CHAPTER 11 POLAR COORDINATES AND CONIC SECTION

11.3 Polar Coordinates

Coordinate systems are just ways to define a point in space. For instance in
the Cartesian coordinate system at point is given the coordinates (x,y) and
we use this to define the point by starting at the origin and then moving x
units horizontally followed by y units vertically. Instead of moving vertically
and horizontally from the origin to get to the point we could instead go
straight out of the origin until we hit the point and then determine the angle
this line makes with the positive x-axis. We could then use the distance of
the point from the origin and the amount we needed to rotate from the
positive x-axis as the coordinates of the point. This system is known as the
polar coordinate system. It is easier to work with for many problems.
In this coordinate system a point in the plane is located in reference to a
fixed point O called the origin or pole. Using O as the endpoint, construct
an initial ray called the polar axis. Each point P in the polar coordinate
system is represented by an ordered pair (r, ). This ordered pair (r, ) is
referred to as the polar coordinates of P. r is the directed distance from O to P
and the directed angle from the polar axis to the line OP.
A point P can be located as follows:
Start at the polar axis and rotate through an angle of measure to

(a)

determine the ray .

(b) On the ray move r units from O to locate P.
Example 11.1:

3,

(a)

(c)
(d)

4,

(b)

3,

2,

Plot the following points in the polar coordinate system.

13

3
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This leads to an important difference between Cartesian coordinates and

polar coordinates. In Cartesian coordinates there is exactly one set of
coordinates for any given point. This means that each point (x, y) has a
unique representation. For the polar coordinates this isnt true. In polar
coordinates there is literally an infinite number of coordinates for a given
point.
Relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates.

x = r cos

y = r sin

x 2 y2 r2

tan

y
x

A polar equation is an equation whose variables are r and . To convert a

polar equation in and r to a rectangular equation in x and y, replace r cos
by x, r sin by y and r 2 by x 2 y 2 .

Example 11.2: Replace the following polar equations by equivalent Cartesian

equations
(a)

Express r = 2sin in rectangular coordinates.

(b) Show that r =

2
is an equation of a parabola.
1 - cos

To convert a rectangular equation in x and y to a polar equation in rand ,

replace x by r cos and y by r sin .
Example 11.1.3: Convert each rectangular equation to a polar equation
(a)

x 3

(b)

y2 x2 4

Homework
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Exercise 11.3: 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 39, 41, 53, 55, 57, 59, 63

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11.4 Graphing in Polar Coordinates

This section describes techniques for graphing equations in polar
coordinates.
Graphs of Polar Coordinates
(a)

The graph of a polar equation is the set of all points whose polar

coordinates satisfy the equation.

(b)

The method for graphing a polar equation is the point-plotting

method.
Step 1: Create the table of values that satisfy the equation.
Step 2:

Plot the ordered pairs.

Step 3:

Connect the points with a smooth curve.

Example 11.4.1: Graph each of the following polar equations.

(a)

r 2 cos

(b) r 5 sin
(c)

r3

(d) r 2 2 sin
(e) r 3 3 cos
Common Polar Coordinate Graphs
Lets identify a few of the more common graphs in polar coordinates. Well
also take a look at a
couple of special polar graphs.
Lines
1.
This is a line that goes through the origin and makes an angle of

with the

positive x-axis. Or, in other words it is a line through the origin with slope of
tan

2.
This is easy enough to convert to Cartesian coordinates to x = a. This is a
vertical line.
3.
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This converts to y = b and so is a horizontal line.

Circles
1.

r=a.

This equation is saying that no matter what angle weve got the distance
from the origin must be a. This is the definition of a circle of radius a
centered at the origin.
2.
This is a circle of radius a and center (a,0).
3.
This is a circle of radius b and center (0,b) .
Cardioids
and
These have a graph that is vaguely heart shaped and always contain the
origin.

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11.5 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

Area of a Polar Region
The area problem in Polar Coordinates: Find the area of the region R
between a polar curve r = f( ) and two lines, = and = .
The development of the formula for the area of a polar region parallels that
for the area of a region on the rectangular coordinate system. In the polar
coordinate system sectors of a circle is used instead of rectangles.

If

) is continuous and non-negative for , then the area A

enclosed by the polar curve

A=

and the lines = and = is given by

1 2
r d
2

Steps
1. Sketch the region R whose area is to be determined.
2. Draw an arbitrary radical line from the origin to the boundary of the
curve.
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3. Over what interval of values must vary in order for the radical line to
sweep out the region A.
4. The answer in step 3 will determine the lower and upper limits of
integration.

