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Chapter2

ClickHereforaPowerPointPresentationofChapterTwo
ChapterTwo
ModelsofAbnormalBehavior
OneDimensionalModelsofMentalDisorders
Mostexplanationsorcausesofabnormalbehaviorfallintofourdistinctcamps:
Biologicalexplanations
Psychologicalexplanations
Socialexplanations
Socioculturalexplanations
Theseonedimensionalviewsareoverlysimplistic:
Setupafalseeitherordichotomybetweennatureandnurture
Failtorecognizethereciprocalinfluencesofoneontheother
Masktheimportanceofacknowledgingthecontributionsofallfourdimensionsintheorigin
ofmentaldisorders
Biopsychosocialmodel:
Attemptstointegratebiological,psychological,andsocialfactors,butgiveslittleimportance
tosocioculturalinfluences

AMultipathModelofMentalDisordersSuggestedbyyourtext
Providesanorganizationalframeworkforunderstandingthecausesofmentaldisorders,the
complexityoftheirinteractingcomponents,andtheneedtoviewdisordersfromaholistic
framework
Assumptionsofthemultipathmodel:
Nooneperspectivecanexplainthedevelopmentofmentaldisorders
Multiplepathwaystoandcausesofadisorder
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Explanationsmustconsiderallfourdimensions
Notalldimensionscontributeequallytoadisorder
Themultipathmodelisintegrativeandinteractive
Strengthsofapersonmayserveasprotectivefactorsagainstpsychopathology
Figure21aTheResilienceModelStrengths,assetsandprotectivefactorsthathelp
maximizementalhealthandallowindividualstobouncebackfromtraumaandstressfullife
events.
DimensionOne:BiologicalFactors
Biologicalmodelshavebeenheavilyinfluencedbytheneurosciences
Understandingbiologicalexplanationsrequiresknowledgeaboutthestructureandfunction
ofthecentralnervoussystem
TheHumanBrain
MajorPartsofaNeuronThemajorpartsofaneuronaredendrites(receiveinformation),
thecellbody(containsthenucleus,cytoplasm,organelles),theaxon(long,slender,tubeportion
normallycoveredwithamyelinsheath),andtheaxonterminals(releaseneurotransmitters
intothesynapse).
Synapse:
Gapbetweenaxonofsendingneuronanddendritesofreceivingneuron
Neurotransmitters:
Chemicalsthathelptransmitmessagesbetweenneurons
Figure26SynapticTransmissionMessagestravelviaelectricalimpulsesfromone
neurontoanother.Theimpulsecrossesthesynapseintheformofchemicalscalled
neurotransmitters.Notethattheaxonterminalsandthereceivingdendritesdonottouch.
GeneticExplanations
Geneticmakeupplaysanimportantroleindevelopingabnormalconditions
Autonomicnervoussystemreactivitymaybeinherited
Hereditaryfactorsareimplicatedinalcoholism,schizophrenia,anddepression
Genotype:geneticmakeup
Phenotype:observablephysicalandbehavioralcharacteristics
NeuroscienceandAbnormalPsych
Thefrontallobeshelpusthink,plan,reason,makedecisionsandinhibitourimpulses.
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TheSympathetic(fightorflight)portionofourAutonomic(Involuntary)NervousSystem
maycontributetoanxiety,andmaylowerourabilitytoinhibitourimpulses.
TheLimbicSystem(Amygdala,HippocampusandThalamus)helpsconnectthebrain
andbodyparticularlyintermsofemotion.
TheReticularActivatingSystem(anetworkoffibersrunningthroughthebrainstem)
regulatesalertnessandcontrolstheamountofstimulationenteringtherestofthebrain.
BiologyBasedTreatmentTechniques
Psychopharmacology:
Studyofeffectofdrugsonmindandbehavior
Electroconvulsivetherapy:
Applicationofelectricvoltagetothebraintoinduceconvulsions
Psychosurgery:
Brainsurgeryforthepurposeofcorrectingaseverementaldisorder
MultipathImplicationsofBiologicalExplanations
Scienceincreasinglyrejectsasimplelinearexplanationofgeneticdeterminism
Disordersareseenastheresultofcomplexinteractiveandoftenreciprocalprocesses
Epigenetics:fieldfocusedonunderstandinghowenvironmentalfactorsinfluencegene
expression
Genome:allthegeneticmaterialinthechromosomesofanorganism
Environmentaffectsbiochemicalandbrainactivity,aswellasstructuralneurologicalcircuitry
DimensionTwo:PsychologicalFactors
Psychologicalexplanationsvaryconsiderablydependingonthepsychologiststheoretical
orientation
Fourmajorperspectives:
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Cognitive
Humanisticexistential
Psychodynamicmodel:
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Adultdisordersarisefromchildhoodtraumasoranxieties
Childhoodbasedanxietiesoperateunconsciouslyandarerepressedthroughdefense
mechanismsbecausetheyaretoothreateningtoface
Defensemechanism:
Egodefensemechanismsthatprotecttheindividualfromanxiety,operate
unconsciously,anddistortsreality
Personalitystructure:
Id:
Impulsive,pleasureseekingaspectofourbeingimmediategratificationofinstinctual
needs
Ego:
Realistic,rationalpartofmind
Senseofself
HelpsIdfindwaysofgettingwhatitwantswithoutoffendingsuperego
Superego:
Conscience/SenseofRightandWrong
Freudbelievedthesethreepartsofpersonalityareconstantlyinconflictwithone
another,causinganxiety.
