs to society if these reefs are lost.

The fishing industry created over 200 million jobs and

generates over 51 billion dollars
Allan et.al 01
(Geof L et.al, 11/15/01, EMBO Press, Fish for Food: aquacultures contribution,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/, 6/25/14, AG)
Fish also has substantial social and economic importance. The FAO estimates
the value of fish traded internationally to be US$ 51 billion per annum (FAO,
2000). Over 36 million people are employed directly through fishing and
aquaculture (FAO, 2000), and as many as 200 million people derive direct
and indirect income from fish (Garcia and Newton, 1997). Consumption of
food fish is increasing, having risen from 40 million tonnes in 1970 to 86
million tonnes in 1998 (FAO, 2000), and is expected to reach 110 million
tonnes by 2010 (FAO, 1999). Increases in per capita consumption account for only
a small portion; it is the growing human population in many countries in Asia, Africa
and South America that is primarily responsible for this steadily growing demand for
food fish. These data illustrate that a consistent source of fish is essential
for the nutritional and financial health of a large segment of the worlds
population.

Empirics prove fishing is key for economic growth

Global Fish Alliance 02
(The Global Fish Alliance, 2002, The Importance of Fisheries for Food Security in
Malawi, http://www.globalfishalliance.org/pdfs/Malawi_072310.pdf, 6/25/14, AG)
The fisheries sector in Malawi is an important source of employment, rural
income, food security, import substitution and biodiversity. In 2002, fish
had a beach value of about MK1.5 billion (approx. 21 million US$), and
contributed about four percent to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The fish
industry supports nearly 1.6 million people in lakeshore communities and
makes substantial contributions to their livelihoods, by supporting

approximately nine percent, 18 percent, 15 percent, nine percent and 30

percent of the people in Karonga NkhataBay, Nkhota Kota, Salima and
Mangochi districts, respectively. Furthermore, 13 percent of the people in Zomba,
Machinga and Phalombe districts, as well as six percent of the people in the Lower
Shire Valley derive their livelihood from fishing

Alaskan fishing helps to build US economy

Mcdowell group 2013
(Mcdowell Group, 7/13, Economic Value of the Alaska Seafood Industry,
http://pressroom.alaskaseafood.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/AK-SeafoodImpact-Report.pdf, 6/27/14, AG)
Alaska seafood directly accounts for 94,000 workers who, in total, earned
$2.8 billion in 2011. This figure consists of American workers who caught,
processed, managed, sold, cooked, or served Alaska seafood. On an average
monthly basis, Alaska seafood directly created 61,200 U.S. jobs in 2011.
The combined value of Alaska seafood exports and the retail value of
Alaska seafood sold in the U.S. totaled an estimated $6.4 billion in 2011.

Fishing profits increase

Svaldsson no date
(Hrur Svaldsson, no date, University of Akureyri, Fisheries impacts,
http://www.fisheries.is/economy/fisheries-impacts/, 6/26/14, AG)
In 2011 the total catch in Icelandic waters was close to 1.1 million tonnes
of fish products worth ISK 251 billion; EUR 1.6 billion in export value. At the
same time, the nations total population was 319,000 people and the workforce
167.300. The fishing industry employs 5.3% of the total workforce; fishing
3.1% and fish processing 2.2%. Although not visible from the aforementioned
numbers, the fishing industry is fundamental for the whole economy and
the countrys regional development. Fisheries and fish processing
companies constitute the most important source of livelihood in coastal
communities, where employment opportunities are often more limited because of
less economic diversification. Profitability and efficiency within the fishing
sector have risen substantially, especially because of improved technology,
both in processing and harvesting; the use of fully automated processing with latest
computer technology is widespread in the industry. Improvements and innovations
in transportation and logistics have increased efficiency as well; the use of
temperature controlled containers, better storage boxes and readily available
refrigerated warehouses. The availability of air cargo capacity has also greatly
increased, supporting a huge rise in the export of chilled fish products. Several
auxiliary companies have developed as an offspring of the fishing industry,
providing support services and products. Some of those supportive
businesses have successfully exported their innovations and expertise
globally, e.g. in fishing technology, fish processing machinery and the marketing of
seafood products.

Fishing k2 Food
Worldwide, about one billion people depend on fish for their
protein intake.
Cury no date

(Philippe, no date, Les dossiers thematiques de lIRD, A billion people dependent

on fish in the world https://www.mpl.ird.fr/suds-enligne/ecosys/ang_ecosys/pdf/ecosys_intro.pdf, 6/25/14, JY)
On a world-wide scale, approximately one billion people are dependent on
fish as the principal source of animal protein. Since the 1960s, the availability of fish and fish by-products per
inhabitant has practically doubled (with an average consumption of 16 kg of fish per person per year at the end of

lowincome food-deficit countries where the current consumption of sea

products is close to half of that of the richest countries , the contribution of
fish to total protein in-take is considerable, neighboring 20% . In certain
insular or coastal countries of high population density, fish protein is a
deciding dietary contributor, providing at least 50% of total protein intake
the 1990s), rapidly gaining on demographic growth, which also nearly doubled over the same period. In

(Bangladesh, North Korea, Ghana, Guinea, Indonesia, Japan, Senegal, etc.).

Fisheries have an important role in food and nutrition to nearly

17% of the worlds population.
FAO 12
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, 7/9/12, FAO, Fisheries and
aquaculture enabling a vital sector to contribute more,
http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/150839/icode/, 6/25/14, JY)
Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture play a crucial role in food and
nutrition security and in providing for the livelihoods of millions of people .
FAO's latest flagship publication on the state of fisheries and aquaculture, launched at the opening of the 30th
session of the FAO Committee on Fisheries, highlights the sector's vital contribution to the world's well-being and
prosperity, a point reflected in the recent Rio+20 Outcome Document. The State of World Fisheries and
Aquaculture 2012 reveals that the sector produced a record 128 million tonnes of fish for human food - an average
of 18.4 kg per person - providing more than 4.3 billion people with about 15 percent of their animal protein intake.

Fisheries and aquaculture are also a source of income for 55 million

people. "Fisheries and aquaculture play a vital role in the global, national
and rural economy," said FAO Director-General Jose Graziano da Silva. "The livelihoods of 12
percent of the world's population depend directly or indirectly on them.
Fisheries and aquaculture give an important contribution to food security
and nutrition. They are the primary source of protein for 17 percent of the
world's population and nearly a quarter in low-income food-deficit
countries."

Communities who fish are better off nutritionally wise and

have a better meal frequency.
GFA 02
(Global Fish Alliance, 4/02, AED, USAID, and DARDEN, The Importance of Fisheries
for Food Security in Malawi,
http://www.globalfishalliance.org/pdfs/Malawi_072310.pdf, 6/25/14, JY)

fishery sector provides vital and unique nutritional benefits such as

protein, vitamins, minerals and micro-nutrients. Therefore, it is apparent that the
sector has a significant impact on food and nutrition security especially in
the lake districts. In addition, studies have revealed that fishing communities are better
off in terms of meal frequency, meal composition, meal diversity,
availability of household assets and the level of income with which they
buy food to ensure household food and nutrition security . As a result, the sector is
The

employing a significant proportion of the population as fishers, processors and traders enabling them to earn

Households which
vend in fish find it advantageous to sell fish and purchase other food items
to improve their household food security and nutritional status. (FAO)
income for purchase of food to meet their household food and nutrition security.

Places like Caribbean countries, Hawaii, and Southeast Asia

depend to make a large part of their GDP on the tourism
industry derived off of reefs, empirics prove.
NOAA, 11
(National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, 5/13/11, NOAA,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/, 6/24/14, JY
Healthy coral ecosystems support local businesses and economies, as well
as provide jobs through tourism and recreation. Every year, millions of scuba
divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to enjoy their abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit
the beaches protected by these reefs . Local economies receive billions of dollars from
these visitors to reef regions through diving tours, recreational fishing
trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef
ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coral-reef based recreation and tourism at $9.6
billion of the total global net benefit of coral reefs. [a] For example, in the US, reef-related recreation and tourism

Hawai`i's economy each year and its

nearshore reefs annually contribute nearly $1 billion in gross revenues for
the state. [b] Caribbean countries, which attract millions of visitors annually
to their beaches and reefs, derive, on average, half of their gross
domestic product from the tourism industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is estimated
that each square kilometer of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential)
has a potential net benefit of $23,100 to $270,000. [d]
account for an estimated $364 million in added value to

The Decrease In Reefs Causes A Huge Food, Economic, and

Marine and Human Impact- From Acidification
Roppolo, CBS staff writer, 6/24

(Michael, 6/24/14, CBS, 360-degree underwater cameras explore world's most

stunning coral
reefs, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/360-degree-underwater-cameras-exploreworlds-moststunning-coral-reefs/, 6/24/14, AEG)
Due to a wide variety of factors -- including coastal development,
pollution and overfishing -- the world's coral reefs are deteriorating at
the rate of 1 to 2 percent per year. Thermal stress, including rising sea
temperatures, is expected to affect nearly 50 percent of the reefs by the
2030s and 95 percent by the 2050s, according to a 2011 report by the World

Resources Institute. Rising CO2 levels will increase ocean acidification,

which will also reduce coral growth. If the coral reefs were to die out, it would
have a dramatic impact on people who live near coasts or on islands. "Coral reefs
also provide food and livelihoods for more than 500 million people around
the world, are home to 25 percent of all marine life, and provide natural
protection to towns, communities and ports from storms waves and open
seas," Vevers explained, estimating their economic impact at $375 billion
dollars per year.

Food Impact Resource Wars

Less Food Leads to Resource Wars- International conflict and
war breaks out over scarce resources.
Evans, Editor at Center on International Cooperation, 10 (Alex,

9/9/10, Western Australia Water Corporation, Resource Scarcity, Climate Change

and the Risk of Violent Conflict, page 4,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWDR2011/Resources/64060821283882418764/WDR_Background_Paper_Evans.pdf, 6/25/14, ML)
Even before climate change is taken into account,

scarcity of land, food, water and oil is likely to be an

increasing driver of change between now and 2030, and beyond. Climate change will exacerbate the
challenge in all of these areas, and the combined efect of these changes is likely to put tens to
hundreds of millions more people at risk of impacts including hunger,
disease, displacement, injury, poverty or other forms of hardship. Although the
conflict risk posed by climate change and resource scarcity will almost always be better understood as a threat
multiplier than as a sole cause of violent conflict, a range of potential linkages between climate, scarcity and
conflict risk can nonetheless be identified, whether through intensifying existing problems, or through creating new

risk of direct
conflict over access to or control of scarce resources such as land or water.
Most current examples of such conflicts take place within countries, but intensifying resource
scarcity and climate change could see an increase in strategic resource
competition between states both at the regional level (particularly if abrupt climate efects, such as
environmental problems that lead to instability. The most obvious such linkage is the

rapid glacial melting, manifest themselves and thus impact trans-boundary water resources) and

internationally (with some countries already pursuing third country access rights to oil, land, food and
potentially water). However, a range of other conflict risks arising from climate change and resource scarcity also
have the potential to make themselves felt in the future. Among them are cases where livelihoods or

economies are undermined by resource scarcity , potentially increasing state

fragility in the process; cases where violent conflict itself has the efect of contributing to
environmental degradation, thus potentially creating a cyclical relationship between scarcity and
conflict; large-scale unplanned migration as a result of climate impacts or resource scarcity; and the risk that
changing geographical circumstances, such as rising sea levels or changing water flows in trans-boundary
watercourses, render existing legal agreements out of date.

Impact China
U.S. Key to Food Resources for China
Barnett, American military geostrategist, 12 (Thomas, May 29, 2012,
Time Inc., Death to Resource Wars, http://nation.time.com/2012/05/29/death-toresource-wars/, 6/25/14, ML)
Chinas growing food reliance on the Western Hemisphere , which only
grows with that nations middle class, and the climate change that makes it harder to
grow food over there, and were looking at a global future in which China and the U.S. are
intertwined in basic resource dependencies: they need our food and
energy, and we need their savings. Those realities are already firmly in place: the Western
Toss in

hemisphere largely feeds the Eastern one in terms of major grain flows (reflecting underlying water-resource
realities), and Asia has been the primary saver in the global financial system for several decades

Impact UQ Overfishing
Fishys in danger 90% of exploited fish will be gone by 2048
Weise, epidemiologist, 2006
(Elizabeth, 11/3/06, USA Today, "Study: 90% of the ocean's edible species may be
gone by 2048", URL, 6/29/14, SJ)
Oversight of commercial fishing must be strengthened or there may eventually be no more seafood.
90% of the fish and shellfish species that are
hauled from the ocean to feed people worldwide may be gone by 2048 . Even
now, 29% of those species have "collapsed," meaning a 90% decline in the
amount being fished from the sea, said Boris Worm, lead author and a professor of marine conservation biology at Dalhousie University

That's the conclusion of a report in today's Science journal that predicts

in Halifax, Canada. "It is a very clear trend, and it is accelerating," Worm said. The paper represents four years of work by an international team of researchers at various universities
who analyzed ocean species diversity over the past 1,000 years. The team concludes that this trend can be reversed. "We need to implement sustainable fishing methods, create
marine sanctuaries where species can replenish themselves and limit pollution from coastal areas," said Heike Lotze, a marine ecologist at Dalhousie University. "If the habitat is gone

With each
species that is lost, the opportunity for the system to repair itself is
diminished." The findings are too pessimistic and not true of the USA, said Steve Murawski, chief scientist for the National Marine Fisheries Service, which oversees
or the water's destroyed," the fish populations can't bounce back, she said.

fishing regions in U.S. waters.

"We know how to do this. But it must be done soon," Worm said. "

Murawski said "aggressive fisheries management" is reducing the percentage of U.S. overfished species, which he estimated is now 20%. U.S. fishing

Worldwide, overfishing is a big part of the problem, the researchers said. " Every year it's estimated that
human beings remove 150 million metric tons of life from the seas ," said Joshua
Reichert, environment-program director at Pew Charitable Trusts in Philadelphia. But fishing isn't the only problem, the report states. The destruction of coastal
areas, estuaries and reefs by dredging, building and pollution destroys nursery habitats for young fish. As
marine species disappear, the ability of others to survive is further harmed
by the drop in the ocean's overall productivity and stability, the researchers found. Fish and seafood are key protein
sources for a world that's expected to add another 3 billion people by
2050. But it's also a problem for people who don't eat fish. Sixty percent of Americans live within 60 miles of a coast. Declines in marine
biodiversity can: Increase coastal flooding because of the loss of floodplains and erosion control provided by the
wetlands, reefs and underwater vegetation that are a cornerstone of marine life. Reduce water quality by destroying the plants, shellfish and fish
that are the ocean's biological filtering apparatus. Increase beach closure because of harmful algae
blooms, such as red tide, facilitated by diminished filtering.
regions represent about 10% of the world's catch.

Disease

UQ TB
Need to solve tuberculosis nowdrug resistant TB
Christian 13
(Kira A., 7/3/13, Kashef Ijaz, Scott F. Dowell, Catherine C. Chow, Rohit A. Chitale,
Joseph S. Bresee, Eric Mintz, Mark A. Pallansch, Steven Wassilak, Eugene McCray,
and Ray R. Arthur, US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health,
What we are watchingfive top global infectious disease threats, 2012: a
perspective from CDCs Global Disease Detection Operations Center,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3701798/, 6/25/14, SM)
The global incidence of tuberculosis (TB) has been in a slow decline since the early 2000s. However, TB was
responsible for 1.4 million deaths worldwide in 2011 (38). Additionally, the
emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drugresistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB), first identified in Tugela Ferry, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in 2005,
pose a rising threat to global TB control (39). Morbidity and mortality are
consistently higher among patients infected with MDR and XDR-TB , primarily
because of the delays in diagnosis, limited or no options for antimicrobial
therapy, complicated patient management and increased treatment costs

(39). In 2009, it was reported that in the United States the cost of hospitalization for one XDR-TB patient was
estimated to average $483,000 (40). According to WHO, by mid-2011, 84 countries had reported one or more cases
of XDR-TB (38) and in the United States, 6 cases of XDR-TB were reported (41). In impoverished areas and
vulnerable populations, the presence and spread of a demonstrably efficient human pathogen that in some
situations has become almost untreatable with currently available agents warrants careful observation. In 2009 CDC
responded to cases of XDR-TB in Namibia in an efort to mitigate further spread of illness (Fig. 2). Surveillance for
resistant TB among global migrants and refugees is also imperative: in 2005, an outbreak of MDR-TB was identified
in US-bound Hmong refugees from Thailand (42). Co-morbid conditions put vulnerable populations at further risk.
Drug-susceptibility testing for first- and second-line TB drugs is unavailable in most settings with high incidence of
TB, thereby creating the opportunity for emergence of XDR-TB when MDR-TB is inadequately assessed for drug
susceptibility, and, treated inadequately (39). We include XDR-TB on the short list of pathogens to be monitored

its severity
and the difficulty of case management and infection control could cause
considerable challenges for global public health.
closely because of its potential for more widespread transmission. If XDR-TB became widespread,

TB major health threatCDC lists as one of top 5 health

threats
Bernhard, Health Reporter for St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 14

(Blythe, 1/11/14, The Tampa Tribune, CDC names top 5 health threats in 2014,
http://tbo.com/cdcnames-top-5-health-threats-in-2014-20140111/, 6/25/14, SM)
Some bacteria have become resistant to several types of antibiotics,
making it harder to fight infectious diseases. Drug-resistant infections are particularly
dangerous for people with a compromised immune system, including those with cancer, kidney failure or organ
transplants. In some cases, doctors and nurses have had to resort to less efective and more toxic antibiotics when
the first-line defenses fail. Patients with antibiotic resistant infections incur longer hospital stays, long-term side
efects and death. More than 2 million Americans contract antibiotic-resistant infections each year, and 23,000 die,

Several drug-resistant bacteria, including forms of gonorrhea,

tuberculosis, salmonella and strep are considered urgent or serious threats to
public health because doctors are running out of drugs to treat these
infections. The overuse of antibiotics is the main pathway for drugresistant infections. About half of antibiotic prescriptions are considered to be unnecessary. Antibiotics
according to the CDC.

given to farm animals before slaughter are another main source of resistance. The CDC is working with the FDA to
reduce the use of antibiotics in the food chain. One of my key principles in using antibiotics properly is to make
sure the patient receives the correct amount of a medication that only treats the bacteria or germs involved in the
infection, said infectious disease pharmacist Ryan Moenster, associate professor at St. Louis College of Pharmacy.

If the doctor diagnoses you or a family member with a viral infection, dont demand medication like amoxicillin
because antibiotics do nothing for viral infection.

UQ - HIV
Huge risk of HIV pandemicdrug resistant strains
Cooper, health reporter for the Independent, 14
(Charlie, 5/22/14, The Independent, Drug-resistant HIV pandemic is a 'real
possibility', expert claims, http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-andfamilies/health-news/drugresistant-hiv-pandemic-is-a-real-possibility-expert-claims9420833.html, 6/25/14, SM)
A new HIV pandemic is a real possibility, one of the worlds leading authorities on
infectious disease has said, warning that a rise of drug resistant strains of the virus could
reverse progress made since the 1980s in combating the disease . Professor
Jeremy Farrar said that the spectre of drug-resistant HIV threatened to have a
huge impact in the next 20 years, if drugs which have made vast improvements to the life
expectancy of patients since 1990s become less efective. His warning came as a coalition of scientists said that

antimicrobial resistance (AMR) the process by which bacteria and other microbes, including viruses,
evolve to be immune to the drugs we use to combat them should rank alongside
climate change as one of the greatest threats facing humanity. Professor Farrar, director of the leading research

it was inevitable that resistance to HIV would

increase because it was a virus which could easily mutate . Antiretroviral drugs
foundation the Wellcome Trust, said that

currently used to treat HIV have been so successful that people living with the virus can expect to live healthy,
active lives if they have access to the drugs and adhere to their regime. While hailing the incredible progress
made since the 1980s in treating HIV, Professor Farrar said that resistance to first resort drugs, and also some
second and third resort, drugs had already occurred and that drug options for the virus were not limitless. It is
not unreasonable that a HIV pandemic could return. he said. The possibility of a resistantly-driven HIV pandemic
is quite real. He said it would be essential to use existing treatments efficiently and efectively to avoid further
resistance developing. We [also]

need to ensure we continue to develop new

compounds rather than become complacent about the existing drugs we
have, he added. A vaccine is also crucial to ensure we do not have to rely on our current prevention and

treatment options. But an HIV vaccine will be incredibly difficult. In an article for the journal Nature published
today, Professor Farrar and another leading figure, Professor Mark Woolhouse, have called for the establishment of a
powerful global organisation similar to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to coordinate the
worldwide response to the threat of anti-microbial resistance. Scientists have warned for years that the rise of AMR
risks undoing a century of medical progress with routine operations and cancer treatments becoming deadly

Resistant strains of tuberculosis, malaria, MRSA and HIV have

already spread around the world, they write. The focus of concerns has been antibiotic resistance,
because of the risk of infection.

which relates to bacterial infections, but viral infections such as HIV and malaria are now also showing signs of

there are estimated to be 25,000 deaths every year from drugresistant infections roughly the same as those killed in road accidents.
resistance. In Europe,

HIV pandemic comingconsumption of gorilla and chimpanzee

meat
Laurance, Health Reporter for The Independent, 12
(Jeremy, 5/25/12, The Independent, African monkey meat that could be behind the
next HIV, http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/healthnews/african-monkey-meat-that-could-be-behind-the-next-hiv-7786152.html,
6/27/14, SM)

Deep in the rainforest of south-east Cameroon, the voices of the men rang through the trees. "Where are the white
people?" they shouted. The men, who begin to surround us, are poachers, who make their money from the illegal

gorillas and chimpanzees. They disperse but make it known that they are not keen for
the trade they ply could not only wipe out critically
endangered species but, scientists are now warning, could also create the
next pandemic of a deadly virus in humans. Eighty per cent of the meat eaten in Cameroon
slaughter of

their activities to be reported ;

is killed in the wild and is known as "bushmeat". The nation's favoured dishes are gorilla, chimpanzee or monkey
because of their succulent and tender flesh. According to one estimate, up to 3,000 gorillas are slaughtered in
southern Cameroon every year to supply an illicit but pervasive commercial demand for ape meat . "Everyone is
eating it," said one game warden. "If they have money they will buy gorilla or chimp to eat." Frankie, a poacher in
the southern Dja Wildlife reserve who gave a fake name, said he is involved in the trade because he can earn good
money from it, charging around 60 per adult gorilla killed. "I have to make a living," he said. "Women come from
the market and order a gorilla or a chimp and I go and kill them." Cameroon's south-eastern rainforests are also
home to the Baka traditional forest hunters who have the legal right to hunt wild animals, with the exception of
great apes. Felix Biango, a Baka elder, said the group used to hunt gorilla every few weeks to feed his village,
Ayene, but has stopped since Cameroon outlawed the practice 10 years ago. However, he says that every week,
three or four people come from the cities to ask the group to help them to hunt wild animals, such as gorillas and
chimpanzees. While the Baka no longer hunt primates for themselves, Mr Biango says that they still kill gorillas for
the commercial trade and will eat the meat if they find the animals already dead. Though Cameroonians have

recent health scares have begun to raise fears about

the safety of the meat. "In the village of Bakaklion our brothers found a dead gorilla in the forest," Mr
eaten primate meat for years,

Biango said. "They took it back to the village and ate the meat. Almost immediately, everyone died 25 men,

Three-quarters
of all new human viruses are known to come from animals, and some scientists
believe humans are particularly susceptible to those carried by apes. The human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is now widely believed to have originated in chimps. Apes are known to
women and children the only person who didn't was a woman who didn't eat the meat."

host other potentially deadly viruses, such as ebola, anthrax, yellow fever and other potential viruses yet to be
discovered. Babila Tafon, head vet at the primate sanctuary Ape Action Africa (AAA), in Mefou, just outside the
capital Yaounde, believes the incident that Biango describes could have been caused by an outbreak of ebola, but
cannot be sure because no tests were carried out. AAA now cares for 22 gorillas and more than one hundred
chimps all orphans of the bushmeat trade. Mr Tafon tests the blood of all apes arriving at the sanctuary. He says

a new virus in the apes simian foamy virus, which is

closely related to HIV. "A recent survey confirmed this is now in humans, especially in some
of those who are hunters and cutting up the apes in the south-east of the country," he said. Viruses are
often transferred from ape to human through a bite, scratch or the blood
of a dead ape getting into an open wound. There is a lower risk from eating cooked or
he has recently detected

smoked primates, but it is not completely safe. Bushmeat is not only a concern for Cameroonians. Each year, an
estimated 11,000 tons of bushmeat is illegally smuggled in to the UK, mainly from West Africa, and is known to
include some ape meat. The transfer of viruses from ape to man is a primary concern for the international virology
research and referral base run by the Pasteur Centre in Yaounde. Each week, it screens more than 500 blood
samples for all manner of viruses, and alerts major international medical research centres if it finds an unfamiliar
strain. Professor Dominique Baudon, the director of the Cameroon centre, says he is concerned that the

bushmeat trade is a major gateway for animal viruses to enter humans

worldwide, due to the export trade. He says that the deeper poachers go in to the forest, and
the more that primates are consumed, the more exposed people become to new unknown viruses and the more
potential there is for the viruses to mutate into potentially aggressive forms. At the Ape Action Africa sanctuary,
Rachel Hogan, who came to Cameroon from Birmingham 11 years ago, and her team focus on the last of
Cameroon's great apes.

Coral Reefs Key

Coral reefs key to new developments in medicinechemical
compounds are already showing major advances
NOAA, 11 (Medicine,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/, 6/24/14, AVEN)
The genetic diversity found in coral ecosystems is unparalleled and this
diversity has proven beneficial for humans through the identification of
potentially beneficial chemical compounds and through the development of
medicines, both derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems. Many

species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds for defense or attack, particularly the slow-moving
or stationary species like nudibranchs and sponges .

Searching for potential new

pharmaceuticals, termed bioprospecting, has been common in terrestrial
environments for decades. [a] In fact, nearly half of the medicines in use
today have their origins in natural products, mostly derived from
terrestrial plants, animals, and microorganisms. [b] However, bioprospecting
is relatively new in the marine environment and is nowhere close to
realizing its full potential. [a] Creatures found in coral ecosystems are important
sources of new medicines being developed to induce and ease labor; treat
cancer, arthritis, asthma, ulcers, human bacterial infections, heart
disease, viruses, and other diseases; as well as sources of nutritional
supplements, enzymes, and cosmetics. [b] The medicines and other potentially useful
compounds identified to date have led to coral ecosystems being referred to as the medicine cabinets of the 21st
century by some, and the list of approved and potential new drugs is ever growing. However, this focus on coral
ecosystems for medical properties is not unique to the 21st century. The unique medical properties of organisms
found in coral reefs was recognized by Eastern cultures as early as the 14th century; tonics and medicines derived
from seahorse extracts continue to be in high demand for traditional medicines. [b] The gall bladder of several fish
species were used in Palauan traditional medicine to treat venomous stings of other marine organisms, such as
stonefish. [c] While knowledge and use of some traditional medicines has been lost, there is renewed interest within
modern medicine in researching some of these treatments. Toxins

provided by reef creatures

are of particular interest in present day pharmaceutical research . Stonefish,

sea snakes, box jellyfish, cone shells, and puferfish contain some of the most toxic compounds presently known to
man. These chemical compounds are being studied by researchers, and some have already been used to develop
medicines or cosmetics. For example, cone snail neurotoxin is showing promise as a powerful painkiller. [a]

Other types of chemical compounds are also proving fruitful. The antiviral
drugs Ara-A and AZT and the anticancer agent Ara-C, developed from
extracts of sponges found on a Caribbean reef, were among the earliest
modern medicines obtained from coral ecosystems. [b] The anti-cancer properties of a
number of additional compounds derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems are also being studied.
Chemicals derived from Caribbean sea-whip corals have shown skincare, painkiller, and anti-inflammatory
properties and a compound derived from a Pacific sponge has lead to testing of over 300 chemical analogs for antiinflammatory properties. [a], [d] Kainic acid, which is used as a diagnostic chemical to investigate Huntington's
chorea, a rare but fatal disease of the nervous system, was isolated from organisms on a Japanese reef. [e]
Australian researchers have developed a sun cream from a coral chemical that contains a natural "factor 50" sun
block. [e] NOAA is even playing a role in the discovery of new medical compounds. A research team, including
NOAA scientists at the Hollings Marine Laboratory, has discovered new compounds derived from a sea sponge and
corals. One compound eats away at the shield bacteria use to protect themselves from antibiotics. The second
discovery was compounds that fight some of the worst infectious bacterial strains. [e] Besides

being the
source of potentially useful chemical compounds, the porous limestone
skeleton of corals has been tested as bone grafts in humans. Pieces of
coral set into a fracture act as a scaffold around which the healing can
take place. The implant eventually disappears, absorbed by the new
growth of bone. Rates of rejection are much lower than with artificial
grafting materials. [e] It should be noted that, aside from the compounds mentioned here, there are

likely many other compounds under development which have not yet been disclosed to the wider public. It is safe to
say that the published research is only the tip of the iceberg when it comes to the pharmaceutical possibilities
presented by compounds derived from creatures found in coral ecosystems, including the corals themselves. Thus,
it is nearly impossible to predict what the future economic benefits of bio prospecting will be, as more potentially
valuable medical compounds are isolated from organisms found in coral ecosystems. This aspect of reef value was
not incorporated into the estimated $5.5 billion total global value of coral reef biodiversity, but is certainly both a
consideration for the economic value of coral reefs and the costs to society if reefs are lost. [f]

Now is the time to explore corals healing propertiesclimate change

disrupts ecosystems
The Nature Conservancy, 14 (Protecting Reefs for Human and Maine
Health,
http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/habitats/oceanscoasts/explore/cora
l-reefs-and-medicine.xml, 6/24/14, AVEN)
Climate change is already affecting the health of coral ecosystems.
Microbial communities where many new drugs could likely be found are
especially susceptible to these changes, and some are already beginning to
decline or migrate. An estimated 95 percent of the worlds oceans
remain unexplored, so its possible that we might lose significant marine
organisms without ever knowing they existed in the first place, explains
Stephanie Wear, a marine scientist on the Conservancys Global Marine Team. A
devastating loss of biodiversity could mean that fewer species will be
around for future medicinal research and biomedical studies. By protecting
marine environments through the creation of marine protected areas and the
development of adaptation strategies, the Conservancy is safeguarding marine
biodiversity. People and nature are already benefitting in so many ways from these
marine protected areas. Just imagine what medical benefits may still lay
undiscovered beneath the sea.

Loss of biodiversity prevents future medicinal research

NOAA, 11 (Coral reefs could hold the cures for some of the human race's most

common and serious ailments.NOAA,

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/coral101/symbioticalgae/#d, 6/25/14, AVEN)
Coral reefs could hold the cures for some of the human race's most common and
serious ailments.
Surprisingly, coral reefs hold the cures to some of our most common medical
ailments.
Climate change is affecting the health of coral ecosystems and that puts
a strain on the medicinal benefits derived from our oceans.
By protecting marine environments across the world, The Nature Conservancy
is safeguarding marine biodiversity and ensuring coral reefs will be around for
future medicinal discoveries.
A DEVASTATING LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY COULD MEAN THAT FEWER
SPECIES WILL BE AROUND FOR FUTURE MEDICINAL RESEARCH AND
BIOMEDICAL STUDIES.
Stephanie Wear, Nature Conservancy marine scientist

Corals may lead to revolutionary work in skin cancer

KCL, 11 (31/08, Kings College London, "Coral could be used to create

sunscreens",www.kcl.ac.uk/newsevents/news/newsrecords/2011/08August/Tropicalcoral-create-novel-sun-screens-human-use-scientists.aspxll, 6/25/14, AVEN)

coral produces natural sunscreen
compounds to protect itself from damaging UV rays, leading scientists to believe
these compounds could form the basis of a new type of sunscreen for
humans. The team has begun to uncover the genetic and biochemical processes behind how these compounds
Researchers at Kings College London have discovered how

are produced and eventually hope to recreate them synthetically in the laboratory for use in developing sun
protection. This month, as part of the three-year project funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences
Research Council (BBSRC), the Kings team collected coral samples for analysis from the Great Barrier Reef, a
collaboration with Dr Walter Dunlap from the Australian Institute for Marine Science and Professor Malcolm Shick
from the University of Maine USA. Coral is an animal which has a unique symbiotic partnership with algae that
lives inside it - the algae use photosynthesis to make food for the coral and the coral waste products are used by
the algae for photosynthesis. Because photosynthesis needs sunlight to work, corals must live in shallow water,
which means they are vulnerable to sunburn.Dr Paul Long, Senior Lecturer from the Institute of Pharmaceutical
Science at Kings College London, who is leading the project, said: We already knew that coral and some algae can
protect themselves from the harsh UV rays in tropical climates by producing their own sunscreens but, until now,
we didnt know how. What we have found is that the algae living within the coral makes a compound that we
think is transported to the coral, which then modifies it into a sunscreen for the benefit of both the coral and the
algae. Not

only does this protect them both from UV damage, but we have
seen that fish that feed on the coral also benefit from this sunscreen
protection, so it is clearly passed up the food chain. This led us to believe that if we
can determine how this compound is created and passed on, we could biosynthetically develop it in the laboratory

This
could lead to evolutionary research in skin cancer, or at least be a big step
in prevention. We are very close to being able to reproduce this compound in the lab, and if all goes well
to create a sunscreen for human use, perhaps in the form of a tablet, which would work in a similar way.

we would expect to test it within the next two years. A long-term goal of the Kings study is to look at whether
these processes could also be used for developing sustainable agriculture in the Third World, as these natural
sunscreen compounds found in coral could be used to produce UV-tolerant crop plants capable of withstanding
harsh tropical UV light. The part algae play in protecting itself and coral against UV is thought to be a biochemical
pathway called the shikimate pathway, found only in microbes and plants. If we could take the part of the pathway
that the coral generates, and put this into plants, we could potentially also utilise their shikimate pathway to make
these natural sunscreens, said Dr Long. If we do this in crop plants that have been bred in temperate climates for
high yield, but that at present would not grow in the tropics because of high exposure to sunlight, this could be a
way of providing a sustainable nutrient-rich food source, particularly in need for Third World economies, he
concluded. Not only has the study revealed the potential of the corals compound to protect both humans and
crops from the sun, but Dr Longs team is also looking for clues as to how climate change is leading to coral
bleaching, which can lead to coral death.

Coral reefs provide immense biodiversity, which can be used as

resources like treatments for disease, and to create jobs
Wildscreen Arkive no date
(Wildscreen Arkive, nonprofit wildlife organization, no date, Coral Reef
Conservation, http://www.arkive.org/coral-reef-conservation/, 6/24/14, AG)

Coral reefs are among the most valuable ecosystems on Earth, forming massive, complex habitats for thousands of
other species. Although coral reefs cover less than 1% of the ocean floor, the numbers of species living in, on and
around coral reefs rivals even the most diverse tropical forests, including the Amazon rainforest in Brazil. Home
to an estimated 2 million species, coral reefs are sometimes nicknamed the rainforests of the
oceans' because of their staggeringly rich biodiversity. As well as supporting an enormous variety of
species, tropical coral reef ecosystems are also important to human health and well-being. Coral reefs are

vital to the worlds fisheries, forming nurseries for about a quarter of the ocean's
fish and providing a source of income for local communities, as well as national
and international fishing companies. In coastal areas, coral reefs provide an important natural
barrier against waves, hurricanes, typhoons and even tsunamis, helping to prevent coastal erosion and flooding.

The beauty and diversity of coral reefs make them important tourist attractions

which help to generate income and create jobs for local communities . Coral reefs are
also becoming increasingly important in medicine, and coral reef organisms are already being
used in treatments for diseases like cancer and HIV.

Coral Reefs Key to Diseases

Bruckner, Ph.D. Coral Reef Ecologist, 13
(Andrew, 11/27/13, Issues, "Life-Saving Products from Coral Reefs,"issues.org/183/p_bruckner/, 6/24/14, AF).
The prospect of finding a new drug in the sea, especially among coral reef
species, may be 300 to 400 times more likely than isolating one from a
terrestrial ecosystem. Although terrestrial organisms exhibit great species diversity, marine
organisms have greater phylogenetic diversity, including several phyla
and thousands of species found nowhere else. Coral reefs are home to
sessile plants and fungi similar to those found on land, but coral reefs also
contain a diverse assemblage of invertebrates such as corals, tunicates, molluscs,
bryozoans, sponges, and echinoderms that are absent from terrestrial ecosystems.
These animals spend most of their time firmly attached to the reef and cannot
escape environmental perturbations, predators, or other stressors. Many engage in a form of
chemical warfare, using bioactive compounds to deter predation, fight disease, and
prevent overgrowth by fouling and competing organisms. In some animals, toxins are also used
to catch their prey. These compounds may be synthesized by the organism or by the
endosymbiotic microorganisms that inhabit its tissues, or they are sequestered from food that they eat.

Because of their unique structures or properties, these compounds may

yield life-saving medicines or other important industrial and agricultural products.

Coral Reefs key to medicine research-They provide resources

needed for medicine.
Bruckner, Coral Reef Ecoologist in the National Marine
Fisheries Service's Office of Protected Resources, 14

(Andrew, 11/27/13, Issues in Science and Technology, "Life-Saving Products from

Coral Reefs, http://issues.org/18-3/p_bruckner/, 6/24/14, SJ)
, marine biotechnology has been applied to the areas of public
health and human disease, seafood safety, development of new materials and processes, and marine ecosystem restoration
During the past decade

and remediation. Dozens of promising products from marine organisms are being advanced, including a cancer therapy made from algae and a painkiller

The antiviral drugs Ara-A and AZT and the anticancer

agent Ara-C, developed from extracts of sponges found on a Caribbean
reef, were among the earliest modern medicines obtained from coral reefs. Other products, such as Dolostatin 10, isolated from a sea hare found in
the Indian Ocean, are under clinical trials for use in the treatment of breast and liver cancers, tumors, and leukemia. Indeed, coral reefs
represent an important and as yet largely untapped source of natural
products with enormous potential as pharmaceuticals, nutritional
supplements, enzymes, pesticides, cosmetics, and other novel commercial
products. The potential importance of coral reefs as a source of life-saving
and life-enhancing products, however, is still not well understood by the public or policymakers. But it is a powerful reason
taken from the venom in cone snails.

for bolstering eforts to protect reefs from degradation and overexploitation and for managing them in sustainable ways.

Reefs k2 HIV
Coral reefs solve both TB and HIVnew drug from transitmycin
DIC 11
(Drug Information Center, 6/18/11, Indian Pharmaceutical Association, Drug
Information Bulletin, http://www.ipapharma.org/news/Drug%20Information
%20Centre%20Bulletin%20Volume%204/53.pdf, 6/25/14, SM)
Scientists come up with new molecule that may lead to better drug for TB Scientists at the Tuberculosis
Research Centre (TRC) here have hit upon a new molecule with anti-bacterial and
anti-viral properties that could potentially lead to a better drug for the
treatment of TB and common HIV sub-types. The team at TRC extracted the
molecule, Transitmycin, from the marine microorganism Streptomyces sp.
isolated from a soil sample of the Rameswaram coral reef. The brominated and pigmented (yellow)
antibiotic was found effective during in vitro tests against dormant and active
forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis the pathogen that triggers one of the leading infectious
diseases worldwide. For details https://conferences.niaid.nih.gov/TBIndia/
Presentations/Posters/12_Poster_Vanaja_K umar.pdf

Coral reefs solve TB and HIVclinical trials prove

Department of Health 12
(12/28/12, Department of Health Research, Communicable Diseases Bacteriology
of TB, http://dhr.gov.in/annual_report/2012-13/english/PDF/English%20pdf
%20files/10_Communicable%20Diseases.pdf, 6/25/14, SM)

An exclusive user friendly database on mycobacteriophages with exhaustive information catalogued on a single
platform after analysis was developed and functions assigned to the proteins by in silico approach. The data
mining and genome annotation has been completed for 70 mycobacteriophages with annotated information
developed and linked to the database. This includes 8120 genes (except tRNA), which were classified into 7815

Novel marine Streptomyces sp R2 isolated from Coral reef deposit of

Rameswaram coastal area exhibited promising activity against M. tuberculosis and
HIV. This novel antibiotic was tested against 108 clinical M. tuberculosis
isolates by luciferase reporter phage (LRP) assay for its antimycobacterial activity. Anti HIV activity
was tested against 20 clinical HIV isolates. Solubility and stability of the novel antibiotic
families.

was tested using diferent organic solvents and temperature ranges, respectively. It was found to be soluble in
various organic solvents. Of the various temperature ranges tested, none of them afected its anti TB activity.

Coral reefs solve HIVpotent proteins found in coral

ASBMB 14
(American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 4/29/14, Science Daily,
Coral reefs provide potent new anti-HIV proteins,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140429092649.htm, 6/24/14, SM)
Researchers have discovered a new class of proteins capable of blocking
the HIV virus from penetrating T-cells, raising hope that the proteins could be adapted for use
in gels or sexual lubricants to provide a potent barrier against HIV infection. The proteins, called
cnidarins, were found in a feathery coral collected in waters off Australia's
northern coast. Researchers zeroed in on the proteins after screening thousands of natural product extracts
in a biorepository maintained by the National Cancer Institute. "It's always thrilling when you find a brand-new
protein that nobody else has ever seen before," said senior investigator Barry O'Keefe, Ph.D., deputy chief of the
Molecular Targets Laboratory at the National Cancer Institute's Center for Cancer Research. "And the fact that this
protein appears to block HIV infection -- and to do it in a completely new way -- makes this truly exciting." In the
global fight against AIDS,

there is a pressing need for anti-HIV microbicides that women

can apply to block HIV infection without relying on a man's willingness to use a condom. Koreen Ramessar, Ph.D., a
postdoctoral research fellow at the National Cancer Institute and a member of the research team, said

cnidarins could be ideally suited for use in such a product because the proteins block HIV
transmission without encouraging the virus to become resistant to other
HIV drugs. "When developing new drugs, we're always concerned about the possibility of undermining
existing successful treatments by encouraging drug resistance in the virus," said O'Keefe. "But even if the virus
became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive to all of the therapeutic options that are
currently available." The research team identified and purified the cnidarin proteins, then tested their activity

proteins proved astonishingly potent, capable of blocking

HIV at concentrations of a billionth of a gram by preventing the first step
in HIV transmission, in which the virus must enter a type of immune cell known as the T-cell. "We found
against laboratory strains of HIV. The

that cnidarins bind to the virus and prevent it from fusing with the T-cell membrane," said Ramessar. "This is
completely diferent from what we've seen with other proteins, so we think the cnidarin proteins have a unique
mechanism of action." The next step is to refine methods for generating cnidarins in larger quantities so the
proteins can be tested further to identify potential side efects or activity against other viruses. " Making

more of it is a big key," said O'Keefe. "You can't strip Earth of this coral trying to harvest this protein, so
our focus now is on finding ways to produce more of it so we can proceed with preclinical testing." The scientists
discovered cnidarins while screening for proteins, a largely understudied component of natural product extracts
found in the National Cancer Institute's extract repository. The institute maintains a large collection of natural
specimens gathered from around the world under agreements with their countries of origin. The specimens are
available to researchers across the United States. "The natural products extract repository is a national treasure,"
said O'Keefe. "You never know what you might find. Hopefully, discoveries like this will encourage more
investigators to use this resource to identify extracts with activity against infectious disease." Experimental Biology
is an annual meeting comprised of more than 14,000 scientists and exhibitors from six sponsoring societies and
multiple guest societies. With a mission to share the newest scientific concepts and research findings shaping
clinical advances, the meeting ofers an unparalleled opportunity for exchange among scientists from across the
United States and the world who represent dozens of scientific areas, from laboratory to translational to clinical
research

Coral reefs key to solve HIV/AIDSproteins in corals provide

unique mechanism of combatting the disease
Lees, health reporter for Science World Report, 14
(Kathleen, 4/30/14, Science World Report, Protein Found in Coral Reefs may Protect
Against HIV, http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/14353/20140430/proteinfound-in-coral-reefs-may-protect-against-hiv.htm, 6/27/14, SM)
Researchers from the National Cancer Institute's Center for Cancer Research have discovered that a group of
proteins found in the coral reef may be capable of blocking HIV. "It's always thrilling when you find a brand-new
protein that nobody else has ever seen before," said senior investigator Barry O'Keefe, Ph.D., deputy chief of the

this protein appears to

block HIV infection-and to do it in a completely new way-makes this truly exciting."
Researchers collected the proteins, also known as cnidarins--a feathery coral that's found
off the northern coast of Australia. As the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as of
Molecular Targets Laboratory at center, via Science Codex. "And the fact that

2012, about 35.3 million people were living with HIV, (of whom 1.6 million died), these findings bring hope in the
face of the epidemic. Studies have shown a pressing need for anti-HIV microbicides that women can use to stop
infection without solely relying on a man's willingness to use a condom, according to Science Codex. The cnidarins
could be used to help block transmission without causing the virus to become resistant to other HIV drugs.
"When

developing new drugs, we're always concerned about the

possibility of undermining existing successful treatments by encouraging
drug resistance in the virus," said O'Keefe, via the news organization. "But even if the
virus became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive
to all of the therapeutic options that are currently available." He adds that "even
if the virus became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive to all of the therapeutic options that

cnidarians is that they appear to bind to

the virus, stopping any fusion with the membrane of the T cells. According to
are currently available." What's even more important about the

Koreen Ramessar, Ph.D., a postdoctoral research fellow at the National Cancer Institute and a member of the

this is "completely different from what we've seen with other

proteins, so we think the cnidarin proteins have a unique mechanism of
research team,

action." For their next step, researchers said that they hope to produce large quantities of this "national
treasure" in an efort to help make it work against the virus. "The natural products extract repository is a national
treasure," said O'Keefe, via Science Codex. "You never know what you might find. Hopefully, discoveries like this will
encourage more investigators to use this resource to identify extracts with activity against infectious disease."

Earlier modeling work suggested that coral reefs would be gone by the
middle of this century. Our study shows that if corals can adapt to warming
that has occurred over the past 40 to 60 years, some coral reefs may persist
through the end of this century

Impact
And, disease spread causes extinction.
McCallum, professor of ecology at and head of Griffith School of
Environment , 12
(Hamish, 9/10, The Royal Society of Biological Sciences, Disease and the impacts
of extinction, http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1604/2828.full?
cited-by=yes&legid=royptb;367/1604/2828, 6/25/14, AVEN)
In theory, however, simple models show that parasites and infectious diseases
may, in some circumstances, be capable of being significant contributors to
extinction [5]. From first principles, a population declines when there are more deaths than there are births

and extinction occurs when there continue to be more deaths than births even as the population declines towards

infectious disease may

reduce population size to such an extent that other factors may lead to extinction and
cases in which infectious disease contributes to there [is] being an excess of deaths over
births even in a vanishingly small population.
zero. It is therefore necessary to first distinguish between situations in which

Impact is Saved Lives-Coral Reefs Contain Anti-HIV Proteins

Lamontagne, Member of American Society for Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology, 14
(Nancy, 4/29/14, EurekAlert!, "Coral reefs provide potent new anti-HIV
proteins,"www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/asfb-crp042814.php, 6/24/14,
AF).
Researchers have discovered a new class of proteins capable of blocking the
HIV virus from penetrating T-cells, raising hope that the proteins could be adapted
for use in gels or sexual lubricants to provide a potent barrier against HIV
infection.The proteins, called cnidarins, were found in a feathery coral collected in
waters off Australia's northern coast. Researchers zeroed in on the proteins after screening
thousands of natural product extracts in a biorepository maintained by the National Cancer Institute. "It's always

said senior
investigator Barry O'Keefe, Ph.D., deputy chief of the Molecular Targets Laboratory at the National
Cancer Institute's Center for Cancer Research. "And the fact that this protein appears to block HIV
infectionand to do it in a completely new waymakes this truly exciting."In the global fight
against AIDS, there is a pressing need for anti-HIV microbicides that women can apply to
block HIV infection without relying on a man's willingness to use a condom. Koreen Ramessar, Ph.D.,
a postdoctoral research fellow at the National Cancer Institute and a
member of the research team, said cnidarins could be ideally suited for use in such a product
because the proteins block HIV transmission without encouraging the virus to
become resistant to other HIV drugs."When developing new drugs, we're always concerned
thrilling when you find a brand-new protein that nobody else has ever seen before,"

about the possibility of undermining existing successful treatments by encouraging drug resistance in the virus,"
said O'Keefe. "But even if the virus became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive to all of the
therapeutic options that are currently available." The

research team identified and purified the cnidarin

tested their activity against laboratory strains of HIV. The
proteins proved astonishingly potent, capable of blocking HIV at concentrations
of a billionth of a gram by preventing the first step in HIV transmission, in which
the virus must enter a type of immune cell known as the T-cell."We found
that cnidarins bind to the virus and prevent it from fusing with the T-cell
proteins, then

membrane," said Ramessar. "This is completely diferent from what we've seen with other proteins,
so we think the cnidarin proteins have a unique mechanism of action."The next step is to refine methods for
generating cnidarins in larger quantities so the proteins can be tested further to identify potential side efects or
activity against other viruses. "Making more of it is a big key," said O'Keefe. "You can't strip the Earth of this coral
trying to harvest this protein, so our focus now is on finding ways to produce more of it so we can proceed with
preclinical testing."The scientists discovered cnidarins while screening for proteins, a largely understudied
component of natural product extracts found in the National Cancer Institute's extract repository. The institute
maintains a large collection of natural specimens gathered from around the world under agreements with their
countries of origin. The specimens are available to researchers across the United States.

Success Results in More Virus-Fighting Extracts

Lamontagne, Member of American Society for Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology, 14
(Nancy, 4/29/14, EurekAlert!, "Coral reefs provide potent new anti-HIV
proteins,"www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/asfb-crp042814.php, 6/24/14,
AF).
said O'Keefe. "You never know what
you might find. Hopefully, discoveries like this will encourage more
investigators to use this resource to identify extracts with activity against
infectious disease."
"The natural products extract repository is a national treasure,"

The next global pandemic threatens extinction

Vince, degree in Chemistry with Physics, science broadcaster
for BBC, 13

(Gala, 7/11/13, BBC, Global transformers: What if a pandemic strikes?,

http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130711-what-if-a-pandemic-strikes, 6/27/14, SM)
Epidemics are certainly not new or unpredictable. A new strain of influenza virus occurs every 1-2 years, for

the sudden global explosion of an epidemic that infects a large

number of the population a pandemic is harder to predict. We know a
pandemic has occurred every 10-50 years for the past few centuries, and
the last one was in 1968, so we're overdue one. Epidemiologists do not
talk of whether there will be a new pandemic, but of when it will occur .
example. But

Pandemics, which kill a significant proportion of the population have acute and lasting efects on society. The Black
Death, a bubonic plague during the Middle Ages caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, killed 30%-60% of
Europeans (80% of people in the south of France and Spain) and reduced global population from 450 million to
around 350 million. In a single province of China, more than 4 million people died (90% of the population) in 1334
alone. Such a toll was socially transformative. Entire cities were depopulated, world trade declined, but so did wars.
In some countries witch hunts rooting out the unknown cause of the plague resulted in minority groups being
massacred, including lepers and Jews. For plague survivors life generally improved, especially for those at the
bottom of the ladder. Peasants benefited from the scarcity of labour to gain better wages (often through revolt), and
their crops and cattle spread into unoccupied land giving most people a richer diet. The Black Death also had an
environmental impact loss of agricultural activity allowed forests to regrow, and their photosynthetic activity
sucked so much carbon from the air it contributed to the regional cooling event known as the Little Ice Age.
Economic slump More recently, the Spanish Flu of 1918 killed one in five of those infected, some 40-50 million
people worldwide, which was more than the guns of World War I. The impacts of this pandemic should have been
especially severe because unusually, more than half of those who died were young working-age adults, aged 20-40
(most flu outbreaks kill the very old and young first). However, the global economic slump that resulted from

The HIV/Aids
epidemic, which also disproportionately effects young, working age men
and women, can give some idea of economic impact in hard-hit subSaharan African countries the economies were estimated to be on average
22% smaller in 2010, due to the virus's effects. So what would be the
incapacitation or deaths among the workforce melded into the dramatic efects of the war.

result of a global pandemic in the 21st Century?

The worlds population in the Middle

billion. The
numbers of people infected and killed could run into the hundreds of
millions. Industry, food production, and the trappings of our modern world
economy would all suffer, but this could be to the benefit of the environment. Poverty in HIV-hit
Ages was just a few hundred million; in 1918, it was 1.8 billion now it is more than 7

southern Africa means it has the lowest per capita greenhouse gas emissions on the planet. During the global
financial crisis that began in 2008, annual emissions from the energy sector fell from 29.3GT to 29GT. Fewer people
would mean less production of everything from food to plastics. That could mean fewer industrial emissions,
agricultural and residential land reverting back to forest perhaps, few polluting journeys, and less freshwater
extractions. But what if the pandemic was really severe killing 80%-90% of our species? Aside from a few people
with immunity, densely populated cities would be worst hit small remote islands may be spared through

It could mean an end to our advanced human civilization for a

time, at least. Our species impact on the planet would diminish substantially as a result of our few numbers
quarantine.

and global capability.

Impact Economy
Pandemics cause a global economic shockhistory proves
Jonas, World Bank Economic Adviser, 13
(Olga, 10/13, The World Bank, Pandemic risk, http://uninfluenza.org/sites/default/files/WDR14_bp_Pandemic_Risk_Jonas.pdf, 6/25/14, SM)
Systemic economic shock. If a disease is not controlled at its animal source and a sudden-onset
pandemic occurs, people in all countries may experience both a contagion of
disease and a sharp, possibly catastrophic, economic downturn associated
with shifts in demand, supply shocks, and economic and social
disruptions. Because countries are connected by, and depend on, travel, trade and capital movements, the
shocks would propagate across interconnected economic and financial
systems worldwide, possibly ahead of the contagion itself. These risks
were evident in the SARS outbreak in 2003 (Figure 6) and should be anticipated, based on
connectedness characteristics of each country (some will be more vulnerable than others). The evolution of a
pandemic in any one country or community is largely unpredictable, not least because disease surveillance data
become available with delay and only partially, and this is generally more so in countries with weak health
information systems. For slow-onset pandemics like AIDS, which developed over decades, these economic
impacts would be much smaller, however.

Next pandemic will trigger a global recessionSARS pandemic

shows
Begley, Senior U.S. Health & Science Correspondent for
Reuters, 13

(Sharon, 1/21/13, Reuters, Flu-conomics: The next pandemic could trigger global
recession, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/21/us-reutersmagazine-davosflu-economy-idUSBRE90K0F820130121, 6/27/14, SM)
That's just the easily measured stuf; the indirect costs pushed the total SARS bill much higher. " The biggest
driver of the economics of pandemics is not mortality or morbidity but risk
aversion, as people change their behavior to reduce their chance of
exposure," says Dr. Dennis Carroll, director of the U.S. Agency for International Development's programs on
new and emerging disease threats. "People don't go to their jobs, and they don't go to shopping malls. There
can be a huge decrease in consumer demand, and if (a pandemic)
continues long enough, it can affect manufacturing " as producers cut output to align
supply with lower demand. If schools are closed, healthy workers may have to stay home with their children. People
afraid of becoming infected are less likely to go out to stores, restaurants or movies. Most of China was essentially
on lockdown in the first half of 2003 as the government did everything in its considerable power to minimize
human-to-human contact and, hence, the spread of SARS. Beijing was shut down tighter than at any time since
martial law was declared during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Discos, bars, shopping malls, indoor sports
facilities, and movie theaters were closed, and 80 percent of the capital's five-star hotel rooms were vacant. By
May 2003, Singapore Airlines had cut capacity 71 percent and put its 6,600-member flight staf on unpaid leave.
Tourism to Singapore fell 70 percent, and the country's gross domestic product took a $400 million hit that year.
From Asia, where the disease was largely confined, the ripples spread in all directions. Toronto recorded 361 SARS
cases and 33 deaths, and the World Health Organization issued an advisory against traveling there surely a
factor in the $5 billion loss Canada's GDP sufered in 2003. It's not surprising that a pandemic hurts businesses
dependent on employees or customers moving from point a to point b (as AIG and the airlines learned), but SARS
also set back transport companies such as FedEx (closed airports; fewer people doing business), telecom
equipment-makers such as Nortel (vendors and customers staying home) and cable-TV-box maker Scientific-Atlanta
(multiple parts made in Asia). It even cut deeply into profits for Estee Lauder, which under normal circumstances
sells a lot of cosmetics in Hong Kong, Singapore and China, and in duty-free airport shops. In our interconnected
world, a farmer running a fever in Southern China can reduce the income of a baggage handler in Frankfurt, and
hence all the businesses that worker patronizes. " Within

hours or days, an event that starts

on one side of the world can establish itself on the other ," says Carroll. Lufthansa

saw demand for flights to and from the Far East tumble 85 percent that year, and grounded a dozen planes. With
planes grounded, oil demand fell by 300,000 barrels a day in Asia, dinging the revenues of oil companies from

The World Bank estimated China's SARSrelated losses at $14.8 billion, and although the United States and Europe
were largely spared its ravages, the pandemic reduced the global GDP by
$33 billion. And here's a scary thought: As health crises go, SARS wasn't that bad: It
Kuwait to Venezuela. A COST BEYOND MEASURE?

killed just 916 people and lasted well under a year. The Department of Health & Human Services estimates that the
ho-hum seasonal flu is responsible for 111 million lost workdays each year in the United States. That's $7 billion in

A global pandemic that lasted a year could trigger a

"major global recession," warned a 2008 report from the World Bank. If a pandemic were on the scale
sick days and lost productivity.

of the Hong Kong flu of 1968-69 in its transmissibility and severity, a yearlong outbreak could cause world GDP to
fall 0.7 percent. If we get hit with something like the 1957 Asian flu, say goodbye to 2 percent of GDP. Something as
bad as the 1918-19 Spanish flu would cut the world's economic output by 4.8 percent and cost more than $3 trillion.
"Generally speaking," the report added, "developing

countries would be hardest hit,

because higher population densities and poverty accentuate the economic
impacts." The majority of the economic losses would come not from
sickness or death but from what the World Bank calls "efforts to avoid infection:
reducing air travel avoiding travel to infected destinations, and
reducing consumption of services such as restaurant dining, tourism, mass transport, and
nonessential retail shopping." The really bad news is that we may not be hearing all the bad news.

Economists who study pandemics worry they may be underestimating the

financial toll because they haven't been considering all the ramifications .
"Research to understand the indirect costs of an epidemic has been growing, focusing on how to accurately
incorporate productivity losses and efects on economic activity," says Bruce Lee of the University of Pittsburgh
Medical Center, where he is an associate professor, director of the Public Health Computational and Operations
Research Group, and an expert in the economics of infectious diseases.

Huge economic impacts and deaths because of pandemics

Dean, PhD at the University of New South Wales, 09

(Tim, 1/7/9, Cosmos, Doomsday: Five catastrophes that could wipe out civilization,
http://cosmosmagazine.com/features/doomsday/, 6/27/14, SM)
Could such a pandemic outbreak occur again? In 2002 it almost did, says Gregory Hrtl, from Epidemic and
Pandemic Alert and Response at the World Health Organisation (WHO) in Geneva, Switzerland. SARS was a
pandemic that almost happened, he says. SARS, or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, struck at the end of 2002
and caused more than 770 deaths with a mortality rate of nearly 10 per cent. By comparison, the influenzas
mortality rate is usually less than one per cent. Had local governments and organisations like the WHO not
responded immediately to quarantine and blunt the SARS outbreak, the outcome could have been grave indeed.
We got lucky with SARS, says Hrtl. We may have dodged a bullet with SARS, but the gun is still loaded and

many experts in infectious diseases believe its

not a matter of if well have another pandemic outbreak, but when . My
pointed in our direction. For this reason,

personal opinion is that theres a 100 per cent chance of another influenza pandemic in the next 100 years, says
Martin Meltzer, senior health economist at the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, USA. What no
one knows is whether the next outbreak will be cut short like SARS, or whether itll unfold into a global pandemic,
perhaps even more devastating than the pandemic of 1918, which claimed more than 40 million lives. The problem

our globalised
nature means that an outbreak could spread around the world in a matter
of days. Also, increased population densities and more intermingling with
animals means there are more opportunities for diseases to make the leap
from animals to humans. We have more people, more pigs and more poultry since the last pandemic.
is, even with our advanced ability to detect and treat disease and communicate rapidly,

Therefore, in terms of the mixing needed to produce a new strain, we probably face a greater risk than in 1968

The WHO
estimates a best case scenario as likely to cause up to 7.4 million deaths,
while a worst-case scenario could be even worse than the 1918 pandemic.
And the economic cost? According to the World Bank, a major outbreak leading to 70 million
[when more than 40 million died], says Meltzer. So what would be the impact of a new pandemic?

deaths would cost around five per cent of global GDP, or up to US$2,000
billion.

Impact HIV/AIDs
The Infection of HIV is Rising Rapidly-Developing a vaccine is crutial to
tens of millions of lives-The impact is mass global death.
Obijiofor, Professor at University of Queensland, 11 (Levi, 6/17/11,
Nigeria Village Square, HIV-AIDS: African mothers and babies face extinction,
http://www.nigeriavillagesquare.com/levi-obijiofor/hiv-aids-african-mothers-andbabies-face-extinction.html, 6/29/14

The statistics on HIV-AIDS are uninviting. Across the world, 30 million people were
reported to have lost their lives through AIDS and 16 million children have been
turned into orphans. Still, about 33 million people are known to be living with
HIV and for every new day, about 7,000 people are infected. That's not all the
bad news. A report issued by the European Commission in 2009 stated that one in
three people who were infected with HIV were unaware that they were
carrying the virus. This is seen to account for a rapid rise in the rate of
infection.
Nevertheless, in the struggle against the deadly virus, the development of a
vaccine or cure remains a priority. Also, the cost of accessing antiretroviral
drugs must be further reduced in order for more patients, particularly those in
poorer countries, to access the medication. Healthcare deserves priority attention.
And the battle against HIV-AIDS deserves even a higher consideration for
the reason that a nation with a sick population is a deceased country.
Unfortunately, rather than provide funds to uplift the poor standards of healthcare,
African countries are quick to allocate huge sums of money to arms build-up to be
used to defend autocratic leaders' grip on power and to suppress pro-democracy
movements.

HIV The Worlds Leading Infectious Killer- without a vaccine,

millions continue to die.
AIDS, No Date (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Global AIDS
Overview, http://aids.gov/federal-resources/around-the-world/global-aids-overview/,
6/29/14, ML)
35.3 million people worldwide are currently living with HIV/AIDS, including
2.1 million adolescents (10-19 years).HIV is the worlds leading infectious
killer. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 36
million people have died since the first cases were reported in 1981 and 1.6
million people died of HIV/AIDS in 2012. According to WHO, an estimated 3.34
million children worldwide are living with HIV. Most of these children live in
sub-Saharan Africa and were infected by their HIV-positive mothers during
pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. Over 700 children become newly
infected with HIV each day.

Unless We Find a Vaccine, Millions of People Will Be Infected With And Killed By HIV
AIDS, No Date (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Vaccines,
http://aids.gov/federal-resources/around-the-world/global-aids-overview/, 6/27/14,
ML)
Today, more people living with HIV have access to life-saving antiretroviral therapy
(ART) than ever before, which is good for their health and reduces the likelihood
that they will transmit the virus to others if they adhere to their HIV medication. In
addition, others who are at high risk for HIV infection have access to Pre-exposure
Prophylaxis (PrEP), or ART being used to prevent HIV. Yet, unfortunately,
approximately 50,000 Americans and 2.3 million people worldwide still
become newly HIV-infected each year. To control and ultimately end HIV
globally, we need a powerful array of HIV prevention tools that are widely
accessible to all who would benefit from them. Developing safe, effective and
afordable vaccines that can prevent HIV infection in uninfected people is
the best hope for controlling and/or ending the HIV epidemic.
Vaccines historically have been the most effective means to prevent and even
eradicate infectious diseases. They safely and cost-efectively prevent illness,
disability and death. Like smallpox and polio vaccines, a preventive HIV vaccine
could help save millions of lives.

Impact AIDS Economy

AIDS Plummets the Economy

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, No

Date (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Afairs/Population
Division, The Impact of AIDS,
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/AIDSimpact/91_CHAP_VIII.pdf,
6/29/14, ML)
The AIDS epidemic will slow or reverse growth in the labor supply. The
economic impact can vary according to the sector of the economy, the degree the
which HIV/AIDS afects hard to replace skilled labor and whether or not there is a
substantial pool of surplus labor. The AIDS epidemic may also divert public
spending from investments in physical and human capital to health
expenditures, leading over time to slower growth of the gross domestic
product. Foreign and domestic private investment might also decline if
potential investors become convinced that the epidemic is seriously undermining
the rate of return to investment. The HIV/AIDS epidemic may also deepen the
poverty of the most affected countries by decreasing the growth rate of
per capita income and by selectively impoverishing the individuals and
families that are directly affected.

Economy

UQ
The US Economy growth is currently very low.

Kurtz 6/16
(Annalyn, Senior writer for CNN, 6/16/2014, CNN Money, US Economy: Not So
Good, http://money.cnn.com/2014/06/16/news/economy/imf-us-forecast/,
6/25/2014, AC)
At the start of the year, economists were optimistic. Perhaps the economy would grow 3%
this year, they said, instead of the measly 2% pace it's been stuck at for the prior three
years. So much for that hopeful thinking. Half-way through the year, forecasts are
being slashed. The latest Zorro move comes from the International Monetary Fund.
The organization said Monday that the U.S. economy would only grow 2% this year,
down from it earlier forecast of 2.8%. This comes on the heels of the World Bank
announcement last week that it was cutting its prediction for the United States and the
broader world economy. Many expect Federal Reserve policymakers to do the same
downward revision when they meet this week. What went wrong? Blame it on the deep
freeze that caused a very weak start to 2014. "In the early part of the year, as a harsh
winter conspired with other factors... momentum faded in the U.S economy," the IMF said.
Even though the economy is now starting to bounce back, the IMF doesn't believe the
comeback will be strong enough to completely ofset the terrible first quarter. I worked in
finance. Now I'm a nurse I worked in finance. Now I'm a nurse Here's how bad the first
quarter was: The data already show the economy contracted in the first quarter, but now it
looks like that contraction was the deepest decline since the Great Recession. The housing
market slowed, businesses invested less money in new equipment and buildings,
and exports of American goods declined. Is it a big deal? Economists still believe the
first quarter downturn is a one-time blip, caused mostly by brutal winter. Snowstorms put
new home construction on hold, slowed shipments of goods, and dissuaded people from
going out to car lots to buy new cars. The one bright spot supposedly came from consumers
spending more of their money, particularly on services like health care. With Obamacare
coming into efect, the Commerce Department assumed health care spending rose
dramatically in the first quarter. Now, it looks like that assumption was flawed. Related: 6
things that worry Dr. Doom about the economy A Census report released Friday shows
health care spending was far weaker than expected in the first quarter. As a result,
economists are now forecasting the economy contracted at an annual rate of 1.5% to 2.4%
in the first three months of the year, even weaker than the 1% contraction already reported
by the Commerce Department. (The Commerce Department will revise its GDP numbers
next week). If that's the case, achieving 3% growth for 2014 overall will be next to
impossible. The economy would have to grow at around a 4.6% annual pace for the next
three quarters in a row. The United States has not had a growth spurt that strong since late
2003 to early 2004. Growth in 2015 and beyond: If there's a silver lining in the latest
downgrades of U.S. economic growth for 2014, it's that many are still forecasting a pickup in
2015. The IMF predicts the U.S. will grow 3% in 2015. But the report is also quick to point out
problems that will put a drag on the U.S. economy in the coming years such as population
aging and "modest prospects for productivity growth." To boost output, the IMF urges the
U.S. to undertake a "skills-based approach" to immigration reform and to lift restrictions on
U.S. oil exports.

US economy on declinelack of GDP growth proves

Boesler, Degree in Economics from University of Michigan, 13

(Matthew, 11/13/13, Business Insider, Economists Are Starting To Wonder Whether

The US Economy Can Ever Again Grow Like It Used To,
http://www.businessinsider.com/is-us-potential-gdp-in-structural-decline-201311#ixzz36041o21X, 6/28/14, SM)
Many on Wall Street believe the American economy will finally pick up in 2014. BofA Merrill Lynch chief investment
strategist Michael Hartnett argues "escape velocity" is "tantalizingly close." Nonetheless, it hasn't happened yet,

recent trends in subpar GDP and labor market growth reflect a structural decline in the
economy's potential, the answer might be no. If we are still just working through the
cyclical damage from the recession that gripped the U.S. six years ago , on
and the ultimate debate about the future of the U.S. economy is still this: can it? If

the other hand and the persistent fiscal drag that has weighed on the economy in more recent years then
perhaps the answer is yes. The government shutdown seemed to bring out a fair amount of pessimism toward the
matter. Jonathan Laing wrote of a "stark reality that many politicians and their constituents are unaware of" in an
October 28 Barron's article. "U.S.

economic growth figures to slow dramatically over

the next 20 years or so," said Laing, "generating far less money to achieve the Republican goal of a

balanced budget or the Democratic aim of continued social spending." The discussion was taking a tilt toward the
bearish side among investors as well. "We've noticed investor sentiment shift decisively through the course of the
year," wrote Dario Perkins, director of global economics at Lombard Street Research, in an October 17 note. " The

economys recent sluggishness has made our clients more sceptical of our
strong 2014 forecast." In an August report, JPMorgan economist Michael Feroli broke down the
argument that the country's future isn't what it used to be by demonstrating that potential GDP growth
a proxy for the long-run trend growth rate in the United States has fallen below 2%.
"As recently as the late 1990s, potential growth in the U.S. was estimated
to be around 3.5%; by our estimates that figure has recently fallen by half,
to 1.75%," wrote Feroli.

US economic decline nowGDP decline proves

Davidson, MBA from the City University of New York, PhD at
the University of Pennsylvania, 6/25

(Paul, 6/25/14, USA Today, Economy shrank 2.9% in 1Q, worst drop since '09,
http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/06/25/economy-firstquarter/11332011/, 6/28/14, SM)
The U.S. economy turned in its worst quarter in five years during the first
three months of 2014, shrinking more sharply than previously estimated .
The nation's gross domestic product in the first quarter fell at a 2.9% annual
rate, vs. the 1% contraction previously believed, the Commerce Department said Wednesday. Economists
surveyed by Bloomberg expected a 1.8% drop in output from the fourth quarter. The decline was the
sharpest since growth tumbled 5.4% in the first quarter of 2009, during
the Great Recession. It was also one of the worst falloffs outside of a
recession since 1960. The last time the economy shrank was in the first
quarter of 2011, almost two years after the 2007-2009 recession ended,
when it slipped 1.3%. STOCKS WEDNESDAY: Markets react The more dramatic drop last quarter was
largely the result of smaller growth in household consumption than previously estimated. Consumer spending
increased just 1%, vs. the 3.1% gain previously estimated as health care spending dipped slightly. The government
previously said that medical expenditures contributed about a percentage point to growth, as the Afordable Care
Act began to cover more Americans. On Wednesday, it said health care spending subtracted 0.16% from growth.
Also, exports declined 8.9%, vs. the 6% drop previously estimated .

stocks even more slowly than believed

Economic Downturn Last Quarter

Irwin, The New York Times, 6/25

Businesses replenished their

after aggressively adding to inventories late last year.

(Neil, 6/25/14, The New York Times,

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/26/upshot/economy-in-first-quarter-was-a-lotworse-than-everybody-thought.html?_r=0, 6/29/14, TH)
The beginning of the year was not just bad for the United States economy; it was on paper at
least the worst quarter since the last recession ended five years ago . The
Commerce Department revised its estimates of first-quarter gross domestic product to show
that overall economic activity contracted at a 2.9 percent annual rate , much
bleaker than the previous estimate of a 1 percent decline. A combination of shrinking business
inventories, terrible winter weather in much of the country and a surprise contraction in
health care spending drove the first-quarter fall, which was the worst
since the first quarter of 2009, when the economy shrank at a 5.4 percent
rate. What makes the sharply negative number all the more stunning is that it did not feel like an economic
contraction at all in the first quarter. Employers kept adding jobs at a reasonably healthy pace. Many measures of
business activity and consumer confidence were stable. Moreover, forecasters are expecting a healthy pop of
growth in the second quarter, which ends next week. That was underscored by a separate data release Wednesday
showing orders for nondefense capital goods excluding aircraft a proxy for investment by businesses apart from
the most volatile sector rose a healthy 0.7 percent. That was enough for consulting firm Macroeconomic Advisers
to increase its forecast for second quarter growth to 3.5 percent, from 3.3 percent. The saving grace of the weak
report is that G.D.P., while the broadest measure of economic activity, is also among the most backward-looking.
After all, the period covered by this report ended nearly three months ago. More contemporaneous measures of the
economy have looked healthier, particularly job creation. Markets were hardly fazed by the negative report, with the

2014 is only around

halfway over, the brutal math of G.D.P. means that the nation now looks
consigned to another year of sluggish growth at best and thats true even if
there is a pickup over the remainder of the year. For example, if the economy were to
Standard & Poors 500-stock index up half a percent Wednesday. Still, though

grow at a 4 percent pace each of the three final quarters of 2014 a level only attained twice in the last five years,

the overall growth rate for 2014 would still work

out to only a tepid 2.2 percent. The economy now must attempt to dig
itself out from an even larger hole than previously expected , Lindsey M. Piegza,
and never in consecutive quarters

chief economist of Sterne Agee, said in a research note. The sharp contraction was driven by an unlikely
combination of negative forces that conspired to turn what had once seemed set to be another quarter of so-so

Economists had expected the revised

number to show a 1.8 percent annual rate of contraction, and were caught
off-guard by the far more negative result. The key thing they missed: consumer spending,
growth into a considerably gloomier experience.

the mainstay of economic activity, was far weaker than either government numbers or private analysts had
previously thought, particularly spending on health care. Previous G.D.P. numbers, released in late May, showed
that health care spending contributed 1 percentage point to economic growth. The new report now finds that health
care spending actually subtracted 0.16 of a percentage point from the growth rate. The health care spending data
in G.D.P. are a measure of how much President Obamas sweeping health law is reshaping health care spending
patterns, and it is now showing opposite results from those reported two months ago, when the first-quarter data
was initially released. On one hand, the health reform efort aims to increase the number of Americans with health
care coverage, which would tend to increase reported spending. On the other hand, it also aims to reduce costs,
which could depress the sectors contribution to economic growth (even if desirable over the longer-term). Looking
forward, the volatility in the measurement of health care services represents a risk to our G.D.P. forecasts, Doug
Handler, chief United States economist at IHS Global Insight, wrote in a note. Since this volatility is not businesscycle related, its impact should be heavily discounted in assessing the general health of the economy. Other

causes of the first-quarter contraction were already well known.

Businesses pulled back on their inventories, which subtracted 1.7
percentage points from growth (an earlier estimate had been a loss of 1.6 percentage points). The
good news is that the negative inventory swing, if underlying demand stays solid, may encourage companies to
rebuild their stocks of goods in the future. And the rough winter weather did not help many categories of business
activity. It slowed home-building activity (residential investment subtracted 0.13 of a percentage point) and

the fact that the

economy as a whole could show such a sharply negative result thanks to a
few idiosyncratic factors is also a reflection of the underlying weakness in
the economy. When growth is strong, even some bad weather and an unexpected inventory swing do not
commercial building work (which subtracted 0.22 of a percentage point). But

cause a contraction in the economy, or at least not a contraction on the scale reported for the first quarter of 2014.

But because the pattern of growth has been roughly in the 2 percent range or a bit below for years now, the
economy is more vulnerable to shocks that leave activity in negative territory.

Prospects of Economic Growth Low Now

Kurtz 6/16
(Annalyn Kurtz, CNN, 6/16/14, US Economy: Not Looking So Good,
http://money.cnn.com/2014/06/16/news/economy/imf-us-forecast/, 6/29/14, AG)
At the start of the year, economists were optimistic. Perhaps the economy would
grow 3% this year, they said, instead of the measly 2% pace it's been
stuck at for the prior three years. So much for that hopeful thinking. Halfway through the year, forecasts are being slashed. The latest Zorro move comes
from the International Monetary Fund. The organization said Monday that the U.S.
economy would only grow 2% this year, down from it earlier forecast of 2.8%. This
comes on the heels of the World Bank announcement last week that it was cutting
its prediction for the United States and the broader world economy. Many expect
Federal Reserve policymakers to do the same downward revision when they meet
this week. What went wrong? Blame it on the deep freeze that caused a very weak
start to 2014. "In the early part of the year, as a harsh winter conspired
with other factors... momentum faded in the U.S economy," the IMF said.
Even though the economy is now starting to bounce back, the IMF doesn't believe
the comeback will be strong enough to completely ofset the terrible first quarter.
Here's how bad the first quarter was: The data already show the economy
contracted in the first quarter, but now it looks like that contraction was
the deepest decline since the Great Recession. The housing market
slowed, businesses invested less money in new equipment and buildings,
and exports of American goods declined. Is it a big deal? Economists still
believe the first quarter downturn is a one-time blip, caused mostly by brutal winter.
Snowstorms put new home construction on hold, slowed shipments of goods, and
dissuaded people from going out to car lots to buy new cars. The one bright spot
supposedly came from consumers spending more of their money, particularly on
services like health care. With Obamacare coming into efect, the Commerce
Department assumed health care spending rose dramatically in the first quarter.
Now, it looks like that assumption was flawed. Related: 6 things that worry Dr.
Doom about the economy A Census report released Friday shows health care
spending was far weaker than expected in the first quarter. As a result, economists
are now forecasting the economy contracted at an annual rate of 1.5% to 2.4% in
the first three months of the year, even weaker than the 1% contraction already
reported by the Commerce Department. (The Commerce Department will revise its
GDP numbers next week). If that's the case, achieving 3% growth for 2014 overall
will be next to impossible. The economy would have to grow at around a 4.6%
annual pace for the next three quarters in a row. The United States has not had a
growth spurt that strong since late 2003 to early 2004.

