Edgar H. Callaway, Jr.

Wireless
Sensor
Networks
Architectures
and

Protocols

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Callaway, Edgar H.
Wireless sensor networks : architectures and protocols / Edgar H. Callaway.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-1823-8 (alk. paper)
1. Sensor networks. 2. Wireless LANs. I. Title.
Tk7872.D48C35 2003
004.68dc21

2003051886

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Dedication
To Jan

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About the Author

Edgar H. Callaway Jr. received a B.S. in mathematics and an M.S.E.E. from
the University of Florida, Gainesville in 1979 and 1983, respectively; an
M.B.A. from Nova (now Nova-Southeastern) University, Davie, Florida, in
1987; and a Ph.D. in Computer Engineering from Florida Atlantic University,
Boca Raton, in 2002.
Dr. Callaway joined the Land Mobile Division of Motorola in 1984 as an
RF engineer working on 800-MHz and (later) 900-MHz trunked radio products. In 1990, he transferred to Motorolas Paging Products Group, Boynton
Beach, where he designed paging receivers for the Japanese market.
From 1992 to 2000, Dr. Callaway was engaged in paging receiver and
transceiver system design and was the lead receiver designer of Motorolas
paging platform. In 2000, he joined Motorola Labs, Plantation, Florida,
where his interests include the design of low-power wireless networks. He
is a Registered Professional Engineer (Florida). He has published several
papers and has had more 20 U.S. patents issued.

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Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks
1.1 Applications and Motivation
1.1.1 Industrial Control and Monitoring
1.1.2 Home Automation and Consumer Electronics
1.1.3 Security and Military Sensing
1.1.4 Asset Tracking and Supply Chain Management
1.1.5 Intelligent Agriculture and Environmental Sensing
1.1.6 Health Monitoring
1.2 Network Performance Objectives
1.2.1 Low Power Consumption
1.2.2 Low Cost
1.2.3 Worldwide Availability
1.2.4 Network Type
1.2.5 Security
1.2.6 Data Throughput
1.2.7 Message Latency
1.2.8 Mobility
1.3 Contributions of this Book
1.4 Organization of this Book
References
Chapter 2
The Development of Wireless Sensor Networks
2.1 Early Wireless Networks
2.2 Wireless Data Networks
2.2.1 The ALOHA System
2.2.2 The PRNET System
2.2.3 Amateur Packet Radio Networks
2.2.4 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
2.2.5 Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs)
2.3 Wireless Sensor and Related Networks
2.3.1 WINS

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2.3.2 PicoRadio
2.3.3 mAMPS
2.3.4 Terminodes, MANET, and Other Mobile Ad Hoc
Networks
2.3.5 Underwater Acoustic and Deep Space Networks
2.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3
The Physical Layer
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Some Physical Layer Examples
3.2.1 Bluetooth
3.2.2 IEEE 802.11b
3.2.3 Wireless Sensor Networks
3.2.3.1 PicoRadio
3.2.3.2 WINS
3.2.3.3 mAMPS
3.3 A Practical Physical Layer For Wireless Sensor Networks
3.3.1 Cost
3.3.2 Power
3.3.2.1 Power Source
3.3.2.2 Power Consumption
3.4 Simulations and Results
3.4.1 Simulations
3.4.2 Results
3.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4
The Data Link Layer
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Medium Access Control Techniques
4.2.1 ALOHA
4.2.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
4.2.3 Polling
4.2.4 Access Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks
4.2.4.1 WINS
4.2.4.2 PicoRadio
4.2.4.3 Others
4.3 The Mediation Device (MD)
4.3.1 The MD Protocol
4.3.2 The Distributed MD Protocol
4.3.3 Emergency Mode
4.3.4 Channel Access
4.4 System Analysis and Simulation
4.4.1 Duty Cycle