Example 11.5.1: Find the area of the region in the first quadrant within the
cardiod r 1 sin

In this case we can use the above formula to find the area enclosed by both
and then the actual area is the difference between the two.
A=

Example 11.5.2: Find the area of the region that is inside the cardiod r = 4 +
4cos and outside the circle r = 6.
Example 11.5.3: Find the area of the region outside the cardiod r = 1 + cos
and inside the circle r =

3 sin .

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Homework
Exercise 11.5:

9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17

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11.6 Conic Sections

Objective

Know the names of the conics

The curves that can be obtained by intersecting a cone with a plane are
called conics or conic sections. The most important of the conic sections
are the circles, the ellipses, the parabolas and the hyperbolas.
A circle is obtained by intersecting a cone with a plane which is
perpendicular to the axis and does not contain the vertex.

If the plane is tilted slightly the resulting intersection is an ellipse.

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A plane which is tilted further the resulting intersection is a parabola.

If the plane is parallel to the axis but does not contain the vertex, the
resulting intersection is a hyperbola.

The study of the conic sections dates back to the ancient Greek geometers.
The work was purely geometric and the algebraic formulations were not
introduced until the seventeenth century. The four curves have played a
vital role in mathematics and its applications. Kepler discovered that the
planets revolve around the sun in elliptic orbits. Today, properties of conic
sections are used in the construction of telescopes, radar antennas and
navigational systems and in determining satellite orbits.
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The Parabola
Objectives

Find the equation of a parabola

Discuss the equation of a parabola

Work with parabolas with vertex at (h, k)

Graph parabolas

A parabola is the set of all points in the plane that are equidistant from a
given line and a given point not on the line.
All parabolas are vaguely U shaped and they will have a highest or lowest
point that is called the vertex. Every parabola has an axis of symmetry
and, the graph to either side of the axis of symmetry is a mirror image of the
other side. This means that if we know a point on one side of the parabola
we will also know a point on the other side based on the axis of symmetry.
Intercepts are the points where the graph will cross the x or y-axis.

Terms
(i)

focus: the given point

(ii)

directrix: the given line

(iii)

axis: the line that passes through the focus at right angles to the

directrix. The parabola

(iv)

is symmetric about this line.

vertex: point of intersection of the parabola and the axis.

Equation of the parabola with the vertex at (h, k)

i.

( y k ) 2 4 p ( x h)

ii.

( y k ) 2 4 p ( x h )

iii.

( x h) 2 4 p ( y k )

iv.

( x h) 2 4 p ( y k )

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Example 11.6.1: Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola with
equation y 2 8 x .
Example 11.6.2: Find an equation for the parabola with vertex (1, 2) and
focus (4, 2).
Example 11.6.3: Sketch the parabola ( y 3) 2 8( x 4) and label it completely.
Example 11.6.4: Show that the curve y 6 x 2 12 x 8 is a parabola. Sketch
and label it completely.
Homework
Sketch the parabola and label it completely.
1.

( y 3) 2 6( x 2)

2.

( x 2) 2 ( y 2)

3.

x 2 4x 2 y 1

Answer
1.
Opens in the positive x-direction
y-direction
Vertex : (2, 3)
axis
: y3
focus

directrix

3.

7
, 3
2

1
: x
2

2.

Opens in the negative

Vertex :
(2, 2)
axis
: x 2
focus

9
4

: 2,

directrix

: y

7
4

( x 2) 2 2 y
2

Vertex: 2,
2

Opens in the negative y-direction

axis
: x2
focus : (2, 2)
directrix
: y3

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The Ellipse
Objectives

Find the equation of an ellipse

Discuss the equation of an ellipse

Work with ellipses with center at (h, k)

Graph ellipses

An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose distances
from two fixed points is a constant.
Terms
(i)

foci: the two fixed points

(ii)

center: the midpoint of the line segment connecting the foci

(iii)

vertices: points of intersection of the ellipse and the line through the

foci
(iv)

major axis: line that joins the vertices

(v)

minor axis: line that is through the center and perpendicular to the

major axis
Equation of the ellipse with center at (h, k):

(i)

( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2

1
a2
b2

major axis is parallel to the x-axis

(ii)

( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2

1
b2
a2

major axis is parallel to the y-axis

Example 11.6.5: Sketch the graph of

Example 11.6.6: Graph the ellipse

x2 y2

1 and label it completely.