Economic Collapse in 2014 Expected

EFT News 4/11
(EFT News, 4/11/14, Evidence Points to an economic collapse in 2014,
http://etfdailynews.com/2014/04/11/evidence-points-to-an-economic-collapse-in2014/, 6/29/13, AG)

Earlier this week economic strategist Marc Faber warned that some time
in the next 12 months the U.S. stock market will experience a crash worse
than the massive drop seen in 1987. Hes not alone. Many contrarian
economists seem to agree. And given the state of economic and geo-political
affairs they could well be right, much to our detriment. On the domestic front, the
much touted economic recovery is in significant danger of being revealed
for the illusion that it really is. Nationwide home sales, for example, have
dropped off in record numbers in the last few months and a report released this
morning indicates that mortgage originations are as bad today as they were just before the Lehman crisis of 2007.

Couple that with a jobs market that is at best stagnating and at worst
completely falling apart, and you can probably deduce that if there is any
economic growth at all taking place it is about to come to a standstill.
Internationally, the world is fed up with The Fed and the U.S.
governments unabashed debt growth. China, Russia, Iran, India and a
host of other countries are establishing trade relationships that are
bypassing the U.S. dollar altogether, a move that will soon see the worlds
reserve currency lose purchasing power and status. In anticipation of this imminent
collapse gold is being hoarded by private and public entities from Berlin to Beijing in an efort to preserve wealth

former Undersecretary of the

Treasury Paul Craig Roberts suggests that there are only two possible
outcomes given our dilemma World War Or The End Of The Dollar neither of
before the Tsunami hits. In light of these developments,

which bodes well for global economic, financial, social and political stability.

K2 Jobs
The US has lost countless jobs due to lack of tourism.
Thompson, writer for the Atlantic, 11
(Derek, 7/14/14, The Atlantic, How Tourism Can Help Save the U.S. Economy,
http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2011/06/how-tourism-can-help-savethe-us-economy/240429/, 6/25/14, JW)
An export is foreign money in exchange for a domestic good or service. When
Caterpillar sells China a machine, it's an export. When Bain consulting takes on an
Indian client, it's an export. Tourism is an export too, even if it doesn't feel like
one. A family enters the U.S., uses our services, buys our goods, and
spends an average of $4,000 a trip. But since 9/11, tourism has waned.
There are three plausible explanations. First, intrusive security policies are scaring
away families. Second, foreign countries -- especially in Europe -- have upped their
travel promotion game. Third, the United States hasn't. Today, the countries in the
European Union spend nearly a billion dollars on tourism promotion. The U.S.
government doesn't have a federal tourism promotion policy. The impact of the
tourism deficit is deep, and the story can be told in three graphs. First,
consider the raw numbers. International arrivals to the US fell dramatically in
the years after 2000 even as the dollar fell and international tourism
added almost 50 million more customers. But even that image fails to capture
the shortfall in foreign visits. The U.S. Travel Association estimated the number of
tourists the U.S. would have if we kept pace with the rest of the world in the 2000s.
This second graph illustrates that missed opportunity. Finally, the McKinsey Global
Institute used our tourism shortfall to estimate the potential jobs lost by sector. The
third graph pulls out that estimate: GIVE US YOUR MONEY! The U.S. isn't doing
enough to attract the world's emerging middle glass, says the McKinsey Global
Institute. Although a weak dollar should lure tourists from China, Indian and Brazil,
MGI finds that more Chinese tourists visit France than the United States. How do we
convince foreign travelers to give us more of their money? Here are three big ideas
from MGI: 1. Increase Promotional Spending. The European Union spends about
$800 million on travel promotion. The United States should adopt a similar national
travel promotion strategy. 2. Make New Visa Rules. In the R&R business, it's our visa
policy that could use some real relaxation. We should find a way to make the visa
approval process "steamlined and predictable" and simplify immigration rules to
attract more foreign students and make it easier for immigrant graduates to stay,
spend money, and ultimately (we hope) create jobs. 3. Find Productivity Gains.
"Hospitality industry leaders believe they could streamline operations in cities such
as New York and San Francisco but say they are constrained by unions and local
regulations," MGI reports. The bottom line is that if the U.S. had maintained
its share in global tourism throughout the 2000s, we would have attracted
67 million more tourists and received $214 billion in additional spending,
which would have produced 400,000 more jobs across the economy. If
Washington is looking to move beyond the stimulus versus austerity
debate, tourism would be a smart place to begin.

Coral reefs support jobs, tourism, and fisheries

NOAA, 14

(NOAA, 3/12/14, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, How do coral

reefs benefit the economy?,
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_economy.html, 6/25/14, JW)
Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well
as jobs and businesses through tourism and recreation.
Approximately half of all federally managed fisheries depend on
coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles.
The National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial
value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs is over $100 million. Local
economies also receive billions of dollars from visitors to reefs
through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants,
and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. Despite their
great economic and recreational value, coral reefs are severely
threatened by pollution, disease, and habitat destruction. Once
coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to support the many
creatures that inhabit them. When a coral reef supports fewer fish,
plants, and animals, it also loses value as a tourist destination.

Coral reefs support jobs, tourism, and fisheries

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, 11

(Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, 12/8/11, National Ocean Service, Coral
reefs support jobs, tourism, and fisheries,
http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/corals/economy.html, 6/25/14, JW)
From tourism to marine recreation and sport fishing, coral reefs play an
important role in the economies of countries all around the world. By one
estimate, coral reefs provide economic goods and services worth about
$375 billion each year. NOAA suggests that coral reefs in southeast Florida
have an asset value of $8.5 billion, generating $4.4 billion in local sales,
$2 billion in local income, and 70,400 full and part-time jobs. The fish that
grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for people
worldwide. In the United States, about half of all federally managed
fisheries depend on coral reefs. NOAAs National Marine Fisheries Service
estimates the annual commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs to
be over $100 million. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over $100
million annually in the United States

Reefs K2 Tourism
Coral Reefs essential to economy-K to many industries
RJD Marine Conservation Program, 13
( Artificial Reefs, Biodiversity, and Biodiversity,
http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/artificial-reefs-biodiversity-andecotourism, 6/25/14, AVEN)

Coral reefs are a very important part of the ecosystem, and over the years,
the condition of the worlds coral reefs has changed drastically; this
condition has not changed for the better. There are many resources that
coral reefs provide to the world. Some of these include tourism value and
the fact that they provide a natural nursing area for fisheries. A lot of
research has been done on corals and what features of a reef, give the
reef more monetary value. This research has found some conflicting results.
While, some claim that fish biodiversity is more valued than coral biodiversity, some
claim the opposite. Although, this research has looked at many aspects of what
makes a reef valuable, not a lot has been done with looking at the value of each
component of the biological attributes of a reef. This study aimed to look at diferent
levels of biodiversity in fish and corals, in addition to, looking at each condition
under diferent levels of conservation efort. This study also looked at whether or
not artificial reefs could be used to cause an increase in ecotourism across the
world. Researchers from the Ben Gurion University of Negev and the Interuniversity
Institute for Marine Sciences at Eliat in Israel created a survey to give to divers in
the city of Eliat in Israel to see what monetary values they would put on these
artificial reefs. The survey presented a number of diferent biological conditions of
artificial reefs and at varying levels of conservation efort. These biological
conditions were coral size, coral diversity, fish abundance, coral abundance, varying
numbers of fish and corals, and diferent levels of biodiversity of fish and coral. The
survey also asked about how much money they would be willing to pay for each
scenario and why they decided on that monetary amount.

Tourism of coral reefs generates $6.4 billion and creates

70,400 jobs
NOAA, 01,

(2001, NOAA, Tourism and Recreation,

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/ 6/24/14, AG)
US FloridaIn 20002001, the artificial and natural reefs off the fourcounty area of southeast Florida (Palm Beach, Broward, Miami-Dade and Monroe counties)

supported almost 28 million person-days of recreational diving, fishing and viewing activities. These activities

generated about $4.4 billion in local sales, almost $2 billion in local

income, and 70,400 full and part-time jobs. In that same time frame, when visitors to
those reefs in these four counties were polled, they were willing to spend between $23
million and $64 million (values varied by county) per year to maintain the natural coral
reefs in the county. These reefs also had an asset value of $8.5 billion.

Coral reefs key to tourism

NOAA 2014

(National Ocean and Atmospheric Association, 6/25/14, Coral Reefs Support Jobs,
Tourism, and Fisheries,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/facts/coral_economy.html, 6/25/14, AG)
Local economies also receive billions of dollars from visitors to reefs
through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and
other businesses based near reef ecosystems. Globally, coral reefs provide a
net benefit of $9.6 billion/year from tourism and recreation revenues and $5.7
billion/year from fisheries. The NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the annual commercial value of US
fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over $100 million

Despite their great economic and recreational value, coral

reefs are severely threatened by climate change, impacts of fishing, and
land-based sources of pollution, among other threats. Once coral reefs are damaged,
they are less able to support the many creatures that inhabit them. When a coral reef supports
fewer fish, plants, and animals, it also loses value as a tourist destination
and lessens its ability to support fisheries.
annually in the US. [b]

Preservation key to tourism and local revenue

NY Times 07

(New York Times, 6/24/07, Saving Coral Reefs Becomes a Tourism Priority,
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/travel/24headsup.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0,
6/25/14, AG)
GREEN sea turtles, cascades of glittering reef fish, blooming coral pillars
countless travelers have come nose to nose with a thriving undersea universe while
on vacation. But increasingly, divers and snorkelers are swimming over
bleached hunks of coral devastated by shore runoff or overfishing. From the
South Pacific to the Caribbean, coral reefs which are among the most delicate of
marine ecosystems are bearing the brunt of climate change and other
human-driven activities including coastal development, deforestation
and unrestricted tourism. Now, many in the tourist industry are trying to
halt the damage. And it is no wonder. The dollars involved in reef-based
tourism are significant: Australias Great Barrier Reef alone draws about
1.9 million visitors a year, supporting a $4.2 billion industry. According to
the Nature Conservancy, the annual economic value of coral reefs to world
tourism is $9.6 billion.

Reefs Have Economic Value- Tourism and fisheries have

economic income.
NOAA, 08 (3/25/2008, National Ocean Service, Importance of Coral Reefs,
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html,
6/24/14, ML
Storehouses of immense biological wealth, reefs also provide economic and
environmental services to millions of people. Coral reefs may provide
goods and services worth $375 billion each year. This is an amazing figure for
an environment that covers less than 1 percent of the Earths surface (Costanza et

al., 1997). Healthy reefs contribute to local economies through tourism.

Diving tours, fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef
systems provide millions of jobs and contribute billions of dollars all over
the world. Recent studies show that millions of people visit coral reefs in the
Florida Keys every year. These reefs alone are estimated to have an asset
value of $7.6 billion (Johns et al., 2001). The commercial value of U.S.
fisheries from coral reefs is over $100 million (NMFS/NOAA, 2001). In addition,
the annual value of reef-dependent recreational fisheries probably exceeds $100
million per year. In developing countries, coral reefs contribute about onequarter of the total fish catch, providing critical food resources for tens of
millions of people (Jameson et al., 1995). Coral reefs bufer adjacent shorelines
from wave action and prevent erosion, property damage and loss of life. Reefs also
protect the highly productive wetlands along the coast, as well as ports and
harbors and the economies they support. Globally, half a billion people are
estimated to live within 100 kilometers of a coral reef and benefit from its
production and protection.

Artificial Reefs Key To Philippines Tourism

Arin et all, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 00

(Tijen, Alan T. White, Helge P. Vogt, 7/00, Elsevier Publication, Marine
Pollution Bulletin,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X00000229,
6/25/14, TH)
In the Philippines, coral reef fisheries provide livelihood for more than a million small-scale fishers who contribute
almost US$ 1 billion annually to the countrys economy. The rapidly growing population needs increasing amounts
of fish and other marine organisms. However, overfishing, destructive fishing methods and sedimentation have
damaged or destroyed many reef areas. Fish catches have fallen well below the sustainable levels of healthy reefs.
The economic losses to the coastal fishing population are considerable. Various programmes have and are trying to
counter coral reef decline by establishing sustainable management regimes. The economic benefits of such
programmes appear to exceed their investment costs. As an example, the start-up and maintenance costs of a
successful island marine reserve project have been compared to the losses caused by reef destruction and the
gains from reef management. The results clearly show that the economic benefits from a managed reef area due to

Coral reefs are also a major

attraction for an increasing number of local and international tourists. In
addition to providing income for the tourism industry, these reef visitors
are often willing to contribute to the costs for reef management. The
annual willingness-to-pay assessed in three popular diving destinations
are significant. An estimated US$ 300 000 could be collected annually as
entrance fees or donations in Mabini, Batangas alone. It is estimated that
the 27 000 km2 of reef in their degraded condition still contribute at least
US$ 1.35 billion annually to the economy. Reef management involving local fishing
higher catches and revenue from small-scale tourism far exceed costs.

communities, local governments and other concerned organizations is a cost-efective way to alleviate the pressure
on the numerous threatened coral reefs. In addition, economic valuation and cost-benefit analysis can provide
essential information to support more investment in reef conservation.

Coral Reefs in South Africa Lead to Tourism

Samways et all, University of Natal, 01

(R.M.D and M.J., 12/01, SpringerLink, Department of Invertebrate

Conservation Research,
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1013197926580, 6/25/14, TH)
SCUBA ecotourism provides economic support for local human
communities and for conservation. Such support should be sustainable and as ecologically nondestructive as possible to its coral reef foundation. In recent years, the major increase in SCUBA activity has

Among these are the South African

coral reefs at Sodwana Bay, which receive 80 000 dives per year . Between May
become a significant consideration at some locations.

1998 and January 1999, assessments using line-intercept and belt transects showed that 5.9% of hard corals and
4.0% of soft corals were damaged from various causes, while only 0.02% of the hard corals were dead. Of the 222
diver contacts observed, only 1.63% produced instant and visually-clear damage, with no measurable decline in
overall coral reef health. Direct observations on 89 recreational divers showed that photographers made damaging
contacts on nine out of ten dives, while novice divers made one such contact per six dives, moderately experienced
divers about once every 14 dives, and very experienced divers about once every 123 dives. Increased time lapsed
since the last dive increased diver damage by novices. We calculated that the 80 000 dives were equivalent to 1 m2
of reef receiving 2.3 diver contacts per year. Acropora austera was by far the most significantly damaged coral, with
one out of four branches broken per year. But as this species accounted for only 0.2% of reef benthos cover, this
impact was not representative of overall reef health. This heavy species-specific impact makes A. austera a good
bio-monitor.

Coral Reefs essential to economy-K to many industries

RJD Marine Conservation Program, 13

( Artificial Reefs, Biodiversity, and Biodiversity,

http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/artificial-reefs-biodiversity-and-ecotourism,
6/25/14, AVEN, TH)
Coral reefs are a very important part of the ecosystem, and over the years, the condition of the
worlds coral reefs has changed drastically; this condition has not changed for the better. There are many
resources that coral reefs provide to the world. Some of these include tourism
value and the fact that they provide a natural nursing area for fisheries. A lot of research has been done on corals
and what features of a reef, give the reef more monetary value. This research has found some conflicting results.
While, some claim that fish biodiversity is more valued than coral biodiversity, some claim the opposite. Although,
this research has looked at many aspects of what makes a reef valuable, not a lot has been done with looking at the
value of each component of the biological attributes of a reef. This study aimed to look at diferent levels of
biodiversity in fish and corals, in addition to, looking at each condition under diferent levels of conservation efort.

This study also looked at whether or not artificial reefs could be used to
cause an increase in ecotourism across the world. Researchers from the Ben Gurion
University of Negev and the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences at Eliat in Israel created a survey to give to
divers in the city of Eliat in Israel to see what monetary values they would put on these artificial reefs. The survey
presented a number of diferent biological conditions of artificial reefs and at varying levels of conservation efort.
These biological conditions were coral size, coral diversity, fish abundance, coral abundance, varying numbers of
fish and corals, and diferent levels of biodiversity of fish and coral. The survey also asked about how much money

study
showed that many of the divers would be willing to pay money for a more diverse
environment that could be created by artificial reefs. The greatest motivation for
they would be willing to pay for each scenario and why they decided on that monetary amount. This

paying more money was for their own enjoyment, but many of them also wanted to pay money to ensure that the

The survey showed that the divers wanted to pay more

for fish species richness over abundance and they wanted to pay more for
coral abundance rather than species richness.
reef would continue to exist.

Tubbataha Reef Leads To Substantial Tourism

Taylor and Francis, 10

(Taylor and Francis, 6/24/10, Gonzaga University Library Online,

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/08920750490247463#tabModule,
6/25/14, TH)
The Tubbataha Reefs Natural Marine Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
in the Sulu Sea, Philippines, is an offshore marine protected area well
known throughout the scuba diving community for its coral reefs and
marine diversity. To address the perennial problem of park financing, the Tubbataha
Management Board developed a fee collection and permit system in cooperation
with the diving community. A willingness-to-pay survey conducted among divers in
1999 showed that the average diver was willing to pay U.S.$41 per visit.
Using these results, a two-tiered pricing scheme was developed for foreign and local
divers. After two years of fee collection, the total fee collected amounted
to U.S.$65,000, which covered 28% of the annual recurring costs and
nearly 41% of the core costs to protect Tubbataha. The experience shows the
contribution of willingness-to-pay surveys in instituting user fees for long-term
sustainable financing.

Coral reefs key to US economy

NOAA 2013
(NOAA, 2/13, The Total Economic Value of US Coral Reefs,
http://www.ivm.vu.nl/en/Images/PvB%20USVI%20report
%20valuemetaanalysis_tcm53-363870.pdf, 6/27/14, AG)
The preceding section presented total economic values for seven US states and
territories, and for the US as a whole. Such total values are useful for
highlighting the magnitude of economic welfare derived from coral reefs
in their current state. In addition, the reporting of total values associated
with each coral reef service provides an indication of the distribution of
value across different groups of beneficiaries. This information provides
an economic argument for investment in coral reef conservation. However,
in order to compare the values of coral reef services across diferent locations and
make decisions regarding the most beneficial allocation of conservation eforts it is
necessary to have information on average values. The value of coral reefs in Hawaii
is higher than for any other state/territory but there are also more coral reefs in
Hawaii than any other territory; by comparing average values per unit of area of
coral cover we are able to more directly examine diferences in the productivity, in
terms of ecosystem services, of coral reefs across states and territories.

Coral Reefs key to sustainable tourism

Coral Reef Alliance 2014

(Coral Reef Alliance, 2014, Ensure Sustainable Tourism, http://coral.org/what-wedo/ensure-sustainable-tourism/, 6/27/14, AG)
Yet if tourism is managed in a way that protects the reef, it can offer great
economic benefits to local communities. The benefits of sustainable
tourism provides a powerful incentive for communities to protect their
reef and its fish.
CORAL has developed a set of voluntary standards for hotels, dive operators and
shops, and other businesses that wish to make sure their marine recreation and

tourism operations are protective of coral reefs. Sites in Hawai`i, Mexico, and
Honduras have adopted voluntary standards for sustainable tourism.

Coral Reefs Key to Generate Tourism

The Coral Reef Alliance no date
(The Coral Reef Alliance, no date, Coral Reefs and Sustainable Marine Recreation,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/education/educators/resourcecd/guides/resources/recreatio
n_g.pdf, 6/27/14, AG)
Every year, millions of tourists travel to tropical resort destinations to
experience the beauty and vibrancy of coral reef ecosystems. Snorkeling,
scuba diving, recreational boating and a variety of other water sports
activities make up a significant portion of the tourism market in several
regions of the world. The economies of many island nations in particular are
heavily dependent on this type of coastal tourism-generated revenue. As the
following examples illustrate, the value of coral reefs for marine-related
tourism is extremely high in areas that regularly receive high numbers of
visitors: Coral reefs have been estimated to provide the world with US
$375 billion in goods and services (Status of Coral Reefs of the World, 2002).
In Hawaii, it is estimated that coral reefs generate US $360 million annually
in state revenues (NOAA, 2002). Tourism in the Caribbean generated
approximately US $34 billion in 2002, and is projected to increase to US
$74.1 in 2012 (WTTC, 2002). The World Resources Institute estimates that coral
reefs in Southeast Asia are worth US $700 to $111,000 per square
kilometer of reef for tourism. (Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia, 2002).
Worldwide there are more than 15 million certified recreational divers. Many of
these divers regularly seek out coral reef ecosystems (World Atlas of Coral Reefs,
2001). By 2005, it is projected that the scuba diving industry alone will
generate $1.2 billion in worldwide revenues. (The Ocean Conservancy, 2003)

Reefs key to Food and Ecomony Countries depend on it

Burke, Senior Associate in the Food, Forest and Water Program
of the World Resources Institute, 2004
(Lauretta, No date, World Resources Institute, "Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean", URL,
6/27/14, SJ)

Food production is one of the most direct and tangible benefits associated with coral reefs. Reef fisheries are a vital

Reef fish are popular on

tourist menus and support a valuable export industry . The fisheries sector in the
source of protein for millions of people living in the Caribbean region.182

Caribbean is predominantly small-scale and artisanal, employing more than 120,000 full-time fishers183 and

Fisheries also indirectly provide jobs for thousands of people

in processing, marketing, boat building , net making, and other support
services.184 The export value of all fish, crustaceans, and mollusks harvested in the Western
Atlantic region (excluding the United States) was approximately US$1.9 billion in 2000,185 but
many part-time workers.

this includes fish, such as tuna, not directly related to coral reefs. (Available statistics do not distinguish the size
or value of reef fish catches from other fish and often fail to account for the very large sector of the fisher that
operates outside the formal markets, notably for home and local consumption.) For this analysis of the economic
value of coral-reef-related fisheries, the study looked at productivity diferentials between fisheries located on
healthy and degraded reefs. The Reefs at Risk Threat Index was used as a proxy for future reef condition in 2015
and estimated the area of coral reef in each threat category (high, medium, and low). Based on reports in the

literature186 a productivity coefficient for fisheries on healthy reefs was set at a maximum sustained yield of 4
metric ton (mt) of fish per sq km per year. Yields from reefs rated at medium or high threat were assumed to be
significantly lower, ranging from 0.7 to 2.9 mt per sq km per year. (See Table 3.) Using these assumptions, the
study estimated maximum sustainable fisheries yield for the 26,000 sq km of Caribbean coral reef at a little over
100,000 mt of fish per year. This estimate focuses on reef crest, which is a smaller area than is typically fished,
but assumes that all reefs were fully fished and are in good condition, which is better than the current case. These
assumptions are considered to roughly ofset one another. Considering reef degradation that has already occurred
or is projected to occur in the near future, annual fisheries production could decline from about 100,000 mt to
about 60,000 to 70,000 mt by 2015, a loss of some 30 to 45 percent from the estimated maximum catch on
At current market prices (about US$6 per kg on average ),187 gross fisheries
revenue from healthy Caribbean reefs was estimated at about US$625 million
per year. Gross revenue e from reefs degraded by 2015 was estimated to be 30 to 45 percent lower,

healthy reefs. (See Table 3.)

representing potential lost gross revenues of approximately US$190 million to US$280 million. 188 Net revenues
from fishingadjusted for the costs of vessels, fuel, gear, etc.are considerably smaller, perhaps only 50 percent
of gross revenues.189Thus, the study estimated annual net benefits of fisheries on healthy coral reefs at about
US$310 million, while annual net benefits from fisheries on reefs degraded by 2015 could fall to around US$175

The loss of millions of

annual net benefits from fisheries could have significant
consequences for local areas and national economies that rely on fishing
to provide livelihoods, meet nutritional needs, and generate export
earnings.
million to US$215 million, a loss of about US$95 million to US$140 million per year.
dollars worth of

Reefs Help the Economy-The US, Caribbean, and Southeast

Asia all benefit.
NOAA, 11 (NOAA, May 13, 2011, Tourism and Recreation,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/, 6/27/14, ML)
For example, in the US, reef-related recreation and tourism account for an
estimated $364 million in added value to Hawai`i's economy each year and its
nearshore reefs annually contribute nearly $1 billion in gross revenues for
the state. [b] Caribbean countries, which attract millions of visitors annually to
their beaches and reefs, derive, on average, half of their gross domestic
product from the tourism industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is estimated that
each square kilometer of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential) has a
potential net benefit of $23,100 to $270,000.

Coral reefs bring in tourists- generates 11.4 billion

NOAA (NOOA, Coral Reefs- An Important Part of our Future,

http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, accessed 6/28/14 SH)
Healthy coral reefs also provide income through tourism and recreation.
Local communities receive billions of dollars from visitors to reef areas
through diving tours, recreational fishing, hotels, restaurants, and other
businesses. In Hawaii alone, tourism connected to reefs attracted an
estimated 6.7 million visitors and generated $11.4 billion in 2004. Numerous
studies have shown that tourists are often willing to pay more for their vacations in
exchange for the opportunity to visit healthy reef ecosystems.

reefs have great economic value preservation key to

retaining value.
NOAA, 11
(NOAA, 5/13/11, National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, Tourism and
Recreation, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/,
6/27/14, JW)
Healthy coral ecosystems support local businesses and economies, as well
as provide jobs through tourism and recreation. Every year, millions of scuba
divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to enjoy their abundant sea life. Even more
tourists visit the beaches protected by these reefs. Local economies receive
billions of dollars from these visitors to reef regions through diving tours,
recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based
near reef ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coralreef based recreation and tourism at $9.6 billion of the total global net
benefit of coral reefs. [a] For example, in the US, reef-related recreation
and tourism account for an estimated $364 million in added value to
Hawai`i's economy each year and its nearshore reefs annually contribute
nearly $1 billion in gross revenues for the state. [b] Caribbean countries,
which attract millions of visitors annually to their beaches and reefs,
derive, on average, half of their gross domestic product from the tourism
industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is estimated that each square kilometer
of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential) has a potential net benefit
of $23,100 to $270,000. [d] Diving is one of the key components of reef
tourism and recreation; divers generally look for high-quality coral reef
habitats (as indicated by live coral coverage), coral and fish diversity, and
water clarity. As a result, half of all diving in the Caribbean occurs within the
region's marine protected areas, although these reefs represent a small fraction
(about 20 percent) of all reefs within the region. Divers in the region have indicated
a willingness to pay an average of an additional $25 per diver per year to keep the
Caribbean coral reefs healthy. [e] One estimate predicts a loss of growth in
the Caribbean dive industry of between 2 and 5 percent by 2015 due to
reef degradation, which would result in a region-wide loss of annual net
benefits of between $100 and $300 million. [e] Despite their great
economic and recreational value, coral reefs are threatened by a number
of factors. Recreation and tourism are "high value" industries that are especially
sensitive to reef condition, and thus particularly vulnerable to degradation. [f] Once
coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to support the many creatures that
make their home on the reef and in turn lose value as a destination for tourists.
Reef degradation has a direct economic impact on people whose
livelihoods rely on reef tourism.

Scuba diving near artificial reefs has huge economic advantage

http://www.dgt.uns.ac.rs/turizam/arhiva/vol_1704_2.pdf
The researchers who studied the economic effects of artificial reef
construction, support the hypothesis that submerging artificial structures
near the coral reefs can mitigate the damage caused by human
interference, while at the same time providing the means for the
development of scuba-diving centers that contribute to the local economy
(US Department of Commerce, 2012; Leeworthy, 2011). For example, a study by
Johns determined that the income of the Monroe County from the artificial

reef was 32 million dollars, opening 2.300 new jobs. According to the
study, there is great interest in the artificial reefs along the coast of
Florida. The study estimates that the annual expense of artificial reef
maintenance amounts to 9.4 million dollars, while the use value (the
amount of money that the divers are ready to pay for the maintenance of
the artificial reefs, as well as the construction of new ones) is 2.1 million
dollars. As an example of the positive socio-economic efects of the artificial reefs,
we will examine the study of sunken warships in the Florida Keys coral archipelago,
in USA. Socio-economic studies have shown that the sunken warships,
U.S.S. Vandenberg and U.S.S. Spiegel Grove contribute to the
development of the local economy through wreck diving. The study shows
that after the sinking of U.S.S. Spiegel Grove in June 2002. scuba-diving on natural
coral reefs has decreased while diving on artificial reefs has increased. The local
economy also recorded an increase in cash inflow (US Department of
Commerce, 2012; Leeworthy, et al., 2006). The study also shows that the
annual worker wage has increased by a total of 961.800 dollars, and that
there were 70 new job openings. The study related to U.S.S. Vandenberg shows
similar results. The U.S.S. Vandenberg, missile range instrumentation ship, was
sunken in the water of Florida Keys, in May 2009. Following the deployment of
the U.S.S. Vandenberg the net changes in the total recreational
expenditures from the preto post-deployment period indicated that there
was an increase of 6.5 million dollars in total recreational expenditures,
which generated a total impact on sales of 7.29 million dollars, about 3.2
million dollars in income, and the creation of 105 new jobs. After the
sinking of aforementioned ships, the scuba-diving centers in Florida Keys
recorded a 188.9% business increase, or 49.000 more clients. Both studies
aimed to show that the sinking of ships to reefs can be successfully promoted,
thereby contributing to growth and development of the local economy and tourism
(US Department of Commerce, 2012). In Australia, scuba-diving tourism industry is
of great importance, and it is estimated to bring in about 1 billion Australian dollars
in revenue (Edney, 2006; Harriott, 2002). Ship wreck SS Yongala, rests near the
Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, and is officially one of the best artificial reefs in
the world. The scuba-diving tourism industry plays a major role in the local economy
(Edney, 2006; Cuthill, 1998). It is estimated that Yongala brings in 1 million
Australian dollars annually from organized visits, not counting the profits from
scuba-gear rental centers, airlines, accommodation services and restaurants
(Edney, 2006; Delgado, 1998). The significance of scuba-diving tourism
industry is acknowledged by the government as well. An example of this is
the ship Brisbane, retired and sunken on the 31st of July 2005. near Sunshine Coast,
for the purpose of creating a new attractive scuba-diving destination. It is estimated
that the new destination will attract about 25.000 additional divers annually,
increase scuba-diving activity in the region by 5%, generate about 1 million
Australian dollars in revenue and create about 200 new job openings (Environment
Protection Agency, 2005). Ship wrecks in Chuuck Lagoon, within the Federal States
of Micronesia, are one of the best artificial reefs in the world, and are promoted as
scuba-diving destinations. These ship wrecks are the main tourist attractions of the
Chuuk State, as well as the main source of income for the local economy. It is
assessed that the high value of these wrecks comes from the possibility to see the
contents of the ships, such as vehicles, tanks, ammunition and aircraft. The ship
wrecks are very popular among divers, and also very beneficial to the local

economy. The sustainable use of these assets is necessary not just because of the
cultural value of the ships, but also because of the tourism industry and local
communities that depend on the income from these assets. The questionnaire
consists of two parts. The first part is related to the attitude of the divers towards
artificial reefs and wreck diving, while the second part is related to the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents. The first part is divided into 4
categories with the following themes: how many times did they participate in wreck
diving, at which destinations, general attitude towards scuba-diving (motivation for
scuba-diving and the reasons for not going scuba-diving), while the fourth category
explores their experience with wreck diving and how artificial reefs afect the
surrounding environment. In the second part of the questionnaire, the questions are
related to gender, age, education and employment status. After the questionnaires
were filled in, we proceeded to process the data. Concerning the experience of
the divers, 33% of the respondents claimed that they went wreck diving more than
40 times, while 56% went wreck diving up to 20 times (of which 28% went wreck
diving up to 5 times). Most of them were diving in Egypt, Montenegro and Turkey,
but other destinations like Aegean Sea, Bermuda, Thailand, North America, Russia
and Micronesia are also present. 25% of the respondents fully agreed that they dive
for the sake of exploration, while 11% dive professionally. Most of the respondents
agreed that that they participate in scuba-diving because of adventure and beauty
of the destination, with relaxation and escape from everyday life being the second
most popular motive. From the total number of respondents, 78% thinks that
artificial reefs are attractive and interesting. Also 78% of them think that
artificial reefs contribute to the affirmation of the destination as a wreck diving
destination, and that they give the destination a good image. 69% of the
respondents fully agreed that artificial reefs positively afect marine life, while 6% of
them fully disagreed with this statement. It is a solid fact that artificial reefs
attract a large number of divers and most of the respondents partially of
fully agreed that they contribute to faster construction of scuba-diving
centers. When the efects of artificial reefs on marine life are concerned, the
questionnaire affirmed that the efects are strictly positive. 71% of the respondents
fully agreed that artificial reefs contribute to preservation of endangered species
and habitats, as well as that they can increase their productivity. When scuba-diving
is concerned, it can be argued that the efects of the activity are mostly neutral, but
can potentially be both positive and negative. To elaborate: the scuba-diving activity
itself does not directly afect marine life on the artificial reef, but we can argue that
there are both beneficial and harmful types of scuba-diving activities. Scuba-diving
with the aim of monitoring the development of the artificial reef is certainly
beneficial, while unprofessional behavior such as collecting artifacts as souvenirs is
an example of the later. Although 94% of the respondents 162 TURIZAM | Volume
17, Issue 4, 155-165 (2013) Impacts of Artificial Reefs and Diving Tourism fully
agreed that breaking of parts of the reef to keep as souvenirs and damaging the
reef is not acceptable, 6% of them still answered that they mostly disagree. This
raises the question whether all of the divers are acting professionally while
underwater. On the question whether wreck diving negatively afects marine life,
66% of the respondents agreed that it does not, 17% did not have an opinion on it,
while 11% mostly agreed that it does.

Coral reefs boost the US economyhighly valuable

Beukering, PhD in economics from Vrije University in
Amsterdam, Brander, Masters in Environmental and Resource
Economics at University College London, 11

(Pieter van, 7/31/11, Luke Brander, Boris van Zanten, Els Verbrugge, Karin Lems,
IVM Institute for Environmental Studies, The Economic Value of the Coral Reef
Ecosystems of the United States Virgin Islands,
http://www.ivm.vu.nl/en/Images/The%20Economic%20Value%20of%20the%20Coral
%20Reefs%20of%20the%20USVI_tcm53-232341.pdf, 6/28/14, SM)
Table 9.1 shows the composition of the main economic benefits of the coral reefs in
The USVI. The average annual value of the coral reef ecosystem amounts
to US$ 722 million (based on 2007 USD). This high number certainly suggests
that this ecosystem is highly valuable and worth conserving, from an
ecological, social and economic perspective. Several ecosystem services
contribute to this overall value: With an average annual benefit of US$ 103
million, the tourist value dominates the overall value. This implies that
almost 51% of the value of The USVIs coral reefs is dependent on tourism, and
vice versa, that tourism is very dependent on the state of the coral reef of the
The second most important component the local use and non-use value of coral
reefs in the USVI. Despite the relatively small population of the USVI, local
recreational and cultural importance of the coral reefs is still substantial:
approximating US$51 million per year. This also implies that local support for
coral reef management is likely to be substantial. The same can be said for
the amenity value, which is reflected in higher house prices. Although this surplus
in house price is relatively small, it still amounts to a value of US$37 million per
annum. The coastal protection service of coral reefs in the USVI is valued at
US$7 million per year, which accounts for 3% of the TEV. With the USVI exposed to
frequent storms, the role of coral reefs in dissipating wave energy is crucial and
thus of important value. The importance of the fishery in the TEV is often
perceived as an important component. In actual fact, with an annual value of
US$3 million the fishery (both commercial and recreational) is one of the lesser
values derived from the coral reef ecosystem in the USVI. One value that has
not been described in the report is the value that research and educational
organization derive from the coral reefs of the USVI. Because of lack of data, value
transfer has been conducted on the basis of similar values of comparable islands.
The average coral reef-related research and education budget is estimated at
US$1 million per year.

Tourism K2 Econ
Tourism generates local revenue
Endangered Species International 2012
(Endangered Species International, 2012, Coral Reefs: A Source of Recreation and
Tourism, http://www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/coralreefs5.html, 6/25/14,
AG)
Coral reefs provide opportunities for a number of recreational activities
such as swimming, snorkelling and SCUBA-diving and can attract visitors
from across the globe. While some recreational activities may be undertaken
privately, many require the support of local tour operators providing further
livelihood opportunities for local populations. More than 100 countries and
territories currently benefit from reef-associated tourism. In 2010, the
global net benefits of reef tourism were valued at US$ 11.5 billion.

Tourism is the fastest growing industry in coastal economies

NOAA no date
(NOAA, no date, Threats,
http://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/coral_demographics/02_Threats.pdf, 6/25/14,
AG)
Tourism and recreation are by far the fastest growing sector of coastal
economies. Coral reefs, in particular, have a major economic value. In the
Florida Keys alone, over three million tourists visit the area and purchase
about $1.2 billion in services annually. Recreational activities on U.S. coral
reefs include snorkeling, scuba diving, boating, and fishing. The intensity of each
activity varies widely from region to region, but can be considerable in some areas.
In southeast Florida, residents and visitors spent 28 million person-days
fishing and nearly 5 million person-days snorkeling and scuba diving
during June 2000 through May 2001. Divers and snorkelers can have a
significant negative impact on coral reefs in terms of physical damage and a
reduction in their aesthetic appeal. Increasing tourism will also have an overall
efect on coastal development and population.

Tourism is the fastest growing industry in coastal economies

NOAA no date
(NOAA, no date, Threats,
http://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/coral_demographics/02_Threats.pdf, 6/25/14,
AG)
Tourism and recreation are by far the fastest growing sector of coastal
economies. Coral reefs, in particular, have a major economic value. In the
Florida Keys alone, over three million tourists visit the area and purchase
about $1.2 billion in services annually. Recreational activities on U.S. coral
reefs include snorkeling, scuba diving, boating, and fishing. The intensity of each
activity varies widely from region to region, but can be considerable in some areas.
In southeast Florida, residents and visitors spent 28 million person-days

fishing and nearly 5 million person-days snorkeling and scuba diving

during June 2000 through May 2001. Divers and snorkelers can have a
significant negative impact on coral reefs in terms of physical damage and a
reduction in their aesthetic appeal. Increasing tourism will also have an overall
efect on coastal development and population.

About half of all fisheries depend on tourism from coral reefs.

NOAA 14
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 3/14/14,
How do Coral Reefs Benefit From the Economy?,
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_economy.html , 6/25/14, JY)
Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well
as jobs and businesses through tourism and recreation. Approximately
half of all federally managed fisheries depend on coral reefs and related
habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The National Marine Fisheries Service
estimates the commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs is over
$100 million. Local economies also receive billions of dollars from visitors
to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels,
restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. Despite
their great economic and recreational value, coral reefs are severely threatened by
pollution, disease, and habitat destruction. Once coral reefs are damaged, they are
less able to support the many creatures that inhabit them. When a coral reef
supports fewer fish, plants, and animals, it also loses value as a tourist
destination.

Reefs provide services and goods which, if destroyed, the U.S

would suffer significantly within its economy.
Burke et al 03
(Lauretta, Senior Associate in the Food, Forest and Water Program of the World
Resources Institute, 3/14, The Economics of Worldwide Reef Degradation,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/redirect.html?
newURL=http://assets.panda.org/downloads/cesardegradationreport100203.pdf,
6/25/14,JY)

Reefs provide a variety of goods and services, which create economic

benefits to society. These economic benefits are often taken for granted, yet if
these goods and services were taken away or destroyed, we would be
forced to provide other methods to supply these benefits at significant
costs. Table 3 illustrates the potential net benefit streams for the world in the
order of US$ 30 billion per year if coral reefs were well managed and intact,
based on new calculations. The corresponding global asset value of coral
reefs is estimated at nearly US$ 800 billion, calculated at a 3% discount rate
and a 50 year timeframe.

Tourism generates local revenue

ESI12

 (Endangered Species International, 2012, Coral Reefs: A Source of Recreation and

Tourism, http://www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/coralreefs5.html, 6/25/14,
AG)
Coral reefs provide opportunities for a number of recreational activities
such as swimming, snorkeling and SCUBA-diving and can attract visitors
from across the globe. While some recreational activities may be undertaken
privately, many require the support of local tour operators providing further
livelihood opportunities for local populations. More than 100 countries and
territories currently benefit from reef-associated tourism. In 2010, the
global net benefits of reef tourism were valued at US$ 11.5 billion.

Places like Caribbean countries, Hawaii, and Southeast Asia

depend to make a large part of their GDP on the tourism
industry derived off of reefs, empirics prove.
NOAA, 11

(National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, 5/13/11, NOAA,

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/, 6/24/14, JY
Healthy coral ecosystems support local businesses and economies, as well
as provide jobs through tourism and recreation. Every year, millions of scuba
divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to enjoy their abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit
the beaches protected by these reefs . Local economies receive billions of dollars from these
visitors to reef regions through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses
based near reef ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coral-reef based recreation and tourism

at $9.6 billion of the total global net benefit of coral reefs. [a] For example, in
the US, reef-related recreation and tourism account for an estimated $364 million in added
value to Hawai`i's economy each year and its nearshore reefs annually contribute nearly $1
billion in gross revenues for the state. [b] Caribbean countries, which attract millions of
visitors annually to their beaches and reefs, derive, on average, half of their gross domestic
product from the tourism industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is estimated that each
square kilometer of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential) has a potential net
benefit of $23,100 to $270,000. [d]

Tourism key to econ

World Travel and Tourism Council, 12

(World Travel and Tourism Council, November 2012, World Travel and Tourism
Council, The Comparative Economic Impact of Travel & Tourism,
http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/The_Comparative_Economic_Imp
act_of_Travel__Tourism.pdf, 6/25/14, JW)
Over the last two decades, Travel & Tourism has played an increasingly
important role in the economic growth of many countries. Various factors
drive increased travel across the globe: higher real incomes, more leisure time,
improved and highly accessible transportation systems, highly efective
communication systems that facilitate marketing, and significant numbers of
tourism services and options have been coming online in many countries. Travel &
Tourism is a particularly attractive option to stimulate development in rural and low
income countries and regions that previously relied heavily on agriculture and
natural resource extraction. Tourism development often provides the dual
advantages of generating employment and income while promoting

cultural heritage and traditions.1 Promoting Travel & Tourism can support
economic development, in part, because the industry cuts across and is
linked to many other industries in the economy, generating additional
demand in a wide range of services and professions.2 In addition to the
direct and indirect effects, Travel & Tourism also generates valuable
spinoff benefits by developing infrastructure that other industries can use,
and by boosting trade, skills, and investments in other industries that are
not directly related. This section builds on the previous one and analyzes the
wider economic impacts that are attributable to the Travel & Tourism
sector. These include: Improved access to international markets and
increased trade opportunities; Increased foreign investments;
Investments in public and private infrastructure; and Local economic
development.

Tourism could be key to solve the US economy

Market Wired, 08

(Market Wired, 8/12/8, MarketWire, Globalysis: Attracting Foreign Tourism -- A

Remedy for U.S. Economic Woes?, http://www.marketwired.com/pressrelease/globalysis-attracting-foreign-tourism-a-remedy-for-us-economic-woes888415.htm, 6/26/14, JW)
LAS VEGAS, NV--(Marketwire - August 12, 2008) - Globalysis Ltd., a leading
international boutique strategy consultancy, issued its Strategic
Perspective white paper suggesting that attracting more foreign tourism
could be a significant component to boosting the United States economy.
The Globalysis strategy white paper states that there are significant gains to be
made from increasing the role of foreign tourism in the United States
economy, especially due to the weakened state of the U.S. dollar making
the United States more attractive as a destination to foreign tourists. In
particular, Globalysis suggests that the United States federal government
strategically invest US$100 million in international advertising campaigns, initially
focusing on 10 key international inbound markets over a 6-month period. The white
paper also recommends the streamlined issuance policy of tourist visas at U.S.
embassies around the world to foreigners intending to visit the United States. Mr.
Jonathan Galaviz, a founding Partner at Globalysis Ltd., said, "While the U.S.
economy continues to suffer from the housing downturn, the timing of
enacting specific policies that stimulate foreign tourist visitation to hard
hit cities such as Las Vegas and Miami is now ripe. The tourism sector is a
very strong economic contributor to many developed economies around
the world, and the U.S. should be no different. A coordinated approach
between American public and private sector entities to attract significant
increases in foreign visitation to the U.S. will pay valuable dividends in
this difficult economic environment." The white paper further suggests that a
more welcoming environment be created for international visitors at all points of
entry to the country, especially at airports. According to the U.S. Bureau of
Economic Analysis, the tourism industry in the United States contributed a total
output of US$1.32 trillion to the United States' GDP in 2007.

Impact - War
Economic decline causes war- studies prove
Royal DOCTR@Department of Defense 10 (Jedediah Director of Cooperative
Threat Reduction at the U.S. Department of Defense 2010, Economic Integration, Economic Signaling and the
Problem of Economic Crises, in Economics of War and Peace: Economic, Legal and Political Perspectives, ed.
Goldsmith and Brauer, 2010. p. 213-215)

Less intuitive is how periods of economic decline may increase the

likelihood of external conflict. Political science literature has contributed a moderate degree of
attention to the impact of economic decline and the security and defence behaviour of interdependent stales.
Research in this vein has been considered at systemic, dyadic and national levels. Several notable contributions
follow. First, on the systemic level. Pollins (20081 advances Modclski and Thompson's (1996) work on leadership

rhythms in the global economy are associated with the

rise and fall of a pre-eminent power and the often bloody transition from
one pre-eminent leader to the next. As such, exogenous shocks such as
economic crises could usher in a redistribution of relative power (see also Gilpin.
19SJ) that leads to uncertainty about power balances, increasing the risk of
miscalculation (Fcaron. 1995). Alternatively, even a relatively certain redistribution
of power could lead to a permissive environment for conflict as a rising
power may seek to challenge a declining power (Werner. 1999). Separately. Pollins (1996)
cycle theory, finding that

also shows that global economic cycles combined with parallel leadership cycles impact the likelihood of conflict
among major, medium and small powers, although he suggests that the causes and connections between global
economic conditions and security conditions remain unknown. Second, on a dyadic level. Copeland's (1996. 2000)
theory of trade expectations suggests that 'future expectation of trade' is a significant variable in understanding
economic conditions and security behaviour of states. He argues that interdependent states arc likely to gain pacific

if the
expectations of future trade decline, particularly for difficult to replace
items such as energy resources, the likelihood for conflict increases, as
states will be inclined to use force to gain access to those resources . Crises
benefits from trade so long as they have an optimistic view of future trade relations. However,

could potentially be the trigger for decreased trade expectations either on its own or because it triggers

others have considered the link

between economic decline and external armed conflict at a national level .
Mom berg and Hess (2002) find a strong correlation between internal conflict and
external conflict, particularly during periods of economic downturn . They write.
The linkage, between internal and external conflict and prosperity are
strong and mutually reinforcing. Economic conflict lends to spawn internal
conflict, which in turn returns the favour. Moreover, the presence of a
recession tends to amplify the extent to which international and external
conflicts self-reinforce each other (Hlomhen? & Hess. 2(102. p. X9> Economic decline
has also been linked with an increase in the likelihood of terrorism (Blombcrg.
Hess. & Wee ra pan a, 2004). which has the capacity to spill across borders and lead
to external tensions. Furthermore, crises generally reduce the popularity of a
sitting government. "Diversionary theory" suggests that, when facing
unpopularity arising from economic decline, sitting governments have
increased incentives to fabricate external military conflicts to create a
'rally around the flag' effect. Wang (1996), DcRoucn (1995), and Blombcrg. Hess, and Thacker
protectionist moves by interdependent states.4 Third,

(2006) find supporting evidence showing that economic decline and use of force arc at least indirecti) correlated.
Gelpi (1997). Miller (1999). and Kisangani and Pickering (2009) suggest that Ihe tendency towards diversionary
tactics arc greater for democratic states than autocratic states, due to the fact that democratic leaders are
generally more susceptible to being removed from office due to lack of domestic support. DeRouen (2000) has
provided evidence showing that periods of weak economic performance in the United States, and thus weak
Presidential popularity, are statistically linked lo an increase in the use of force. In summary, rcccni

economic

scholarship positively correlates economic integration with an increase in

the frequency of economic crises, whereas political science scholarship
links economic decline with external conflict al systemic, dyadic and national levels.' This
implied connection between integration, crises and armed conflict has not featured prominently in the economicsecurity debate and deserves more attention.

Economic collapse leads to nuclear war

Harris and Burrows, NIC counselor NICs Long Range Analysis
Unit, 09
(Jennifer and Mathew, 8/09, , The Washington Quarterly, Revisiting the Future:
Geopolitical Efects of the Financial Crisis,
http://www.ciaonet.org/journals/twq/v32i2/f_0016178_13952.pdf, accessed:6/29/14
SH)
Increased Potential for Global Conflict Of course, the report encompasses more than economics and indeed believes
the future is likely to be the result of a number of intersecting and interlocking forces. With so many possible
permutations of outcomes, each with ample opportunity for unintended consequences, there is a growing sense of

the Great
Depression is not likely to be repeated, the lessons to be drawn from that period
include the harmful effects on fledgling democracies and multiethnic
societies (think Central Europe in 1920s and 1930s) and on the
sustainability of multilateral institutions (think League of Nations in the
same period). There is no reason to think that this would not be true in the twenty-first as much as in the
twentieth century. For that reason, the ways in which the potential for greater conflict could
grow would seem to be even more apt in a constantly volatile economic environment as
insecurity. Even so, history may be more instructive than ever. While we continue to believe that

they would be if change would be steadier. In surveying those risks, the report stressed the likelihood that terrorism
and nonproliferation will remain priorities even as resource issues move up on the international agenda.

Terrorisms appeal will decline if economic growth continues in the Middle

East and youth unemployment is reduced. For those terrorist groups that remain active in
2025, however, the diffusion of technologies and scientific knowledge will place
some of the worlds most dangerous capabilities within their reach . Terrorist
groups in 2025 will likely be a combination of descendants of long established groups inheriting organizational
structures, command and control processes, and training procedures necessary to conduct sophisticated attack and

newly emergent collections of the angry and disenfranchised that become

self-radicalized, particularly in the absence of economic outlets that would
become narrower in an economic downturn. The most dangerous casualty
of any economically-induced drawdown of U.S. military presence would
almost certainly be the Middle East. Although Irans acquisition of nuclear weapons is not
inevitable, worries about a nuclear-armed Iran could lead states in the region
to develop new security arrangements with external powers, acquire
additional weapons, and consider pursuing their own nuclear ambitions. It
is not clear that the type of stable deterrent relationship that existed between the
great powers for most of the Cold War would emerge naturally in the Middle East with a nuclear Iran.
Episodes of low intensity conflict and terrorism taking place under a
nuclear umbrella could lead to an unintended escalation and broader conflict if clear
red lines between those states involved are not well established. The close proximity of potential nuclear rivals
combined with underdeveloped surveillance capabilities and mobile dual-capable Iranian missile systems also will
produce inherent difficulties in achieving reliable indications and warning of an impending nuclear attack .

The
lack of strategic depth in neighboring states like Israel, short warning and
missile flight times, and uncertainty of Iranian intentions may place more
focus on preemption rather than defense, potentially leading to escalating
crises. Types of conflict that the world continues to experience, such as

over resources, could reemerge, particularly if protectionism grows and

there is a resort to neo-mercantilist practices. Perceptions of renewed
energy scarcity will drive countries to take actions to assure their future
access to energy supplies. In the worst case, this could result in interstate
conflicts if government leaders deem assured access to energy resources ,
for example, to be essential for maintaining domestic stability and the survival
of their regime. Even actions short of war, however, will have important
geopolitical implications. Maritime security concerns are providing a
rationale for naval buildups and modernization efforts, such as Chinas
and Indias development of blue water naval capabilities. If the fiscal stimulus focus for these countries
indeed turns inward, one of the most obvious funding targets may be military. Buildup of regional
naval capabilities could lead to increased tensions, rivalries, and
counterbalancing moves, but it also will create opportunities for multinational cooperation in
protecting critical sea lanes. With water also becoming scarcer in Asia and the
Middle East, cooperation to manage changing water resources is likely to
be increasingly difficult both within and between states in a more dog-eat-dog world.
What Kind of World will 2025 Be? Perhaps more than lessons, history loves patterns. Despite widespread changes in
the world today, there is little to suggest that the future will not resemble the past in several respects. The report

the trend toward greater diffusion of authority and

power that has been ongoing for a couple of decades is likely to accelerate
because of the emergence of new global players, the worsening
institutional deficit, potential growth in regional blocs , and enhanced strength of nonasserts that, under most scenarios,

state actors and networks. The multiplicity of actors on the international scene could either strengthen the
international system, by filling gaps left by aging post-World War II institutions, or could further fragment it and
incapacitate international cooperation. The diversity in both type and kind of actor raises the likelihood of
fragmentation occurring over the next two decades, particularly given the wide array of transnational challenges
facing the international community. Because of their growing geopolitical and economic clout, the rising powers will
enjoy a high degree of freedom to customize their political and economic policies rather than fully adopting Western
norms. They are also likely to cherish their policy freedom to maneuver, allowing others to carry the primary burden
for dealing with terrorism, climate change, proliferation, energy security, and other system maintenance issues.
Existing multilateral institutions, designed for a diferent geopolitical order, appear too rigid and cumbersome to
undertake new missions, accommodate changing memberships, and augment their resources. Nongovernmental
organizations and philanthropic foundations, concentrating on specific issues, increasingly will populate the
landscape but are unlikely to afect change in the absence of concerted eforts by multilateral institutions or
governments. Eforts at greater inclusiveness, to reflect the emergence of the newer powers, may make it harder
for international organizations to tackle transnational challenges. Respect for the dissenting views of member
nations will continue to shape the agenda of organizations and limit the kinds of solutions that can be attempted.

An ongoing financial crisis and prolonged recession would tilt the scales
even further in the direction of a fragmented and dysfunctional
international system with a heightened risk of conflict . The report
concluded that the rising BRIC powers (Brazil, Russia, India, and China)
seem averse to challenging the international system, as Germany and
Japan did in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but this of course
could change if their widespread hopes for greater prosperity become
frustrated and the current benefits they derive from a globalizing world
turn negative.

Nuclear winter causes food shortages-U.S and Tambora prove

Robock environmental scientists@RutgersU 12 (Alan, 4/12, Climate Change,
Impacts of a nuclear war in South Asia on soybean and maize production in the
Midwest,http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/ozdogan_etal_may2012_final.pdf,
accessed 6/25/14 SH)

In the event of nuclear war, targets in cities and industrial areas would
release light- absorbing particles (i.e., black carbon, soot, or elemental carbon ) into
the atmosphere from fires. By blocking sunlight, elemental carbon would
cause significant changes to solar radiation, temperature, and
precipitation patterns. For example, evidence suggests volcanic winters and
years without summers follow large volcanic eruptions such as Tambora in 1815.
Under these conditions, unusual mid- to late-summer cooling and frost have
caused crop failure over millions of hectares of cultivated areas (Post, 1977;
Stommel and Stommel, 1979, 1983; Harrington, 1992; Oppenheimer, 2003). Less known,
however, is whether similar crop failure might be caused by a regional nuclear
conflict. Vulnerability of agricultural systems to nuclear war was recognized in the 1980s
and a number of studies investigated the relationship between agricultural productivity and
climatic perturbations. Ehrlich et al. (1983) reported subfreezing temperatures, low light
levels and high doses of UV light as drivers of large-scale decline in crop productivity in the
Northern Hemisphere following a large-scale nuclear war. Harwell and Cropper (1985),
in a comprehensive assessment, investigated the agricultural effects of a large-

scale nuclear war using both an empirical approach and simple crop
growth models and concluded that significant reduction in crop yields and
associated production could occur, primarily caused by shortening of the growing
season and reduction of thermal time needed by crops to reach physiological maturity.
Sinclair (1986) used a physiologically-based model to simulate potential soybean production
during slow climatic recovery following a nuclear winter in Midwestern U.S. That

study showed that temperature reductions of 2-4C throughout the

growing season substantially reduced soybean yields.-4-

Impact Poverty
Economic downturn causes deep poverty
Parrott Counselor for Human Services Policy 08 (Sharon, 11/24/08, Center
on Budget and Policy Priorities, Recession Could Cause Large Increases in Poverty
and Push Millions into Deep Poverty, http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?
fa=view&id=1290, accessed 6/25/14 SH)
downturn is likely to cause significant increases
both in the number of Americans who are poor and the number living in
deep poverty, with incomes below half of the poverty line. Because this
recession is likely to be deep and the government safety net for very poor families who lack
jobs has weakened significantly in recent years, increases in deep poverty
in this recession are likely to be severe. There are a series of steps that federal and state policymakers
Like previous recessions, the current

could take to soften the recessions harshest impacts and limit the extent of the increases in deep poverty,
destitution, and homelessness.[1] Goldman Sachs projects that the unemployment rate will rise to 9 percent by the
fourth quarter of 2009 (the firm has increased its forecast for the unemployment rate a couple of times in the last
month). If this holds true and the increase in poverty relative to the increase in unemployment is within the range of

the number of poor Americans will rise above its 2006

level by 8.4-10.9 million, the number of poor children will rise by 2.6-3.9 million,
and the number of children in deep poverty will climb by 1.5-2.4 million.
the last three recessions,

(This increase will not take place in a single year, but will occur over several years.)

Poverty is the deadliest form of structural violence it is

equivalent to an ongoing nuclear war.
Gilligan, Former Director of Mental Health for the Massachusetts Prison
System 96
(James, 1996, Violence, p.)

In other words, every fifteen years, on the average, as many people die
because of relative poverty as would be killed in a nuclear that caused 232
million deaths; and every single year, two to three times as many people
die from poverty throughout the world as were killed by the Nazi genocide
of the Jews over a six-year period. This is, in efect, the equivalent of an
ongoing, unenending, in fact accelerating, thermonuclear war, or genocide,
perpetuated on the weak and poor ever year of every decade, throughout
the world.
Poverty / Structural violence kills-India proves malnourishment and
shortened life expectancy
Todhunter English Journalist 12 ( Colin, 10/10/12, Global Research, India:
Structural Violence, Mass Poverty and Social Inequality,
http://www.globalresearch.ca/india-structural-violence-mass-poverty-and-socialinequality/5307173, accessed 6/25/14 SH)
Poverty is not benign. It encompasses a range of issues, including health, housing,
education, nutrition and life expectancy. It is pervasive across all aspects of life and
throughout the duration of life. If you look up a dictionary definition of violence,
intense force will be included somewhere. You may also find injurious physical

force or treatment and perhaps an unwarranted exertion of force or power (all terms are
found to describe violence on Dictionary.com). If we take these terms as our starting
point, we may justifiably claim poverty to be a form of violence. But this type of
violence often goes unnoticed and is so institutionalised that it is seldom
regarded as actually constituting violence. The fact that many do not regard poverty
as violence is thanks mainly to what philosopher and social theorist Michael Foucault
suggested is our taken for granted knowledge about the world in general and how we regard
ourselves in it. This common sense knowledge may seem benign and neutral, but must be
viewed within the context of power: it is part of the discourse of the powerful. Today,
individualism, inequality and capitalism are an accepted form of truth, of reality, and of
how many people view the world and evaluate others. Endless glossy commercials and TV
shows that wallow in the veneration of money, fame and narcissism are conveying the
message that greed is good, that material wealth represents the epitome of success and the
individual is king. This is, of course, based on a false assumption, on a lingering lie. And part
of that lie is the joining of bogus notions of success and failure at the hip. Notions of failure
are implicit in the messages surrounding individualism, money and wealth. If you are not on
the Forbes rich list, or at least aspiring to be on it, you are somehow a failure. If you dont
buy this product or wear that item, you somehow dont cut it. In true Foucauldian style, the
ideology of modern capitalism is a power play concerned with redefining who we are or what
we should be. Consumerism, the worship of fame and a notion of the self in terms of
individualism, not the collective, dovetail neatly with the free market ideology of the day.
And poverty is regarded as a legitimate outcome, as a badge of failure, of having failed. This
has been and continues to be part of mainstream ideology, particularly within Western
countries. India is congratulated by the West as capitalisms poster boy, as indicated by the
presence of Indians on the latest rich list, the steel and glass world of Gurgaon near Delhi or
the cyber parks of Bangalore or Hyderabad. The message is that if the wealth hasnt trickled
down to the lower half of society just yet, wait 20 years and it will. The problem here is that
it has already been over 20 years since India embraced neo-liberalism and the poverty
alleviation rate is still stuck where is was back then. How long should people wait? How
many generations are to be sacrificed? As India opens its economy further to Western
interests whose own economies have been devastated, it begs one to wonder why would the
economic dogma and corporations responsible for that mess bring anything but a similar
form of profiteering and chaos to the shores on India. The lie is sold nevertheless. But the
cracks are now there for all to see. Even people like Martin Sorrell, chief executive of media
company WPP, has stated that inequality and the concentration of wealth is
increasingly emerging as one of the underlying causes of the financial crisis and
subsequent recession. Sorrell has argued that a more equal spread of wealth would mean
more money is recycled back into the economy thereby creating stable demand. He is not
alone. Former IMF chief Dominique Strauss-Kahn was voicing similar concerns prior to his
dethronement. For supporters of neo-liberalism, however, it is convenient to forget about all
those neighbourhoods in India with sweatbox dhabas, grimy hardware stores, world-weary
faces and vegetable stalls, where children cling to their mothers shoulders, perched side
saddle on saree-covered hips. But that India is here and now; it is also modern India the
version inhabited by the majority. But it doesnt fit the fairytale. It doesnt fit the myth. Its
not the much celebrated steel and glass modern India inhabited by the minority. A privileged
minority, whose reservation quota is never questioned, is barely acknowledged. By accident
of birth, whether through class or caste, or a combination of both, its members were always
in prime position to take advantage of the privileges aforded by background in the brave
new world of economic neo-liberalism. In a heavily stratified society skewed either in
your favour or against you long before you ever leave the womb. Since 1991 in
India, politicians and their corporate seducers have presided over a system that has shifted
wealth from the real wealth producers the labouring classes to the rich and privileged. In
doing so, we have been witnessing not only the robbing of peoples income, but
their life expectancy, their life chances, their access to food, their access to
education, their access to health, decent housing and all other things that

contribute towards people achieving their proper potential in life. There is no shock
and awe, not unless you have been invaded by the military or paramilitary forces, forcibly
evicted from your land or village or subjected to the ongoing looting and pillaging of natural
resources in Chhattisgarh, Orissa or elsewhere. In the main, the process is slow and ongoing,
yet is all pervasive. Its practical efects result in lives marked by hardship, struggle and
blight. The malnourished children, whose food has been stolen from their bellies.
The child who dies in the womb, whose life was robbed before it ever had a
chance, if indeed it would have ever had a chance anyway. The preventable diseases,
the lakhs of farmers who took their own lives as a result of corporate collusions with
successive administrations, the lack of access to drinking water and the lack of basic human
rights and dignity that financial security can so often bring.

Ocean Acidification

UQ
Oceans are acidifying 10 times faster than the last extreme
acidification event.
Iacurci, BS in Allied Health Sciences @ Uconn 14

(Jenna, 6/3/14, Nature World News,

Ocean Acidification Rate 10 Times Faster than Ancient Upheaval,
http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/7379/20140603/ocean-acidification-rate-10-times-faster-than-ancientupheaval.htm, 6/25/14, KM)

the ocean is acidifying at a rate 10 times faster than it did during a similar
upheaval 56 million years ago. During those ancient days, researchers estimate that
ocean acidity increased by about 100 percent in a few thousand years or more, and
levels didn't bounce back to normal for another 70,000 years. Some species were able to
These days

adapt and evolve to such radical environmental changes, while others perished and died of. Also during this time, a
wave of carbon dioxide (CO2) surged into the atmosphere, raising global temperatures, and scientists have long
suspected that ocean acidification caused the crisis. For the first time, researchers are using the chemical
composition of fossils to reconstruct surface ocean acidity at the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), a
period of intense warming on land and throughout the oceans due to high CO2. "This could be the closest
geological analog to modern ocean acidification," study co-author Brbel Hnisch, a paleoceanographer at
Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, said in a statement. " As massive as it was, it
still happened about 10 times more slowly than what we are doing today. " Since the
Industrial Revolution, oceans have absorbed about a third of the carbon humans have pumped into the air, helping
to cool the Earth. Consequentially, chemical reactions caused by that excess CO2 have made seawater grow more
acidic, depleting it of the carbonate ions that corals, mollusks and calcifying plankton need to build their shells and
skeletons. "We are dumping carbon in the atmosphere and ocean at a much higher rate today - within centuries,"
said study co-author Richard Zeebe, a paleoceanographer at the University of Hawaii. "If we continue on the
emissions path we are on right now, acidification of the surface ocean will be way more dramatic than during the
PETM." The studied fossils - ancient plankton taken from Japanese waters - reveal that the ocean pH has indeed
dropped, and will continue to do so. Researchers still aren't sure what caused the upheaval of CO2 into the
atmosphere so long ago. They speculate that the Earth's warming may have sent methane from the seafloor into
the air, triggering the aforementioned events.

Need coral reef preservation now with warming accelerating

multiple signals:
a. Increase in ocean temperatures
Sullivan, Bachelor of Science from Lehigh University, 14
(Brian K., 6/23/14, Bloomberg Business Week, World Posted Warmest May on
Record as Oceans Heat Up, http://www.businessweek.com/news/2014-06-23/worldposted-warmest-may-on-record-as-oceans-heat-up, 6/24/14, SM)
The world had its warmest May in more than a century as the planets
oceans also set a record for heat, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration said. The globes combined land and sea temperature for May was 59.93 degrees

Fahrenheit (15.5 Celsius), or 1.33 degrees warmer than the 20th century average, breaking the mark of 1.3 degrees
set in 2010, NOAA said in a monthly climate report today. The

globally averaged temperature

over land and ocean surfaces for May 2014 was the highest for May since
record keeping began in 1880, the agency said. The last below-average global temperature for
May occurred in 1976 and the last below-average temperature for any month occurred in February 1985. The
oceans contributed the most to the overall temperature, with a record of
62.4 degrees, while the period from January to May was the fifth-warmest
start to any year, NOAA said. In the Arctic, ice covered 4.9 million square miles, 4.6 percent below the
1981-2010 average, or the third-smallest extent for May since record-keeping began in 1979, NOAAs National Snow
and Ice Data Center said. Antarctic sea ice covered 4.6 million miles, the most for May on record.

b. Arctic Ocean become more acidicmore CO2

CICERO 13
(Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Osio, 5/6/13, CICERO,
Comprehensive study of Arctic Ocean Acidification,
http://www.cicero.uio.no/webnews/index_e.aspx?id=11909, 6/24/14, SM)
The Arctic Ocean is rapidly accumulating carbon dioxide leading to
increased ocean acidification a long-term decline in seawater pH. This ongoing change impacts
Arctic marine ecosystems already afected by rising temperatures and melting sea ice. Globally, oceans are being

Ocean acidification is a result of oceans absorbing

large quantities of CO2 emitted to the air by human activities . Three-year
afected by ocean acidification.

assessment The Arctic Councils Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) has commissioned an
international group of scientists to undertake the first ever comprehensive assessment of Arctic Ocean Acidification.
The results of their three-year assessment are released in Bergen on the AMAP International Conference on Arctic
Many stresses on marine ecosystems Over the past 200 years, the
average acidity of surface ocean waters worldwide has increased by about
30 percent. The Arctic Ocean is particularly sensitive. CO2 is more readily absorbed

Ocean Acidification.

into cold water and the increasing amounts of fresh water entering the Arctic Ocean from rivers and melting ice are
reducing the Arctic Oceans capacity to neutralize acidification. "Many changes will happen to Arctic marine
ecosystems and geochemical systems. Traditionally these have thought to be mainly been warming, freshening,
and changes in nutrient supply. But now we have what can be considered the new kid on the block ocean
acidification", says Richard Bellerby, Research Scientist at the Norwegian Institute for Water research - NIVA. The
ocean's capacity to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere is now drastically reduced. The CO2 that is in the atmosphere
already and the CO2 we will put in the air in the coming decades is causing ocean acidification to become a global
problem. "The ocean has been performing a huge climate service over the last 200 years by having a great
capacity to absorb CO2. It has taken up 50 percent of the CO2that we have emitted and is currently still taking up

"Arctic ocean acidification is

happening at a faster rate than found in other global regions. This is because that climate change
such as warming and freshening of the oceans is acting in tandem with
the enormous oceanic uptake of CO2."

25 percent of the CO2 that we are producing", says Bellerby.

Oceans at highest acidity now, and acidification threatens

extinction
Harvey, Environment Correspondent for the Guardian, 13
(Fiona, 10/2/13, The Guardian, Rate of ocean acidification due to carbon emissions
is at highest for 300m years,
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/03/ocean-acidification-carbondioxide-emissions-levels, 6/27/14, SM)
The oceans are becoming more acidic at the fastest rate in 300m years,
due to carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels, and a mass
extinction of key species may already be almost inevitable as a result ,

leading marine scientists warned on Thursday. An international audit of the health of the oceans has found that
overfishing and pollution are also contributing to the crisis, in a deadly combination of destructive forces that are
imperilling marine life, on which billions of people depend for their nutrition and livelihood. In the starkest warning
yet of the threat to ocean health, the International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO) said: " This

[acidification] is unprecedented in the Earth's known history. We are

entering an unknown territory of marine ecosystem change, and exposing
organisms to intolerable evolutionary pressure. The next mass extinction
may have already begun." It published its findings in the State of the Oceans report, collated every
two years from global monitoring and other research studies. Alex Rogers, professor of biology at Oxford
University, said: "The health of the ocean is spiralling downwards far more rapidly than we had thought. We are

The
situation should be of the gravest concern to everyone since everyone will
seeing greater change, happening faster, and the efects are more imminent than previously anticipated.

be affected by changes in the ability of the ocean to support life on Earth ."
Coral is particularly at risk. Increased acidity dissolves the calcium carbonate skeletons that form the structure of
reefs, and increasing temperatures lead to bleaching where the corals lose symbiotic algae they rely on. The report
says that world governments' current pledges to curb carbon emissions would not go far enough or fast enough to
save many of the world's reefs. There is a time lag of several decades between the carbon being emitted and the
efects on seas, meaning that further acidification and further warming of the oceans are inevitable, even if we
drastically reduce emissions very quickly. There is as yet little sign of that, with global greenhouse gas output still
rising. Corals are vital to the health of fisheries, because they act as nurseries to young fish and smaller species
that provide food for bigger ones. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed by the seas at least a third of
the carbon that humans have released has been dissolved in this way, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change and makes them more acidic. But IPSO found the situation was even more dire than that laid out
by the world's top climate scientists in their landmark report last week. In absorbing carbon and heat from the
atmosphere, the world's oceans have shielded humans from the worst efects of global warming, the marine
scientists said. This has slowed the rate of climate change on land, but its profound efects on marine life are only
now being understood. Acidification harms marine creatures that rely on calcium carbonate to build coral reefs and
shells, as well as plankton, and the fish that rely on them. Jane Lubchenco, former director of the US National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and a marine biologist, said the efects were already being felt in some
oyster fisheries, where young larvae were failing to develop properly in areas where the acid rates are higher, such
as on the west coast of the US. "You can actually see this happening," she said. "It's not something a long way into
the future. It is a very big problem." But the chemical changes in the ocean go further, said Rogers. Marine animals
use chemical signals to perceive their environment and locate prey and predators, and there is evidence that their
ability to do so is being impaired in some species. Trevor Manuel, a South African government minister and co-chair
of the Global Ocean Commission, called the report "a deafening alarm bell on humanity's wider impacts on the
global oceans". "Unless we restore the ocean's health, we will experience the consequences on prosperity,
wellbeing and development. Governments must respond as urgently as they do to national security threats in the

Current rates of carbon release into the

oceans are 10 times faster than those before the last major species
extinction, which was the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum extinction,
about 55m years ago. The IPSO scientists can tell that the current ocean
acidification is the highest for 300m years from geological records .
long run, the impacts are just as important," he said.

Oceans acidifying at an unprecedented speed

Marshall, MSc in Science Communication, 12

(Michael, 3/1/12, Environmental editor at the New Scientist, New Scientist, Oceans
acidifying at unprecedented speed, http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21534oceans-acidifying-at-unprecedented-speed.html#.U65DCI2wKrY, 6/27/14, SM)
Humanity's greenhouse gas emissions may be acidifying the oceans at a
faster rate than at any time in the last 300 million years . The sheer speed of change
means we do not know how severe the consequences will be. As well as warming the planet, carbon
dioxide seeps into the oceans and forms carbonic acid. As a result the
water becomes more acidic. The pH is currently dropping by about 0.1 per century. This ocean
acidification harms organisms such as corals that rely on dissolved carbonate to make their shells. It also disrupts
behaviour in some animals. Brbel Hnisch of Columbia University in Palisades, New York, and colleagues used the
chemical record preserved in rocks to gauge previous ocean acidification events. The best match for current

the Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum of 55 million years ago,

when vast amounts of methane were released into the atmosphere
causing rapid global warming, ocean acidification, and mass extinction . But
even then, it took at least 3000 years for ocean pH to drop by 0.5. "That is an
changes was

order of magnitude slower than today," Hnisch says. The 300-million-year period that Hnisch and colleagues
studied includes the biggest extinction of them all: the end-Permian extinction. This event, 252 million years ago,
wiped out up to 96 per cent of marine species. But it probably had other causes. Acidification is not the only threat
to the oceans from greenhouse gases, says Nicolas Gruber of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich in
Switzerland. Marine life also faces a threat from rising water temperatures and less dissolved oxygen. "We have to
think about these efects co-occurring," Gruber says. While we have information on the consequences of each
individual factor, we have no idea what the combined efect will be.

Ocean acidification will accelerate

International Council for Science 13

(11/13/13, Science Daily, Expert assessment: Ocean acidification may increase 170
percent this century,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131113213854.htm, 6/27/14, SM)
In a major new international report, experts conclude that the acidity of the world's ocean may
increase by around 170% by the end of the century bringing significant
economic losses. People who rely on the ocean's ecosystem services -- often in developing countries -- are
especially vulnerable. A group of experts have agreed on 'levels of confidence' in relation to ocean acidification
statements summarising the state of knowledge. The summary was led by the International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme and results from the world's largest gathering of experts on ocean acidification ever convened. The
Third Symposium on the Ocean in a High CO2 World was held in Monterey, California (September 2012), and
attended by 540 experts from 37 countries. The summary will be launched at the UNFCCC climate negotiations in

marine ecosystems and

biodiversity are likely to change as a result of ocean acidification , with farWarsaw, 18 November, for the benefit of policymakers. Experts conclude that

reaching consequences for society. Economic losses from declines in shellfish aquaculture and the degradation of
tropical coral reefs may be substantial owing to the sensitivity of molluscs and corals to ocean acidification. One of
the lead authors of the summary, and chair of the symposium, Ulf Riebesell of GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean
Research Kiel said: "What we can now say with high levels of confidence about ocean acidification sends a clear
message. Globally we have to be prepared for significant economic and ecosystem service losses. But we also know
that reducing the rate of carbon dioxide emissions will slow acidification. That has to be the major message for the
COP19 meeting." One outcome emphasised by experts is that if society continues on the current high emissions
trajectory, cold water coral reefs, located in the deep sea, may be unsustainable and tropical coral reef erosion is
likely to outpace reef building this century. However, significant emissions reductions to meet the two-degree target
by 2100 could ensure that half of surface waters presently occupied by tropical coral reefs remain favourable for
their growth. Author Wendy Broadgate, Deputy Director at the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme,
said: "Emissions reductions may protect some reefs and marine organisms but we know that the ocean is subject to
many other stresses such as warming, deoxygenation, pollution and overfishing. Warming and deoxygenation are
also caused by rising carbon dioxide emissions, underlining the importance of reducing fossil fuel emissions.
Reducing other stressors such as pollution and overfishing, and the introduction of large scale marine protected
areas, may help build some resilience to ocean acidification." The summary for policymakers makes 21 statements
about ocean acidification with a range of confidence levels from "very high" to "low." These include: Very high

Ocean acidification is caused by carbon dioxide emissions from

human activity to the atmosphere that end up in the ocean. The capacity of the
confidence

ocean to act as a carbon sink decreases as it acidifies Reducing carbon dioxide emissions will slow the progress of
ocean acidification. Anthropogenic ocean acidification is currently in progress and is measurable The legacy of
historical fossil fuel emissions on ocean acidification will be felt for centuries.

Corals K2 Ocean Acidification

By Regulating Ph Levels, Coral Reefs Solve For Ocean
Acidification
Montagna, member of the National Research Council, 12 (Paolo, 4/1/12,
Nature Climate Change, Coral resilience to ocean acidification and global warming
through pH up-regulation,
http://shadow.eas.gatech.edu/~kcobb/ocean_acid/McCulloch%20et%20al
%202012.pdf, 6/29/14, AEG)
Rapidly rising levels of atmospheric CO2 are
not only causing ocean warming, but also lowering seawater pH hence the
carbonate saturation state of the oceans, on which many marine
organisms depend to calcify their skeletons1,2. Using boron isotope
systematics3, we show how scleractinian corals up-regulate pH at their site of
calcification such that internal changes are approximately one-half of
those in ambient seawater. This species-dependent pH-buffering capacity
enables aragonitic corals to raise the saturation state of their calcifying
medium, thereby increasing calcification rates at little additional energy
cost. Using a model of pH regulation combined with abiotic calcification,
we show that the enhanced kinetics of calcification owing to higher
temperatures has the potential to counter the effects of ocean
acidification. Up-regulation of pH, however, is not ubiquitous among calcifying organisms;

those lacking this ability are likely to undergo severe declines in calcification as CO2 levels increase. The capacity to
up-regulate pH is thus central to the resilience of calcifiers to ocean acidification, although the fate of
zooxanthellate corals ultimately depends on the ability of both the photosymbionts and coral host to adapt to
rapidly increasing ocean temperatures4.

