The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 20:3 (2011), pp.

456-468

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program

on the Reading Behavior of Children
with Dyslexia: A Malaysian Case Study
Patricia Philip Ambrose, Loh Sau Cheong*
University of Malaya, Malaysia
*lohsch@um.edu.my

This study investigated the effects of the Clay Modeling Program on the reading behavior of dyslexic children.
The three participants were very poor readers who could not even identify simple words. A pre-test to assess
the participants ability to read was conducted. The treatment (Clay Modeling Program) was conducted for a
period of eight weeks, involving 20 sessions of 75 minutes each, followed by a post-test after the eight-week
treatment. The control group did not receive any treatment. The participants English teachers were also
interviewed before and after the treatment. Results show all three participants were able to read the specified
text fluently without hesitation, able to spell the words from the text correctly, and more attentive in class.
They were not that passive as before as they were now more responsive towards their teacher; showed signs
of increased self-confidence; had the courage to read in front of the class; were more keen and willing to learn.
The findings indicate that the Clay Modeling Program has a positive effect on the reading behavior of dyslexic
children. If conducted with a larger population, it would further enhance the Malaysian society in achieving
one of its visions of having a literate society.
Keywords: Clay Modeling Program, reading behavior, dyslexic children, reading difficulty, symbol mastery

Reading is one of the central difficulties of

students with learning disabilities and nearly 80%
of all students with learning disabilities have reading
problems (Lyon & Moats, 1997). Carnine, Silbert,
and Kameenui (1990) suggest that this is the principal
cause of failure in school. Research has shown that up
to 15 percent of the children in Asia may be affected
by learning difficulties in one form or another and 60
to 80 percent of these children suffer from a specific
learning disability called dyslexia; and in Malaysia,
it has been estimated that up to 500,000 children per
generation are facing various degrees of dyslexia
(JUKEN Consultancy Sdn. Bhd, 2004). However, this
problem has not been fully recognized at the national
level. According to Malaysia Curriculum Development
Centre (CDC) director Mahzan Bakar, this matter
has to be taken seriously as such pupils are at risk of
dropping out of the school system and can face a hard

time continuing with their education or pursuing a

career (Chapman, 2006).
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that
is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized
by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word
recognition and by poor spelling and decoding
abilities. These difficulties typically result from a
deficit in the phonological component of language
that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive
abilities and the provision of effective classroom
instruction. Secondary consequences may include
problems in reading comprehension and reduced
reading experience that can impede the growth
of vocabulary and background knowledge (Lyon,
Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003, p.2).
Various studies and research have indicated
that dyslexia, if not addressed properly at an early
stage, can likely lead to deep resentment against the

Copyright 2011 De La Salle University, Philippines

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program

education system, society in general, school dropouts

and juvenile delinquencies (JUKEN Consultancy Sdn.
Bhd, 2004).
Related Studies
Children with dyslexia are faced with possible
abnormality of pre-natal maturation of the cerebral
cortex which leads to atypical development of brain
asymmetry. According to Berninger and Richards
(2009), children with dyslexia need to use nearly five
times the neurological brain area as children without
dyslexia to perform an ordinary language task. They
may be considered to be lazy, unmotivated or of low
intelligence because of their language problems. These
misconceptions can lead to many problems such as
discouragement, isolation, feelings of inferiority,
self-confidence and low self-esteem (Narayana &
Xiong, 2003), although Ingesson (2007) found that
general feeling of low self-esteem tend to be common
at elementary level and worsen in the middle school,
but may not be so in the upper school.
Davis (1997, 2003) argues that dyslexia may be
the result of an inborn gift or talent. It coincides with
imagination and creativity, with problem solving by
looking at the bigger picture rather than by means of
a step-by-step analytical process. He is supported by
Berninger (2004) who says that dyslexics are often
gifted and creative. Gorman, Cuadros, Land, Scully
and Song (2003), Levine (2002), Shaywitz (2003) and
Stowe (2000) also support this view. Levine (2002)
stated that some learners with learning problems have
creative tendencies and they undertake imaginative
ventures.
The assumption in the dyslexic childs mindthat
he or she lacks intelligenceis inaccurate, and it needs
correcting if such children are to re-establish the
self-confidence they need to gain. They have to see
for themselves both their strengths and weaknesses.
When a dyslexic child sees herself in this new light,
it is the turning point for the child (Bradford, 2001).
Hence, introducing the appropriate program can
help a dyslexic child to overcome his or her problem
in reading, spelling and writing. As a result of
overcoming the problem with improved ability to
read, spell and write, the level of confidence tends to
increase in children with dyslexia.
Intervention Program for Reading
In spite of the opinions of the experts regarding
language instruction, they, nevertheless do not seem to

Ambrose, p.p. & LOH, s.C.