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4.4.2 Latency
4.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5
The Network Layer
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Some Network Design Examples
5.2.1 Structure
5.2.2 Routing
5.3 A Wireless Sensor Network Design Employing a Cluster
Tree Architecture
5.3.1 Network Design
5.3.2 Network Association
5.3.3 Network Maintenance
5.3.4 Routing
5.4 Simulations
5.5 Results
5.5.1 Throughput (Cumulative Percentage of Messages
Arriving at the DD versus Time)
5.5.2 Throughput (Cumulative Percentage of Messages
Arriving at the DD versus Node Level)
5.5.3 Average Message Transmission Time
5.5.4 Average Message Latency versus Node Level
5.5.5 Packet Collisions versus Time
5.5.6 Duty Cycle
5.5.7 Duty Cycle versus Level
5.5.8 Message Latency versus MD Period
5.5.9 Maximum Network Throughput versus MD Period
5.5.10 Maximum Network Throughput versus Node Density
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6
Practical Implementation Issues
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Partitioning Decision
6.3 Transducer Interfaces
6.3.1 Integrated Sensors
6.3.2 The External Interface
6.4 Time Base Accuracy and Average Power Consumption
6.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7
Power Management
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Power Sources

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7.2.1 Mains
7.2.2 Batteries
7.2.2.1 Lifetime
7.2.2.2 Low Battery Detection
7.2.2.3 Low Battery Alarm
7.2.2.4 Choice of Cell Chemistry
7.2.3 Energy Scavenging
7.2.3.1 Photovoltaic Cells
7.2.3.2 Mechanical Vibration
7.2.3.3 Other Scavengable Energy Sources
7.3 Loads
7.3.1 Power Consumption of Analog Circuits
7.3.2 Power Consumption of Digital Logic
7.3.3 Power Consumption of Other Loads
7.4 Voltage Converters and Regulators
7.4.1 Types of Voltage Converters
7.4.2 Voltage Conversion Strategy
7.5 Power Management Strategy
7.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8
Antennas and the Definition of RF Performance
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Antennas
8.2.1 Antenna Characteristics
8.2.2 Efficiency and Antenna Placement
8.2.3 Bandwidth
8.2.4 Antenna Design Choices
8.3 RF Performance Definition and Measurement
8.3.1 Definition and Measurement
8.3.2 Production Issues
8.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9
Electromagnetic Compatibility
9.1 Introduction
9.2 EMC: The Problem
9.3 Examples of Self-Interference
9.4 The Physics Associated with EMC Problems
9.4.1 The Wideband Spectral View
9.4.2 The Narrowband Spectral View
9.4.3 Victim Circuits in Receivers
9.4.3.1 The Zero-IF Receiver
9.4.3.2 The Low-IF Receiver
9.4.3.3 The Superheterodyne Receiver

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9.4.4 Scope of the Problem

9.4.4.1 Digital-RF Isolation Needed
9.4.5 Coupling Mechanisms
9.4.5.1 Radiated Coupling
9.4.5.2 Conducted Coupling
9.4.6 Avoiding Coupling Problems
9.4.6.1 System Level
9.4.6.2 Integrated Circuit Level
9.4.6.3 Circuit Board Level
9.5 Principles of Proper Layout
9.5.1 There is No Ground
9.5.2 There is Only Return Current
9.6 The Layout Process
9.6.1 Things to Look for After the Schematics Are Done
but Before the Layouts Are Started
9.6.1.1 High-Frequency Voltages and Currents
9.6.1.2 Antenna Placement
9.6.1.3 Power Source Placement
9.6.1.4 Sensor Placement
9.6.1.5 Placement of Oscillators
9.6.1.6 RF Filters, Low-Noise Amplifiers (LNAs), and Power
Amplifiers
9.6.2 EMC-Aware Layout Procedure
9.7 Detective/Corrective Techniques
9.7.1 The Hole in the Bucket Principle
9.7.2 Substitution
9.7.3 Software to Control Specific MCU Functions
9.7.4 Physical Separation
9.7.5 The Fallacy of Shields
9.7.6 Get to Know the IC Designer
9.7.7 Simulation
9.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Electrostatic Discharge
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Problem
10.2.1 Examples
10.2.2 Failure Modes
10.3 Physical Properties of the Electrostatic Discharge
10.3.1 The Triboelectric Effect
10.3.2 Air Breakdown
10.3.3 Charge Redistribution
10.4 The Effects of ESD on ICs
10.5 Modeling and Test Standards

