CULTURE OF INDIA

LITERATURE
Sanskrit literature (SPECTRUM : PG 371)
-

The Sanskrit language is divided into the Vedic and the classical. The
great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas are part
of the classical period, but are discussed separately because of their
enormity and importance.

Classical Sanskrit literature is on the whole secular in character. During

the classical period, language was regulated by the rigid rules of Panini,
one of the greatest Sanskrit grammarians.

Classical Sanskrit literature includes the Kavyas (epic poetry), the

Nataka (drama), lyric poetry, romance, popular tales, didactic fables,
gnomic poetry, scientific literature on grammar, medicine, law,
astronomy, mathematics, etc.

Kalidasa, sudraka, Jayadeva are important personalities to glorify

Sanskrit language.

Dravidian Literature
-

Dravidian literature mainly consists of the four languages, Tamil,

Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. Out of these, Tamil is the oldest
language which preserved its Dravidian character the most. All these
languages have borrowed many words from Sanskrit

Early classical Tamil literature is known as Sangam literature meaning

fraternity, indicating mainly two schools of poets, aham (subjective
love poems), and puram (objective, public poetry and heroic). Aham
deals purely with the subjective emotions of the lover, and puram with

all kinds of emotions, mainly the valour and glory of kings, and about
good and evil.
-

Tamil reveals a triumph of Brahmanic and Buddhist knowledge. The

twin epics, Silappadhikaram (the story of the anklet), and Manimekalai
(the story of Manimekalai), were written sometimes in A.D. 200-300
and give vivid accounts of Tamil society during that period. These are
valuable storehouses and epics of dignity and sublimity, laying stress on
the cardinal virtues of life. In Manimekalai there is an elaborate
exposition of the doctrines of Buddhism.

Kannada shows Jain ascendency in its ancient phase. Malayalam

absorbed a rich treasure contained in the Sanskrit language. Nannaya
(A.D.1100) was the first Telugu poet.

Medieval Literature
-

The most powerful trend of medieval Indian literature between 1000 and
1800 A.D. is devotional (bhakti) poetry which dominates almost all the
major languages of the country.

The rise of bhakti poetry gave rise to regional languages (Bhasa). The
conception of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and
accepted the more acceptable language of the common man. For e.g.
Hindi was used by Saint Kabir. Gurumukhi script by Guru Nanak.

Bhakti was not the only aspect of medieval literature. Love ballads and
heroic poetry in Punjabi, known as Kissa and Var, were popular Punjabi
medieval forms. The most famous Punjabi love ballad is Hir Ranjha, an
immortal book by a Muslim poet called Warris Shah.

During the medieval period, Urdu, as a language, came into being. It

was Amir Khusro (1253 A.D.), an early architect of Indias composite
culture, and a great Sufi poet, who first experimented with Persian and
Hindi (then known as Hindavi) mixed poetry, which was the genesis of a
new language.

Indian Romanticism
-

The trend of Indian romanticism ushered in by three great forces

influenced the destiny of modern Indian literature. These forces were Sri
Aurobindos *(1872-1950) search for the divine in man, Tagores quest
for the beautiful in nature and man, and Mahatma Gandhis experiments
with truth and non-violence.

The romantic trend of the modern times follows the tradition of Indian
poetry, where romanticism indicates the Vedantic (the philosophy of one
Reality) oneness between Nature and man, more along the lines of Vedic
symbolism and not Paganism.

Muhammad Iqbal (1877-198), the greatest poet that Urdu had produced,
second only to Ghalib, went through initially a romantic-cumnationalistic phase in his poetry. His best collection of Urdu poems is
Bang-i-Dara (1924). His quest for Pan-Islamism did not deter him in his
concern for humanity at large.

Indian poetry
-

Indian poetry and Indian literature in general, has a long history dating
back to Vedic times. They were written in various Indian languages.

The poetry reflects diverse spiritual traditions within India. In particular,

many Indian poets have been inspired by mystical experiences.

There are very few literary awards in India for poetry alone. The
prestigious

awards

like Jnanapeeth, Sahitya

Akademi and Kalidas

Samman etc. are given away to writers of both prose and poetry.
Perini Shivatandavam
-

This is a dance form of state of Telangana. It is called the dance of

warriors originated more than 1,000 years ago.