Psychosexualstages:
Sequenceofstagesthroughwhichpersonalitydevelops:
Oral(firstyearoflife)
Anal(secondyearoflife)
Phallic(beginningages34)
Latency(approximatelyages612)
Genital(beginninginpuberty)
Fixation:emotionaldevelopmentgetsstuckataparticularpsychosexualstage
Defensemechanisms:
Characteristics:
Protectindividualsfromanxiety
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Operateunconsciously
Distortreality
Maladaptivewhenoverused
Examples:1)Repression:mostsignificantdefensemechanism,uponwhichallother
defensemechanismsarebased.2)Rationalization:inventingafalsereasonfor
behavior
Traditionalpsychodynamictherapy:
Psychoanalysishasthreemaingoals:
Uncoveringrepressedmaterial
Helpingclientsachieveinsightintodesiresandmotivations
Resolvingchildhoodconflictsthataffectcurrentrelationships
Traditionalpsychodynamictherapy:
Fourmethodstoachievetherapeuticgoals
Freeassociation
Dreamanalysis
Resistance
Transference
Contemporarypsychodynamictheories:
Veryfewpsychodynamictherapistspracticetraditionalpsychoanalysis
PostFreudiantheoriesplacelessemphasisonsexandmoreemphasison:
Freedomofchoiceandfuturegoals
Egoautonomy
Socialforces
Objectrelations(pastinterpersonalrelations)
Treatmentofseriouslydisturbedpeople
Criticismofpsychodynamicmodels:
Freudsobservationsmadeunderuncontrolledconditions
Patientsrepresentedaverynarrowspectrumofhissociety
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Modelscannotbeappliedtoawiderangeofdisturbedpeople
Formulationsaredifficulttoinvestigateinascientificmanner
BehavioralModels
Classicalconditioning:
Processinwhichinvoluntaryresponsestostimuliarelearnedthroughassociation
Unconditionedstimulus(UCS):
Elicitsanunconditionedresponse
Unconditionedresponse(UCR):
Theunlearnedresponsemadetoanunconditionedstimulus
Conditionedstimulus(CS):
Neutralstimulusthatacquiressomepropertiesofanotherstimuluswithwhichitis
paired
Conditionedresponse(CR):
Thelearnedresponsemadetoapreviouslyneutralstimulusthathasacquiredsome
propertiesofanotherstimuluswithwhichitwaspaired
Operantconditioningparadigm:
Operantbehavior:
Avoluntaryandcontrollablebehaviorthatoperatesonanindividualsenvironment
Operantconditioning:
Choosingtoengageinvoluntarybehaviorstogetrewardsoravoidconsequences.
Behavioralmodelsalsoincludelearningbywatchingothers.
Cognitivemodels
Thinkingandmentalprocessesdeterminebehavior,personality,andtendencytoward
mentalhealthorillness.