457

have a consensus on the method upon which reading

intervention programs should be constructed for the
dyslexic. For instance, Shaywitz (2003) maintains that
sounds should be taught systematically and explicitly,
instead of randomly or subtly. She says the holistic
method concentrates on meaning and that supporters
of this method assume reading is acquired naturally.
According to Shaywitz, reading is not a natural process
but it is a skill that is mastered with difficulty.
The Orton Gillingham Institute for Multi Sensory
Education in America focuses on each students visual
and kinaesthetic developmental pathways to maximize
mastery and retention (Drake, 1999). This institute
also uses systematic phonics instruction.
Stowe (2000) says that there is no standard way of
intervention and that each student has to be assessed
separately. Based on the findings from the assessment,
a special program has then to be constructed for that
individual. She adds that there should not be too much
reliance on explicit phonics instruction, especially
not to the exclusion of the whole-language (holistic)
concept.
Many of the other intervention programs that have
been developed to help learners with reading problems,
especially in which the phonics method mainly
functions, employ intensive training and repetition
techniques to strengthen the neural pathways.
Shaywitz (2003) works on the assumption that practice
helps improve the talents of athletes and artists and
therefore should also help a person with dyslexia.
According to Davis (2003), such a person is trying
to improve a talent he/she does not have. He says,
for children with dyslexia, drill work and repeated
exercises appear to be like something forced on them
and this makes them repeating what they precisely
do not have. Since they have a different way of
thinking, these repeated exercises makes reading
even worse by draining out the child with dyslexia
and increase their frustration because they will not
retain information unless they understand where it fits
into the big picture.
In addition to that, most traditional reading remedial
programs in Malaysia typically teach phonetic
strategies in addition to word recognition, vocabulary
building, reading comprehension, fluency and writing
skills. The phonics method involves intensive training
and repetition to strengthen the neural pathways. For
children who have auditory-linguistic dyslexia, this
method is not effective and therefore an alternative
program could be the answer.

458

THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

The Clay Modeling Program

Amidst all these different programs and point of
view, there is the Davis Correction Program by Ronald
Davis (1997, 2003) that originated from California in
1984 and is still being applied worldwide. The Davis
approach does not encourage reliance on phonetic
strategies for word recognition. Rather, the specific
techniques for reading are geared to building letter
sequencing and visual word recognition skills, and
emphasize understanding of word meaning and
sentence comprehension through association with
visual imagery, as dyslexics tend to think primarily
through pictures and images rather than using words,
sentences or internal dialogue (self-talk) used by
verbal thinkers. Thus, it taps on the visual-spatial
learning strengths of dyslexic children (Davis &
Braun, 1997).
Daviss technique (1997, 2003) which is called
Symbol Mastery is based on recognized multisensory
methods (Miller, 1993; Stowe, 2000). With Symbol
Mastery through Clay Modeling (using clay to form
sight words, alphabets & punctuation marks and
others) it is assured that the brain is able to accurately
recognize each letter and punctuation mark (Marshall,
2005).
According to Davis and Braun (1997), this method
corrects dyslexia by eliminating the confusion factor
that is found to be the root cause of the disability. Every
word is composed of three parts what it looks like
when we see it, what it sounds like when we hear it,
and what it means when we say it. Each of these parts
is processed in different areas of the brain. By using
clay, a child is able to create a visual image for what
a word means, looks like and sounds. This visual
image remains in the childs mind and will never
cause confusion or disorientation. In this way, the
child is able to remember the words learned. To further
support this statement, Tomascoff (2004) shares her
experience on how she taught her students the art of
clay craftsmanship. She further adds that her kids love
clay, regardless of whether they have impairment. In
another study by Warwick (2005), kids are highly
motivated by creating their own art with clay. When
these kids are successful in producing clay product,
they will be very happy (Jaramillo, 2008).
The Davis Program (1997, 2003) normally entails
a week of intensive intervention, six hours per day.
This means about 30 hours per week. The individual
who receives the intervention shows improved
self-confidence and better attention skills after the
intervention.

VOL. 20 NO. 3

The Clay Modeling Program in this study basically

consists of five main sessions:

Session 1 motivate and explain the

importance of the participants co-operation
and participation in program
Session 2 mastery of letters A-Z
Session 3 mastery of letters a-z
Session 4 mastery of punctuation marks
Session 5 mastery of words

According to Marshall (2003), children (and adults)

use clay to model the concepts that are associated
with word meanings at the same time as modeling the
letters of each word in clay. At the primary level, these
methods provide a route to learning that seems to be
easier for students with dyslexic tendencies rather than
traditional instruction. Among older dyslexic children
and adults, these methods routinely lead to very rapid
progress in reading ability. She adds that the right
brain hemisphere is where the mind connects written
words to their meanings, and that it is where creative
and imaginative thought takes place. Since dyslexics
tend to rely more on the right hemisphere, modeling
words with clay helps build right brain connections
which are important for dyslexic learners. Unlike most
of the traditional phonics-based intervention programs
which emphasise more the use of the left side of the
brain, this program, that emphasizes right brain, will
enable children with dyslexia to acquire the ability to
read (Marshall, 2003).
Purpose of the Study
This study explores the possibility of introducing
the Clay Modeling Program and to ascertain whether
this Program has the potential to improve the reading
behavior, which includes reading ability, attention
skills and self-confidence, of Malaysian children with
dyslexia over a short period of time, thus, assisting them
to overcome their reading disability. The assumptions
on which the study was based are that through the Clay
Modeling Program, the child is able to form words
in clay without losing focus and concentration. This
helps improve the childs attention skills, which in
turn will help the child to remember and to recognize
the words learned, thus, leading the child to be able to
read them. When such children are able to read, their
level of self-confidence improves. Burden (2008) in
his review states that most intervention programs are
not placing much, if any, emphasis on building up the
feeling of competence among the dyslexic, apart from

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program

dedicated to skills teaching. Specifically, the objectives

of this study are:

To ascertain whether the Clay Modeling

Program can, over the short term, improve
the reading ability of children with a reading
disorder;
To ascertain whether the Clay Modeling
Program can improve the attention skills of
children with a reading disorder; and
To ascertain whether the self-confidence
of these children improves if their reading
problems are overcome.