Coral Reefs Offset Ocean Acidification Through Biogeochemical

Responses
Andersson, Assistant Professor- Geosciences Research, 14 (Andreas, 2014,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Partial ofsets in ocean acidification from
changing coral reef biogeochemistry,
http://scrippsscholars.ucsd.edu/aandersson/content/partial-ofsets-oceanacidification-changing-coral-reef-biogeochemistry-0, 6/29/14, AEG)
Concerns have been raised about how coral reefs will be afected by ocean
acidification(1,2), but projections of future seawater CO2 chemistry have
focused solely on changes in the pH and aragonite saturation state
(Omega(a)) of open-ocean surface seawater conditions surrounding coral
reefs(1-4) rather than the reef systems themselves. The seawater CO2
chemistry within heterogeneous reef systems can be significantly diferent from that
of the open ocean depending on the residence time, community composition and
the main biogeochemical processes occurring on the reef, that is, net ecosystem
production (NEP = gross primary production autotrophic and heterotrophic
respiration) and net ecosystem calcification (NEC = gross calcification gross CaCO3
dissolution), which combined act to modify seawater chemistry(5-7). On the basis
of observations from the Bermuda coral reef, we show that a range of
projected biogeochemical responses of coral reef communities to ocean
acidification by the end of this century could partially offset changes in

seawater pH and Omega(a) by an average of 12-24% and 15-31%,

respectively.

Corals found in Palau prove the future is open

NSF,14 (1/16, "Palau's coral reefs surprisingly resistant to ocean

acidification",www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=130129, 6/25/14, AVEN)

Marine scientists working on the coral reefs of Palau have made two
unexpected discoveries that could provide insight into corals' resistance
and resilience to ocean acidification. The team collected water samples at nine points along a
transect that stretched from the open ocean, across a barrier reef, into a lagoon, and into the bays and inlets
around the Rock Islands of Palau in the western Pacific Ocean. With each location they found that the seawater
became increasingly more acidic as they moved toward land. "When we first plotted those data, we were
shocked," said chemical oceanographer Kathryn Shamberger of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI).
"We had no idea the level of acidification we would find. We're looking at reefs today that have levels that we
expect for the open ocean in that region by the end of the century." Shamberger conducted the fieldwork with
other WHOI researchers, including biogeochemist Anne Cohen, as well as with scientists from the Palau
International Coral Reef Center. The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the research through its Ocean
Acidification Program, part of the agency's Science, Engineering and Education for Sustainability Investment.

"This important study documents a coral reef system that's apparently

resistant to the effects of ocean acidification," said David Garrison, program director in
NSF's Division of Ocean Sciences. "Understanding what factors account for this will be
critical follow-on research." While ocean chemistry varies naturally at diferent locations, it is changing around
the world due to increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The ocean absorbs atmospheric carbon
dioxide, which reacts with seawater, lowering the water's overall pH and making it more acidic. This process also
removes carbonate ions needed by corals and other organisms to build their skeletons and shells. Corals growing
in low pH conditions, both in laboratory experiments that simulate future conditions and in other naturally low pH
ocean environments show a range of negative efects. These include juveniles of various species with difficulty
constructing skeletons, fewer varieties of corals, less coral cover, more algae growth and more porous corals with
greater signs of erosion from other organisms. The new research results, published in a paper in Geophysical
Research Letters, a journal of the American Geophysical Union, explain the biological and geomorphological causes
of the more acidic waters near Palau's Rock Islands. The paper also describes a surprising second finding--that the

corals living in those more acidic waters were unexpectedly diverse and
healthy. The unusual finding, contrary to what has been observed in other naturally low pH coral reef
ecosystems, has important implications for the conservation of corals in all parts of the world. "When you move
from a high pH reef to a low pH neighboring reef, there are big changes, and they are negative changes," said
Cohen, a co-author of the paper and principal investigaor of the project. "However, in Palau wherever the water is
most acidic, we see the opposite. There's a coral community that is more diverse, hosts more species and has
greater coral cover than in the non-acidic sites. "Palau is the exception to other places scientists have studied."

the acidification is
primarily caused by the shell-building done by organisms living in the
water, called calcification, which removes carbonate ions from seawater. A
Through analysis of the water chemistry in Palau, the scientists found that

second reason is the organisms' respiration, which adds carbon dioxide to the water when they breathe. "These
things are all happening at every reef," said Cohen. "What's critical is the residence time of the seawater." "In
Palau's Rock Islands, the water sits in the bays for a long time before being flushed out," said Shamberger. "This is a
big area that's a maze with lots of channels and inlets for the water to wind around. "Calcification and respiration
are continually happening at these sites while the water sits there, allowing the water to become more and more
acidic. It's a little bit like being stuck in a room with a limited amount of oxygen--the longer you're in there without
opening a window, you're using up oxygen and increasing carbon dioxide." Ordinarily, she added, without fresh air
coming in, it would become harder and harder for living things to thrive, "yet in the case of the corals in Palau,
we're finding the opposite. Coral cover and diversity actually increase from the outer reefs into the Rock Islands."
The next steps are to determine whether the corals are genetically adapted to low pH, or whether Palau provides a
"perfect storm" of environmental conditions. "If it's the latter, it means that if you took those corals out of that
specific environment and put them in another low pH environment that doesn't have the same combination of
conditions, they wouldn't be able to survive," said Cohen. "But if they're genetically adapted to low pH, you could
put them anywhere." "These reef communities have developed under these conditions for thousands of years,"
said Shamberger. "These are conditions that are going to be occurring in a lot of the ocean by the end of the
century. "We don't know if other coral reefs will be able to adapt to ocean acidification--the time scale might be too
short." The scientists are careful to stress that their findings in Palau are diferent from every other low pH
environment that has been studied. "When we discover a reef like Palau where the coral communities are thriving

under low pH, that's an exception," said Cohen. "It doesn't mean that coral reefs around the globe are going to be
fine under ocean acidification conditions. It does mean that there are some coral communities out there--and we've
found one--that appear to have figured it out. But that doesn't mean that all coral reef ecosystems are going to
figure it out."

Super Corals K to stop acidification

Aoun, research assistant at CISAC, 13
(Gabriela, 10/22, Huffington Post, Ocean Acidification Has a New
Enemy: Super Corals,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/21/supercorals_n_4140030.html, 6/25/14, AVEN)
In case you hadnt heard, CO2 levels are rising, the ocean is absorbing the
CO2 and ocean waters are becoming more acidic. This means dead coral,
which in turn unfortunately means unlivable conditions for the entire
ocean ecosystem.
There is plenty of speculation about whether we can or cant reverse the
unsustainable amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere, but two scientists are
approaching the problem in another way: If the CO2 is here to stay, can we
make the corals climate-change resistant?
Super corals can be part of the solution to the oceans death sentence,
according to University of Hawaii researcher Ruth D. Gates and Australian Institute
for Marine Sciences Dr. Madeleine van Oppen. The two just won a grant from the
Paul G. Allen Family Foundation through the foundations Ocean Challenge, a
contest that ofered $10,000 to the most promising new science-based concept for
mitigating environmental and/or societal impacts of ocean acidification.
Super corals are corals that have proven particularly resistant to acidic
conditions and warmer water temperatures. They are not genetically
engineered, but rather genetically selected.
Similar to the genetic selection of animals and plants, coral reef organisms could
be genetically selected to boost their resilience to environmental stress, but this has
not yet been attempted, Gates and van Oppen told the Allen Foundation.
They call it human-assisted evolution for corals, and through it, Gates and
von Oppen hope to build a stock of super corals that can be used to repopulate
dead reef areas and to amplify the contributions of artificial reefs. It involves preconditioning corals to high-acidification scenarios van Oppen said. Our goal
is to develop and maintain banks of ecologically important, structurally diverse and
geographically widespread coral species.
In science prize standards, $10,000 is a modest amount. But the award is meant to
facilitate Gates and von Oppens ability to write a grant to apply for full project
funding. Even if their idea works, it will be a long time before super coral stocks
could be widely implemented around the worlds dying reefs, and by then
who knows what the globally-warmed world will look like. Hopefully, super corals
can withstand it disproportionately by the poor, who are most vulnerable to the
loss of ecosystem services.

Coral reefs solve ocean acidificationbest studies prove

Scripps Institution of Oceanography 13

(11/26/13, Scripps Institution of Oceanography UC San Diego, Can Coral Reefs

Delay the Damaging Efects of Ocean Acidification?,
https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/13963, 6/25/14, SM)
According to a paper published in the November issue of the journal Nature Climate Change, coral reefs
may respond to ocean acidification in ways that will partially offset
expected changes in seawater acidity taking place as the oceans take up
human-produced carbon dioxide. Andreas Andersson, a chemical oceanographer at Scripps
Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego, and lead author of the paper, said that most predictions of
seawater acidification on coral reefs are based on observations from the
open ocean. But the effects of increasing CO2 on coral reefs are very different
than the changes in the open ocean, because the reef itself modifies the chemistry
through various biogeochemical processes. The study, based on observations of the
Bermuda coral reef ecosystem, predicts that changes to this system in response to ocean acidification could ofset
human-induced, CO2-driven decreases in pH by 12 to 24 percent. Andersson and colleagues also predict that these
reef responses will counteract a predicted decrease in the seawater aragonite saturation state, a measure of the
availability of carbonate ions, by 15 to 31 percent. This is an important parameter because corals need these ions
to build their calcium carbonate (CaCO3) reefs. Other researchers have shown that diferent benthic communities
can alter the chemistry on the reef, but were the first to show it on this scale, the whole ecosystem scale, over five
years of observations, Andersson said. Atmospheric carbon dioxide has gone up by 42 percent and global average
temperatures have increased by 0.8C (1.4F) since the Industrial Revolution. These changes have well-defined
efects on the open ocean, increasing both the acidity and temperature of surface seawater. This decrease in ocean
pH has left many scientists concerned about the detrimental efects it could have on coral reefs. Increasing
temperature and decreasing pH make it harder for corals to build calcium carbonate, and also cause calcium
carbonate to dissolve more readily. The reefs total ecosystem organic carbon production (photosynthesis minus
organic matter consumed) will also be afected. All of these processes calcification, dissolution, and ecosystem
organic carbon production afect seawater pH. By modeling how the balance between these processes will change

expected changes may actually

increase the pH on the reef relative to the open ocean, thus partially
offsetting the decrease in pH owing to uptake of CO2 from the
atmosphere.
in the future, Andersson and his coauthors discovered that the

Coral reefs solve ocean acidificationregulate pH levels

Matz, RJD Intern, 14
(Hanover, 1/17/14, R.J. Dunlap Marine Conservation Program, Coral Reefs and the
Threat of Ocean Acidification, http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/coral-reefs-andthe-threat-of-ocean-acidification, 6/25/14, SM)
Is there any hope for coral reefs? Is it at all possible that they can adapt to the threat of ocean acidification? One

corals may have the ability to adjust to decreasing

ocean pH. McCulloch et al. published a study in 2012 that focused on the ability of
corals to up-regulate their internal pH levels. Corals precipitate new
calcium carbonate in a fluid between the existing skeleton and part of the polyp known as the
calicoblastic ectoderm. At this calicoblastic layer, corals are capable of increasing the pH
relative to the pH of ambient seawater in order to facilitate calcification .
The study results indicate that for some coral species , as the ambient seawater pH decreases
due to acidification, the corals are capable of further up-regulating their
internal pH in response in order to reduce the overall internal change in
pH and to continue to calcify. This up-regulation of internal pH results in higher coral calcification
study does indicate that some

rates compared to abiotic or chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate at the same seawater pH. The coral
species demonstrate an ability to adjust their internal pH in order to continue calcifying in acidic conditions. Does
this mean these coral species will be better able to survive increasing ocean acidification? Perhaps, but the study
indicates that it is necessary for the corals to maintain their symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae in order to

produce the energy needed for calcification. The loss of zooxanthellae to stress or bleaching events would reduce
the efectiveness of this ability. While some corals may exhibit less sensitivity to pH changes than others based on
their ability to up-regulate internal pH, all coral species will likely have difficulty adapting to not only ocean
acidification, but the combined efects of ocean acidification, changes in ocean temperature, and the impact of
human pollution.

Reefs k2 Warming
Coral reefs solve warmingrelease DMSP
Schultz, B.S.c in Physical Science and Philosophy, 13
(Colin, 10/24/13, Smithsonian, "Coral Reefs Are Fighting Back Against Global
Warming," http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/coral-reefs-are-fightingback-against-global-warming-5190065/?no-ist=, 6/24/14, SM)

Coral reefs are on the receiving end of the battering ram that is anthropogenic climate change. With their vibrant
colors and exotic fish, theyre the poster child of ocean degradation, and they get a lot of attention because theyre
on the front linestheir habitats are among the most sensitive to the warming waters. But new research, led by

coral can release a chemical,

dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP), that helps them engineer their
environment and stave off global warming. When DMSP is released to the
environment, bacteria living in the water convert it into a different related
gas, dimethylsulphide (DMS). DMS, the scientists say, can control the local
climate by spurring clouds to form. More DMS means more clouds, and
more clouds means cooler ocean waters for the coral to live in. The discovery
Jean-Baptiste Raina, has found that coral are fighting back:

marks the first time that an animal has been found to produce DMSP. Previously, scientists thought it was the algae
living in the coral that made the gas, but the new research found that the coral itself can churn it out. And, perhaps

more importantly, corals DMSP production goes up when the coral gets
stressed. The idea of DMS-as-climate-regulator, says Hannah Waters for her blog, Culturing Science, rose
to fame when it starred in one infamous Earth-as-organism ideathe Gaia hypothesisjust a few decades ago.
The Gaia hypothesis, pitched by James Lovelock, is largely bunk, but dimethylsulphides efect on the temperature
is not. In order for clouds to form, water has to transition from a gas to liquidand to do that, it needs a small
particle in the air to adhere onto, known as a cloud condensation nucleus. Sulfur aerosols, which are easily formed

The discovery that corals can pump out

dimethylsulponiopropionate, and hence DMS, say the researchers in their study,
adds another reason to worry about their decline. Raina et al: Considering declining
from DMS, do the trick, says Waters.

trends in coral cover and predicted increases in coral mortality worldwide caused by anthropogenic stressors, the
associated decline in sulphur aerosol production from coral reefs may further destabilize local climate regulation
and accelerate degradation of this globally important and diverse ecosystem.

Impact Biodiversity
Ocean acidification kills biodiversity and resiliencypH decline
Fabricius et al, PhD from University of Munich, Langdon,
Professor of Marine Biology and Ecology at the University of
Miami, 11
(Katharina E., 5/30/11, coral reef ecologist since 1988, Diplom in Biology from
University of Munic, PhD from University of Munich, Chris Langdon, Sven Uthicke,
Craig Humphrey, Sam Noonan, Glenn Death, Remy Okazaki, Nancy Muehllehner,
Martin S. Glas, Janice M. Lough Science Daily, "Ocean acidification will likely reduce
diversity, resiliency in coral reef ecosystems,"
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110529184043.htm, 6/24/14, SM)

A new study from University of Miami (UM) Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science scientists Chris
Langdon, Remy Okazaki and Nancy Muehllehner and colleagues from the Australian Institute of Marine Science and

ocean acidification, along

with increased ocean temperatures, will likely severely reduce the
diversity and resilience of coral reef ecosystems within this century . The
the Max-Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology in Germany concludes that

research team studied three natural volcanic CO2 seeps in Papua New Guinea to better understand how ocean
acidification will impact coral reefs ecosystem diversity. The study details the efects of long-term exposure to high
levels of carbon dioxide and low pH on Indo-Pacific coral reefs, a condition that is projected to occur by the end of

increased human-made CO2 emissions alter the current pH level

of seawater, turning the oceans acidic. "These 'champagne reefs' are natural analogs of how
the century as

coral reefs may look in 100 years if ocean acidification conditions continue to get worse," said Langdon, UM

shifts in the
composition of coral species and reductions in biodiversity and
recruitment on the reef as pH declined from 8.1 to 7.8. The team also reports that reef
development would cease at a pH below 7.7. The IPCC 4th Assessment Report estimates that by the end of
the century, ocean pH will decline from the current level of 8.1 to 7.8, due
to rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations. "The seeps are probably the closest we can come
Rosenstiel School professor and co-principal investigator of the study. The study shows

to simulating the efect of human-made CO2 emissions on a coral reef," said Langdon. "They allow us to see the
end result of the complex interactions between species under acidic ocean conditions." The reefs detailed in this
study have healthy reefs nearby to supply larvae to replenish the reefs. If pH was low throughout the region -- as
projected for year 2100 -- then there would not be any healthy reefs to reseed damaged ones, according to
Langdon.

Ocean Acidification Destroys ReefsRising CO2 levels

increases acidity of the ocean; killing animals.

Melker, PBS Producer, 12 (Saskia, December 5 2012, Lehrer Productions, Coral

Reefs and Shellfish Battle Acidifying Oceans,
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/climate-change-july-dec12-acidification_1205/, 6/24/14, ML)
CO2 decreases the pH of the water. The lower the pH, the higher the acidity . Oceans have acidified by 30
percent from pre-industrial levels, and scientists expect that number will climb to 100
percent by the end of this century. Slight changes in pH levels can have
dramatic effects. Consider this: the pH of the blood running through your arteries is between 7.35 and
7.45. A drop of .2 pH units can cause seizures, heart arrhythmia or even send a person into a coma. We can
already see ocean acidification at work in the oceans. In recent years , oyster larvae on the northwest
coast have been dying off by the billions. The seawater is so corrosive that it eats away at the
young oyster shells before they can form. This leaves the animals more vulnerable to disease, pollution, and
predators.

And that has cascading effects for the rest of the ecosystem, all the

way up to human communities, said Paul McElhany of NOAAs Northwest Fisheries Science Center studies
the efects of acidification on marine species. Shellfish and corals are the foundation of marine ecosystems. Reefs
provide habitat for thousands of other animals, and more than a quarter of all fish live in coral reefs at some point
in their lives. And many shellfish are at the bottom of the marine food chain and are eaten by fish and other

increases in acidification can really reorganize these food

webs, both directly and indirectly, McElhany said, adding What happens in the marine environment is likely to
animals. Weve seen that these
afect you.

Ocean Acidification Destroys Bio D in Reefs

Elperin, Huffington Post, 11 (Juliet, Duke University, The Dangers of
Ocean Acidification to Tropical Coral Reefs,
http://sites.duke.edu/writing20_12_f2011/2011/09/04/the-dangers-of-oceanacidification-to-tropical-coral-reefs/, 6/26/14, ML)
http://sites.duke.edu/writing20_12_f2011/2011/09/04/the-dangers-of-oceanacidification-to-tropical-coral-reefs/

The ocean has absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere since the beginning of time. The ocean is
known as a carbon dioxide sink because of its absorption capabilities. This has been viewed as a positive in the past
few decades since global warming has become a pressing issue. The ocean absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere,

Carbon dioxide levels have risen

since the Industrial Revolution due to automobile emissions, cement
production, industrial power plants and other contributing factors . Now, with
the ocean is absorbing absorbing about 1/3 of the earths carbon dioxide ,
the sea chemistry is being afected . The ocean cannot handle such high levels of CO2
as a result, its pH is becoming more acidic. This effect is known as ocean
acidification. Like all ecosystems, marine ecosystems are comprised of a vast array of interactions between
diferent species and diferent types of organisms (both alive and dead) and the physical environment. Therefore ,
a change in any of these aspects will lead to a plethora of changes
throughout the rest of the ecosystem. Because of the sheer quantity of life present and the
significant interactions between species, coral reefs are prime candidates to be affected
greatly by ocean acidification. These reefs provide food and shelter to
hundreds of thousands of marine organisms so when the reef is harmed by acidification, so
which helps lessen the threat of global warming to the earth.

are all of the organisms that interact with it. When global warming, one of the worlds most alarming environmental
threats directly afects the coral reef, one of the oceans most important ecosystems, the ramifications are dire.
Coral reefs are created by large calcium carbonate colonies known as coral. These reef structures are the home and
feeding grounds to a wide array of organisms. Coral reef ecosystems have been called cradles of evolution

more marine organisms evolve from coral reefs than from any other
ecosystem. Ocean acidification may actually alter the physical structure of coral reefs. Acidification afects the
because

organisms that build the reef because it lowers calcification rates and pH, inhibiting the creatures skeletal growth.
Without these reef-building organisms, coral reefs cannot exist. Aside from hindering the organisms that physically
build the reefs, ocean acidification also increases the probability that existing reef structures may dissolve. Reef
erosion is likely, given the vulnerability inevitable with increased acidification. Acidification raises the possibility of
coral mortality. It can cause coral bleaching, which can cause the coral to die. As the coral tries to survive and is in
a weakened state, they become vulnerable to encroachment by other marine organisms. Some species can benefit
from higher water acidity, like macroalgae. As these algae thrive, they block sunlight from getting to the coral and
they may be abrasive to coral structures as they move through the water in the current. Both low light and abrasive
contact can weaken the coral, or even kill the reef structure. Dissolving and eroding coral reefs, as well as coral that
is lost because of displacement by other organisms that can survive better in the high acidity all lead to what is
known as reef flattening. This is a phenomenon that creates a loss in the architectural complexity of the reef.
This afects all of the organisms that live within and rely on the reef as a key part of their survival methods. Reef
flattening diminishes reef structure and habitats, and reduces organism populations and biodiversity. Coral reefs are
home to over 25% of all known species of fish and exhibit the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem in the entire
ocean. Threats to coral reefs are a threat to thousands of other organisms, so as we see ocean acidification harming
our worlds coral reefs, we should be very concerned. Ocean acidification does not mean that the oceans will die,
but the survivors may be algae and jellyfish. For the ocean to be sustainable in its present form, with coral reefs the

the pH of the ocean has to maintain acidity within

relatively narrow boundaries. With the alarming increase in CO2 being
prominent sanctuaries for marine life,

absorbed into our great carbon dioxide sink known as the ocean, the coral
reef is in jeopardy.

Ocean acidification negatively affects fishcognitive issues

Valentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from
University of Georgia, 14
(Katie, 4/14/14, Climate Progress, Ocean Acidification Could Make Fish Lose Their
Fear Of Predators, Study Finds,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/04/14/3426351/fish-predators-acidification/,
6/29/14, SM)
Add losing fear of predators to the long list of impacts acidifying oceans
could have on fish and other marine life. A new study published in Nature Climate Change
has found that elevated CO2 levels in marine waters make reef fish attracted to
the smell of their predators, rather than being repelled. Researchers looked at
multiple species of reef fish living near natural volcanic CO2 seeps in Papua New Guinea, an environment the study
says is acidified to levels comparable to projections of what the entire oceans acid content will be in the next 100
years. They compared the behavior of the fish living in the acidified environment to fish in nearby, less acidified
reefs, and found that, while fish in the nearby control reefs avoided water streams that contained predator odor,

fish from the acidified reef spent 90 percent of their time in water streams
that smelled of their predators. On top of that, fish that lived under high-CO2 conditions were
bolder than other fish meaning that they emerged more quickly from their hiding places after a disturbance and
ventured farther from their hiding places than other fish and couldnt diferentiate the smells of diferent

two species of
damselfish from the acidified reef spent less than 12 percent of their time
in shelter, and two other fish species studied spent no time in shelter,
preferring to swim in more exposed, open water Danielle Dixson, assistant professor at
habitats. Fish from the control reef spent more than 80 percent of their time in hiding, while

Georgia Tech and co-author of the study, told ThinkProgress that the results of the study were surprising because
scientists long believed that fish would be able to deal with ocean acidification due to their natural mechanism for
coping with increased levels of CO2. When fish are exposed to high acid environments, they absorb the acid into
their bodies, and to compensate for the increased acid, they increase the amount of bicarbonate a base their
bodies produce. The thing that people didnt really think about was that when they up-regulate all this

when theres too

much bicarbonate in the fishs system, their GABA receptor stops working
properly, causing the cognitive issues the researchers recorded . These efects
bicarbonate, it interacts with neurological pathways, Dixson said. Dixson said that

have major implications for the future of the ocean ecosystem. The balance of the acidified reef ecosystem in the
study did not sufer as a result of the cognitive problems of the fish, mainly because there were fewer predators in
the environment and because, when young fish were killed by predators in the acidified environment, other young
fish would migrate from nearby, less acidified reefs to replace them. But when all the oceans are at the level of the
CO2 seep ecosystem, this replacement from fish in less acidified waters wont be an option. It is hopeful that
there are still fish that live [in the CO2 seep sites] and that theyre metabolically the same as the fish that live in the
non-CO2 seep site, but the degree of aid that the control sites are providing the CO2 sites is unknown, Dixson said.
As

the world acidifies in 100 years when the ocean is expected to be

the equivalent of a CO2 seep reef there wont be these safe havens that
can help. The study isnt the first to document ocean acidifications wide-reaching efects on fish and other
marine species. Another study from August also found that fish could become confused and
hyperactive as acid levels increase in the ocean, and also found evidence
that the metabolism of fish could change. That study also found that when atmospheric

carbon levels reached 500 to 650 parts per million levels that are predicted by 2100 corals, echinoderms (such
as starfish), mollusks and fish were negatively impacted. Researchers have also predicted that ocean acidification
could lead to a decline in shellfish, and that coral will struggle to build its skeleton as acidity rises. The efects of
acidification could be so harmful to coral that Oceana predicts some species of coral could become functionally
extinct within 20 years.

Impact Warming
Ocean acidification exacerbates warmingdecrease in
atmospheric sulfur
Barford, BSc in Biochemistry from Imperial College London, 13

(Eliot, 8/25/13, MSc in Science Communication, Nature, Rising ocean acidity will
exacerbate global warming, http://www.nature.com/news/rising-ocean-acidity-willexacerbate-global-warming-1.13602, 6/27/14, SM)
The slow and inexorable increase in the oceans acidity as they soak up carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere could itself have an effect on climate and
amplify global warming, according to a new study. Acidification would lead certain
marine organisms to emit less of the sulphur compounds that help to seed
the formation of clouds and so keep the planet cool. Atmospheric sulphur,
most of which comes from the sea, is a check against global warming.
Phytoplankton photosynthetic microbes that drift in sunlit water produces a compound
called dimethylsulphide (DMS). Some of this enters the atmosphere and reacts to
make sulphuric acid, which clumps into aerosols , or microscopic airborne particles.
Aerosols seed the formation of clouds, which help cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight.
James Lovelock and colleagues proposed in the 1980s that DMS could provide a feedback mechanism limiting
global warming1, as part of Lovelocks Gaia hypothesis of a self-regulating Earth. If warming increased plankton
productivity, oceanic DMS emissions might rise and help cool the Earth. More recently, thinking has shifted towards
predicting a feedback in the opposite direction, because of acidification. As more CO2 enters the atmosphere, some
dissolves in seawater, forming carbonic acid. This is decreasing the pH of the oceans, which is already down by 0.1
pH units on pre-industrial times, and could be down by another 0.5 in some places by 2100. And studies using
'mesocosms' enclosed volumes of seawater show that seawater with a lower pH produces less DMS2. On a

a fall in DMS emissions due to acidification could have a major

effect on climate, creating a positive-feedback loop and enhancing
warming.
global scale,

Ocean acidification makes global warming worse

Sandle, Ph.D from Keele University, 13

(Tim, 8/31/13, Digital Journal, Levels of ocean acidity afects global warming,
http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/357412, 6/27/14, SM)
Scientists have warned that continued acidification of the oceans may lead to
lower sulfur levels in the atmosphere, worsening the effects of climate
change. The link between rising levels of acidity in the world's seas and the
climate comes from increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
which leads to ocean acidification. This is formed as the greenhouse gas
interacts with water to form carbonic acid in the ocean. In turn, ocean
acidification appears to lead to decreased cloud formation and therefore
worsening global warming over time. This is all linked to the ecological
process whereby sulfuric acid seeds cloud formation. The majority of sulfur in the
atmosphere is emitted from the ocean, often in the form of dimethylsulfide (DMS)
produced by phytoplankton. The problem is that in acidified ocean water,
phytoplankton produce less DMS, leading to fewer clouds. Fewer clouds
could lead to increased global temperatures.

Warming Impact - Extinction

Warming leads to extinctionpositive feedback loop
Dean, PhD at the University of New South Wales, 09
(Tim, 1/7/9, Cosmos, Doomsday: Five catastrophes that could wipe out civilization,
http://cosmosmagazine.com/features/doomsday/, 6/27/14, SM)
CLIMATE CATASTROPHE WEVE ALL HEARD THE HORROR STORIES of future climate catastrophes: rising sea levels,
rampant droughts, thousands of species under threat of extinction. And weve all heard the sceptics warning us not
to get carried away by the panicked cries of climate alarmists. Well, it might actually be time for alarm. Because
recent findings by climate scientists such as Pieter Tans, from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric

were pumping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere faster

than we thought. When they started measurements in the 1960s average growth
was 0.7 ppm [parts per million] a year, he says. But in the last five years its
been at 2 ppm, which is more or less proportional to the rate at which we
are burning fossil fuels. As a result, our temperature trajectory is looking even more dramatic than
Administration, suggest

the worst-case scenarios posited in 2007 by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
a scientific body made up of thousands of senior scientists who evaluate the risk of climate change caused by
human activity. This makes it even more likely that well see warming of more than a few degrees this century. This
alone would be costly to our society, but theres an even more troubling scenario that has climate scientists like

if a feedback mechanism kicks in that drives

temperatures even higher. One such mechanism is the prospect of
widespread melting of Arctic ice, which would rapidly release vast
amounts of stored carbon and methane into the atmosphere. This could increase
Tans sweating. And thats

temperatures by as much as 10C by the end of the century and no amount of cuts in fossil fuel use or emissions
can stop the process once it starts. The thing is, no one knows at what point this feedback mechanism might kick
in. It might happen after 5C of warming, or it might start after just 3C or even less. BEYOND THIS TIPPING
POINT, the impact on us would be dramatic, says Mark Lynas, environmental campaigner and author of Six Degrees,
winner of the prestigious Royal Society Science Book Prize. If

positive feedbacks send the

warming process spinning out of control, then the consequences for life on
Earth as a whole will be catastrophic, he says. Human society depends on a
relatively intact biosphere for its continued survival. It would not take
even a worst-case scenario warming to give human civilisation a knockout
punch. Stephen Schneider, a climatologist at Stanford University in California, agrees that an increase in global

temperatures of even 3 to 5C would have a massive impact on civilisation. Wed see a dramatic increase in sea
level; an increase in the intensity of hurricanes; more massive forest fires in warmer climates; health problems
associated with heat; movement of diseases into new regions; and widespread water shortages. Agriculture is
another area of concern. We could see major reductions in food production, perhaps tens of per cent of yields, and
this wouldnt be good in a world of nine billion people, he says.

Runaway climate change leads to extinctionreduced food

yields, disaster, and disease.
Snow, Senior Writer @ Fairfaxmedia and Hannam, AB @ Harvard
University 14 (Deborah and Peter, 3/31/14, The Sydney Morning Herald, Climate change could make
humans extinct, warns health expert, http://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/climate-change-couldmake-humans-extinct-warns-health-expert-20140330-35rus.html, 7/1/14, KM)

The Earth is warming so rapidly that unless humans can arrest the trend, we risk becoming
''extinct'' as a species, a leading Australian health academic has warned. Helen Berry,
associate dean in the faculty of health at the University of Canberra, said while the Earth has been warmer and
colder at diferent points in the planet's history, the rate of change has never been as fast as it is
today. ''What is remarkable, and alarming, is the speed of the change since the 1970s, when we started burning a
lot of fossil fuels in a massive way,'' she said. ''We can't possibly evolve to match this rate [of warming] and,
unless we get control of it, it will mean our extinction eventually.'' Professor Berry is one of
three leading academics who have contributed to the health chapter of a Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report due on Monday. She and co-authors Tony McMichael, of the Australian National University, and

Colin Butler, of the University of Canberra, have outlined the health risks of rapid global warming in a companion
piece for The Conversation, also published on Monday. The three warn that the adverse efects on population health
and social stability have been ''missing from the discussion'' on climate change. Human-driven climate change
poses a great threat, unprecedented in type and scale, to wellbeing, health and perhaps even to human survival,''
they write. They predict that the greatest challenges will come from undernutrition and impaired
child development from reduced food yields; hospitalisations and deaths due to intense heatwaves, fires
and other weather-related disasters; and the spread of infectious diseases. They warn the ''largest
impacts'' will be on poorer and vulnerable populations, winding back recent hard-won gains of social development
programs. Projecting to an average global warming of 4 degrees by 2100, they say ''people won't be able to cope,
let alone work productively, in the hottest parts of the year''. They say that action on climate change would
produce ''extremely large health benefits'', which would greatly outweigh the costs of curbing emission growth. A
leaked draft of the IPCC report notes that a warming climate would lead to fewer cold weather-related deaths but
the benefits would be ''greatly'' outweighed by the impacts of more frequent heat extremes. Under a high emissions
scenario, some land regions will experience temperatures four to seven degrees higher than pre-industrial times,
the report said. While some adaptive measures are possible, limits to humans' ability to regulate heat will afect
health and potentially cut global productivity in the warmest months by 40 per cent by 2100. Body temperatures
rising above 38 degrees impair physical and cognitive functions, while risks of organ damage, loss of consciousness
and death increase sharply above 40.6 degrees, the draft report said.Farm crops and livestock will also struggle
with thermal and water stress. Staple crops such as corn, rice, wheat and soybeans are assumed to face a
temperature limit of 40-45 degrees, with temperature thresholds for key sowing stages near or below 35 degrees,
the report said.

Warming Impact - BioD

Warming leads to the loss of genetic biodiversity
Romm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 11
(Joe, 9/20/11, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress,
ClimateProgress, Global Warming May Cause Far Higher Extinction of Biodiversity
Than Previously Thought,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/20/323639/global-warming-extinction-ofbiodiversity/, 6/27/14, SM)
If global warming continues as expected, it is estimated that almost a
third of all flora and fauna species worldwide could become extinct . Scientists
discovered that the proportion of actual biodiversity loss should quite clearly be revised upwards: by 2080,
more than 80% of genetic diversity within species may disappear in certain

groups of organisms, according to researchers in the title story of the journal Nature Climate Change. The study is
the first world-wide to quantify the loss of biological diversity on the basis of genetic diversity. Thats from the
news release of a study, Cryptic biodiversity loss linked to global climate change (subs. reqd). The recent
scientific literature continues to paint a bleak picture of what Homo sapiens sapiens is doing to the other species
on the planet. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warned that as global average
temperature increase exceeds about 3.5C [relative to 1980 to 1999], model projections suggest significant
extinctions (40-70% of species assessed) around the globe. That is a temperature rise over pre-industrial levels of
a bit more than 4.0C. So the 5C rise we are facing on our current emissions path would likely put extinctions
beyond the high end of that range. Last fall, the Royal Society ran a special issue on Biological diversity in a
changing world, concluding There are very strong indications that the current rate of species extinctions far
exceeds anything in the fossil record. I realize that the mass extinction of non-human life on this planet isnt going
to be a great driver for human action. Most people simply dont get that the mass extinctions we are causing could
directly harm our children and grandchildren as much as sea level rise. Such extinctions threaten the entire fabric of
life on which we depend for food, among other things. This may be clearest in the case of marine life see
Geological Society (8/10): Acidifying oceans spell marine biological meltdown by end of century. And then theres
the worst-case scenario in Nature Stunner Global

warming blamed for 40% decline in

the oceans phytoplankton: Microscopic life crucial to the marine food
chain is dying out. The consequences could be catastrophic. Life matters.
Heres more from the release: Most common models on the efects of climate change on flora and fauna
concentrate on classically described species, in other words groups of organisms that are clearly separate from
each other morphologically. Until now, however, so-called cryptic diversity has not been taken into account. It
encompasses the diversity of genetic variations and deviations within described species, and can only be
researched fully since the development of molecular-genetic methods. As well as the diversity of ecosystems and
species, these genetic variations are a central part of global biodiversity. In a pioneering study, scientists from the
Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F) and the Senckenberg Gesellschaft fr Naturkunde have now

Over 80 percent of
genetic variations may become extinct The distribution of nine European aquatic insect
examined the influence of global warming on genetic diversity within species.

species, which still exist in the headwaters of streams in many high mountain areas in Central and Northern Europe,
was modelled. They have already been widely researched, which means that the regional distribution of the innerspecies diversity and the existence of morphologically cryptic, evolutionary lines are already known. If global
warming does take place in the range that is predicted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
these creatures will be pushed back to only a few small refugia, e.g. in Scandinavia and the Alps, by 2080,
according to model calculations. If Europes climate warms up by up to two degrees only, eight of the species
examined will survive, at least in some areas; with an increase in temperature of 4 degrees, six species will
probably survive in some areas by 2080. However, due to the extinction of local populations, genetic diversity will
decline to a much more dramatic extent. According to the most pessimistic projections ,

84 percent of all
genetic variations would die out by 2080; in the best case, two-thirds of all genetic

variations would disappear. The aquatic insects that were examined are representative for many species of
mountainous regions of Central Europe. Slim chances in the long term for the emergence of new species and
species survival Carsten Nowak of the Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F) and the Senckenberg
Gesellschaft fr Naturkunde, explains: Our models of future distribution show that the species as such will
usually survive. However, the majority of the genetic variations, which in each case exist only in certain places, will
not survive. This means that self-contained evolutionary lineages in other regions such as the Carpathians,
Pyrenees or the German Central Uplands will be lost. Many of these lines are currently in the process of developing
into separate species, but will become extinct before this is achieved, if our model calculations are accurate.

Genetic variation within a species is also important for adaptability to

changing habitats and climatic conditions. Their loss therefore also

reduces the chances for species survival in the long term .

Warming Impact - Disease

Climate change/warming fuels a rise in deadly diseases
Mukherjee, Health Reporter for Think Progress, 13
(Sy, 7/17/13, Climate Progress, How Climate Change Is Fueling A Rise In Deadly
Diseases, http://thinkprogress.org/health/2013/07/17/2317471/climate-changedeadly-diseases/, 6/29/14, SM)
In the summer of 2012, the mosquito-borne West Nile virus made a surprising
comeback in America. In Dallas, the most afected region, 400 people contracted the disease and 19 of
them died. That came as a shock to public health officials, since West Nile virus was thought to be in such
precipitous decline that it was practically eradicated. Now, a little detective work has led epidemiologists to the

the consequences of
global climate change are fueling West Nile. And its just the tip of the iceberg. Health
officials expect the number of people contracting other infectious diseases
to rise right alongside global temperatures. The diseases that are
propagated by climate change tend to come in fungal, algal, tick-borne,
and mosquito-borne forms. For instance, dengue fever which causes a high fever, painful
reason for its resurgence: warmer winters and wetter springs. In other words,

head and body aches, and rashes will likely continue infecting Americans in hot and humid climates, as well as
regions that are close to warming oceans: Thats because warmer waters allow mosquitoes, which are the primary
vessels for dengue fever transmission, to breed and live more freely. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), Mosquito species such as the Anopheles gambiae complex, A. funestus, A. darlingi, Culex quinquefasciatus
and Aedes aegypti are responsible for transmission of most vector-borne diseases, and are sensitive to temperature

warming
oceans also affect aquatic wildlife like reef fish. Dangerous algal blooms,
which are caused by warmer waters and dying coral reefs, can infect fish
that eventually makes its way into the human food chain. In 2007, nine North
changes as immature stages in the aquatic environment and as adults. Mother Jones notes that

Carolina residents contracted ciguatera, or fish poisoning, from infected fish that had been caught of the coast of
Florida. But its not just coastal and humid regions that are feeling the efects of diseases that are propped up by
climate change. In the western United States, states like New Mexico, Arizona, and California are experiencing an
inexplicable rise in Valley fever, which causes head and neck aches, serious respiratory problems, has no cure or
vaccine, and can be lethal. The condition is caused by fungus that resides in spores in the soil that are lifted of of
the ground due to dry weather that is a consequence of global warming-related drought. Furthermore,

illnesses that currently impact other countries could flourish in the United
States if they were to find their way here. Rift Valley fever which causes fever, vertigo, and
neck stifness is also spread through mosquitoes. Public health officials in Europe and the U.S. Centers for

populations should prepare for a rise in

these diseases as a consequence of global climate change . But currently, only eight
Disease Control (CDC) have publicly warned that

states have taken measures to prepare to combat the public health consequences of climate change.

Warming Impact Fishing

Fishing industry poised to lose billions because of climate
change
Valentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from
University of Georgia, 14
(Katie, 5/29/14, Climate Progress, The Fishing Industry Is Poised To Lose Billions
Due To Climate Change, Report Finds,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/05/29/3442537/fishing-lose-billions-climate/,
6/29/14, SM)
The global fishing industry is poised to lose $17 to $41 billion by 2050 due
to climate changes effects on the marine environment, according to a new report.
The report, published by the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership and the University of Cambridge, outlines the range
of challenges that increasing ocean temperatures and acidification will bring to the seafood industry, based on

climate change puts the

400 million people who depend heavily on fish for food at risk, especially
small-scale fishermen in the Tropics. Thats because yields are expected to fall by 40 to
60 percent in the Tropics and Antarctica in the high latitudes, however, the report said yields are likely to
findings from the IPCCs Fifth Assessment Report. The authors found that

increase 30 to 70 percent. Some fish stocks will be able to migrate to cooler or more food- or oxygen-rich waters,
which is good news for those fish populations but can lead to conflicts among countries as to which nations are
entitled to the displaced stocks, and also could lead to more illegal fishing. The report singles out the recent shift of
Atlantic mackerel to Icelandic waters over the last few summers as one example with these new fish stocks,

Top predators
like tuna are some of the most likely to move, putting economic strain on
small island nations in particular. This report is a wake up call for the seafood industry to
Iceland and the Faroe Islands have been fishing mackerel outside of international agreements.

recognize the scale of the threat to ocean resources from climate change and acidification, Blake Lee-Harwood of
Sustainable Fisheries Partnership said in a statement. The report also highlighted the danger ocean acidification
and warming waters pose to coral reefs, with those in Southeast Asia and parts of the Pacific as some of the most at
risk. Reefs serve as nurseries or habitats to 10 to 12 percent of fish caught in tropical
countries, and coral reef fisheries around the world are already being fished unsustainably. The report estimates
coral reef fish production in the Pacific could decrease by up to 20 percent by 2050, due in part to the habitat
damage climate change will inflict on reefs.

Impact - Extinction
Ocean acidification leads to mass extinction
Romm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 12
(Joe, 3/2/12, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress, Climate
Progress, Science: Ocean Acidifying So Fast It Threatens Humanitys Ability to Feed
Itself, http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/03/02/436193/science-oceanacidifying-so-fast-it-threatens-humanity-ability-to-feed-itself/, 6/29/14, SM)
The worlds oceans may be turning acidic faster today from human carbon
emissions than they did during four major extinctions in the last 300
million years, when natural pulses of carbon sent global temperatures
soaring, says a new study in Science. The study is the first of its kind to survey the geologic record for evidence
of ocean acidification over this vast time period. What were doing today really stands out, said lead author
Brbel Hnisch, a paleoceanographer at Columbia Universitys Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. We know that
life during past ocean acidification events was not wiped outnew species evolved to replace those that died of.

if industrial carbon emissions continue at the current pace, we may lose

organisms we care aboutcoral reefs, oysters, salmon. James Zachos, a
But

paleoceanographer at University of California, Santa Cruz, with a core of sediment from some 56 million years ago,
when the oceans underwent acidification that could be an analog to ocean changes today. Thats the news release
from a major 21-author Science paper, The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification (subs. reqd). We knew from

oceans are now acidifying 10 times faster today

than 55 million years ago when a mass extinction of marine species
occurred. But this study looked back over 300 million and found that the
unprecedented rapidity of CO2 release currently taking place has put
marine life at risk in a frighteningly unique way : the current rate of (mainly fossil fuel)
a 2010 Nature Geoscience study that the

CO2 release stands out as capable of driving a combination and magnitude of ocean geochemical changes
potentially unparalleled in at least the last ~300 My of Earth history, raising the possibility that we are entering an

its not just that acidifying

oceans spell marine biological meltdown by end of century as a 2010 Geological
Society study put it. We are also warming the ocean and decreasing dissolved
oxygen concentration. That is a recipe for mass extinction. A 2009 Nature
unknown territory of marine ecosystem change. That is to say,

Geoscience study found that ocean dead zones devoid of fish and seafood are poised to expand and remain for
thousands of years.

Impact Food Security

Ocean acidification threatens food security
Romm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 12
(Joe, 2/27/12, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress,
Climate Progress, Bad Acid Trip: USGS Study Finds Humans Are Acidifying The Air,
Oceans, Freshwaters And Soils
http://thinkprogress.org/romm/2012/02/27/344096/bad-acid-trip-usgs-studyhumans-acidifying-everything-we-touch/, 6/29/14, SM)

Call it the reverse Midas touch. Everything homo sapiens touches turns to acid. A study led by the U.S. Geological
Survey finds, Human

use of Earths natural resources is making the air,

oceans, freshwaters, and soils more acidic. The USGS news release explains: This
comprehensive review, the first on this topic to date, found the mining and burning of coal, the mining and smelting
of metal ores, and the use of nitrogen fertilizer are the major causes of chemical oxidation processes that generate
acid in the Earth-surface environment. These widespread activities have increased carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, increasing the acidity of oceans; produced acid rain that has increased the acidity of freshwater bodies
and soils; produced drainage from mines that has increased the acidity of freshwater streams and groundwater; and

studies have linked

increased acidity in oceans to damage to ocean food webs, while
increased acidity in soils has the potential to affect their ability to sustain
crop growth. In short, global acidification is one more threat to global food
security, which is already under grave threat by climate change, our idiotic
biofuels policies, population growth and demographic changes (see Oxfam
added nitrogen to crop lands that has increased the acidity of soils. Previous

Predicts Climate Change will Help Double Food Prices by 2030: We Are Turning Abundance into Scarcity).

Rising CO2 emissions threaten fish survival and global food

security
Romm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 12

(Joe, 1/23/12, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress,
Climate Progress, Carbon Dioxide Is Driving Fish Crazy and Threatening Their
Survival, Study Finds, http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/01/23/409139/carbondioxide-is-driving-fish-crazy-study-finds/, 6/29/14, SM)
Rising human carbon dioxide emissions may be affecting the brains and
central nervous system of sea fishes with serious consequences for their
survival, an international scientific team has found. Carbon dioxide concentrations
predicted to occur in the ocean by the end of this century will interfere
with fishes ability to hear, smell, turn and evade predators , says Professor Philip
Munday of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and James Cook University. For several years our
team have been testing the performance of baby coral fishes in sea water containing higher levels of dissolved CO2

they sustain significant disruption to their central

nervous system, which is likely to impair their chances of survival, Prof.
Munday says. Thats from an ARC news release on a new Nature Climate Change study, Near-future
carbon dioxide levels alter fish behaviour by interfering with
neurotransmitter function (subs. reqd). The authors report world-first evidence that high CO2
levels in sea water disrupts a key brain receptor in fish, causing marked
changes in their behaviour and sensory ability. Weve known for quite some time about
and it is now pretty clear that

the threat global warming and human activity poses to marine life (see Nature Geoscience study concludes ocean
dead zones devoid of fish and seafood are poised to expand and remain for thousands of years). And weve
known the threat ocean acidification poses to shell-forming mollusks and crustaceans (see The Great Oyster Crash
and Why Ocean Acidification Is A Ticking Time Bomb for Both Marine Life and Humanity and links below). Heres

more on this ground-breaking new paper: Weve found that elevated CO2 in the oceans can directly interfere with
fish neurotransmitter functions,

which poses a direct and previously unknown threat

to sea life, Prof. Munday says. Prof. Munday and his colleagues began by studying how baby clown and

damsel fishes performed alongside their predators in CO2-enriched water. They found that, while the predators
were somewhat afected, the baby fish sufered much higher rates of attrition. Our early work showed that the
sense of smell of baby fish was harmed by higher CO2 in the water meaning they found it harder to locate a reef
to settle on or detect the warning smell of a predator fish. But we suspected there was much more to it than the
loss of ability to smell. The team then examined whether fishes sense of hearing used to locate and home in on

They were
confused and no longer avoided reef sounds during the day. Being
attracted to reefs during daylight would make them easy meat for
predators. Other work showed the fish also tended to lose their natural instinct to
turn left or right an important factor in schooling behaviour which also
makes them more vulnerable, as lone fish are easily eaten by predators .
reefs at night, and avoid them during the day was afected. The answer is, yes it was.

All this led us to suspect it wasnt simply damage to their individual senses that was going on but rather, that
higher levels of carbon dioxide were afecting their whole central nervous system. The teams latest research
shows that high CO2 directly stimulates a receptor in the fish brain called GABA-A, leading to a reversal in its
normal function and over-excitement of certain nerve signals. While most animals with brains have GABA-A
receptors, the team considers the efects of elevated CO2 are likely to be most felt by those living in water, as they
have lower blood CO2 levels normally. The main impact is likely to be felt by some crustaceans and by most fishes,
especially those which use a lot of oxygen. Prof. Munday said that around 2.3 billion tonnes of human CO2
emissions dissolve into the worlds oceans every year, causing changes in the chemical environment of the water in
which fish and other species live. Weve now established it isnt simply the acidification of the oceans that is

the actual
dissolved CO2 itself is damaging the fishes nervous systems . The work shows
causing disruption as is the case with shellfish and plankton with chalky skeletons but

that fish with high oxygen consumption are likely to be most afected, suggesting the efects of high CO2 may
impair some species worse than others possibly including important species targeted by the worlds fishing

Catastrophic global warming from unrestricted emissions of

greenhouse gases remains the gravest preventable threat to humanity,
biodiversity and food security (see Nature Publishes My Piece on Dust-Bowlification and the Grave
industries.

Threat It Poses to Food Security). The time to act was along time ago, but now is better than waiting until we have
irreversibly destroyed our ability to feed the 9 billion people we are projected to have by midcentury.

Ocean acidification threatens global food security

Kirshenbaum, Fellow with the Center for Biodiversity and
Conservation at the American Museum of Natural History, 11
(Sheril, 9/24/11, Climate Progress, Were Poisoning the Oceans and It Threatens
Our Food, http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/24/319739/were-poisoning-theoceans-and-it-threatens-our-food/, 6/29/14, SM)

Marine chemist Richard Feely, a senior scientist with the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, has
been collecting water samples in the North Pacific for over 30 years. Hes observed a decrease in pH at the upper
part of the water column, notably the region where carbon dioxide from automobile exhaust, coal-fired power
plants, and other human activities has collected. This surface water is now acidic enough to dissolve the shells of
some marine animals such as corals, plankton, and mollusks in laboratory experiments. Feelys findings are just one
sign of a troubling global phenomenon called ocean acidification. We spend a lot of time worrying about carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, as a form of pollution and also as a key greenhouse gas that traps solar heat. But we

rapidly increasing
seawater acidity is the result of man-made carbon emissions. The chemistry of
pay less attention to the efects emissions have in the ocean. There is no debate that

the uptake of carbon dioxide and its changing pH of seawater is very, very clear, explains Feely. The oceans
absorb an estimated 22 million tons of CO2 from the atmosphere every day. This bufers the greenhouse efect by
drawing the planet-warming gas out of the atmosphere and storing it in water, but at a great cost to ocean life. This
carbon mixes with the salt water to create carbonic acid, which immediately breaks down, forming bicarbonate and

Higher acidity, in turn, makes

life difficult for marine animals by hampering their ability to form shells
and skeletons. For microscopic plankton and many other species at the
base of marine food chains, this means slower growth and potential
population decline. These problems trickle up to affect the large fish that
hydrogen. And this excess hydrogen increases the waters acidity.

depend on smaller organisms for food. Acidification also causes some coral species to grow
more slowly or disappear. Since coral reefs support 25 percent of the oceans species of fish, this spells widespread
trouble. Marine ecosystems are so interconnected, in fact, that scientists cannot predict the full efects of
acidification. They only know that changes in the availability of food and in community structure can scale up
quickly. Carbon emissions released since the start of the industrial revolution have sped the process of ocean
acidification, leaving little time for plants and animals to adapt to altered conditions. Scientists now anticipate an
average pH decline from 8.1 units to 7.8 in oceans by the end of this century. According to John Guinotte, a marine
biogeographer at the Marine Biology Conservation Institute, in Washington, D.C., human activity is now increasing
the amount of CO2 in the ocean at an accelerating rate. Unless we alter human behavior, he warns, we

may
experience irreversible shifts in the marine environment that can have
dire consequences for life on Earth. An international team of marine biologists recently

traveled to Papua New Guinea where excess CO2 released from volcanic activity has already decreased local ocean
pH to the levels that are expected globally by 2100. In this area, they found that more than 90 percent of the
regions coral reef species were lost. The study provided a glimpse of how oceans might one day change around the
world and serves as a warning that we must curb carbon emissions as quickly as possible. For us on land, ocean
acidification will do more than raise the cost of seafood. A decline in reefs worldwide, for example, would make
coastal communities more vulnerable to storm surges and hurricanes. Meanwhile, the fishing and shellfish
industries stand to lose hundreds of millions of dollars, and countless jobs, because of acidifications efects on
shellfish, as well as associated changes in the populations of larger species. In the United States, oyster hatcheries
in the Pacific Northwest have already experienced reduced shell growth due to higher acidity levels. No one can
predict the full consequences of ocean acidification, but its clear our own species will experience them in many
ways. About

one billion people throughout the world depend on protein

from fish for survival, so we have to think about what this means for
international food security, explains Feely.

Anthro
Massive Amounts of CO2 in the Ocean Causes Spike in Ocean
Acidification- Effecting marine food chains and is
anthropogenic.
National Geographics, No Date (National Geographic Society, Ocean
Acidification, http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/critical-issues-oceanacidification/, 6/27/14, ML)
For tens of millions of years, Earth's oceans have maintained a relatively stable acidity level. It's within this steady
environment that the rich and varied web of life in today's seas has arisen and flourished. But research shows that

a recent and rapid drop in surface pH that could

have devastating global consequences. Since the beginning of the industrial
revolution in the early 1800s, fossil fuel-powered machines have driven an unprecedented burst of human
industry and advancement. The unfortunate consequence, however, has been the emission of billions of
tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases into Earth's
atmosphere. Scientists now know that about half of this anthropogenic, or
man-made, CO2 has been absorbed over time by the oceans . This has benefited us
this ancient balance is being undone by

by slowing the climate change these emissions would have instigated if they had remained in the air. But relatively

massive amounts of CO2 into the seas is

altering water chemistry and affecting the life cycles of many marine
organisms, particularly those at the lower end of the food chain.
new research is finding that the introduction of

Ocean Acidification-Anthropogenic- Decreases life in reefs and

habitat.
GBRMP, No Date (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority), No Date (GBRMP,
Impacts of ocean acidification on the Reef, 6/27/14, ML).
In the long-term,

ocean acidification is likely to be the most significant impact of

a changing climate on the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem. The oceans absorb
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and are estimated to have
absorbed about half the excess CO2 released by human activities in the
past 200 years. About half of this anthropogenic CO2 (carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

resulting from human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, rather than natural processes) is in the upper 10
per cent of oceans (less than 1000 metres depth) due to slow ocean mixing processes. This absorbed CO2 is
resulting in chemical changes in the ocean, and is estimated to have caused a decrease in oceanic pH of 0.1. This is
referred to as ocean acidification as the oceans are becoming more acidic (though technically they are still alkaline).

As carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed from the atmosphere it bonds with

sea water forming carbonic acid. This acid then releases a bicarbonate ion
and a hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ion bonds with free carbonate ions in
the water forming another bicarbonate ion. That carbonate would otherwise
be available to marine animals for making calcium carbonate shells and
skeletons. So the more dissolved carbon dioxide in the ocean, the less free carbonate
ions available for making calcium carbonate. Although the chemistry of ocean acidification
is simple and well understood, its efect on marine life is much less well-known as the process has only been

Even relatively small increases in ocean acidity

decrease the capacity of corals to build skeletons, which in turn decreases
their capacity to create habitat for the Reef's marine life.
recognised for less than a decade.

Warming is real and happening nowmultiple indicators

Biello, Associate Editor of Environment and Energy at Scientific
American, 13
(David, 9/27/13, Biello has been reporting on the environment and energy since
1999, and reports for Yale Environment 360.Scientific American, Scientific American,
Global Warming Is Real IPCC Repeats--Now Can We Do Something about It?,
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ipcc-reiterates-global-warming-is-real/,
6/27/14, SM)
Global warming is "unequivocal." Sea levels are creeping up at the fastest
rate in 2,000 years. Concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere have
reached "levels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years" (or before
modern humans evolved). Most importantly "human influence on the climate system is clear" and "continued
emissions of greenhouse gases will cause further warming." Those are some of the key messages in the "Summary
for Policymakers" of the physical science of global warming from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
released on September 27. "The planet is red" in a global map of the change in average surface
temperatures, noted Swiss climate scientist Thomas Stocker, co-chair of IPCC Working Group I responsible for this
summary at a press conference. "The

world is warming." In the time since the 2007 version of this

the human effect on the climate has grown more than 40 percent
stronger, thanks to continued emissions of greenhouse gases and more precision in measurements, with
report,

carbon dioxide leading the charge. That moleculereleased by the gigaton from human activities like fossil fuel
burning and clearing forestscauses the bulk of global warming. The good news is that extreme global warming by
century's end, anything above 3 degrees C or more, seems "extremely unlikely," in the words of the IPCC. That's a
fact likely to be seized on by those who wish to deny climate change. But, in some sense, this summary is aimed
directly at countering some of the misinformation and misinterpretation around climate change. So the report notes
that the current "pause" in new global average temperature records since 1998a year that saw the second
strongest El Nino on record and shattered warming recordsdoes not reflect the long-term trend and may be
explained by the oceans absorbing the majority of the extra heat trapped by greenhouse gases as well as the
cooling contributions of volcanic eruptions. The Medieval Warm Period was only a regional anomaly, not the kind of
global warming seen now. After all, 1983-2012 appears to have been the warmest period in at least the last 1400

the last decade alone is the warmest on record. And the list of impacts just
Ice all over the world is melting, particularly in the Arctic , a trend that
will continue unabated. Ocean circulation looks set to change, with unpredictable
effects, and the oceans will become more acidic as well . Almost all of the world's
years and

grows longer.

coastlines will be afected by sea level rise. And developed countries and emerging economies have burned through
more than half of the fossil fuels possible to keep total concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere at a level that
gives the world a chance to keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius. (Interestingly, the IPCC has shifted from
talking about concentrations in the atmosphere, like 400 parts-per-million, to total carbon budget in gigatons. Since
1880, 531 gigatons have been emitted and emissions should not exceed 800 gigatons of C for a better than 50-50
chance at keeping global temperature rise below 2 degree C.) "We cannot emit more than 1000 billion tons of
carbon," Stocker says, noting that the IPCC numbers on which such regional and global climate projections are
made will be available to anyone. "The higher the cumulative carbon emissions are, the warmer it gets."

Reefs Resilient
New evidence shows reefs have the potential to survive, even
with ocean acidification
Richard, Editor of Science and Technology at TreeHugger, 14

Rising carbon emission from the burning of fossil fuels is increasing the acidity of
Earth's oceans. That's very bad for coral reefs, because in acidic environments they
can't form calcium carbonate, the building block of their exoskeletons. This, in turn,
is very bad because coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots that contain a
disproportionally high percentage of the oceans' species relative to their size. Well,
there's at least one exception to every rule, apparently. Scientists have
found a coral reef in the western Pacific that is thriving in acidic water
conditions. This reef is doing so well in fact that it had higher biodiversity
than neighboring reefs despite having a higher level of acidity! The
researchers still haven't figured out why these corals are doing so well in these
seemingly inhospitable conditions. They think it could be some unique
combination of chemical and biological factors, and this discovery shouldn't
be taken to mean that coral reefs will do fine in a more acid ocean. This is a local
aberration as far as we know, and we still need to do everything we can to reduce
carbon emissions, both to combat climate change and save ocean species that
depend on a certain PH level to live. But still, studying this special coral reef
could help us better understand how ocean acidification affects corals and
what we can do to help them.

Coral Reefs Resilient

The Ocean Portal Team, no date

(The Ocean Portal Team, no date, Smithsonian Institute, Ocean Acidification,

http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-acidification, 6/29/14, JW)
Reef-building corals craft their own homes from calcium carbonate, forming complex
reefs that house the coral animals themselves and provide habitat for many other
organisms. Acidification may limit coral growth by corroding pre-existing coral
skeletons while simultaneously slowing the growth of new ones, and the weaker
reefs that result will be more vulnerable to erosion. This erosion will come not only
from storm waves, but also from animals that drill into or eat coral. By the middle of
the century, its possible that even otherwise healthy coral reefs will be eroding
more quickly than they can rebuild. Acidification may also impact corals before they
even begin constructing their homes. The eggs and larvae of only a few coral
species have been studied, and more acidic water didnt hurt their
development while they were still in the plankton. However, larvae in acidic
water had more trouble finding a good place to settle, preventing them from
reaching adulthood. How much trouble corals run into will vary by species.
Some types of coral can use bicarbonate instead of carbonate ions to build
their skeletons, which gives them more options in an acidifying ocean.
Some can survive without a skeleton and return to normal skeletonbuilding activities once the water returns to a more comfortable pH.
Others can handle a wider pH range. Nonetheless, in the next century we will
see the common types of coral found in reefs shiftingthough we can't be entirely
certain what that change will look like. On reefs in Papua New Guinea that are

afected by natural carbon dioxide seeps, big boulder colonies have taken over and
the delicately branching forms have disappeared, probably because their thin
branches are more susceptible to dissolving. This change is also likely to afect the
many thousands of organisms that live among the coral, including those that people
fish and eat, in unpredictable ways. In addition, acidification gets piled on top of all
the other stresses that reefs have been sufering from, such as warming water
(which causes another threat to reefs known as coral bleaching), pollution, and
overfishing.

Biodiversity advantage:

UQ
Biodiversity loss is likely irreversible Fix it now
Fitzpatrick, CDC-trained medical epidemiologist and boardcertified infectious diseases physician with both domestic and
global experience in public health, 2010
(Lisa, No Date, Global Environment Facility, Defying Extinction: PartnershiPs to safeguard global
biodiversity,http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/publication/defying-extinction.pdf, 6/26/14, SJ)

biodiversity loss is the only one likely to be irreversible.

biodiversity is being lost today at a scale that will threaten the
life-support systems that sustain societies and economies, particularly in the
Of all environmental ills,
Unfortunately,

developing world. The Global Environment Facility was established as the financial mechanism of the Convention
on Biological Diversity, helping developing and transition countries to meet their bold commitments before this
international accord. Since 1991, the GEF has invested over $2.9 billion, leveraging $8.3 billion in co-financing, to
support implementation of more than 1000 projects in more than 155 countries, to conserve and sustainably use
biodiversity

Rate of extinction growing Must stop now

Chappell, Doctor of Philosophy, 2009
(Michael, No date, PUB, "FROM FOOD SECURITY TO FARM TO FORMICIDAE: BELO HORIZONTE, BRAZILS SECRETARIA
MUNICIPAL DE ABASTECIMENTO AND BIODIVERSITY IN THE FRAGMENTED ATLANTIC RAINFOREST,
"http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/62417/mjahi_1.pdf?sequence=1L, 6/26/14, SJ)
Given the scope and complexities involved, exact estimates of biodiversity loss are difficult at best, making
estimation of the species lost solely due to agriculture or population expansion nearly impossible. Today, there
are an estimated 13 million species in the world, though estimates range from 3 million to 111 million. As outlined

current rate of extinction is potentially thousands of times

higher than the rate estimated for most of evolutionary history, and is
only increasing (Lawton and May 1995; Gaston and Fuller 2007). Based on studies of prior global
earlier, the

extinction events, Alroy (2008) estimated that if similar levels of

extinction are seen (from 32 to 81% losses of

it may take between 10 and 40 million years for

biodiversity levels to recover. Such numbers are clearly a reason for pause :
global biodiversity),

Beyond intrinsic and fundamental cultural values ofered by the diversity of earths lifeforms, natural and
biodiverse systems ofer a number of other ecosystem services, including erosion control, groundwater and
nutrient retention, carbon sequestration, pollination, pest control, nutrient recycling, climate regulation, flood
and drought mitigation, air and water remediation, aesthetic values, recreation and leisure (Daily 1997; Prugh et
al. 2000; Hooper et al. 2005).

Biodiversity Rates are increasing Resolve the Issue now

UNEP, 2007
(UNEP, No Date, "Biodiversity", http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf, SJ)

Although about 2 million species have been

between

5 and 30 million

described,

the total number of species range

this uncertainty relates to the most

rates of extinction are

to be roughly 100 times higher than typical rates in the fossil record

species-rich groups

estimated

(IUCN 2006, May 1992). Much of

such as invertebrates.

Current documented

(MA 2005). Although conservation success in the recovery of several threatened species has been noted (IUCN
2006), and a few species that were presumed extinct have been rediscovered (Baillie and others 2004), it is
feasible that extinction rates will increase to the order of 1 00010 000 times
background rates over the coming decades (MA 2005). Fewer than 10 per cent of the worlds described species
have thus far been assessed to determine

their conservation status. Of these,

over 16 000

species

have been identified as threatened with

extinction. Of the major vertebrate groups

that have been comprehensively assessed, over 30 per cent of amphibians, 23 per cent of mammals and 12 per
cent of birds are threatened (IUCN 2006). To understand trends in extinction risk, the conservation status of an
entire species group must be assessed at regular intervals. Currently, this information is only available for birds

and amphibians, both of which indicate a continuing increase in the risk of extinction
from the 1980s to 2004 (Baillie and others 2004, Butchart and others 2005, IUCN 2006). The threat status of
species is not evenly distributed. Tropical moist forests contain by far the highest number of threatened species,
followed by tropical dry forests, montane grasslands and dry shrublands. The distribution of threatened species
in freshwater habitats is poorly known, but regional assessments from the United States, the Mediterranean
Basin and elsewhere indicate that freshwater species are, in general, at much greater risk of extinction than
terrestrial taxa (Smith and Darwall 2006, Stein and others 2000). Fisheries have also been greatly depleted, with
75 per cent of the worlds fish stocks fully or overexploited (see Chapter 4). The Living Planet Index measures
trends in the abundance of species for which data is available around the world (Loh and Wackernagel 2004).
Despite the fact that invertebrates comprise the vast majority of species, trend indices for invertebrate groups
only exist for a very small number of species groups, such as butterflies in Europe (Van Swaay 1990, Thomas
and others 2004a). The existing limited information suggests that invertebrate and vertebrate population
declines may be similar, but further studies are required (Thomas and others 2004b).

Biodiversity low nowspecies extinction rates faster than ever

National Science Foundation 12
(6/6/12, National Science Foundation, Ecologists call for preservation of planet's
remaining biological diversity,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/06/120606164938.htm, 6/28/14, SM)

Twenty years after the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 17 ecologists are calling for renewed international eforts to

the loss of Earth's biological diversity. The loss is compromising nature's

ability to provide goods and services essential for human well-being , the
scientists say. Over the past two decades, strong scientific evidence has emerged
showing that decline of the world's biological diversity reduces the
productivity and sustainability of ecosystems, according to an international team led by
curb

the University of Michigan's Bradley Cardinale. It also decreases ecosystems' ability to provide society with goods
and services like food, wood, fodder, fertile soils and protection from pests and disease. "Water purity, food
production and air quality are easy to take for granted, but all are largely provided by communities of organisms,"
said George Gilchrist, program director in the National Science Foundation's Division of Environmental Biology,
which funded the research. "This paper demonstrates that it is not simply the quantity of living things, but their
species, genetic and trait biodiversity, that influences the delivery of many essential 'ecosystem services.'''

Human actions are dismantling ecosystems, resulting in species

extinctions at rates several orders of magnitude faster than observed in
the fossil record.

Biodiversity low nowmultiple warrants:

a. Introduction of new species
Imtiyaz, Researcher at the Department of Marine Sciences at
Bhavnagar University, 13
(B. Belim, 5/1/13, P. Dhone Sweta, K. Kaba Prakash, Academia, Threats to Marine
Biodiversity, http://www.academia.edu/3424137/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity,
6/28/14, SM)
The introduction of harmful aquatic organisms to new marine
environments is believed to be one of the four greatest threats to the
worlds oceans. An alien species is one that has been intentionally or accidentally transported and released
into an environment outside of its historic geographical range. Such species are described as invasive if they are

Invasive species can dramatically change the

structure and function of marine ecosystems by changing biodiversity and
eliminating vital components of the food chain . These species are harm-ful
ecologically and/or economically harmful.

to native biodiversity in a number of ways, for example, as competitors, predators,

parasites, or by spreading disease. Ships use water as ballast to adjust their position in the water
to improve their maneuverability and stability. Mariners typically pump water into ballast tanks at one port and
discharge it when taking on cargo at another port. Mariners have unintentionally transplanted locally native marine
species to new areas with the ballast water. The arrival of an invasive jellyfish-like organism, Mnemiopsis leidyi ,
led to a major ecological regime change in the Black Sea, which contributed to the collapse of commercial
fisheries in the region. Many other species have been introduced as planktonic larvae in ballast water. There are
many alien species: Many seaweeds like red alga ( Kappaphycus striatum), zebra mussel (Dreisssena
polymorpha), lion fish (Aquarium fish), Caulerpa taxifolia

b. Overexploitation
Imtiyaz, Researcher at the Department of Marine Sciences at
Bhavnagar University, 13

(B. Belim, 5/1/13, P. Dhone Sweta, K. Kaba Prakash, Academia, Threats to Marine
Biodiversity, http://www.academia.edu/3424137/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity,
6/28/14, SM)
OVER EXPLOITATION Overexploitation can lead to resource depletion and put a
number of threatened and endangered species at risk for extinction. A greater
variety of species at a higher trophic level is exploited in the sea than on land: humans exploit over
400 species as food resources from the marine environment. The exponential
growth of human population experienced in last decades has lead to an overexploitation of marine living resources
to meet growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to three times as large as needed to take
present day catches of fish and other marine species. The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting,

Thus a total of almost 80% of the

worlds fisheries are fully to overexploited, depleted, or in a state of
collapse. Recently, a study showed that 29% of fish and seafood species have
collapsed (i.e. their catch has declined by 90%) and are projected to
collapse within by 2048, unless immediate action is taken. Worldwide about 90% of the stocks of large
transport and storage has accelerated the over exploitation.

predatory fish stocks are already collapsed. Target species are generally the most impacted by over exploitation.
Overfishing is far the biggest threat for the species listed as endangered or vulnerable to extinction. Overfishing is
threatening many other species, particularly large sized fishes such as tunas, swordfish, and sharks.

c. Habitat destruction
Imtiyaz, Researcher at the Department of Marine Sciences at
Bhavnagar University, 13

(B. Belim, 5/1/13, P. Dhone Sweta, K. Kaba Prakash, Academia, Threats to Marine
Biodiversity, http://www.academia.edu/3424137/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity,
6/28/14, SM)
HABITAT DESTRUCTION Loss of habitat is the major reason why aquatic
biodiversity is declining. Habitat destruction and fragmentation is a process that describes the
emergences of discontinuities (fragmentation) or the loss (destruction) of the environment inhabited by an

Approximately 20% of the worlds coral reefs were lost and an

additional 20% degraded in the last several decades of the twentieth
century, and approximately 35% of mangrove area was lost during this time. When a species goes
extinct, all the genetic information carried by individuals of that species is
lost forever, never to be reproduced again. Extinction is a terrible waste of life and a loss of
organism.

potential solutions to future problems such as possible cures to disease and solutions for survival in a changing

Declining biodiversity worldwide is a major and ongoing

environmental dilemma. For ex: - Rising temperatures, rising sea levels, and other trends will have an
world.

efect on the worlds 6species of sea turtles. All over the world, divers catch the fish that live in and around coral
reefs. But the divers want lots of fish and most of them are not very well trained at fish catching. Another way that
divers catch coral reef fish is with cyanide a poison. The divers pour poison on the reef, which stuns the fish and
kills the coral. This poison kills 90% of the fish that live in the reef and the reef is completely destroyed both by the

Mangrove forests are routinely being cleared,

with huge impacts on biodiversity. Healthy mangrove forests provide a critical habitat for many
species in intertidal and estuarine areas and are key to a healthy marine environment.
poison and then by being ripped apart.

Elevated water temperatures cause bleaching and encourage disease. A combination of melting ice caps and
thermal expansion of water in the oceans means that many low lying island states will be submerged. Many coastal
areas and estuaries will be flooded by the sea, while an increase in extreme weather patterns will increase erosion
and flooding. It is possible that even the fundamental patterns of ocean circulation which largely govern the earths
climate will be changed, leading to widespread disruption of both ocean and terrestrial ecosystems.

Biodiversity low nowbecause of human activities

Knight, environment reporter for CNN, 11

(Matthew, 4/6/11, CNN, New study warns on coral reef diversity,

http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/04/05/coral.reef.destruction.study/,
6/28/14, SM)
The world's most diverse coral reef regions may be under greater threat
from human populations than previously thought, according to a new global scientific
field study. Researchers reporting in the journal PlosBiology say that the diverse reef fish systems
are the most impaired by human populations -- which runs counter to previous
experimental findings which have suggested that these areas were best equipped to deal with biodiversity loss.
"Before, we thought diversity was an insurance against human stressors but it is actually a weakness," said Camilo
Mora from Canada's Dalhousie University, and lead author of the study. The study, which involved researchers from
49 countries, is the first global analysis which tries to link production of coral fish biomass with human population
density. Over a two-year period, researchers gathered biological field data from nearly 2000 reef sites worldwide
detailing fish species' weight, size and abundance, enabling them to calculate the cumulative weight of individual

The hampering
effects of human activities -- fishing, coastal development, pollution and tourism -- on reef
diversity are well known, but the damage to the ones with most biodiversity -- many of which are
reefs (standing biomass). These results were then compared against demographic data.

situation in Southeast Asia --alarmed the scientists. Unfortunately, we find again and again that our global
population cannot be sustainably supported with the deterioration of the world's natural resources. They don't yet
understand why these diverse ecosystems are so adversely afected, but they suggest it could be because of the
depletion of larger fish species -- which are more efficient at turning food into biomass. What is clear though, say

biodiversity loss in diverse reef

areas has been "considerably underestimated" and that they are more
vulnerable to human expansion. With 75% of the world's reefs situated near
human settlements -- whose populations are expected to double over the coming century -- the situation
the scientists, is that the results of the global survey suggest that

can only deteriorate if no action is taken, which poses some uncomfortable questions, Mora thinks. "Human
overpopulation is a very sensitive topic across endeavors from science to religion and politics. Unfortunately, we
find again and again that our global population cannot be sustainably supported with the deterioration of the
world's natural resources..." Mora said. "Thus, identifying socially and politically acceptable solutions to curb
human population growth is at the core of finding ultimate solutions for the protection of biodiversity and the
prevention of unnecessary hardship," he added. While the continuing depletion of reef fish systems is a cause for

there are no limits to the

beneficial effects biodiversity can have on the functioning of reef fish
systems. Previous results based on experimental studies have led scientists to conclude that the functioning of
great concern, on a slightly more positive note, the scientists also found

coral reefs -- as measured by the standing biomass -- stabilizes once a certain number of species is reached. But
the survey data contradicted these findings, showing instead that reef ecosystems have no saturation point, and
continue to increase in their efficiency as species' numbers rise. "If you look at all the information we have so far it
has been found that the number of species usually doesn't have an additional efect on how well the system

Ecosystems work much

better if they have more biodiversity. Every single species has a unique
contribution to how well an ecosystem functions."
functions," Mora said. "In coral reefs we found the complete opposite.

Reefs Key to BioD

Coral reefs are key to biodiversity
Biello 10
(David, 1/7/10, associate editor of Scientific American, Another Reason to Save
Coral? Reefs Are Responsible for Ocean Biodiversity,
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/coral-reefs-responsible-for-oceanbiodiversity/, 6/24/14, AG)
"In the oceans, new species and genera tend to originate in the tropics and in the shallows near shore," says
paleobiologist Carl Simpson of Humboldt University in Berlin, one of the researchers on the new paper. By using a
massive collection of data on fossils from mollusks to South American mammals, which records where a fossil was
found, how often it is found and what accompanied it, Simpson and his colleagues find "that a majority of

genera first evolve in reefs and then later expand to other habitats." In fact, of the
6,615 seabed invertebrates surveyed in the so-called Paleobiology Database,
1,426 evolved in a reef ecosystem. And the result is not just an artifact of reef and shallow-water
fossils being relatively more studied. "Reefs are actually rare compared to other habitats,"
Simpson notes. "If anything, there is a bias against finding that reefs are cradles."The phemonenon of reefs acting
as cradles of biodiversity seems to have peaked in the Paleozoicfrom 542 million to 251 million years agofor
reasons that are unclear. One possibility is that by seeding other environments with new species, reefs undercut
their own preeminence as cradles. "The consequence would be that reefs become one of many important cradles,
rather than the most common cradle," Simpson says.And reefs do not seem to have helped the oceans rebound
from mass extinction events, like the one at the end of the Paleozoic era that wiped out as much as 90 percent of
marine life. That's likely because "reef-building as a process had to recover from mass extinction events, because
the ecosystem engineers that built reefs were severely afected," says marine scientist Richard Aronson of the
Florida Institute of Technology, who was not involved with the study. "Reefs in general were not available to
enhance biodiversity rebound because they first had to be reconstituted as viable ecosystems."But coral reefs
do offer a variety of ecological niches and "bumpiness," as Aronson puts it, or a "great variety of physical spaces,
[water] flow regimes and other ecological opportunities." That has made them cradles not just for

sponges and the like but also snails, shrimps, urchins, fishes and even extinct
animals like trilobites.Plus, vicious competition for space and food on a reef leads
to a lot of "turnover," Simpson notes, or extinctions that allow for new species to
develop as new habitats form or ecological niches open. "If turnover is high, then the brief
window of opportunity for new species is a common occurrence."According to some mathematical estimates, 99.9
percent of all species that have ever existed are now extinct. As it stands, estimates of the number of species on
Earth at present range from five million to as many as 100 million, with science having identified only two million
members of the biodiversity extant today. That means literally billions of species have come and gone in the 4.5
billion years Earth has existed.New research will be needed to determine exactly why reefs are such efficient
cradles for new life-forms. But the threats faced by coral today from rising ocean acidity to
agricultural runof and rampant diseasedo not bode well for marine biodiversity in the near
future. After all, it is possible that during mass extinction events the destruction of reefs

might have played a role in the decline of diversity in other marine environments,
as well. As Aronson asks: "If modern reefs continue to degrade, will that have cascading evolutionary
consequences for other ecosystems by cutting of the supply of new genera?"