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10.5.1 The Double Exponential Pulse

10.5.2 Human Body, Machine, and Charged Device Models
10.5.3 Detailed Requirements of an ESD Standard
10.5.4 Performance Standards
10.6 Product Design to Minimize ESD Problems
10.6.1 Prevent Discharges from Entering or Exiting
the Housing
10.6.1.1 Avoid Holes in the Housing
10.6.1.2 Locate Circuit Boards and the Metal on Them
Away from Housing Holes
10.6.1.3 Eliminate Metal Points and Burrs
10.6.2 Once Inside, Design Paths for the Discharge to Travel
10.6.3 Reaching the Integrated Circuit
10.6.4 Once an ESD Event Occurs, Limit Discernable Effects
10.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Wireless Sensor Network Standards
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate WPAN Standard
11.3 The ZigBee Alliance
11.4 The IEEE 1451.5 Wireless Smart Transducer
Interface Standard
References
Chapter 12
Summary and Opportunities for Future Development
12.1 Summary
12.2 Opportunities for Future Development
References
Appendix A

Signal Processing Worksystem (SPW)

Appendix B WinneuRFon
B.1 Introduction
B.2 Motivation
B.3 System Requirements
B.4 Supported Features
B.5 Current Status and Achievement
B.6 Simulation Method and More Potential Functionalities
B.7 Proposal for Future Work
B.8 Summary
Appendix C An Example Wireless Sensor Network
Transceiver Integrated Circuit (IC)

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Acknowledgments
This book is an extension of my dissertation,1 completed at Florida Atlantic
University (Boca Raton) in 2002 under the guidance of Dr. Ravi Shankar. If,
as Newton said, a body remains at rest until acted upon by an external
force, his was the force that moved me to return to school and complete
my education; and for that, I am grateful. I also thank the other members of
my committee, Dr. Valentine Aalo, Dr. Raymond Barrett, Dr. Borko Furht, Dr.
Sam Hsu, and Dr. Fred Martin, for consenting to serve on the committee
and for their constructive criticism of my work.
Much of the research for this book was done while I was employed at the
Florida Communication Research Laboratory, Plantation, a division of
Motorola Labs. I am indebted to the laboratory directors, Dr. Larry Dworsky and Dr. Chip Shanley, and my immediate superior, Dr. Bob ODea, for
their support, which went far beyond corporate standard operating procedure. I also benefited from many useful technical discussions with my coworkers, including Anthony Allen, Monique Bourgeois, Priscilla Chen, Dr.
Neiyer Correal, Dr. Lance Hester, Dr. Jian Huang, Dr. Yan Huang, Masahiro
Maeda, Qicai Shi, Bob Stengel, and especially Paul Gorday, Sumit Talwalkar,
and David Taubenheim for their consultations on the Signal Processing
Worksystem (SPW).
I thank Gary Pace of Motorolas Semiconductor Products Sector,
Boynton Beach, Florida, for the differential amplifier circuit discussed in
Chapter 7, and for inculcating in me the value of low-voltage, low-power
design. In addition to many of the aforementioned individuals, Dan
Brueske, Barbara Doutre, Dr. Antonio Faraone, Latonia Gordon, and Dr.
Kai Siwiak reviewed various early drafts of this book; any remaining
errors of omission or commission, however, are mine.
Special thanks are due to Joan Lange, Kim Searer, and Martha Mitchell,
corporate librarians who went to extraordinary efforts to track down
obscure references for me on short notice.

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Acknowledgments
My parents, Pat and Ed, deserve special thanks for emphasizing the
value of education to a young man more often interested in other things. I
also recognize my greatest debt of gratitude: to my wife, Jan. Without her
support and understanding, this book would not have been possible.
Edgar H. Callaway, Jr.

Note
1. Edgar H. Callaway, Jr., A Communication Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks, Ph.D.
dissertation, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, August 2002.

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