Methodology
Research Design
This study employs a mixed-method design. It is a
combination of experimental research and case study.
A pretest-posttest control group design was used. It is
also a case study as it involves only three participants.
A very detailed observation was done on each of
the participants throughout the whole study. This is
very important since it helps illuminate the concrete
effectiveness of the program. This mixed-method
design was chosen to enhance the understanding of
the research focus.
Participants
Three participants, 13-years old, who were pupils
in Secondary One from a Malaysian school, were
selected by a purposive sampling method. Consistent
with the nature of the present study, the participants
chosen were very poor readers and unable to recognize
even simple words. They were, however, able to
identify the alphabets in the upper and lower cases
except for the confusion between b & d, and p
& q. They are also classified as dyslexics since
they fulfil the characteristics of dyslexia as stated by
the Dyslexia Association of Singapore (2004), which
defines dyslexia as a neurologically based specific
learning difficulty that is characterised by difficulties
in one or more of reading, spelling and writing.
Accompanying weaknesses may be identified in areas
of language acquisition, phonological processing,
working memory and sequencing. Some factors which
are associated with it, but do not cause dyslexia, are
poor motivation, impaired attention and academic
frustration.
The students chosen for this study had not received
any form of intervention previously or at the time

Ambrose, p.p. & LOH, s.C.

459

of the study. They have also not been absent from

school during the time of the study. In this study,
the participants were their own controls. The same
participant was given two different pre-tests and
post-tests. The first set of pre-test/post-test was
with the intervention (Clay Modeling Program).
The second set of pre-test/post-test was without any
intervention.
Instruments
Two different reading passages (Reading Texts 1
& 2) about 50 words in length were utilized (as shown
in Figure 1), each of which also includes sight words
(as shown in Table 1). These passages are designed
to measure the variables in an objective, reliable and
valid way. An interview was carried out with the
class teachers of the participants before and after the
program, employing a structured and semi-structured
interview format.
Reading Text 1
Peter and Jane want to go to the station to see the trains.
They like to look at the trains at the station. Here they
go, on a bus to the station. It is a red bus. They like it
on the bus. The bus has come to the station.
Reading Text 2
This is little billy goat Gruff. He likes to jump. This
is middle-sized billy goat Gruff. He likes to have fun.
This is big billy goat Gruff. He likes to eat grass. Here
is a bridge. The billy goats want to go over the bridge
for some grass.
Figure 1. Reading texts used during intervention.

Table 1
List of Sight Words Found in Text 1 and Text 2
Sight Words
Sight Words
from Text 1
from Text 2
a
a
and
is
at
go
has
have
here
he
is
likes
it
over
like
some
to
to
the
the

460

THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

Treatment
The treatment used is the Clay Modeling Program.
This program involves the use of modeling clay. A
detailed description of the intervention program is as
follows:
Session 1
Talk to the participants to make them feel at
ease. Motivate and explain to them that they have
to assume responsibility for their participation and
involvement in the intervention program. They must
be willing to participate and cooperate.
Session 2
Start with Symbol Mastery: Alphabet Mastery
The researcher provides paper strips on which
the letters of the alphabet have been printed (upper
and lower case) as well as modeling clay. During
this session, the participants have to mould strips
of clay, cut off the required lengths and form the
letters of the alphabet according to the examples
on the strip of paper. The clay letters are placed
next to each other and the participants must say
each letters name as they complete it. (During the
research project, cardboard squares were used for
these letters, since the work could not always be
completed in one session. The squares were then
kept in a safe place until the next session when work
could be resumed). The participants compare their
clay letters with the printed version and mistakes
are corrected. The researcher provides help when
necessary without criticizing the participants work.
The researcher also takes note of the letter(s) with
which the participants have to struggle. Then the
participants touch each letter from A-Z and say each
ones name. If they make a mistake and/or if the
participants hesitate, the researcher asks questions
to lead the participants to the correct name. Then
the participants touch each letter from Z-A and say
the name. This is repeated once more from Z-A.
Then the participants have to say out loud all the
letters from A-Z without looking at them. This is
repeated from Z-A. They may look at the letters if
they are uncertain.
Session 3
Symbol Mastery continued: Repeat everything
with the lower-case letters as with the upper-case
letters, but start with z and end with a initially.
Repeat until the participants can recite the upperand lower-case letters of the alphabet fluently from
memory. Then the participants can be asked to repeat
the names of the letters as pointed out at random by
the researcher.

VOL. 20 NO. 3
Session 4
Punctuation marks are made with clay, named,
touched and their functions discussed. The
punctuation marks are modeled and discussed as
the full stop and comma.
Session 5
The participants start to do Symbol Mastery
based on the word list as shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Word for Symbol Mastery During Clay Modeling Program

Text 1
Peter
look
Jane
like
and
they
want
red
to
is
go
a
the
bus
station
has
train
come
at
here

this
little
goat
billy
gruff
he
likes
to
jump
is

Text 2
middle-sized
fun
eat
grass
here
bridge
want
over
for
some

The reading techniques used when the participants start

to do Symbol Mastery on the word list are as stated
in the next section.
Spell Reading
Start at a much lower level than the grade in which
the child is. The participants made a word from the word
list using clay. Then the participants spell each word
and read it. The researcher guides where necessary.
This technique is not meant for comprehension. The
objective is to help the participants recognize letters
and words and also to train the participants brain and
eyes from left to right.
Sweep-Sweep-Spell
The researcher covers the words with a paper in a
line and then slowly reveals one word at a time with
a piece of paper. The participants must try and read
each word. A word may be swept twice and if the
participants still cannot read the word, then it has to
be spelled and pronounced. The researcher helps. The
aim again is not comprehension, but recognition and
training the brain and eyes from left to right.
Picture-at-Punctuation
The end result of this activity is to ensure that the
participants achieve complete comprehension of what
they have read in both the Reading Texts 1 & 2. The

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program

Ambrose, p.p. & LOH, s.C.