We Must Preserve Coral Reefs-Freshwater Discharge of

Sediments causes their death and in turn, kills Bio-d
Marder, Scientific Journalist at PBS, 11 (Jenny, 1/13/11, Lehrer

Productions, Australia Flooding Threatens Already Sensitive Great Barrier Reef,

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/flooding-threatens-already-sensitive-greatbarrier-reef/, 6/25/14, ML)
The Great Barrier Reef is long and vast, stretching 1,430 miles along Australias
northern coast. Its coral reefs provide habitat and hiding places for tens of

thousands of species. The shoreline is the hardest hit by the floods, with flood
plumes remaining pressed against the shore by winds and tide. Coral reefs have
endured flooding in the past, but todays floods are bigger, dirtier and more
dangerous, scientists say. Freshwater discharge has always occurred but not
with the loads of pollutants we now see, says Jon Brodie, Principle Researcher
for James Cook Universitys Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research.
Corals are sensitive to any environmental disturbance, and the high level
of sediments, mass amounts of fresh water and nutrients from fertilizers and
other toxic chemicals all pose high risk. And coral is already weakened by
destructive fishing, ocean acidification and warming water temperatures, which
cause bleaching, and death. The coral reefs now afected have been seeing floods
for many hundreds of years, says Katharina Fabricius, principal research scientist
for the Australian Institute of Marine Science. What has changed is that the
loads of nutrients, and sediments have increased four to tenfold. Fresh
water reduces the seawaters salinity, killing coral. All topsoil carries
nutrients, which can smother and clog the corals and block
photosynthesis. And sediments remaining for a long time in the system could
lead to unchecked growth of algae blooms and reduced biodiversity, as well as
an outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish, a sea star that preys upon coral,
Fabricius says. Each female starfish produces 60 million eggs, and scientists are
concerned that a flood might produce the first outbreak in 15 years. Plus, seagrass
beds and mangroves, which also may be damaged from the floods, normally help to
filter out dangerous sediments, says Helen Fox, senior marine scientist in the World
Wildlife Funds conservation science program. And you can imagine how big
flooding events literally swamp their ability to do that.

Coral Reefs Key To Bio Diversity- Millions of species build up

the diversity that translates into humans lives.
WWF, No Date (WWF, Coral Reefs,
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/coral_reefs/, 6/25/14, ML)
Coral reefs are home to 25% of all marine life on the planet. In fact the
variety of life supported by coral reefs rivals that of the tropical forests of the
Amazon or New Guinea. But without urgent action to address climate change,
pollution, overfishing and other threats these beautiful and life-sustaining organisms
could disappear. The total area of the world's coral reefs amounts to less than one
quarter of 1% of the entire marine environment. Yet some estimates put the total
diversity of life found in, on, and around all coral reefs at up to 2 million
species. All up, reefs are home to 25% of all marine life, and form the nurseries for
about a quarter of the ocean's fish - including commercially important species that
could end up on your dinner plate any night of the week. This biodiversity
translates directly into food security, income, and a multitude of other
benefits to people. For example, although scientists have only just begun to
understand how reefs can contribute to medicine, already coral reef organisms are
being used in treatments for diseases like cancer and HIV. For many coastal areas,
coral reefs also provide an important barrier against the worst ravages of storms,
hurricanes, and typhoons. As thousands of communities across the world will tell
you, coral reefs are essential not only to ocean health, but also to human health and
well-being.

Coral Reefs Key to Bio D

University of Michigan Research Laboratories, no date (University
of Michigan, http://sitemaker.umich.edu/gc2sec7labgroup3/over-fishing, 6/25/14,
ML)

biodiversity of reefs supports the aquarium and aquaculture industries,

biomedical industry and other commercial industries. The management of coral reef
The

fishers falls across several groups, including NOAA through the regional fishery management councils, and state,
territory commonwealth and local agencies. Because over-fishing has become a huge problem in the Great Barrier
Reefs, the Australian government has had to make plans in order to help future projections. Overfishing of

Direct overexploitation of
different fishes and invertebrates by recreational, subsistence, and
commercial fisheries has resulted in the rapid decline in populations . The
NOAA has proof that overfishing effects fish size, abundance, species composition
and genotypic diversity. Also, overexploitation of marine organisms
contributes to the degradation of coral reef ecosystems as a whole . (Puglise,
important herbivores has only been increasing over the past few decades.

K.A) A domino efect comes into play when overfishing occurs in or around a coral reef. First we have to take a
closer look into the food web of a coral reef. It is important to know that each specific plant and animal species has
an important role and function in the coral reef ecosystem, they require certain environments, nutrients and are

relationships among other

species are crucial to the survival of coral reefs. The food chain goes as follows:
dependent on other organisms (The Coral Reef Food Chain). These

producers, which are photosynthetic organisms and have a key role in the reef system because they are not only
the base of the food chain but all of the energy for the system comes from them (The Coral Reef Food Chain). Also,
these producers are key to reef-building corals (The Coral Reef Food Chain). The reef-building corals have a
relationship with the zooxanthellae, plant-like organisms that photosynthesis for reefs (The Coral Reef Food Chain).
Then these producers are eaten by the consumers, which are either herbivores or carnivores (The Coral Reef Food
Chain). It is important to notice that for coral reefs specifically some carnivores eat and keep in check the coral
reefs themselves. Fishing for a particular species obviously afects that species directly, but it also afects the

predators and the prey of the

fish will both be affected, and changes to them will also afect their predators and prey, and so on
(The Coral Reef Food Chain). A specific example includes the grouper fish, a very popular fish to eat,
animals and/or plants in both directions along the food chain - the

can be found in the Great Barrier Reef (Coral Reefs). The overfishing of grouper in some cases has led to an
increase of damselfish, which is a major food supply for the Grouper fish. Damselfish, help create pockets in corals
that are important for coral reef life (Coral Reefs). That's where the algae the damselfish feed upon grow (Coral
Reefs). If the damselfish population isnt controlled by natural predation, these algae can take over a reef,
eventually killing it (Coral Reefs).

Overfishing of other herbivorous fishes can also

lead to high levels of algal growth in diferent cases. Destructive fishing techniques can have

direct physical impacts on reef environments or create a deceit of certain species in the ecosystem. Unauthorized
fishing occurs in areas that are not supposed to be fished causing even further destruction to coral reefs (Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority). Recreational fishing is also an important activity with about 56,000 privately
registered boats fishing in the Great Barrier Reef region (Sustainable Fishing). The vulnerability of coral-reef
species is partly because of their life-history adaptations to uncertainty in survival of recruits and juveniles in
diverse communities where predation and competition are intense. With low rates of survival of recruits, multiple
attempts at reproduction are favored through longevity and large size. These traits lead to low rates of population

Ecosystem overfishing occurs when

overfishing affects multispecies assemblage composition, food-web
dynamics, or ecosystem function (Birkeland, Charles). Overfishing can devastate
the marine ecology of the Great Barrier Reef because of the specific needs of the
coral reef. Since certain amounts of nutrients, oxygen and salt content the fishes in the coral reef ecosystem
turnover and special vulnerability to overfishing.

help maintain the balance needed by the corals, with out these fishes the coral reef will collapse (Coral Reef). The
Great Barrier Reef Park has several methods to manage specific zones of fishing, the created the Australian
Commonwealth law to protect critical area.

We Must Regulate Extraction of Reef Species- It causes a chain

reaction that affects the whole ocean
Committee on Marine Biotechnology, 02
(Committee on Marine Biotechnology: Biomedical Applications of Marine Natural
Products, National Research Council, Marine Biotechnology in the Twenty-First
Century: Problems, Promise, and Products, pg. 88, AEG)
Despite a significant human dependence on and concerns for coral reef ecosystems,
compelling scientific evidence indicates that current human use and allocation of reef
resources are threatening both the ecological and the social
sustainability of these ecosystems. Increased harvest pressure is being
placed on reef resources to supply subsistence fisheries as well as a
growing international demand for reef species for food, traditional
medicines, and ornaments. Unfortunately, few countries have sufficient
knowledge, financial resources, or technical expertise to develop
management plans for the sustainable harvest of reef species, and
organisms are often extracted unsustainably for short- term economic
gains. Although several coral reef species have yielded potential therapeutic agents, concern about adequate
supply for preclinical and clinical studies is a critical issue in the development

of new biomedical products. Many

Also, individuals
often contain only trace amounts of the desired compounds; the low yield
requires the harvest of substantial biomass, which may lead to depletion
of natural populations (Creswell, 1995). Many species extinctions are predicted
in the coming decades in response to increasing pressure from human
activities and natural disturbances, and the pharmacological potential of
coral reefs may be lost. The continued, largely unregulated, and unsustainable extraction of reef
species may have consequences that extend far beyond the overexploitation of these organisms, as their
removal may also affect associated species and communities, ecological
processes, and even entire ecosystems that are critical to the overall
health of the oceans.
of the suitable reef species have a limited distribution or occur at

a low biomass.

Dying of Coral Reefs leads to The Death of Many

Organisms- They have a Symbiotic Relationship
EPA, N/A
(US Environmental Protection Agency, Coral Reef Protection: What are Coral
Reefs?, http://water.epa.gov/ type/oceb/habitat/coral_index.cfm, 6/24/14, AEG)
Virtually all reef-dwelling corals have a symbiotic (mutually beneficial)
relationship with algae called zooxanthellae. The plant-like algae live
inside the coral polyps and perform photosynthesis, producing food which
is shared with the coral. In exchange the coral provides the algae with
protection and access to light, which is necessary for photosynthesis.
The zooxanthellae also lend their color to their coral symbionts. Coral bleaching
occurs when

corals lose their zooxanthellae, exposing the white calcium carbonate skeletons of the coral colony.

or environmental changes that may cause bleaching

including disease, excess shade, increased levels of ultraviolet radiation,
sedimentation, pollution, salinity changes, and increased temperatures.
There are

a number of stresses

Because the zooxanthellae depend on light for photosynthesis, reef building corals are found in shallow, clear water
where light can penetrate down to the coral polyps. Reef building coral communities also require tropical or subtropical temperatures, and exist globally in a band 30 degrees north to 30 degrees south of the equator. Reefs are

generally classified in three types. Fringing reefs, the most common type, project seaward directly from the shores
of islands or continents. Barrier reefs are platforms separated from the adjacent land by a bay or lagoon. The
longest barrier reefs occur of the coasts of Australia and Belize. Atolls rest on the tops of submerged volcanoes.
They are usually circular or oval with a central lagoon. Parts of the atoll may emerge as islands. Over 300 atolls
are found in the south Pacific. Coral reefs provide habitats for a large variety of organisms. These organisms rely
and shelter. Besides the corals themselves and their
symbiotic algae, other creatures that call coral reefs home include
various sponges; molluscs such as sea slugs, nudibranchs, oysters, and
clams; crustaceans like crabs and shrimp; many kinds of sea worms;
echinoderms like star fish and sea urchins; other cnidarians such as
jellyfish and sea anemones; various types of fungi; sea turtles; and many
species of fish.

on corals as a source of food

Coral Reefs K2 Bio-D Has Been A Shelter For A Variety Of Creatures

For 400 Million Years

Global Ideas, 6/25

(Global Ideas Team, 6/25/14, Deutshe Welle Academy, Interactive Graphic:

Exploring A Coral Reef, http://www.dw.de/interactive-graphic-exploring-a-coralreef/a-17677132, 6/25/15, AEG)
For over

400 million years, coral reefs have formed some of the worlds

largest and most diverse ecosystems. They provide a habitat for

living creatures, protect shores from flood waves, stabilize coastal regions and even provide people with
food and incomes.

we have every reason to protect corals. But the opposite is happening. Global
warming, overfishing, polluted water and tourism are all taking a toll on coral reefs. Currently, reefs
are shrinking faster than rain forests. According to statistics from 2008, almost a fifth of
So,

the worlds reefs are already dead. But the trend can still be reversed: most reefs can recover provided global CO2
emissions are hugely reduced. Scientists have also found that some corals can adapt to warmer water temperatures

Reefs Key To BioD

Henkel, Department of Biology, Murray State University, 10

(Timothy, Nature Education, Coral Reefs,

http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/coral-reefs-15786954, 6/26/14,
ML)
Hermatypic corals are the foundation that supports at least a million species
associated with coral reefs (Figure 8). Almost every phylum of living creature
can be found living on coral reefs, with over 800 species of corals alone (Vernon
1995). Corals provide the substrate for sessile organisms to attach, including
algae, sponges, and non-reef building corals (e.g., fire corals, soft corals, gorgonians). In addition to corals,
encrusting bryozoans, sponges, and calcareous red algae act as biological-cement, keeping the reef framework

The diverse benthic flora and fauna along with the calcium
carbonate understructure increases habitat heterogeneity, which provides
a refuge from predation for invertebrates such as crabs, lobsters, sea urchins, brittlestars,
and molluscs. The diversity of pelagic species is equally vast. In the waters above coral
reefs, one can find nearly 25% of all marine fishes. Coral reefs, therefore, are
one of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, rivaling their terrestrial counterpart,
intact (Figure 9).

tropical rain forests. Given such enormous diversity and finite resources of space and food, interspecific

interactions are a primary component structuring coral reef communities.

Corals provide refuge to herbivorous fishes. Herbivorous fishes in turn graze on algae that can overgrow and
outcompete slow growing corals. Trophic interactions have led to an endless array of predatory and defensive
adaptations. Scorpion fish and frog fish have adapted camouflage to blend in with the surrounding reef (Figure 10).
Sessile organisms, such as sponges, produce chemical compounds that deter predation (Pawlik et al. 1995).

Facilitative interactions are also a hallmark of coral reef ecosystems. Juvenile

wrasses, blennies, gobies, and shrimps live on large corals that are frequented by large fishes that are often
covered with ectoparasites. The smaller "cleaner" organism consumes the parasite of the larger fish, both
apparently benefiting from the association. Anemone fish in the Indo-Pacific are another example of mutualism on
coral reefs. The anemone fish lives among the stinging tentacles of the sea anemone and gains a refuge from
predation while the anemone gains nutrients from the fish's waste (Figure 12) While these interactions appear
straightforward, scientists continue to work to understand the intricacies and nature of facilitative interactions in
coral reef communities (e.g., Cheney & Cote 2005).

Coral Reefs K2 Bio Diversity

Swart, Professor of Marine Geosciences, 13 (Peter, Nature Education,
Coral Reefs: Canaries of the Sea, Rainforests of the Oceans,
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/coral-reefs-canaries-of-the-searainforests-97879685, 6/26/14, ML)
Corals reefs are communities of organisms in which corals (members of the phylum Cnidaria) provide the
dominant structural elements. They are known to need a range of specific conditions,
such as clear agitated waters of normal salinity, free from sediment , and a
temperature between about 18 and 30oC. Within the structure of the coral reefs, members of
almost every phyla of plants and animals live and die, adding particles and organic

material to the sediment, and contributing to the efficient functioning of the coral reef ecosystem. It is estimated

coral reefs is that, although

they are highly diverse ecosystems, contain an abundance of organic
material, and are highly productive, they exist in essentially oligotrophic environments. The
that about 25% of all marine species are found in coral reefs. The paradox of

analogy is often drawn to tropical rainforests, which are also extremely diverse and exist in nutrient poor conditions.

The key to the existence of coral reefs rests in the rapid recycling of
nutrients between all the components of the community. If this balance is
disturbed for example by the addition of nutrients in excess from an outside source the
ecosystem frequently declines.

Artificial Reefs Solve For Bio-D- recreating ecosystems and

Boosts the Economy through tourists
Mauritius Marine Conservation Society, N/A (MMCS, Artificial Reefs, http://www.mmcsngo.org/en/projects/artificial-reefs.aspx, 6/27/14, AEG)

The creation of artificial reefs in the sea favours

biological productivity, therefore enhancing the population of fish and invertebrates. These reefs have
the power to attract marine life by offering a habitat. They not only constitute a shelter but are also a
valuable reproduction reservoir, which can recreate a whole ecosystem in biological
depleted zones. In Mauritius, the activities aimed at creating artificial reefs have been in development by
the MMCS since 1980. The creation of such reefs mainly aims at : Increasing the marine
population in the neighbouring reef areas An improvement in the
fishermen's catch from these reef zones A study area for scientists A
tourist attraction for divers A rehabilitation of the areas destroyed by
natural forces or anthropogenic activities A creation of reproduction zones
A beneficial use of solid wastes like old boats, tyres and automobile carcasses etc. What are
Importance of artificial reefs

Artificial reefs are man-made habitats typically built to promote

the growth of corals to develop reef systems and encourage marine life
into the area. It mimics a natural reef. By immersing old deserted ships in carefully chosen
artificial reefs?

sites, the MMCS and, since more recently, the MSDA and the National Coast Guard (NCG) have created 13 artificial
reefs (see cartography). Other objects, like old worn tyres have also been associated to these wreckages. How do

In the beginning,
devoid of any form of life, they are rapidly colonized by weed and animal
classes like sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, bivalve shells, barnacles, acids, anemones, halcyons, gorgons
and finally, after a few years' time, by corals with calcareous skeletons like
Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora and Pavonia . This encrusting fauna and flora provide food
for sedentary and mobile animals like sea cucumbers, starfishes, sea urchins, crabs and squids as
artificial reefs develop? The colonisation of artificial reefs is done progressively.

well as small fishes like Snappers (Madras), Butterflyfish (Papillon), Priacanthus (Fanal), Triggerfish (Bourse),

In turn, these small fish attract pelagic and predator

species such as hinds, morays, Lafers, kingfishes, mackerels, Capitaines, barracudas, etc.
Demoiselle, Sergent Major etc.

Coral reefs key to fish biodiversitystudies prove

Jones et al, Professor of Marine Conservation Biology at James
Cook University, McCormick, Professor of Marine Ecology at
James Cook University, 04
(Geofrey P., 5/18/04, Mark I. McCormick, Maya Srinivasan, Janelle V. Eagle, US
National Library of Medicine, Coral decline threatens fish biodiversity in marine
reserves, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC419589/?report=classic,
6/28/14, SM)

The worldwide decline in coral cover has serious implications for the health of coral reefs. But what is the future of
reef fish assemblages? Marine reserves can protect fish from exploitation, but do they protect fish biodiversity in

A
devastating decline in coral cover caused a parallel decline in fish
biodiversity, both in marine reserves and in areas open to fishing. Over
75% of reef fish species declined in abundance, and 50% declined to less
than half of their original numbers. The greater the dependence species have on living coral as
degrading environments? The answer appears to be no, as indicated by our 8-year study in Papua New Guinea.

juvenile recruitment sites, the greater the observed decline in abundance. Several rare coral-specialists became

fish biodiversity is threatened wherever permanent reef

degradation occurs and warn that marine reserves will not always be sufficient to ensure their survival.
Many ecologists have expressed concern over the worldwide decline in coral cover due to
global warming and associated coral bleaching, overfishing, and coastal
pollution (15). Coral reefs support a high diversity of fishes that may
ultimately depend on corals for their survival; however, the impact of long-term reef
locally extinct. We suggest that

degradation on fish populations is unknown. Most attention to the protection of marine fish populations has focused
on the benefits of controlling exploitation by establishing no-take marine reserves (68). However, comprehensive
strategies for protecting marine biodiversity also require an understanding of how species respond to degradation
of their habitats.

Coral reefs key to biodiversitygenerate new species

Gill, MSc in Science Communication from the University of the
West of England, 10

(Victoria, 1/7/10, BBC News, Coral reefs are evolution hotspot,

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8446002.stm, 6/28/14, SM)
Coral reefs give rise to many more new species than other tropical marine
habitats, according to a new study. Scientists used fossil records stretching back 540 million years to work out
the evolution rate at reefs. They report in the journal Science that new species originate 50%

faster in coral reefs than in other habitats. The team says its findings show that the
loss of these evolution hotspots could mean "losing an opportunity to
create new species" in the future. Coral reefs harbour a huge number of marine
species - they are often likened to rainforests in terms of their
biodiversity. If we lose reefs we lose an opportunity to create new species by evolutionary processes But
they also provide a "pump of new marine species", according to Wolfgang Kiessling the scientist from Humboldt
University in Berlin, Germany, who led this study. He and his colleagues examined the fossil record to find the
earliest evidence of benthic creatures - animals that live on the seafloor. These creatures provide a good record of
evolution. They remain on the seafloor once they die, and are often fossilised along with some of the remains of
their original habitats. This team of scientists looked for the earliest fossils from each benthic genus, or group of
species, in the fossil record. "We checked when and where each genus first occurred, explained Dr Kiessling. "So
for example, if the earliest fossils were 300 million years, we asked: 'Did it occur in a reef or outside'." He and his
colleagues had access to a record stretching back to the Cambrian explosion - when the vast majority of complex
organisms are believed to have emerged more than 540 million years ago. This huge data set was compiled by an
international project called the Paleobiology Database, which was started in 2000. "We had the best
documentation of the fossil record at our fingertips," Dr Kiessling told BBC News. "And there was also the geological
context there, so we knew where each species occurred. Giant clam fossil (Wolfgang Kiessling) Giant clams are

reefs are even more important

not only ecologically important for the marine
environment, but also in an evolutionary sense." But Dr Brian Rosen, a zoologist at the
fossilised with the remains of their coral reef habitats "Our study shows that
than currently assumed. They are

Natural History Museum in London, UK, warned that the accuracy of fossil records alone was "notoriously difficult to
gauge from the literature". He added that it could be useful for independent experts to re-examine some of the
fossilised creatures. Data "generated by direct examination of the specimens themselves by the relevant
taxonomic specialists" is more reliable when it comes to working out important evolutionary patterns, he said.
Carl-Gustaf Lundin, head of the marine programme at the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) said
that this was a "very welcome paper". "Studies like this

provide conclusive evidence that

reefs are centres of marine biodiversity," he told BBC News. "And now we see their

importance in the evolutionary history of the planet." He added that currently the planet was losing 2% of its reefs
each year, mainly because of increasing ocean temperature bleaching and stunting the coral's growth. And ocean
acidification making it more difficult for corals to build their skeletons. Dr Kiessling said: "If

we lose reefs
we lose [an] opportunity to create new species by evolutionary processes ."

Coral reefs key to biodiversitydiverse ecosystem

DUJS 12

(4/11/12, Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science, The Decline of Reefs:

Efects of Increased Carbon Emissions on Coral Ecosystems,
http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/winter-2012/the-decline-of-reefs-efects-of-increasedcarbon-emissions-on-coral-ecosystems#.U6-GVY2wKrY, 6/28/14, SM)
Often coined the rainforests of the sea, coral reefs are one of the planets
most diverse ecosystems. Though they only cover between 260,000 and 600,000 square kilometers
(less than 1% of the Earths surface), they house approximately one-third to one-fourth
of all marine species. Previous studies estimate that up to 3.2 million species may
inhabit these coral reef ecosystems (1). In addition to the biodiversity they provide, coral reefs
play an important role in their local economies. Tourism alone provides nearby countries with billions of dollars
annually and is now the fastest growing economic sector associated with these ecosystems. Furthermore,

coral

reef fisheries generate over 6 million metric tons of fish every year and

provide about one-quarter of the fish caught in developing nations. Other associated benefits of coral reefs include
their part in building materials, coastal protection, and pharmaceutical discoveries (2).

Impact Magnifier
Low Biodiversity requires attention now-We are on a fast track
to a very costly and more possibly, an irreversible effect.
Shah, Writer at Global Issues, 2014
(Anup Shah, 1/19/14, Global Issues, Loss of Biodiversity and Extinctions,
http://www.globalissues.org/article/171/loss-of-biodiversity-and-extinctions#globalissues-org
, 6/25/14, SJ)

If ecosystems deteriorates to an unsustainable level, then the problems

resulting can be very expensive, economically, to reverse. In Bangladesh and India,
for example, logging of trees and forests means that the floods during the monsoon seasons can be very deadly.
Similarly, many avalanches, and mud slides in many regions around the world that have claimed many lives, may
have been made worse by the clearing of so many forests, which provide a natural barrier, that can take the brunt
of such forces.

As the Centre for Science and Environment mentions, factors

such as climate change and environmental degradation can impact regions
more so, and make the impacts of severe weather systems even worse
than they already are. As they further point out, for poor regions, such as Orissa in India, this is even
more of a problem. Vanishing coral reefs, forests and other ecosystems can all take their toll
and even make the effects of some natural events even worse. The cost of
the effects together with the related problems that can arise (like disease,
and other illness, or rebuilding and so on) is much more costly than the
maintenance and sustainable development practices that could be used
instead. As an example, and assuming a somewhat alarmist scenario, if enough trees and forests and related
ecosystems vanish or deteriorate sufficiently: Then the oxygen-producing benefits from
such ecosystems is threatened. The atmosphere would suffer from more
pollution. The cost to tackle this and the related illnesses, problems and
other cascading effects would be enormous (as it can be assumed that
industrial pollution could increase, with less natural ecosystems to soak
it up) Furthermore, other species in that ecosystem that would depend on this would be further at risk as well,
which would lead to a downward spiral for that ecosystem. Compare those costs to taking precautionary measures
such as protecting forests and promoting more sustainable forms of development. Of course, people will argue that
these situations will not occur for whatever reasons. Only when it is too late can others say told you so a
perhaps very nasty Catch 22. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is an organization backed
by the UN and various European governments attempting to compile, build and make a compelling economics
case for the conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity. It has also attempted to put a value on the ecological
services provided to humanity. It found, for example, implementing REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation) could help Halve deforestation by 2030, and Cut emissions by 1.5 Gt of CO2 per year.
From a cost perspective (p.18), it is estimated that It would cost from US$ 17.2 33 billion per year The estimated

another study that

estimated that 3,000 listed companies around the world were responsible
for over $2 trillion in environmental externalities (i.e. costs that have to
be borne by society from ignored factors, or social costs). This is equivalent to
benefit in reduced climate change is US$ 3.2 trillion In addition, they cited

7% of their combined revenues and up to a third of their combined profits.

Biodiversity outweighs nuclear war, energy depletion,

economic collapse, tyranny
Chen, Professor of Law at the U of Minnesota, 2000
(James, mm/dd/00, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade Winter, Globalization and Its Losers,
http://digitalcommons.law.msu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1476&context=facpubs, 6/26/14, SJ)

Chen 2000 [Jim, Professor of Law at the U of Minnesota, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade Winter 2000, pg. 211]

The value of endangered species and the biodiversity they embody is

literally . . . incalculable. What, if anything, should the law do to preserve it? There are those that
invoke the story of Noahs Ark as a moral basis for biodiversity preservation. Others regard the Judeo-Christian
tradition, especially the biblical stories of Creation and the Flood, as the root of the Wests deplorable environmental
record. To avoid getting bogged down in an environmental exegesis of Judeo-Christian myth and legend, we
should let Charles Darwin and evolutionary biology determine the imperatives of our moment in natural history.

The loss of biological diversity is quite arguably the gravest problem facing
humanity. If we cast the question as the contemporary phenomenon that our descendents [will] most regret,
the loss of genetic and species diversity by the destruction of natural habitats is
worse than even energy depletion, economic collapse, limited nuclear war,
or conquest by a totalitarian government. Natural evolution may in due course renew the
earth will a diversity of species approximating that of a world unspoiled by Homo sapiens in ten million years,
perhaps a hundred million

Impact - Hunger
Biodiversity key to nutrition
WHO, 2014
(WHO, WHO, Biodiversity,
http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/biodiversity/en/, 6/25/15, SJ)
Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on world food
production, as it ensures the sustainable productivity of soils and provides the
genetic resources for all crops, livestock, and marine species harvested
for food. Access to a sufficiency of a nutritious variety of food is a fundamental determinant of health. Nutrition and
biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem
and the genetic diversity within species. Nutritional composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same
food can difer dramatically, afecting micronutrient availability in the diet .

Healthy local diets, with

adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of
high biodiversity levels. Intensified and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant
protection (pesticides) or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping patterns afect biodiversity, and thus impact global
nutritional status and human health. Habitat simplification, species loss and species succession often enhance communities
vulnerabilities as a function of environmental receptivity to ill health.

Fish shortages causes mass hunger-time to act is now before

dramatic shift
Leahy, Lead International Science and Environment
Correspondent at IPS, 2009
(Stephen Leahy, 10/9/09, IPS, "BIODIVERSITY: Dwindling Fish Catch Could Leave a Billion Hungry",
http://www.ipsnews.net/2009/10/biodiversity-dwindling-fish-catch-could-leave-a-billion-hungry/
, 6/26/14, SJ)

Fish catches are expected to decline dramatically in the worlds tropical

regions because of climate change, but may increase in the north, said a new study published Thursday. This
mega-shift in ocean productivity from south to north over the next three to four decades will leave those most
reliant on fish for both food and income high and dry. The shift is already happening, weve been measuring it for
the last 20 years, said Daniel Pauly, a renowned fisheries expert at the University of British Columbia (UBC).
Major

shifts in fish populations will create a host of changes in ocean

ecosystems likely resulting in species loss and problems for the people
who now catch them, Pauly told IPS. In the first major study to examine the efects of climate change
on ocean fisheries, a team of researchers from UBC and Princeton University discovered that
catch potential will fall 40 percent in the tropics and may increase 30 to 70 percent in
high latitude regions, affecting ocean food supply throughout the world by 2055 .
The study, published in the journal Global Change Biology, examined the impacts of rising ocean temperatures,

Many tropical island residents

rely heavily on the oceans for their daily meals. These new findings
suggest theres a good chance this important food source will be greatly
diminished due to climate change, said lead author William Cheung, a researcher at the
University of East Anglia in Britain who conducted the study while at UBC. Countries facing the
biggest loss in catch potential include Indonesia, the United States
(excluding Alaska and Hawaii), Chile and China. Pauly told IPS that the recently
changes in salinity and currents resulting from a warming climate.

documented rises in ocean acidity and anoxia levels in many parts of the ocean were not part of this study but will
be part of future reports. Nor were the observed changes in plankton production. This estimate is conservative,

Many
oceanographers predict severe loss of coral reefs in coming decades due
to rising acidity from emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere .
Corals support about 25 to 33 percent of the oceans living creatures.
he explained. We will likely project significant additional reductions in fish catch.

Some one billion people depend directly and indirectly on reefs for their
livelihoods. If the poor people in this region cannot eat what they grow or
catch or what their neighbour grows or catches, they dont eat , Pauly said.
Meanwhile, industrial fisheries operating in tropical regions are scooping up enormous amounts of fish anchovies,
herring, mackerel and other small pelagic forage fish to feed to farmed salmon or turn into animal feed or pet food,

In 2006, aquaculture consumed 57 percent of fish

meal and 87 percent of fish oil, the study published in the journal Ambio reported. This has
pushed the price of fish up and reduced the amount of protein available to hundreds of millions of
another study reported this week.

people mainly in tropical regions, according to authors Albert Tacon of the University of Las Palmas, Spain and Marc

These small pelagic forage fish contribute more

than 50 percent of the total food fish supply in more than 36 countries in
Africa, Asia and elsewhere. Especially hard-hit is sub-Saharan Africa,
where more than half of the population receives 25 percent or more of its
protein from fish. In the competition between food and feed, the poor are
losing. In Mexico, a fish called the California pilchard traditionally was used for fishmeal and processed for direct
human consumption. Now, due to increased demand from tuna aquaculture
operations, the price of California pilchard has shot up, making it too expensive
for many Mexicans to eat. Human nutritional demands in impoverished communities needs to be a
priority, Tacon and Metian write. National government must also set limits on the use
of fish as animal feed. Previous studies looking at impacts of climate change on the global food supply
Metian of the University of Hawaii.

have only considered land-based food sources and these concluded that tropical areas will see a decline in land
productivity. The most recent and comprehensive study, reported by IPS, projects significant declines in crop yields
and major price increases. The negative efects of climate change are especially pronounced in Sub-Saharan Africa

the projected
shift in fish catch from south to north and climate change will likely bring major
reductions in the food supply in tropical regions . Industrialised countries should not be
and South Asia, the International Food Policy Research Institute study concluded. Add in

surprised this is coming and should be prepared to assist developing countries and small island states adapt, the
University of East Anglias Chueng told IPS in an interview from Norwich, England. The study also projects that
warmer waters will boost fish catches substantially in Norway, Greenland, Alaska and the east coast of Russia. While
greater catch potential in colder regions might appear beneficial, the authors caution that more research is needed
to account for the multitude of dynamic factors that afect every ecosystem. While warmer waters might attract
new species to colder regions, the rise in temperature might make the environment inhospitable to current species
in the region that cannot move to even higher latitudes, said Pauly. Even if the northern ocean increases in
productivity in the future, it will barely be enough to maintain current levels of fish consumption. There

will

be no transfer of surplus fish from the north to south, he said. And without major
reductions in carbon emissions, We are facing the end of civilisation as we know it, he said. The collapse of
fisheries in much of the world would be a sideshow.2

Biodiversity ensures food security

ASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental
Policy Implementation, 2005
(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being,
http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14,
SJ)
Biological diversity is used by many rural communities directly as an
insurance and coping mechanism to increase flexibility. Biological diversity is used by
many rural communities directly as an insurance and coping mechanism to increase
uncertainty, shocks, and surprises. The availability of this biological safety net has
increased the security and resilience of some local communities to
external economic and ecological perturbations, shocks, or surprises (C6.2.2,
C8.2). In a world where fluctuating commodity prices are more the norm than the exception, economic entitlements of the poor are
increasingly becoming precarious.

The availability of an ecosystem-based food security

net during times when economic entitlements are insufficient to purchase

adequate nourishment in the market provides an important insurance
program (C8.1, C6.7). Coping mechanisms based on indigenous plants are particularly important for the most vulnerable
people, who have little access to formal employment, land, or market opportunities (C6). For example, investigations of two dryland
sites in Kenya and Tanzania report local communities using wild indigenous plants to provide alternative sources of food when
harvests failed or when sudden expenses had to be met (such as a hospital bill). (See Table 2.1.) Another pathway through which
biodiversity can improve food security is the adoption of farming practices that maintain and make use of agricultural biodiversity.
Biodiversity is important to maintaining agricultural production. Wild relatives of domestic crops provide genetic variability that can
be crucial for overcoming outbreaks of pests and pathogens and new environmental stresses. Many agricultural communities
consider increased local diversity a critical factor for the long-term productivity ty and viability of their agricultural systems. For
example, interweaving multiple varieties of rice in the same paddy has been shown to increase productivity by lowering the loss
from pests and pathogens

Hunger bad- outweighs extinction

Watson, Professor of Philosophy at Washington University,
1977
One may even have to sacrifice ones life or ones nation to be moral in situations where practical behavior would
preserve it. For example, if a prisoner of war undergoing torture is to be a (perhaps dead) patriot even when

if one is to be moral,
one distributes available food in equal shares even if everyone dies. That an
action is necessary to save ones life is no excuse for behaving
unpatriotically or immorally if one wishes to be a patriot or moral. No principle of morality absolves
reason tells him that collaboration will hurt

no one, he remains silent. Similarly,

one of behaving immorally simply to save ones life or nation. There is a strict analogy here between adhering to
moral principles for the sake of being moral, and adhering to Christian principles for the sake of being Christian. The
moral world contains pits and lions, but one looks always to the highest light. The ultimate test always harks back
to the highest principle recant or die. The ultimate test always harks back to the highest principle recant or die
and it is pathetic to profess morality if one quits when the going gets rough.

Famine Leads to Global Deaths

Helfand, Physician for IPPNW, 12 (Ira, Intern national Physicians for the
Prevention of
Nuclear War, Nuclear Famine: Two Billion People At Risk, http://slmk.org/icanw/wpcontent/uploads/2013/12/nuclear-famine-summary-2013.pdf, 6/26/14, ML)
The decline in available food would be exacerbated by increases in food
prices which would make food inaccessible to hundreds of millions of the
worlds poorest. Even if agricultural markets continued to function normally, 215
million people would be added to the rolls of the malnourished over the
course of a decade. However, markets would not function normally. Significant,
sustained agricultural shortfalls over an extended period would almost
certainly lead to panic and hoarding on an international scale as food
exporting nations suspended exports in order to assure adequate food
supplies for their own populations. This turmoil in the agricultural markets
would further reduce accessible food.

Impact - Wealth
Biodiversity promotes wealth-it aids areas which require much
resource.
Shah, Writer at Global Issues, 2014
(Anup Shah, 1/19/14, Global Issues, Why is Biodiversity important? Who cares?,
http://www.globalissues.org/article/170/why-is-biodiversity-important-whocares#Moreimportantthanhumanuseorbiologicalinterest, 6/25/14, SJ)
It was noted earlier that ecosystems provide many services to us, for free. Although some dislike the thought of
trying to put an economic value on biodiversity (some things are just priceless), there have been attempts to do so
in order for people to understand the magnitude of the issue: how important the environment is to humanity and
what costs and benefits there can be in doing (or not doing) something. The Economics of Ecosystems and
Biodiversity (TEEB) is an organization backed by the UN and various European governments attempting to
compile, build and make a compelling economics case for the conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity. In a
recent report, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for National and International Policy Makers 2009,
TEEB provided the following example of sectors dependent on genetic resources: Table: Example of market sectors
dependent on genetic resources Sector Size of Market Comment The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
for National and International Policy Makers 2009 PDF formatted document, p.17 Pharmaceutical US$ 640 bn.
(2006) 25-50% derived from genetic resources Biotechnology US$ 70 bn. (2006) from public companies alone
Many products derived from genetic resources (enzymes, microorganisms) Agricultural seeds US$ 30 bn. (2006) All
derived from genetic resources Personal care, Botanical and food & Beverage industries US$ 22 bn. (2006) for
herbal supplements US$ 12 bn. (2006) for personal care US$ 31 bn. (2006) for food products Some products
derived from genetic resources. represents natural component of the market. In addition, it is estimated that
implementing REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) could help Halve

From a cost perspective

(p.18), it is estimated that It would cost from US$ 17.2 33 billion per
year The estimated benefit in reduced climate change is US$ 3.2 trillion
The above would be a good return on the initial investment. By contrast, waiting 10 more years
could reduce the net benefit of halving deforestation by US$ 500 billion. In addition, they cited
another study that estimated that 3,000 listed companies around the world were responsible for over $2
deforestation by 2030, and Cut emissions by 1.5 Gt of CO2 per year.

trillion in environmental externalities (i.e. costs that have to be borne by society from ignored factors, or social

The
BBC notes that biodiversity is fundamental to economics. For example,
The G8 nations, together with 5 major emerging economies China, India,
South Africa, Brazil, Mexico use almost three-quarters of the Earths
biocapacity An estimated 40% of world trade is based on biological
products or processes. Despite these free benefits, it has long been
recognized that we tend to ignore or underestimate the value of those
services. So much so that economic measures such as GDP often ignores
environmental costs. The economic benefits of protecting the
environment are well-understood, even if seemingly rarely practiced:
costs). This is equivalent to 7% of their combined revenues and up to a third of their combined profits.

Numerous studies also show that investments in protected areas generate a cost-benefit ratio of one to 25 and

Planting and protecting nearly

12,000 hectares of mangroves in Vietnam costs just over a million dollars
but saved annual expenditures on dyke maintenance of well over seven
million dollars. Stephen Leahy, Environment: Save At Least Half the Planet, or Lose It All, Inter Press
even one to 100 in some cases, [Pavan Sukhdev, from TEEB] said.

Service, November 17, 2009 It has perhaps taken about a decade or so and a severe enough global financial
crisis that has hit the heart of this way of thinking to change this mentality (in which time, more greenhouse
gases have been emitted inefficiently). Economists talk of the price signal that is fundamental to capitalism; the
ability for prices to indicate when a resource is becoming scarcer. At such a time, markets mobilize automatically to
address this by looking for ways to bring down costs. As a result, resources are supposedly infinite. For
example, if energy costs go up, businesses will look for a way to minimize such costs for themselves, and it is in
such a time that alternatives come about and/or existing resources last longer because they are used more
efficiently. Running out of resources should therefore be averted. However, it has long been argued that prices
dont truly reflect the full cost of things, so either the signal is incorrect, or comes too late. The price signal also
implies the poorest often pay the heaviest costs. For example, commercially over-fishing a region may mean fish

from that area becomes harder to catch and more expensive, possibly allowing that ecosystem time to recover
(though that is not guaranteed, either). However, while commercial entities can exploit resources elsewhere, local
fishermen will go out of business and the poorer will likely go hungry (as also detailed on this sites section on
biodiversity). This then has an impact on various local social, political and economic issues. In addition to that,
other related measurements, such as GNP are therefore flawed, and even reward unproductive or inefficient
behavior (e.g. Efficiently producing unhealthy food and the unhealthy consumer culture to go with it may
profit the food industry and a private health sector that has to deal with it, all of which require more use of
resources. More examples are discussed on this sites section on consumption and consumerism). Our continued
inefficient pumping of greenhouse gases into the environment without factoring the enormous cost as the climate
already begins to change is perhaps an example where price signals may come too late, or at a time when there is
already significant impact to many people. Resources that could be available more indefinitely, become finite
because of our inability or unwillingness to change. Markets fail to capture most ecosystem service values. Existing
price signals only reflect - at best - the share of total value that relates to provisioning services like food, fuel or
water and their prices may be distorted. Even these services often bypass markets where carried out as part of
community management of shared resources. The values of other ecosystem services are generally not reflected in
markets apart from a few exceptions (such as tourism). This is mainly explained by the fact that many ecosystem
services are public goods or common goods: they are often open access in character and non-rival in their
consumption. In addition, their benefits are felt diferently by people in diferent places and over diferent
timescales. Private and public decisions afecting biodiversity rarely consider benefits beyond the immediate
geographical area. They can also overlook local public benefits in favor of private benefits , even when local
livelihoods are at stake, or focus on short-term gains to the detriment of the sustained supply of benefits over
time. Benefits that are felt with a long-term horizon (e.g. from climate regulation) are frequently ignored. This
systematic under-valuation of ecosystem services and failure to capture the values is one of the main causes
underlying todays biodiversity crisis. Values that are not overtly part of a financial equation are too often ignored.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for National and International Policy Makers 2009 PDF formatted
document, p.10 (Emphasis original) In efect, as TEEB, and many others before have argued, a key challenge will
be adapting our economic systems to integrate sustainability and human well-being as well as other environmental
factors to give us truer costs (after all, market systems are supposed to work when there is full availability of
information). Think of some of the efects this could have: Some industrial meat production, which is very harmful
for the environment, may become more expensive For example, as mentioned in the previous link, if water used by
the meat industry in the United States were not subsidized by taxpayers, common hamburger meat would cost $35
a pound. Instead of regulation to change peoples habits, markets would automatically reflect these true costs;
consumers can then make better informed choices about what to consume, e.g. by reducing their meat
consumption or demand more ecologically sustainable alternatives at reasonable cost. A reduction in meat
production could protect forests or help reduce clearance of forests for cattle ranches, which would have a knock-on
benefit for climate change concerns. Appropriate investment in renewable energy could threaten the fossil fuel
industry though they are trying to adapt to that (perhaps slowly, and after initial resistance). But at the same time,
governments that are able to use renewable sources are less likely to find themselves spending so many resources
in geopolitical areas (e.g. politics, military, terrorist response to Western presence in Middle East, etc) to protect or
secure access to fossil fuels. Cradle to cradle type of design where products are designed to be produced and
recycled or disposed of more sustainably could considerably reduce costs for producers and consumers alike, and
possibly reduce stress on associated ecosystems. Land that is used to produce unhealthy or marginally nutritious
items (e.g. tobacco, sugar, possibly tea and cofee) could be used for more useful or healthier alternatives, possibly
even helping address obesity and other issues. (For example, while factoring in environmental costs could make
healthy produce more expensive too, expanding production of healthier foods could help contain costs rises to
some extent.) etc. How much would such accounting save? It is hard to know, but there is a lot of waste in the
existing system. In the mid-1990s, the Institute for Economic Democracy calculated that as much as half the
American economy constituted of wasted labor, wealth and resources (book: Worlds Wasted Wealth, II see
sample chapter). Naturally, those who benefit from the current system may be hostile to such changes, especially
if it may mean they might lose out. This is a clear case of inter-related issues: the health of the environment is
strongly tried to our economic choices (i.e. how we use resources), but addressing core short-comings in our
economic systems is a crucial political challenge.

Impact - Suffering
Loss of biodiversity means increase in human sufering
ASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental
Policy Implementation, 2005

(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being,

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14,
SJ)
The world is experiencing an increase in human suffering and economic
losses from natural disasters over the past several decades . Mangrove forests and coral
reefsa rich source of biodiversityare excellent natural bufers against floods and storms. Their loss or reduction in
coverage has increased the severity of flooding on coastal communities.
Floods affect more people (140 million per year on average) than all other natural or
technological disasters put together. Over the past four decades, the number of great disasters has increased by
a factor of four, while economic losses have increased by a factor of ten. During the 1990s, countries low on the Human Development Index experienced
about 20% of the hazard events and reported over 50% of the deaths and just 5% of economic losses. Those with high rankings on the index accounted
for over 50% of the total economic losses and less than 2% of the deaths (C6, R11, C16). A common finding from the various subglobal assessments was

many people living in rural areas cherish and promote ecosystem

variability and diversity as a risk management strategy against shocks
and surprises (SG11). They maintain a diversity of ecosystem services and are skeptical about solutions that reduce their options.
The sub-global assessments found that diversity of species, food, and landscapes
serve as savings banks that rural communities use to cope with change
and ensure sustainable livelihoods (see Peruvian, Portuguese, Costa Rican, and India sub-global assessments).
that

Biodiversity is health-Loss of biodiversity means an increase in

potential for health issues.
ASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental
Policy Implementation, 2005

(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being,

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14,
SJ)
An important component of health is a balanced diet. About 7,000 species of plants and several hundred species of animals have been used for human
food consumption at one time or another. Some indigenous and traditional communities currently consume 200 or more species. Wild sources of food

Overexploitation of
marine fisheries worldwide, and of bushmeat in many areas of the tropics, has lead to a reduction
in the availability of wild-caught animal protein, with serious
consequences in many countries for human health (C.4.3.4). Human health,
particularly risk of exposure to many infectious diseases may depend on
the maintenance of biodiversity in natural ecosystems. On the one hand, a greater diversity of
remain particularly important for the poor and landless to provide a somewhat balanced diet (C6, C8.2.2).

wildlife species might be expected to sustain a greater diversity of pathogens that can infect humans. However, evidence is accumulating that greater

wildlife diversity may decrease the spread of many wildlife pathogens to

humans. The spread of Lyme disease, the best-studied case, seems to be decreased by the maintenance of the biotic integrity of natural
ecosystems (C11, C14).

Freedom of Choice Biodiversity ensures ability to have diferent

choices for better life.

ASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental

Policy Implementation, 2005

(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being,

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14,
SJ)
Freedom of choice and action within the MA context refers to individuals having control over what happens and being able to achieve what they value

Loss of biodiversity often means a loss of choices.

(CF3).
Local fishers depend on mangroves as
breeding grounds for local fish populations. Loss of mangroves translates to a loss in control over the local fish stock and a livelihood they have been

These systems
normally produce less cash than monoculture cash crops, but farmers have some control over their entitlements because of
spreading risk through diversity. High diversity of genotypes, populations, species, functional
types, and spatial patches decreases the negative effects of pests and
pathogens on crops and keeps open possibilities for agrarian communities to
develop crops suited to future environmental challenges and to increase
their resilience to climate variability and market fluctuations (C11). Another
dimension of choices relates to the future. The loss of biodiversity in some instances is
irreversible, and the value individuals place on keeping biodiversity for future generations the option valuecan be significant (CF6, C2).
The notion of having choices available irrespective of whether any of them
will be actually picked is an essential constituent of the freedom aspect of
well-being. However, putting a monetary figure on option values is notoriously difficult. We can only postulate on the needs and desires of
pursuing for many generations and that they value. Another example is high-diversity agricultural systems.

future generations, some of which can be very diferent from todays aspirations.

Impact - Disease
Organisms in Coral Reefs Key to the curing and treating diseases

NOAA, 11

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 5/13/11, NOAA,

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/, 6/24/14, TH
The genetic diversity found in coral ecosystems is unparalleled and this
diversity has proven beneficial for humans through the identification of
potentially beneficial chemical compounds and through the development
of medicines, both derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems . Many
species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds for defense or attack, particularly the slow-moving
or stationary species like nudibranchs and sponges. Searching for potential new pharmaceuticals, termed

nearly half of the

medicines in use today have their origins in natural products, mostly
derived from terrestrial plants, animals, and microorganisms . [b] However,
bioprospecting, has been common in terrestrial environments for decades. [a] In fact,

bioprospecting is relatively new in the marine environment and is nowhere close to realizing its full potential. [a]

Creatures found in coral ecosystems are important sources of new

medicines being developed to induce and ease labor; treat cancer,
arthritis, asthma, ulcers, human bacterial infections, heart disease,
viruses, and other diseases; as well as sources of nutritional supplements,
enzymes, and cosmetics. [b] The medicines and other potentially useful compounds identified to
date have led to coral ecosystems being referred to as the medicine
cabinets of the 21st century by some, and the list of approved and potential new drugs is ever

growing. However, this focus on coral ecosystems for medical properties is not unique to the 21st century. The
unique medical properties of organisms found in coral reefs was recognized by Eastern cultures as early as the 14th
century; tonics and medicines derived from seahorse extracts continue to be in high demand for traditional
medicines. [b] The gall bladder of several fish species were used in Palauan traditional medicine to treat venomous
stings of other marine organisms, such as stonefish. [c] While knowledge and use of some traditional medicines has
been lost, there is renewed interest within modern medicine in researching some of these treatments. Toxins
provided by reef creatures are of particular interest in present day pharmaceutical research. Stonefish, sea snakes,
box jellyfish, cone shells, and puferfish contain some of the most toxic compounds presently known to man. These
chemical compounds are being studied by researchers, and some have already been used to develop medicines or
cosmetics. For example, cone snail neurotoxin is showing promise as a powerful painkiller. [a] Other types of

xxxantiviral drugs Ara-A and AZT and the

anticancer agent Ara-C, developed from extracts of sponges found on a
Caribbean reefxxx, were among the earliest modern medicines obtained from coral ecosystems. [b] The
chemical compounds are also proving fruitful. The

anti-cancer properties of a number of additional compounds derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems are

Chemicals derived from Caribbean sea-whip corals have

shown skincare, painkiller, and anti-inflammatory properties and a
compound derived from a Pacific sponge has lead to testing of over 300
chemical analogs for anti-inflammatory properties. [a], [d] Kainic acid,
which is used as a diagnostic chemical to investigate Huntington's chorea,
a rare but fatal disease of the nervous system, was isolated from
organisms on a Japanese reefxxx. [e] Australian researchers have developed a sun cream from a
also being studied.xxx

coral chemical that contains a natural "factor 50" sun block. [e] To watch a short video clip about these NOAA
discoveries, click here. NOAA is even playing a role in the discovery of new medical compounds. A research team,

NOAA scientists at the Hollings Marine Laboratory, has discovered

new compounds derived from a sea sponge and corals. One compound
eats away at the shield bacteria use to protect themselves from
antibiotics. The second discovery was compounds that fight some of the
worst infectious bacterial strains. [e] Besides being the source of potentially useful chemical
compounds, the porous limestone skeleton of corals has been tested as bone
grafts in humans. Pieces of coral set into a fracture act as a scafold around which the healing can take
including

Rates of rejection are

much lower than with artificial grafting materials. [e] It should be noted
that, aside from the compounds mentioned here, there are likely many
other compounds under development which have not yet been disclosed
to the wider public. It is safe to say that the published research is only the tip of the iceberg when it
place. The implant eventually disappears, absorbed by the new growth of bone.

comes to the pharmaceutical possibilities presented by compounds derived from creatures found in coral
ecosystems, including the corals themselves. Thus, it is nearly impossible to predict what the future economic
benefits of bioprospecting will be, as more potentially valuable medical compounds are isolated from organisms
found in coral ecosystems.This

aspect of reef value was not incorporated into the

estimated $5.5 billion total global value of coral reef biodiversity, but is
certainly both a consideration for the economic value of coral reefs and
the costs to society if reefs are lost. [f] *Unless otherwise noted, all monetary values presented
are in US Dollars.

Crisis is coming Biodiversity solves.

WWF Global,

(WWF Global, How does Biodiversity loss afect me and everyone else?,
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiversity/biodiversity_and_you/, 6/26/14,
SJ)
Biological diversity is the resource upon which families, communities, nations and future generations
depend. It is the link between all organisms on earth, binding each into an
interdependant ecosystem, in which all species have their role. It is the web of
life.

The Earths natural assets are made up of plants, animals, land, water, the atmosphere AND humans!

if there is a biodiversity crisis,

our health and livelihoods are at risk too. But we are currently using 25%
more natural resources than the planet can sustain As a result species,
habitats and local communities are under pressure or direct threats (for
Together we all form part of the planets ecosystems, which means

example from loss of access to fresh water). Biodiversity underpins the health of the planet and has a direct impact

reduced biodiversity means millions of people face a

future where food supplies are more vulnerable to pests and disease, and
where fresh water is in irregular or short supply.
on all our lives. Put simply,

Disease chance higher with biodiversity decrease solve soon

Pongsiri, U.S. EPA, 2009
(Montira, 12/--/09, USEPA, http://www.epa.gov/ncer/biodiversity/pubs/bio_2009_59_11.pdf, 6/26/14, SJ)

Biodiversity loss can also have a direct effect on zoonotic disease

transmission. Plant or structural diversity and habitat complexity can influence the
composition, abundance, and distribution of animals that play important
roles in the transmission cycles of some human diseases. For example, deforestation

and habitat fragmentation or modification, and the accompanying loss of structural diversity, can lead to changes in

Changes in the
diversity or composition of animal hosts may be closely associated with
the incidence of zoonotic diseases such as Lyme disease orWest Nile virus
(WNV) in humans (LoGiudice et al. 2003, Ezenwa et al. 2006). At the same time, it is important to note
human contact rates with a variety of pathogens and disease vectors (Vittor et al. 2006).

that parasites can be important drivers of biodiversity and components of ecosystem health (Hudson et al. 2006).
Some disease dynamics may operate independently of biodiversity if they rely on nongeneralist vectors or a certain
abundance of reservoir hosts (Kilpatrick et al. 2006). Finally, although, additional hosts can reduce the transmission
rates of particular diseases, they can also harbor other pathogens. The links between biodiversity and human
health occur from the microbial level to that of the habitat. Mechanistic pathways that lead from changes in
biodiversity to human health can occur at the genetic, microbial, organismal (host or vector species),
community, and habitat levels. The range of pathways is summarized in table 1. In this review, we discuss
case studies in which these links have been investigated in some detail.We then summarize general lessons

from this research and identify several key questions that remain to be answered.We conclude by describing
how decisionmakers can use such information to design conservation initiatives that protect both biodiversity
and human health.

Biodiversity key for medicinal research must maintain a low

rate of loss
UNEP, 2007
(UNEP, No Date, "Biodiversity", http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf, SJ)

Biodiversity is also the source for many cures. In 20022003, 80 per cent of new
chemicals introduced globally as drugs could be traced to or were
inspired by natural products. Profits from such developments can be enormous. For example, a
compound derived from a sea sponge to treat herpes was estimated to be worth US$50100 million annually,
and estimates of the value of anti-cancer agents from marine organisms are up to US$1 billion a year (UNEP
2006a). Traditional medicines, mainly derived from plants, are a mainstay of primary health care for a significant

80 per cent of people

in developing countries rely on traditional medicines, mostly derived
from plants, and more than half of the most frequently prescribed drugs
in developed countries derive from natural sources. Loss of biodiversity
may decrease our options for new treatments in the future. WHO has
identified 20 000 species of medicinal plants for screening, and there are many more
species whose medicinal values are only just being discovered, or may
prove important in the future. The value of the global herbal medicine market was estimated at

proportion of the population in developing countries.

It is speculated that some

roughly US$43 billion in 2001 (WHO 2001). The capacity of ecosystems to remove wastes from the
environment is being degraded, due to both increased loading of wastes and degradation of ecosystems, leading
to local and sometimes global waste accumulation (MA 2005). Examples include the accumulation of particles
and gases in the air, and of microbial contaminants, inorganic chemicals, heavy metals, radioisotopes and
persistent organic pollutants in water, soil and food. Such wastes have a wide range of negative health impacts.

Impact Extinction
Coral reefs are key to biodiversitycradles for new animals
Biello, Associate Editor of Environment and Energy at Scientific
American, 10
(David, 1/7/10, Biello has been reporting on the environment and energy since
1999, and reports for Yale Environment 360.Scientific American, "Another Reason to
Save Coral? Reefs Are Responsible for Ocean Biodiversity,"
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/coral-reefs-responsible-for-oceanbiodiversity/, 6/24/14, SM)
The Great Barrier Reef is the largest living structure on Earth. It might also represent the
most prolific cradle for new types of animals on the planet , according to new
research published in the January 8 edition of Science. "In the oceans, new species and genera tend to originate in
the tropics and in the shallows near shore," says paleobiologist Carl Simpson of Humboldt University in Berlin, one
of the researchers on the new paper. By using a massive collection of data on fossils from mollusks to South
American mammals, which records where a fossil was found, how often it is found and what accompanied it,

a majority of genera first evolve in reefs and then

later expand to other habitats." In fact, of the 6,615 seabed invertebrates
surveyed in the so-called Paleobiology Database, 1,426 evolved in a reef ecosystem. And
Simpson and his colleagues find "that

the result is not just an artifact of reef and shallow-water fossils being relatively more studied. "Reefs are actually
rare compared to other habitats," Simpson notes. "If anything, there is a bias against finding that reefs are cradles."
The phemonenon of reefs acting as cradles of biodiversity seems to have peaked in the Paleozoicfrom 542 million
to 251 million years agofor reasons that are unclear. One possibility is that by seeding other environments with
new species, reefs undercut their own preeminence as cradles. "The consequence would be that reefs become one
of many important cradles, rather than the most common cradle," Simpson says. And reefs do not seem to have
helped the oceans rebound from mass extinction events, like the one at the end of the Paleozoic era that wiped out
as much as 90 percent of marine life. That's likely because "reef-building as a process had to recover from mass
extinction events, because the ecosystem engineers that built reefs were severely afected," says marine scientist
Richard Aronson of the Florida Institute of Technology, who was not involved with the study. "Reefs in general were
not available to enhance biodiversity rebound because they first had to be reconstituted as viable ecosystems." But

coral reefs do offer a variety of ecological niches and "bumpiness," as Aronson puts it, or a
"great variety of physical spaces, [water] flow regimes and other
ecological opportunities." That has made them cradles not just for sponges
and the like but also snails, shrimps, urchins, fishes and even extinct animals like
trilobites. Plus, vicious competition for space and food on a reef leads to a lot of "turnover," Simpson notes, or
extinctions that allow for new species to develop as new habitats form or ecological niches open. "If turnover is
high, then the brief window of opportunity for new species is a common occurrence." According to some
mathematical estimates, 99.9 percent of all species that have ever existed are now extinct. As it stands, estimates
of the number of species on Earth at present range from five million to as many as 100 million, with science having
identified only two million members of the biodiversity extant today. That means literally billions of species have
come and gone in the 4.5 billion years Earth has existed. New research will be needed to determine exactly why

threats faced by coral todayfrom rising

ocean acidity to agricultural runof and rampant diseasedo not bode well for marine
biodiversity in the near future. After all, it is possible that during mass extinction events the
reefs are such efficient cradles for new life-forms. But the

destruction of reefs might have played a role in the decline of diversity in other marine environments, as well. As
Aronson asks: "If modern reefs continue to degrade, will that have cascading evolutionary consequences for other
ecosystems by cutting of the supply of new genera?"

Extinctions Could Have Domino Effect, Study Says

Owen 4
(James, Journalist for NatGeo, 9/9/2004, National GeographicExtinctions Could Have Domino
Efect, Study Says,
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0909_040909_extinctions.html,
6/25/2014, AC)

In a study released today, researchers warn that the loss of plants and animals
currently listed as threatened or endangered could have a domino effect on other
species that depend on them. The scientists estimate if the nearly 12,200 animals
and plants worldwide currently listed as threatened or endangered were to
disappear, another 6,300 "affiliate" species could also be lost. "Many plants and
animals have a diverse selection of insects, fungi, and other organisms associated with them
that are uniquely adapted to their host," the researchers wrote in a study published in
tomorrow's issue of Science. Such specialization makes affiliate species especially vulnerable
to extinction should the host species die out, the scientists say. The researchers believe
these dependent species should now be included in current extinction estimates. They add
that coextinction (the loss of one species resulting from the loss of another) is a largely
unexamined and potentially substantial contributor to the current global
extinction crisis. The team used a model based on known coevolved relationships between
organisms such as fig trees and the fig wasps that pollinate them, and parasitic butterflies
and their host ants. The analysis identified a further 6,300 endangered species. The study
also highlights at least 200 plants and animals that have already been lost through
coextinction. Co-author Navjot Sodhi says an examination of the skins of extinct animals
would likely reveal many more examples of coextinct creatures. "A parasite on the dodo
could have gone coextinct if the dodo was its only host bird," said Sodhi, a biologist at the
National University of Singapore. While the plight of parasitic lice and mites are unlikely to
attract outpourings of public sympathy, more charismatic insects are also at risk.

The extinction of other animals will threaten survival.

Diaz 6
(Sandra, 8/15/2006, PLOS biology, Biodiversity Loss Threatens Human Well-being,
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040277#pbio0040277-g003, 6/25/2014, AC)
Human societies have been built on biodiversity. Many activities indispensable for human subsistence lead to
biodiversity loss, and this trend is likely to continue in the future. We clearly benefit from the

diversity of organisms that we have learned to use for medicines, food, fibers,
and other renewable resources. In addition, biodiversity has always been an
integral part of the human experience, and there are many moral reasons to
preserve it for its own sake. What has been less recognized is that biodiversity also influences
human well-being, including the access to water and basic materials for a
satisfactory life, and security in the face of environmental change, through its effects
on the ecosystem processes that lie at the core of the Earth's most vital life
support systems. Three recent publications from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [24], an initiative
involving more than 1,500 scientists from all over the world [5], provide an updated picture of the fundamental
messages and key challenges regarding biodiversity at the global scale. Chief among them are: (a) human-induced
changes in land cover at the global scale lead to clear losers and winners among species in biotic communities; (b)
these changes have large impacts on ecosystem processes and, thus, human well-being; and (c) such

consequences will be felt disproportionately by the poor, who are most vulnerable
to the loss of ecosystem services.

Loss in Coral reefs means extinction

Philipine Daily Inquirer, 2002
(Philippine Daily Inquirer, 12/10/02, Reefs Under Stress,
http://news.google.com/newspapers?
nid=2479&dat=20021210&id=Alk1AAAAIBAJ&sjid=iyUMAAAAIBAJ&pg=750,328780
21, 6/27/14, SJ)

Coral reefs are the marine equivalent of rainforests that are also being
destroyed at an alarming rate not only in the Philippines but all over the world .The World Conservation Union
says reefs are one of the essential life support systems necessary for human
survival, homes to huge numbers of animals and plants. Dr. Helen T. Yap of the Marine Science Institute of the
University of the Philippines said that the countrys coral reefs, together with those of Indonesia and Papua
New Guinea, contain the biggest number of species of plants and animals . they
lie at the center of biodiversity in our planet, she said.

Extinction is inevitable Biodiversity preservation solves

Diner, Ph.D., Planetary Science and Geology, 1993

(David, 04/--/93, DTIC, "THE ARMY AND THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT: WHO'S
ENDANGERING WHOM?", http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a456541.pdf,
6/26/14, SJ)
4. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY The main premise of species preservation is that diversity is better than simplicity.77

As

the current mass extinction progresses, there has been a general

decrease in the world's biological diversity. This trend occurs within ecosystems by

reducing the number of species, and within species by reducing the number of individuals. Both trends carry serious
future implications. 78 Biologically diverse ecosystems are characterized by a large number of specialist species,
filling narrow ecological niches. * 13 These ecosystems are inherently more stable than less diverse systems: "'The
more complex the ecosystem, the more successfully it can resist a stress...[l]ike a net, in which each knot is
connected to others by several strands, such a fabric can resist collapse better than a simple, unbranched circle of

By causing widespread extinctions

humans have artificially simplified many ecosystems. As biologic simplicity rises, so
threads which if cut anywhere breaks down as a whole.",79

does the risk of ecosystem failure. The spreading Sahara desert in Africa, and the dustbowl conditions of the 1930s

each
new animal or plant . extinction, with all its dimly perceived and
intertwined affects, could cause total ecosystem collapse, and human
extinction. Certainly, each new extinction increases the risk of disaster . Like
in the U.S. are relatively mild examples of what might be expected if this trend continues. Theoretically,

a mechanic removing, one by one, the rivets from an aircraft's wings, 80 mankind may be edging closer to the
abyss.

Biodiversity loss leads to extinction

Hamid, PhD from Michigan State University, 13
(Zakri A., 12/5/13, Master of Science from Michigan State University, Bachelor of
Science from Louisiana State University, Agriculture & Food Security, The
dangerous, careless folly of biodiversity loss,
http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/2/1/16, 6/28/14, SM)
The accelerating disappearance of the Earths wild plants and animals constitutes a fundamental threat to the

Biodiversity from terrestrial, marine, coastal and inland water

provides the basis for ecosystems and the services they provide
that underpin human wellbeing. However, biodiversity and ecosystem
services are declining at an unprecedented rate, and in order to address this challenge,
wellbeing and even the survival of humankind.
ecosystems

adequate local, national and international policies need to be adopted and implemented. To achieve this, decisionmakers need scientifically credible and independent information that takes into account the complex relationships
between biodiversity, ecosystem services and people. They also need efective methods to interpret this scientific
information in order to make informed decisions. The scientific community must understand the needs of decisionmakers better in order to provide them with the relevant information. In essence, the dialogue between the
scientific community, governments and other stakeholders on biodiversity and ecosystem services needs to be
strengthened. To this end, a new platform has been established by the international community - the

Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). IPBES was established in April 2012,
as an independent intergovernmental body open to all member countries of the United Nations. The members are
committed to building IPBES as the leading intergovernmental body for assessing the state of the planets
biodiversity, I am honoured to be the Founding Chair of the organisation. In the article that follows I have outlined
my perception of the background to the problem and of the way forward ecosystems and the essential services

loss of plant and

species on Earth - both wild and domesticated - constitutes a fundamental threat
to the wellbeing and even the survival of humankind [1]. Most indicators of
the state of biodiversity (covering species population trends, extinction risk, habitat extent and
condition, and community composition) showed declines, with no significant recent
reductions in rate, whereas indicators of pressures on biodiversity (including
they provide to society. Background Scientists are warning us in ever louder terms that the
animal

resource consumption, invasive alien species, nitrogen pollution, overexploitation and climate change impacts)

showed increases [2].

Impact - Reefs
Loss of biodiversity prevents coral reefs from regrowing
DUJS 12
(4/11/12, Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science, The Decline of Reefs:
Efects of Increased Carbon Emissions on Coral Ecosystems,
http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/winter-2012/the-decline-of-reefs-efects-of-increasedcarbon-emissions-on-coral-ecosystems#.U6-GVY2wKrY, 6/28/14, SM)

Previous findings highlight the incredible toll that coral loss from ocean acidification and global warming take on
marine species. For example, Jones et al. recently conducted an eight-year study in Papua New Guinea. Their

declines in coral cover and fish biodiversity are

positively associated. They observed that approximately 75% of the reef fish
species fell in population, and that 50% of the species exhibited counts
that were less than half of their originals. In particular, they found that species for which
discoveries reinforced the idea that

juveniles have a more significant coral reef dependence declined on a greater scale. Furthermore, they predicted

The
loss of fish biodiversity, among other marine species, plays a consequent
role in the coral-algal phase shift in coral reefs. When corals die and deplete
from ocean acidification and global warming, algae and other benthos organisms that dwell at the
bottom of the ocean typically occupy the resulting space . Under normal
conditions, their spread is limited and controlled by herbivore grazing. However, in the absence of
sufficient herbivores, algal communities may establish permanent forms
and prevent coral reefs from recovering to their previous forms (13).
that species with more limited geographic ranges, like some coral-dwelling gobies, may become extinct (12).

Shoreline Advantage

Reefs K2 Shorelines
Reefs Protect Shoreline-Reduce Wave Impacts

Burke Et Al, M.S. in Environment and Resource Policy, 11

(Lauretta, Kathleen, Mark, Allison, 2/11, World Resources Institute, "Reefs at Risk
Revisited," http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/reefs_at_risk_revisited.pdf ,
6/25/14, AF).
There are an estimated 2,679 coral reef protected areas worldwide,
encompassing approximately 27 percent of the word's coral reefs. there is
considerable geographic variation in this coverage: while more than threequarters of Australia's coral reefs are within MPAs, outside of Australia the
area of protected reefs drops to only 17 percent. While these overall protection figures
are high--few other marine or terrestrial habitats have more than one-quarter of their extent within protected

First, most of the remaining 73 percent of coral

reefs lie outside any formal management framework. Second, it is widely
agreed that not all MPAs are effective in reducing human threats or
impacts. Some sites, often described as "paper parks," are in effective
simply because the management framework is ignore or not enforced. In
others, the regulations, even if fully and effectively implemented, are
insufficient to address the threats within its borders. For example, a site
that forbids the use of lobster traps, but permits catching lobsters by
hand may be just as thoroughly depleted of lobsters and suffer as much
physical damage from divers as if the trap restrictions were not in place.
Third, MPAs are rarely placed in areas where threats to reefs are greatest.
this is highlighted by the recent creation of a number of very large MPAs
in remote areas, where there are few or no local people and where threats
are very low. Such MPAs, are clearly important as potential regional strongholds, refuges, and seeding
grounds for recovery, but do very little to mitigate current, urgent, local threats. A further problem is
that many reefs are affected by threats that originate far away,
particularly pollutants and sediments from poor land-use practices or
coastal development in areas outside the MPA boundaries. While healthy reefs may
areas--there is still cause for concern.

be more resilient to such stresses, this alone is unlikely to be sufficient, and other management approaches may be
required to deal with these issues. In a few cases, considerable progress has been made through the engagement
of adjacent communities to improve land management and reduce pollution and sediment runof in areas adjacent

Our analysis revealed that nearly half (47 percent) of the 1,147 coral
reef MPAs for which we have ratings are considered ineffective in reducing
overfishing. Furthermore, the proportion of ineffective sites is highest in
the most threatened regions of world: 61 percent of MPAs in the Atlantic
and 69 percent of MPAs in Southeast Asia are rated as ineffective. Even
these statistics are probably conservative, as it is likely that our sampling
favors better-known sites, many of which would have stronger
management regimes than less well-known sites.
to MPAs.

Reefs Protect Shoreline-Reduce Wave Impacts

Burke Et Al, M.S. in Environment and Resource Policy, 11
(Lauretta, Kathleen, Mark, Allison, 2/11, World Resources Institute, "Reefs at Risk
Revisited," http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/reefs_at_risk_revisited.pdf ,
6/25/14, AF).

Coral reefs play a valuable role in buffering coastal communities and

infrastructure from the physical impacts of wave action and storms,
thereby reducing coastal erosion and lessening wave-induced flooding.
Coral reefs typically mitigate 75 to 95 percent of wave energy , but are less
efective for large waves or storm surges during storm events. The degree of shoreline protection provided by reefs
varies with the coastal context. Important factors include the nature of the land protected (e.g., geology,
vulnerability to erosion, and slope), the nature of the coral reef (depth, continuity, and distance from shore), and
local storm and wave regimes. To estimate the coastal protection that reefs provide, we derive an index of coastal
protection based on the amount of coastline within proximity of reefs, with reefs closer inshore ofering more

Globally, we estimate that more than 150,000 km of

shoreline in 106 countries and territories receive some protection from
reefs, with an average of 42 percent protection at the national level. In 17
small islands (for example, Curaao), more than 80 percent of the coastline is
estimated to be protected by reefs. Reefs protected less than 10 percent of coastline in 21
protection than ofshore reefs.

countries and territories, which predominantly are large nations with relatively restricted areas of reef such as South
Africa.

Leadership Advantage

Leadership k2 Heg
US environmental leadership solves climate changespurs
multilateral climate action.
Burwell, JD @ University of Virginia 10 (David, 4/15/10, Carnegie Endowment For
International Peace, TransportationThe Leading Cause of Global Warming,
http://carnegieendowment.org/2010/04/15/transportation-leading-cause-of-global-warming/2fr2, 7/1/14, KM)
By addressing the way we travel, by helping ourselves, by giving ourselves more transportation choices, by
connecting transportation to land use development, we are not only helping ourselves, but we are providing a
model for the rest of the world of how they can develop in a way that is sustainable, low carbon, and
provides more choices for everybody. If the United States passed a climate bill that priced transportation
carbon and linked it to a transportation bill that would reinvest the revenues into a green transportation system, the
United States would be on track to meet its stated obligation of a 17 to 20 percent absolute decrease in greenhouse
gas emissions by 2020. That would give comfort to other countriesparticularly China,
India, and other emerging economiesthat the United States is serious about reducing its transportation carbon
and it would contribute to the likelihood of a global climate agreement.

US environmental leadership k2 solve laundry list of impacts.

Ivanova, Ph.D. @ Yale University and Esty, J.D. @ Yale Law School 8

(Maria and Daniel,

2008, The John Hopkins University Press, Reclaiming U.S. Leadership in Global Environmental Governance,
https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/sais_review/v028/28.2.ivanova.pdf, p. 59-60, 7/1/14, KM)

Can progress on any of the difficult global environmental

issues be achieved without the participation and leadership of the United States? Conversely,
These dynamics beg two questions:

can the United States shoulder the burden of addressing suchconcerns without the cooperation of the rest of the
globalcommunity? Success in protecting the planet from climate change cannot be achieved by the United States
acting on its own. In this article, we addressthese core questions. We arguethat the next President of theUnited
States must re-engagewith other nations. Success inprotecting the planet from climate change cannot be
achieved by the United States acting on its own. International cooperation is essential. Similar
collaborative efforts at the global scale will be required to protect the planets biological
diversity, restore the vibrancy of the worlds fisheries, prevent the spread of persistent organic
pollutants, conserve forests, and other issues that are inescapably trans-boundary in nature. We
contend, moreover, that not only is U.S. participation critical, but U.S. leadership is crucial and
necessary to achieve successful environmental outcomes. The U.S. environmental footprint is larger
than any other countrys. The United States consumes a disproportionate share of the worlds energy and natural
resources. With less than 5 percent of the world population, the United States uses 25 percent of the worlds fossil
fuel resourcesaccounting for nearly 25 percent of the worlds annual coal burning, 26 percent of the worlds oil,
and 27 percent of the worlds natural gas. It also accounts for 18.5 percent of the consumption of global forestry
products and 13.7 percent of the worlds water usage. The United States is in a unique position. Given its
economic and strategic power as well as its financial and technological prowess, U.S. leadership could influence
international environmental policy and promote efective environmental governance. Conversely, the record of the
past fifteen years has demonstrated that when the United States declines to exercise leadership,
the impact is significant. Little progress is made without the United States. Reasserting
global environmental leadership, however, will not be easy for the next U.S. president. There are considerable
domestic challenges as the U.S. public remains deeply ambivalent about international entanglements and
international organizationseven those related to protecting the planet.

Environmental Leadership Key to Heg- All Environmental

Activity Spills Over to every part of decisions and actions
Barry, Associate Dean of the College of Natural Resources at
Colorado State University , 06 (Joyce, Environmental Leadership Equals

Essential Leadeership: Redefining Who Leads and How, page 6, your AEG.)
Another relevant observation makes all leadership directly relate to
environmental leadership. As communication and science make the global
commons better known to all, it is increasingly clear that all humans share
the same environment (in addition, as Lily Tomlin has said, timesharing the
same atoms) and are at the same time an increasingly influential
component of what we call nature (McKibben 1990). No place or component
of the biosphere is completely uninfluenced by human activity. In most places, most
of the time, human activity dominates. All human activity can be seen as
environmentally based and important to the future of the environmental
dimension and all leadership decisions and actions become in some
significant measure environmental.

Environmental Leadership Leads to Ecocentric Values, Ethnical

Considerations, and Heg while Maintaining Ecological
Sustainability
Boiral, Professor Holder Canada Research Chair on standards
of sustainability management, 09
(Olivier, 2009, Journal Of Business Ethics, The Action Logics of Environmental

Leadership: A Developmental Perspective,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/info/40294809, 7/1/14, AEG)
These studies of environmental leadership have been focused mainly on
the role of management and the motives underlying their commitment,
including those related to ethical considerations. Generally speaking,
effective environmental leaders are described as more aware of ecocentric
values, more attentive to stakeholders' expectations, and personally committed
to organizational change through various approaches, such as pollution
pre- vention, implementation of management systems like ISO 14001, and
heightened employee awareness (Bansal and Roth, 2000; Delmas, 2001; Henriques and Sadorsky, 1999;
Sharma, 2000). The importance of mobilizing individuals and developing a pro- environmental vision are often

environmental leadership, as defined by Egri and Herman

(2000, p. 2), is "the ability to influence individuals and mobilize
organizations to realize a vision of long-term ecological sustainability."
Although the ecocentric characteristics of this vision and the paradigm shifts
involved have often been highlighted, the personal capacities that are required to alter the
emphasized as well. Thus,

ways of thinking and acting within organizations have remained largely unexplored. These capacities depend not
only on the acceptance of ecocentric values and an ecological vision, but also on the way managers themselves
see, think, and act.

National Policies on the Environment Lead To International

Environmental Initiatives which will create global solvency
Steinberg, Associate Professor of Political Science and
Environmental Policy, N/A (Paul, The MIT Press, Environmental Leadership

in Developing Countries: Transnational Relations and Biodiversity Policy in Costa

Rica and Bolivia, http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/environmental-leadershipdeveloping-countries, 7/1/14, AEG)
In the absence of world government,
effective national policy is essential to the success of international
environmental initiatives. Yet research on global environmental

cooperation has proceeded without models of policy change in developing

countries, where most of the world's people, land, and species are found.
In this book Paul Steinberg provides a theoretical framework to explain the domestic responses of
developing countries to global environmental concerns . Drawing on extensive field
research, he traces the evolution of public policies to protect biological diversity in Costa Rica and Bolivia over the
past four decades, to understand how these countries emerged as leaders in tropical conservation and how

international institutions might support similar outcomes in other

countries.