9
4

( x 1) 2 ( y 2) 2

1 and label it completely.

4
9

Example 11.6.7: Sketch the graph of the equation 4 x 2 25 y 2 24 x 100 y 36 0

.
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Homework
Graph each of the following ellipse and label it completely.
1.

x2 y2

1
25 64

2.

4 x 2 16 y 2 64

3.

( x 2) 2 ( y 1) 2

1
9
4

4.

4 x 2 y 2 16 x 6 y 39 0

5.

9 x 2 25 y 2 36 x 50 y 164 0

2.

Center
:
Major axis
Minor axis
Foci
:
Vertices :

Answers
1.

Center
:
Major axis :
Minor axis :
Foci
:
Vertices :
Co-vertices
(0, 2)

3.
axis

origin
y-axis
x-axis
(0,

39 )

(0, 8)

( 12 , 0)

( 4, 0)

Co-vertices :

Center
: (2, 1) 4.
4.
y

1
Major axis : parallel to x-axis
Minor axis : x 2
Foci
: (2 5 , 1)
Vertices : (2 3, 1)
Co-vertices :
( 2 4, 3)

5.

(5, 0)

origin
:
x-axis
:
y-axis

Center
: (2, 3)
Major axis : parallel to yx 2
y3
Minor axis :
Foci
: ( 2, 3 48 )
Vertices : ( 2, 3 8)
( 2, 1 2)
Co-vertices :

( x 2) 2 ( y 1) 2

1
25
9

Center
:
Major axis :
Minor axis :
Foci
:
Vertices :
Co-vertices

(2, 1)
parallel to the x-axis y 1
x2
(2 4, 1)
( 2 5, 1)

( 2,1 3)

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The Hyperbola
Objectives

Find the equation of a hyperbola

Discuss the equation of a hyperbola

Work with hyperbolas with center at (h, k)

Graph ellipses

Find the asymptotes of a hyperbola

A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane, the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points is a given positive constant.

Terms:
(i)

foci: the two fixed points

(ii)

center: the midpoint of the line segment joining the foci

(iii)

focal axis: the line through the foci. The focal axis also known as the
transverse axis.

(iv)

conjugate axis: the line through the center and perpendicular to the

focal axis.
(v)

vertices: the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the focal axis.

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Equation of the hyperbola with center at (h, k)

(i)

(x h)2 ( y k)2

1
a2
b2

focal axis is parallel to the x-axis

(ii)

( y k)2 (x h)2

1
a2
b2

focal axis is parallel to the y-axis

b
x 2 y2
The hyperbola 2 2 1 has asymptotes y x .
a
a
b

The hyperbola

a
y2 x 2
2 1 has asymptotes y x .
2
b
a
b

Example 11.6.8: Sketch the graph of

y2 x 2

1 and label it completely.

9
4

Example 11.6.9: Sketch the graph of 4 x 2 y 2 8x 6 y 9 0 and label it

completely.

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Homework
Sketch each of the following hyperbola and label it completely.
1.

x2 y2

1
16
4

2.

9 y 2 4 x 2 36

3.

( x 2) 2 ( y 4) 2

1
9
4

4.

( y 3) 2 9( x 2) 2 36

2.

y 2 x2

1
4
9

Answer
1.

Focal axis

: x-axis

Conjugate axis:
:
y-axis
Asymptotes :

3.

y-axis

1
x
2

Focal axis

Conjugate axis

x-axis

2
3
(0, 2)

Vertices

: (4, 0)

Asymptotes : y x

Foci

Vertices
Foci

20 , 0)

Center
: (2, 4)
Focal axis : y 4
Conjugate axis:
y 3
:

4.
x2

2
3
(2 3, 4)

Center
Focal axis

:
:

(0,

13 )

: (2, 3)
: x 2
Conjugate axis

Asymptotes : 4 ( x 2) y

Asymptotes : y 3 3( x 2)

Vertices

Vertices

( 2, 3 6) ( 2, 3) ;

Foci

:
( 2, 9)

(2

13 , 4)

Foci

( 2, 3 2 2 )

Homework
Exercise 11.6:

57, 59, 61, 63, 65,

Practice Exercises:

15, 17, 19, 21, 47, 49, 51, 53

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