This dance form was performed to motivate warriors before they went to
the battlefield.

But it reached its pinnacle during the reign of Kakatiyan rulers Rani
Rudramma Devi and Ganapathideva in the 13th century before fading

into oblivion. It was musicologist late Nataraja Ramakrishna who

recreated the lost dance form in the early 1970s
Difference between Hindustani music and carnatic music
Hindustani music
Origin: practiced in northern India. Originated from sangita Ratnakar of
Shankardeva.
Singing style: more melody-intensive, focusing on voice quality/tone/quality,
vocal gymnastics, raga-emotion. It given distinct character to each Raga. It
gives more Importance to asthetics.
Musical Instruments: Tabla. Claroinet, sitar, santoor are used
CLASSICAL Forms of Music: Thumri, Khayal and Dhrupad
Influences: it has influence of Persian and other kinds of music
Carnatic music:
Origin: originated in south India. Shri purandardasa and the trinity in carnatic
music viz tyagaraja, Dikshitar and Shyam shastri played important role in its
emergence
Singing style: gives equal importance to literary aspect of singing. It is rigid
and sung under strict rules.
Musical instruments: veena, flute, mandolin, violin are used.
Forms of Music: pallavi, anupallavi and Charnam
Influences: no alien influences.
Similarities: Both the styles are monophonic, follow a melodic line and
employ a drone (tanpura) with the help of one or two notes against the melody.
Both the styles use definite scales to define a raga.
TANDAVA DANCE
-

Is a divine dance performed by the Hindu god Shiva. Shiva's Tandava is described as a
vigorous dance that is the source of the cycle of creation, preservation and dissolution.

INDIAN PAINTING
The paintings in India can be divided into two genres, one is the miniature
painting drawn on small materials like paper, book or cloth. This painting reached its
zenith during Mughal period. The other is the mural painting drawn on large
structures like Ajanta caves, Kailasanatha temple.
MUGHAL PAINTING
It is generally confined to illustrations on the book and done in miniatures. Developed
and flourished during the reigns of Akbar, ShahJahan and Jahangir.
1) Origin: during the period of the Mughal Empire 16th 19th centuries.
2) Theme of painting: it includes visual records of deeds of Mughal Emperors as
hunters and conquerors. One of the first productions of that school of
miniature painting was the Hamzanama series. The Hamzanama, stories of
Amir Hamza, the uncle of the Prophet, were illustrated by Mir Sayyid Ali
3) Style of painting: Mughal paintings are a unique blend of Indian, Persian and
Islamic styles. Brilliant red, blue and green colours predominate; the pink,
eroded rocks and the vegetation, planes and blossoming plum and peach trees
are reminiscent of Persia.
The art started declining after Aurangzeb gained power of Mughal empire. Mughalstyle miniature paintings are still being created today by a small number of artists
in Rajasthan concentrated mainly in Jaipur.
Rajasthani Painting
It is a miniature style of Indian painting. Rajput paintings Paintings were even done
on the walls of palaces, inner chambers of the forts, havelies.
1) 1) Origin: It evolved and flourished during the 18th century in the royal courts
of Rajputana.
2) Theme of painting: depict a number of themes, events of epics like
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna's life, beautiful landscapes, and
humans.
3) Styles of painting: Rajput art schools began to develop distinctive styles
combining indigenous as well as foreign influences (Persian, Mughal,
Chinese, and European) into unique styles. The colours extracted from certain

minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing
precious stones, gold and silver were used.
4) Schools of Rajasthani painting: It consists of four principal schools that have
within them several artistic styles and substyles. They are merwar, marwar,
hadoti and dhundar. Kangra and kullu style are also part of rajasthani painting.

Kangra painting
It is the pictorial art of Kangra, named after Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. Kangra
paintings belong to the school of Pahari paintings.

1)

origin: It was flourished during the regime of maharaja sansar chand during
18th century.

2)

Theme of painting: adopted themes of eternal love between Radha and

Krishna.

Bhagavata

Purana and

the

love

poems Gita

Govinda by Jayadeva were also popular subjects.