Solvency

Artificial
Solvency-Steel Cages
Vince, Journalist Specializing in Environment, 09
(Gaia, 8/16/09, The Guardian, "Sunken Steel Cages Could Save Coral Reefs,"
www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/aug/16/coral-reefs-regeneration-maldivesconservation, 6/25/14, AF).
Scientists are reporting encouragingly rapid coral growth on giant
underwater steel cages structures that they hope will help to regenerate
battered reefs and improve protection of some vulnerable coastlines from rising sea levels. Coral reefs

support a quarter of life on Earth and last month David Attenborough warned that carbon dioxide is already above

the metal cages, fed with electric

current, are not a solution to the global problem of dramatically contracting reefs, they do appear to
be providing promising results in small, local projects, and in some cases rescuing
resorts where coral was vanishing fast. A team of researchers on
Vabbinfaru island in the Maldives submerged a huge steel cage called the
Lotus on the sea floor. The 12-metre structure, which weighs 2 tonnes is connected to
long cable which supplies a low-level electric current. The electricity
triggers a chemical reaction, which leads to calcium carbonate coming out
of solution in the water and being deposited on the structure. Corals seem
to find that irresistible, perhaps because they use the same material to grow their protective
skeletons, and the Lotus has been so thoroughly colonised by coral that it is difficult
the levels that will condemn corals to extinction. And while

now to make out the steel shape beneath all the elaborate shapes and colour. The idea was initially developed by
an American architect, Wolf Hilbertz, who sold the concept to various resorts around the world. The Lotus is the

The El Nino
Pacific-warming phenomenon of 1998 killed 98% of the reef around
Vabbinfaru, so the researchers there have been able to compare the
growth rates for corals grafted on to concrete structures on "desert"
patches of seafloor, and those stuck on to the Lotus. Abdul Azeez, who is
leading the Vabbinfaru project, said coral growth on the structure is up to
five times as fast as that elsewhere. The electric reef may also make the
corals fitter and better able to withstand warming events, perhaps because the
creatures waste less energy on making their skeletons. A smaller prototype device was in
place during the 1998 warming event and more than 80% of its corals
survived, compared to just 2% elsewhere on the reef.
largest and most successful of those, and has helped researchers to test the technique.

Solvency-Land Conservation
Science Daily, Site for Research News, 13

(Science Daily, 12/17/13, Science Daily, "Saving Fiji's coral reefs linked to forest
conservation upstream,"
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/12/131217155329.htm, 6/25/14, AF).
The health of coral reefs offshore depend on the protection of forests near
the sea, according to a new study by the Wildlife Conservation Society
that outlines the importance of terrestrial protected areas to coastal
biodiversity. In a study conducted by WCS and the University of
Queensland evaluating the effects of terrestrial protected area designs on
Fiji's coral reefs, it turns out that what's best for land ecosystems is also

best for coastal corals.

The study appears in the online edition of Marine Policy. The authors are:
Carissa Klein of the University of Queensland; Stacy Jupiter of the Wildlife Conservation Society; and Matthew Watts

"When designing terrestrial protected

areas, the key is to consider not only how much they benefit terrestrial
biodiversity but also how much they benefit coral reef ecosystems," said
lead author Dr. Carissa Klein. "Thinking about the connections between
the land and sea is rarely done when designing protected areas -- Fiji is
leading the way globally." Most managers realize how downstream ecosystems such as coral reefs
and Hugh Possingham of the University of Queensland.

can be negatively afected by land-based activities that cause increases in runof and associated sediments,
nutrients, and chemicals. Yet, there have been very few on-the-ground cases where protected area networks have
been designed using truly integrated planning to minimize such external threats. This matters in small island
developing states like Fiji, where selection of the locations of terrestrial protected areas have been mostly ad hoc,
and based more on the cultural or timber value of forests than on any desire to protect biodiversity. Fiji's current
terrestrial protected areas, which cover less than 3 percent of land area in the country, neither adequately protect
Fiji's sensitive island habitats and species nor contribute much to minimize runof to adjacent coral reefs. In 2008, a
national Protected Area Committee was created by the Fiji government, in part to achieve the goals of protecting 20
percent of the country's land and 30 percent of its coastal waters by the year 2020. Looking to support the

the study authors systematically

analyzed six scenarios for expanding Fiji's network of terrestrial protected
area networks, with the aim to uncover how well each approach did to
protect different forest types and minimize land-based runoff to
downstream coral reefs. One scenario evaluated included all of the priority
forests for conservation identified by the committee based on field data
and rules of thumb. "We're pleased that the results of our study confirm
that the forests that the committee was considering for protection can
offer significant downstream benefits to coral reefs," said Dr. Stacy Jupiter,
Fiji Country Program Director and co-author on the study. "However, we were
committee's eforts to land-sea planning initiative,

surprised to find that these priority places for management actually did not include a lot of the key threatened
forest vegetation types. We therefore recommended to the committee to add some additional forests to their
national register of priority places for protection." This advice was taken by the committee, and additional forest
areas were added to the final register of priority places for management endorsed by the Fiji government National
Environment Council in October 2013. "Fiji is to be commended for their constructive response to the findings of this
important scientific research," said Dr. Caleb McClennen, Director of the WCS Marine Program. "Their decision to
take action and link land to sea conservation helps to ensure the long term security of their globally important coral
reef ecosystems while supporting the livelihoods and resilience of coastal communities."

Artificial reefs reduce coral pressures and increase marine

habitats.
Lane, Writer @ Discover5Oceans 10 (TS, 1/15/10, Discover5Oceans,
Artificial Reefs: The Good, The Bad, The Controversial,
http://www.discover5oceans.com/2010/01/artificial-reefs-the-good-the-bad-thecontroversial/, 6/25/10, KM)
Artificial reefs have long been a part of coastal marine life. Whether to protect strategic areas
from hostile weather, guard against attacking enemy forces or to improve fish stocks, man
has thrown all kinds of objects imaginable and some things that are unimaginable into the water. Recently

sinking decommissioned ships at strategic locations with the hope of attracting

fish, coral, and scuba divers. The promise is that over time, the submerged structures will
decrease demand on over-used and over-stressed natural coral reefs. Florida
weve taken to

lays claim to the worlds two largest artificial reefs with the intentional sinking of the USS Oriskany in 2006 of the
coast of Pensicola and the sinking of the USNS Vandenburg near Key West in 2009. Man-made reefs arent only
created for divers. For more than a decade, surfers have been catching waves breaking over artificial reefs at Cable
Station Beach in Western Australia and Narrowneck on the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia. The surfing ramps

benefits of various projects in Australia, which include

reduction of coastal erosion and increased marine habitat, as well as providing
website provides insight into the goals and
alternative destinations for surfers.

Artificial Reefs Provide an Easy Way to Create More Coral

Reefs, Bringing the Creatures Back Into The Area
US EPA, N/A
(United States Environmental Protection Agency, What Are Artificial Reefs and
Where Are They Located in the Mid-Atlantic?,
http://www.epa.gov/reg3esd1/coast/reefs.htm, 6/25/14, AEG)
Reefs provide a home for fish and other ocean wildlife. Once an artificial
reef is placed on the ocean floor, various encrusting organisms such as
corals and sponges start covering the material. Then small animals take up
residence, and as the small animals become abundant, larger animals are
attracted. After a time it is hard to tell an artificial reef from a natural reef.
Many different types of materials can serve as artificial reefs. The bodies
of cars, trucks, subway cars, and military tanks have been used, as well as

bridge rubble, barges, boats, submarines, planes, and large cable. In August 2001, New York City subway cars were
slid of a barge into the Atlantic Ocean ten miles east of Rehoboth Beach, Delaware. The cars, positioned in
approximately 80 feet of water, became an artificial reef. Dives by the EPA Mid-Atlantic Region Scientific Dive Unit
have confirmed that the cars are still intact, well covered by growth, and surrounded by fish such as flounder, tog,
and shark. Because of the success of the 2001 program, additional New York City subway cars have been placed of
the coast. For example, in November 2008, more than 40 subway cars were placed in the Atlantic Ocean
approximately 10 miles southeast of Ocean City, Maryland. The cars will serve as artificial reefs, which are critical in
supporting a diversity of species along the Maryland coast. This is the second time in the past six months where
partners of the Maryland Artificial Reef Initiative(including NYC transit) placed subway cars in the Atlantic Ocean to
create deep water artificial reefs. There are plans to create up to a 600 car matrix of of Ocean Citys coast.
Members of EPA's Coastal Science Team were consulted regarding the proper cleaning and removal of parts in the

recently the focus of a NBC Nightly News

Special report (video).Artificial reefs are especially important in the marine
waters of the mid-Atlantic. Years ago the natural bottom near shore had
crevices in which fish could breed and hide. Today, however, widespread
development has increased runoff from the land. This has resulted in large
quantities of silt and sand being deposited into the water, making the
near-shore bottom flat. Artificial reefs provide a way to bring fish and
other ocean creatures back into an area.
subway cars prior to placement. The national story was

Artificial Reefs Restore Ecosystems- They Provide More

Habitats For Organisms and Take Tourism Pressures off
of normal reefs which in turn increases the Economy
National Marine Sanctuaries, N/A (NOAA, While artificial reefs generally
enhance local economies, they can have both positive and negative efects on
ecosystems, http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/artificialreefs/efects.html, 6/26/14, AEG)
When a structure is intentionally placed on the seafloor as an artificial
reef, it can create habitat for a variety of marine life. For this reason,
artificial reefs are often popular destinations for divers, snorkelers, and
fishermen. In areas such as the Florida Keys, heavy visitation, particularly
by novice or uninformed divers and snorkelers, can take a toll on coral
reefs. Research suggests that in some instances, artificial reefs may divert
some pressure away from natural reefs while still allowing visitors to
enjoy diverse marine life. Because many of these divers, snorkelers, and
anglers charter through local businesses, artificial reefs can have a

positive impact on local economies. In such an instance, the artificial reef

would be considered a win-win for the economy and the environment.

Planned Artificial Reefs Provide The Most Efficient Way To

Provide The Necessary Space For Restoring Ecosystems
Romano & Provenzani, under the GUE, N/A (Global Underwater Explorers, GUE collaborates
with a wide range of governmental and non-governmental organizations to explore and protect the aquatic
realm, Artificial Reefs, https://www.globalunderwaterexplorers.org/artificial-reefs,

6/26/14, AEG)
In contrast, when an artificial reef is not accidental, but planned, materials
suitable for extended submersion in a marine environment are normally
used. Such materials are stable and environmentally sound, like, for example,
cement or steel. Once the material is introduced into the marine
environment, it acts as a natural rocky bottom, providing potential living
space for a new reef community. Furnishing this suitable space is the
only human intervention needed; once in place, nature quickly takes over
and, soon thereafter, the structure begins to lose its artificial character.
With each passing day, as numerous new living organisms begin to colonize the
structure, what was once artificial now becomes a progressively
intensifying reef ecosystem. In time, the steel and cement will disappear
beneath a colorful blanket of undersea life.

Artificial Reefs Dramatically Reduce Harms To Coral Reef

Ecosystems
Schut, under The University Of Edinburgh, 13 (Kaj, Nov. 2013, ERA, A
Comparative Analysis of Designed Artificial Reefs As Ecosystem Service Providers:
Building Social-Ecological Resilience on Atoll Islands,
https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/8362, 6/26/14, AEG)
Coral reef ecosystems are under increasing threat from climatic and
anthropogenic pressures. Research has revealed that approximately twenty per
cent of the worlds coral reefs have already been degraded and it has been
predicted that an additional twenty per cent will be lost if no action is taken. This is
particularly problematic for the inhabitants of atoll islands who depend greatly on
the goods and services provided by coral reefs. This study suggests that the
resilience of social and ecological systems can be strengthened by
securing the provision of coral reef ecosystem services at all times and
reducing the pressure of external disturbances on natural coral reef
systems. Consequently, this study synthesises concepts that are associated with
social-ecological resilience and presents a new framework for the evaluation of the
coral reef restoration technique commonly known as designed artificial reef. The
results suggest that the designed artificial reefs discussed in this study can
contribute to the social-ecological resilience of atoll islands by providing
additional provisioning, regulating and cultural services and should

therefore be considered in future discussions on adaptation to climate

change.

Genetically Engineered Coral

Stress resistance in coral reef ecosystems is passed on
genetically.
Mascarelli, Fellow @ National Science Foundation 14 (Amanda,
4/23/14, Nature, Climate-change adaption: Designer reefs,
http://www.nature.com/news/climate-change-adaptation-designer-reefs1.15073#/b2, 6/25/14, KM)

Others have found encouraging evidence that stress resistance

gained through acclimatization can be passed on to offspring. Unpublished work by Gates,
led by the University of Hawaii's Hollie Putnam, shows that adult cauliflower corals (Pocillopora
damicornis) exposed to stress during brooding produce larvae with increased
resilience to heat and ocean acidification. The team hypothesizes that this
transgenerational protection is caused by epigenetic changes : the modification of
Legacy of survival

molecular tags on the genome that afect gene expression. Gates and van Oppen are aiming to look specifically at
areas that have already survived massive bleaching events, such as Moorea in French Polynesia, the central Great
Barrier Reef in Australia, and the Seychelles, where 97% of corals in the inner islands died following the 199798 El
Nio oceanic warming event. (A nursery has already been created from the Seychelles corals that survived, and
fragments grown from them have been planted onto reefs to aid their recovery.) Gates and van Oppen aim to crossbreed corals that have survived such stressful bleaching, and to track the resilience of the ofspring. Their ideas
won Gates and van Oppen the 2013 Paul G. Allen Ocean Challenge prize of US$10,000, along with an invitation to
apply for multimillion-dollar funding. Depending on how much of that funding comes through, they also aim to use
heat and acidity to stress corals before they breed, to see if and how tolerance gets passed down the generations.
Beginning in May, van Oppen and her team will start collecting adults of the branching coral Pocillopora acuta from
the Great Barrier Reef, and will grow them in the Australian Institute of Marine Science's massive National Sea
Simulator, an aquarium facility that provides controlled tanks to replicate open-ocean conditions. Ultimately,
Gates and van Oppen hope to create a 'seed bank' of gametes and fertilized embryos from extreme settings in
which corals persist despite the odds including the shallow reefs skirting Coconut Island, Hawaii, where both
temperature and pH fluctuate drastically, reaching upper limits similar to those expected in the open ocean by
2050. The seed bank would add to eforts spearheaded by the US Smithsonian Institution, in collaboration with
Hawaiian and Australian bodies, which are already banking coral sperm and embryonic cells. A final, important
piece of the puzzle is the corals' symbiotic algae : these are shorter-lived and faster-evolving than their
hosts, and research has shown that they can pass along thermal tolerance. One study, for
example, found that juvenile corals inoculated with strains of algae collected from a warm
reef known for heat resistance grew well when exposed to temperatures up to 32 C,

whereas samples of the same coral inoculated with algae from a cooler reef
suffered bleaching and tissue death. Andrew Baker, a marine biologist at the University of Miami in
Florida, and his colleagues discovered that symbionts from a lineage called clade D tend to become more prevalent
in some corals when they are heat stressed, suggesting that the algae are better able than other strains to
survive such conditions, and that they help their hosts to survive too. Since then, studies have shown
that clade D symbionts, in particular types D1 and D1a, are prevalent in a wide variety of corals that have survived
extreme bleaching events. Putnam, Gates and their colleagues have found that a diferent strain, C15, seems to be
dominant in heat-resistant corals near Moorea.

Genetically modified coral can withstand worsened ocean

conditionsnow is key.
Cave, Editor @ The Offsetter 14 (James, 5/13/14, The Huffington Post,
Could Designer Reefs Save The Oceans?,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/05/13/hawaii-designer-coralreef_n_5292247.html, 6/25/14, KM)

So how can we protect coral reefs before it's too late? A team of pioneering researchers in
Hawaii has an audacious plan: cross-breed superpowered reefs to preempt these dangers .
The idea is to build reefs already pre-evolved to future conditions so that they might

successfully reproduce in a more hostile ocean. If one were to design an intervention, this
is the time to do it, while you still have biological material to work with , Dr. Ruth
Gates, a researcher with the University of Hawaii's Institute of Marine Biology (HIMB), told KITV in Honolulu. Gates
and her team at the HIMB lab on Coconut Island collect hundreds of coral specimens from around Kaneohe Bay and
test them in tanks by increasing the water temperature and playing with pH levels. "We can play with ocean
chemistry to acidify the water and elevate the temperature to simulate climate change stress" to see how that
exposure afects coral response, Gates told the Huffington Post. "We're using state of the art technology, DNA
sequencing, and live imaging of corals, looking at corals in ways that theyre rarely looked at. We can get on the
reef 365 days a year, 24 hours a day. Its a really unique setting." These "designer reefs" have several
applications. In the most extreme case, like in the event of a landslide or human development taking

out a whole reef colony, the super coral can be planted in its place as a stronger,
new colony. Or, in a struggling reef, Gates envisions planting the bred coral between
already existing coral on the reef, in an attempt to introduce super specimens that would then breed
with native population and increase the ability of the whole reef system to withstand
climate change. Gates also wants to utilize concrete structures that have been installed into oceans.
"People are starting to fortify," she said, "and concrete is not a sustainable structure." She would install the super
coral onto cement, "essentially putting a green veneer of these bred corals on top of the concrete structure that
would create a natural habitat for organisms around it."

Quickliness
Artificial reefs develop in a short amount of time.
Jackson, Agent for Agriculture and Technology @ UF 12

(Scott, 12/14/12, Walton

Outdoors, Understanding the benefits of artificial reefs, http://www.waltonoutdoors.com/understanding-thebenefits-of-artificial-reefs/, 6/25/14, KM)
Additionally, new engineered concrete artificial reef modules that support specific species and various life stages of
fish have been developed. Current fisheries research seeks to refine materials, design, and placement of artificial
reefs to maximize conservation through planned monitoring activities. Within hours of sinking a

vessel or concrete reef, baitfish move into their new home . This initiates a parade
of marine life over several months. The hard structure of an artificial reef is slowly
colonized by soft corals, sponges, plants, and barnacles . Baitfish will soon have new
neighbors, as snapper and grouper take residence. Nearby sand sediments come to life with sea
stars, sand dollars, and other invertebrate species.

DIN
Federal Funding of DIN (a water temperature regulator)
Preserves Coral Reefs
Done, Member of the Ecological Society Of America, 9

(Terence, Scott Woolridge, September, 2009, ESA, Improved Water Quality Can
Ameliorate Efects of Climate Change on Corals,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40346263.pdf?
&acceptTC=true&jpdConfirm=true, 6/25/14, AEG)
The thermal history of a site is often considered to be a fundamental determinant
of a coral's bleaching resistance to heat stress, with cooler-water

acclimated corals often being more sensitive than warmwater acclimated corals (see, e.g., Coles and Brown 2003). For the
present study, we observed the opposing outcome, with (1) the most bleachingresistant corals being those that were acclimatized to cool, low-nutrient (oceanic)
conditions and (2) the least bleaching-resistant corals being those that were
acclimatized to warm, high- nutrient (coastal) conditions. Cooler conditions lead
to lower zooxanthellae turnover and MI, which according to Wooldridge
(2009a) better facilitates the accumula- tion of tissue stores that can be
drawn upon to provide sustained offset to the autotrophic disruption
that underpins the warm-water bleaching response (see Fig. 2). This is
consistent with the higher bleaching resistance of corals that maintain
thick tissue reserves (Loya et al. 2001). For reef sites that have upwelling as
the dominant physical feature responsible for their cool summer thermal regime,
we suggest that our generalized resis- tance response may be limiting. The new
conceptual picture that emerges from this paper is of the fundamental
importance of nutrient loading, in particular DIN, in defining the
bleaching resistance of corals to heat stress (Fig. 4). A federally funded
program to reduce ambient DIN loads to reef waters is being
implemented with a view to lessening the fertilization of benthic algae and
their propensity to overwhelm coral reefs (Anonymous 2007). With this
analysis, we have shown that these actions also represent a rational strategy
for ameliorating climate change effects on coral reefs, raising the
temperature thresholds that cause corals to bleach, and reducing
bleaching probability across the whole range of temperatures predicted
for the inshore GBR by 2100.

USFG key
USFG Key- Has Immediate Access to the 3rd Largest Coral Reef
Ecosystem In The World
CoRIS, under the NOAA, N/A
(Coral Reef Information System, Florida,
http://www.coris.noaa.gov/portals/florida.html#6, 6/25/14, AEG)
Florida is the only state in the continental United States to have extensive
shallow coral reef formations near its coasts. These reefs extend from near Stuart
in Martin County on the Atlantic coast, to the Dry Tortugas in the Gulf of Mexico. The most
prolific reef development occurs seaward of the Florida Keys. The most extensive

living coral reef in the United States is adjacent to the island chain of the
Florida Keys. The Florida Reef Tract which extends from Soldier Key, located in Biscayne
Bay, to the Tortugas Banks possesses coral formations very similar to those found in the
Bahamas and Caribbean Sea. The Florida Reef Tract is nearly 150 miles long and
about 4 miles wide extending to the edge of the Florida Straits. It is the third
largest barrier reef ecosystem in the world. All but the northern-most extent of the reef

tract lies within the boundaries of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The 2,800 square nautical mile
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), designated in 1992, surrounds the entire archipelago of the Florida
Keys and includes the productive waters of Florida Bay, the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Discontinuous
and less biologically diverse coral reef communities continue northward along western Florida shores to the Florida
Middle Grounds, a series of submerged pinnacles rising to within 60-80 ft of the surface, about 100 miles northwest
of St. Petersburg.

USFG Key- Has The Newest Technology

Wenner, PhD from Marine Resources Research Institute, N/A
(Elizabeth, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Marine Artificial Reefs,
http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/pub/seascience/artreef.html, 6/25/14, AEG)
Given the unpredictable availability of suitable scrap materials from year to year, artificial

reef
managers have begun to rely more heavily on designed reef habitat
structures to carry out reef construction projects. The South Carolina
Marine Artificial Reef Program is a leader in the design, testing and
utilization of these artificial reef structures in the United States with over
a dozen different designs of habitat units having been deployed and
tested on its reefs since 1983. Designed reef habitat units of various shapes and sizes are
currently being tested at many nearshore and offshore locations. These
designs incorporate standard construction materials such as steel, concrete and some heavyduty plastics into easily deployable, cost-effective and biologically efficient
forms of habitat substrate which often produce a better quality longerlived reef than could be obtained through the use of some available forms
of scrap. Future reef construction activities may rely much more heavily
on these types of structures.

The USFG Should Do The Plan- Has Food, Economy, and Bio-D
Advantages
Global Ideas, 6/25
(Global Ideas Team, 6/25/14, Deutshe Welle Academy, Interactive Graphic:
Exploring A Coral Reef, http://www.dw.de/interactive-graphic-exploring-acoral-reef/a-17677132, 6/25/15, AEG)
For over 400 million years, coral reefs have formed some of the worlds
largest and most diverse ecosystems. They provide a habitat for
living creatures, protect shores from flood waves, stabilize coastal
regions and even provide people with food and incomes .

So, we have every reason to protect corals. But the opposite is

happening. Global warming, overfishing, polluted water and tourism are all taking a toll on coral reefs .

Currently, reefs are shrinking faster than rain forests. According to

statistics from 2008, almost a fifth of the worlds reefs are already dead. But
the trend can still be reversed: most reefs can recover provided global CO2

emissions are hugely reduced. Scientists have also found that some corals
can adapt to warmer water temperatures.

USFG Action Key To Regain Global Leadership

Knox, Professor of International Law, 12 (John H. Knox, 1/20/12, Center For
Progressive Reform, Reclaiming Global Environmental Leadership,
http://www.progressivereform.org/CPRBlog.cfm?idBlog=FB9153F2-ABFE-3CF28053EAF1ED929DB8, 6/27/14, AEG)
For more than a century, the United States took the lead in organizing
responses to international environmental problems. The long list of
environmental agreements spearheaded by the United States extends from early
treaties with Canada and Mexico on boundary waters and migratory birds to global
agreements restricting trade in endangered species and protecting against ozone
depletion. In the last two decades, however, U.S. environmental leadership
has faltered. The best-known example is the lack of an effective response
to climate change, underscored by the U.S. decision not to join the Kyoto Protocol.
But the attention climate change receives should not obscure the fact that
the United States has also failed to join a large and growing number of treaties
directed at other environmental threats, including marine pollution, the loss
of biological diversity, persistent organic pollutants, and trade in toxic
substances.

US Must Do The Plan As the Worlds Environmental Leader To

Remain So

Hayward, Ph. D., American studies, 08 (Steven, February 2008, American

Enterprise Institute, The United States and the Environment: Laggard or Leader?,
http://www.aei.org/article/energy-and-the-environment/the-united-states-and-theenvironment-laggard-or-leader/, 6/27/14, AEG)
If there is one country that bears the most responsibility for the lack of
progress on international environmental issues, it is the United States.
--Gus Speth, Red Sky at Dawn[1] Sadly, our nation is also at present the
biggest engine of ecological destruction on Earth, the chief (but by no
means only) force keeping humanity on collision course with the natural
world. --Paul and Anne Ehrlich, One with Nineveh[2] U.S. Given Poor Marks on
the Environment --New York Times headline, January 23, 2008 To borrow the blunt
language of Generation X and the "Millennials," does the United States suck when it
comes to the environment? Contrary to the perception expressed in the
epigraphs above, the answer turns out to be a resounding No; the United
States remains the world's environmental leader and is likely to continue
as such. But to paraphrase the old slogan of the propagandist, if a
misperception is repeated long enough, it will become an unshakeable
belief. Environmental improvement in the United States has been substantial and
dramatic almost across the board, as my annual Index of Leading Environmental
Indicators and other books and reports like it have shown for more than a
decade.[3] The chief drivers of this improvement are economic growth,
constantly increasing resource efficiency, innovation in pollution control
technology, and the deepening of environmental values among the
American public that have translated into changed behavior and consumer
preferences. Government regulation has played a vital role to be sure, but in the grand
scheme of things, regulation can be understood as a lagging indicator that often achieves results at needlessly high
cost. Were it not for rising affluence and technological innovation, regulation would have much the same efect as

"what have you done for me

lately?" there is widespread perception that the United States lags behind
Europe and other leading nations on environmental performance. This
perception is more strongly held abroad than here in the United States. Yale University's Daniel
King Canute commanding the tides. But in a variation of the old complaint

Esty, the chief author of the World Economic Forum's very useful Environmental Performance Index (EPI)--a new
iteration of which appeared in January of this year[4]--notes an interesting irony on this point. In the EPI's 2006
ranking of 133 nations, the United States ranked twenty-eighth, based on the study's comparison of sixteen key
indicators. When he presents these findings in the United States, Esty reports, some audiences often ask how it is
that the United States scores so poorly on the rankings, Americans being used to appearing near the very top of all
international rankings of good things. In Europe, Esty says, audiences wonder how it is possible that the United
States scores so high in the rankings--surely there must be some dreadful mistake in the methodology that gives
the United States the unjustified high rank of twenty-eighth place![5]
While the economy has grown more than twenty-fold in real terms since 1910, fossil fuel energy consumption only
grew six-fold, and per-capita CO2 emissions only doubled--from 10.9 tons to 19.4 tons. This is not the profile of a
nation that is profligate with energy.

In the 2008 edition of the EPI, the United States slipped in the rankings,
falling to thirty-ninth place. Notably, the United States ranks last among
the G8 nations and third to last among all advanced wealthy nations,
beating only Australia and the Netherlands in the EPI rankings. It was this
recent release that produced the New York Times headline: "U.S. Given Poor Marks
on the Environment.

US Should Do The Plan- It Benefits our Declining Bio-D

NOAA, N/A (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, What Are Artificial
Reefs and Where Are They Located in the Mid-Atlantic?,

http://www.epa.gov/reg3esd1/coast/reefs.htm, 6/27/14, AEG)

Artificial reefs are especially important in the marine waters of the midAtlantic. Years ago the natural bottom near shore had crevices in which fish
could breed and hide. Today, however, widespread development has
increased runoff from the land. This has resulted in large quantities of silt and sand
being deposited into the water, making the near-shore bottom flat .
Artificial reefs provide a way to bring fish and other ocean creatures back
into an area.

The USFG Is Key To Get Benefits Directly- Such Bio-D, Habitat,

and Increased Economic Activity
Adams, professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, 11 (Chuck, Bill Lindberg, associate
professor, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department; John Stevely, Florida Sea Grant marine extension agent,
2011, University Of Florida, The Economic Benefits Associated with Florida's Artificial Reefs,

Artificial reefs may be constructed for a

variety of purposes, each with a set of potential benefits associated with that intended
purpose or goal. One purpose of artificial reefs might be to provide a source of biological
replenishment to local populations of marine vertebrates and
invertebrates. In that case, the benefit would be that a net biomass increase would
result from deploying the reef. Artificial reefs may also be used as a means of mitigating
local habitat loss. Another purpose might be to simply provide a location where
anglers and divers can utilize aggregated populations of marine species ,
either in a take (fishing) or no-take (viewing) fashion. The benefits in that case would be the increased
economic activity (i.e., expenditures, incomes, jobs ) associated with these activities.
Each of these purposes may also generate non-market benefits (such as existence values), particularly to
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe649#FOOTNOTE_2, 6/27/14, AEG)

non-users of reefs. Such benefits reflect how individuals who may not directly utilize artificial reefs nonetheless

value reef existence as being beneficial to the biological habitat of the region. Aside from the purely
biological benefits that might accrue from artificial reefs, many would argue that reefs are deployed to provide
benefits to human users, whether commercial fishermen, recreational anglers, sport divers, or others. Milon,
Holland, and Whitmarsh (2000) suggest that a reef that is not useful to people is not a successful reef. If this is an
acceptable tenet, assessments of the economic benefits accruing from artificial reefs to surrounding communities
are necessary. Such information provides insight into the degree to which the public benefit is being served by reef

The actual or potential

economic impact of reef development to the county or state can be
measured, as well as determine to what extent artificial reef deployment
is an efficient public investment. In turn, this information may help justify
future public expenditures on artificial reefs and assist in developing
adaptive strategies associated with reef deployment as a resource
management tool. Of course, there are costs associated with artificial reef program implementation.
deployment and the economic consequences associated with reef use.

These costs must be measured as well.

Offcase Answers

AT: Spending
Artificial Reefs Are A Cheap Form Of Replicating Coral Reefs
While Creating Aesthetics
NOAA, N/A
(National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration, What Is An Artificial Reef?,
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/artificial-reef.html, 6/25/14, AEG)
An artificial reef is a manmade structure that may mimic some of the
characteristics of a natural reef.In June 2002, the retired USS Spiegel
Grove was sunk in waters off Key Largo. At 510 feet (155.45 meters) long,
the ship was, at the time, the largest vessel ever intentionally scuttled for
the purpose of creating an artificial reef.
Submerged shipwrecks are the most common form of artificial reef. Oil
and gas platforms, bridges, lighthouses, and other offshore structures
often function as artificial reefs. Marine resource managers also create
artificial reefs in underwater areas that require a structure to enhance
the habitat for reef organisms, including soft and stony corals and the
fishes and invertebrates that live among them.
Materials used to construct artificial reefs have included rocks, cinder blocks,
and even wood and old tires. Nowadays, several companies specialize in
the design, manufacture, and deployment of long-lasting artificial reefs
that are typically constructed of limestone, steel, and concrete.In 1986,
the Thunderbolt was intentionally sunk in 120 feet (36.6 meters) of water four
miles south of Marathon and Key Colony Beach in Florida. The ships
superstructure is now home to colorful sponges, corals, and hydroids, providing
food and habitat for a variety of sea creatures.
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary contains several decommissioned
vessels that were sunk in specific areas for diving or fishing opportunities prior
to the areas designation as a national marine sanctuary. One of the most
famous is the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Duane, which served on the seas for half
a century before its final assignment as an underwater haven for sea life.
Planned manmade reefs may provide local economic benefits because
they attract fish to a known location and are therefore popular
attractions for commercial and recreational fishermen, divers, and
snorkelers. However, the increase in illegal dumping for the purpose of
creating habitat has led to significant poaching in the Florida Keys and
subsequent high-profile arrests by NOAAs Office of Law Enforcement. Marine
debris continues to be an ongoing problem in these sensitive environmental
areas, and NOAAs Marine Debris Program has helped provide funding to remove
debris in the Florida Keys.

AT: MPA CP
Marine protected areas failno proper regulation
Valentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from
University of Georgia, 14

(Katie, 2/7/14, Climate Progress, Most Marine Protected Areas Dont Successfully
Protect Marine Life, Study Says,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/02/07/3260781/marine-protected-areasworking/, 6/29/14, SM)
Most marine protected areas arent doing their jobs to project fish and other
aquatic life, according to new research from the University of Tasmania. The study, published this week in
Nature, found that 59 percent of the marine protected areas (MPAs) looked at by
researchers were not ecologically distinguishable from fished sites. MPAs
are set up to protect marine life and habitat but operate under vastly
different rules and regulations from region to region some even allow
seabed mining, and most allow some level of fishing . The study looked at five markers
that determine the success of an MPA: how much fishing is allowed in the MPA, how well enforced that fishing rule
is, the age and size of the MPA, and whether the MPA is an isolated environment or surrounded by habitat that was
desirable to aquatic life but isnt in the protected zone. The researchers found that a successful MPA had at least
four out of five of these markers it prohibited fishing, was well enforced, had been protected for longer than 10
years, was larger than 100 square km (about 38.6 square miles) and was isolated by deep water or sand, so that
fish wouldnt pass easily between protected and unprotected areas. The MPAs that had four out of five of the
parameters had twice as many large fish species and 14 times more shark biomass per transect as regular fished
areas. This increase in species richness and abundance has been documented in regions that have closed parts of
their waters to fishing when a town on Mexicos Gulf of California banned fishing, it saw its marine biomass
increase by 463 percent from 1995 to 2009.

Politics Link Turns

Congress has introduced two bills to strengthen NOAAs
control on coral reef preservation.
NOAA 14
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 6/29/14, US
Department of Commerce, Coral Reauthorization Bills Recently
Introduced by Senate and House,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcrcp/strategy/reauthorization/archive/,
6/29/14, JY)
The 112th Congress has introduced two bills, which are the most recent
progress in the efort to reauthorize the Coral Reef Conservation Act of
2000 (pdf, 36kb). Senator Inouye (D-HI) introduced S.46, the Coral Reef
Conservation Amendments Act of 2011 on January 25, 2011. H.R.738, the
House's reauthorization bill, was introduced by Congresswoman Bordallo (D-Guam)
on February 16, 2011. Sen. Kerry (D-MA), Sen. Rockefeller (D-WV), Sen. Bill Nelson
(D-FL), and Sen. Snowe (R-ME) providing bipartisan support cosponsor S.46.
Fourteen democrats cosponsor H.R.738. Both bills would strengthen NOAA's
ability to comprehensively address threats to coral reefs and empower the
agency with tools to ensure that damage to our coral reef ecosystems is
prevented or effectively mitigated. The bills also establish consistent
practices for maintaining data, products, and information, and promote
the widespread availability and dissemination of that environmental
information. Both allow the Secretary of Commerce to further develop
partnerships with foreign governments and international organizations as well as
with Federal agencies, State and local governments, tribal organizations,
educational institutions, nonprofit organizations, commercial organizations, and
other public and private entities. These partnerships are critical not only to the
understanding of our coral reef ecosystems, but also to their protection and
restoration. Finally, both bills allow for any amount received by the United
States as a result of illegal activity resulting in the destruction, take, loss,
or injury of coral reefs to be used toward restoration efforts.

The Obama Administration and new Congress have indicated coral reef
conservation will be established.
ICRAN et al 09

(Project Aware, The Coral Reef Alliance, Reef Check, Conservation International,
Malama Kai Foundation, WWF, Center for Biology Diversity, The Ocean Foundation,
Project Sea L.I.N.K, Mariana Trench Monument, and Beautify LNMO, 7/2/09,
Recommendations for Coral Reef Conservation to the Obama Administration and the
111th Congress, http://www.icran.org/pdf/Coral%20Recommendations.pdf , 6/29/14,
JY
We are encouraged by indications that the Obama Administration and the
new Congress will establish a serious commitment to coral reef
conservation through the appointment of Dr. Jane Lubchencoa
distinguished ocean scientist with a strong track record in ocean conservation

to lead the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). We

also see a tremendous opportunity for the United States to continue its
leadership role in helping to reverse the downward spiral of coral reef
destruction and ensure the health and survival of these invaluable
resources for future generations.

No amount of money or jobs should be worth the risk of

increasing the decline of one of our most precious
resource; Congress agrees.
Latzman, Radio Anchor/Reporter - WLRN Program Host Florida Correspondent, NPR at The Miami Herald/WLRN Radio
14

(Phil Latzman, 6/26/14, SunSentinel, Phil Latzman: Protecting coral reefs more
important than extra $$$, http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2014-06-26/news/flplcol-oped0626-20140626_1_reefs-port-everglades-panama-canal, 6/29/14, JY)
To dredge, or not to dredge. That is the question facing port cities in the US
and beyond trying to stay on the manifest for the next big shipment. But in
Florida there's some extra delicate cargo under the sea that we must
protect. Our irreplaceable coral reefs. As if they weren't already endangered,
the state's sickly reefs are about to get stomped in a vicious assault that is only just
beginning. Like environmental serial killers with no conscience, dredging
projects threaten to pour poison into existing festering wounds on the
ocean floor. Florida has 15 deep water seaports frantically trying to
reconfigure to accommodate the trade commerce of the future, several of
them in negotiations for expansion, or already in progress to do so. Many of
our leaders support such efforts. Gov. Rick Scott has toured the state's
ports advocating for more federal help to complete the projects. His wish
was granted last week as Congress passed a law doing just that. U.S. Rep
Ted Deutch, D-Boca Raton, lauded the bill's passage as necessary so that "South
Florida economy does not miss the boat pun intended on the Panama Canal
expansion." So, it's a bipartisan lot of Republicans and Democrats alike that say the
dredge projects are needed to keep Florida economically competitive in the game of
international commerce. They claim they'll will lead to thousands of additional jobs
and billions of dollars in additional income and tarifs to the region. However, when
the consequences are weighed, no amount of money or jobs should be
worth the risk of accelerating the decline of our most precious natural
resource.

The Global Environment Facility gave $7.2 million to contribute

on coral reef preservation and other significant
biodiversity.
SFC News 14
(South Florida Caribbean News, 6/27/14, South Florida Caribbean News, World
Bank Contributes $7.2 Million to Support Marine Conservation in the Caribbean,
http://sflcn.com/world-bank-contributes-7-2-million-to-support-marine-conservationin-the-caribbean/, 6/29/14, JY)

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) through the World Bank has
contributed US$7.2 million to the Caribbean Biodiversity Fund (CBF) to
promote the conservation, protection, management and expansion of
national protected area systems and other areas of biodiversity
significance across the Eastern Caribbean region. The marine and coastal
resources of the Caribbeanits coral reefs, beaches, fisheries and mangroves
serve as an essential economic engine. However, unsustainable coastal
development, climate change and overfishing, as well as land-based sources of
sediment and pollution are negatively impacting the regions marine and coastal
ecosystems. The CBF will distribute the proceeds generated by the investment to
conservation trust funds that are in the process of being established in Antigua and
Barbuda, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines. These locally-managed funds will make grants to government
agencies and non-governmental organizations to execute conservation
projects with a strong emphasis on marine habitats.

Florida CP
Florida Economy Suffers In The First Quarter
Beyer, AP, 14
(Sue, 6/29/14, Florida Today, Online Newspaper,
http://archive.floridatoday.com/usatoday/article/11474997, 6/29/14, TH)
An economy that was expected to finally take off this year instead may
disappoint again. Recent reports showing feeble consumer spending in May
and an unexpectedly sharp economic contraction in the first quarter have
prompted some analysts to cast doubt on a much-anticipated acceleration
in growth. "It does call into question - is this the year that's going to be
the good year after all?" economist Paul Edelstein of IHS Global Insight
said of the consumer spending data. After accounting for inflation, consumer spending dipped
0.1% in May after falling 0.2% in April, the Commerce Department said. Reduced spending on
health care and utilities made up much of the decline. But excluding auto purchases, household consumption of
goods was weak as well. That defied the Hollywood script written by many economists. After consumer spending
rose just 1% in a first quarter battered by harsh winter weather, shoppers were expected to hit the malls with a
vengeance in the current quarter, snapping up everything from summer outfits to flat-screen TVs. But while
personal income rose solidly, rising food and energy prices prompted many Americans to rein in discretionary
purchases, Edelstein said. "The juxtaposition of pathetic economic growth and accelerating inflation doesn't speak
wonders about the economy's growth potential," Michael Feroli of JPMorgan Chase said in a research note. IHS has
lowered its second-quarter estimate for economic growth from 3.7% at an annual rate to about 3.4%. Allowing for
the economy's first-quarter contraction of 2.9%, IHS predicts growth for the year will be 1.6%, down from its

the 2.9%
decline in first-quarter output - the economy's worst showing since the
recession ended five years ago - chalking it up to bad weather, among other temporary factors.
But Cliff Waldman, senior economist of MAPI, the manufacturing industry's research arm,
says it also reflects fundamental weakness in an economy that has grown modestly
previous 2.2% forecast. The economy grew 2.6% last year. Most economists have shrugged of

throughout the recovery. "When it gets to a 3% contraction, there's something wrong beyond snow," he said.
Edelstein cites a lingering hesitancy by banks to provide mortgages that has slowed the housing recovery. Other
economists remain bullish. Jim O'Sullivan, chief U.S. economist at High Frequency Economics, says strengthening
job growth and an encouraging pickup in measures of manufacturing and service sector activity have led him to
maintain his forecast of 4% growth in the second quarter. The forces that led many economists to expect stronger
consumer spending this year remain in place, including lower household debt, higher household wealth and
consumer credit growth, said Scott Anderson, chief economist at Bank of the West. He expects inflation to moderate
and wage gains to accelerate in coming months.

Florida Economy Not Bouncing Back

Deslatte, Tallahassee Bureau Chief, 14

(Aaron, 2/25/14, Orlando Sentinel, Online Newspaper,

http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/blogs/political-pulse/os-pew-report-floridaeconomic-recovery-isnt-so-rosy-20140225,0,7290473.post, 6/29/14, TH)
a new report
suggests the Great Recession rebound isnt so stunning or complete. The
non-partisan Pew Charitable Trusts new analysis ranks the 50 states on
where they fall on tax, spending, debt and economic issues. The no-spin
picture: Floridas recovery is just ho-hum. The states revenue-collection
rebound remains far below the national average for states, its more
reliant on federal funds, and its employment picture lags most states. On a
TALLAHASSEE -- With Floridas gubernatorial candidates jostling over the state of the economy,

positive note: when it comes to savings, Florida is in the top-third capable of funding state government for nearly

The report is just the latest to temper the rosy

picture of economic recovery Republican Gov. Rick Scott is touting heading into his re-election
47 days of its $3.2 billion in reserves.

campaign next fall. Scott campaigned on creating jobs, and has constantly touted Floridas improved economic
performance under his first three years to that of his predecessor and Democratic challenger Charlie Crist, who

Last week, the non-partisan

LeRoy Collins Institute released a 120-page report called Tougher
Choices by two University of Florida economists which concluded
Floridas ability to create high-wage jobs was eroding. Among the findings,
funding for teachers and higher education was among the worst in the
country, its hollowing out of middle-class jobs was worse than the nations, Medicaid would
retorts he had to govern during a global economic meltdown.

continue to grow as more retirees move here, and roadways were among the nations most congested. Pews "Fiscal
50" report compares mid-2013 fiscal data to pre-recessionary periods and determines states' fiscal health on tax

While average state tax

collections have bounced back to pre-recession levels, Florida was one of
11 states where tax collections remain more than 10 percent below the
peak in 2006. In fact, the report indicates once inflation and seasonal
fluctuations are account for, Florida is roughly 21 percent below its boom
days in the mid-2000s. Only Wyoming and Alaska were worse of. "When it comes to
buying power, Florida is still double digits behind where it was before the
recession," said Barb Rosewicz, a research director in Pews state fiscal
health project. Employment rates for prime-age workers -- 25- to 54year-olds -- remained lower in 35 states last year than in 2007, and Florida ranked
third-worst in the country, better than only New Mexico and Nevada. The report
concluded roughly 75 percent of Floridas prime-age workers were
holding down jobs last year, compared to 81.1 percent in 2007 a 6.2
percent decline. That means for every 100 people in that group, there are
6.2 fewer working now. "It shows us there is something else going on in Florida's labor situation, that
maybe happening underneath what is happening with the unemployment rate," Rosewicz said. That "dropout" finding echoes Florida economists, who earlier this month released a
forecast pegging the number of jobs lost in the state since the recession
at 419,700 and noted that because of population growth, it would take the creation of 850,000 jobs to regain
revenues, spending, the workforce, long-term obligations, and fiscal policy.

its employment peak. Their report concludes that 53 percent of the decline in Florida's unemployment rate is due to

The Pew report offers a slightly dated picture of public

debt, lumping Florida in with six other states including New York,
Massachusetts, Oregon and Washington -- where debts for things like
building roads, university buildings and buying conservation lands was
larger than total unfunded retirement costs for public employees. Scott has
people dropping out of the labor pool.

bragged about retiring more than $3 billion in state debt since taking office, and lawmakers are once again
considering pension reforms this year which could lower future unfunded liabilities for public workers. Lastly, Florida
was above the national median for budget-reserves with enough cash to power government for roughly one-and-ahalf months. By comparison, California could pay its bills for only 3.3 days of its reserves and Illinois couldnt even
make it two days.

Permutation solvesa mixture of federal and state programs is

keycounterplan alone fails
World Fish Center 8
(An international, nonprofit research organization. CGIAR is a global partnership that
unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future, Lessons learned
and good practices in the management of coral reef Marine Protected Areas, 2008,
http://www.reefbase.org/gefll/pdf/mpa%20case%20studies.pdf)

The major element of South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Initiative (SFERI) goal is to
restore a more natural water flow to the ecosystem while guaranteeing sufficient
regional water supplies and flood control. To monitor environmental changes in the Florida Keys, the sanctuary has
implemented a comprehensive program which is complemented by a research program directed at ascertaining the
cause and efect linkages. This will ensure the efectiveness of the implementation and evaluation of the

information. Restoration efforts have

adopted an adaptive management approach that stresses rectifying issues
where possible and also continual collecting data, learning and planning .
All these actions are integrated towards a system-wide management,
integrated governance, broad- based partnerships, public outreach and communication and science
based decision-making. System-wide management means taking a holistic and
systematic approach to address issues regionally, not just locally, and placing
emphasis on obtaining results rather than on developing processes that
may never be carried out. To achieve this, different levels of government
must work together to develop regulations that are based on common
sense and sound science, share funding and cut costs, integrate budgets,
develop cooperative programs to enable quicker actions and streamline
red tape and other institutional barriers. In addition to that, broad-based
partnerships are another key element in the restoration effort . The
regions high degree of cultural diversity demands for effective
communication to connect people in meaningful ways with the effort,
foster a clear exchange of views, ideas and information and instill a broad sense of
stewardship, ownership and responsibility for the fate of the Florida Keys.
management strategies using the best available scientific

No Money for Coral Reefs

Van Sickler, Herald Tallahassee Bureau, 13 (Michael, 2/19/13, Tampa

Bay Times, Winner of 10 Pulitzer Prizes, http://www.tampabay.com/news/growth/toboost-economy-scott-wants-to-spend-more-money-on-roads-ports/1275828,

7/01/14, TH).
TALLAHASSEE If you think there's too much road construction now, just wait. The
state plans to increase transportation spending by 11 percent in an efort to
boost jobs, build more roads and get the state's ports ready for the
expansion of the Panama Canal. For motorists, that means navigating through
more orange cones and thicker clouds of construction dust throughout the state.
Florida's proposed $9.1 billion transportation budget was released
Tuesday. On tap in Tampa Bay: $420 million of additional lanes on Interstate 75
in Pasco, Hernando and Sumter counties; $27 million for the expansion of
Bruce B. Downs Boulevard; and $69 million to add lanes on the Veterans
Expressway in Hillsborough County. In South Florida, new construction would
include $112 million for new lanes on I-75 in Broward County. An
unprecedented flood of money is getting steered to ports in an attempt to get them
primed for the Panama Canal expansion, which should be completed in the next two
years. The proposed budget includes $30.6 million for the Port of Miami,
$26.7 million for the Port of Tampa, $19.5 million for the Port of Manatee
and close to $100 million across the rest of the state. "We're leveraging
what's going to happen with post-Panama Canal expansion," DOT Secretary Ananth
Prasad recently told a House transportation committee. "Florida's truly going to be
the gateway to the Americas." Gov. Rick Scott was in Jacksonville on Tuesday to tout
the proposed budget as an economic tool. He estimates the $917 million
increase in spending from this year will help create 500,000 jobs, one-third related

to highway construction employment opportunities that would be on line as he

gets ready for re-election in 2014.

Port Miami Leads to Significant Economic Revenue

Port Miami, 12

(Port Miami, 12, http://www.miamidade.gov/portmiami/deep-dredge.asp, 7/01/14,

TH)
PortMiami's Deep Dredge project will deepen the Ports existing channel
from its current 42-foot depth to minus 50-52 in preparation for the Panama Canal
Expansion, scheduled for completion in 2015. The Deep Dredge will make PortMiami the only U.S. port south
of Norfolk, Virginia, that can accommodate the new, mega cargo vessels that will pass through the expanded

The deepening of Miamis channel will create 33,000 new jobs,

double cargo throughput, and increase PortMiamis annual economic
impact to more than $34 billion. Located in the heart of downtown Miami, PortMiami is the second
largest revenue producing department in Miami-Dade County. PortMiami contributes nearly $27
billion annually to the local and state economies and supports 207,000
jobs, both directly and indirectly, in the State of Florida. PortMiami is recognized and known
for being the Cargo Gateway of the Americas. Due to PortMiamis ideal geographic
Panama Canal.

location, the worlds largest shipping lines ofer regular service from PortMiami to more than 100 countries in more
than 250 ports around the world. Over $2 billion in capital improvement projects, including the restoration of onport rail and the Port Tunnel, are transforming Miami and the State of Florida into a global logistics hub. PortMiami
will be one of only three U.S. Atlantic ports to be at -50 feet when the expanded Panama Canal opens in 2015. The
deeper depth will allow PortMiami to accommodate new, larger Post-Panamax vessels that will be traversing the
Canal. As the closest U.S. port to Panama, PortMiami expects to benefit from increased Asian trade. The dredging
project is managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and is expected to take approximately 18 months to
complete. Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Company, LLC, the contractor selected for the project, began dredging
operations at the end of November 2013.

Economic Increase Guaranteed By Port of Miami

Gerrity, Commercial News, 11

(Michael, 3/19/11, World Property Channel,

http://www.worldpropertychannel.com/us-markets/commercial-real-estate-1/port-ofmiami-expansion-panama-canal-expansion-panama-canal-opening-miami-tunnelproject-miami-export-report-florida-governor-rick-scott-miami-import-data-billjohnson-3974.php, 7/01/14, TH)
(MIAMI, FL) -- At a recent business conference held in Miami a few weeks ago, several hundred industry experts
gathered to hear what may be coming to the Port of Miami beginning in 2014 - a multi-billion dollar game-changing
event called the Panama Canal expansion. But Miami's port had two serious problems. First -- Miami's port simply
isn't deep enough to accommodate the newer and larger container ships passing through the Panama Canal once
that expansion is completed in the summer of 2014 (these larger ships need 50 foot port depths). Second -- the lack
of funding to dredge Miami's port to those depths. In the prior weeks leading up to the Miami business conference,
President Obama had just cut out of his budget the $75 million the federal government had already agreed to put
up in matching funds to Dade County's and City of Miami's $75 million commitment. The total cost of Miami's 2-mile
dredging to a depth of 50 feet is $150 million. What a Diference a Few Weeks Make Florida Gov. Rick Scott Today,
just two weeks after the Miami Port conference, Florida Governor Rick Scott announced in a press conference held
at 10AM at

the Port of Miami that the State of Florida will now step in and

commit $77 million short-fall of funding to start dredging the Miami port
to a depth of 50 feet. This will now give the Port of Miami a one to two year
head-start over several other east coast U.S. ports scrambling to be
recipients of the increased import and export business coming from the
Panama Canal expansion. Panama Canal History The first attempt to build a trans-Panama shipping
route was the construction of the Transisthmian Railroad across Panama by the French Government in 1880, which
after much work, abandoned the project in 1893. In 1903 the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers took over the project and
proceeded to dredge and build a series of locks across Panama in order to get U.S. naval war ships between oceans
in a more rapid pace. Upon completion the canal was opened in January 1914, and since then through December
2010, the Panama Canal has had over 1,000,972 ship transits through the canal delivering over 8,587,711,605 tons
of goods worldwide. Panama Canal 2014 Expansion Aerial In the mid 1990s the canal started to experience an
interesting new trend. The number of ships passing through was rising at a slower rate than the amount of tons
being shipped on each ship. The cause - larger container ships. In the shipping world, the standard unit of
measurement in a container ship's load capacity is a term of 'Twenty foot equivalent units' or TEUs (the length of
smaller shipping containers). Today the Panama Canal's maximum ship size is 4,400 TEUs (Max of 1,000 ft. lengths
by 100 ft. widths) which are called 'Panamax' ships. Upon completion of the new third lock system, much larger
12,600 TEU ships can pass (1,400 ft. lengths by 160 ft. widths) which are known as 'Post-Panamax' ships. These
larger ships allow for the delivery of containers at reduced prices because of the sheer scale of delivery capacity
that these new shipping vessels have to divide their transportation cost over. And these ships are getting even
bigger. It was also just reported this past month that the largest shipping line in the world (Danish based Maersk)
has just placed an order to a Korean ship builder for ten new 18,000+ TEU ships for $1.9 billion dollars. These ships
are fifty percent larger than the post-Panamax ships (these will be called 'ultra-post' Panamax ships). National and
Local Significance There is nationwide significance in supporting international trade and commerce growth because
of the Panama Canal expansion. John Carver, Jones Lang LaSalle According to John Carver, director of Jones Lang
LaSalle's Port, Airport and Global Infrastructure practice in Los Angeles, the 'New' Panama Canal will have the
following impact on U.S. commercial real estate: Lower cost mode, with "mega" ship economies of scale, driving
new network optimization models Quicker delivery time for all water routes to the U.S. East Coast, increasing
viability of numerous mid-Atlantic ports Competitive opportunities for a variety of container and non-container port
uses, yielding new job generation. Allowance for diversification strategy among supply chain interests Higher traffic

The Port of Miami is one of

only three ports on the Eastern Seaboard that has received Congressional
Authorization in November 2007 (WRDA) for deepening its harbor (New York &
volumes through the canal means greater pressure on port "through-put"

New Jersey is under construction & Norfolk, VA is already at 50ft depths). But there is new competition for Panama's
new larger ship traffic coming from Savannah, GA and Charleston, SC -places that are also looking for ways to
finance the dredging of their ports to accommodate these larger post-Panamax ships. Their dredging costs are
projected to be in the mid to upper hundreds of millions of dollars, compared with Miami's dredging cost of $150
million, of which the State of Florida has just committed $77 million this past week. Miami's Port Gantry Cranes In
addition, Miami already has funding in place and recently started a billion dollar tunnel boring project that will
connect Miami's port truck traffic directly to Interstate - 95 via a 4-lane under water highway running under Miami's
cruise ships. This is to stop the estimated 17,000 trucks a year driving through Miami's downtown from the port to
access I-95. The tunnel boring project is expected to be completed in 2014 and will create an additional 33,000 new

The Port of Miami accounted for 47% of the value of all

Florida ports international container trade. The Port of Miami international container trade
jobs for Miami-Dade County.

by value is 33 times that of the Port of Tampa, 4 times that of the Port of Jacksonville and 1.5 times that of the Port
Everglades. Port Volumes Drive Commercial Real Estate Markets In a hyper competitive shipping world with rising
energy costs, it comes down to a single sentence - optimizing your supply chain management cost structure. In
other words: 'time is money'. Miami - Dade Submarket Map (JLL) - Click here to enlarge map When looking at how
ports impact a local commercial real estate economy, you must look at the entire value chain of vendors and
services related to shipping a product from one Country to another. According to a report by Jones Lang LaSalle, the
real estate component of this entire shipping process is relatively small, only 5%. At an average daily operating cost
of over $250,000 for these ships, it is the efficiency with which container ships can enter a port, rapidly dock, of
load containers; reload with outboard containers, then turnaround back to other ports or home ports that generates
the most cost savings for shippers of goods and materials worldwide. Part of that 'just in time' delivery equation
rests with big-box warehouse space that is easily accessible by both rail and truck to store various products before
being re-packed and trucked (or railed) of to other U.S. distribution cities or final end destinations. John Carver
further commented, "The

expansion of the Panama Canal can be expected to

stimulate a coast inward recovery for the commercial real estate industry
as new supply chain models are created to take advantage of the improved all-water route to the US
east coast. Miami in particular, is further positioned to capture market share
not only as a first port of call for increased east-west traffic, but also from
its recognition as the leading gateway to the Americas." Miami's Play Steve Medwin,
Jones Lang LaSalle (Miami) The numbers are staggering, and if they hold true over the next ten years, Miami

will be in a position of becoming the top east coast port. According to Steve Medwin,
managing Director of Jones Lang LaSalle's Miami office, " The expansion of the Panama Canal
could be a game-changer for South Florida industrial real estate if the port
dredging is completed, since Miami is the closest East Coast port to
Panama and would be able to accommodate the Post-Panamax ships which
hold roughly 3 times the number of TEU's as the largest ships that
currently fit through the canal and dock in Miami now." Medwin further commented,
"We expect to see an increase in demand for industrial space to accommodate the increased volume of container
traffic flowing through the Port of Miami. The increased trade will also lead to expansion of ancillary businesses not
directly tied to the Port such as customs brokers, freight forwarders and logistics firms, all who will need additional
warehouse and office space in Miami." The current inventory of warehouse space in Miami-Dade County is about
200 million square feet with a 9.5% vacancy rate. The national average is about a 10.5% vacancy rate. The stock of
modern, institutional-quality buildings in Miami is only about 50 million square feet of the 200 million SF total
available. Lincoln Logistics Park, Miami According to Medwin, these buildings are the most likely to benefit from the
increased port traffic since they can handle the newest trucks and containers. "We expect these quality buildings
will be absorbed before 2014 in anticipation of the increased port traffic and will lead to new development of 2 to 5
million square feet in the next 5 years. Add to the equation Brazil hosting the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Summer
Olympics and the natural demand for goods in that country alone will continue to stimulate growth in the
import/export industries. This will only add to the demand for warehouse space in South Florida. Since we already
have a limited supply of industrially zoned land, selling prices of land and warehouses will increase in the coming
years - and lease rates will increase as well" stated Medwin. Gary Goldfarb, EVP of WTDC, a Miami-based supply
chain management firm stated, "The expansion of the Panama Canal can create enough business to fill additional
Industrial Parks in Industrial West Dade. If we can obtain FTZ status for those parks, then we can also compete with
Colon Free Zone in Panama. We cannot miss this opportunity presented to us." Bill Jones, Port of Miami Director The
passionate Bill Jones, Director of Miami's Port said, "I like to think of us as building a stool with legs that include our
port's infrastructure improvements and expansion plans that will dramatically drive Miami's (and all of Florida's)
economy forward for decades to come with an additional $30 billion economic impact over the next decade. We will
also be creating over 30,000 new local Miami/Dade County jobs with an average annual salary of over $55,000 a

With the Port of Miami now

having all four legs of their stool solidly in place and funded (underwater trucking
year...now that's the type of impact that Washington can't ignore!"

tunnel, new intermodal railway spur, deep water dredging funding and soon completion of Panama canal

Miami is truly poised to truly become the Shanghai of the U.S. east
coast, bridging massive trade between eastern and western hemispheres.
expansion),

Port of Miami Largest Benefactor of the Panama Canal

Expansion
Osorio, WorldCrunch, 13
(Sonia, 04/13, WorldCrunch, http://www.worldcrunch.com/eyes-on-the-u.s./the-bigwinners-and-losers-of-the-panama-canal-expansion/shipping-port-of-miami-floridacalifornia/c5s11407/#.U7NJRyigRUQ, 7/01/14, TH)
MIAMI - Throughout the history of the United States, the main divisions have traditionally
been between the North and the South, an economic and political rivalry that we know also
produced a civil war. But there is also an important rivalry between the West Coast and the
East Coast, a battle for cultural, academic and scientific supremacy, an ongoing contest to
attract the best musicians, artists and chefs. This rivalry now has a new feature, as the East
Coast prepares to compete with the West Coast for the lucrative shipping lines coming from
Asia. The reason for this? The expected expansion of the Panama Canal, a project that could
end up tipping the balance of power toward one coast over the other. The expansion, at a
cost of more than $5 billion, has the directors of ports on the Gulf of Mexico and the East
Coast opening bottles of champagne. They have reason to expect huge profits if they
manage to get large cargo ships which previously had to port on the Pacific Coast because
of the Canals limitations to finally sail into their ports. The Port of Miami, which has

already managed to exploit its geographic position and call itself the
bridge to the Americas, is preparing to take advantage of this new
opportunity and has invested more than $2 billion in infrastructure
upgrades. My friends, we will be ready to take advantage of the

opportunities brought by increased traffic from Asia, as the first stop-over

port for containers, both incoming and outgoing, said the Port of Miamis
director, Bill Johnson, in the ports annual report. In a little more than two years, a
wider and deeper Panama Canal will give shipping companies less
expensive options for shipping to ports on the East Coast. Full speed
ahead, to the Port of Miami, says Johnson. For the port, preparations for the canals
widening have been the most ambitious investment project in its history. Once they are
completed, they will allow the port to receive large ships like the so-called Post Panamax
size ships, which could not fit into the canal and had to stop in California. Tens of
thousands of new jobs When the Panama Canal permits better access to the routes from
Asia to the East Coast of the U.S., we will all benefit. We are hoping to increase our
capacity, explained the ports sub-director, Juan Kuryla. But the positive

consequences of the Panama Canal expansion are not limited to Miami.

The whole state of Florida is expected to benefit, and estimates from
different sources say the state will add more than 30,000 new jobs.
According to the Port of Miami, the expansion in the Panama Canal will allow it
to double its capacity in the next seven or eight years. However, all of this will
require certain reforms. As part of the preparations to increase its capacity, the Port of Miami
has already started a number of projects that include the construction of a tunnel that will
connect the port with the highway, without stopping at a single stoplight. According to
Kurlya, this direct access should be ready at the beginning of 2014, a year before the
expansion of the canal is finished. Another project is the deepening of the port itself, to a
depth of 15.2 meters. This will allow it to be the only port south of Virginia to have that kind
of depth. In addition, the Port is acquiring four Super Post Panamax cranes, which will
make the transport of major maritime cargo possible. And they are building a special railroad
to facilitate moving cargo by rail. It seems like the West Coast has reason to worry. If I were
running a port on the West Coast, I would be on the alert, because the expansion of the
canal is going to benefit the Port of Miami and other ports on this coast, said Kuryla.
California is prepared to do battle to prevent the loss of large cargo carriers to the Gulf Coast
and the East Coast. Thats why it has launched an aggressive campaign titled Beat the
Canal, so that the whole industry will improve its competitiveness. It is preparing to take on
the challenge presented by an enlarged canal and East Coast ports looking to steal business.

Florida Everglades DA
No need for preservation in Floridas reefs
Gibson, BA in Journalism from Columbia University, 13
(William E., 11/6/13, Huffington Post, New Study Says South Florida Coral Reefs
Appear To Be Rebounding, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/06/southflorida-coral-reefs_n_4229032.html, 7/1/14, SM)
South Florida's coral reefs, a natural wonder worth more than $6 billion to the local economy, appear
to be rebounding after decades of damage, disease and deterioration. The iconic reefs, which attract
divers, boaters, marine scientists and fishermen from around the world, have been spared in recent
years from major storms and ship groundings, allowing them to survive
and even grow offshore. A federal study released this month brought more good news: Coral reefs
may be able to adapt to warmer sea temperatures. That's a sign they can withstand a limited degree of gradual
global warming -- but only if carbon emissions are restrained to prevent unhealthy extremes. The findings raise
hope for the survival of the recreational and economic resource, just as scientists and officials gather in Fort
Lauderdale on Thursday and Friday for the fifth annual Southeast Florida Regional Climate Leadership Summit. They
will assess the costs and challenges of sea-level rise and global warming. Florida, a low-lying state just above sea
level and home to 84 percent of the nation's reef ecosystems, is a perfect setting to examine the progress and
problems of conservation. "We

haven't had a large crash in the population of corals.

And we have seen some good signs that the endangered species -staghorn coral -- continues to be abundant and may even be increasing in
abundance in some places," said Richard Dodge, executive director of the National Coral Reef
Institute at Nova Southeastern University. "So that's the good news. "The bad news is: There are still some coral
diseases out there. We still worry about bleaching, which appears to be caused by warmer water temperatures. But
we are lucky in South Florida to avoid a lot of hurricanes and tropical storms lately. Those storms can wreak havoc

The reef rebound also has been helped by improved sewage

systems, which prevent polluted water from seeping into the ocean . Greater
on the reef."

public awareness prompted boaters to avoid dropping anchors on the fragile reef. And a decision to move ship
anchorages farther ofshore from Port Everglades prevented damaging groundings.

Floridas budget is balanced

CBS Miami 4/28
(2014, Florida Legislators Agree On State Spending CBS Miami,
http://miami.cbslocal.com/2014/04/28/florida-legislators-agree-on-state-spending/
7/1)
TALLAHASSEE (CBSMiami/AP) Florida legislators reached a deal Monday on a state
budget which will boost spending on schools, child welfare and the cleanup of damaged water bodies across the
state. The deal is roughly $75 billion. The budget deal, which came after several days of haggling and
behind-the-scenes negotiations, clears the way for the Florida Legislature to end its
session on time this Friday. The election year budget comes with no tuition hikes for students, but it
does rely on a small increase in property taxes in order to boost public school spending by roughly 2.6 percent.

Legislators have also set aside enough money to cut taxes by $500 million, most of
which will come in the form of a rollback in annual auto registration fees charged to motorists. I think its a
balanced budget that addresses a lot of the needs in Florida , said Sen. Joe
Negron, R-Stuart, who is Senate budget chief. After years when legislators were forced to slice programs and

Floridasslowly recovering economy has given state

legislators a $1.2 billion surplus to use. That gave the Legislature enough money to increase
even raise taxes

the number of child protective investigators as well as money to help the states beleaguered springs and roughly
$170 million to start work cleaning up and restoring Indian River Lagoon and the Caloosahatchee River.

New spending causes clashes between Republicans and

Democrats and trades off with Everglades protection
Gibson, writer for The Washington Bureau 2011
(William, 2/27, Sun Sentinel, Budget cuts could kill environmental programs,
http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2011-02-27/news/fl-senate-environment-spendingcutbac20110227_1_environmental-spending-everglades-spending-evergladesrestoration 7/1)
WASHINGTON Eager to slash taxes and restrain government spending , Gov. Rick
Scott and Republican budget-cutters in Congress are seeking to chop big chunks of
state and federal funding for programs designed to preserve the natural
environment. Government regulations to clean the air and water and prevent global warming are under
attack. Even Everglades restoration, long a sacred cow for environmentalists and leaders of both
political parties, may fall victim to the budget ax. A Republican spending bill passed by the U.S.

House this month sets up a confrontation over environmental spending when the U.S. Senate takes up the
legislation this week. And in Tallahassee, Scott's austere budget, which would cut Everglades spending by nearly
two-thirds, will be tested when the Legislature meets next month. Republicans in each capital called for sacrifice to
prevent a yawning state budget gap and to ease the national debt. "We believe in Everglades restoration. But

we

are facing a serious financial emergency in this country," Sen. Marco Rubio, R-Fla.,
said in an interview last week. "There are a lot of worthy projects that are not going to get funded at the level they

the clash
over environmental spending goes beyond money matters and reflects an
underlying dispute between Democrats, who stress pollution control, and Republicans, who
should be funded. And there are a lot of worthy projects that are not going to get funded at all." But

warn against government rules that stifle the economy.

The Everglades are key to biodiversity contains over 60

endangered species
Alles 2012
(David, Professor of Bio at Western Washington University, Western Washington
University, Biodiversity Hot Spots: The Florida Everglades,
http://fire.biol.wwu.edu/trent/alles/Everglades.pdf, 7/1)
"Biodiversity hot spots are areas where endemic species with small ranges
are concentrated. Not all are in the tropics, but most are. Hot spots can be extraordinarily concentrated;
thousands of species may be found within a relatively small area. Species with small ranges are
particularly vulnerable to impacts. Nature has put her eggs in a small
number of baskets, and we are in danger of dropping them . On land, worldwide 25
areas are recognized as hotspots which contain concentrations of endemic species that are disproportionately
vulnerable to extinction from regional habitat destruction. These areas retain less than 10% of their original habitat

The Florida Everglades

contains one of the highest concentrations of species vulnerable to
extinction in the United States. The 5,000-square-kilometre wetland in
southern Florida is home to at least 60 endangered species , including the American
crocodile (Mason, 2003). And the area retains less than 10% of its original habitat as
the human population density of southern Florida threatens to over-run
one of the most unique habitats in North America.
and have unusually high human population densities." (Pimm, 2001)

Neg

Inherency

SQUO solves
Coral reefs will be protected
Blakely 2014
(Rhys, The Times, 6/19/24, Obama bars oilmen to preserve Pacific underwater
idyll, http://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic/, 6/25/14, AG)
A vast swathe of the Pacific is to be preserved as a pristine wildlife sanctuary
under US plans to create the world's largest conservation area in the middle of the ocean. The Pacific
Remote Islands National Marine Monument, a place of crystal turquoise sea, white sand and minimal human
presence, was originally established in 2009 by President George W. Bush. It currently covers 77,020 square miles
of water and is split into seven pockets --each surrounding a remote island, reef or atoll in the south-central Pacific,
between Hawaii and American Samoa. President Obama now wants to expand the total
protected zone to more than 780,000 square miles. That would make it the largest protected
area on the planet - on land or sea - about two times the size of the present record holder, a site in Greenland. The
aim is to provide a safer habitat to all manner of marine life, from whales and seabirds to rare sea turtles. The

region includes pristine coral reefs where shark populations outweigh their prey a phenomenon known as the "inverted biomass pyramid ". These tropical coral reefs and the
associated marine ecosystems are among the most vulnerable areas to the impacts of climate change and ocean
acidification. The biggest impact of the new protection is likely to be felt by

commercial tuna fishers, who will be barred from the area. Companies will be
forbidden from exploring for oil or gas in a region that is already largely devoid of human activity.

"These are fairly long distances from any ports, and they're very expensive to get to," said Lance Morgan of the
Marine Conservation Institute. "Still, we don't know what all the future uses are going to be." At present, less than
2 per cent of the world's oceans are protected. In a speech that echoed of the uplifting tone of his very earliest
days in office, Mr. Obama said: "Let's make sure that years from now we can look our children in the eye and
tell them that, yes, we did our part, we took action, and we led the way toward a safer, more stable world." He
added: "Growing up in Hawaii, I learned early to appreciate the beauty and power of the ocean. And like Presidents
Clinton and Bush before me, I'm going to use my authority as president to protect some of

our most precious marine landscapes, just like we do for mountains and rivers
and forests." The President has made a habit of using his authority to impose environmental protections
during his second term. He appears to be wary of ceding control to Congress, which has shown little interest in new
laws to combat challenges such as climate change. This month, he unveiled pollution limits on power plants,
enraging Republicans and some Democrats. This week, he also launched a task force to combat black-market
fishing and seafood fraud - a practice where seafood products are mislabeled to hide their origin. About 20 per cent
of wild marine fish caught each year are considered to be part of the black market, the White House said.

The Biggest Coral Reef Is Already Protected In the SQ

NOAA, N/A (NOAA, The Great Barrier Reef Is The Largest Living Structure on
Earth, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gbrlargeststructure.html, 6/27/14, AEG)
Stretching for 1,429 miles (2,300 kilometers) over an area of approximately
133,000 square miles (344,400 square kilometers), the Great Barrier Reef is
the largest coral reef system in the world. The reef is located off the coast
of Queensland, Australia, in the Coral Sea. The reef, which is large enough to
be visible from space, is made up of nearly 3,000 individual reefs. Much of
the Great Barrier Reef is a marine protected area, managed by the Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority of Australia.

The USs Biggest Reef Is Being Protected and Monitored in the

SQ

The Florida Institute of Oceanography's (FIO) SEAKEYS (Sustained Ecological Research Related
to Management of the Florida Keys Seascape) program began in 1989 and has continued

until the present. This program, now being supported through NOAA's
South Florida Ecosystem Restoration, Prediction and Modeling Program
(SFERPM), implements a framework for long-term monitoring and research
along the 220 mile Florida coral reef tract and in Florida Bay at a
geographical scale encompassing the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary (FKNMS). The impetus for such a framework was the perceived marked regional decline in
coral reefs and the critical need to provide data and options for resource management. The network
consists of six instrument-enhanced Coastal-Marine Automated Network
(C-MAN) stations, cooperatively managed with NOAA's National Data Buoy
Center, plus a proposed new one in northwest Florida Bay. These stations
measure the usual C-MAN meteorological parameters, such as wind speed, gusts and barometric
pressure, but are enhanced with oceanographic instruments measuring salinity, sea temperature, fluorometry and
turbidity.

In the SQ Coral Reefs Are Protected and MPAs are being

Improved and Monitored In the US
NOAA, CRC, State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies, 07 (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Coral Reef Conservation Program in
cooperation with partners from State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies,
February 2007, NOAA, Report On The Status Of Marine Protected Areas in Coral
Reef Ecosystems of the United States,
http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/noaa_documents/NOS/CRCP/TM_CRCP/TM_CRCP_2.pdf,
6/27/14, AEG)
This report, the Report on the Status of Marine Protected Areas in Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States
Volume 1: Marine Protected Areas Managed by U.S. States, Territories, and Commonwealths, was developed by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in conjunction with federal, state, territory, and
U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF). It was produced to help fulfill the goals and
objectives of the U.S. National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs
(2000) and the National Coral Reef Action Strategy (2002), and also helps
to advance the goals of Executive Order 13158 on MPAs. Goal number five in the
National Coral Reef Action Strategy calls for improving the use of
marine protected areas in coral reef ecosystems. Objective number one under this goal

commonwealth partners on the

area is to conduct and support nation-wide, state and territory assessments of the efectiveness and gaps in the
existing system of U.S. Coral Reef MPAs. This report directly addresses that objective by providing an inventory

assessment of existing MPAs that have been established and are managed by
the governments of the seven coral reef states and territories. It illustrates the

and

goals and objectives of these areas; describes current eforts to manage them; recognizes common challenges to
successful management; and, identifies actions that can increase the efectiveness of MPA initiatives. Eforts to
manage a total of 207 MPAs across the seven coral reef jurisdictions are summarized in this report. The large
majority of these MPAs (76 percent) are multiple-use areas that allow some level of extractive activity throughout
the entire site. The remaining 49 MPAs include no-take areas in which the harvesting of marine resources is
One hundred and forty-seven (71 percent) of the MPAs were established to
sustain, conserve, restore, and understand the coral reef ecosystems or
ecosystem components they contain, while almost one quarter of them
were established to support the continued extraction of renewable living
resources. Of the 207 sites, 86 percent are permanent sites as opposed to conditional sites whose potential
to persist must be considered after a set period of time . Nearly all of the sites (97 percent)
provide constant protection throughout the year; only three percent are
seasonal sites in which resources are protected during fixed periods of
time. Most of the MPAs (78 percent) were established to provide an ecosystem scale of protection through

prohibited.

which management measures are intended to protect all of the components and processes of the coral reef
ecosystem within MPA boundaries. The remaining 22 percent target a particular habitat, species complex, or
single resource.

Many of the MPAs in this assessment contain priority natural

resources for coral reef conservation such as fish spawning areas found
in 81 sites and the threatened or endangered species observed within 164
sites. Only 20 percent of the MPAs (42 sites) have approved management plans (nine additional plans are in
development) suggesting that the

development of plans to guide long-term MPA management is a challenge for

not mean that management action is not happening on-the-ground . Of

the 194 sites that reported on management actions being implemented,
approximately 42 percent have targeted research and outreach and
education programs or activities, 45 percent have on-going monitoring
activities, and over 74 percent reported the existence of enforcement
activities or programs.

these sites. However, this finding does

France Is Already Doing The Plan

Seaman, Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences, University of Florida, 14 (William,
2014, American Fisheries Society, Artificial Reefs in France: Advances in
Applications and Evaluation of Preformance,
https://afs.confex.com/afs/2014/webprogram/Paper14316.html, 6/27/14, AEG)
Artificial reefs in the coastal waters of France (33 sites) have been
deployed for 46 years. Their principal aim is to enhance artisanal fishing .
Newer purposes include creation of habitat to maintain or restore biodiversity and support scuba diving and
recreational fishing. Their use to protect benthic communities from trawling is diminished .

Significantly
increased reef construction and research after 2000 includes 13 new
reefs, expansion of six older sites, and 34 publications. Ecological
research has emphasized fishes, especially species diversity and
abundance. A growing database quantifies production of fish biomass that
is correlated with physical structural complexity, comparable to levels at
natural areas. Sessile plant and invertebrate communities are little studied. Perception of
stakeholders toward artificial reefs is a notable area of new research.
Recent reef development practices include a shift to intentional design of
structure, increasingly based upon life histories of designated species and
assemblages. Fabrication of reef modules uses concrete almost
exclusively, with waste materials discontinued. Greater construction
funding from the European Union has been accompanied by increased
levels of monitoring. Our recommendations include development of economic research, and longer-term
and more statistically rigorous ecological studies that address fishery production, trophic dynamics, recruitment and
ecological connectivity of habitats.