461

participants read up to a punctuation mark and explain

what they have read. They are asked to form a picture
in their mind of what has been read. The reading is
continued and the process repeated.

progress with respect to the treatment and without

treatment. Triangulation of observation, interview and
document analysis was also used to further strengthen
the data collected.

Procedure
After a suitable school had been identified, verbal
consent was obtained from the principal of the school
to carry out the research for 8 weeks. The next step
was to identify the suitable candidates and to assign
the candidates to the experimental group and control
group. The participants were their own controls. The
parents of the candidates were approached personally
to obtain permission for the child to partake in this
research program.
During pre-testing, the participants did the reading
test (Texts 1 & 2). After the test had been completed
the treatment was introduced. The participants received
the treatment in 20 sessions. Each session lasted for
about 75 minutes.
The participants were only trained using symbol
mastery based on one Reading Text (Text 1). For
the other Reading Text (Text 2), the participants
were not trained using symbol mastery or any other
program. After the treatment, the participants were
once again evaluated by means of the same tests. The
objective was to determine whether the participants
had significantly improved in their reading ability as
compared to the participants own control without the
treatment. The participants English teachers were
also interviewed to find out about their academic
performance through in-class reading exercises given
by the teacher as well as their participation in class.
The interview data was triangulated with other method
such as observation.

Results

Validity and Reliability

In this study, validity is enhanced through
triangulation among participant observation, interview
and document analysis. The participant observation
allows the researcher to obtain in-the-field experience
during the intervention and it serves as a check against
researchers subjective reporting and own belief, while
the document analysis is based on students ability to
spell the words in written form. Reliability is enhanced
as the pre-test and post-test were administered within
a time interval of two months.
Data Analysis
Data was analyzed based on the Reading Texts
and the detailed observation of the participants daily

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program on the Reading

Behavior of Dyslexic Children
Case 1: Shameen
Reading Ability: Shameen (fictitious name) is a
13-year old who could neither read nor spell words
in Reading Texts 1 & 2 (Table 3) during the pre-tests.
After she (in the experimental group) had undergone
the Clay Modeling Program, a post-test was conducted
on her using Reading Text 1. Shameen was able to read
Text 1 accurately, fluently and without hesitation, and
able to spell all the words orally and in written form.
However, when a post-test was conducted on Shameen
(control group) using Reading Text 2, she was not able
to read or spell the words in Reading Text 2. She could
only read and spell some of the words which had also
appeared in Reading Text 1.
Table 3
Words Read and Spelled After Undergoing the Clay
Modeling Program - Shameen
Text 1 Text 2
Peter
Jane
and
want

to
go
the
station
train

at

look
like
they
red
is
a
bus
has
come
here

is
to
here
want

When Shameen was introduced to the Clay

Modeling Program, she was able to follow the Symbol
Mastery techniques in the Program. Initially, she was
not able to form them in the standard size but later she
managed to do it. Shameen had problems identifying
the letters b and d correctly. However, after
forming them with clay a few times, she was able to
recognize them correctly. Shameens English teacher,
Ms. Bey (fictitious name) could see her excitement and
happiness when she was able to identify these letters
correctly. Shameen was also able to touch and say
the names of the alphabet from A-Z, Z-A, a-z and z-a.

462

THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

She likewise was able to say the names of the letters

when pointed out at random. When Shameen was
introduced to new words and told to form them in clay
and then spell them forward, backward and forward
again she was able to remember how to spell the
words and also its meaning. She was also introduced
to sight words and had no problem remembering
them. Shameen expressed her happiness in being
able to read. She said, I wished I was taught to read
much earlier. I actually never liked reading until this
very moment.
The researcher too was equally overwhelmed by
Shameens progress. It was really remarkable to see
her read. For someone who could not make any sense
of a word, and after undergoing the Clay Modeling
Program, it is simply amazing to know that she can
read. The researcher found this very rewarding and
satisfying. Ms. Bey was equally surprised to see the
changes in Shameen. She claimed, For someone
who was not able to read, this is definitely a great
breakthrough!
However, when Shameen was taught a different set
of words (Reading Text 2) without the Clay Modeling
Program, she could only remember them for a short
while and she could not spell the words correctly.
Attention Skills: Based on the interview conducted
with Ms. Bey, it was found that Shameen is not very
attentive in class, tends to daydream quite frequently
in class and does not respond well when specific
tasks are given. In the English tests, Shameen hardly
writes anything in the subjective section and even if
she does, it would merely be the questions and even
then there would be spelling errors. According to
Ms. Bey, Shameen hardly gets any word correct in
the spelling test. Ms. Bey also said that Shameen
does understand some instructions given orally in
class but she is unable to do her homework simply
because she cannot read or recognize and understand
the meaning of words. Shameen often fails to hand
in her homework and when she does, there are a lot of
spelling and grammatical errors in her work. She also
takes a very long time to finish her work.
When Shameen was introduced to the Clay
Modeling Program, she really enjoyed forming the
letters in upper and lower case with clay. She was
able to work on the clay without feeling bored or
restless. She was also able to remember all the sight
words and punctuation marks. She was very attentive
throughout the 75-minute sessions and there was no
problem in keeping her engaged in Modeling the letters