3)

Style of painting: The artistes employed cool, fresh colours. The faces are well
modelled and shaded so judiciously that they possess almost porcelain-like
delicacy. Kangra paintings depict the feminine charm in a very graceful
manner. Facial features are soft and refined. The female figures are
exceptionally beautiful. One striking feature of Kangra paintings is the verdant
greenery it depicts. The style is naturalistic, and great attention is paid to
detail.

Mysore painting
It is an important form of classical South Indian painting.
1) Origin: Mysore painting evolved from the paintings of Vijayanagar times
during the reign of the Vijayanagar Kings 1336-1565 A.D.
2) Theme of painting: The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu gods and
goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology.
3) Styles of painting: known for their elegance, muted colours, and attention to
detail. Characterized by delicate lines, intricate brush strokes, graceful
delineation of figures and the discreet use of bright vegetable colours and
lustrous gold leaf.

The paintings are designed to inspire feelings of devotion and humility in the
viewer.
Tanjore painting
It is a major form of classical South Indian painting
1) 1) origin: The art form dates back to about 1600 AD, a period when the
Nayakas of Thanjavur encouraged art.
2) Themes: The subjects of most paintings are Hindu gods, goddesses, and saints.
3) Style: Tanjore paintings are known for their surface richness, vivid colors,
compact composition and especially the glittering gold foils used to give the
paintings their rich look. Tanjore paintings are panel paintings done on solid
wood planks, and hence referred to as palagai padam
Together mysore and tanjore paintings form the part of vijaynagar school of
paintings.
Mithila painting (madhubani painting)
It is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar state. The
painting was traditionally done on freshly plastered mud walls and floors of huts, but
now they are also done on cloth, handmade paper and canvas.
1) origin: It has been done traditionally by the women of villages around the
present town of Madhubani and Darbhanga.
2) Themes: Madhubani paintings mostly depict the men & its association with
nature and the scenes & deity from the ancient epics. Natural objects like the
sun, the moon, and religious plants like tulsi are also widely painted.
3) Style: The painting is characterized by eye-catching geometrical patterns.
There are paintings for each occasion and festival. Painting is done with
fingers, twigs, brushes, nib-pens, and matchsticks. Madhubani paintings are
made from the paste of powdered rice.
Madhubani painting has remained confined to a compact geographical area and
the skills have been passed on through centuries. that is the reason for Madhubani
painting being accorded the coveted GI (Geographical Indication) status.
Pattachitra

It is a general term for traditional scroll painting, in Odisha.

1) Origin: It originated around 5th century BC.
2) Themes: These paintings are based on Hindu mythology and specially inspired
by Jagannath and Vaishnava cult.
3) Style: It is mix of both folk and classical elements but leanings more towards
folk forms. The dress style has Persian influences. All of the poses have been
confined to a few well-defined postures. Palm leaf pattachitra which is in
Oriya language known as Tala Pattachitra drawn on palm leaf.
Warli folk paintings
1)

It is well known painting in worli area of Mumbai in Maharashtra. Despite

being in such close proximity of the largest metropolis in India, Warli
tribesmen shun all influences of modern urbanization.

2)

Themes: It is the vivid expression of daily and social events, used by them to
embellish the walls of village houses. This art form is simple in comparison to
the vibrant paintings of Madhubani.

3)

Style: Women are mainly engaged in the creation of these paintings. Images of
human beings and animals, along with scenes from daily life are created in a
loose rhythmic pattern. It can be recognized by the fact that they are painted
on an austere mud base using one colour, white, with occasional dots in red
and yellow.

SULTANATE PAINTING(SPECTRUM PG 310)

Characteristics of Indian painting
-

Secular and show influence of different cultures (RAJASTHANI, DECCAN,

MUGHUL EMERGED FROM SULTANATE SCHOOL)

depiction of ancient life and religion: madhubani, warli

substance of hindu mythology: tanjore, pattachitra

delicacy of Art: colours made from simple elements, rounded figures,

emotions

The traditional Indian painting started deteriorating after the first half of the 18th century and by
the end of the century it lost most of its vitality and charm. However, in the Pahari region the art
of painting maintained its quality till the end of the first quarter of the 19th century. Under the
impact of the Western colours and technique of painting the traditional styles of Indian painting
finally died out in the second half of the 19th century.