Mexico Already Did the Plan

Romano & Provenzani, under the GUE, N/A (Global Underwater Explorers, GUE collaborates
with a wide range of governmental and non-governmental organizations to explore and protect the aquatic
realm, Artificial Reefs, https://www.globalunderwaterexplorers.org/artificial-reefs,

6/27/14, AEG)
A good example of a well-designed, well-planned, and well-executed
artificial reef can be found in the National Marine Park of Isla Mujeres in Mexico.
This national park was established in 1996 in the Caribbean marine area delimited by Cancun, Isla Mujeres and
Puerto Morelos in the southern state of Quintana Roo. The reef (so far) consists of two decommissioned
minesweepers, gifted to the park by the Secreteria de Marina Armada de Mexico (SM-AM). These are the C-58

The vessels, each 60 feet long and of 1,000-ton

displacement, were sunk at a depth of 83 feet/25 meters on May 28 and
October 25, 2000, respectively. The park management decided to use the
Anaya and C-55 Juan de la Barrera.

artificial reef strategy to try and protect its coralline barrier because of
the important ecological and tourist value it offers. Future plans by the parks
monitoring project include the sinking of several additional structures to provide
further building blocks for new marine ecosystems. These will be
strategically placed around the marine park area to create alternative
diving sites for the burgeoning scuba industry and to reduce the
environmental impact caused by scuba diving activities on natural marine
ecosystems.
SQ Solves- Huge Artificial Reef and Coral Preservation Programs Have
Been In Place For Years In Alabama, Florida, Texas, Louisiana, and
Mississippi
Fikes, Staff Scientist at the National Wildlife Federation, 13 (Ryan, November 2013, NFW, Artificial Reefs of
the Gulf of Mexico: A Review of Gulf State Programs & Key Considerations,

Alabama
has one of the largest artificial reef programs in the United States . Alabama's
http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Water/Review-of-GoM-Artificial-Reefs-Report.pdf, 6/27/14, AEG)

Artificial Reef Program is the product of a cooperative agreement between the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and
the Marine Resources Division of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. The program is
the culmination of many meetings, letters, reports and workshops between various user groups within the coastal
area. It is intended to be dynamic with changes occurring as technology develops on artificial reef construction

in 1953 when the Orange Beach Charter Boat

to place 250 car bodies of Baldwin County, Alabama. This proved to
be very successful in attracting reef fish , and in the years since many diferent types of
Ofshore Reefs: Alabama's artificial reef building program started
Association asked for the authority

materials have been placed ofshore of Alabama. These have included, but are not limited to, additional car bodies,
culvert fragments, bridge rubble, barges, boats and planes. In 1974 75, in an excellent example of State/Federal
cooperation, several "ghostfleeted" liberty ships were sunk in five locations of Mobile and Baldwin Counties in 80

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers

creating specific areas offshore of Alabama for the creation of artificial
reefs. These were designated areas for these structures in order to coordinate with other users of the ofshore
area (spatial planning). By 1987 the areas encompassed almost 800 square miles. Inshore Reefs:
93 feet of water. In 1987, a general permit was issued by the

Beginning in 1996 the Marine Resources Division determined there was a need for artificial reefs within Alabama's
inshore waters to provide fishing opportunities for fishermen who preferred to fish these areas.
Therefore, when bridge rubble from the replacement of several coastal river bridges became available as reef
material, Division personnel began to examine possible sites. Plans were to complete these reef complexes by
placing cultch material inside the rings to promote the creation of natural oyster reef communities. In 1998, a
similar reef was constructed on the western side of Mobile Bay on the remnants of Whitehouse oyster reef. Oyster
cultch material was placed within the interior of this reef in August of 1998, completing the largest inshore artificial
reef to date in Alabama's inshore waters with an area of approximately 75 acres and a mile in circumference. Plans
are to continue to expand this program of inshore artificial fishing reefs. The Division was recently ofered concrete
culvert fragments as artificial reef material. Working with local conservation groups, commercial shrimp fishermen,
and Mobile County, the division plans to create ten additional inshore reefs over in the near future .

The
Florida Artificial Reef Program was legislatively created in 1982 and as of
1999 has been administered by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC),
Division of Marine Fisheries Management. The program was developed to obtain a mechanistic and predictive
understanding of how artificial reefs function ecologically and physically
across spatial and temporal scales in order to use artificial reefs as a
component of fisheries management. The primary objectives of the program are to
provide financial and technical assistance to coastal local governments, nonprofit
corporations and state universities to develop, monitor, and evaluate new artificial reefs. Under the program, near
shore and ofshore reefs (in Florida most ofshore reefs are classified as having depths of more than six meters)
have been constructed with one or more of the following intended objectives: 1. Enhance private recreational and
charter fishing and diving opportunities; 2. Provide a socioeconomic benefit to local coastal communities; 3.
Increase reef fish habitat; 4. Reduce user conflicts; 5. Facilitate reef related research; and, 6. While accomplishing
objectives 15, do no harm to fishery resources, Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) or human health. Today, approximately

70100 public artificial reefs are constructed annually of of Florida using a combination of federal,

state and local government and private funds. Approximately 4075% of the money used annually from all sources
for artificial reef development in Florida is administered through the FWC Artificial Reef Program. Funds
administered by FWC are grants inaid pass through funding derived from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service federal aid
in Sport Fish Restoration Program and state salt water fishing license revenues. The money is used to reimburse
local government and nonprofit participants for funding transportation and deployment of reef material,
construction of modular reef units, reef monitoring, pre deployment site assessments and special projects, such as
planning (socioeconomic studies) and research. Although it varies yeartoyear ,

approximately 7080%
of grant project funding goes to artificial reef construction with the
remainder used for monitoring, research or other reef planning projects.
Other reef building activities undertaken in Florida, beyond the scope of the FWC artificial reef program, include
mitigation for or restoration of natural hard bottom reef habitat lost through such activities as beach re
nourishment, repair of reef system damage caused by vessel groundings, providing substrate for the regeneration
of oyster reefs, and protection of re planted vegetated shorelines vulnerable to erosion from wave activity. Florida
has one of the most active artificial reef programs among the 14 Gulf and Atlantic coastal states involved in
artificial reef development. The Florida Artificial Reef Program is the only state program that is not exclusively run at
a state agency level where the state holds all the reef area permits. Instead, because of the extent of coastline and
statewide involvement in reef activities, the FWC program continues a cooperative partnership with local coastal
county governments. Coastal cities, universities and qualified nonprofit corporations also work directly with the FWC
in artificial reef development and monitoring activities. Thirtyfour of Floridas 35 coastal counties spread along
8,426 miles of tidal coastline (1,200 miles fronting the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean) are, or have been,

2,700
planned public artificial reefs have been placed in state and federal
waters. Most artificial reef development has taken place since the inception of the Florida Artificial Reef
involved in artificial reef development. Starting in the 1940s through August 2012, more than

Program in 1982. Local coastal governments hold all of the more than 300 active artificial reef permits of both
Florida coasts. About half of these sites are in federal waters. Fishing clubs, nonprofit corporations and interested
private individuals work through their local governments as the approved permit holders to provide input into public
reef building activities. The Louisiana Artificial Reef Program was established in 1986 to take advantage of obsolete
oil and gas platforms which were recognized as providing habitat important to many of Louisiana's coastal fishes.
Federal law and international treaty require these platforms to be removed one year after production ceases. The

than
70 oil and gas related companies have participated in the program and
donated primarily the jackets of oil and gas structures . In addition to material,
removal of these platforms was seen as a loss of reef habitat. Since the program's inception in 1986, more

companies also donate one half their realized savings over a traditional onshore removal into Louisiana's Artificial
Reef Trust Fund. In 1999, the Louisiana Program created the world's largest artificial reef from the Freeport sulfur
mine of Grand Isle Louisiana. The sulfur mine, with over 1.5 miles of bridgework, is composed of more than 29
structures. The reef is in 4250 feet of water and has 27 feet of 10 | Page clearance. For safety of navigation it is
marked by 5 lighted buoys. Forty (40) Armored Personnel Carriers (APC's) and one ofshore tug are also deployed
within two ofshore artificial reefs. The reef pro gram has also developed 30 inshore reefs in Louisiana's state
waters, primarily low profile reefs composed of shell or limestone. Eight inshore artificial reefs have been
constructed using reef balls. Recycled concrete from the decommissioning of the old I10 Twin Span bridges and
other concrete sources have been used to develop new inshore reefs. Seven inshore reefs were constructed by
Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (LDWF) and twentythree others were constructed in partnership with
public conservation, private groups and other governmental entities. Mississippi The Mississippi Department of
Marine Resources (MDMR) is responsible for managing marine waters of Mississippi .

In 1999 the
Mississippi Artificial Reef Plan was put into place to guide artificial reef
development in Mississippi's marine waters and adjacent federal waters .
First known eforts at artificial reef construction of the Mississippi coast took place in the 1960s with the
deployment of automobile bodies in ofshore waters near the barrier islands. In 1972, a unified efort between state
and federal agencies began to construct artificial reefs in Mississippi. World War II Liberty Ships were made
available from the National Defense Reserve Fleet for the creation of artificial reefs in coastal environments. The
state of Mississippi received five of these derelict vessels. Through a coordinated efort between the Mississippi
Marine Conservation Commission and the Mississippi Gulf Fishing Banks, Inc. (MGFB), a local nonprofit fishermen's
organization, these vessels were cleaned, stripped, and the hulls sunk on two permitted sites south of Horn Island.
After the hulls were sunk, the permits were transferred to MGFB. Additionally, funds acquired from scrapping these
hulls were transferred to MGFB for future reef development. The MDMR Artificial Reef Program is continuing to work

reefs are
located offshore and range in size from 8 acres to 10,000 acres. Along with the
closely with MGFB to promote conserve and develop reef habitat for Mississippi fishermen. These

Ofshore Reefs the MDMR has numerous Inshore Reef sites accessible by small boats, piers, and wade fishermen.
MDMR, Mineral Management Service (MMS), and petroleum companies are also working together to use

This program is
commonly known as "Rigs to Reef." Building on Title II of the National Fishing Enhancement Act of
decommissioned oil and gas platforms for ofshore artificial reef development.

1984, the National Marine Fisheries Service published a National Artificial Reef Plan which opened the door for
Federal support for ofshore artificial reef projects. Artificial reefs in Mississippi and adjacent marine waters are

located and built to support and enhance recreational fishing. Properly located, constructed and managed reef sites
can meet a variety of uses. All of these uses share the common purpose of enhancing marine habitat for associated
important sport fishes and other organisms. Nearshore Reefs: Mississippi's nearshore artificial reefs are comprised
of several diferent types of material including crushed concrete, limestone, and oyster shell. Development of these
reefs has diversified habitat and increased high quality fishing sites which has proven to support a great ecosystem
for Mississippi's nearshore waters. These artificial reefs provide the preponderance of both vertical relief and hard

In the spring of 2007, the MDMR

received funds from the Emergency Disaster Recovery Program (EDRP)
which was intended to help speed up recovery from the damage Hurricane
Katrina caused to marine resources. It is anticipated that this 5year program will continue to
substrate for a variety of fish and invertebrate species.

enhance and replenish what was lost to the storm. This project began with deployments around accessible fishing
piers for Mississippi's shore fishermen, who were left with very few fishing options. In addition to artificial reefs
around piers, the 2007 deployments also included low profile fishing reefs accessible to both wade fishermen and
small boat owners. In 2007, all three coastal counties were included with preference for reefs which sustained the
most damage. As Mississippi's public piers and shore access points are rebuilt and reopened, MDMR's artificial reef
program, in conjunction with Mississippi Gulf Fishing Banks will continue to enhance and replenish its inshore reefs.
Ofshore Reefs: MDMR, in conjunction with MGFB, has 15 permitted ofshore reef sites. These sites combined cover
approximately 16,000 acres, with sites ranging from 3 to 10,000 acres. The sites located north of the barrier islands
consist of concrete rubble while the sites located south of the barrier islands consist of concrete culverts, steel hull
vessels, and artificial limestone reef pyramids. Limestone, primarily used for road construction, is thought to attract
animals that wouldn't necessarily be attracted to the typical concrete reef structure. Small animals such as worms
are attracted to the limestone which in return attracts larger species such as fish. In 2007, MDMR used funds from
the Emergency Disaster Recovery Program to implement a 5 year restoration project for both inshore & ofshore
artificial reef sites intended to speed up the recovery process from damage caused be Hurricane Katrina to

Texas has been involved in artificial reef

development for nearly 50 years. Tires, automobiles and construction rubble have all been used
Mississippi's artificial reef habitat.

in reef building, but these materials had little long term success because they were easily broken up and moved by
storms. The first highly successful artificial reef development occurred during the mid1970s when 12 obsolete
World War II Liberty Ships were sunk at five diferent sites in the Gulf. These sites are still productive and are being
enhanced with additional durable and stable materials. Oil rig workers and saltwater anglers have long noticed that
petroleum platforms on the continental shelf act as unintentional artificial reefs, creating thousands of square miles
of marine habitat Gulfwide, as various species attach themselves to rigs below the waterline. The Texas Artificial
Reef Program takes advantage of this insight partnering with conservation organizations, corporations,

create and maintain more than 4,000 acres of

artificial reef structures within Texas Gulf waters . The slowdown in oil and gas activity in
communities, and sportsmen to

the Gulf in the 1980s resulted in an increase in the number of rigs being scrapped. Recognition that valuable
habitat provided by these de facto reefs should be preserved led to creation of comprehensive planning guides for
artificial reef development. The Artificial Reef Act of 1989 directed the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD)
to promote and enhance the artificial reef potential in Texas. To fulfill this purpose, TPWD developed the Texas
Artificial Reef Plan which was adopted in 1990. The Artificial Reef Program is guided by that Plan as well as
recommendations from a citizenbased Artificial Reef Advisory Committee. The Program is constantly acquiring new
reef material in various forms such as tugboats, barges, concrete reef balls, and petroleum rigs. In recent years,

These companies have also

donated to the Texas Artificial Reef Fund half of their realized savings
from not having to remove the rigs to shore. These dedicated funds are used to finance
numerous rigs have been donated by cooperating oil and gas companies.

research, administration, maintenance, liability coverage and construction of new artificial reefs. The Texas Artificial
Reef Program is selfsufficient, with no funds from public sources or agency revenue. The Artificial Reef Program
focuses its eforts on three types of materials: 1. Decommissioned drilling rigs in the RigstoReefs Program. 2.
Highway bridge materials and other sources of concrete and heavygauge steel in the Nearshore Reefing Program.
3. Large marine vessels in the ShipstoReefs Program.

Mexico Is Already Doing The Plan

Fikes, Staff Scientist at the National Wildlife Federation, 13 (Ryan, November 2013, NFW, Artificial Reefs of
the Gulf of Mexico: A Review of Gulf State Programs & Key Considerations,

There
are many different types of naturaloccurring reefs within the Gulf of
Mexico, but the natural bottom of the Northern Gulf of Mexico is
predominately flat sand. Outside of a few, ecologicallyimportant coral reefs of the Florida coast and
the Texas/Louisiana border, the Gulfs natural nearshore reefs are primarily shallow
http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Water/Review-of-GoM-Artificial-Reefs-Report.pdf, 6/27/14, AEG)

carbonate banks of scattered boulders rather than discrete reef

complexes. The Gulfs estuaries are also home to reef complexes,
primarily oyster reefs which provide nursery habitat for fish and other
wildlife, protection from predators, water filtration, and reduced erosion.
In addition, oyster reefs have significant economic impacts, including
commercial fishing and indirect contributions to Gulf Coast tourism. The
Gulf of Mexico accounts for approximately 67% of the nations total oyster
harvest. Unfortunately, the estuaries of the Northern Gulf of Mexico are
believed to have lost well over half of their historic oyster reefs, primarily a result
of overharvesting by means of destructive dredging practices and habitat
degradation, including reductions in water quality and quantity. Additional types
of natural reefs found in Gulf estuaries are serpulid (calcareous) reefs in Texas and fragmented coral reefs in bays of
Florida leading to the Florida Keys coral archipelago. Serpulid reefs were formed from the calcareous tubes of
serpulid worms in hypersaline bays such as Baffin Bay in Texas .

Formation of the reefs began

about 3,000 years ago and ended about 300 years ago, so degradation of
these reefs contributes to the loss of hard substrate in the system. Florida
reefs face threats from coral bleaching events and outbreaks of various coral diseases. 4 | Page All five
Gulf States have implemented artificial reef programs that aim to
supplement the Gulfs natural reef habitats. According to William Seaman, Jr. (2000) an
artificial reef is defined as "one or more objects of natural or human origin deployed purposefully on the sea floor to

Nearshore
artificial reefs can be created that will develop communities of encrusting
organisms and bait fish over time. As various encrusting organisms such as corals and
sponges cover the artificial reef material, small animals take up residence. As
these small animals become abundant larger animals are attracted and
feed upon these, and so on until a reef food web is created. Energy is able to
then provide biological growth potential that provides additional
protective habitat, as well as sustenance for fish species. Some experts believe that
influence physical, biological, or socioeconomic processes related to living marine resources."

artificial reefs can function comparably to natural reef communities. Others argue that artificial reefs merely attract
existing fish from the adjacent open water habitat, forming more dense fish aggregations.

Florida is already is doing the plan and it has already impacted

the economy to its ability- meaning they have no
inherency
Adams, professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, 11 (Chuck, Bill Lindberg,
associate professor, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department; John Stevely, Florida Sea Grant
marine extension agent, 2011, University Of Florida, The Economic Benefits Associated with Florida's
Artificial Reefs, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe649#FOOTNOTE_2, 6/28/14, AEG)
Florida reportedly
has the largest complement of permitted artificial reefs in the nation .

These reefs have been shown to be beneficial to the local economies. The
studies reviewed above show that artificial reefs do increase economic
activity in surrounding communities. Because artificial reefs are valued by users and
non-users alike and provide benefits that exceed costs, they may be an efective tool for redirecting
use away from natural reefs if such an management objective is required . Overall, artificial

reefs are a source of economic value that may justify additional

deployments, even after taking into account the opportunity costs
associated with scarce public funds.

No need for preservationcoral reefs adapt to acidification

affs plan is unnecessary because coral reefs are fine
now
NOAA 13

(10/29/13, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, New study suggests

coral reefs may be able to adapt to moderate climate change,
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2013/20131029_coral.html, 6/27/14, SM)
Coral reefs may be able to adapt to moderate climate warming, improving their chance of surviving through the end
of this century, if there are large reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, according to a study funded by NOAA and

corals have
already adapted to part of the warming that has occurred. Earlier modeling
work suggested that coral reefs would be gone by the middle of this
century. Our study shows that if corals can adapt to warming that has
occurred over the past 40 to 60 years, some coral reefs may persist through the
conducted by the agencys scientists and its academic partners. Results further suggest

end of this century, said study lead author Cheryl Logan, Ph.D., an assistant professor in California State University
Monterey Bays Division of Science and Environmental Policy. The scientists from the university, and from the
University of British Columbia, were NOAAs partners in the study. Warm water can contribute to a potentially fatal
process known as coral bleaching, in which reef-building corals eject algae living inside their tissues. Corals
bleach when oceans warm only 1-2C (2-4F) above normal summertime temperatures. Because those algae supply

The study,
explores a range of possible coral
adaptive responses to thermal stress previously identified by the scientific
community. It suggests that coral reefs may be more resilient than previously thought due to past studies that
the coral with most of its food, prolonged bleaching and associated disease often kills corals.
published online in the journal Global Change Biology,

did not consider efects of possible adaptation. The study projected that, through genetic adaptation, the reefs
could reduce the currently projected rate of temperature-induced bleaching by 20 to 80 percent of levels expected
by the year 2100, if there are large reductions in carbon dioxide emissions.

Fishing

UQ
US Fishing Industry on the Rise

Marine Stewardship Council no date

(Marine Stewardship Council, no date, The Seafood Economy,
http://www.msc.org/healthy-oceans/the-oceans-today/the-seafood-economy,
6/29/14, AG)
Millions of people work in the seafood industry, contributing to local,
regional and global trade on a massive scale and maintaining livelihoods,
earnings and employment. It's not just about fishing. Seafood-related jobs
include processing, packing, transport, retail and restaurants. Through these diverse
businesses, the seafood economy generates financial security for
individuals and a valuable source of GDP. The value of the global seafood
industry The export value of world trade in fish was US$63 billion in 2003,
and is more than the combined value of net exports of rice, coffee, sugar
and tea Source: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization About 200
million livelihoods depend directly or indirectly on the fishing industry
Source: United Nations Environment Program Half of the seafood traded worldwide
comes from developing countries Source: United Nations Environment Program
Fish exports are a valuable source of foreign exchange for many developing
countries. Globally, developing countries are net exporters of fishery products.
Source: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Rising demand
Consumer demand for fish continues to climb, especially in affluent nations, which
in 2004 imported 33 million tonnes of fish, in value terms 81% of all fish imports
that year, and worth over US$61 billion (Environmental News Service). Global
consumption of seafood increased by 21% between 1992 and 2002. But levels of
fish catches in the wild have remained roughly stable since the mid-1990s, close to
90-93 million tonnes annually. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization says there
is little chance of any significant increase beyond these levels. And its not just
about seafood, fish is an ingredient in pet food, health supplements, fishmeal and
many non-food products manufactured on a global scale. The UN predicts another 2
billion people will join the worlds population within 20 years. Add to this the surge
in consumption that is expected as the worlds emerging economies develop and
expand, and it is clear that pressure on seafood resources will increase. Sustainable
fisheries set for success With pressure on seafood resources set to increase
further, fisheries that are poorly managed may quickly collapse. We will need
fisheries that are well-managed and sustainable, especially given the uncertainties
and implications of global climate change. The MSC is helping to transform the
seafood market onto a sustainable basis, where well managed fisheries
are recognised and rewarded, and marine conservation is at the heart of
good fisheries management. You can support sustainable fishing by looking for
the MSC ecolabel on certified sustainable seafood. Find out where to buy MSClabelled sustainable seafood.

The Recreational Fishing Industry Generates Millions For US

Economy Now
The Billfish Foundation 2013

(The Billfish Foundation, 3/14/13, Fisheries Economics of the United States Report
Released, http://www.billfish.org/news/fisheries-economics-of-the-united-statesreport-released/, 6/29/14, AG)
The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has
released the annual edition of Fisheries Economics of the United States for
2011, highlighting the economic impact of both recreational and
commercial fishing. In 2011, 11 million recreational anglers took 70 million
saltwater fishing trips and generated $70 billion in sales impacts, $32 billion
in value added impacts, and supported over 455,000 jobs nationally.
Taking a further look at the expenditures of U.S. anglers in 2011, a total of $4.5
billion in angler expenditures were related specifically to fishing trips with
$2 billion of this for private boat-based fishing trips. Shore-based fishing
trips generated $1.5 billion and for-hire-based fishing trips brought in $1
billion. The angler expenditures on fishing-related equipment for 2011
totaled over $22 billion with most related to boat expenses ($11 billion).
Other major expenditures incurred by anglers included vehicle expenses
($4.1 billion), fishing tackle ($3.8 billion) and second home expenses ($2.1
billion). This is great news for the recreational fishing industry because of the rise
seen between 2010 and 2011, especially in the Southeast portion of the United
States (South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Regions) where recreational fishing is
economically important and a large driver of tourism. In 2011, around 70% of all
recreational fishing jobs in the US were occupied by fishermen in the Gulf of Mexico
and South Atlantic Regions. Recreational Fishing in these two regions generated
$15.9 billion in fishing trip and durable equipment expenditures with $6.1
billion and $9.8 billion in the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico regions
respectively.

Floridas Fishing Industry Contributes to Economy

Barth 2013
(Cindy Barth, Orlando Business Journal, 8/27/13, Florida fishing industry contributes
$5B to state economy,
http://www.bizjournals.com/orlando/news/2013/08/27/florida-fishing-industrycontributes.html, 6/29/14, AG)
Fishing is a $5 billion industry in Florida, according to the latest economic
commentary report from Florida TaxWatch, a nonpartisan taxpayer research
institute and government watchdog. The TaxWatch report shows that more than 1.2
million nonresidents fished during a trip to Florida in 2013, in addition to the state
hosting boating and fishing expos throughout the year all of which draw visitors
and their tax dollars to the state economy. Florida fishing also helps support
many industries that impact the state's economy, including retail,
manufacturing and research, in addition to the impact on tourism, the
report said. More than half of the $5 billion fishing industry expenditures
come from non-angler related expenses. In addition, Florida generated
$36.2 million during fiscal year 2011-2012 from the issuance of freshwater
and saltwater fishing licenses. Florida's unique location and variety of fishing
opportunities position the state as the world leader in sport fishing tourism, said
Dominic M. Calabro, president and CEO of Florida TaxWatch.

Hurts Fishing Industry

Artificial reefs are actually detrimental to fish
Plovina, Chief, Ecosystem & Oceanography Division at NOAA, 89
(Jef, 1989, California cooperative oceanic fisheries organization, ARTIFICIAL REEFS:
NOTHING MORE THAN BENTHIC FISH AGGREGATORS,
http://calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v30/Vol_30_Polovina.pdf, 6/25/2014, JW)
The potential for artificial reefs to substantially increase standing stock of marine
resources is con- sidered. Three sources - the Japanese artificial reef
program; relationships between fishery production and the area of natural
habitat for several fisheries; and population dynamics - offer evidence that
ar- tificial reefs do not substantially increase the stand- ing stock of
marine resources. RESUMEN Se considera el potencial de 10s arrecifes artificiales para aumentar sustancialmente el stoc4 dis- ponible de 10s recursos marinos.
Tres fuentes de evidencia: el programa de arrecifes artificiales ja- pods, la relaci6n
entre producci6n y Area del hAbi- tat natural de varias pesquerias, y la dinimica de
poblaciones, indican que 10s sustratos artificiales no aumentan sustancialmente el
stock disponible de 10s recursos marinos. DISCUSSION Artificial reefs can be
excellent fish aggregators, but they do not effectively increase standing stock.
This position will be supported with three types of evidence: first, with observations
from the Japanese artificial reef program; second, from the relation- ship between
habitat and fishery production; and finally from considerations of population
dynamics. Between 1976 and 1987, the Japanese spent U. S. $4.2 billion to
construct and deploy 6,443 artificial reefs, covering 9.3% of the ocean bottom
from shore to a depth of 200 m (Yamane, in press). But despite this enormous
volume of artificial reefs de- ployed in coastal water, there has not been
any measurable increase in coastal fishery landings (Ja- pan: Statistics and
Information Department 1984). Studies specifically investigating the impact
of the artificial reefs have generally not documented any significant
increases in fish production that can be attributed to the reefs (Kawasaki
1984; Kakimoto and Okubo 1985). After three visits to Japan and numerous
discussions with people involved in all aspects of the Japanese artificial reef
program, I be- lieve the real benefit of the reefs is that they aggre- gate wideranging fishes close to shore so they can be harvested by fishermen with small
vessels and thus keep the fleet of small vessels economically viable. Outside of
Japan, artificial reefs have not been deployed on a large enough scale to evaluate
their efectiveness in increasing standing stocks. How- ever, examining the
relationship between habitat and fishery production can provide estimates of the
level of fishery yield per area of habitat that might be expected from appropriately
designed and sited artificial reefs. One example is penaeid shrimp: worldwide
fishery yields range from 8 to 200 kg/ hectare of intertidal nursery habitat (Turner
1977). In the case of artificial reefs, yields are measured in production per unit of
reef volume. Thus if a square meter of intertidal habitat is assumed to also contain
about a meter of vertical structure, grass, or man- grove, then these yield figures
are equivalent to 0- 0.02 kg/m2. Another example is the coral reef sys- tems, from
which .fishery yields have been reported in the range of 5-20 t/km2 (Marten and
Polovina 1982). If one square meter of coral reef habitat is conservatively assumed
to be equal to one cubic meter of reef volume, then production per volume of reef
habitat is 0.005-0.02 kg/m3. To put this production-per-unit-of-habitat vol- ume in

perspective, I will relate it to an example from California, where recent annual

commercial landings for rockfishes are about 15,000 metric tons (MT) (California
Department of Fish and Game 1987). I will assume that the average figure for fishery production per habitat volume from coral reef fisheries, 0.01 kg/m3, can be
applied to rockfishes. I will further assume that artificial reefs can be ten times more
efective than natural habitat that might include barren or unproductive areas. With
a level of fishery production of 0.1 kg/m3 of habitat vol- ume, it would require 15
million m3 of artificial reefs to increase the annual rockfish catches by 10%. At the
extremely low cost of $10/m3 of reef for con- struction and deployment, this would
cost $150 million. To put 15 million m3 of artificial reefs into perspective, consider a
space 100 X 50 m, about the 37 POLOVINA: ARTIFICIAL REEFS: BENTHIC FISH
AGGREGATORS CalCOFl Rep., Vol. 30,1989 size of a football field, covered with 1-m
cubes. One such field would contain 5,000 m3; therefore, 3,000 such fields covered
with 1-m cubes would equal 15 million m3. Of course the major flaw in this brute
force approach to fishery enhancement is that even if this enormous volume of
artificial reefs was built and deployed, any benefits would not be noticeable,
because landings annually fluctuate by 10% to 20%. That is exactly one of the
lessons the Japanese learned with their $4.2 billion experiment. There is also the
question of which resources lose habitat when low-relief habitat is covered with artificial reefs. There is a perception that low-relief habitat is not used by important
commerical spe- cies, whereas high-relief habitat is preferred by valuable species.
This is often based on the obser- vation that the adults are seen and caught in highrelief habitat. This has been commonly accepted in Hawaii, but recently, when
correct sampling gear was used, the juvenile habitat of the very valuable deepwater
snappers was found to be the low-relief, flat-bottomed, sandy habitat, which had
been con- sidered a biological desert. Large-scale deployment of artificial reefs on
this flat, sandy-bottom habitat would have attracted shallow-water reef fishes at the
cost of destroying juvenile habitat for the more commercially valuable deepwater
snappers. In Ja- pan, a study around an artificial reef site found that the
artificial reef attracted some species and repelled others and that the
effectiveness of the reef could be negative, depending on which species
were at- tracted or repelled (Kawasaki 1984). The wide ranges in the levels of
fishery produc- tion per area of habitat suggest that, although habi- tat is necessary,
it is not limiting to production. Current research suggests that for many species,
population size is determined during the larval rather than benthic phase. For
example, the adult population of the Caribbean coral reef fish, Thulus- soma
bfusciatum, is determined primarily by recruit- ment and not by the supply of space
on the reef (Victor 1983). In another study, the survival ofju- venile reef fishes was
estimated for varying levels of recruitment, and survivorship appeared constant independent ofjuvenile density on the reef (Sale and Ferrell 1988). These studies
indicate that even for coral reef fishes that require reef habitat during juvenile and adult phases, more reefhabitat would not increase standing
stock. Insight into whether a resource can be enhanced with artificial reefs can be
obtained from the rela- tionship between larval settement density and fish- ery
catches. If the relationship is linear, then the same percentage of the larval
settlement is caught by the fishery, independent of density. However, if the fraction
of the settled larvae, which ultimately contribute to the fishery, declines as the
density of settled larvae increases, then density dependence may be a factor, and
artificial reefs, which provide additional habitat and reduce the density at some
stage, may increase fishery production. A relation- ship between larval settlement

and fishery catches is available for a spiny lobster (Punulirus Cygnus) fish- ery in
western Australia (Phillips 1986). This rela- tionship is linear, indicating that the
same fraction of the settled larvae are captured as adults by the fishery,
independent of the level of larval settle- ment. Thus, even for a spiny lobster which
requires shelter, larval settlement is the limiting factor to production, and even at
high postlarval densities, habitat is not limiting to fishery production. Artificial
reefs are often suggested as a solution to overfishing. Yet they do not help
if either growth or recruitment overfishing is occurring. In the case of
growth overfishing, they may aggregate younger fish, making them more
vulnerable to cap- ture and actually increasing overfishing. In the case of
recruitment overfishing, standing stock is a frac- tion of its unexploited level, and
habitat is certainly not limiting. Aggregating adults further simply in- creases
catchability, and hence fishing mortality, which further reduces the spawning stock
biomass. Reefs are popular as management options be- cause they do not require
reductions in fishing efort and they aggregate fish, resulting in higher catches in
the initial stages. Thus artificial reefs may actually be detrimental to the
fishery and the stock simply because they allow managers to delay making
hard but necessary decisions, such as imposing size limits or reducing
effort.

Overfishing Bad
Overfishing a Major Issue in the squo
United Nations no date
(United Nations, no date, Overfishing: a threat to marine biodiversity,
http://www.un.org/events/tenstories/06/story.asp?storyID=800, 6/29/14, AG)
Overfishing cannot continue, warned Nitin Desai, Secretary General of
the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, which took place in
Johannesburg. The depletion of fisheries poses a major threat to the food supply of
millions of people. The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation calls for the
establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), which many experts believe may
hold the key to conserving and boosting fish stocks. Yet, according to the UN
Environment Programmes (UNEP) World Conservation Monitoring Centre, in
Cambridge, UK, less than one per cent of the worlds oceans and seas are currently
in MPAs. The magnitude of the problem of overfishing is often overlooked, given the
competing claims of deforestation, desertification, energy resource exploitation and
other biodiversity depletion dilemmas. The rapid growth in demand for fish and fish
products is leading to fish prices increasing faster than prices of meat. As a result,
fisheries investments have become more attractive to both entrepreneurs and
governments, much to the detriment of small-scale fishing and fishing communities
all over the world. In the last decade, in the north Atlantic region, commercial fish
populations of cod, hake, haddock and flounder have fallen by as much as 95%,
prompting calls for urgent measures. Some are even recommending zero catches to
allow for regeneration of stocks, much to the ire of the fishing industry. According
to a Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimate, over 70% of the
worlds fish species are either fully exploited or depleted. The dramatic
increase of destructive fishing techniques worldwide destroys marine
mammals and entire ecosystems. FAO reports that illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing worldwide appears to be increasing as fishermen seek
to avoid stricter rules in many places in response to shrinking catches and
declining fish stocks. Few, if any, developing countries and only a limited number
of developed ones are on track to put into efect by this year the International Plan
of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Unreported and Unregulated Fishing.
Despite that fact that each region has its Regional Sea Conventions, and some 108
governments and the European Commission have adopted the UNEP Global
Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land based
Activities, oceans are cleared at twice the rate of forests. The Johannesburg
forum stressed the importance of restoring depleted fisheries and acknowledged
that sustainable fishing requires partnerships by and between governments,
fishermen, communities and industry. It urged countries to ratify the Convention on
the Law of the Sea and other instruments that promote maritime safety and protect
the environment from marine pollution and environmental damage by ships. Only a
multilateral approach can counterbalance the rate of depletion of the worlds
fisheries which has increased more than four times in the past 40 years.

Overfishing will cause fisheries to shut down by 2050, thus

hurting the economy drastically
Save Our Seas Foundation no date

(Save Our Seas Foundation, no date, Threat 1: Overfishing,

http://saveourseas.com/threats/overfishing, 6/29/14, AG)
The statistics are grim: 3/4 of the world's fish stocks are being harvested
faster than they can reproduce. Eighty percent are already fully exploited
or in decline. Ninety percent of all large predatory fish including tuna,
sharks, swordfish, cod and halibut are gone. Scientists predict that if
current trends continue, world food fisheries could collapse entirely by
2050. As fish populations closer to shore dwindle, commercial fishing
operations have shifted their focus to largely unregulated deep-sea
fisheries as much as 40 percent of the world's trawling grounds are now in waters
deeper than 200 meters. In doing so, they target species which are
particularly vulnerable to overexploitation, like the orange roughly. Like many
other deep-sea fish, this species matures late and lives very long over 150 years.
Its low fecundity means populations become depleted more quickly than inshore
species when they are overfished, and take much longer to recover. Indeed, many
orange roughly stocks have already collapsed, and recently discovered substitute
stocks are also rapidly dwindling. Modern fishing vessels catch staggering
amounts of unwanted fish and other marine life. It's estimated that
anywhere from 8 to 25 percent of the total global catch is discarded, cast
overboard either dead or dying.2 That's up to 27 million tonnes of fish thrown
out each year -- the equivalent of 600 fully-laden Titanics. And the victims aren't
just fish. Every year, an estimated 300,000 whales, dolphins and porpoises
die entangled in fishing nets, along with thousands of criticallyendangered sea turtles. Long-line fisheries also kill huge numbers of
seabirds. Over 100,000 Albatrosses die this way every year, and many species are
endangered as a result of bycatch. All modern forms of commercial fishing produce
bycatch, but shrimp trawling is by far the most destructive: it is responsible for a
third of the world's bycatch, while producing only 2% of all seafood.

Fish Have Feelings Too Fishing Makes You Complicit With Evil
PETA no date
(PETA, no date, Fishing, http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-inentertainment/cruel-sports/fishing/, 6/29/14, AG)
Billions of fish die every year in nets and on hooks. Some are destined for human
consumption, many are tortured just for sport, and others are unintended victims
who are maimed or killed simply because they were in the wrong place at the wrong
time. Fish Feel Pain When fish are yanked from the water, they begin to
suffocate. Their gills often collapse, and their swim bladders can rupture
because of the sudden change in pressure. Numerous scientific reports
from around the world confirm that fish feel pain. Researchers from the
University of Edinburgh and University of Glasgow studied the pain receptors in fish
and found that they were strikingly similar to those of mammals; the researchers
concluded that fish do have the capacity for pain perception and
suffering. Sport Fishing While the numbers continue to decline compared to
decades ago, more than 29 million people still went fishing in 2006, spending
billions of dollars on their hobby. According to a Florida State University
study, sport fishers are responsible for killing almost 25 percent of
overfished saltwater species. Many trout streams are so intensively fished
that they require that all fish caught be released; the fish in these streams

may spend their entire lives being repeatedly traumatized and injured.
Whats Wrong With Catch-and-Release Fishing? Fish who are released after
being caught can suffer from loss of their protective scale coating that
makes them vunerable to disease, a dangerous build-up of lactic acid in
their muscles, oxygen depletion, and damage to their delicate fins and
mouths. According to one fishery expert, catch-and-release victims could be
vulnerable to predators, unable to swim away, or if nesting, not capable of
fending off nest raiders. Some guarding males could in fact abandon the nest.
Researchers at the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation found
that as many as 43 percent of fish released after being caught died within
six days. Other Victims According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, [M]ore than one million birds and 100,000 marine
mammals die each year due to ingestion of, and entanglement in marine
debris. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission reports that
discarded monofilament fishing line is the number one killer of adult brown pelicans,
although one Audubon biologist says that [p]retty much every type of water or
shore bird can get caught up in fishing line . We find dead cormorants, anhingas,
herons, egrets, roseate spoonbills you name it. One out of every five manatee
rescues conducted in the 1980s and 1990s was related to fishing-line entanglement,
and during a four-year span, at least 35 dolphins died from injuries that they
sustained as a result of being tangled in fishing line

Fishing turns case Commercial fishing has huge impacts on

humanity.
Food Empowerment Project, 11
(Food Empowerment Project, 01/25/11, food empowerment project, Commercial Fishing,
http://www.foodispower.org/commercial-fishing/, 6/29/14, SJ)
As commercial fishing takes its toll on aquatic animal populations across the globe, fish farming has become increasingly common.
Otherwise known as aquaculture, fish farming basically involves raising fish for food in underwater enclosures. With a growth rate of
9 percent annually since 1975, the fish farming industry now supplies nearly 40 percent of the global seafood market. While fish

this production method also comes

with its own environmental hazards. For one, it is incredibly wasteful, in that nearly five pounds of
trash fish are needed to make just one pound of fishmeal for farmed
fish,[20] who now consume about one-quarter of the total annual global fish catch of 20 to 30 metric tons.[21] This loss
of biomass impacts species at every level of the food chain .[22] Secondly,
fish[ing] farms themselves damage the ecosystems where they are located. Farmed fish are densely
farming has often been touted as a solution to the worlds growing hunger for fish,

packed together in pens for maximum production efficiency, but the fecal matter that accumulates in these filthy conditions can

create algal blooms that deplete the water around aquaculture facilities of
oxygen so that these areas can no longer support sea life .[23] Deadly parasites (such as
sea lice) and viruses (like the often-fatal salmon anemia) also thrive in the putrid waters where farmed fish are forced to live, and
wild fish can become infected when they swim near aquaculture enclosures. Farmed fish can also escape their pens and interact
with native species, sometimes swimming several miles to their colonies. Such communicable disease threats can quickly decimate

Industrialized aquaculture can have

devastating consequences not only for ecosystems and animals, but for
people as well. Intensive shrimp farming in Southeast Asia, for example, has destroyed so many
coastal mangrove forests over the last few decades that their shores are
now more vulnerable to deadly tidal waves. On December 26, 2004, just minutes after a massive
whole wild fisheries as they spread through the population.[24]

underwater earthquake measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale struck the India-Burma fault line, waves as high as 100 feet deluged the
Indian and Indonesian coastlines, killing an estimated 150,000 people. The tsunami would have done less damage, however, if vast
areas of ofshore mangrove forests hadnt been cleared to build shrimp farms and beachfront tourist hotels, because mangroves
(along with coral reefs, sand bars and sand dunes) create a natural bufer zone that prevents waves from getting so big as they
approach land. Scientists studying the aftermath of the tsunami documented fewer human deaths and less property damage in
areas with intact mangrove forests compared to those where they had been decimated.

Fishing causing massive bycatch

Food Empowerment Project, 11

(Food Empowerment Project, 02/25/11, food empowerment project, Commercial

Fishing, http://www.foodispower.org/commercial-fishing/, 6/29/14, SJ)
Bycatch is the industry term for what they consider unwanted or economically-worthless aquatic animals who are
unintentionally caught using destructively indiscriminate fishing methods like longlines and driftnets, which

billions of other
animals, some of them endangered, are also killed in this manner every year, including
sea turtles[11], marine mammals, sharks, and sea birds.[12] Commercial fisheries bycatch
discard is estimated to be between 17 and 39 million tons each year.[ 13]
generally target marketable marine creatures such as tuna and swordfish. However,

Shrimp fisheries have the highest bycatch rates, with (on average) four tons of fish discarded for every ton of
shrimp caught.[14] Even though the US (since 1987)[15] and some other countries have required shrimpers to
install Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) on their trawling nets that allow critically-endangered sea turtles to escape
capture, shrimp trawling and intensive commercial fishing remain among the gravest threats to sea turtles

Worldwide, between 1990 and 2008, an estimated 8.5 million sea turtles were
fatally caught in nets or on longlines as bycatch.[16]
survival.

Fish Depletion Alt causes

ALT Causes to fish depletion- rising demand for food,
unemployment, and fishing methods
Vince science writer 12 (Gaia, 9/22/12, BBC future, How the worlds oceans
could be running out of fish, http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120920-are-werunning-out-of-fish, accessed 6/29/14 SH)
Fish are
the last wild animal that we hunt in large numbers. And yet, we may be
the last generation to do so. Entire species of marine life will never be
seen in the Anthropocene (the Age of Man), let alone tasted, if we do not curb our insatiable
voracity for fish. Last year, global fish consumption hit a record high of 17 kg
(37 pounds) per person per year, even though global fish stocks have continued to decline. On
It has been some time since most humans lived as hunter-gatherers with one important exception.

average, people eat four times as much fish now than they did in 1950. Around 85% of global fish stocks are overexploited, depleted, fully exploited or in recovery from exploitation. Only this week ,

a report suggested
there may be fewer than 100 cod over the age of 13 years in the North Sea
between the United Kingdom and Scandinavia. The figure is still under dispute, but its a worrying sign that we
could be losing fish old enough to create offspring that replenish
populations. Large areas of seabed in the Mediterranean and North Sea now resemble a desert the seas
have been expunged of fish using increasingly efficient methods such as bottom trawling. And now, these
heavily subsidised industrial fleets are cleaning up tropical oceans too . Onequarter of the EU catch is now made outside European waters, much of it in previously rich West African seas,

each trawler can scoop up hundreds of thousands of kilos of fish in a

day. All West African fisheries are now over-exploited, coastal fisheries have declined 50%
in the past 30 years, according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation. Catches in the tropics are
expected to decline a further 40% by 2050, and yet some 400 million people in Africa
and Southeast Asia rely on fish caught (mainly through artisanal fishing) to provide their
protein and minerals. With climate change expected to impact agricultural production, people are
going to rely more than ever on fish for their nutritional needs. The policy of
subsidising vast fishing fleets to catch ever-diminishing stocks is
unsustainable. In Spain, for example, one in three fish landed is paid for
by subsidy. Governments, concerned with keeping jobs alive in the fishing
industry in the short-term, are essentially paying people to extinguish
their own long-term job prospects not to mention the effect on the next
generation of fishermen. Artisanal fishing catches half the worlds fish, yet it provides 90%
of the sectors jobs.
where

Alt causes to fish depletion- inadequate fishing regulations

WWF 8 (2008, World Wild Life Foundation, Fishing problems: poor fisheries
management,
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/fisheri
es_management/, accessed 6/29/14 SH)
In many fisheries, current rules and regulations are not strong enough to
limit fishing capacity to a sustainable level. This is particularly the case for the
high seas, where there are few international fishing regulations. Lack of
implementation/enforcement: Even when fisheries regulations exist, they
are not always implemented or enforced. For example, many countries have

still not ratified, implemented, or enforced international regulations such

as the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and the UN Fish Stocks
Agreement. Lack of political will is also responsible for failures to adopt
bycatch reduction devices, for example.
Alt causes for fish depletion- fishing bycatch
WWF (World Wild Life Foundation, Bycatch,
https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/bycatch, accessed 6/29/14 SH)
Wherever there is fishing, there is bycatchthe incidental capture of nontarget species such as dolphins, marine turtles and seabirds. Thousands of
miles of nets and lines are set in the world's oceans each day . Modern fishing
gear, often undetectable by sight and extremely strong, is very efficient at
catching the desired fish speciesas well as anything else in its path. A
staggering amount of marine lifeincluding turtles, dolphins and juvenile fishis
hauled up with the catch, and then discarded overboard dead or dying .
Fishing industry leaders increasingly realize the need to reduce this phenomenon. Proven solutions do
exist, such as modifying fishing gear so that fewer non-target species are
caught or can escape. In many cases, these modifications are simple and
inexpensive, and often come from fishers themselves. Despite new
technologies and industry recognition of the issue, bycatch is still a major
problem. Not only does it cause avoidable deaths and injuries, but the fishing methods can be
harmful to the marine environments where they are employed . WWF aims to
reduce bycatch by working with fisheries and helping develop and promote new technologies and gear for more
efficient operations.It

is estimated that over 300,000 small whales, dolphins, and

porpoises die from entanglement in fishing nets each year, making this the
single largest cause of mortality for small cetaceans . Species such as the vaquita from
the Gulf of California and Mauis dolphin from New Zealand face extinction if the threat of unselective fishing gear is

endangered loggerhead turtles and critically endangered

leatherback turtles drown annually on longlines set for tuna, swordfish,
and other fish. Incidental capture of turtles by longlines, trawls and gillnets is the single greatest
threat to the survival of most populations.
not eliminated. Hundreds of thousands of

Alt causes for fish depletion- overfishing and harmful fishing methods
Washington College of Law ( 2012, Washington college of Law, Coral
Reefs, http://www.wcl.american.edu/environment/iel/sup3.cfm,
accessed 6/27/14SH)
Reefs in Asia are vulnerable to two local fishing methods, both immensely
destructive. Blast fishing involves the use of dynamite to stun or kill the
fish by shock waves and collecting them as they float to the surface. Fish
that are stunned are sold to restaurants that prepare fish live or, more and
more, to satisfy the growing worldwide demand for ornamental aquarium
fish. Another method uses cyanide poured into the water which also kills and
stuns fish. The harmful impact of dynamite blasts and cyanide on coral is
obvious, and leads directly to reduced numbers of fish overall since their habitat is
degraded. Anthony Spaeth, Reef Killers; the use of toxic cyanide to snag live fish
for gourmands in southeast Asia is damaging a delicate ocean habitat, Time, June 3,
1996. Even if heavy fishing activity in a reef does not directly damage the

coral, overfishing of herbivores such as parrot fish will result in damage

because no protection is left against fast-growing seaweed which always threatens
to engulf reefs. Indeed, the complexity and interdependencies of a reef ecosystem
makes it particularly vulnerable to overexploitation of particular species.

Ocean Acidification

SQUO Solves
Status Quo Solves For Ocean Acidification
Koch, environmental issue Congressional reporter, 6/3 (Wendy, 6/03/14, USA
Today, EPA seeks 30% cut in power plant carbon emissions by 2030,
http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/06/02/epa-proposes-sharpcuts-power-plant-emissions/9859913/, 6/29/14, AEG)
Taking a historic step to fight climate change, the Obama administration
proposed a plan Monday that aims to slash carbon dioxide emissions from
existing power plants 30% by 2030 and could accelerate the nation's shift
away from coal. The Environmental Protection Agency plan, which is President
Obama's largest climate efort so far, could help the United States prod other
countries like China to pledge similar emissions cuts as part of a new
international treaty that's slate for negotiation next year in Paris.

Hurts Biodiversity
Corals deacidify oceans, but at the cost of changes to reef
processes, ecosystem composition, and coral growth
(neg card)
Scripps Institution of Oceanography 13
(11/26/13, Scripps Institution of Oceanography UC San Diego, Can Coral Reefs
Delay the Damaging Efects of Ocean Acidification?,
https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/13963, 6/25/14, SM)
Atmospheric carbon dioxide has gone up by 42 percent and global average
temperatures have increased by 0.8C (1.4F) since the Industrial Revolution. These changes have
well-defined effects on the open ocean, increasing both the acidity and temperature
of surface seawater. This decrease in ocean pH has left many scientists concerned about the
detrimental efects it could have on coral reefs. Increasing temperature and decreasing pH make it harder
for corals to build calcium carbonate, and also cause calcium carbonate to
dissolve more readily. The reefs total ecosystem organic carbon production (photosynthesis minus
organic matter consumed) will also be afected. All of these processes calcification, dissolution, and
ecosystem organic carbon production affect seawater pH. By modeling how the balance between these

processes will change in the future, Andersson and his coauthors discovered that the expected changes may
actually increase the pH on the reef relative to the open ocean, thus partially ofsetting the decrease in pH owing to
uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere. Many laboratory and field experiments have studied the efects of rising
temperatures and ocean acidification on coral reef ecosystems. Although scientists arent sure exactly how much

calcification will decrease and dissolution

will increase as the ocean becomes more acidic. These changes to
calcification and dissolution could be so drastic that eventually the coral
reefs dissolution rate will catch up to the rate at which they build,
resulting in stunted growth or deterioration. This is something that a lot of experiments
and models have predicted will happen, Andersson said. This means the reef is dissolving as fast
as its producing calcium carbonate, and this was the scenario in which we
saw the greatest pH offset. A reefs survival depends on putting down
more calcium carbonate than is dissolving or it wont be able to grow, so a
reef in this state is not a healthy one, even if its able to maintain a more
beneficial pH. This outcome tempers the seemingly good news that corals
can fight ocean acidificationthese offsets will come at the cost of
major changes to reef processes and ecosystem composition . The reefs may
reef processes will change, they are confident that

change from being dominated by calcifying corals to non-calcifying algae, a condition that may diminish their
functional and biological diversity.

Reefs Not Key

Coral Reefs Cant Solve- Dont Stop the Root Cause of Ocean
Acidification
National Geographic, N/A (National Geographic, Ocean Acidification: Carbon
Dioxide Is Putting Shelled Animals at Risk,
http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/critical-issues-ocean-acidification/,
6/29/14, AEG)
For tens of millions of years, Earth's oceans have
maintained a relatively stable acidity level. It's within this steady environment that
the rich and varied web of life in today's seas has arisen and flourished. But
research shows that this ancient balance is being undone by a recent and
rapid drop in surface pH that could have devastating global consequences.
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the early 1800s, fossil fuelpowered machines have driven an unprecedented burst of human industry
and advancement. The unfortunate consequence, however, has been the
emission of billions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse
gases into Earth's atmosphere. Scientists now know that about half of this
anthropogenic, or man-made, CO2 has been absorbed over time by the
oceans. This has benefited us by slowing the climate change these emissions
would have instigated if they had remained in the air. But relatively new research is
finding that the introduction of massive amounts of CO2 into the seas is
altering water chemistry and affecting the life cycles of many marine
organisms, particularly those at the lower end of the food chain.

They have it backwards reefs are destroyed by ocean

acidification
Parker, NOAA Coral Reef Watch Program, Eakin, NOAA Coral
Reef Watch Program, no date
In 2007 coral reef scientists from around the world, led by Ove Hoegh-Guldberg,
published a paper entitled Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean
Acidification. The paper appeared in the journal Science and summarized our
current knowledge about coral reefs and climate change. As humans burn fossil
fuels, such as coal, gasoline and natural gas, carbon dioxide (CO2) is
released into the atmosphere. Before the Industrial Revolution, natural levels of
CO2 in the atmosphere were around 280 parts per million (ppm). Today we are
seeing levels that are about 30 percent higher around 380 ppm and those
levels are increasing faster and faster. We now know that this increase in CO2
has contributed to the warming we have seen in the oceans and in air
temperatures worldwide. During the 20th century, this has corresponded
to an average increase in ocean temperature of 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit,
though this increase is not felt equally around the world. The northern latitudes are
warming faster than other areas, which is contributing to ice melt around the Arctic
and Greenland. But there is another effect of adding CO2 to the atmosphere
that you may not have heard much about. Roughly one-third of the CO2 added
to the atmosphere each year is absorbed by the ocean, where it reacts
with seawater to form carbonic acid. This process is changing the

chemistry of the ocean, making the waters more acidic. The average pH of
the global ocean has already dropped from around 8.2 to 8.1; this process
is commonly referred to as ocean acidification. How are these changes
diferent from past climate fluctuations? Scientists can determine the past
composition of the atmosphere by analyzing the gases trapped in bubbles in ancient
Antarctic ice. As a result of burning fossil fuels, CO2 levels are higher,
oceans are warmer and pH is lower than at any time in at least 800,000
years and probably over 20 million years. Even more troubling is that all three
are changing at a much faster rate than they have in the past. The Earths climate
has varied in the past, but the changes we are seeing today are so fast that natural
systems, including coral reefs, are unable to adapt quickly enough to keep
up! Click image to enlarge Not only are fish hurt by rising temperatures, the places
they rely on as protection are hurt as well Fish are by no means immune to the
impacts of rising temperatures and ocean acidification. This pink skunk clownfish
hiding in its anemone at Eddie Reef, Australia, may feel safe, but anemones are
subject to bleaching at high temperatures too. Rising temperatures can adversely
afect reef diversity A mix of hard and soft corals creates the beautiful structure at
Eddie Reef, Australia. Rising temperatures and acidification in our oceans
threatens coral reefs and their diversity. Warming Ocean Temperatures and
Coral Bleaching Corals are animals that live in a mutualistic symbiotic relationship
with single-celled plants, algae known as zooxanthellae. A mutualistic relationship is
one in which both partners benefit. In this case, the coral provides a safe, protected
place for the zooxanthellae to live. In turn, through photosynthesis, the
zooxanthellae use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen
and carbohydrates. The corals then use these carbohydrates as their major food
source. The algae also give the corals their characteristicly brilliant colors. As with
all organisms, both corals and zooxanthellae have optimal temperature ranges in
which their systems function efficiently. But high temperatures stress both corals
and zooxanthellae, much like our bodies can become stressed on hot, humid days.
Zooxanthellae become more sensitive to the bright tropical sunlight, which causes
their photosynthetic process to break down. When this happens, they become toxic
to the corals. To protect themselves, the corals expel the zooxanthellae. This
process is called coral bleaching because the corals turn a pale white color when
the zooxanthellae are gone. Temperatures of only 1.8 to 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit
above the hottest summertime temperatures that corals normally see can cause
them to bleach. If bleaching continues for a month or more, the corals can starve
and die. Even if the corals do survive, this stress increases their susceptibility to
disease and reduces their ability to reproduce normally for years. Large-scale
bleaching events on coral reefs have become more common with just a 1.4 degree
increase in average ocean temperature. Future temperature increases of 1.8
degrees are almost certainly coming within this century, and the temperatures may
rise by as much as 7.2 degrees on average, which means coral bleaching events will
likely increase in their frequency and severity. This will leave corals with less time to
recover between bleaching episodes, and it will make them more susceptible to
other stressors in their environment. Ocean Acidification and Coral Growth In
addition to the stress of warming ocean temperatures, oceans are becoming
more acidic, thus slowing coral growth and hindering the ability of corals
to build their skeletons. As the ocean takes up CO2 from the atmosphere,
water becomes more acidic and the concentration of carbonate ions in the
water decreases. Corals require these carbonate ions to form their calcium

carbonate skeletons. As ocean acidification continues, some coral reefs

may no longer be able to grow fast enough to keep up with the natural
forces that break them down. Click image to enlarge The amount of marine life
that coral reefs harbour make their safety a priority Often referred to as
"underwater rain forests," coral reef ecosystems like this one in Australia sustain a
myriad of marine life forms. As coral reefs disappear so do many of the species that
depend on them. There is evidence from the Great Barrier Reef in Australia that
coral growth rates have already decreased by 15 percent in the last 15 years. The
skeletons that the corals are currently building also may be weaker, making them
more vulnerable to erosion, storm damage and predators. There is still a great deal
to be learned about ocean acidification. We used to think that the ocean could take
up CO2 with little or no consequence. We believed it would be nearly impossible to
change ocean pH but it is apparent that we were wrong. Even though this process
is not as well understood as warming waters and coral bleaching, it is important
that we begin talking about the impact that ocean acidification can have on corals,
as well as other calcium-building organisms such as foraminiferans and
cocolithophores, which are at the base of the ocean food webs, and shellfish such as
mussels and clams that we enjoy eating.

Ocean acidification weakens reefs lowers their survivability

Dien, contributor for Climate Interpreter, 13

(Kevin, 12/18/14, Climate Interpreter, The Efects of Ocean Acidification on Coral

Reefs, http://climateinterpreter.org/content/efects-ocean-acidification-coral-reefs,
6/29/14, JW)
Most people are familiar with the concept that compares coral reefs to underwater
rainforests. Coral reefs form the most biodiverse habitats in the ocean, and
their presence is essential to the survival of thousands of other marine species many of which we rely on for food. Hard corals are the reef-building corals,
and their stonelike structures are composed of calcium carbonate, the
same substance found in the shells of many marine organisms including oysters,
clams and snails. Like these mollusks, corals must have access to available
calcium in the seawater in order to build their hard skeleton. This is
especially important in the early stages of a coral polyps's life, when it
settles onto a hard substance and starts "building" its skeleton. Some
studies have shown a 52-73% decline in larval settlement on reefs that are
experiencing lower pH levels. Scientists can also measure the calcification
rates of hard corals, and ocean acidification has had a negative impact on
the rate at which corals calcify. This means that coral colonies in the
future may be more brittle and less resilient to other factors influencing
their survival. Ocean acidification is just one more threat to the success of
hard corals. Coral reefs are already being afected by many other pressures, some
human-related and some natural. Warming ocean temperatures are contributing to
coral bleaching and making them more susceptible to diseases. Nutrient and
chemical pollution coming into the oceans from rivers is also making suitable coral
habitat very scarce. Natural threats impacting coral reefs include predation from
urchins and a variety of fishes, and also tropical storms. Coral reefs are naturally
very resilient to many of these threats, but now their ability to recolonize and grow
sturdy structures is being compromised by ocean acidification. Sometimes, coral
habitat is gradually being replaced by non-calcifying organisms, like seagrass, once
the coral has been killed of.

Ocean acidification halts reef calcification

Kleypas, researcher in NCAR's Climate and Global Dynamics
Division, 09
(Joan, 2009, NOAA, Coral Reefs and Ocean Acidification,
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/education/oa/resources/22-4_kleypas.pdf, 6/29/14, JW)
Research on the effects of ocean acidifcation on marine ecosystems
continues to focus on calcifying organisms, and for good reason. Skeletal
formation in many organisms that secrete one of the various minerals of
calcium carbonate (aragonite, calcite, and high-magnesium calcite) changes
when exposed to elevated-CO2 conditions. On coral reefs, the two main
calcifying groupscorals and calcifying macroalgae (Figure 1A, B)seem
particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. However, noncalcifying
organisms on coral reefs will also be affected. It is difficult to predict the
overall impact on coral reefs of some species being winners and others losers in
a progressively lowerpH ocean, but the loss of reef builders threatens both the
biological and geological identities of this ecosystem. reef Builders (corals
and calcifying macroalgae) History The pioneers in reef calcification studies have
known for some time that calcification by coral reef communities afects seawater
chemistry (Smith and Pesret, 1974; Smith and Key, 1975). Some of the early studies
of reef metabolism used the alkalinity anomaly techniquea measure of the
drawdown of alkalinity over time due to precipitation of calcium and carbonate ions
as calcium carbonateto quantify calcification rates of coral reef communities
(GattusoLangdon et al., 2000). The Biosphere 2 studies, in particular, suggested
that calcification rates of the coral/algal community correlated best with aragonite
saturation state (ar) (Langdon et al., 2000, 2003). This result agrees well with
geochemical studies that show that precipitation rates of inorganic aragonite from
seawater can be expressed by the empirical equation R = k (ar 1)n, where R is
the rate of aragonite precipitation, k is the rate constant, and n is the order of the
reaction (Burton and Walter, 1987). Because changes in ar correlate strongly with
changes in carbonate ion concentration, the natural inference is that the carbonate
ion exerts direct control on calcification rates of corals and coral
communities.Unfortunately, this inference is too simple because corals and other
organisms exert energy to control their calcification, and because in most reef
organisms it is internal and isolated from seawater. In corals, there is no evidence
that carbonate ions are transported from seawater to the site of calcification
(McConnaughey et al., 2000), so the carbonate ion concentration must afect
calcification indirectly, or is simply a covariant of some other aspect of carbonate
chemistry that controls calcifcation rate. Several studies have manipulated
seawater chemistry by altering concentrations of Ca2+, CO3 2, HCO3 , or pH
while holding the others constant in order to tease out which component of the
carbonate system elicits a response from corals. Those that manipulated the
calcium ion concentration (Gattuso et al., 1998; Marshall and Clode, 2002) did
cause a calcification response (note that marine aquarists are certainly aware that
calcium supplements speed coral growth), and thus demonstrated the impact of
saturation state changes. Ocean acidification, however, does not alter Ca2+
concentration, but rather pH and the concentrations of CO2, CO3 2, and HCO3 .
All of these change with ocean acidification, and each has been shown to afect
calcification either directly or indirectly. Several mechanisms have been proposed to
explain why changes in the CO2 system in seawater afect calcification rate in
corals. Cohen and Holcomb (2009) show that corals maintain a high saturation state

at the site of calcification, but at low pH this requires extra energy that they dont
readily divert from other energy demands. Even within corals, however, it is likely
that the calcification process difers (1) between species, (2) between the life stages
of species (note that the mineralogy of the initial calcium carbonate precipitated by
larvae is sometimes a rare, highly soluble form), and (3) in some species, between
diferent stages of calcification. Calcification Despite our incomplete
understanding of the exact mechanisms that control calcifcation,
decreased skeletal growth in reefbuilding corals and coralline algae is one
of the best-known consequences of ocean acidification (Figure 2). A wide
range of responses has been observed, but on average, a doubling of preindustrial atmospheric CO2 concentration results in about a 1050%
decrease in the calcification rate of reef-building corals and coralline algae
(Kleypas and Langdon, 2006). The good news is the response is reversible
(calcification will increase if acidification is reversed). The bad news is it is highly
unlikely that ocean acidification can be reversed, and we dont know yet whether
corals and coralline algae can adapt to these changes.

Ocean acidification harmful for reefs lowers calcification.

Feely, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, Fabry,
California State University San Marcos, Langdon, Rosenstiel
School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Sabine, Pacific
Marine Environmental Laboratory, 06
(Richard, Fabry, Langdon, Sabine, 2006, University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research, Impacts of Ocean Acidification on coral reefs and other marine
calcifiers, http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf, 6/29/14, JW)
The uptake of anthropogenic CO2 by the ocean changes the seawater
chemistry and will significantly impact biological systems in the upper
oceans. Estimates of future atmospheric and oceanic CO2 concentrations, based on
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission scenarios and
general circulation models indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels could exceed 500
ppmv by the middle of the 21st century, and 800 ppmv by 2100. Corresponding
models for the oceans indicate that by 2100, surface water pH will decrease by
approximately 0.4 pH units relative to the preindustrial value, lower than it has been
for more than 20 My. The carbonate ion concentration will also decrease by almost
50% relative to preindustrial levels. Such changes will significantly lower the
oceans buffering capacity and, therefore, reduce its ability to accept more
CO2 from the atmosphere.Recent field and laboratory studies reveal that
the carbonate chemistry of seawater has a significant effect on the
calcification rates of individual species and communities in both
planktonic and benthic habitats. The calcification rates of most calcifying
organisms studied to date decrease in response to decreased carbonate
ion concentration. This response has been observed in multiple taxonomic
groups from reef-building corals to single-celled protists. Experimental
evidence points to a 550% reduction in calcification rate under a CO2
level twice that of the preindustrial. The decreased carbonate ion
concentration significantly reduces the ability of reefbuilding corals to
produce their CaCO3 skeletons, affecting growth of individual corals and
the ability of the larger reef to maintain a positive balance between reef
building and reef erosion. Several groups of calcifying plankton

coccolithophorids (single-celled algae), forams, and pteropods (planktonic molluscs)

also exhibit a reduction in their calcium carbonate structures. Many of these
organisms are important components of the marine food web.The efects of reduced
calcification on individual organisms and on ecosystems have not been
investigated, however, and have only been inferred fromknowledge about the role
of calcification in organism and ecosystem functioning. This knowledge is limited
because calcification rates have only recently been considered vulnerable to
increased atmospheric CO2. Because calcification provides some advantage (or
multiple advantages) to calcifying organisms, decreased calcification is likely to
compromise the fitness or success of these organisms and could shift the
competitive advantage toward non-calcifiers. There is also little information
regarding the capacity of calcifying organisms to adapt to changing seawater
chemistry. Coral reef organisms have not demonstrated an ability to adapt to
decreasing carbonate saturation state, but experiments so far have been relatively
short-term (hours to months). Some planktonic organisms, particularly those with
rapid generation times, may be able to adapt to lowered saturationstate via natural
selection. Planktonic calcifiers that cannot adapt to future changes in seawater
chemistry are likely to experience reductions in their geographic ranges, or
latitudinal shifts. Decreased calcification in marine organisms is likely to
impact marine food webs and, combined with other climatic changes in
temperature, salinity, and nutrients, could substantially alter the
biodiversity and productivity of the ocean.

Ocean Acidification bad for reefs

Parks, contributor to AAAS, 05

(Noreen, 9/28/5, Advancing Science Serving Society, Ocean acidification bad for
Shells and Reefs, http://news.sciencemag.org/2005/09/ocean-acidification-badshells-and-reefs, 6/29/14, JW)
Rising levels of atmospheric carbon due to fossil fuel emissions have made
seawater more acidic. Now, two new studies show that increasing
acidification could wreak havoc on marine organisms that build their shells
and skeletons from calcium carbonate. Since these creatures provide essential
food and habitat for other ocean dwellers, the efects could ripple disastrously
throughout the ocean, the researchers warn. Greenhouse gasses such as carbon
dioxide are changing the oceans in many ways, such as warming the water. Marine
creatures could get another shock as the ocean absorbs ever-greater
quantities of the gas--expected to rise two to three times over pre-industrial
levels during the next 50 to 100 years--creating more acidic conditions in the
sea that diminish the concentration of carbonate needed for shell and
skeleton building. To study the potential impact, a team of 27 marine chemists
and biologists combined the latest measurements on ocean carbon with 13 global
carbon models. The models project that polar waters will begin dissolving shells and
other calcified materials when atmospheric CO2 reaches 600 parts per million,
which could occur within several decades. Experiments with live pteropods-swimming snails consumed by fish and whales--exposed to sea water of the pH
predicted for year 2100 showed that the creatures' shells began to dissolve after
two days. "Unlike climate predictions, the uncertainties here are small," says lead
author James Orr, of the French Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l'Environnement, whose team reports its results 29 September in Nature. The
projected ocean acidification also may take a heavy toll on tropical reef-

building corals. Oceanographers Chris Langdon of the University of Miami and

Marlin Atkinson of the University of Hawaii, Manoa, placed groups of two coral
species, Porites compressa and Montipora verucosa, in a flume and measured
baseline rates of two processes that must occur in balance for coral
survival: the uptake of carbonate for skeleton building, and photosynthesis by the
corals' symbiotic algae, which supports tissue growth. When the researchers
bathed the corals in seawater with a doubled concentration of CO2,
skeletal growth plummeted by half, while algal photosynthesis shot up
65%. Unchecked, such an imbalance would severely hamper reef building,
the researchers report in the current issue of the Journal of Geophysical Research.
"The fascinating thing is that the conclusions of both papers are so similar for
diferent latitudes, scales, systems, and organisms," says ecologist Donald Potts of
the University of California, Santa Cruz. He cautions, though, that real-world
conditions are enormously more complex than those in the experiments.
Nonetheless, he says the papers deliver "a coherent and urgent message" that the
addition of human-caused CO2 to the ocean may cause "potentially vast changes to
ocean food chains and patterns of productivity."

Ocean acidification affects coral reef growth

Mathews, freelance writer about scientific matters, 11

(James, 10/29/11, Earth Times, How Ocean Acidification is Afecting Coral Reef
Ecosystems, http://www.earthtimes.org/conservation/ocean-acidification-afectingcoral-reef-ecosystems/1661/, 6/29/14, JW)
Scientists are discovering the truth about the potential fate of coral reef
ecosystems in relation to how ocean acidification is affecting them. This
has been revealed through observations at Submarine Springs along the coast
of Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. Scientists expect increasing amounts of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere to see a low pH in the water and these
conditions already naturally exist in the water around Submarine Springs,
allowing for the perfect place for research. The research at the springs showed
small unevenly distributed colonies of only a few species of coral. These
also were not structurally complex as corals in nearby reefs such as the
Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. This seems to show that the pH level is having
a dramatic effect on coral health. The study has occurred over the last three
years. The team led by scientists at the University of California, Santa Cruz, has
published their findings in the journal Coral Reefs. "This study has some good
news and some bad news for corals" said Adina Paytan. Paytan is a research
professor in the Institute of Marine Sciences at UC Santa Cruz and continued, "The
good news is that some species of corals are able to calcify and grow at
very low pH. The bad news is that these are not the ones that build the
framework of the coral reefs. So if this is an indication of what will happen
with future ocean acidification, the reefs will not be as we know them
today." The lower pH level of the springs has naturally existed for thousands of
years but lowering the pH affects the chemical balance of seawater when it
comes to calcium carbonate. This in turn reduces the concentration of
carbonate ions and therefore makes it much harder for corals to build and
maintain their structures. Paytan said, "We need to understand the
mechanisms that allow these corals to calcify at these low-pH conditions.
We should also make sure that the places where these species occur are protected".
The research was funded by the National Science Foundation in order to see how

acidification afected marine organisms. The conditions seen at the springs are the
same conditions that the scientists expect to see in oceans across the world by the
year 2100 due to increases in acidification. The findings have concerned the
scientists but have also simply confirmed what they had already expected.
The increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leads to higher
acidification in seawater which is now proven to affect the corals growth
as well as other organisms.

Ocean acidification harmful to reefs and related organisms

The Ocean Portal Team, no date

(The Ocean Portal Team, no date, Smithsonian Institute, Ocean Acidification,

http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-acidification, 6/29/14, JW)
Reef-building corals craft their own homes from calcium carbonate,
forming complex reefs that house the coral animals themselves and
provide habitat for many other organisms. Acidification may limit coral
growth by corroding pre-existing coral skeletons while simultaneously
slowing the growth of new ones, and the weaker reefs that result will be
more vulnerable to erosion. This erosion will come not only from storm
waves, but also from animals that drill into or eat coral. By the middle of
the century, its possible that even otherwise healthy coral reefs will be
eroding more quickly than they can rebuild. Acidification may also impact
corals before they even begin constructing their homes. The eggs and larvae
of only a few coral species have been studied, and more acidic water didnt hurt
their development while they were still in the plankton. However, larvae in acidic
water had more trouble finding a good place to settle, preventing them from
reaching adulthood. How much trouble corals run into will vary by species. Some
types of coral can use bicarbonate instead of carbonate ions to build their skeletons,
which gives them more options in an acidifying ocean. Some can survive without a
skeleton and return to normal skeleton-building activities once the water returns to
a more comfortable pH. Others can handle a wider pH range. Nonetheless, in the
next century we will see the common types of coral found in reefs shiftingthough
we can't be entirely certain what that change will look like. On reefs in Papua New
Guinea that are afected by natural carbon dioxide seeps, big boulder colonies have
taken over and the delicately branching forms have disappeared, probably because
their thin branches are more susceptible to dissolving. This change is also likely to
afect the many thousands of organisms that live among the coral, including those
that people fish and eat, in unpredictable ways. In addition, acidification gets
piled on top of all the other stresses that reefs have been suffering from,
such as warming water (which causes another threat to reefs known as
coral bleaching), pollution, and overfishing.

No Impact Ocean Acidification

The affs claim of the impacts of ocean acidification is not true.
Acidic oceans can actually be beneficial for many marine
dwellers.
AAAS Science 9
(American Association for the Advancement of Science, 12/1/2009, AAAS Science, Acidic
Oceans May be a Boon for Some Marine Dwellers,
http://news.sciencemag.org/2009/12/acidic-oceans-may-be-boon-some-marine-dwellers,
6/25/2014, AC)
Researchers fret that many species of invertebrates will disappear as the oceans acidify due to increased levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). But a new study concludes that some of these species

may benefit from ocean acidification, growing bigger shells or skeletons that
provide more protection. The work suggests that the efects of increased CO2 on marine environments
will be more complex than previously thought. Bottom-dwelling marine critters such as lobsters
and corals encase themselves in shells or exoskeletons made from calcium
carbonate. Previous studies predict that rising ocean acidity will result in the loss or weakening of these
exoskeletons or shells and increase their owner's vulnerability to disease, predators, and environmental stress. But
marine scientist Justin Ries of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, hypothesized that not all ocean

organisms would respond the same way to acidity because they use different
forms of calcium carbonate for their shells. Ries and two colleagues from the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts exposed 18 species of marine organisms to seawater with four levels of
acidity. The first environment matched today's atmospheric CO2 levels, and two others were set at double and triple
the pre-Industrial CO2 levels, mimicking conditions predicted to occur over the next century. The fourth CO2 level
was 10 times pre-Industrial levels. Although CO2 levels won't rise that high in our lifetime, Ries says they could
within 500 to 700 years. The atmosphere did contain that much CO2 during the Cretaceous period about 100
million years ago, Ries says. "This is an interval in which many of these organisms lived and apparently did okay,
despite the extremely elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 that existed at that time." Blue crabs, lobsters,
and shrimp prospered in the highest CO2 level, growing heavier shells, the researchers
report today in Geology. Ries says a bulkier shell might be more resistant to crushing by
predators. American oysters, scallops, temperate corals, and tube worms all fared poorly and grew thinner,
weaker shells. The biggest losers included clams and pencil urchins; their exoskeletons dissolved at the highest CO2
levels. Susceptibility to acid depends in part on the type of calcium carbonate the
animal makes, the researchers found. But a shell's mineralogy alone was not the only factor. If critters were
able to control pH at their calcification sites by bufering the acid in the surrounding water, as the calcareous
green algae did, they also fared better. But Ries points out that this coping mechanism takes energy--how
much isn't known--which could have side efects such as diverting energy from maintaining an immune response.
"The take-home message is that the responses to ocean acidification are going to be a lot more nuanced and
complex than we thought," Ries says.

Ocean Acidification Is Not A Threat- Previous Studies used

Predictions instead of Empirical Data or Studies
Ridley, PhD in Zoology, 10 (Matt, 2010, The Global Warming Policy Foundation,
Threat From Ocean Acidification Greatly Exaggerated,
http://www.thegwpf.org/matt-ridley-threat-from-ocean-acidification-greatlyexaggerated/, 6/29/14, AEG)

Lest my critics still accuse me of cherry-picking studies, let me refer them also to the results of Hendrikset al.
(2010, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86:157). Far from being a cherry-picked study, this is a massive metaanalysis.

The authors observed that `warnings that ocean acidification is a

major threat to marine biodiversity are largely based on the analysis of
predicted changes in ocean chemical fields rather than empirical data. So
they constructed a database of 372 studies in which the responses of 44

different marine species to ocean acidification induced by equilibrating

seawater with CO2-enriched air had been actually measured. They found
that only a minority of studies demonstrated `significant responses to
acidification and there was no significant mean effect even in these
studies. They concluded that the worlds marine biota are `more resistant to
ocean acidification than suggested by pessimistic predictions identifying
ocean acidification as a major threat to marine biodiversity and that
ocean acidification `may not be the widespread problem conjured into the
21st centuryBiological processes can provide homeostasis against
changes in pH in bulk waters of the range predicted during the 21st
century. This important paper alone contradicts Hoegh-Gudlbergs assertion that
`the vast bulk of scientific evidence shows that calcifiers are being heavily
impacted already.