VOL. 20 NO. 3

and words with clay. She was filled with excitement

and happiness when she was able to identify letters
b and d for the first time.
After undergoing the Clay Modeling Program,
Ms. Bey noticed some positive changes in Shameen.
She appears to be slightly more attentive in class and
she does not daydream as frequently as she used to.
Ms. Bey also commented on Shameens eagerness in
working with the Clay Modeling Program, Shameen
really looks forward to your (the researcher) sessions.
When you could not make it one day, she was very
saddened. That really shows how much she enjoys the
Clay Modeling Program.
When Shameen was taught a different set of words
(Text 2) without the Clay Modeling Program, she
showed a sense of frustration when she could not read
the words. She was also very restless and was not too
keen about learning the words in this manner. In fact,
she asked if the clay can be used to form the words.
Self-Confidence: According to Ms. Bey, Shameen
can communicate in English but she speaks fluently
in Malay, by which she communicates in Malay with a
few friends in class. Shameen is also very passive and
quiet in class, always refrains from asking questions.
She does not read in class and dislikes reading, often
does not hand in her homework and when she does,
there are a lot of spelling and grammatical errors in
her work.
When Shameen underwent the Clay Modeling
Program, she became very excited as she learned
the new words and Ms. Bey could see that her selfconfidence had also increased. Success in learning
new words and being able to recall them had increased
her self-confidence and she was eager to learn more
new words. Shameen claimed: I always think I was
stupid and cannot read. But, now Im so very happy
because I can read. Im not stupid after all.
This statement from Shameen clearly shows that
she is confident that she can read and does not think
negatively about herself. Ms. Bey too, was very happy
for Shameen. What amazes her further is the fact that
Shameen proudly told her that she could read Text
1. Before this, Shameen would hardly say anything
to Ms. Bey: It really takes a lot of courage and selfconfidence for Shameen to come up to me and say that
she can read. It is indeed a great achievement!
Case 2: Carol
Reading Ability: Carol (fictitious name) is a 13year old who could neither read nor spell the words

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program

Table 4
Words Read and Spelled After Undergoing the Clay
Modeling Program - Carol

Peter
Jane
and
want
to
go
the
station
train
at

Text 1 Text 2
look
is
like
to
they
here
red
want
is
a
bus
has
come
here

in Reading Texts 1 & 2 (Table 4) during the pre-tests.

After she (experimental group) had undergone the
Clay Modeling Program, a post-test was conducted
on her using Reading Text 1. Carol was able to read
Text 1 accurately, fluently without hesitation, was also
able to spell all the words orally and in written form.
However, when a post-test was conducted on Carol
(control group) using Reading Text 2, she was not able
to read or spell the words in Reading Text 2 as the Clay
Modeling Program was not implemented for Reading
Text 2. She could only read and spell some of the
words which had also appeared in Reading Text 1.
Carol was able to follow the Symbol Mastery
techniques and was able to identify all the letters in
upper case. However, she had problems in identifying
letters p and q in lower cases. But after she was
able to identify letters p and q correctly, she showed
more interest. She became more comfortable and was
able to form the alphabets better in clay. Carol was
also able to touch and say the alphabets A-Z, Z-A, a-z
and z-a. Carol was also able to say the names of the
alphabets when pointed out at random. When Carol
was introduced to new words and told to form them
in clay and then spell them forward, backward and
forward again, she was able to remember how to spell
the words and also its meaning. She had no problem
remembering the sight words and punctuation marks
as well. The only problem she had was missing the s
suffix when pronouncing the words. But after a few
sessions she got it right.
Carol was delighted that she could read the words
and expressed her happiness in being able to read and
understand the meaning of words. Carols English
teacher, Ms. Tracy (fictitious name) was very happy
to see her progress in reading and once again she
was very impressed by Carols success in reading.

Ambrose, p.p. & LOH, s.C.

463

She commented: Im amazed to see her progress in

reading. Carol can now recognize some words in my
English class and thats really great!
However, when Carol was taught a different set of
words (Reading Text 2) without the Clay Modeling
Program, she could only remember them for a short
while and she could not spell the words correctly.
Attention Skills: Ms. Tracy commented that Carol
does not complete her work during the class time and
if she does, it is always wrong. Ms. Tracy adds that
Carol is also not attentive in class and that she does not
respond well when specific tasks are given but merely
copies blindly. Whenever exercises are given, Carol
just copies everything from that exercise or copies
from her friend. Carol is also easily distracted by the
surroundings.
When the Clay Modeling Program was introduced
to Carol, she was initially not too keen or interested
in forming the letters in clay and her letter formation
was not systematic and consistent in size. But after
the second session, she started to enjoy forming the
letters and words in clay. She was more focused,
very attentive throughout the sessions and paid
attention to Ms. Tracys instructions. Ms. Tracy did
not encounter any problems in keeping her attention
even when the sessions were held after school hours
in the afternoon.
Ms. Tracy also had observed some changes in Carol
after she underwent the Clay Modeling Program. Her
comments were: Carol appears to be more attentive
in class and she has started to copy more accurately
from the blackboard.
When Carol was taught a new set of words (Text 2)
without the Clay Modeling Program, she did not enjoy
it. Repeated drilling of a particular word did not help
her in mastering the word but instead seemed to bore
her and she was not able to focus and pay attention.
She told me (the researcher) that she preferred the
clay technique.
Self-Confidence: According to Ms. Tracy, Carol
cannot read well or fluently and the only words she
recognizes is I and is. She also does not read loudly
and what she reads makes no sense at all. Ms. Tracy
feels that Carol does not like reading. Carol cannot
communicate well in English and she communicates
with her peers in Mandarin. She also does not ask
questions in class, seldom hands in her homework,
very shy, extremely passive and very quiet in class.