Cognitivedynamicsinpsychopathology:
Causesofpsychopathology:
Actualirrationalandmaladaptiveassumptionsandthoughts
Distortionsoftheactualthoughtprocess
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Cognitiveapproachestotherapy:
Highlyspecificlearningexperiencesdesignedtoteachclientsto:
Monitornegative,automaticthoughts(cognitions)
Recognizeconnectionsbetweencognition,affect,andbehavior
Examineevidenceforandagainstdistortedautomaticthoughts
Substitutemorerealityorientedinterpretations
Identifyandalterbeliefsthatpredisposethemtodistorttheirexperiences
HumanisticExistentialModels
Assumptions:
Reality:
Theproductofouruniqueexperiencesandperceptionsoftheworldsubjective
universeismoreimportantthantheeventsthemselves
Peoplehavefreechoice/personalresponsibility
Apersonswholenessorintegrityiscriticallyimportant
Wehavetheabilitytobecomewhatwewantandtofulfillourcapacities
Thehumanisticperspective:
Abnormalbehaviorresultsfromdisharmonybetweenapersonspotentialandself
concept
Positiveviewoftheindividual
CarlRogersbestknownofhumanists
Humanityisbasicallygood,forwardmoving,andtrustworthy
AbrahamMaslowsactualizingtendency:
Selfactualization:
Inherenttendencytostrivetowardrealizationofonesfullpotential(tobecomeyour
bestoractualself/fulfillyourpotentialasahumanbeing)
Developmentofabnormalbehavior
Rogers:Ifleftunencumberedbysocietalrestrictions,wewouldbecomefully
functioningpeople
Selfconcept:assessmentofonesvalueandworth
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Impositionofconditionsofworth,transmittedviaconditionalpositiveregard,resultsin
disharmony,orincongruence,betweenonespotentialandonesselfconcept
Unconditionalpositiveregard:Valueandrespectaperson,separatefromones
actions
Existentialperspective:
Shareswithhumanisticpsychologyemphasisonindividualuniqueness
Stressesneedformeaninginlife
Alsodiffersinfollowingways:
Lessoptimisticthanhumanistictherapy
Individualmustbeviewedincontextofhumancondition
Stressesnotonlyindividualresponsibilitybutalsoresponsibilitytoothers
Criticismsofhumanisticandexistentialapproaches:
Fuzzy,ambiguous,nebulousnature
Appliedtoarestrictedpopulation
Creativeindescribinghumancondition,butnotinconstructingtheory
Notsuitedtoscientificorexperimentalinvestigation
Subjective,intuitive,andempathicnotempiricallybased
Effectivewithintelligent,welleducated,relativelynormalclients,notseverely
disturbedclients
DimensionThree:SocialFactors
Assumptionsofsocialrelationalmodels:
Healthyrelationshipsareimportantforhumandevelopmentandfunctioning
Theserelationshipsprovidemanyintangiblehealthbenefits
Whenrelationshipsaredysfunctionalorabsent,individualsmaybemoreproneto
mentaldisturbances
Family,couples,andgroupperspectives:
Familysystemsmodel:
Behaviorofonefamilymemberdirectlyaffectsentirefamilysystem
Characteristics:
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Personalitydevelopmentruledbyfamilyattributes
Abnormalbehaviorisareflectionofunhealthyfamilydynamicsandpoor
communication
Therapistmustfocusonthefamilysystem,notjusttheindividual
Socialrelationaltreatmentapproaches:
Conjointfamilytherapeuticapproach:
Stressesimportanceofteachingmessagesendingandmessagereceivingskillsto
familymembers
Strategicfamilyapproach:
Dealswithfamilypowerstrugglesbyshiftingtoamorehealthydistribution
Structuralfamilyapproach:
Reorganizesfamilyinrelationtofamilyinvolvement
Couplestherapy:
Aimedathelpingcouplesunderstandandclarifytheircommunication,needs,roles,and
expectations
Grouptherapy:
Membersofgroupareinitiallystrangers
Focusoninterrelationshipsanddynamicsofinteractionamongmembers
Criticismsofsocialrelationalmodels:
Studieshavegenerallynotbeenrigorousindesign
Groupstendtooperateunderculturebounddefinitions
Familysystemsmodelsmayhavenegativeconsequences:
Parentalinfluencemaynotbeafactorinanindividualsdisorderbutareburdenedwith
guilt
DimensionFour:SocioculturalFactors
Emphasizesimportanceofthefollowingfactorsinexplainingmentaldisorders
Race
Ethnicity
Gender
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Sexualorientation
Religiouspreference
Socioeconomicstatus
Physicaldisabilities
RaceandEthnicity:MulticulturalModelsofPsychopathology
Pastculturalmodels:
Inferioritymodel:
Contendsthatracialandethnicminoritiesareinferiortomajoritypopulation
Deficitmodel:
Minoritygroupslackedrightculture
Theuniversalshamanictradition:
NonWesternindigenouspsychologiesassumespecialhealershavepowertoactas
intermediariesbetweenthehumanandspiritworlds
Multiculturalmodel(currentmodel):
Recognizesdifferencesincultures,andthateachculturehasitsownstrengthsand
limitations
Assumesalltheoriesofhumandevelopmentarisefromaparticularculturalcontext
Suggeststhatsocioculturalstressorsresidewithinthesocialsystemnotwithinthe
person
Appropriatetreatment,therefore,maybeservedthroughteachingselfhelpskillsand
strategiestonegotiateclientssocialsituation
Criticismsofthemulticulturalmodel:
Operatesfromrelativisticframework:normalandabnormalbehaviormustbe
evaluatedfromaculturalperspective
Criticsargueadisorderisadisorder,regardlessofculturalcontext
Lacksempiricalvalidationconcerningitsconceptsandassumptions
BasedonWesternworldview

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