No oceans impact- pH variation is Natural

Hofmann et al 2011 (Gretchen E., Professor of Ecology, Evolution and Marine

Biology University of California Santa Barbara, et al, High-Frequency Dynamics of

Ocean pH: A Multi-Ecosystem Comparison, PLoS ONE Vol. 6, No. 12)
the drive to forecast the effects of
ocean acidification (OA) on marine ecosystems and their resident
calcifying marine organisms has resulted in a growing body of research.
Since the publication of two reports in 20052006 [1], [2],
anthropogenic

Numerous laboratory studies testing the efects of altered seawater chemistry (low pH, altered pCO2, and
undersaturation states - - for calcium carbonate polymorphs) on biogenic calcification, growth, metabolism, and
development have demonstrated a range of responses in marine organisms (for reviews see [3][8]). However,

the emerging picture of biological consequences of OA from data gathered largely from
laboratory experiments is not currently matched by equally available environmental data
that describe present-day pH exposures or the natural variation in the carbonate
system experienced by most marine organisms. Although researchers have documented

variability in seawater carbonate chemistry on several occasions in diferent marine ecosystems (e.g., [9][15]), this
variation has been under-appreciated in these early stages of OA research. Recently, a
deeper consideration of ecosystem-specific variation in seawater chemistry has emerged (e.g., [16][18]), one that

assessments of
environmental heterogeneity present a nuanced complement to current
laboratory experiments. The dynamics of specific natural carbonate chemistry on
local scales provide critical context because outcomes of experiments on
single species are used in meta-analyses to project the overall biological consequences of OA [7], [19],
to forecast ecosystem-level outcomes [20], and ultimately to contribute to policy
decisions [21] and the management of fisheries [22], [23]. As noted earlier [24], natural variability in
pH is seldom considered when efects of ocean acidification are considered. Natural
variability may occur at rates much higher than the rate at which carbon
dioxide is decreasing ocean pH, about 0.0017 pH/year [25], [26]. This ambient
fluctuation in pH may have a large impact on the development of resilience in
is pertinent to the study of biological consequences of OA. Specifically,

marine populations, or it may combine with the steady efects of acidification to produce extreme events with large
impacts [24]. In either case, understanding the environmental variability in ocean pH is
essential. Although data on the natural variation in the seawater CO2 system are emerging, nearly all highresolution (e.g. hourly) time series are based on pCO2 sensors, with comparatively few pH time series found in the

From a research perspective, the absence of information regarding

natural pH dynamics is a critical data gap for the biological and ecological arm of the
multidisciplinary investigation of OA. Our ability to understand processes ranging from physiological
tolerances to local adaptation is compromised. Specifically, laboratory experiments to test
literature.

tolerances are often not designed to encompass the actual habitat exposure of the organisms under study, a critical
design criterion in organismal physiology that also applies to global change biology [27][29]. It is noted that
neither pH nor pCO2 alone provide the information sufficient to fully constrain the CO2 system, and while it is
preferred to measure both, the preference for measuring one over the other is evaluated on a case-by-case basis
and is often dictated by the equipment available. In this light, data that reveal present-day pH dynamics in marine
environments and therefore ground pH levels in CO2 perturbation experiments in an environmental context are
valuable to the OA research community in two major ways. First, estimates of organismal resilience are greatly
facilitated. Empiricists can contextualize lab experiments with actual environmental data, thereby improving them.
Notably, the majority of manipulative laboratory experiments in OA research (including our own) have been
parameterized using pCO2 levels as per the IPCC emission scenario predictions [30]. One consequence of this
practice is that organisms are potentially tested outside of the current exposure across their biogeographic range,
and tolerances are not bracketed appropriately. This situation may not be a lethal issue (i.e. negating all past
observations in experiments where environmental context was not known); however, the lack of information about
the pH seascape may be translated through these organismal experiments in a manner that clouds the
perspective of vulnerability of marine ecosystems. For example, recent data on the heterogeneity of pH in coastal
waters of the Northeastern Pacific [31], [32] that are characterized by episodic upwelling has caused biologists to
re-examine the physiological tolerances of organisms that live there. Specifically, resident calcifying marine
invertebrates and algae are acclimatized to existing spatial and temporal heterogeneity [17], [18], and further,
populations are likely adapted to local to regional diferences in upwelling patterns [33]. Secondly, in addition to
improving laboratory experiments, data regarding the nature of the pH seascape also facilitate hypothesisgenerating science. Specifically, heterogeneity in the environment with regard to pH and pCO2 exposure may result
in populations that are acclimatized to variable pH or extremes in pH. Although this process has been highlighted in
thermal biology of marine invertebrates [34], such insight is not available with regard to gradients of seawater
chemistry that occur on biogeographic scales. With that said, recent field studies have demonstrated that natural
variation in seawater chemistry does influence organismal abundance and distribution [16], [35], [36]. With our
newfound access to pH time series data, we can begin to explore the biophysical link between environmental
seawater chemistry and resilience to baseline shifts in pH regimes, to identify at-risk populations as well as tolerant
ones. Additionally, the use of sensors in the field can identify hidden patterns in the CO2 system, revealing areas
that are refugia to acidification or carbonate undersaturation; such knowledge could enable protection,
management, and remediation of critical marine habitats and populations in the future. The recent development of
sensors for in situ measurements of seawater pH [37], [38] has resulted in the ability to record pH more readily in
the field in a manner that can support biological and ecological research. Since 2009, the Martz lab (SIO) has
constructed 52 SeaFET pH sensors for 13 diferent collaborators (see http://martzlab.ucsd.edu) working in a broad
range of settings. Using subsamples of data from many of these sensors, here we examine signatures of pH
heterogeneity, presenting time series snapshots of sea-surface pH (upper 10 m) at 15 locations, spanning various
overlapping habitat classifications including polar, temperate, tropical, open ocean, coastal, upwelling, estuarine,
kelp forest, coral reef, pelagic, benthic, and extreme. Naturally, at many sites, multiple habitat classifications will
apply. Characteristic patterns observed in the 30-day snapshots provide biome-specific pH signatures. This
comparative dataset highlights the heterogeneity of present-day pH among marine ecosystems and underscores
that contemporary marine organisms are currently exposed to diferent pH regimes in seawater that are not
predicted until 2100. Results Overall, the patterns of pH recorded at each of the 15 deployment sites (shown in
Figure 1, Table 1) were strikingly diferent. Figure 2 presents the temporal pattern of pH variation at each of these
sites, and, for the sake of comparison, these are presented as 30-day time series snapshots. Note that all
deployments generated >30 days of data except for sensors 3, 4, and 13, where the sensors were deliberately
removed due to time constraints at the study sites. Though the patterns observed among the various marine
ecosystems are driven by a variety of oceanographic forcing such as temperature, mixing, and biological activity,
we do not provide a separate analysis of controlling factors on pH at each location. Each time series was
accompanied by a diferent set of ancillary data, some rich with several co-located sensors, others devoid of colocated sensors. Given these diferences in data collection across sites, here we focus on the comparative pH sensor
data as a means to highlight observed pH variability and ecosystem-level diferences between sites. For purposes of
comparison, the metrics of variability presented here are pH minima, maxima, range, standard deviation, and rate
of change (see Table 2). The rate presented in Table 2 and Figure 3 represents a mean instantaneous rate of change
in pH hr1, where a rate was calculated for each discrete time step as the absolute value of pH diference divided
by the length of time between two adjacent data points. In terms of general patterns amongst the comparative
datasets, the open ocean sites (CCE1 and Kingman Reef) and the Antarctic sites (Cape Evans and Cindercones)
displayed the least variation in pH over the 30-day deployment period. For example, pH range fluctuated between
0.024 to 0.096 at CCE1, Kingman Reef, Cape Evans, and Cindercones (Figure 2A, B and Table 2). In distinct contrast
to the stability of the open ocean and Antarctic sites, sensors at the other five site classifications (upwelling,
estuarine/near-shore, coral reef, kelp forest, and extreme) captured much greater variability (pH fluctuations
ranging between 0.121 to 1.430) and may provide insight towards ecosystem-specific patterns. The sites in
upwelling regions (Pt. Conception and Pt. Ano Nuevo, Figure 2C), the two locations in Monterey Bay, CA (Figure 2D),
and the kelp forest sites (La Jolla and Santa Barbara Mohawk Reef, Figure 2F) all exhibited large fluctuations in pH
conditions (pH changes>0.25). Additionally, at these 6 sites, pH oscillated in semi-diurnal patterns, the most
apparent at the estuarine sites. The pH recorded in coral reef ecosystems exhibited a distinct diel pattern
characterized by relatively consistent, moderate fluctuations (0.1<pH change<0.25; Figure 2E). At the Palmyra fore
reef site, pH maxima occurred in the early evening (~5:00 pm), and pH minima were recorded immediately predawn (~6:30 am). On a fringing reef site in Moorea, French Polynesia, a similar diel pattern was observed, with pH
maxima occurring shortly after sunset (~7:30 pm) and pH minima several hours after dawn (~10:00 am). Finally,
the greatest transitions in pH over time were observed at locations termed our Extreme sites - a CO2 venting site

in Italy (site S2 in ref. [36]) and a submarine spring site in Mexico. For these sites, the patterns were extremely
variable and lacked a detectable periodicity (Figure 2G). The sites examined in this study do not comprehensively
represent pH variability in coastal ecosystems, partly because we focused on surface epipelagic and shallow
benthic pH variability. Many organisms that may be impacted by pH variability and ocean acidification reside at
intermediate (>10 m) to abyssal depths. Notable regimes missing from Figure 2 include seasonally stratified open
ocean locations that exhibit intense spring blooms; the equatorial upwelling zone; other temperate (and highly
productive) Eastern Continental Boundary upwelling areas; subsurface oxygen minimum zones and seasonal dead
zones; and a wide variety of unique estuarine, salt marsh, and tide pool environments. Spring bloom locations
exhibit a marked increase in diel pCO2 variability during the peak bloom with a coincident drawdown similar in
magnitude but opposite in sign to the upwelling signals shown in Figure 2 [39]. Equatorial upwelling locations
undergo significant stochastic variability, as observed by pCO2 sensors in the TAO array (data viewable at
http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/). Intertidal vegetated and tide pool habitats may exhibit major pH fluctuations due to
macrophyte or animal respiratory cycles [15], while CO2 production in oxygen minimum zones can reduce pH to a
limit of about 7.4 [40]. Due to local temperature diferences, variable total alkalinity, and seasonal diferences
between deployment dates at each site, a comparison of average pH across the datasets would be somewhat
misleading. However, some information can be gleaned from an examination of the averages: the overall binned
average of all 15 mean values in Table 1 is 8.020.1. This pH value is generally in agreement with the global open
ocean mean for 2010 of 8.07, a value generated by combining climatology data for temperature, salinity,
phosphate, silicate [41][43], total alkalinity [44], and pCO2 [45] for the year 2000, corrected to 2010 using the
average global rise of 1.5 atm pCO2 yr1. Rather than make a point-by-point comparison of the mean pH of each
dataset, we focus instead on the diferences in observed variability amongst the sites. For this analysis, summary
statistics of the comparative datasets were ranked in order to examine the range of variability across all 15 sites

Collected by 15 individual SeaFET sensors in seven types of

marine habitats, data presented here highlight natural variability in seawater
pH. Based on Figure 3, it is evident that regions of the ocean exhibit a continuum of pH variability. At sites in the
(Fig. 3). Discussion

open ocean (CCE-1), Antarctica, and Kingman reef (a coastal region in the permanently stratified open Pacific Ocean
with very low residence times, and thus representative of the surrounding open ocean water), pH was very stable
(SD<0.01 pH over 30 days). Elsewhere, pH was highly variable across a range of ecosystems
where sensors were deployed. The salient conclusions from this comparative dataset are two-fold: (1)
most non-open ocean sites are indeed characterized by natural variation in seawater chemistry that can now be

seawater in
reaches extremes in pH, sometimes daily, that are often
considered to only occur in open ocean systems well into the future [46].
revealed through continuous monitoring by autonomous instrumentation, and (2) in some cases,
these sites

Admittedly, pH is only part of the story with regard to the biological impacts of OA on marine organisms. However,
continuous long-term observations provided by sensors such as the SeaFET are a great first step in elucidating the
biophysical link between natural variation and physiological capacity in resident marine organisms. In the end,
knowledge of spatial and temporal variation in seawater chemistry is a critical resource for biological research, for
aquaculture, and for management eforts. From a biological perspective, the evolutionary history of the resident

presentday natural variation will likely shape capacity for adaptation of resident
organisms, influencing the resilience of critical marine ecosystems to
future anthropogenic acidification. Below we discuss the comparative SeaFET-collected data
organisms will greatly influence the adaptation potential of organisms in marine populations. Thus,

and, where applicable, the biological consequences of the temporal heterogeneity that we found in each of the
marine ecosystems where sensors were deployed. As the most stable area, the open ocean behaves in a
predictable way and generally adheres to global models attempting to predict future CO2 conditions based on
equilibration of the surface ocean with a given atmospheric pCO2 (e.g. [47]). This can be shown with longer-term
pH records obtained with SeaFET sensors, which are available at the CCE-1 mooring (Fig. 4). The ambient pH values
for this open ocean location can be predicted to better than 0.02 from the CO2-corrected climatology mentioned
above; pH has dropped by about 0.015 units since 2000. At CCE-1, the annual carbonate cycle followed the sea
surface temperature cycle, and pH was driven mostly by changes in the temperature dependence of CO2 system
thermodynamics (Figure 4). SeaFET observations at CCE-1 agree with the climatology to +0.0170.014 pH units,
with episodic excursions from the climatology but a general return to the climatological mean. Although the annual
cycle in the open ocean is somewhat predictable, it is notable that even at these seemingly stable locations,
climatology-based forecasts consistently underestimate natural variability. Our observations confirm an annual
mean variability in pH at CCE-1 of nearly 0.1, suggest an inter-annual variability of ~0.02 pH, and capture episodic
changes that deviate from the climatology (Figure 4). Similar underestimates of CO2 variability were observed at
nine other open ocean locations, where the Takahashi pCO2 climatology overlaps PMEL moorings with pCO2 sensors
(not shown). Thus, on both a
stable open ocean sites see

monthly (Fig. 2) and annual scale (Fig. 4), even the most

pH changes many times larger than the annual rate of

acidification. This natural variability has prompted the suggestion that an

appropriate null hypothesis may be, until evidence is obtained to the contrary, that major
biogeochemical processes in the oceans other than calcification will not be
fundamentally different under future higher CO2/lower pH conditions [24]. Similarly,

the sensors deployed on the benthos in the Antarctic (Cindercones and Cape Evans, Figure 2B) recorded relatively
stable pH conditions when compared to other sites in the study. Very few data exist for the Southern Ocean;
however, open-water areas in this region experience a strong seasonal shift in seawater pH (~0.30.5 units)
between austral summer and winter [48], [49] due to a decline in photosynthesis during winter and a disequilibrium
of air-sea CO2 exchange due to annual surface sea ice and deep water entrainment [50]. Given the timing of
deployment of our sensor in McMurdo Sound (austral spring: OctoberNovember), the sensor did not capture the
change in seawater chemistry that might have occurred in the austral winter [49]. In general, due to sea ice
conditions, observations from the Southern Ocean are limited, with water chemistry data falling into two categories:
(1) discrete sampling events during oceanographic cruises (e.g. US Joint Global Ocean Flux Study,
http://www1.whoi.edu/) and (2) single-point measurements from locations under sea ice [49], [51], [52]. Biologically
speaking, the Southern Ocean is a region expected to experience acidification and undersaturated conditions earlier
in time than other parts of the ocean [47], and calcifying Antarctic organisms are thought to be quite vulnerable to
anthropogenic OA given the already challenging saturation states that are characteristic of cold polar waters [53]
[56]. Short-term CO2 perturbation experiments have shown that Antarctic calcifying marine invertebrates are
sensitive to decreased saturation states [51], [57], although the number of species-level studies and communitylevel studies are very limited. The Western Antarctic Peninsula and the sub-Antarctic islands will experience
pronounced increases in temperature [54] and could consequently undergo more variation and/or undersaturation
given the increased potential for biological activity. Importantly, depending on the patterns of seasonally-dependent

Antarctic organisms may experience

variation than might be expected, a situation that will influence their resilience to
future acidification. Three other types of study sites the coastal upwelling, kelp forest
and estuarine/near-shore sites all exhibited variability due to a combination of mixing, tidal
saturation state that will be revealed with improved observations [58],
more

excursions, biological activity, and variable residence time (Fig. 2). Although these sites are all united by fairly

organisms living in these areas encounter unique

complexities in seawater chemistry that will influence their physiological
response, resilience, and potential for adaptation. Typically, estuarine environments
obvious heterogeneity in pH,

have riverine input that naturally creates very low saturation states [59][61]. Seawater chemistry conditions in
these areas often shift dramatically, challenging biogenic calcification by resident organisms. Additionally, these
species must also tolerate abiotic factors that interact with pH, such as temperature [62]. Two sensors in the
Monterey Bay region, L1 (at the mouth of Elkhorn Slough) and L20 (~2 km seaward and north of L1), recorded rapid
changes in pH. However, as opposed to riverine input, the low pH fluctuations observed here are likely due to
isopycnal shoaling or low CO2 water that is pulsing up to the near shore on internal tides. These locations may also
experience high river run-of in the rainy season, but such conditions were not reflected in the time series shown in

Organisms living in upwelling regions may be acclimatized and adapted to

extremes in seawater chemistry; here, deep CO2-enriched waters reach the surface and may
shoal onto the benthos on the continental shelf [31], [32]. Data collected from our upwelling sites
support the patterns found by cruise-based investigations; pH fluctuations
were often sharp, and large transitions of up to ~0.35 pH units occurred over the
course of days (Fig. 2). Laboratory studies on calcifying marine invertebrates living in upwelling regions
Fig. 2.

suggest that these organisms maintain function under such stochastic conditions. However, overall performance

For
kelp forests, although there is less influence from riverine inputs, pH variation is quite
dynamic at these sites in the coastal California region (Fig 2; [18]). Patterns here are likely driven by
fluctuations in coastal upwelling, biological activity, currents , internal tides,
seasonally shoaling isopleths, as well as the size of the kelp forest , which may influence
residence times via reduced flow. Kelps may respond positively to increased
availability of CO2 and HCO3, which may allow for reduced metabolic costs
and increased productivity [64]. Increased kelp production may elevate pH
within the forest during periods of photosynthesis, causing wider daily
fluctuations in pH, though this is speculative at this time. As a result, kelp forests, particularly those of
may be reduced, suggesting that these species are indeed threatened by future acidification [17], [18], [63].

surface canopy forming species such as Macrocystis pyrifera, may contain a greater level of spatial heterogeneity in
terms of the pH environment; vertical gradients in pH may form due to enhanced levels of photosynthesis at
shallower depths. Such gradients may increase the risk of low pH exposure for benthic species while bufering those
found within the surface canopy. Kelp forests provide habitat to a rich diversity of organisms from a wide range of
calcifying and non-calcifying taxa [65]. As with organisms from the other coastal locations (estuarine and
upwelling), the biota living within kelp forest environments are most likely acclimatized to this degree of natural
variation. However, continued declines in oxygenation and shoaling of hypoxic boundaries observed in recent
decades in the southern California bight [66], [67] are likely accompanied by a reduction in pH and saturation state.
Thus, pH exposure regimes for the coastal California region's kelp forest biota may be changing over relatively short
time scales. Over longer temporal scales as pH and carbonate saturation levels decrease, the relative abundances

of these species may change, with community shifts favoring non-calcified species, as exemplified by long-term
studies in intertidal communities by Wootton et al. [15]. For all the marine habitats described above, one very
important consideration is that the extreme range of environmental variability does not necessarily translate to
extreme resistance to future OA. Instead, such a range of variation may mean that the organisms resident in tidal,
estuarine, and upwelling regions are already operating at the limits of their physiological tolerances (a la the classic
tolerance windows of Fox see [68]). Thus, future acidification, whether it be atmospheric or from other sources,
may drive the physiology of these organisms closer to the edges of their tolerance windows. When environmental
change is layered upon their present-day range of environmental exposures, they may thereby be pushed to the
guardrails of their tolerance [20], [68]. In contrast to more stochastic changes in pH that were observed in some
sites, our coral reef locations displayed a strikingly consistent pattern of diel fluctuations over the 30-day recording
period. Similar short-term pH time series with lower daily resolution [69], [70] have reported regular diel pH
fluctuation correlated to changes in total alkalinity and oxygen levels. These environmental patterns of pH suggest
that reef organisms may be acclimatized to consistent but moderate changes in the carbonate system. Coral reefs
have been at the center of research regarding the efects of OA on marine ecosystems [71][73]. Along with the
calcification biology of the dominant scleractinian corals and coralline algae, the biodiversity on coral reefs includes
many other calcifying species that will likely be afected [74][77]. Across the existing datasets in tropical reef
ecosystems, the biological response of calcifying species to variation in seawater chemistry is complex (see [78])
all corals or calcifying algal species will not respond similarly, in part because these calcifying reef-builders are
photo-autotrophs (or mixotrophs), with algal symbionts that complicate the physiological response of the animal to

the Extreme sites in our comparative dataset are of

interest in that the low pH levels observed here represent a natural analogue to OA
conditions in the future, demonstrating how the abundance and distribution of calcifying benthic
changes in seawater chemistry. Finally,

organisms, as well as multi-species assemblages, can vary as a function of seawater chemistry [16], [35], [36],
[79]. The variability in seawater pH was higher at both the groundwater springs of the coast of Mexico and the
natural CO2 vents of the coast of Italy than at any of the other sensor locations. Ofshore of Puerto Morelos, Mexico
(and at other sites along the Mesoamerican Reef), natural low-saturation (~0.5, pH 6.707.30, due to nonventilated, high CO2, high alkalinity groundwater) submarine springs have been discharging for millennia. Here,
variability in pH is due to long-term respiration driving a low ratio of alkalinity to dissolved inorganic carbon in
effluent ground water. These sites provide insight into potential long-term responses of coral backreef ecosystems
to low saturation conditions [79]. Unlike Puerto Morelos, the variability of pH at volcanic CO2 vents at Ischia, Italy is
almost purely abiotically derived, due entirely to CO2 venting and subsequent mixing. This site in the
Mediterranean Sea hosts a benthic assemblage that reflects the impacts of OA on rocky reef communities [16], [36].

the extreme systems provide an opportunity to examine how variability

in pH and extreme events (sensu [80]) affects ecological processes. Knowledge of
this biophysical link is essential for forecasting ecological responses to
acidification in ecosystems with sharp fluctuations in pH, such as upwelling or estuarine environments.
Despite reductions in species richness, several calcifying organisms are
found in low pH conditions close to the vents [16] and the springs [79]. The persistence of
calcifying organisms at these extreme sites, where mean pH values are comparable to those that have
reduced organism performance in laboratory experiments (i.e., pHT 7.8; reviewed in [16]), suggest that
long exposures to such variability in pH, versus a consistently low-pH environment, could
play an important role in regulating organism performance. Variability in pH
could potentially promote acclimatization or adaptation to acidification
through repeated exposure to low pH conditions [24]; alternatively, transient
exposures to high pH conditions could buffer the effects of acidification by
relieving physiological stress. Thus, the ecological patterns coupled with the high fluctuations in pH
Overall,

at the extreme sites highlight the need to consider carbonate chemistry variability in experiments and models
aimed at understanding the impacts of acidification.

Ocean Acidification Isnt Real- Data Is Incorrectly Gathered

Ball, PhD in Science, 11 (Tim, 5/19/11, Dr. Tim Ball: A Diferent Perspective,
Analysis of Alarmism: Ocean Acidification, http://drtimball.com/2011/analysis-ofalarmism-ocean-acidification/, 6/29/14, AEG)
The claim of ocean
acidification is based on estimates and computer models; these use the
very questionable pre-industrial atmospheric level of CO2 to calculate an
increase of about 0.1 pH units. Of course, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) attributes the CO2 increase to human production, which is

wrong because the global carbon cycle is very vague about sources, storage and
length of time in each condition. For example, the error in the estimate of CO2 from
the oceans each year is greater than the total human contribution. The idea that a
0.1 pH unit increase is significant is ludicrous when the estimate has a
range of 0.3 units. There is a subtle but important point here, because words are
part of the scare component. Even if you accept the claimed change it, is not
acidification; it is proper to say the solution is becoming less alkaline, but that
doesnt sound threatening. More problematic is the validity of the measures
Although pH in seawater has been measured for many decades, a reliable
long-term trend of ocean water pH cannot be established due to data
quality issues, in particular the lack of strict and stable calibration
procedures and standards. Moreover, seawater pH is very sensitive to
temperature, and temperature is not always recorded or measured at
sufficient accuracy to constrain the pH measurement. Even if CO2
increases to 560 ppm by 2050 as the IPCC predict, it would only result in a
0.2 unit reduction of pH. This is still within the error of the estimate of
global average.

Climate Change and Ocean Acidification Inevitable- the plan

does not solve worldwide or for gas emissions
Marshall, New Scientist Environmental Editor, 12 (Michael, August 2012, New
Scientist, Lowest US Carbon Emissions Wont Slow Climate Change,
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22196-lowest-us-carbon-emissions-wontslow-climate-change.html#.U7CiKJSwLHg, 6/29/14, AEG)
It looks like good news, but it's not. The US has recorded a sharp fall in its
greenhouse gas emissions from energy use. Thanks to a rise in the use of
natural gas, emissions are at their lowest since 1992. The fall will boost
the natural gas industry, but in reality the emissions have simply been
exported. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), energyrelated CO2 emissions in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest in two decades.
Emissions are normally high between January and March because people use more
heating in the winter, but last winter was mild in the US. The EIA says that an
increase in gas-fired power generation, and a corresponding decline in coal-fired,
contributed to the fall in emissions. Burning natural gas produces fewer emissions
than burning coal, and natural gas is currently unusually cheap in the US thanks to a
glut of shale gas extracted by hydraulic fracturing or "fracking". If gas companies
continue to expand their shale gas operations, the US could generate even more
electricity from gas, and its emissions could fall for several years, says Kevin
Anderson of the University of Manchester, UK. However, this will not slow down
climate change. US coal consumption has fallen, but production is holding
steady and the surplus is being sold to Asia. As a result, the US is
effectively exporting the coa|-related emissions. "Gas is less bad than burning
the coal, but only if you keep the coal in the ground," Anderson says. Proponents of
natural gas argue that it is a "transition fuel" that we can burn for a few years while
we install low-carbon infrastructure such as wind farms and nuclear power stations.

No Impact Warming
Warming doesnt lead to extinctionno data
Bastasch, Investigative Reporter for the Daily Caller, 14
(Michael, 3/24/14, The Daily Caller, IPCC runs from claims that global warming will
cause mass extinctions, http://dailycaller.com/2014/03/24/ipcc-runs-from-claimsthat-global-warming-will-cause-mass-extinctions/, 6/27/14, SM)
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is
distancing itself from past claims that global warming could cause mass
extinctions. A leaked IPCC draft report says that there is very little confidence that the
models currently predict accurately the risk of extinction . The leaked report,
obtained by Germanys Der Spiegel newspaper, says that an acute lack of data have added
to doubts over past claims made by climate scientists of mass extinctions
in the future. [B]iological findings have increased doubt over the
expected species extinction, says the IPCC. In its 2007 climate assessment, the IPCC said that
there was a medium confidence that 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species were at risk of going extinct if
global temperatures rose between 1.5 and 2.5 degrees Celsius this century. If temperatures rose by 3.5 degrees
Celsius the IPCC predicted significant extinctions would occur between 40 and 70 percent of species.
Environmental groups have also warned of mass extinctions due to global warming. The Nature Conservancy says
that one-fourth of Earths species will be headed for extinction by 2050 if the warming trend continues at its
current rate. The group adds that polar bears may be gone from the planet in as little as 100 years and that
several U.S. states may even lose their official birds as they head for cooler climates including the Baltimore
oriole of Maryland, black-capped chickadee of Massachusetts, and the American goldfinch of Iowa. But Der

the IPCC is shying away from such claims and gives no

concrete numbers for how many plant and animal species could be at risk
if global temperatures increased.
Spiegel reports that

No Impact BioD
Ocean species are resilient
Dulvy et al 2003 (Nicholas, School of Marine Science and Technology at the
University of Newcastle, Yvonne Sadovy, Department of Ecology and Biodiversity at
the University of Hong Kong, and John Reynolds, Centre for Ecology, Evolution and
Conservation at the School of Biological Science at the University of East Anglia,
Fish and Fisheries, Extinction vulnerability in marine populations, 4:1, BlackwellSynergy)
Marine fish populations are more variable and resilient than terrestrial
populations Great natural variability in population size is sometimes
invoked to argue that IUCN Red List criteria, as one example, are too conservative
for marine fishes (Hudson and Mace 1996; Matsuda et al. 1997; Musick 1999; Powles et al. 2000;
Hutchings 2001a). For the (1996) IUCN list, a decline of 20% within 10 years or three
generations (whichever is longer) triggered a classification of 'vulnerable' , while declines of

50 and 80% led to classifications of 'endangered' and 'critically endangered', respectively. These criteria were
designed to be applied to all animal and plant taxa, but many marine resource biologists feel that for marine fishes
'one size does not fit all' (see Hutchings 2001a). They argue that percent decline criteria are too conservative

Powles et al. (2000) cite the six-fold

variation of the Pacific sardine population (Sardinops sagax, Clupeidae) and a ninefold variation in northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax, Clupeidae) over the past two
millennia to suggest that rapid declines and increases of up to 10-fold are
relatively common in exploited fish stocks. It should, however, be borne in mind that the
compared to the high natural variability of fish populations.

variation of exploited populations must be higher than unexploited populations because recruitment fluctuations
increasingly drive population fluctuations when there are few adults (Pauly et al. 2002).

Econ

UQ
The US economy is actually on the verge of improving
tremendously. Their econ uniqueness is not true.
Coy 5/29
(Peter, Economic Editor of Blommberg Newsweek, 5/29/2014, Bloomberg
Newsweek, Why the GDP Drop is Good for the U.S. Economic Outlook,
http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-05-29/why-the-gdp-drop-is-good-forthe-u-dot-s-dot-economic-outlook, 6/25/2014, AC)
The U.S. economy shrank at a 1 percent annual rate in the first quarter,
but the red ink isnt nearly as scary as it looks. In fact, the downward blip
sets the U.S. up for strong growth in the current quarter covering April to June.
As far as terrible reports go, GDP wasnt too bad, reads the headline on the
report today by Michael Feroli, chief U.S. economist of JPMorgan Chase (JPM). Most
of the decline in gross domestic product occurred because companies slowed
the pace of inventory accumulation, according to data released on Thursday by the
Bureau of Economic Analysis. In other words, output slowed because they
werent producing as much stuff to go on shelves. Now companies have an
incentive to speed up production to rebuild those inventories. The
economy is in the process of reaccelerating, David Rosenberg, chief
economist and strategist at Gluskin Shef + Associates (GS:CN), wrote to clients. He
said his firms model of the economy suggests near-0% odds of recession for the
coming year. Another not-to-be-repeated drag on the economy in the first quarter
was poor weather. Investment in structures fell at a 7.5 percent rate, partly because
construction workers couldnt work efectively in the unusually excessive cold and
snow. Adding to growth was health-care spending, which, boosted by the Afordable
Care Act, grew at a 9.1 percent pace.

US Economy increasing now

Morici, esteemed economy professor, 14 (Peter, 6/30/14, "U.S.
economy poised for stronger growth", thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/economybudget/210851-us-economy-poised-for-stronger-growth, 7/1/14, CH)
The U.S. economy is set to take off. Scarred by the financial crisis but on their
feet again, consumers will lead the economy to growth in the range of 3
percent through the end of 2015. The Commerce Department reported in the first
quarter the GDP decreased at a 2.9 percent annual rate, but that dismal showing
was from an unlikely confluence of factors not likely to reoccur. Consumer spending,
which accounts for the lions share of domestic demand, grew only 1 percent
about half the trend established over the previous 3 years. A bitterly cold winter
was important but so was simple exhaustion from holiday spending. In the fourth
quarter, household spending increased 3.3 percent, and in the first quarter, many
consumers rebuilt their savings and curbed credit cards usethe cold weather just
made those tasks easier. Consumers are now in a much stronger position than
earlier in the economic recovery. Housing values have improved substantially,
and most households have managed to significantly deleverage. For the second
and third quarters, consumer spending growth should average more than 3 percent,

and average close to that level through the end of 2015. Business investment dived
11.7 percent in first quarter and that simply cant be attributed to cold weather.
According to the Federal Reserve, industrial capacity utilization was 79.1 percent in
May and still below the average for the last two decades. However, structural
changes and advances in technologies and product designs require new
investments in physical assets and software to bring existing plants up to date to
accommodate more robust consumer spending. Business outlays will turn around
sharply in the second and third quarters. Core durable goods ordersthose less the
volatile defense and aircraft sectorslook solid, and indicate general business
confidence. New home sales jumped in May, and residential construction,
which has disappointed so far this year, will add significantly to growth going
forward. For the first time since the financial crisis, housing starts will
exceed 1 million units per year on a continuing basis. Auto sales will
continue up as households replace vehicles that grew old during the
recession and slow recovery, and take advantage of higher fuel economy ofered
by carmakers. Also, it will be a very good year for pickup trucksthose sales at
Ford, GM and Chrysler closely track residential construction activity.

US Economy on track to improve- no impact to economic

decline
Mufson, Washington Post reporter, 14 (6/16/14, "IMF says U.S. economy
poised to accelerate", www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/imf-says-useconomy-poised-to-accelerate/2014/06/16/556758b2-f58f-11e3-a3a542be35962a52_story.html, 7/1/14, CH)
The IMF noted that steady job gains and other recent data suggest the
economy is rebounding. Employers have added 200,000-plus jobs for four
straight months, and the unemployment rate has fallen to 6.3 percent. Auto
sales and factory activity are increasing. Yet growth this year isnt likely to top
last years lackluster performance, the IMF said. The Washington-based organization
foresees the U.S. economy growing a modest 2 percent this year, below its previous
estimate of 2.7 percent. That would be nearly identical to the 1.9 percent growth
last year.

US Safeno chance of collapse

Amadeo, President of WorldMoneyWatch.com, 20 years senior-level experience w/
economic analysis & business strategy working for major international
corporations,14, (Kimberly, 5/4, US economy, 10 Reasons Why the U.S. Economy
Won't Collapse,useconomy.about.com/b/2014/05/04/10-reasons-why-the-u-seconomy-wont-collapse.htm, 7/1/14, aven)
Things have gotten slower in 2014, but last year the U.S. economy is poised had
one of its best years since 2007. The stock market set new records,
housing prices were headed in the right direction, GDP was be in the healthy
2-3% growth zone. Although this year is a little shakier, that's a far cry from a
collapse. Maybe all the gloom-and-doomers who make money by selling gold (which
is dropping), guns and canned food -- not to mention their own books on how to

survive -- are worried because things are actually ok. Anyway, here's 10 reasons
why the U.S. economy, and the dollar, won't collapse: The U.S. debt, though
high, won't cause a collapse. Unlike Greece, the U.S. prints its own money. The
U.S. could possibly run a much higher debt to GDP ratio than it does now and
still not face economic collapse. Obama Added to the Debt to get us out of
recession, not send us toward collapse. The U.S. won't Default on Its Debt.
China Isn't Selling Its Dollar Holdings. China and Japan won't cause a Dollar
Collapse. The Dollar Is Slowly Declining, not collapsing. The dollar won't be
replaced as the World's Global Currency. The Fed's Quantitative Easing
program can't cause Hyperinflation. There are too many failsafe measures that
will prevent a U.S. Economic Collapse.

Us economy on the rise

Carmichael, Report on Business's correspondent in Washington, 14,(Kevin,

6/25 , The Globe and Mail, " Report on Business's correspondent in Washington." ,
www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/us-economy-has-biggestsetback-since-2009/article19325638/, 7/1/14, aven)
The United States survived the setback, which most economists agree was the result of an abnormally severe
winter that reached into southern states ill-equipped to deal with onslaughts of ice and snow. More recent

the economy is back on track: Hiring, retail sales, new-home

construction and consumer confidence all rebounded smartly this spring. A
evidence shows

separate government report Wednesday showed inventories for non-defense durable goods jumped 1
per cent in May after a 0.4-per-cent increase the previous month. In my industry, its the

busiest Ive seen in 20 years,

said Steve Mai, chief executive of Cambridge, Ont.-based Eclipse

Automation Inc., a custom maker of manufacturing equipment that also has operations in North Carolina and
California. The first-quarter reading still stings. The Commerce Department initially reported the GDP growth simply
stalled. A second estimate said GDP shrunk at an annual rate of 1 per cent, the first contraction since first-quarter
of 2011. The final reading shows the U.S. endured its biggest economic collapse since the Great Recession in 2009.

Americas economy expanded at annual rates of 4.1 per cent in the third
quarter of 2013 and 2.6 per cent in the fourth. Wall Street analysts had predicted the firstquarter estimate would be revised lower, but only to a contraction of 1.8 per cent. Equity markets rose, evidence
that traders are more focused on signs of future growth. Some also could be betting that a deeper-than-realized
hole at the start of the year will cause the Federal Reserve to leave its benchmark interest rate at zero for longer
than it had previously planned. Central bankers watch something called the output gap, an imprecise measure of
current economic production with the level of output policy makers reckon an economy can produce without stoking
inflation. The Feds policy committee last week dropped its 2014 growth estimate to between 2.1 per cent and 2.3
per cent from as much as 3 per cent earlier. The Commerce Departments surprisingly grim assessment of the first
quarter could pull the Feds outlook lower, depending on how quickly the U.S. rebounds over the spring and summer
months. If the economy is growing below 2.5 per cent, how can the labour market slack shrink enough to support a
rate hike sooner rather than later? said Adrian Miller, director of fixed-income strategy at GMP Securities in New
York. Mr. Miller said he likely will reduce his own 2014 outlook almost half a percentage point, dropping his forecast
to as low as 2.3 per cent. Thats essentially what the Fed thinks is the U.S. economys natural rate of expansion
over the longer term. However, its not fast enough to quickly lower the unemployment rate, which currently is the
Feds primary goal. Mr. Miller said the first-quarter GDP figures hardened his view that the Fed will leave its

benchmark rate unchanged until the third quarter of 2015. Like

a race car coming out of a pit

stop, the U.S. economy is reaccelerating. It had good momentum going into the winter.
Personal consumption expenditures grew at an annual rate of 3.3 per cent in the fourth quarter, and
exports surged 9.5 per cent. Non-residential fixed investment advanced at a 5.7-per-cent rate. Frigid
temperatures and relentless snow storms knocked the recovery of track. Consumption gains slowed to
1 per cent in the first quarter and exports and investment plunged at annual rates of 8.9 per cent and
1.2 per cent respectively. The U.S. economy now is growing again. Economists at

GDP likely
grew at an annual rate of 4 per cent in the second quarter. State and local
governments in the U.S. are starting to spend again, removing a drag on
the economy. Steady hiring should buoy household spending and a stronger global growth should
National Bank Financial, PNC Financial Services, and Deutsche Bank, among others, say

bolster exports. But its possible the sustained surge in economic activity that typically follows
recessions wont come this time. The average annual growth rate of the current expansion is 2 per
cent, slower than the 3.2-per-cent average pace in economic expansions since 1980, according to
Hamilton Place Strategies, a consultancy based in Washington. Mr. Mai of Eclipse Automation says the
economy is behaving diferently than hes observed in the past. Eclipse supplies lots of diferent
industries, including autos, solar and health. Typically, demand from one or two industries spikes, while
others putter along. Now, orders are steady across the board. Im not seeing any one

industry spiking, Im seeing six industries moving up gradually, Mr. Mai said in
an interview this month from Charlotte, NC. In my business, thats huge. Thats not
common.
Multiple Industries have sustainable gainsproves economy is back on
track
Woellert, reporter for Bloomberg News., 14 ( Lorraine, 7/1,
Businessweek, "Factories Sustain Gains as U.S. Growth Picks Up: Economy",
www.businessweek.com/news/2014-07-01/u-dot-s-dot-ism-manufacturing-index-fellto-55-dot-3-in-june-from-55-dot-4, 7/1/14, aven)
American factories, propelled by the strongest orders of the year, sustained
gains in June and are poised to be part of the rebound in economic growth.

The Institute for Supply Managements manufacturing index was 55.3 last month, little changed from a
five-month high of 55.4 in May, the Tempe, Arizona-based groups report showed today. Readings
greater than 50 indicate expansion. Producers of wood products, furniture, metals and machinery were
among those seeing a pickup in demand as gains in auto and home sales rippled through the worlds
largest economy. Growing consumer spending, lean inventories and improving overseas markets will
probably keep assembly lines busy in the second half of the year. Manufacturing is back on
track, said Joshua Shapiro, chief U.S. economist at Maria Fiorini Ramirez Inc. in New York, the top
U.S.-based ISM forecaster over the past two years, according to data compiled by Bloomberg. Its

growing at a solid pace. Factories globally were also mostly on an upswing, figures today showed. In

China, the worlds second-largest economy, manufacturing grew in June at the fastest pace of the year, according to
a gauge from the National Bureau of Statistics and China Federation of Logistics and Purchasing. In the U.K.,
manufacturing expanded in June at the strongest pace in seven months, according to Markit Economics. Factories in
the 18-nation euro area cooled last month, as a deepening downturn in France ofset a pickup in Spain, other Markit
data showed. The Standard & Poors 500 Index rose to a record, after posting the longest streak of quarterly gains
since 1998, as technology and consumer shares rallied. The S&P 500 climbed 0.7 percent to 1,973.32 at the close in
New York. The median forecast of 88 economists surveyed by Bloomberg projected the U.S. ISM index would rise to
55.9. Estimates ranged from 54 to 57. Manufacturing accounts for about 12 percent of the economy. Auto sales in
June are forecast to exceed a 16 million annualized rate for the third time in the past four months. General Motors
Co. surprised investors today with a 1 percent sales gain from a year earlier after analysts projected a decrease.
Demand at Ford Motor Co., Chrysler Group LLC and Nissan Motor Co. also beat estimates. Purchases at Toyota Motor

Sales in the first half of 2014 indicate a steadily

recovering industry, and we expect this pace to increase as we move into
the second part of the year, said Bill Fay, group vice president for the Toyota Division.
Another report showed construction spending climbed 0.1 percent in May after a
revised 0.8 percent gain in April that was stronger than initially estimated, according to
Corp. rose 3.3 percent.

the Commerce Department. The increase was paced by growing outlays for non-residential structures
and a jump in projects by state and local government agencies. Fifteen of the 18

manufacturing industries measured by ISM reported growth in June.

Things are moving forward nicely, Bradley Holcomb, chairman of the institutes survey,
said on a conference call with reporters today. Were on a very positive trend despite

the very tiny decline in the rate. Todays ISM report showed a gauge of new orders
climbed to the highest since December. The production measure came in at 60 compared with 61 in
May for the best back-to-back showing since the end of 2013.

Many improving factors contribute to the rise of the economy

Stilwell, reporter for Bloomberg News in Washington, 14,

(Victoria, 4/21, Bloomberg, "Improving Job Market Driving Rebound in U.S. Growth:
Economy", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-21/gain-in-u-s-leading-index-pointsto-second,7/1/14, aven)
An improving job market and increasing factory production in March
contributed to a jump in the U.S. index of leading indicators that signals
the pace of economic growth is poised to snap back. The Conference Boards
index, a gauge of the outlook for the next three to six months, rose 0.8 percent, the
most since November, after a 0.5 percent gain in February, the New York-based
group said today. The measures 6.1 percent advance over the past year is the
biggest since July 2011. The fact that were seeing some broad improvement
across components bodes pretty well for the economy, said Sarah House, an
economist at Wells Fargo Securities LLC in Charlotte, North Carolina, which is the
best forecaster of the leading index over the past two years, according to data
compiled by Bloomberg. The underlying pace of activity is picking up. The
fewest firings since before the last recession are helping lift consumer confidence
this month, which probably means recent gains in spending can be sustained.
Todays report also showed access to credit continues to thaw, making it more likely
that the rebound in housing, which has showed signs of cooling, can be revived.
Financial conditions remain supportive, consumers are in good shape
with their balance sheets, and business conditions are pretty good, House
said. Stocks rose a fifth day, with the Standard & Poors 500 Index capping its
longest streak since October, amid signs of improving corporate earnings. The S&P
500 climbed 0.4 percent to 1,871.89 at the close in New York.

Labor market strengthening leads to economy rebound

Stilwell, reporter for Bloomberg News in Washington, 14,

(Victoria, 4/21, Bloomberg, "Improving Job Market Driving Rebound in U.S. Growth:
Economy", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-21/gain-in-u-s-leading-index-pointsto-second,7/1/14, aven)
The median forecast of 42 economists surveyed by Bloomberg called for an
advance of 0.7 percent in the leading index. Estimates ranged from gains of
0.3 percent to 1 percent. Six of the 10 indicators in the leading index contributed
to the increase last month, led by the spread between short- and long-term
interest rates, a drop in jobless claims and an increase in the length of the
factory workweek. The economy is rebounding from widespread
inclement weather and the strengthening in the labor market is beginning
to have a positive impact on growth, Ken Goldstein, an economist at the
Conference Board, said in a statement today. Overall, this is an optimistic report,
but the focus will continue to be on whether improvements in the labor market can

be sustained, fueling stronger economic performance over the next few months.
The drop in applications for unemployment insurance payments last
month and an increase in the factory workweek accounted for 0.4
percentage point of the total advance in the leading index.

Economic growth is going strongstatistics prove

Stilwell, reporter for Bloomberg News in Washington, 14,

(Victoria, 4/21, Bloomberg, "Improving Job Market Driving Rebound in U.S. Growth:
Economy", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-21/gain-in-u-s-leading-index-pointsto-second,7/1/14, aven)
Growth in the U.S. is projected to reach 2.7 percent this year compared
with 1.9 percent in 2013, according to a Bloomberg survey of economists,
supporting the Federal Reserves outlook that the economy has improved enough to
continue unwinding its bond-buying program. A 3 percent annualized growth
rate this quarter will follow a 1.5 percent gain in the first three months of
the year, the survey shows. The labor market has shown signs of shaking
off its winter slump, with employers adding 192,000 workers to payrolls last
month after a revised 197,000 gain in February that was larger than initially
estimated, according to Labor Department data. A separate report last week
showed initial jobless claims are hovering near the lowest level since the
last recession began almost seven years ago. The total number of people
receiving benefits fell to 2.74 million in the week ended April 5, the fewest since
December 2007, the Labor Departments report showed.

Tourism Kills BioD

Turn- Tourism Bad For Coral Reefs
ICRI, No Date (Ministry of the Environment, Status of and Threat to Coral
Reefs, http://www.icriforum.org/about-coral-reefs/status-and-threat-coral-reefs,
6/27/14, ML)
Tourism generates vast amounts of income for host countries. Where unregulated
however, tourism pressures can cause damage to the very environment
upon which the industry depends. Physical damage to the coral reefs can
occur through contact from careless swimmers, divers, and poorly placed
boat anchors. Hotels and resorts may also discharge untreated sewage and
wastewater into the ocean, polluting the water and encouraging the
growth of algae, which competes with corals for space on the reef.

With about 25% of all marine life being supported by coral

reefs, preservation is key to sustain food, income,
protection, and new medicine.
NOAA 04
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2004, United Department of
Commerce, Coral Reefs An Important Part of Our Future,
http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, 6/29/14, JY)
If you have ever visited a coral reef, its beauty, diversity, and many colorful
inhabitants probably struck you. Even though coral reefs cover less than one
percent of the ocean floor, they support an estimated 25 percent of all marine
life, with more than 4,000 species of fish alone. In fact, coral reefs are some of
the most diverse ecosystems in the world with thousands of species
relying on reefs for survival. They also serve as important sources of food,
income, protection, and new medicines for mankind. The fish that grow and
live on coral reefs are a significant food source for half a billion people
worldwide many of whom live far from the reefs that feed them. Millions of
people in coastal villages of tropical developing countries depend on reefs for their
livelihoods, with 25 percent of all fish caught in these regions coming from
coral reefs. These benefits are not limited to developing countries
approximately half of all federally managed fisheries in the United States
depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial value of U.S.
fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million.

Tourism Bad
Tourism advantage turns the case- tourism is actually worse
for coral reefs
Rowe journalist 8 (Mark, 4/22/08, Travel News, Tourist sunscreen killing of coral
reefs, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/travelnews/759600/Tourist-sunscreenkilling-of-coral-reefs.html, accessed 6/27/14)
Tourists who wear sunscreens may be contributing to the death of the Great
Barrier Reef and other coral reefs around the world, new research has revealed. Scientists
in Italy believe that up to 10 per cent of coral reefs are threatened by bleaching
caused by chemicals in widely-used creams that are sold to protect users from the
suns damaging UV rays. Between 4,000 and 6,000 tones of sunscreen wash off
swimmers annually in oceans worldwide, mostly in warm tropical climates where reefs are popular
tourist attractions. But scientists at Marche Polytechnic University in Ancona found that many brands of sunscreen
contain ingredients that can stimulate viruses in the algae, known as zooxanthellae, which live within
corals. Zooxanthellae play an essential role in providing the vibrant colour associated with corals by supplying
food energy through photosynthesis. The chemicals found in sunscreens paraben, cinnamate, benzophenone,
and a camphor derivative cause the viruses to replicate until their algae hosts explode, spilling viruses into the
surrounding seawater, where they can infect neighbouring coral communities. Without the algae, the coral turns
white and dies. The study looked at the efect of sunscreen on corals in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans and
the Red Sea. The research, which was funded by the European Union, indicated that the protection people need in
order to enjoy coral reefs while wearing skimpy clothing is damaging precisely what draws tourists to reefs. In the
case of the Great Barrier Reef which attracts 1.6m people each year this could jeopardise an industry that the
Australian Ministry of Tourism calculates is worth some 2.31bn. Sunscreens cause the rapid and complete
bleaching of hard corals, even at very low concentrations, said Roberto Danovaro, who led the research team. "By
promoting viral infection, sunscreens can potentially play an important role in coral bleaching

in areas prone to high levels of recreational use by humans. The study is the
latest to highlight the extent to which tourism is damaging coral reefs . According to

the Worldwide Fund for Nature, a quarter of the worlds coral reefs is at imminent risk of collapse through human
pressures; a further quarter is under a longer-term threat of collapse. Climate change is compounding the problem.
In recent years, increased sea surface temperatures have caused coral bleaching, in which the plant-like organisms
that make up coral die and leave behind the white limestone skeleton. Australian scientists are considering plans to
cover sections of the Great Barrier Reef with giant canopies to try to reduce the destruction of the habitat by
bleaching. A two-year trial that ended in 2006 used large shade cloths tethered to pontoons, and provided results
described as encouraging.

Mexicos reefs being destroyed to make mega hotel for tourist

Howard Writer 14 (Jammie, 6/4/14, Force Change, Stop Mega Hotel from

Destroying Coral Reef, http://forcechange.com/125997/stop-the-building-of-megahotel-that-will-destroy-coral-reef/, accessed 6/ 29/14 SH)

The diverse Cabo Pulmo National Park, home to hundreds of rare plants
and animals including a coral reef, is once again at risk. Plans are being made for
a 22,000 room mega-hotel to be built on the sight in Mexico , building plans
that will likely damage the incredible biodiversity of the area . Although former Mexican
President Felipe Calderon shut down plans for a US-funded resort in 2012, a China-based company has
recently developed plans of its own. The Cabo Pulmo National Park area, located on the Baja California
peninsula, boasts some of the most diverse plants and animals in the world. The coral reef itself has
been referred to as The Aquarium of the World by famous explorer and photographer
Jacques Cousteau, and with good reason. A recent study by N-Gen of the Punta Arena , the eleven kilometer
area the hotel is to be built on, found over 500 different plants and
animals, including two types of vegetation found nowhere else on Earth. Additionally, there are concerns about
the needed fresh water for the hotel. The Punta Arena is miles of desert meeting the beautiful Gulf of California,

building a tourist zone would surely

disrupt this precious ecosystem. This biodiversity hotspot deserves to be preserved.
where the fragile coral reef is located. Any plans of

Tourism destroys coral reefs- Caribbean proves increase in

demands, infrastructure, snorkeling, etc.
UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme, Tourisms Impact on Reefs,
http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Business/SectoralActivities/Tourism/Activitie
s/WorkThematicAreas/EcosystemManagement/CoralReefs/TourismsImpactonReefs/ta
bid/78799/Default.aspx, accessed 6/29/14 SH)
The tourism-related impacts on coral reefs in the Caribbean are typical of
those occurring worldwide. The tourism sector is of major economic
importance in the Caribbean region, both for foreign exchange earnings and for employment.
Since Caribbean tourism is primarily associated with beaches and the sea,
there have been - and continue to be - impacts from tourism on the
coastal environment, including the coral reefs. Tourism has both direct and indirect
impacts on coral reefs. Snorkeling, diving and boating can cause direct physical
damage to reefs, and fishing and collecting can contribute to overexploitation of reef species and threaten local survival of endangered
species. Indirect impacts relate to the development, construction and
operation of tourism infrastructure as a whole (resorts, marinas, ports,
airports, etc.). Direct physical damage from snorkeling and diving has been the
subject of extensive study and is well documented. The damage inflicted by divers
and snorkelers consists mostly of breaking fragile, branched corals or
causing lesions to massive corals. Most divers and snorkelers cause little damage; only a few
cause severe or widespread damage. Research indicates that reef degradation and change of reef community

it is
recommended that the level of 5,000 to 6,000 dives per sites per year
should not be exceeded. Training and briefing of divers and snorkelers will greatly help to reduce
negative impacts. Physical damage from anchors and especially boat groundings
can be severe. Anchor damage is proportional to the size of the boat (i.e. weight of the anchor and length of
anchor chain) and is further dependent on the type of coral community. Recovery of coral damage
from boat groundings is slow. Anchor damage can be avoided to a large extent by installing
structure occurs once a certain level of use by divers and snorkelers is exceeded. As a rule of thumb

permanent moorings, designating anchorages and providing adequate information on anchoring and mooring.
Although fishing has caused declines in reef fish stocks throughout the Caribbean, the direct role of tourism in

tourism increases the

demand for seafood and does have an impact of on reef fish resources.
Collecting of marine souvenirs by tourists is probably insignificant but there still is a market
for marine curiosities in response to a certain tourist demand. This demand can definitely be
decreased by increased awareness. Tourism-related sources of sewage pollution
include resorts and, to a much lesser extent, recreational vessels. There is
fishing-related decline is most likely not significant. Indirectly, however,

evidence that a very large percentage of the sewage generated by hotels is discharged in coastal waters without
adequate treatment. The main impact of sewage pollution is nutrient enrichment, which favours certain species

The impacts of nutrient enrichment from

sewage pollution on corals in general have been well studied , but those
(algae in particular) at the expense of corals.

specifically from sewage pollution from hotels and recreational vessels have not been quantified. The studies
indicate that the impact of sewage pollution depends on the level of treatment before discharge and the degree of
natural flushing by tides and currents at the point of discharge. Tourism is not generally a source of petroleum
hydrocarbon pollution, other than on a small scale when oil or fuel spills from recreational vessels and marinas
occur. The efects of petroleum hydrocarbons on corals has been studied for quite some time, producing evidence
that chronic oil pollution is more harmful than a single exposure, and that

dispersants and

emulsifiers used to combat spills are more toxic to corals than oil alone .
Coastal development and the construction and operation of related tourism
infrastructure cause increased runoff and sedimentation. Sedimentation is one of
the main reasons for reef degradation. Increased sediment loading of coastal waters increases turbidity, reduces

and leads to stress on corals, usually expressed by "bleaching" of corals. Heavy

sediment loading may also cause corals to suffocate and die. Other documented
light levels

impacts of sedimentation on corals include lower growth rates, reduced productivity and reduced recruitment.

Tourism is obviously a source of large amounts of solid waste, the impacts of

which depend very much on the method of disposal. If disposed of inappropriately, leaching of toxic
substances may harm corals. Of particular concern is the "accidental" waste - plastics in
particular - that is blown into the ocean from beaches or vessels and has a detrimental efect on corals and
other marine life. Tourism-related impacts on coral reefs are significant, but they are also compounded by other
impacts that are not easily distinguished from those of tourism. This does not mean that we must disregard the
impacts of tourism activities.

No Impact Economy
US Economy Resilient no impact
Detrixhe and Katz, 14 ( John and Ian, 6/6/14, "U.S. Credit Rating Affirmed by
S&P With Stable Outlook", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-06/u-s-sovereigncredit-rating-affirmed-by-s-p-with-stable-outlook.html, 7/1/14, CH)
The U.S.s AA+ credit rating was affirmed by Standard & Poors, which cited
the resiliency and diversity of the economy, almost three years after
downgrading the nation for the first time amid political wrangling. There is a less
than one-in-three probability that the ranking will change in the next two years, the
New York-based company said in a statement today. The outlook on the rating is
stable. Since the August 2011 downgrade from AAA, record budget deficits have
shrunk, economic growth accelerated, the dollar rallied, stocks climbed to all-time
highs and Treasuries strengthened their hold as the worlds preferred haven from
turmoil. Still, S&P said a polarized policy making environment, and high general
government debt and budget deficits constrain the ratings. The S&P report reflects
that the U.S. is on better footing, that the deficit situation has been
reduced over the last year and that the amount of the money the Treasury
borrows has declined, said Thomas Tucci, managing director and head of
Treasury trading in New York at CIBC World Markets Corp. Ultimately the
fundamental fiscal situation in the U.S. has improved and the credit
quality of the U.S. is in very good shape right now.

Economic collapse doesnt cause war, history proves

Barnett, WPR reporter, 09 (Thomas, 8/24/09,

www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/4213/the-new-rules-security-remains-stableamid-financial-crisis, 7/1/14, CH)

When the global financial crisis struck roughly a year ago, the blogosphere was
ablaze with all sorts of scary predictions of, and commentary regarding, ensuing
conflict and wars -- a rerun of the Great Depression leading to world war, as it were.
Now, as global economic news brightens and recovery -- surprisingly led by China
and emerging markets -- is the talk of the day, it's interesting to look back over the
past year and realize how globalization's first truly worldwide recession has
had virtually no impact whatsoever on the international security
landscape. None of the more than three-dozen ongoing conflicts listed by
GlobalSecurity.org can be clearly attributed to the global recession. Indeed,
the last new entry (civil conflict between Hamas and Fatah in the Palestine)
predates the economic crisis by a year, and three quarters of the chronic
struggles began in the last century. Ditto for the 15 low-intensity conflicts
listed by Wikipedia (where the latest entry is the Mexican "drug war" begun in
2006). Certainly, the Russia-Georgia conflict last August was specifically timed, but
by most accounts the opening ceremony of the Beijing Olympics was the most
important external trigger (followed by the U.S. presidential campaign) for that
sudden spike in an almost two-decade long struggle between Georgia and its two
breakaway regions.

Disease

UQ HIV
Number of HIV/AIDS related deaths declining
Caba, Health Reporter at Medical Daily, 13
(Justin, 9/23/13, Medical Daily, AIDS-Related Deaths Dramatically Decline By 30%
Since 2005: UN Report, http://www.medicaldaily.com/aids-related-deathsdramatically-decline-30-2005-un-report-257602, 6/28/14, SM)
The number of AIDS-related deaths worldwide has decreased by 30
percent since reaching its peak back in 2005. According to report from the Joint United

Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), HIV infections and AIDS-related deaths are on a dramatic decline and
this trend is only expected to continue. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes a weakening of the immune
system by killing of the bodys CD4 white blood cells. When our CD4 count drops below 200, AIDS (acquired
immune deficiency syndrome) complications begin to arise. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been seen as the most
efective solution to transmission. "The

annual number of new HIV infections continues

to decline with especially sharp reductions in the number of children
newly infected with HIV," Executive Director of UNAIDS Michel Sidibe said in a statement. The
number of children infected with HIV has reduced from 550,000 in 2001 to
260,000 in 2012, amounting to a 52 percent decline in children newly infected with the
HIV virus. Experts say mother-to-child transmission of HIV was lowered after 56 percent of pregnant women living
with HIV received the most efective drug regimen recommended by the World Health Organization. Sidibe and his
colleagues from the UN identified antiretroviral treatment expansion as the source of this global improvement. A
total of 9.7 million people from low- and middle-income countries were given access to antiretroviral therapy in
2012, a 20 percent increase since 2011. Donations amounting to $18.9 billion from around the world were collected
for HIV/AIDS research in 2012 alone.

HIV/AIDS deaths on decline

National AIDS Council, 2014
(4/26/14, National AIDS Council, Sharp decline in HIV deaths,
http://www.nac.org.zw/news/sharp-decline-hiv-deaths, 6/28/14, SM)
The number of people dying from HIV and Aids-related illnesses has
significantly dropped from a high of 170 000 in 2003 to about 60 000 last
year, a development attributed to Government programmes of efectively administering anti-retroviral therapy.
The numbers include both adults and children. According to a preliminary report of the 2013 HIV estimates

the number of adults who died in

2013 has gone down from 50 230 in 2012 to 49 605 in 2013. The number of
deaths among children between 0 and 14 years has also gone down from
about 36 000 (2003 statistics) to 10 795 in 2013. In 2012, 12 004 child deaths were
presented to various Aids stakeholders in Harare yesterday,

recorded. Presenting the 2013 preliminary report, Ministry of Health and Child Care strategic information co-

the number of people living with HIV

seems to have stabilised and stands at 14,4 percent. Last year, the prevalence rate
ordinator for the Aids and TB Unit Dr Mutsa Mhangara said

was 14,5 percent. Dr Mhangara said the number of people getting infected had also decreased from 1,18 percent in
2012 to 1,05 percent in 2013. Although this is a preliminary report, indications are that the number of people living

stabilising as many people living with the virus are

now surviving longer, while the number of people getting infected
continues to drop, he said.
with HIV and Aids in the country is

UQExploration Now
The US is exploring the ocean now for cures of diseases
NOAA no date
(NOAA, no date, Medicines From the Sea,
http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0309/medicines.html, 7/1/14, AG)
Ocean exploration often leads to new ideas, new theories and discoveries, including
new medicines. From slime to sponges, researchers are exploring the ocean's
depths for new medications to treat cancer, bacterial infections, viruses,
heart disease, pain, and other ailments. The seas contain an uncounted
number of species of plants and animals. These creatures provide a vast storehouse
of chemical compounds unknown on land. An ocean commission report lists
chemicals and biological materials from marine organisms now in use or
development, including 10 anti-cancer drugs, drugs to fight inflammation,
fungus, tuberculosis, HIV, malaria and dengue.

Oceans are being explored already

HERMIONE no date
(Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Mans Impact on European Seas, no date,
exploring the oceans http://www.eu-hermione.net/learning/exploring-the-oceans,
7/1//14, AG)
Most of the developments in the techniques of exploring the seafloor have
been witnessed over the last 150 years. However, it is known that the Vikings
such as Eric the Red, used 'sounding weights'. These were lead weights attached to
a rope or line, which were lowered to the bottom from the side of the boat. Often,
the weight had a hollow bottom so a sample of the sediment could be collected. It
was a straightforward matter to measure the length of line lowered in order to
estimate the depth. The line length was divided up into sections which were equal
to a man's arm span from fingertip to fingertip, a length of 1.83m [6 feet], this
measurement was called a fathom, a term which is still used today. This method, of
taking 'soundings', was used until the mid 1800s. During the mid 19th century
governments and scientists launched systematic surveys of the world's
oceans

No Internal LinkDisease
Coral reefs cant solve disease already dying of herpes which
is being ignored
Astro Biology Magazine, 12

(Astro Biology Magazine, 4/1/12, Astro Biology Magazine, Coral Reefs Have
Herpes, http://www.astrobio.net/topic/origins/origin-and-evolution-of-life/coralreefs-have-herpes/, 7/1/14, JW)
As corals continue to decline in abundance around the world, researchers are
turning their attention to a possible cause thats almost totally unexplored
viral disease. It appears the corals that form such important parts of
marine ecosystems harbor many different viruses particularly herpes.
And although they dont get runny noses or stomach upset, corals also are home to
the adenoviruses and other viral families that can cause human colds and
gastrointestinal disease. In a research review published in the Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, scientists point out that coral declines
are reaching crisis proportions but little has been done so far to explore
viral disease as one of the mechanisms for this problem. Coral abundance
in the Caribbean Sea has gone down about 80 percent in the past 30-40
years, and about one-third of the corals around the world are threatened
with extinction, said Rebecca Vega-Thurber, an assistant professor of
microbiology at Oregon State University. Weve identified 22 kinds of
emerging disease that affect corals, but still dont know the pathogens
that cause most of them, Vega-Thurber said. Most researchers have looked
only at bacteria. But we suspect viruses may play a role in this as well, and
its important to learn more about what is causing this problem. Corals are the
building blocks of the tropical seas. A research program at OSU, one of only two of
its type in the world, is studying viral metagenomics in corals, meaning the
analysis of multiple genomes at the same time. It may help explain one of the
underlying causes of coral decline, Vega-Thurber said, and is one of the most
comprehensive analyses yet done on the types of viruses in a marine animal. It may
also shed light on the broader range of viruses that afect not only corals but many
other animals, including humans. Around one-third of the Earths corals are now
threatened with extinction. Image Credit: NOAA One of the surprises from recent
research was the predominance in corals of herpes viruses similar but not identical
to the herpes virus that can infect humans. Herpes viruses appear to constitute a
majority of the viruses found in corals, and one experiment showed that herpes-like
viral sequences were produced in coral tissues after acute episodes of stress. We
were shocked to find that so many coral viruses were in the herpes
family, Vega-Thurber said. But corals are one of the oldest animal life forms,
evolving around 500 million years ago, and herpes is a very old family of viruses
that can infect almost every kind of animal. Herpes and corals may have evolved
together. Its not yet certain, researchers say, whether the viruses being found on
corals are actually causing diseases. Just because you harbor a virus doesnt mean
you are getting sick from it, Vega-Thurber said. This is part of what we have to pin
down with further research. Some of the possible causes of coral decline that have
been identified so far include global warming that causes coral bleaching, loss of
symbiotic algae that help nourish corals, pollution such as sewage runof, and

human-coral interactions. A mucus sometimes found on corals can harbor humanborne viruses, and levels of these viruses have been correlated with terrestrial
human population density. We have found that nutrient increases from pollution
can cause increased levels of viral infection, as do warmer water and physical
handling, Vega-Thurber said. Now we have to determine if those increases in
infection cause actual diseases that are killing the coral. Corals are often a major
component of marine ecosystems and biodiversity, especially in the tropics. They
host thousands of species of fish and other animals. And whether or not viruses
are implicated in coral disease, it may also be that they are passing
diseases along to fish. Research is likely to reveal that viruses have
numerous and profound roles on coral reefs, the scientists wrote in their
study. As the diversity, distribution and function of reef-associated viruses becomes
increasingly well defined, so will our ability to predict, prevent and/or mitigate
disease epizootics on coral reefs.

Reefs going extinct multiple causes

Kim Wright, masters in environmental conflict, 13

(Kim Wright, 10/3/13, Hawaii News Now, Scientists warn of mass extinctions in
world's oceans, http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/23596939/scientists-warn-ofmass-extinctions-in-worlds-oceans, 7/1/14, JW)
(RNN) - A team of marine scientists issued a dire warning Oct. 3 on the state
of the world's oceans. They say that mass extinctions may already be
inevitable. A report issued by the International Programme on the State of the
Ocean and the International Union for Conservation of Nature states that the
world's oceans are experiencing decreasing oxygen levels, warming and
acidification as a result of several stressors, including climate change,
pollution and overfishing. "The health of the ocean is spiraling downwards far
more rapidly than we had thought," said Alex Rogers, the scientific director of IPSO.
"We are seeing greater change, happening faster, and the efects are more
imminent than previously anticipated. The situation should be of the gravest
concern to everyone since everyone will be afected by changes in the ability of the
ocean to support life on Earth." These factors have serious consequences for
marine life, as temperature, chemistry, nutrient and oxygen supply all are
necessary for the oceans to support an abundance of marine life. If the
amount of carbon dioxide absorption remains at its current level, by about
2030 or 2050, the carbon dioxide content in the oceans is expected to
cause coral reefs to erode and lead to the extinction of some species.
Coral reefs provide shelter and protection for several species of fish,
according to Texas A&M University, as well as helping to control the level of carbon
dioxide in the oceans. A United Nations climate change panel report released in late
September noted that the ocean is absorbing much of the increasing heat
from the changing climate. The International Programme on the State of the
Ocean's report noted that the warming of the world's oceans will have
negative effects, including further reducing oceanic oxygen levels. Melting
Arctic ice will also cause more methane to be released into the atmosphere,
contributing to climate change. Seasonal ice zones will continue to shrink, with
Arctic summer sea ice disappearing by about 2037. "Potential knock-on efects of
climate change in the ocean, such as methane release from melting permafrost, and
coral dieback, mean the consequences for human and ocean life could be even

worse than presently calculated," the report noted. Marine life is also stressed by
overfishing, with about 70 percent of the world's fish populations harvested in an
unsustainable manner. Suggestions put forward by the study include further
reducing global carbon emissions below the current targets and better management
of vulnerable marine ecosystems. "What these latest reports make absolutely
clear is that deferring action will increase costs in the future and lead to
even greater, perhaps irreversible, losses," said IUCN's Dan Lafoley. The
findings were published in the peer-reviewed journal Marine Pollution Bulletin.

No ImpactDisease
No impact, disease predictions are exaggerated
Newsweek, 10 (7/1/10, "Don't Listen to the Doomsayers", 7/1/14,
www.newsweek.com/zakaria-dont-listen-doomsayers-80263, CH)
Why did the predictions of a pandemic turn out to be so exaggerated?
Some people blame an overheated media, but it would have been difficult to ignore
major international health organizations and governments when they were warning
of catastrophe. I think there is a broader mistake in the way we look at the world.
Once we see a problem, we can describe it in great detail, extrapolating all its
possible consequences. But we can rarely anticipate the human response to that
crisis. Take swine flu. The virus had crucial characteristics that led researchers to
worry that it could spread far and fast. They describedand the media reported
what would happen if it went unchecked. But it did not go unchecked. In fact, swine
flu was met by an extremely vigorous response at its epicenter, Mexico. The
Mexican government reacted quickly and massively, quarantining the infected
population, testing others, providing medication to those who needed it. The noted
expert on this subject, Laurie Garrett, says, "We should all stand up and scream,
'Gracias, Mexico!' because the Mexican people and the Mexican government have
sacrificed on a level that I'm not sure as Americans we would be prepared to do in
the exact same circumstances. They shut down their schools. They shut down
businesses, restaurants, churches, sporting events. They basically paralyzed their
own economy. They've sufered billions of dollars in financial losses still being
tallied up, and thereby really brought transmission to a halt."

It is highly uncommon for species to become extinct through

disease studies prove.

Amherst College 10
(Amherst College, 8/25/2010, Disease Likely Not a Common Cause of Species
Extinction, New Amherst Study Finds,
https://www.amherst.edu/aboutamherst/news/faculty/node/222637, 7/1/2014, AC)
Challenging the widespread belief that rare and endangered plants and
animals are unhealthy, a new study has found they in fact harbor a lower number
and diversity of disease-causing parasites than non-threatened, close relatives
of the same family, according to Amherst College biology professor Michael Hood
and his research team. We still have much more to study to fully understand this
discovery, but this certainly contradicts the widely held notion that disease is a
major accelerant of species decline, said Hood of the groups findings, which were
published by the journal Oikos on its website. Combined with the loss of habitat, it
is probably other extinction vortex factorssuch as loss of genetic diversity or
disruption of reproduction processesthat cause many species to die out, not
disease. Using information from the collections in natural history museums around
the world, the U.S. Department of Agriculture databases and their own field work,
Hood, former student Amanda K. Gibson 08 and postdoctoral fellow Jorge MenaAli analyzed data from more than 42,000 flowering plants in the Silene genus
for the destructive anther smut fungus. Anther smut, said Hood, is a model

disease to study, because it is easy to seeit replaces the plants pollen with dark
fungal sporesand because it is widely distributed in natural plant communities. In
addition, it is harmless to humans and agriculture and safe for Hood and his team to
handle. The groups major finding was surprising: Naturally occurring anther smut
disease was significantly less frequent in threatened species than in nonthreatened species of Silene. Whats more, looking across all endangered U.S.
plant species, the team found fewer pathogens and parasites, making
endangered species as a group less diseased overall.

No impact to AIDS
Blumenthal, US Assistant Surgeon General, 14 (" The Power of
HIV/AIDS Prevention: Using a 21st Century Toolkit to Reverse the Epidemic", Dr.
Susan, 6/27/14, www.huffingtonpost.com/susan-blumenthal/hivaidsprevention_b_5537199.html, 7/1/14, CH)
In response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the United States, the White House
released the National HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS) in July 2010, the country's
first comprehensive roadmap to reverse the impact of the disease with clear
outcomes to be achieved by 2015. The three main NHAS goals are to: 1)
reduce new HIV infections, 2) increase access to care as well as improve
health outcomes for people living with HIV, and 3) decrease HIV-related health
disparities. A key NHAS priority is to intensify HIV prevention in the communities
where HIV is most heavily concentrated, expanding targeted use of efective
combinations of evidence-based HIV prevention approaches, and educating all
Americans about HIV and how to prevent it. To advance these prevention goals and
enhance the effectiveness of current HIV prevention strategies, the CDC
has adopted a High-Impact Prevention (HIP) approach. The strategy
combines the most efective, scientifically proven, cost efective and scalable
prevention tools targeted to high-risk populations in the most afected regions of
the country with the goal of significantly reducing new HIV infections. Methods
employed by HIP include better geographic targeting of resources to locations with
the highest burden of disease, expanding HIV testing, and identifying the
combination of approaches with the greatest impact. These eforts have resulted in
nearly 2.8 million HIV tests being administered over the past three years and
18,432 people previously unaware of their HIV status being diagnosed.

No impact to HIV, Medical Cannabis solves

Haglage, reporter at The Daily Beast, 14 (2/27/14, "Weed Could Block
H.I.V.s Spread. No, Seriously.", www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/02/15/weedcan-block-h-i-v-s-spread-no-seriously.html, 7/1/14, CH)
The study illustrates how THC works by targeting so-called CB2 receptors in the
brain. One of two known cannabinoid receptors activated by cannabinoids
(terpenophenolic compounds present in Cannabis), the CB2 receptors manifest in
cells connected with the immune system, such as the gastrointestinal tract and the
spleen. Unlike CB1 receptors, which respond to the psychoactive qualities of THC
(producing a feeling of high), CB2 receptors react to the therapeutic aspects of
THCfor example, reducing swelling and relieving pain. The changes that THC

produces in the gut a process formally known as microbial translocation, isnt as

complicated as it sounds. During HIV infection, one of the earliest effects is
that the virus spreads rapidly throughout the body and kills a significant
part of cells in the gut and intestine. This activity damages the gut in a
way that allows the HIV to leak through the cell wall of the intestines and
into the bloodstream. When THC is introduced into this environment, it
activates the CB2 receptors in the intestines to build new, healthy
bacterial cells that block the virus from leaking through the cell walls. In
other words, the body works hard to keep bad stuf in the intestines and the good
stuf out. Put another way: HIV kills the cells that protect the walls THC
brings them back. Reducing the amount of the virus in the lower
intestines could then help keep uninfected people uninfected.

New tech to decrease HIV transmission.

Blumenthal, US Assistant Surgeon General, 14
(" The Power of HIV/AIDS Prevention: Using a 21st Century Toolkit to Reverse the Epidemic", Dr. Susan,
6/27/14,www.huffingtonpost.com/susan-blumenthal/hivaids-prevention_b_5537199.html, 7/1/14, SJ)

screen pregnant women for HIV for their own health as well as to
prevent transmission of HIV to their infant if they are HIV positive. The CDC recommends that
healthcare providers test pregnant women for HIV and provide them with
written materials and risk-reduction counseling. These efforts have proved
efective with a significant decrease in mother-to-child HIV transmission from 1,650 cases in 1991 to 162
It is critical to

cases in 2010. Despite dramatic reductions in the number of babies born HIV positive in America, every case of HIV
infection in an infant is a missed opportunity for prevention. Our goal must be an HIV-free generation in the near
future.
Now, we have the potential to go much further.

High-Impact Prevention averting HIV

CDC 13
(CDC, 04/17/13, CDC, "High-Impact HIV Prevention: CDC's Approach to Reducing
HIV Infections in the United States", URL, 7/1/14, SJ)
prevention has already averted more than 350,000* HIV
infections.1 Now, we have the potential to go much further. The nation's HIV prevention eforts are guided by
In the United States,

a single, ambitious strategy for combating the epidemic: the National HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS).2 Recent

scientific breakthroughs have equipped us with an unprecedented number of

effective tools to prevent infection.3-6 And in many of the communities hardest hit by HIV, there
is growing leadership and momentum for change. Yet the challenges remain daunting. By CDC's latest estimates,
approximately 50,000 Americans become infected with HIV annually, and 16,000 people with AIDS died in 2008.7,8
As a result, the number of people living with HIV in the United States, now at nearly 1.2 million, continues to grow
by tens of thousands each year, creating more opportunities for HIV transmission.9 And a range of social, economic,
and demographic factors afect some Americans' risk for HIV, such as stigma, discrimination, income, education,

current prevention efforts have helped to keep the

number of new infections stable in recent years, continued growth in the population living
and geographic region. While

with HIV will ultimately lead to more new infections if prevention, care, and treatment eforts are not intensified.10

CDC and its partners are pursuing a High-Impact

Prevention approach to reducing new HIV infections.11 By using combinations of
To address these challenges,

scientifically proven, cost-efective, and scalable interventions targeted to the right populations in the right

this approach promises to increase the impact of HIV

prevention efforts an essential step in achieving the goals of NHAS. This approach is designed
to maximize the impact of prevention efforts for all Americans at risk for HIV
infection, including gay and bisexual men, communities of color, women, injection drug users, transgender
geographic areas,

women and men and youth. *A conservative estimate examining the period 1991 to 2006.

Solvency

Preservation
Preservation policies failMPAs prove.
Rife et al, Oceans Program Coordinator @ Environmental Defense Fund 12
(Alexis, Brad Erisman, Alexandra Sanchez, Octavio Aburto-Oropeza, 12/14/12, Conservation Letters, When good
intentions are not enoughInsights on networks of paper park marine protected areas,
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00303.x/abstract, 6/25/14, KM)

In eforts to protect the world's oceans, the Convention on Biological Diversity has moved the goal of establishing
marine protected areas (MPAs) to cover 10% of the ocean from 2012 to 2020. This adjustment suggests that

the

rush to establish MPAs without proper resources does not resolve conservation
problems. In fact, such actions may create a false sense of protection that
camouflages degradation of marine ecosystems on regional scales. To
exemplify this phenomenon, we reviewed MPA efficacy in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where some 23,300 km 2
have been decreed as MPAs. With the exception of Cabo Pulmo National Park,

MPAs have not met

conservation or sustainability goals.

We examined MPA budgets and foundations investment in

the region and found that funding for management is not the limiting factor in MPA efficacy, although funding for

MPAs have failed because of insufficient

no-take zones, lack of enforcement, poor governance, and minimal
community involvement. We need a new philosophy to implement MPAs to take advantage of the
enforcement may be deficient. We conclude that

scientific knowledge and monetary investment that have been generated worldwide and ensure that they
complement efective fisheries management outside their borders.