464

THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

When Carol was introduced to the Clay Modeling

Program and was able to read the words, she was
very thrilled and delighted. She showed interest
in learning new words by asking me to teach her
more words. Carol expressed her happiness in
being able to read and understand the meaning of
words. She was feeling more confident about her
ability to read.
Ms. Tracy was amazed and happy to see her
progress in reading. Ms. Tracy asked Carol to read
Text 1 in class during her English lesson and she was
very happy to hear her read moderately loud and
accurately even though a little monotonous. Ms. Tracy
exclaimed that it was unbelievable to hear Carol read:
Carol has indeed gained some self-confidence as she
has the courage to read in front of the class.
Case 3: Suzanne
Reading Ability: Suzanne (fictitious name) could
neither read nor spell the words in Reading Texts 1 & 2
(Table 5) during the pre-tests. After she (experimental
group) had undergone the Clay Modeling Program, a
post-test was conducted on her using Reading Text 1.
She was able to read Text 1 accurately, fluently and
without hesitation, able to spell all the words orally
and in written form.
Table 5
Words Read and Spelled After Undergoing the Clay
Modeling Program - Suzanne

Peter
Jane
and
want
to
go
the
station
train
at

Text 1 Text 2
look
is
like
to
they
here
red
want
is
a
bus
has
come
here

However, when a post-test was conducted on

Suzanne (control group) using Reading Text 2, she
was not able to read or spell the words in Text 2 since
the Clay Modeling Program was not implemented for
Reading Text 2. She could only read and spell some
of the words which had also appeared in Reading
Text 1.
When Suzanne was introduced to the Clay
Modeling Program, she was able to follow the

VOL. 20 NO. 3

Symbol Mastery techniques in the program. She too

had problems identifying the letters p and q as she
always got them mixed up. But after using the clay
to form the two letters, she was able to identify them
correctly. I could see her excitement and happiness
when she was able to identify the letters p and q
correctly. Suzanne was also able to touch and say
the names of the alphabet from A-Z, Z-A, a-z and
z-a. Suzanne was also able to say the names of the
letters when pointed out at random. When Suzanne
was introduced to new words and told to form them
in clay and then spell them forward, backward and
forward again she was able to remember how to
spell the words and also its meanings. She also had
no problem remembering the punctuation marks.
However, Suzanne had a slight problem with one
sight word namely here. It took her a longer
time to master this particular word.
Suzanne was very excited and happy that she could
read, spell and write words correctly. She actually
asked me if I could teach her every day. I could see that
she was very eager to learn. It clearly shows that she
has initiative and is very interested to learn. Suzanne
said that she was very happy to be able to read and
recognize words.
I was indeed very happy with her progress. She
was filled with excitement and looked forward to
my sessions. It was truly very satisfying. Suzannes
English teacher, commented: Im glad to know that
Suzanne is able to read and recognize words. I had
never expected to see such changes in Suzanne.
However, when Suzanne was taught a new set of
words (Reading Text 2), she was not able to master the
words. She found it very difficult to spell the word and
could not even remember its meaning. She told me
that she preferred the clay technique as it was much
easier to remember the words.
Attention Skills: Suzannes English teacher, Ms. Tracy
complained that Suzanne is neither attentive nor able
to follow given instructions well in class. Suzanne
takes an extremely long time to do her work and has
never completed her work in class. She is very easily
distracted in class and daydreams most of the time,
seldom does her work correctly and does not copy
correctly from the blackboard. When Ms. Tracy asks
her any questions, she always says tak tahu (dont
know) or just shakes her head.
With Clay Modeling Program, Suzanne was able
to form the letters in clay and she enjoyed it very

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program

much. She did not show signs of boredom nor did she
drift away into daydreaming. She was focused and
paid attention throughout all the 75-minute sessions.
The only time she became restless and inattentive
was when she was taught words from Text 2 without
using the Clay Modeling Program. Ms. Tracy also
commented that Suzanne was really enjoying the Clay
Modeling Program. She said: When I asked Suzanne
about the Clay Modeling Program, she said that she
was having a lot of fun and is learning new words. I
was very pleased and delighted to hear that from her.
To be honest, I never expected such a positive response
from Suzanne.
Self-Confidence: According to Ms. Tracy, Suzanne
cannot read well or fluently, does not read in class and
dislikes reading. She even cried when asked to read
in class. Ever since then, Ms. Tracy has not asked her
to read in class. Suzanne also cannot communicate
well in English but she communicates with her peers
in Malay and Tamil. Suzanne neither asks questions
in class nor hands in her homework frequently, very
passive, shy and quiet in class.
After going through Clay Modeling Program,
Suzanne was very excited and happy that she could
read, spell and write words correctly to the extent that
she asked me to teach her everyday. She was very
eager to learn. She claimed that she had always felt
shy and embarrassed among her classmates because
she could not read, but now she too is able to read. It
clearly shows that success in learning to recognize and
read the words has given her the confidence in wanting
to learn more new words. I was indeed very happy
with her progress. She was filled with excitement
and looked forward to my sessions. It was truly very
satisfying. Ms. Tracy was also glad to see the changes
in Suzanne. She asked Suzanne if she would like to
read Text 1 in class and surprisingly Suzanne agreed.
Ms. Tracy commented: I was more than happy to hear
Suzanne read Text 1 loudly and accurately in class. I
think for someone who was shy and passive in class,
this is a very big change!
Discussion
According to Shaywitz (2003), a child that does
not receive intervention at an early stage will require
150 to 300 hours of intensive study. This means 90
minutes per day for a period of one to three years.
Davis (1997), on the other hand, mentions that a
dyslexic child who does not receive intervention at

Ambrose, p.p. & LOH, s.C.

