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two units only. In such a case, it is possible to implement the learning law in
parallel for all weights, thus speeding up the learning process.
18. What is Hebb rule?
According to Hebb rule, learning occurs by modification of the synaptic strengths
(weights) in a manner such that, if two interconnected neurons are both on or off at
the same time, then the weight between those neurons should be increased.
19. Explain the perceptron learning rule.
The weight change depends on the desired output. The rule is expressed as:
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Where
is the learning rate (
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t is the target output or desired output
20. Explain delta learning rule.
The delta rule changes the weights of the neural connections (synaptic weights) so as to
minimize the difference between the net input to the output unit (y_in) and the target
value t. The aim is to minimize the error. The rule is expressed as:
and
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21. Give the expression for Widrow-Hoff learning rule.
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22. Explain correlation learning rule.
The rule states that ift is the desired response due to an input xi, then the
corresponding weight increase is proportional to their product. The rule can be
expressed as:
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23. Where do winner-take-all neural nets find application?
They are used to learn statistical properties of inputs.
24. Give examples of some single-layer nets.
Some examples of single-layer feed-forward neural networks are:
Mc-Culloch Pitts neuron
Hebb net
Perceptron
Adaline
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39. What are the characteristics expected out of activation function for backpropagation nets?
An activation function for the back-propagation net should have the following
characteristics:
It should be continuous
It should be differentiable
It should be monotonically non-decreasing
Its derivative should be easy to compute
40. What are the activation functions used by back-propagation nets?
Usually, bipolar sigmoid and binary sigmoid are used as activation functions.
41. What are the factors affecting the convergence of training of neural networks?
The important factors affecting the convergence of training are:
A.
Initial weights
B.
Weight adjustment mechanism
C.
Activation function
D.
Selection of learning constant
E.
Momentum method
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18. What are the stages involved in control of inverted pendulum by neural network?
The control of inverted pendulum by neural network involves following stages:
Image acquisition
Training and
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1. What are the differences between classical (crisp) and fuzzy sets?
A crisp set has a unique membership function to represent it, but a fuzzy set can have
infinite number of membership functions to represent it.
Crisp set takes only the binary values 0 and 1, whereas a fuzzy set can take values
between 0 and 1.
2. What is university of discourse of a set?
University of discourse is the universe of all available information on a given problem.
The University of Discourse is usually denoted by X.
3. What is cardinal number of a set?
The total number of elements in a universe X is called its cardinal number, which is
denoted by < .
4. What is a null set?
Null set ( ) is the set containing no elements.
5. What is a power set?
All possible sets of X constitute a special set called the power set p(x).
6. Consider a university of discourse = >? @ AB. Calculate the cardinal number of X,
power set and cardinality of the power set.
Cardinal number = number of elements in the universe = < 3
Power set, p(x) = >C >DB >(B >EB >D (B >( EB >D EB >D ( EBB.
Cardinality of powers set, F <
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7. What are the operations on a classical set?
Union: J K L > M N J # N LB
Intersection: J O L > M N J D
N LB
P
Complement: J > M Q J N RB
Difference: JML > M N J D
Q LB
8. Write the Exclude middle laws for a classical set.
Law of the excluded middle: J K JP R
Law of contradiction: J O JP S
9. What is a fuzzy set?
Fuzzy set is a set containing elements that have varying degrees of membership in the set.
Fuzzy sets are usually denoted by TU . TU maps elements of fuzzy set TU to a real numbered
value on the interval 0 to 1.
10. What are the operations on a fuzzy set?
Union: V WT K XT
V WT
Z[\ V WT
V XT
Y V XT
Intersection: V WT O XT
V WT
Z^_ V WT
V XT
] V XT
Complement: V````
& V WT
W
T
Difference: V WT a XT
V WT
Z^_ V WT
V````
O V````
X
X
T
T
11. Write the Exclude middle laws for a fuzzy set.
Law of the excluded middle: TU K TUb c R
Law of contradiction: TU O TUb c S
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Z[\ Z^_ V rT
V Ty
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Y{N| ~ V rT
Z[\ V rT
V Ty
V Ty
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Transitivity: If V rT x
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Then V rT
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V rT x
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21. What is a fuzzy tolerance relation?
A fuzzy tolerance relation Te on a universe X is a relation that exhibits only the
properties of reflexivity and symmetry.
22. What is fuzzification?
Fuzzification is the process of making a crisp quantity fuzzy.
23. What are the methods of fuzzification?
The various methods used for fuzzification are:
Intuition
Inference
Rank ordering
Angular fuzzy sets
Neural networks
Genetic algorithms
Inductive reasoning
Soft-partitioning
Meta rules and
Fuzzy statics
24. What is defuzzification?
Defuzzification is the conversion of a fuzzy quantity to a precise (crisp) quantity.
25. Mention some methods of defuzzification.
The methods available for converting a fuzzy quantity to crisp quantity are:
Max-membership principle
Centroid method
Weighted average method
Mean-max membership method
Center of sums
Center of largest area
First (or last) of maxima
26. What is the drawback of max-membership method of defuzzification?
Max-membership method, also known as height method is limited to peaked output
functions.
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1. How is a fuzzy logic controller used to control Blood Pressure during anesthesia?
A FLC is used to control the Mean arterial pressure (MAP), which is a measure of the
depth of anesthesia. The control structure is as shown in fig below.
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