Genetically engineered corals

Turn: Selective-breeding can lead to genetic bottlenecks and
increase susceptibility to diseaseif selective-breeding
even works.
Mascarelli, Fellow @ National Science Foundation 14

(Amanda, 4/23/14, Nature,

Climate-change adaption: Designer reefs, http://www.nature.com/news/climate-change-adaptation-designer-reefs1.15073#/b2, 6/25/14, KM)
Researchers such as Baker are starting to think about the possibility of intentionally seeding coral reefs with hardier
strains of algae to help them to resist the perils of climate change. But it is still unclear whether it will

be possible to manipulate symbiont populations effectively in the wild, where

environmental conditions might cause the corals to favour one type of alga over
another. Workers at existing coral nurseries and farms have been sending samples of coral and symbionts to
researchers for genetic sequencing, while keeping tabs on which organisms fare well in heat shocks or disease
outbreaks. Researchers have banked hundreds of genotyped strains from a handful of coral species, including the
critically endangered staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) from locations in the Caribbean, says Les Kaufman, a
marine biologist at Boston University in Massachusetts. Help or harm The days of trying to build
reefs with designer-made corals are still in the future. But as the research heads in that
direction, some are wary that such tinkering might do more harm than good. Selecting
for traits such as resistance to heat or acidification might lead to a genetic bottleneck, for
example. Selective-breeding programmes may effectively reduce the capacity of

corals to adapt to future changes in environmental conditions by narrowing

genetic variation, says David Miller, a coral biologist at James Cook University in Townsville. And that is
if selective breeding in corals even works. It is too soon even to tell whether acid
and heat resistance are strongly heritable, he says. Miller and others point out that crossbreeding to enhance specific traits in crops and dogs, for example, often comes at the
expense of other traits. There's often a 'trade-of' efect, so that, for example, more-stress-tolerant
individuals are likely to grow more slowly, says Miller. Selecting for resilience against heat and
acidity could hypothetically lead to higher susceptibility to disease, for instance.

Artificial Reefs
Turn- Attempts to create artificial reefs damage the coral reefs
dramatically
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 09 (7/08/09, DEP, Osborne
Reef Waste Tire Removal Project,
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/quick_topics/publications/shw/tires/reef/OsborneRe
efProject-Final-7-8-09.pdf, 6/28/14, AEG)
During the 1970s, between one and two million tires were put in the ocean
of Broward County in an efort to create additional fish habitat. Over the years,
many of the tires were mobilized by tropical storms and hurricanes, the
movement of which caused damage to nearby existing coral reefs. The
threat is serious, but the complexity and magnitude of the challenge of
removing these tires has prevented any individual government agency
from doing so. The NOAA Marine Debris Program funded a reconnaissance project
that was conducted in August, 2006. The scope of work for this project included the
development of a potential strategy for removing and properly disposing of the tires. It was

decided that a pilot program was needed to test diver retrieval productivity, loading and transportation methods,
and tire processing and disposal. In 2007, a group of federal, state and county government agencies worked jointly
to complete the pilot study with the objective of defining the technical and economic feasibility of coordinating
agency capabilities to accomplish the objectives listed above. This joint-efort program involved Coastal America,
US Navy, Army, Coast Guard, Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), Broward County Environmental
Protection and Growth Management Department, and Broward County Port Everglades Department. Funding for the
military mission, which included a multi-branch team of divers and an Army landing craft utility (LCU) ship was
provided by the Department of Defenses Innovative Readiness Training Program. Permit fees, equipment and
supplies, and tire processing services were funded by DEP out of 2007 abatement funds. Project management and
dockage for the 2007 pilot were provided by Broward County. The pilot project allowed productivity projections to be
made for the remainder of the project. Monthly tire removal was estimated at 20,000 passenger tire equivalents
(PTEs). At this rate, complete cleanup of the estimated 650,000 tires remaining would take more than the three
years originally intended. After the pilot, it was decided that previously established priority areas needed to be
redrawn to emphasize the importance of removing tires from the eastern edge of the afected middle reef
(designated Priority Area 1). In order to remove the estimated 370,000 tires from Priority Area 1, an increase in
military salvage resources, divers, and watercraft would be needed during 120-day project periods in each of the

Area 1 could be cleared in three

years. Actual productivity could increase in future years and these projections can
be revised accordingly. The extent of the funding required for full abatement
was estimated to be about $3.4 million in state and county funds. The cost
to abate the pile exceeded amounts in DEPs waste tire abatement contracts.
Because of the need to save this resource, Governor Crist recommended and the
Florida Legislature passed a $2 million special appropriation in 2007 for DEP to
complete its share of the project.
three years beginning in 2009. Given these additional assets, Priority

Artificial Reefs cause huge environmental damage

Bowerman, no date (Todd, "The Disadvantages of artificial coral reefs",
animals.pawnation.com/disadvantages-artificial-coral-reefs-7638.html, 7/1/14, CH)
While some substances make excellent artificial reefs, scientists are divided on the
use of certain materials for the creation of these underwater habitats. Heavy
metals, often found in ships sunk for the sake of reef creation, contain toxic
materials that can slowly creep into the environment and cause damage to
the existing wildlife population. Even materials that have been thoroughly

checked and cleaned may cause unforeseen problems when introduced

into a delicate environment.

Artificial reefs dont have a good track record

TS Lane, 10,( 1/15, dicover5ocean, "Artificial Reefs: The Good, The Bad, The

Controversial", www.discover5oceans.com/2010/01/artificial-reefs-the-good-the-badthe-controversial/, 7/1/14, aven)

Articial reef initiatives arent always successful, however, and the practice
has critics. According to the Surfrider Foundation a 10-year experimental
project at El Segundo near Los Angeles failed to produce desired outcomes
and is now being removed. Washington-based Ocean Conservancy suggests that
while some projects may benefit some species of fish, others represent an
inexpensive way to dispose of trash, which can introduce toxins and other pollutants
into the ocean. Although most artificial reefs ofer potential habitat for certain
kinds of marine life, these are not always happy homes. Artificial reefs can cause
damage to natural habitats during their construction and can displace naturally
occurring species and habitats, says the Ocean Conservancy web site. They also
tend to concentrate fish unnaturally, making them more vulnerable to overfishing.

Artifical Reefs harm ocean life

TS Lane, 10,( 1/15, dicover5ocean, "Artificial Reefs: The Good, The Bad, The

Controversial", www.discover5oceans.com/2010/01/artificial-reefs-the-good-the-badthe-controversial/, 7/1/14, aven)

Articial reef initiatives arent always successful, however, and the practice has
critics. According to the Surfrider Foundation a 10-year experimental project at El
Segundo near Los Angeles failed to produce desired outcomes and is now being
removed. Washington-based Ocean Conservancy suggests that while some projects
may benefit some species of fish, others represent an inexpensive way to
dispose of trash, which can introduce toxins and other pollutants into the
ocean. Although most artificial reefs offer potential habitat for certain
kinds of marine life, these are not always happy homes. Artificial reefs can
cause damage to natural habitats during their construction and can
displace naturally occurring species and habitats, says the Ocean
Conservancy web site. They also tend to concentrate fish unnaturally,
making them more vulnerable to overfishing.

The benefits of artificial reefs are limited

Bohnsack, fisheries scientist, 14 (James, Georgia Strait Alliance, "
ARTIFICIAL REEFS & FISH HABITAT: WHAT THE EXPERTS SAY",
https://www.georgiastrait.org/?q=node/604, 7/1/14,aven)

Dr. James Bohnsack, a Florida fisheries scientist, has said: "...little direct
scientific evidence exists to properly guide building efforts and show longterm beneficial or detrimental impacts", and that he is "concerned about
the current US practice of relaying on "materials of convenience" [ie. old
ships], especially considering that Japan has rejected this approach and

has spent over $100 million annually since 1976 for reef construction and
research. He has expressed worry that "the enthusiasm for artificial reefs
could draw attention away from possibly more beneficial fishery
management actions such as enhancing or preserving existing estuaries
and other natural habitats."

Alt cause
Aff does not solve Conservation, sustainable use, and
recognition of Values solves
UNEP, 2007
(UNEP, No Date, "Biodiversity", http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf, SJ)

Reducing the rate of biodiversity loss will require multiple and mutually
supportive policies of conservation and sustainable use, and the
recognition of biodiversity values. New policies of integrated landscape and
watershed management and sustainable use the ecosystem approach can be
effective in reducing biodiversity loss (see Box 4.9). In recent years, legal structures such as
biodiversity easements and payments for biodiversity services have been
developed to use market mechanisms to provide additional financial resources, and new
markets for biodiversity-friendly products are developing new options for producers.
These present new opportunities to recognize and mainstream the value of biodiversity, and
can address many of the drivers of biodiversity loss. With a supportive policy framework,
such changes will initiate market and behavioural corrections that will
move society towards increased sustainability. Although they only make up a small fraction
of total market share, organic and sustainably produced agricultural products, such as bird-friendly cofee and
cocoa, are clear examples of this. However, each of these attempts also has to be cost-efective in the local or
global marketplace, and comply with other obligations, such as international trade rules, which often remain
perversely disconnected from environmental needs and policies

Coral Reefs are dying due to disease

NOAA 2008
(NOAA, 3/25/08, Coral Diseases,
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral10_disease.html, 7/1/14,
AG)
The frequency of coral diseases has increased significantly over the last
10 years, causing widespread mortality among reef-building corals. Many
scientists believe the increase is related to deteriorating water quality
associated with human-made pollutants and increased sea surface temperatures.
These factors may allow for the proliferation and colonization of microbes.
However, exact causes for coral diseases remain elusive. The onset of most
diseases likely is a response to multiple factors

MPA CP
[insert plan text w/re-enforcing MPAs]
Planned net bens- econ, politics

A better placement and enforcements of MPAs have the ability

to solve the affs issues.
Jameson, Coral Seas Inc Integrated Coastal Zone Management, 02
(Stephen, Mark Tupper, University of Guam Marine Laboratory, Jonathon Riddley,
Enterplan Limited, 2002, Marine Pollution Bulletin, The three screen doors: Can
marine protected areas be efective?, 6/27/14, AEG)
The great majority of marine protected areas (MPAs) fail to meet their
management objectives. So MPAs can be effective conservation tools, we
recommend two paradigm shifts, the first related to how they are located
and the second related to how they are managed. MPAs are unlikely to
be effective if they are located in areas that are subject to numerous, and
often uncontrollable, external stressors from atmospheric, terrestrial, and
oceanic sources, all of which can degrade the environment and compromise
protection. MPA effectiveness is also limited by low institutional and
community capacity for management and inappropriate size with respect
to ecological needs. In particular, the check list approach to management does not ensure that key
threats are dealt with, or that management expenditures provide a quantifiable return. We recommend a business
planning approach to MPA management, in which managers focus on the viability of the management system, i.e.
the ability of the MPA to provide ecological goods and services to its target users over the long term.

Florida CP

Solvency
Florida is Key-Only US state with Large Coral Reefs
Florida Department of Environmental Protection 11
(No author, 7/19/2011, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Florida's
Coral Reefs," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14, AF)
Florida is the only state in the continental United States to have extensive
shallow coral reef formations near its coasts. Coral reefs create specialized habitats that

provide shelter, food and breeding sites for numerous plants and animals, including spiny lobster, snapper and
other commercial and recreational species. Coral reefs lay the foundation of a dynamic ecosystem with tremendous

The Florida Reef Tract (FRT) stretches 358 miles from the Dry
Tortugas National Park off of the Florida Keys to the St. Lucie Inlet in
Martin County. Roughly two thirds of the Florida Reef Tract lies within the
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), a marine protected area that surrounds
the Florida Keys island chain. The reefs stretching north of the FKNMS are managed
by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection's (DEP) Coral Reef
Conservation Program (CRCP) and the Southeast Florida Coral Reef
Initiative (SEFCRI), which is one of several programs administered by the
CRCP. Florida's coral reefs came into existence 5,000 to 7,000 years ago when sea levels rose following the last
biodiversity.

Ice Age. Reef growth is relatively slow; an individual colony may grow one-half inch to 7 inches a year, depending
on the species. All coral reefs are in a constant state of flux. While expanding with new polyps (the living tissue) on
the outer surface, they are simultaneously being ground into sand by storms and animals. During long periods of
favorable conditions, the reefs may reach awe-inspiring heights and diversity. Corals are classified as animals, yet
microscopic plants live within the animal tissues in a symbiotic relationship. The coral animals benefit from the
sugars and oxygen that the plants provide through photosynthesis and the plants gain nutrients from animal waste
and are protected within the coral tissues. These tiny plants give the coral much of its color. Coral reef development
occurs only in areas with specific environmental characteristics: a solid structure for attachment, relatively warm
water temperatures, clear waters low in phosphate and nitrogen nutrients, and moderate wave action to disperse
wastes and bring oxygen and plankton to the reef. Most of Florida's sport fish species and many other marine
animals spend significant parts of their lives around coral reefs.

Florida is Key-Only state with Effective Program

Florida Department of Environmental Protection 14

(No author, 5/8/14, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Coral Reef

Conservation Program," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14,
AF)
In 2000, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) adopted a National Action Plan to conserve coral reefs. With

the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and

the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission coordinated the
formation of a team of interagency and non-agency marine resource
professionals, scientists, resource users and other stakeholders. This
team, known as the Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI) Team,
first gathered in May 2003 to develop local action strategies targeting
coral reefs and associated reef resources from Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Martin
counties to improve the coordination of technical and financial support for
the conservation and management of coral reefs. SEFCRI is targeting this region because
guidance from the USCRTF,

the coral habitats are close to shore and co-exist with intensely urbanized areas that lack a coordinated

The SEFCRI Team is

comprised of four focus teams, each responsible for addressing one of the
four focus areas of concern: Awareness and Appreciation Fishing, Diving,
and Other Uses Land-Based Sources of Pollution and Water Quality
management plan (like that of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary).

Maritime Industry and Coastal Construction Impacts The SEFCRI focus

teams have identified issues and threats to coral reefs and have
developed and are implementing Local Action Strategies (LAS) for their
component of the SEFCRI. This includes defining and revising goals,
objectives and actions, priority setting, budget development, building
implementation teams and tracking progress. Numerous stakeholders participated in the
development of Florida's LAS, using a facilitated process including public review and input. The outcome is
a coordinated plan to address causes of coral reef degradation and
provide a roadmap for successful conservation and management.

Florida has the best artificial reef programs and experienceover 2,700 artificial reefs
FFWCC n/a (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Artificial Reefs,
http://myfwc.com/conservation/saltwater/artificial-reefs/,accessed 6/29/14 SH)
Other reef building objectives undertaken in Florida, beyond the scope of the
FWC artificial reef program include mitigation or restoration reefs replacing hard
bottom habitat lost through such activities as beach re-nourishment, repair of reef
system damage caused by vessel groundings, substrate for the regeneration of
oyster reefs and protection of re-planted vegetated shorelines vulnerable to erosion
from wave activity. Florida has one of the most active artificial reef
programs among the 14 Gulf and Atlantic coastal states involved in
artificial reef development. The Florida artificial reef program is the only
state program that is not exclusively run at a state agency level where the
state holds all the reef area permits. Because of the extent of coastline and
statewide involvement in reef activities, the FWC program continues a
cooperative partnership with local coastal county governments. Today,
some local coastal cities, universities and qualified nonprofit corporations also work
directly with the FWC in artificial reef development and monitoring activities.
Thirty-four of Floridas 35 coastal counties spread along 8,426 miles of
tidal coastline (1,200 miles fronting the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean)
are, or have been, involved in artificial reef development. Starting in the
1940s through August 2012, more than 2,700 planned public artificial
reefs have been placed in state and federal waters off these counties.
Most of the artificial reef development has taken place since the inception
of the Florida Artificial Reef Program in 1982. Local coastal governments
hold all of the more than 300 active artificial reef permits off both Florida
coasts. About half of these sites are in federal waters. Fishing clubs, nonprofit
corporations and interested private individuals work through their local
governments as the liable permit holders to provide input into public reef building
activities.

Florida is already is doing the plan and it has already impacted

the economy to its ability- meaning they have no
inherency
Adams, professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, 11 (Chuck, Bill Lindberg,
associate professor, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department; John Stevely, Florida Sea Grant

marine extension agent, 2011, University Of Florida, The Economic Benefits Associated with Florida's
Artificial Reefs, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe649#FOOTNOTE_2, 6/28/14, AEG)
Florida reportedly
has the largest complement of permitted artificial reefs in the nation .

These reefs have been shown to be beneficial to the local economies. The
studies reviewed above show that artificial reefs do increase economic
activity in surrounding communities. Because artificial reefs are valued by users and
non-users alike and provide benefits that exceed costs, they may be an efective tool for redirecting
use away from natural reefs if such an management objective is required . Overall, artificial

reefs are a source of economic value that may justify additional

deployments, even after taking into account the opportunity costs
associated with scarce public funds.

Florida is Key-Only US state with Large Coral Reefs

No Author 11
(No author, 7/19/2011, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Florida's
Coral Reefs," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14, AF)
Florida is the only state in the continental United States to have extensive
shallow coral reef formations near its coasts. Coral reefs create specialized habitats that

provide shelter, food and breeding sites for numerous plants and animals, including spiny lobster, snapper and
other commercial and recreational species. Coral reefs lay the foundation of a dynamic ecosystem with tremendous

The Florida Reef Tract (FRT) stretches 358 miles from the Dry
Tortugas National Park off of the Florida Keys to the St. Lucie Inlet in
Martin County. Roughly two thirds of the Florida Reef Tract lies within the
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), a marine protected area that surrounds
the Florida Keys island chain. The reefs stretching north of the FKNMS are managed
by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection's (DEP) Coral Reef
Conservation Program (CRCP) and the Southeast Florida Coral Reef
Initiative (SEFCRI), which is one of several programs administered by the
CRCP. Florida's coral reefs came into existence 5,000 to 7,000 years ago when sea levels rose following the last
biodiversity.

Ice Age. Reef growth is relatively slow; an individual colony may grow one-half inch to 7 inches a year, depending
on the species. All coral reefs are in a constant state of flux. While expanding with new polyps (the living tissue) on
the outer surface, they are simultaneously being ground into sand by storms and animals. During long periods of
favorable conditions, the reefs may reach awe-inspiring heights and diversity. Corals are classified as animals, yet
microscopic plants live within the animal tissues in a symbiotic relationship. The coral animals benefit from the
sugars and oxygen that the plants provide through photosynthesis and the plants gain nutrients from animal waste
and are protected within the coral tissues. These tiny plants give the coral much of its color. Coral reef development
occurs only in areas with specific environmental characteristics: a solid structure for attachment, relatively warm
water temperatures, clear waters low in phosphate and nitrogen nutrients, and moderate wave action to disperse
wastes and bring oxygen and plankton to the reef. Most of Florida's sport fish species and many other marine
animals spend significant parts of their lives around coral reefs.

Florida is Key-Only state with Effective Program

No Author 11
(No author, 5/8/14, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Coral Reef
Conservation Program," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14,
AF)
In 2000, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) adopted a National Action Plan to conserve coral reefs. With

the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and

the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission coordinated the
formation of a team of interagency and non-agency marine resource
professionals, scientists, resource users and other stakeholders. This
guidance from the USCRTF,

team, known as the Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI) Team,
first gathered in May 2003 to develop local action strategies targeting
coral reefs and associated reef resources from Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Martin
counties to improve the coordination of technical and financial support for
the conservation and management of coral reefs. SEFCRI is targeting this region because
the coral habitats are close to shore and co-exist with intensely urbanized areas that lack a coordinated

The SEFCRI Team is

comprised of four focus teams, each responsible for addressing one of the
four focus areas of concern: Awareness and Appreciation Fishing, Diving,
and Other Uses Land-Based Sources of Pollution and Water Quality
Maritime Industry and Coastal Construction Impacts The SEFCRI focus
teams have identified issues and threats to coral reefs and have
developed and are implementing Local Action Strategies (LAS) for their
component of the SEFCRI. This includes defining and revising goals,
objectives and actions, priority setting, budget development, building
implementation teams and tracking progress. Numerous stakeholders participated in the
development of Florida's LAS, using a facilitated process including public review and input. The outcome is
a coordinated plan to address causes of coral reef degradation and
provide a roadmap for successful conservation and management.
management plan (like that of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary).

Plan Costs Money-Can go very High

Cesar 00
(Herman, 2000, Cordio, "Collected Essays on the Economics of Coral Reefs,"
www.mcatoolkit.org/pdf/Publications_and_Presentations/Pub_TZ_Collected_Essays.p
df, 6/29/14, AF)
This chapter provides an introduction to the economics of coral reef restoration. A comparison of coral
restoration schemes from four countries indicates that costs can vary from
some US$ 13,000 per ha to over a hundred million US$ per ha. However, it
also reveals that cost estimates in the literature are not readily
comparable, and that many cost components of restoration are ignored.
Little work has been conducted into the potential benefits of coral
restoration. This issue is briefly considered with reference to the case studies. The chapter suggests that a
benefitcost analysis approach should be used more often to help assess the justification for coral reef restoration
and to improve the efficiency of any such expenditure. It is clear that a greater understanding of the economics and
biology of coral reef restoration is required, as well as consideration of alternative management options, before
being able to determine with confidence whether coral reef restoration really is an efective use of available funds.

Operational costs will be highly variable depending on the nature of the scheme and site
specific factors. Few studies highlight and reveal the likely costs involved. However, Miller et al. do
provide an indication of costs for 25 different types of coral restoration
monitoring activities. Costs are shown to range from between US$ 5,000
100,000 for each activity although it is not clear as to how large an area these costs relate to.

Florida DA

Florida UQEconomy
Floridas economy high now, but will remain fragile
Florida Chamber of Commerce 13
(1/15/13, Florida Chamber of Commerce, FLORIDAS ECONOMY AND THE FISCAL
CLIFF, http://www.flchamber.com/floridas-economy-and-the-fiscal-clif/, 7/1/14, SM)
The Fiscal Clif and Floridas Future Economy While many analysts expect Congress and the White House to reach
an agreement on key provisions of the coming fiscal clif, the total efect of higher taxes and spending cuts pose
significant obstacles to Floridas economic growth in 2013. According to Dr. David Denslow, an economist at the
University of Florida, the combined efect of tax hikes and spending cuts would lead to job losses of up to 140,000

Florida could see a reduction a $16 billion in GSP

which is more than 2% of Floridas economy. The projected job losses from the fiscal clif in
2013 would be equivalent to over half of the jobs created over the last year. Currently, Florida is on track
for the highest level of economic output since 2008 but this recovery
remains fragile. Floridas economy needs hundreds of thousands new jobs to reach its pre-recession
employment level. Floridas economic growth and job creation will be temporarily
stunted in 2013 if the nation falls off the fiscal cliff. Reaching a compromise to avert the
by the end of 2013. In addition,

fiscal changes may help reduce economic risk and uncertainty, providing more stability for Florida businesses. At
the same time, policy makers will be pressed to consider the growing national debt as they craft a solution.

Floridas economy fragile

Blake, Reporter for Miami Today, 14
(Scott, 1/15/14, Miami Today, Floridas rebound from Great Recession strengthens,
http://www.miamitodaynews.com/2014/01/15/floridas-rebound-great-recessionstrengthens/, 7/1/14, SM)
Floridas economy is expected to continue to rebound in 2014 albeit very
fragilely from the Great Recession of 2008 and 2009. Although the housing market
has made significant progress, economists expect it will take many more years to
recover what was lost when the market collapsed. And unemployment rates have fallen
to their lowest levels since 2008 but, economists note, much of the drop is because many Floridians have stopped
looking for work and are no longer counted as unemployed. Forgive me if I do not raise a toast to the start of a
new phase of robust growth in the US economy that is here to stay: to a long-awaited period of actual recovery that
will lift all boats with its rising tide of prosperity, University of Central Florida economist Sean Snaith wrote recently
in his annual economic forecast. Ive seen this movie before and that is not what follows this current scene of
economic data reports, he added. I know the villain awaits us in 2014 and the uncertainty of
the Afordable Care Act, Dodd-Frank regulatory reform, and what path the Fed will follow as it unexpectedly took its
first step in its taper of of bond purchases in December are a cabal conspiring to suck out the wind that currently is
providing the economy with its lift. For starters, the housing market is expected to continue to strengthen from
what Mr. Snaith, director of the universitys Institute for Economic Competiveness, calls a deep and protracted
depression. Data shows that prices have risen significantly, inventories have fallen to low levels, and sales have
climbed. It has lifted many Floridians above water on their mortgages for the first time in years. It also has restored
billions of dollars in lost housing wealth, he noted, and has sent a signal to builders that more inventory is needed
as housing construction activity has increased. In the Miami-Fort Lauderdale-Pompano Beach metro area, housing
starts are expected to rise in 2014 for the fifth consecutive year after bottoming out in 2009. All these are

housing in Florida enters 2014

in a delicate condition as new regulations are set to kick in, interest rates are set to
indicators of a high grade housing market, Mr. Snaith wrote, yet

rise as the Fed has taken its first steps to tighten monetary policy, and the diminishing role of cash investors raises
questions about the sturdiness of Floridas housing recovery.

Florida k2 BioD
Endangered Species Located In the Florida Keys Reefs
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 12
(Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 5/02/12, Florida Department of
Environmental Protection, http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/sites/keys/info.htm,
6/29/14, TH)
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary contains one of North America's most
diverse assemblages of terrestrial, estuarine, and marine fauna and flora .
Formed by significant geological, physical, and biological processes, the area is one of the most
complex ecosystems on Earth, and includes mangrove-fringed shorelines, mangrove islands,

seagrass meadows, hardbottom habitats, thousands of patch reefs, and one of the world's largest coral reef tracts.
The Key's ecosystem supports a diverse assemblage of species, including commercially and recreationally

Fully one third of

Floridas endangered species call the coral reef ecosystem home for at least
important, unique to the area or spatially limited due to habitat constraints.
part of their lifespan.

Florida k2 Disease
Florida Reefs Key To Cure Diseases
Caron, NBC News, 12
(Christina, 4/20/12, NBC News,
http://dailynightly.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/04/20/11308813-doctors-develop-lifesaving-drugs-from-coral-reefs?lite, 6/29/14, TH)
the Florida Keys is a
magnet for tourists, but its not just a pretty view. The same chemistry that helps corals and sponges
survive is also helping people fight cancer. What were doing is taking advantage of that chemistry
and turning those chemicals into drugs to save lives, said Stephanie Wear, director of coral
reef conservation at the Nature Conservancy. Wear describes the reefs as the
"New York City" of the oceans, where everything is happening, because it is 400 to
600 times more likely to find a source for a drug in the ocean than on land
-- and the densely packed coral reefs are an even more plentiful source. But
KEY WEST -- The kaleidoscope of life in the coral reefs under the turquoise waters of

climate change and waterway pollution threaten the sea life that house these healing properties. The [coral reef]
population is diminished by about 90 percent across the Caribbean, said James Byrne, the marine science program
manager at the Nature Conservancy. With corals under siege, scientists at the Nature Conservancy have created
coral farms --- currently supporting more than 30,000 corals across Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands -- to
sustainably harvest the life-saving properties of the reef. Were taking these corals and growing them out in
nurseries just like a tree farm would and replanting them back on the reef and doing it in a way that were really

the Florida
Keys, scientists glue some of the corals to cinder blocks on the ocean floor, and hang others from a rope
maximizing that potential for reproduction in the future, said Byrne. In the clear waters of

resembling a laundry line, allowing them to float in the water. Eventually, they hope to put out up to 4,000 corals a

battle some of the worst diseases known to humankind: cancer,

leukemia, AIDS -- and perhaps even Lupus, Alzheimers, and Parkinsons.
year all to

Florida k2 Fishing
Florida reefs key to the fishing industry
Florida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef
Conservation Program, No Date

(Florida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef Conservation Program,

No Date,
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/programs/coral/reports/AA/AA_Project2_MediaKits.
pdf, 6/29/14, TH)
coral reefs drive an important
economic engine in southeast Florida. Reefs support a thriving tourism
industry, as well as recreational and commercial fisheries, and provide shoreline protection. The economic
In addition to supporting a diverse assortment of marine life,

benefits derived from coral reefs decline when reefs are negatively impacted by human activities. Recent studies

Florida's commercial fishing fleet brought in $180

million worth of seafood in 2002. Coral reef ecosystems provide nursery
habitat for important recreational and commercial fisheries2.
Recreational boating employs 110,000 people in Broward County and
nearly 7,000 people in Palm Beach County3. Each meter of reef is estimated to protect
have revealed the following:

$47,000 in property values by mitigating the efects of coastal erosion and storms4. It has further been estimated
that the cost of destroying 1 kilometer of coral reef ranges from $137,000 to over $1 million over a 25-year period
when taking into account the benefits derived from fisheries, shoreline protection and tourism5. Southeast Florida
reefs have the potential to provide many additional social benefits. Scientists are isolating and using fluorescent
proteins found in coral to study biological processes associated with AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and other
diseases6. Other coral compounds are being studied in an efort to develop medicines to combat serious diseases
like cancer. More recently, corals have been used for bone grafting7. Corals are also credited with removing, fixing
and recycling atmospheric carbon dioxide, excessive amounts of which contribute to global warming.

Florida k2 Tourism
Florida Reefs Key To Economy
Florida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef
Conservation Program, No Date

(Florida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef Conservation Program,

No Date,
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/programs/coral/reports/AA/AA_Project2_MediaKits.
pdf, 6/29/14, TH)
coral reefs drive an important
economic engine in southeast Florida. Reefs support a thriving tourism
industry, as well as recreational and commercial fisheries, and provide shoreline protection. The economic
In addition to supporting a diverse assortment of marine life,

benefits derived from coral reefs decline when reefs are negatively impacted by human activities. Recent studies

In southeast Florida, 28 million person-days are spent

using natural and artificial reefs annually1. (A person-day is defined as one person
participating in an activity for a portion or all of a day.) Reef-related expenditures generate
$1 billion in income to Broward County and sustain 36,000 jobs annually1.
Reef-related expenditures generate $614 million in income to MiamiDade County and sustain 19,000 jobs annually1. Reef-related
expenditures generate $194 million in income to Palm Beach County and
sustain 6,300 jobs annually1. Reef-related expenditures generate $5.8
million in income to Martin County and sustain 182 jobs annually2. Reefrelated expenditures generate nearly $4 billion dollars in sales in the
southeast Florida region annually1. Florida's commercial fishing fleet
brought in $180 million worth of seafood in 2002. Coral reef ecosystems
provide nursery habitat for important recreational and commercial
fisheries2. Recreational boating employs 110,000 people in Broward
County and nearly 7,000 people in Palm Beach County3. Each meter of reef is
have revealed the following:

estimated to protect $47,000 in property values by mitigating the efects of coastal erosion and storms4. It has
further been estimated that the cost of destroying 1 kilometer of coral reef ranges from $137,000 to over $1 million
over a 25-year period when taking into account the benefits derived from fisheries, shoreline protection and
tourism5. Southeast Florida reefs have the potential to provide many additional social benefits. Scientists are
isolating and using fluorescent proteins found in coral to study biological processes associated with AIDS,
Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and other diseases6. Other coral compounds are being studied in an efort to develop
medicines to combat serious diseases like cancer. More recently, corals have been used for bone grafting7. Corals
are also credited with removing, fixing and recycling atmospheric carbon dioxide, excessive amounts of which
contribute to global warming.

Florida k2 Panama

Florida k2 global trade

Development of Floridas ports key to Floridas global trade
Panama Canal expansion
Revello, Co-Publisher & Editor at FORWARD Florida, 14

(Susan, 4/5/14, Forward Florida, Panama Canal Expansion, Ripple Efect to Florida,
http://forwardflorida.com/florida-transportation/ripple-efect/, 7/1/14, SM)
Since the announcement of the Panama Canal expansion in 2006, shock waves have been felt by businesses and

At just 1,162 miles from

the Canal, Florida is sitting pretty in terms of direct benefits from the
expanded Canal, scheduled for completion in late 2015 (barring further delays). The Florida
peninsula is the only state to directly border the Atlantic Ocean and the
Gulf of Mexico. Port Miami is the first port of call and, on the Gulf side,
Port Manatee and Port Tampa Bay are also gearing up. Simply put, Florida
ports are the closest to the Panama Canal. And all 15 ports are looking at
economic ripple effects, whether direct or indirect from the increased
cargo via the Canal. PortMiami will be the first Florida port to reach a depth of 50 feet. Port Miami will
ports around the world of the economic opportunities this portends for trade.

be the first Florida port to reach a depth of 50 feet. The expansion, started in 2007, has given new meaning to the
term deep water ports. The massive $5.25 billion (and growing) construction project entails the addition of a third
set of locks for the 50-mile Canal that links the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, essentially doubling its capacity.
Accommodating a larger sized vessel known as New Panamax, the ramifications for global trade are staggering.
(Diferent terms have been used to describe the size of these new ships; for official terminology see chart below.)
Evolution of Container Ships Evolution of Container Ships Given the lack of federal funds for ports in recent years,

Florida has stepped up under the leadership of Gov. Rick Scott, and the
state is taking care of business when it comes to its infrastructure and
especially seaports. As a businessman, Gov. Scott saw the value of this type of investment and the

return on investment that will be provided to the state in jobs and revenue, says Doug Wheeler, president and CEO
of the Florida Ports Council. He adds, The

level of investment is unprecedented. In late

the governor announced $8.8 billion for the Florida Department of
Transportation in his 2014 budget, the largest amount designated for the FDOT in the states history. Of
that, nearly $139 million is going toward seaport infrastructure
improvements. This comes on the heels of last years $8.6 billion budget. The Department of
January

Transportation is much more than roads and bridges, says Florida Secretary of Transportation Ananth Prasad. It is
truly an economic development agency. Wheeler noted that most of the state funds are matched 50/50 by the
ports, which makes the investments even more impressive. He cites, for example, the Port Tampa Bay container
yard improvement project that received $10.4 million and was matched by the port, resulting in a total investment
of $20.8 million. Since the voters of Panama overwhelmingly voted (80 percent) to widen and deepen the 50-mile
Canal in 2006, the world has been watching, waiting and making preparations. Its a global eventtrade routes are
being scrutinized, larger ships are being ordered and built, and countries and ports are all competing for a share of
the bounty that will come from the enlarged Panama Canal. The project, now estimated at nearly $7 billion, will
encompass a new set of locksknown as Panamaxthat will allow ships of 1,400 feet in length, 180 feet in width
and 60 feet in depth to pass through. Current ships have a cargo capacity of 5,000 TEU, or twenty-foot equivalent
unit (a measure of cargo capacity). After the widening that number will increase to 13,000 TEU. The new vessels will
be able to carry 12,600 20-foot containers. While no one has a proverbial crystal ball when it comes to the ultimate

even if Florida does not capture as much new

trade as anticipated, it is still a win for the state. New infrastructure is
critical to economic development and even a small movement in cargo
from the Panama Canal will result in hundreds of millions of dollars. If the
economic impact from the expanded Canal,

ports did not dredge to deeper depths and upgrade, they would not be a player and by extension would be out of
the game entirely. In order to remain competitive, the same can be said for the Panama Canal. Just as so many
things in todays society have gotten bigger (Super Size Me mentality), so too, goes the way of shipping. In the
immortal words of Roy Scheider in the classic movie Jaws, Youre going to need a bigger boat. The Canal had to
expand in this era of extremely large ships. Back in 1914, the year the Canal opened, U.S. Navy ships narrowly fit
through the waterways. By 1996, three years before the U.S. handed control of the Canal back to Panama, fullfledged Post Panamax container ships were introduced. Applying the principle of economies of scale to maritime

transportation: the larger the ship, the lower the cost per unit transported. The larger container ships are already
navigating the Suez Canal. You cant say unequivocally if you go to 50 feet youre going to get all this business
from the Canal. But I can assure you that if you dont go to 50 feet, you will definitely not get the business, says
Wheeler. He sees the investment in the states port infrastructures as keeping Florida competitive and viable in the
new wave of supersized container vessels. DRILLING FOR DOLLARS

PortMiami is undergoing a

$2 billion expansion and improvement. The dredging of the channel entrance from 42 feet to
50 feet began in January. Scott provided $112.5 million for the $220 million, 18-month dredging project.
Panamanian President Ricardo Martinelli visited Miami last November and advised ports along the East Coast to
follow Miamis lead and dredge to 50 feet or become irrelevant. The countdown is on! The Panama Canal project
is two-thirds completed. A wider and deeper Canal means shippers will have new options for all water routes from
Asia to markets on the East Coast, says Bill Johnson, director of PortMiami. PortMiami,

the first U.S.

port of call from Panama, is well positioned to benefit from the new trade
opportunities. PortMiami will be the only port south of Norfolk, Va., at the required 50 feet depth to
accommodate the new generation of larger cargo vessels. MAKING WAVES Most massive construction projects
have encountered difficulties and the Panama Canal is no exception. Given that the original Canal took nearly 32
years to build, from conception to completion, this project has hit a $1.6 billion bump in the road. The original
opening was to coincide with the Canals Centennial celebration this summer. However, it has been pushed back to
late 2015. Currently there are concerns the opening may be pushed back further due to a dispute between the
consortium contracted for the work and the Panama Canal Authority (PCA). While it has been reported problems
arose in 2010, the dispute went public in January. The Grupo Unidos Por el Canal (GUPC) is led by Spains Sacyr SA
and Italys Impreglio. A $1.6 billion cost overrun has landed both parties in arbitration. A key issue is whether the
two sides can work it out or whether the project will be completed by another consortium. There have been
conflicting media reports about the work slowing down or being stopped outright. PCA feels the consortium
purposefully underbid ($1 billion lower than U.S. firm Bechtel). Meanwhile the consortium blames problems on
studies by Panama before work began, resulting in excavation problems in getting the basalt it requires to make its
cement. Cement is a very important material as the expansion will require 4.3 million cubic meters of concrete.
Panama has the resources and will finish work by 2015, regardless of what happensrain, thunder or lightning,
Panamian President Martinelli said at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, in January. With the world
watching, most officials are confident the project will be completed in 2015. Prasad and others noted that much of
the construction has already occurred. LOCATION Any company in the world is going to seek the cheapest route
for product distribution. Getting from Point A to Point B in the most cost-efficient method will always be the guiding
principle. Ships being able to sail to Florida from Asia via the Panama Canal, instead of embarking at West Coast
U.S. ports and then spending money on inland transit, will be less expensive. U.S. importers may also look to the
Panama Canal versus the Suez Canal for time-saving, shorter routes. Companies that will benefit are those that
move goods from Asia to the U.S. Copenhagen-based A.P. Moeller-Maersk, the worlds biggest container-shipping
company, and Beijing-based China Ocean Shipping Group Co. are prime examples. Transportation companies may
be able to cut transport costs as much as 30 percent by sending bigger ships through the Panama Canal. Ninety
percent of goods that come to Florida arrive by water. In only 48 hours goods can arrive to any destination on the
East Coast and the Midwest. Florida is also gaining in population and is expected to surpass New York this year as
the third most populous state. (See Page 10.) There are more than 19 million consumers in the Sunshine State.
While California is No. 1 in population at 38 million, its West Coast ports are aware of the potential ramifications of
the Panama Canal expansion. It has been reported that in Los Angeles, the busiest container port in the U.S.,
officials are spending $1 million per day to improve infrastructure and defend their market share. ENERGY
MARKET Another important feature of the Panama Canal expansion is the ability to export U.S. natural gas and
crude oil to markets in Asia. The latest data shows that the U.S. is the worlds biggest producer of natural gas. U.S.
natural gas is inexpensive when used domestically, but it must be frozen and liquefied to be piped onto tankers for
global export. Without the Canal expansion, U.S. tankers would have to pass the Cape of Horn at the southern end
of South America to reach Asian markets. In addition to being a longer route, it is also significantly more expensive.
Currently only about 6 percent of the worlds LNG (liquified natural gas) tankers can pass through the Canal. After
the expansion, it will accommodate about 90 percent of the tankers. Placed into service in 2002, the 745-mile
Gulfstream pipeline originates in Mississippi, continues to Codena fishing village near Mobile Bay, Ala.and runs
natural gas under the Gulf of Mexico to the sea at Port Manatee. Air Products opened a manufacturing facility
adjacent to Port Manatee in January. The 32-acre site next to the port will cut transportation costs as it is just one
mile from the plant to the port docks. The companys proprietary technology processes and cryogenically liquefies
natural gas. Clean Energy Fuels opened the first LNG fueling station in Jacksonville, where it will supply maritime
vessels and heavy duty trucks and trains. One of Jaxports goals is to become a leader in liquefied natural gas, and
it will also be dredging the St. Johns River Channel to 47 feet to accommodate larger cargo ships. MADE IN
FLORIDA In addition to preparing for new larger ships, Florida is also focusing on increased manufacturing. We
saw a lot of cargo ships leaving empty, so we rolled in manufacturing opportunities for the state, says Prasad. On
a recent trade mission to Panama, Secretary of Agriculture Adam Putnam was working on an agriculture deal with
the Panamanians to export blueberries and strawberries. Putnam wants Florida farmers to take advantage of an
influx of new ships to Florida ports by putting their fruit on the outbound freighters. Manny Mencia, senior vice
president of international trade and business development for Enterprise Florida, feels energized when it comes to
manufacturing. He believes Florida has a tremendous infrastructure to support the international business: Weve
been one of the fastest growing exporters in the nation as an origin export. He also touted an Enterprise Florida
program that helps Florida companies with export diversification to identify second and third export markets.
Wheeler would love to see companies relocate to the state that can take advantage of the improved infrastructure.

So bring a company to Florida that wants to manufacture a product that needs to utilize an airport in order to get a
component in, put the piece together and then put it on a ship and send it to China. Lets attract businesses that
need to use our ports and airports, he says. Beginning in April, the state senate approved the governors initiative
to provide Florida manufacturers with an exemption on sales taxes on new machinery and equipment bought for
use in their factories. WATERS EDGE While the depth of water is critical to accommodate the bigger ships, there
also remains all the infrastructure requirements to offload cargo, transport and store, and distribute. PortMiami has
invested $39 million from the state and county to purchase four Super Post-Panamax cranes with the capacity to
handle the new class of megaships with a cargo capacity of more than 10,000 TEUs. PortMiamis nearly $1 billion
tunnel project (120 feet below sea level) is also in the works and expected to be complete this May. It will allow
trucks to bypass downtown Miami, resulting in twice the traffic capacity to the port. Port Manatee has extended
berth capacity and container storage space. Within the next 10 to 15 years, the port plans to develop its north side
as a draw for additional container shipments. Port Tampa Bay has been preparing for Canal-borne cargo, including
the construction of a new container terminal and the purchase of Post-Panamax cranes. Port Canaveral also
continues to develop expansion plans. In addition, seaports are teaming up with private partners and regional
governments, as well as the state, and building ramps and access roads, overpasses and underpasses, rail linkages,
and intermodal container transfer facilities and logistics centers. There are things we can be doing on the land
side that make shipping to the East Coast more attractive, whether you go through the Panama Canal or the Suez
Canal than perhaps going to a South American country or the West Coast, says Wheeler. (See Page 32 for coverage
of inland ports.) Flying under the flag of Panama, the MSC SAMANTHA container ship lists Port Tampa Bay among
its destinations. Photo: Port Tampa Bay Flying under the flag of Panama, the MSC SAMANTHA container ship lists
Port Tampa Bay among its destinations. Photo: Port Tampa Bay RISING TIDE Ultimately when it comes to
infrastructure, by virtue of its definition, it is all connected. I have to thank my boss, Gov. Scott, for

recognizing the role infrastructure plays in the vision for our state and its
overall role in economic development, notes Prasad. With that said, while the Panama
Canal expansion represents a huge opportunity for Florida to increase its
global trade, considering that Florida seaports currently generate 550,000
direct and indirect jobs and contribute $96 billion in economic value to the
state through cargo and cruise activities, its already a healthy sector. Florida
maritime activities account for approximately 13 percent of Floridas
Gross Domestic Product. When you factor in that a recent DOT study confirmed a
return on investment of $7 for every $1 invested in port infrastructure ,
according to Wheeler, its not only smart business but a very safe bet for the future. The European explorers who
discovered the Americas came by sea to our shores looking for gold. Today, more than 500 years later, we are
looking once again to the ocean to seek our own share of riches.

Expansion of the ports will boost Floridas economyjobs and tax

revenue
Turner, Reporter for the News Service of Florida, 14
(Jim, 5/19/14, Florida Today, PortMiami tunnel sets stage for Florida projects,
http://www.floridatoday.com/story/news/local/2014/05/19/portmiami-tunnel-setsstage-florida-projects/9311021/, 7/1/14, SM)
TALLAHASSEE Gov. Rick Scott on Monday celebrated the soon-to-open, $915 million PortMiami tunnel.
And when the new state budget arrives on his desk, Scott will get to decide on spending $139 million more over the

tied to expanding
global trade and attracting the larger cargo ships expected to traverse a
widened Panama Canal has been packaged at more than $117 million for the fourth consecutive
next year to continue the rush to upgrade Floridas seaports. The port funding

year. The proposed funding would go to about 20 port projects, including $15 million for a gantry crane at Port
Tampa Bay; $9.75 million for a new cruise terminal at Port Canaveral; and $2.6 million for a revamp of Port of
Jacksonville's Blount Island marine terminal. In a prepared statement following the tunnel ceremony, Scott said
investing in our ports is key to our success in creating jobs . However, his office
wasnt ready Monday to say that any of the proposed port funding approved by lawmakers this spring is safe from
the veto pen. Legislative leaders have not yet sent the proposed 2014-15 budget to Scott for his signature and
vetoes. Governor Scott has made investments in Floridas ports a top priority for growing jobs for Florida families
and looks forward to reviewing the budget once it reaches his desk, stated John Tupps, a spokesman for Scott, in

Florida has been

in a race against other east coast states to deepen harbors and improve
dockside facilities, with seaport funding jumping from $8 million in 2008 to $117 million in 2011, reaching
nearly $288 million in the current year. Florida Ports Council spokeswoman Jennifer Davis called the money
an email. Using the scheduled 2015 completion of the Panama Canal work as a catalyst,

another critical step in making Floridas infrastructure competitive in the

global marketplace. The fact is that our geography and built-in consumer
market are unique assets that are attractive to global business leaders ,
Davis said in an email Monday. However, building the transportation infrastructure they
need is the final piece that will make Florida a global hub for commerce .
During media interviews Monday morning, the governor continued to highlight the need to improve the states
seaports and transportation infrastructure. Its going to put us on the map, Scott said of the PortMiami work
during an appearance on WFOR in Miami. Well be dredged to 50 feet, the only port south of Virginia. But the most
important thing, it will create more jobs. The state- and locally-funded tunnel, which could open to the public by
the end of the month, is designed to speed trucks and passenger vehicles on an alternative bay crossing between
the port and the MacArthur Causeway, providing a direct connection to Miami International Airport and Interstate

the tunnel and an ongoing $220 million dredging to deepen the channel and harbor from 42
will bring an additional 33,000 jobs and $34 billion annual
impact from the port. Hopeful of an eventual federal repayment, Scott directed $77 million from the
95. Scott said

feet to 52 feet,

Florida Department of Transportations work plan to the dredging in 2011, with the states contribution eventually
growing to $112.5 million. Miami-Dade County covered the rest of the work. Scott also used the tunnel opening to
repeatedly criticize his potential Democratic gubernatorial challenger, former Republican Gov. Charlie Crist. This is
something that Jeb Bush pushed, it had a big priority, Charlie Crist didnt, so it slowed down and we lost some jobs,
Scott said on WFOR. But were back on track. Similar comments were repeated in other interviews. The project
actually has been on the board for more than 30 years, getting approved to proceed in October 2009, a little more
than two years before the massive tunnel work began. However, improving the ports across Florida has grown in
importance since Scott took office, with the Florida Chamber of Commerce's 2010 report, Florida Trade and

the state
has a once in a generation opportunity to add 143,000 port-related jobs
while boosting port business by $21.5 billion and tax revenue by $723
million a year. We believe we can create 150,000 new high paying jobs over
the next five years by simply doubling our exports from Florida , Mark Wilson,
Logistics Study, serving as the blueprint for the governor and state lawmakers. The report declared

president and CEO of the Florida Chamber of Commerce, told the state Cabinet last week.

Florida k2 Economy
Florida has a large economykey to US economy
Florida Chamber of Commerce 14
(6/16/14, Florida Chamber of Commerce, DID YOU KNOW: FLORIDAS ECONOMY IS
AN $800 BILLION POWERHOUSE, http://www.flchamber.com/article/know-floridaseconomy-800-billion-powerhouse/, 7/1/14, SM)
Did you know? Floridas economy is an $800 billion powerhouse . If the Sunshine
State was a country, Floridas economy would be the 18th largest in the
world larger than Saudi Arabia, Poland, Chile and Argentina . Floridas economy

can be measured any number of ways. From employment and unemployment rates to education rankings and
income metrics- there are a number of ways to examine how Florida is moving toward a prosperous future. One
important economic measure we will focus on in this Scorecard Did You Know is Floridas gross domestic product
(GDP). Floridas GDP is the measure of all economic activity within the state. It is calculated as the sum of all value
added by industries in the state. All of Floridas economic activity from production to consumption is calculated
and reported in dollars. The official GDP figures for all 50 states for 2013 have just been released by the Bureau of

Floridas
economy passed the $800 billion mark for the first time a 4.1 percent
growth rate from 2012. Throughout the past three years, the economy in Florida has
grown a total of 9.9 percent, from $728 billion to its current level. The 2013 numbers rank
Florida number four in size (behind California, Texas and New York). What
Economic Analysis, and the results show sunnier skies for the Sunshine State. For 2013,

does this mean? Floridas thriving economy continues to diversify and as such, helps fuel the production of goods
and services. Moreover, a growth like that also means more jobs are being created, more Floridians are getting back
to work and Floridas business climate continues to be one of the most business friendly climates in the nation.
Almost four years ago, Florida had more than 11 percent unemployment, lost 830,000 jobs and added $5.2 billion in
debt. Now we can appreciate the

three years.

more than $70 billion in economic growth in the past

Mexico CP
(Mexico key to artificial reefs?)- Mexico already has artificial
reef tech/ building experience

Fikes, Staff Scientist at the National Wildlife Federation, 13 (Ryan,

November 2013, NFW, Artificial Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico:
A Review of Gulf State Programs & Key Considerations,
http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Water/Review-of-GoM-Artificial-Reefs-Report.pdf,
6/27/14, AEG& 6/28/14 SH)
There are many different types of natural
occurring reefs within the Gulf of Mexico, but the natural bottom of the
Northern Gulf of Mexico is predominately flat sand. Outside of a few,
ecologicallyimportant coral reefs of the Florida coast and the Texas/Louisiana
border, the Gulfs natural nearshore reefs are primarily shallow carbonate
banks of scattered boulders rather than discrete reef complexes. The
Gulfs estuaries are also home to reef complexes, primarily oyster reefs
which provide nursery habitat for fish and other wildlife, protection from
predators, water filtration, and reduced erosion. In addition, oyster reefs
have significant economic impacts, including commercial fishing and
indirect contributions to Gulf Coast tourism. The Gulf of Mexico accounts for
approximately 67% of the nations total oyster harvest. Unfortunately, the
estuaries of the Northern Gulf of Mexico are believed to have lost well over
half of their historic oyster reefs, primarily a result of overharvesting by
means of destructive dredging practices and habitat degradation,
including reductions in water quality and quantity. Additional types of natural
reefs found in Gulf estuaries are serpulid (calcareous) reefs in Texas and fragmented
coral reefs in bays of Florida leading to the Florida Keys coral archipelago. Serpulid
reefs were formed from the calcareous tubes of serpulid worms in hypersaline bays
such as Baffin Bay in Texas. Formation of the reefs began about 3,000 years
ago and ended about 300 years ago, so degradation of these reefs
contributes to the loss of hard substrate in the system. Florida reefs face
threats from coral bleaching events and outbreaks of various coral
diseases. 4 | Page All five Gulf States have implemented artificial reef
programs that aim to supplement the Gulfs natural reef habitats.
According to William Seaman, Jr. (2000) an artificial reef is defined as "one or more
objects of natural or human origin deployed purposefully on the sea floor to
influence physical, biological, or socioeconomic processes related to living marine
resources." Nearshore artificial reefs can be created that will develop
communities of encrusting organisms and bait fish over time. As various
encrusting organisms such as corals and sponges cover the artificial reef
material, small animals take up residence. As these small animals become
abundant larger animals are attracted and feed upon these, and so on until
a reef food web is created. Energy is able to then provide biological
growth potential that provides additional protective habitat, as well as
sustenance for fish species. Some experts believe that artificial reefs can
function comparably to natural reef communities. Others argue that artificial reefs

merely attract existing fish from the adjacent open water habitat, forming more
dense fish aggregations

Mexico has more experience in building artificial reefssuccessful projects in Isla Mujeres
Romano & Provenzani, GUE, N/A (Global Underwater Explorers, GUE collaborates with a wide
range of governmental and non-governmental organizations to explore and protect the aquatic realm,

Artificial Reefs, https://www.globalunderwaterexplorers.org/artificial-reefs, 6/27/14,

AEG& 6/28/14SH)
A good example of a well-designed, well-planned, and well-executed
artificial reef can be found in the National Marine Park of Isla Mujeres in
Mexico. This national park was established in 1996 in the Caribbean marine area
delimited by Cancun, Isla Mujeres and Puerto Morelos in the southern state of
Quintana Roo. The reef (so far) consists of two decommissioned minesweepers,
gifted to the park by the Secreteria de Marina Armada de Mexico (SM-AM). These
are the C-58 Anaya and C-55 Juan de la Barrera. The vessels, each 60 feet long
and of 1,000-ton displacement, were sunk at a depth of 83 feet/25 meters
on May 28 and October 25, 2000, respectively. The park management
decided to use the artificial reef strategy to try and protect its coralline
barrier because of the important ecological and tourist value it offers.
Future plans by the parks monitoring project include the sinking of several
additional structures to provide further building blocks for new marine
ecosystems. These will be strategically placed around the marine park
area to create alternative diving sites for the burgeoning scuba industry
and to reduce the environmental impact caused by scuba diving activities
on natural marine ecosystems.

Australia CP

Australia is one of the leaders in coral reef preservationsuccessful on going preservation programs

ACF n/a (Australian Conservation Foundation, Conserving the Great Barrier Reef,
http://www.acfonline.org.au/about-us/our-success-stories/conserving-great-barrier,
accessed 6/29/14 SH)
Despite being such an extraordinary, irreplaceable natural resource, the
Reef is constantly at risk. Over the past 40 years, ACF has worked to
conserve this unique ecosystem and protect it from the threat of
petroleum extraction, limestone mining, overfishing and trawling . Perhaps our
greatest success was influencing the expansion of the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park in 2003 and 2004. Over 3500 dedicated submissions from our
supporters to the Marine Park Authority saw environmentally protected
areas of the Reef increase from 5 per cent to one third of its expanse . We
pushed for the formation of a single body to oversee the reef, which resulted in the
establishment of the National Park and the Maritime Authority. With the support
of the community we advocated for World Heritage Listing for the Reef, which was
achieved in 1983 after an extensive media campaign. Today, the Reef faces ongoing challenges
such as coral bleaching, caused by increases in water temperature linked to global warming. Melting sea ice and
climbing global temperatures pose a real and pronounced threat to the viability of this national treasure. We stand
for the Great Barriers ongoing preservation, so future generations can appreciate the diversity of life that flourishes
in the Reef.

Politics Links
Opposition to coral reef preservationeconomic consequenceshistory proves

Nielson et al, Northwest territory manager at Western Marine

Insurance Services, 08

(John, David Malakof, 5/23/08, NPR, Bush Eyes Unprecedented Conservation

Program, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90766237,
6/29/14, SM)
Local Hurdles There is already opposition to several of the potential reserves. This month,
Republican Sen. David Vitter of Louisiana said he didn't like the plan to
protect corals in the Gulf of Mexico, arguing that the economic consequences are
"potentially grave," particularly for the fishing industry . Members of Congress from
states along the Gulf also floated, and then withdrew, legislative language that would have prevented the

local politicians and

commercial interests also are voicing opposition to a Marianas Trench monument. "We
government from spending money to establish the monument. Out in the Pacific,

don't even have a voting member in Congress, and we've got the president of the U.S., who basically could slam
the door on any future potential that is there," says John Gourley, an environmental consultant on the island of
Saipan, who has worked for the fishing industry. "[We] should be able to use these resources in an environmentally
sensitive manner." A decision on the initiative could come within a month.

Plan unpopular with Sen. Vitter and Rep. Hastingsbased on

false science
US Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works 13

(6/14/13, US Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, Vitter, Hastings

Ask National Marine Fisheries Service to Start Over on Corals Proposal,
http://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?
FuseAction=PressRoom.PressReleases&ContentRecord_id=43ef626a-f1d1-97199da9-2d2f7b3e8b20, 6/29/14, SM)
Today, U.S. Sen. David Vitter (R-LA), top Republican on the Senate
Environment and Public Works Committee, and U.S. Rep. Doc Hastings (RWA-04), Chairman of the House Committee on Natural Resources, urged
the Administration to start over on their proposal to list 66 coral species
as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). In a
letter to Dr. Kathryn Sullivan, Acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and Acting NOAA

cite concerns for the scope and analyses behind the recent
proposal and say it will lead to unprecedented regulatory authority over
oceans. "This proposal appears designed more to respond to far-left
environmentalists' concerns coming from closed-door settlements than it
does to ensure it is based on sound science," Vitter said. "The proposed listing
relies on highly questionable modeling that attempts to predict ocean
temperatures more than 50 years from now. I'd like to see someone tell us with a straight
Administrator, they

face that listing dozens of species covering millions of ocean miles based on predictions for five decades from now
is in the name of science." "Like the Interior Department's closed-door ESA settlements with litigious groups to list

NOAA's sweeping coral listing proposal appears

rushed and focused on meeting settlement demands rather than being
based on real data or science," said Chairman Hastings. "A regulatory proposal afecting nearly
potentially hundreds of species,

60,000 miles of coastline and over 40 million square ocean miles of U.S. and other coastal areas could cause vast
economic and energy impacts, and must be carefully scrutinized."

Plan unpopular with GOPhistory proves

Mulvaney 08

(Timothy M., Water Log, Republican Senators Halt President Bushs Plan for Marine
Sanctuaries in Gulf, http://masgc.org/assets/uploads/publications/326/08-00303.pdf, 6/29/14, SM)
Background In July of 2006, President Bush signed a proclamation protecting over 140,000 square miles of the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and the surrounding waters. Environmentalists hoped that President Bushs
initiative in protecting the waters of Hawaii could serve as a model for increased marine conservation programs.

A plan for a similar sanctuary in Gulf waters would restrict fishing and oil
drilling in certain deep-water reefs and coral banks that scientific
research shows are essential to the sustenance of the Gulfs marine
ecosystem. The proposal is known as Islands in the Stream, in light of the

biological links between submerged hard bottom features, or islands, that serve as bastions for marine life but
currently are managed in isolation. The islands are connected by the natural looping movement of water, or the
stream, in the Gulf. Certain links in this island chain lie of the coasts of Mexico and Belize, suggesting that
international partnerships could strengthen the preservation of any established sanctuary. Opposition Prevails for
the Present Time On November 7, 2008, William Causey, a southeast regional director for the National Marine

progress on the proposal had come

to a standstill.1Causey noted the intense opposition from the fishing
industry and GOP senators representing Gulf states. For example, in April,
Alabamas Republican senators, Richard Shelby and Jeffrey Sessions, as
well as Sen. David Vitter, R-La., advised the executive branch that they
strongly objected to the sanctuary proposal, in light of potential effects on
both fishing and the drilling industry. Opponents of the sanctuary suggest
that preserved areas could hold valuable oil and natural gas reserves. Sen.
Vitter has asserted that he would oppose any similar sanctuary proposal
by any future administration. Causey stressed that the protected areas would be small and the
Sanctuary Program organized under NOAA, announced that

measures would result in little or no change in existing fishing and extraction practices, particularly in light of some
prohibitions already in place.

Too many fights already happened over Obamas national

ocean policyplan causes similar opposition
Eilperin, Bachelors in Politics from Princeton, 12
(Juliet, 10/28/12, Washington Post, National ocean policy sparks partisan fight,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/national-ocean-policysparks-partisan-fight/2012/10/28/af73e464-17a7-11e2-a55c39408fbe6a4b_story.html, 6/29/14, SM)
Partisan battles are engulfing the nations ocean policy, showing that
polarization over environmental issues doesnt stop at the waters edge .
For years, ocean policy was the preserve of wonks. But President Obama created the first
national ocean policy, with a tiny White House staf, and with that set off some fierce
election-year fights. Conservative Republicans warn that the
administration is determined to expand its regulatory reach and curb the
extraction of valuable energy resources, while many Democrats, and their environmentalist

allies, argue that the policy will keep the ocean healthy and reduce conflicts over its use. The wrangling threatens
to overshadow a fundamental issue the countrys patchwork approach to managing ofshore waters. Twentyseven federal agencies, representing interests as diverse as farmers and shippers, have some role in governing the
oceans. Obamas July 2010 executive order set up a National Ocean Council, based at the White House, that is
designed to reconcile the competing interests of diferent agencies and ocean users. The policy is already having
an impact. The council, for example, is trying to broker a compromise among six federal agencies over the fate of
defunct ofshore oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico. Recreational fishermen want the rigs, which attract fish, to stay, but
some operators of commercial fishing trawlers consider them a hazard and want them removed. Still, activists
invoking the ocean policy to press for federal limits on traditional maritime interests are having little success. The
Center for Biological Diversity cited the policy as a reason to slow the speed of vessels traveling through national

marine sanctuaries of the California coast. Federal officials denied the petition. During a House Natural Resources
Committee hearing on ocean policy last year, the panels top Democrat, Rep. Edward J. Markey (Mass.), said that
opposing ocean planning is like opposing air traffic control: You can do it, but it will cause a mess or lead to dire
consequences. Rep. Steve Southerland II (R-Fla.), who is in a tight reelection race, retorted that the policy was
like air traffic control helping coordinate an air invasion on our freedoms. An environmental group called Ocean
Champions is spending hundreds of thousands of dollars to unseat him. The sharp rhetoric puzzles academics such
as Boston University biologist Les Kaufman. He contributed to a recent study that showed that using ocean zoning
to help design wind farms in Massachusetts Bay could prevent more than $1 million in losses to local fishery and
whale-watching operators while allowing wind producers to reap $10 billion in added profits by placing the turbines
in the best locations. Massachusetts adopted its own ocean policy, which was introduced by Mitt Romney, the
Republican governor at the time, and later embraced by his Democratic successor, Deval L. Patrick. The whole
concept of national ocean policy is to maximize the benefit and minimize the damage. Whats not to love?
Kaufman said, adding that federal officials make decisions about ofshore energy production, fisheries and shipping
without proper coordination. Nearly a decade ago, two bipartisan commissions called upon the government to
coordinate its decisions regarding federal waters, which extend from the roughly three-mile mark where state
waters end to 200 miles from shore. When Romney moved to establish ocean zoning in 2005 in Massachusetts, he
warned that without it there could be a Wild West shootout, where projects were permitted on a first come, first
served basis. In Washington, however, legislation to create an ocean zoning process failed. The policy set by
Obama in 2010 calls for five regions of the country the Mid-Atlantic, New England, the Caribbean, the West Coast
and the Pacific to set up regional bodies to ofer input. White House Council for Environmental Quality
spokeswoman Taryn Tuss said the policy does not give the federal government new authority or change
congressional mandates. It simply streamlines implementation of the more than 100 laws and regulations that
already afect our oceans. House Natural Resources Committee Chairman Doc Hastings (R-Wash.) said he is not
opposed to a national ocean policy in theory. But he said he is concerned that the administrations broad definition
of what afects the ocean including runof from land could open the door to regulating all inland activities,

The House
voted in May to block the federal government from spending money on
implementing the policy, though the amendment has not passed the Senate. Two influential
groups anglers and energy firms have joined Republicans in
questioning the administrations approach. In March, ESPN Outdoors
published a piece arguing that the policy could prohibit U.S. citizens from
fishing some of the nations oceans, coastal areas, Great Lakes, and even
inland waters. The article, which convinced many recreational fishermen that their fishing rights were in
jeopardy, should have been labeled an opinion piece, the editor said later. Fishermen saw this as
just another area where fishing was going to be racheted down, said Michael
because all water going downhill goes into the ocean. ... That potential could be there.

Leonard, director of ocean resource policy for the American Sportfishing Association, whose 700 members include
the nations major boat manufacturers, as well as fish and tackle retailers. Leonard added that the White House has
solicited some input from anglers since launching the policy and that they will judge the policy once its final

The National Ocean Policy Coalition a

group based in Houston that includes oil and gas firms as well as mining,
farming and chemical interests has galvanized industry opposition to
the policy. Its vice president works as an energy lobbyist at the law firm Arent Fox; its president and executive
implementation plan is released, after the election.

director work for the firm HBW Resources, which lobbies for energy and shipping interests. Brent Greenfield, the
groups executive director, said that the public has not had enough input into the development of the policy and

his group worries about the potential economic impacts of the policy
on commercial or recreational activity. Sarah Cooksey, who is Delawares coastal-programs
that

administrator and is slated to co-chair the Mid-Atlantics regional planning body, said the policy will streamline
application of laws already on the books. No government wants another layer of bureaucracy, she said. In
Southerlands reelection race, Ocean Champions has labeled the congressman Ocean Enemy #1 and sponsored
TV ads against him. Jim Clements, a commercial fisherman in the Florida Panhandle district, has mounted billboards
against Southerland on the grounds his stance hurts local businesses. Southerland declined to comment for this
article. Ocean Champions President David Wilmot said that while most ocean policy fights are regional, this is
the

first issue Ive seen thats become partisan. I do not think it will be
the last.

Republican aggression over Obamas latest ocean policysame

will happen for plan
Lederman, Masters in journalism from Northwestern
Universitys Medill School of Journalism, 14

(Josh, 6/17/14, White House reporter for AP, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Obama setting
aside massive Pacific Ocean preserve, http://www.stltoday.com/news/national/govtand-politics/obama-setting-aside-massive-pacific-ocean-preserve/article_f08079934b36-5d83-85f9-cd8b0e75fde0.html, 6/29/14, SM)
Vowing to protect fragile marine life, President Barack Obama acted Tuesday to create the
world's largest ocean preserve by expanding a national monument his
predecessor established in waters thousands of miles from the American
mainland. The designation for a remote stretch of the Pacific Ocean marks a major symbolic victory for
environmentalists, who have urged the president to take action on his own to protect the planet as Congress turns

the initiative will have limited practical implications

because little fishing or drilling are taking place even without the new
protections. Protecting the world's oceans and the vibrant ecosystems that thrive deep under the surface is
its focus elsewhere. But

a task that's bigger than any one country but the U.S. must take the lead, Obama said, announcing the initiative
during an ocean conservation conference. "Let's make sure that years from now we can look our children in the
eye and tell them that, yes, we did our part, we took action, and we led the way toward a safer, more stable world,"
Obama said in a video message. Obama hasn't settled on the final boundaries for the expanded Pacific Remote
Islands Marine National Monument, and will solicit input from fishermen, scientists and conservation experts.
Obama's senior counselor, John Podesta, said that process would start immediately and wrap up "in the very near
future." President George W. Bush, a Republican, created the monument in 2009 by setting aside waters that
encircle an array of remote islands in the south-central Pacific, between Hawaii and American Samoa. Bush's
protections extend about 50 miles from the shore of the U.S.-administered islands, but maritime law gives the U.S.
control up to 200 nautical miles from the coast, forming the outer limit of what Obama could protect using the 1906
Antiquities Act. Conservation groups urged Obama to be bold. If Obama opts for the full 200 miles, conservation
groups said, he could roughly double the amount of ocean that's protected worldwide. A geographic analysis by
the Pew Charitable Trusts estimated Obama could protect more than 780,000 square miles almost nine times
what Bush set aside and far more if he included the waters around other U.S. islands in the Pacific Ocean. "Our
oceans are feeling the strain of human activity from increased acidification, overfishing, and pollution, and we need
to take bold action to protect this vital natural resource," said Carol Browner, the former Environmental Protection
Agency administrator. But in practical terms, the expanded sanctuary will likely have a modest impact. Very little
commercial fishing is conducted around the islands. And Bob Fryklund, chief upstream strategist for analytics
agency IHS Energy, said no one is currently exploring for oil or gas in the area. But conservation groups said it's
critical to take proactive steps to safeguard underwater ecosystems even if direct human damage isn't imminent.
"These are fairly long distances from any ports, and they're very expensive to get to," said Lance Morgan of the

Obama has
increasingly invoked his own authority to impose environmental
protections during his second term, wary of ceding control to lawmakers who have shown no
appetite for major legislation to fight climate change and other ecological challenges. Earlier this month
Obama unveiled unprecedented pollution limits on power plants, enraging
Republicans and even some Democrats. Republicans reacted with similar
indignation Tuesday and accused Obama of overreaching. Rep. John Fleming, R-La.,
Marine Conservation Institute. "Still, we don't know what all the future uses are going to be."

who chairs the House subpanel dealing with oceans and wildlife, said Obama was invoking climate change even
though the century-old Antiquities Act wasn't intended to deal with global warming. "This is clearly way outside of
his constitutional boundaries," Fleming said in an interview. "It's just another step in the wrong direction for our
imperial president." In another environmental move, Obama launched a task force to combat black-market fishing
and seafood fraud, in which seafood products are mislabeled to hide their origin. One-fifth of wild marine fish
caught each year are considered to be part of the black market, the White House said. The black market for fish
cost the legitimate fishing industry $23 billion. The presidential memorandum calls for the task force to submit
recommendations within six months.

Obamas actions unpopular with Republicans

Golden, editorial intern at The Daily Beast and a student at Columbia University,
14 ( Abigail, 6/23, The Daily Beast, "Republicans: Obamas Ocean Protection Plan
Evidence of Imperial
Presidency"www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/06/23/republicans-obama-socean-protection-plan-evidence-of-imperial-presidency.html. 6/29/14, AVEN)
Republican lawmakers: Obamas use of an executive order to establish the
reserve expansion angered Republicans in government, who viewed it as

an attempt to test the limits of White House authority. Congressman Doc

Hastings (R-Wash.), the chairman of the House Natural Resources Committee, was
quick to denounce Obama as an Imperial President who is intent on
taking unilateral action, behind closed doors, to impose new regulations
and layers of restrictive red-tape. By Hastings standards, another candidate
for an imperial presidency would be George W. Bush, who created four marine
national monuments during his time in office , totaling some 300,000 square miles
of protected ocean.

Plan hurts the commercial fishing industry

Golden, editorial intern at The Daily Beast and a student at Columbia University,
14 ( Abigail, 6/23, The Daily Beast, "Republicans: Obamas Ocean Protection Plan
Evidence of Imperial
Presidency"www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/06/23/republicans-obama-socean-protection-plan-evidence-of-imperial-presidency.html. 6/29/14, AVEN)
The commercial fishing industry: Currently, about 3 percent of the U.S.
tuna catch in the western and southern Pacific comes from the area now
under protection, according to Pew Charitable Trusts. Congressman Hastings
has criticized Obama for closing this area to tuna fishing, cautioning that
this move will make the U.S. tuna fleet even less viable, meaning that in
the not-too-distant future all of Americas tuna will be caught by foreign
vessels. Paul Dalzell, a senior scientist with the Western and Central Pacific
Regional Fisheries Management Council, echoed this industry-centric approach.
The islands [in the reserve] already have 50-nautical-mile boundaries
around them to protect all the coral reef and shallow water habitats, so
theyre more than adequately protected already, Dalzell told The Daily
Beast. But for migratory species like tuna, he argues, large-scale ocean reserves
have little conservation value, since tuna simply swim beyond the boundaries of the
closed areas to be caught by other fleets. The reserve has no major
conservation benefits, will penalize U.S. fishermen, and theres no net
gain, Dalzell continued. Its worth noting that Pew Charitable Trusts, which works
on ocean conservation issues, has condemned the Western and Central Pacific
Regional Fisheries Management Council for its poor fisheries practices, which it
claims are hastening overfishing in the Pacific region.

Recreational fishers oppose the Reserve

Golden, editorial intern at The Daily Beast and a student at Columbia University,
14 ( Abigail, 6/23, The Daily Beast, "Republicans: Obamas Ocean Protection Plan

Evidence of Imperial
Presidency"www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/06/23/republicans-obama-socean-protection-plan-evidence-of-imperial-presidency.html. 6/29/14, AVEN)
Recreational fishers: After Bush first established the Remote Pacific Islands
reserve in 2009, the American Sportfishing Association successfully petitioned for a
recreational fishing exemption within the reserve. Now the group, which
represents manufacturers of fishing tackle rather than sport fishermen

themselves, plans to push for the exemption to apply throughout the

expanded area. We believe in almost all instances you can still have marine
conservation and make sure that your fisheries resources are in good, healthy
condition, and still allow some recreational fishing to take place, Mike Leonard, a
spokesperson for the ASA, told The Daily Beast. The groups insistence on a
recreational fishing exemption is mostly academic, since the areas within the
expanded reserve are so remote as to be unreachable to sport fishermen. Williams,
who has traveled to the reserve repeatedly for his research, said that he has never
seen a recreational fishing boat there. But Leonard claims that the reserve could
set a precedent for the federal government closing more high-use areas of
sport fishing. It seems to be a growing trend that, when you add it up
nationally, can be one of those death-by-a-thousand-cuts issues, where
you continue to close off areas one by one, he told the Beast.
Cumulatively that can have a major impact, from a national standpoint,
for the entirety of the recreational fishing and boating industry. Of course,
marine reserves wont keep fishermen from enjoying protected natural spacesjust
from using the expensive fishing tackle that the ASAs members sell.

Historically, republicans are not in support of environmental

plans
Skelton, writer for the Los Angeles Times, 14 ( George, 6/25/14, "California
lawmakers should not procrastinate on water
plan", www.latimes.com/local/politics/la-me-cap-water-bond-20140626-column.html,
6/29/14, CH)
Now fast forward to Monday in the state Senate. Up for a vote was a
proposed $10.5-billion water bond that contained $3 billion for dam-building. It was
a particularly generous ofer for the reservoir beneficiaries. The borrowed $3 billion
repaid by taxpayers through the state's general fund would have covered up to
half the cost of a dam project. The rest would have been paid for by the
beneficiaries the water consumers through higher monthly rates. Historically,
the beneficiaries have footed 90% or more of such costs. But no Republican
senator voted for the bond. It needed a two-thirds majority and fell five votes short
at 22, all supplied by Democrats.

Fisherman against planObamas Ocean Preserve proves

Cruz, reporter at KITV4, 14, (Catherine, 6/17, KITV4, "President's plan for world's
largest marine preserve draws fire", www.kitv.com/news/presidents-plan-for-worldslargest-marine-preserve-draws-fire/26542816#!5, 6/29/14, AVEN)
Expanding the marine preserve out Western would mean including areas around the
deepest point of the ocean, the Marianas Trench, near the island of Guam. But it
would also push into areas where Hawaii's long liners and other U.S. fishermen fish
near Johnston atoll, Palmyra Island as well as Jarvis and Holland. "It has no
conservation benefit other than to penalize.U.S, fishermen, said Paul
Dalzelle, senior scientist for the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management
Council. Scientists of the council met in Honolulu Tuesday. It was a prelude to next
week's full council meeting which will include members from Guam and Samoa. It is
expected to take a strong position against the marine preserve plan. Members

argue that expanding the no-fishing zone is not only bad for businesss,
but will not help tuna and sharks that migrate. "There are already 50
nautical-mile closures around those areas. Its called part of the marine national
monument. They are already protecting the coral reefs, all the near shore
fish, precious corals, coral reef fish and sharks pushing out to the 200
nautical miles. It will have no major conservation benefit," said Dalzelle. The
council believes the move could also leave much of the protected areas open to
fishing from foreign fishers who are already banned from U.S. waters. Fewer U.S.
fishermen in the area, means fewer eyes on the water. "They can let the
government know they have seen boats making encroachments and if you take
those away whats to stop foreigners from fishing," said Dalzelle. The concern is for
the areas around the nation of Kiribas, which permits European fishers to troll in
their waters. "I suspect there will be a great temptation to just pop into our area,
because they know they will be no fishing vessels be there to see them if they do
that," said Dalzelle. The proposal could go into effect as soon as this year
after a comment period, which has the U.S. fishers worried. Dalzell said the
move shows the political vunerability of the region, with only the Hawaii
congressional delegation and two non-voting delegates to congress representing
Guam and Samoa.

Regulations in place already anger many, any more would

cross the line
CNR, 14 ( 6/17, Committee on Natural Resources, Chairman Hastings DOCS,
"Hastings: Imperial President Moves Forward with Ocean Zoning",
naturalresources.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=384712,
6/29/14, AVEN)
ASHINGTON, D.C., June 17, 2014 - House Natural Resources Committee Chairman
Doc Hastings (WA-04) released the following statement regarding President
Obamas announcement of overreaching Executive action to unilaterally lock-up
huge portions of the Pacific Ocean: "For years the Obama Administration has
threatened to impose ocean zoning to shut down our oceans, and today the
President is making good on that threat. This is yet another example of how an
Imperial President is intent on taking unilateral action, behind closed doors, to
impose new regulations and layers of restrictive red-tape. Oceans, like our
federal lands, are intended to be multiple-use and open for a wide range
of economic activities that includes fishing, recreation, conservation, and
energy production. It appears this Administration will use whatever authorities
real or made-up to close our ocean and coastal areas with blatant
disregard for possible economic consequences. This Administration is
creating an unworkable patchwork of management regimes that will hurt
our economy and further strain our enforcement capabilities. The State
Department just completed negotiating several science-based international fishery
management agreements in the Pacific and is working on changes to an existing
international agreement to allow U.S. tuna boats to have access to waters in the
South Pacific. This announcement undercuts all of that work and will likely make the
U.S. tuna fleet even less viable, meaning in the not-too-distant future all of
Americas tuna will be caught by foreign vessels.