465

an early stage will require about 30 hours of intensive

intervention. Marshall (2003) mentions that older
children and adults tend to have very rapid progress
in reading ability when using clay to model the
concepts that are associated with word meanings at
the same time as modeling the letters of each word in
clay. The Clay Modeling Program, which involves a
treatment of 20 in sessions, each session lasting for 75
minutes, showed that a very significant improvement
had taken place in all the three participants reading
behavior. There is a clear indication that this program
can produce positive results within a short period of
time.
According to the reading test (Text 1), the
experimental group that underwent the Clay Modeling
Program performed better than the control group.
The control group, on the other hand, showed no
significant improvement in the reading test (Text 2).
Only those words that reappeared from Text 1 were
read correctly. If this Program can help a dyslexic
child with zero reading ability to attain some level of
reading comprehension, we can hypothesize it to likely
do wonders for children who have little or minimal
reading skills.
Shaywitz (2003) mentions that phonics instruction
teaches children how to sound words and pronounce
them and that this promotes reading accuracy and
reading comprehension. However, as children get
older and move on to higher grades in school and
are exposed to more difficult words, the impact of
phonics instruction becomes less effective with
regard to a childs spelling ability (Marshall, 2003).
The fact that the participants were all 13 years of
age but still improved tremendously in the reading
and spelling tests can be regarded as further proof of
the effectiveness of the Clay Modeling Program.
There are also other factors that have contributed
to the success of this study. The rate of absorption
of the participants was very much dependent on
the location of the sessions. The sessions were
conducted in an enclosed room in the library where
there was practically no distraction. This is very
important as dyslexic children can be very easily
distracted by the surroundings. Even the slightest
noise or movement can cause the dyslexic childs
attention to shift to the distractions (Davis & Braun,
1997).
In this study, the researcher as the teacher played
a pertinent role in providing support to these children
during and after school hours. Burden (2005) finds that

466

THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

adolescents attending independent specialist school

for dyslexics demonstrated increase in academic
self-concept (ASC) when they move up the school,
although their initial ASC was significantly lower
than the mainstream sample. The positive change
can be attributed to the context in which the dyslexic
children were being educated, in this case, the ethos
of the school (Burden, 2005) and what exactly took
place in the childrens lives such as self-esteem,
learned helplessness and attribution which Burden
(2008) called for further investigation among these
children. Burden (2005) and Ingesson (2007)
confirm that what it seemed to be difficult prior
to diagnosis can be crucial to a dyslexic child, and
support obtained from parent can mean whether the
child would continue trying or giving up (Griffiths,
Norwich, & Burden, 2004; McNulty, 2003).
All of the factors discussed in this chapter clearly
show the success of the Clay Modeling Program in
enabling dyslexic children in this study to acquire
the ability to read, improve in attention and selfconfidence.
In Malaysia, about 4% of 12-year-olds in schools
are very weak in reading and writing after six years of
primary schooling (Chapman, 2006). This amounts to
about 20,000 Grade Six pupils, a very big number.
This is a very serious matter as such pupils are at
risk of dropping out of the school system and can
face a hard time continuing with their education or
pursuing a career. One of the reasons why some
of these pupils have not mastered the basic skills
is because they could have learning difficulties
which have not been identified or diagnosed. In the
researchers opinion, if these children are introduced
to the Clay Modeling Program mentioned in this
study, chances are they would improve their reading
ability.
The Clay Modeling Program can be used on any
individual who has a disability to read, spell and
write or is diagnosed as a dyslexic. It can be
introduced at any age, even as early as six or seven.
The only adaptation that has to be made is in regard
to the vocabulary and readers/Reading Texts. Any
readers/Reading Texts can be used depending on
the readers age and ability. The Clay Modeling
Program is also very cost-effective and since
Modeling Clay is easily available in any stationery
shop, and can be used by all schools, both in urban
and rural areas.

VOL. 20 NO. 3

Implications
The findings of this study show that the Clay
Modeling Program does improve the reading behavior
of dyslexic children. This gives rise to several
implications. Reading is an important aspect in ones
life. It widens ones knowledge, increases vocabulary,
improves fluency and is entertaining. By not being
able to read, many are missing out on these benefits.
Through the Clay Modeling Program, individuals
with reading disabilities will be able to make reading
possible in their lives and experience its benefits, since
it is one of the effective intervention programs.
Phonics instruction does not work for all dyslexic
children or all those with reading disabilities. An
alternative method is the Clay Modeling Program
which emphasizes Symbol Mastery using modeling
clay. It is essential, therefore, that seminars and
workshops be held for educators and care-givers to
implement the Clay Modeling Program in teaching
children with reading disabilities. Moreover, it is a
simple approach and can be easily administered by
educators and care-givers.
The Clay Modeling Program involves the use
of modeling clay which is cost effective and easily
available. Hence, this program can be implemented
by schools in both the rural and urban areas. Its
implementation can assist children with learning
disabilities in many ways. It has been proven that
when children are unable to read and write, their
self-confidence is affected to a great extent. Once
they are able to read, it automatically boosts their
self-confidence in reading. When an individuals selfconfidence is high, they tend to experience success
rather than failure. Success prevents them from
indulging in negative activities which may result in
serious social problems.
There are many successful dyslexics in the world
today. In Malaysia too, many more dyslexic children
can be guided for success in life and to attain their
highest potential. Through the Clay Modeling
Program, many dyslexic children can overcome their
reading problems, and this provides them with the
opportunity to be more successful in school and later
in life.
If this program is implemented on a wider scale
in Malaysia, chances are the issue of inability to read
among children can be significantly reduced. With this
reduction, there would not exist the problem of 20,000
Grade Six pupils not being able to read and/or write
(Chapman, 2006).

Effects of the Clay Modeling Program

Recommendations for Future

Research
The present study involved only one type of
treatment, the Clay Modeling Program. It, however,
did not make a comparison to show the effectiveness
of one method over the other. Further research can be
done by comparing the Clay Modeling Program with
a traditional phonics intervention program.
In addition, the present study involved only a very
small sample of dyslexic children. Further research
can also be done involving larger population, younger
dyslexic children or even children who do not have
a learning disability but are facing reading problems
due to other factors, such as insufficient resources,
overcrowded classrooms and low socio-economic
status. This program could probably be very effective
in helping these children. It is, however, necessary to
further examine if the Clay Modeling Program works
on adults who are illiterate for whom the program may
have been appropriate in order to establish whether
or not children with learning difficulty are simply
performing like the adult illiterate, or whether their
performance differs in some aspects. This study uses
qualitative methodology. It is suggested that future
research can further ascertain the efficacy of Clay
Modeling Program through quantitative methods by
adopting the pre-test/post-test quasi experimental
research design.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, it can be
concluded that the Clay Modeling Program helps
improve the reading ability of dyslexic children over
a short period of time. Further notable findings were
that this Program has helped improve these childrens
attention skills and increase their level of selfconfidence. If this Program is used as an alternative
method for teaching larger group of children with
dyslexia, it would help to assist these individuals to
read and write. It can, in addition, reduce the dropout
rates in schools, and thus, would bring about many
benefits in their future development. A literate society
also contributes to a decline in crime rates and other
form of social ills (JUKEN Consultancy Sdn. Bhd,
2004). In the Malaysian context, it would help in
achieving one of the goals of Vision 2020, namely
having a literate society.
References

Berninger, V. (2004). Brain-based assessment and

instructional intervention. In G. Reid, Fawcett, A.

Ambrose, p.p. & LOH, s.C.

467

(Eds.), Dyslexia in context. Research, policy, and

practice (pp. 90-119). London, UK: Whur.
Berninger, V. & Richards, T. (2009). Brain and learning.
In E. Anderman & L. Anderman (Eds.), Psychology of
classroom learning: An encyclopedia (Vol. 1, pp. 15-22).
Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference.
Burden, R. L. (2005). Dyslexia and self-concept. London,
UK: Whurr.
Burden, R. (2008). Is dyslexia necessarily associated with
negative feelings of self-worth? A review and implications
for future research. Dyslexia, 14(3), 188-196.
Bradford, J. (2001). A confidence building exercise.
Dyslexia Teacher. Retrieved from http://www.dyslexiateacher.com/t66.html
Carnine, D., Silbert, J., & Kameenui, E. J. (1990). Direct
instruction reading (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Davis, R. D. (1997). Common characteristics of dyslexia.
Dyslexia the Gift. Retrieved from http://www.dyslexia.
com
Davis, R. D. (2003). The gift of learning. New York, NY:
The Berkley Publishing Group.
Davis, R. D., & Braun, E. M. (1997). The gift of dyslexia.
New York, NY: The Berkley Publishing Group.
Drake, C. (1999). Helping readers make the grade. Orton
Gillingham Institute for Multi-Sensory Education
Online Catalogue. Retrieved from http://www.Ortongillingham.com
Gorman, C., Cuadros, P., Land, G., Scully, S., & Song, S.
(2003). The new science of DYSLEXIA. Time, 162(4),
53-59.
Griffiths, C. B., Norwich, B., & Burden, R. L. (2004).
Parental agency, identity and knowledge: Mothers of
children with dyslexia. Oxford Review of Education,
30(3), 417434.
Ingesson, S. G. (2007). Growing up with dyslexia. School
Psychology International, 28(5), 574591.
Jaramillo, J. (2008). Expression in clay. School Arts, 107(7),
40.
JUKEN Consultancy, Sdn. Bhd. (2004). Addressing specific
learning difficulties in children.
Jukenworld. Retrieved from http://www.jukenworld.com/
dyslexia.html
Levine, M. (2002). A mind at a time. New York, NY:
Simon & Schuster.
Lyon, G. R., & Moats, L. C. (1997). Critical conceptual and
methodological considerations in reading intervention
research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(6),
578-588.
Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003).
Defining dyslexia, comorbidity, teachers knowledge of
language and reading: A definition of dyslexia. Annals
of Dyslexia, 563, 1-14.
Marshall, A. (2003). Brain scans show dyslexics read better
with alternative strategies. Davis Dyslexia Association
International. Retrieved on August 14, 2006, from

468

THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

Dyslexia the Gift Home Page. Website: http://www.

dyslexia.com
Marshall, A. (2005). Brain function, spell reading, and
sweep-sweep-spell. Davis Dyslexia Association
International. 1-5. Retrieved on August 15, 2007, from
Positive Dyslexia. Website: http://www.positivedyslexia.
com
Miller, W. H. (1993). Complete reading disabilities
handbook. Ready-to-use techniques for teaching reading
disabled children. New York, NY: The Center for
Applied Research in Education.
McNulty, M. A. (2003). Dyslexia and the life course.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(4), 363381.

VOL. 20 NO. 3
Narayana, S. & Xiong, J. (2003). Reading treatment helps
children with dyslexia and changes activity in language
areas of the brain. Neurology, 61(2): E5-6.
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia. A new and
complete science based program for reading problems
at any level. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
Stowe, C. M. (2000). How to reach and teach children &
teens with dyslexia. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
The Star. (2006, 23 October). 20,000 Year Six pupils cant
read or write well.
Tomascoff, R. N. (2004). Fun & function with clay, Arts
and Activities, 135(1), 36.
Warwick, S. (2005). The science of CLAY. School Arts,
105(3), 28.