CHARACTERISTICS OF Indian CLASSICAL DANCE

-

contains aspects of both lasya and tandava dance.

Graceful, sensuous and lyrical. Emotions and expressions form very important
aspect of dance.

Origin in natya shastra

It presents a means of propagating mythological stories.

Hoysala architecture
-

Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the Southern
Deccan Plateau region.

a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more
distinct.

Hoysala temples were not limited to any specific organised tradition of Hinduism and
encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu devotional movements.

The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Lord Shiva or to Lord Vishnu in their
various forms and avatars. Occasionally there were different deity.

Hoysala temples have distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole.
Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance porch supported by circular pillars.
The temples are built on raised platform called jagati. The characteristic feature of
hosayla temple is the dwarfishness of the whole structure.

Apart from architectural plan other changes were also made. Sandstone was
given up in favour of coloristic schist.

Hoysala

architectural

style,

including

the

Chennakesava

Temple at

Belur,

the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple atSomanathapura.

stupa
-

an architectural structure usually housing the cremated remains

or possessions of important saintly figures , is considered to be
the

structural

emblem

and

the

most

important

type

of

monument of Buddhism.
-

It is believed that the remains of gautam Buddha was divided

into 8 parts and Each of the eight kingdoms in which the Buddha
had lived received one portion of the relics, and a stupa was
erected in each kingdom in order to house the remains.

not merely considered a commemorative symbol by the Buddhist

community; they were believed to be the living presence of the
Buddha, a depository of his protective powers and living energy.

veneration of stupas and the relics in them in order to gain

spiritual merit.

Architectural development of stupa

-

During early Buddhist times, stupas were composed of a semispherical dome with a parasol placed on top. The dome covered
a square base with a small receptacle in the centre containing
relics.

Different shapes of domes developed in Sri Lanka, and a very

unique architectural expression also developed, in which the
stupa itself was enclosed by a large dome known as vatadage,
supported by columns located around the stupa.

In Myanmar, The parasol on top of the dome was elongated and

resembled a cone.

Pagoda is the name for stupas found in China, where they are
shaped like a tower. Here, the dome was eliminated, and the
emphasis is on verticality.

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

NAGARA STYLE
1) Nagara temples have two distinct features : the temple is a square with a
number of graduated projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform
shape and secondly, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a
convex curve.
2) Examples are khajuraho temple in madhya pradesh and Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple Madhya Pradesh and jaganatha temple at Puri (orissa).
Dravidian architecture (Cholas architecture)
1) It a style of architecture that emerged thousands of years ago in the Southern
part of the India. It consists of Vimana (the place were god is kept), mandapa
(porch), gopurama (the pyramid type entrance) and pillared halls.
2) It consists primarily of pyramid shaped temples dependent on intricate carved
stone in order to create a step design consisting of many statues of deities,
warriors, kings, and dancers.

3)

The Cholas continued the temple building traditions of the Pallava dynasty, who were
themselves influenced by the Amaravathi school of architecture.

4)

The Cholas in addition to their temples, also built many buildings such as hospitals, public
utility buildings and palaces.

5)

Pallavas were the first recognisable South Indian dynasty who indulged in the pursuit of
architectural innovations.

Badami Chalukya Architecture

Chalukya style originated during 450 CE in Aihole and perfected in Pattadakal and
Badami. The sites were built out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the
outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills. They built the mahalaxmi temple in 7 th
century. (The temple was destroyed in 8th century in earthquake. In 13th century the
yadava dynasty re-built the temple in vesara style. Vesara style is mixture of dravida
and nagara style.)
Kal inga architectural style
1) It is a style which flourished in the ancient Kalinga region or present eastern
Indian state of Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh.
2) The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula
and Khakhara Deula. The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and
Shiva temples while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
3) Naga bandheni is an ancient shilpa shastra by which the temples direction and
the auspicious moment for beginning the sacred construction is determined.
Like geomorphology, seismology etc.

Arts in India
Gandhara school (180BC- 10 BC) amravathi school (3 BC by satha) - Mathura
school (2nd AD to 12 AD by kushans and gupta)
GUPTA SCLUPTURE
-

The human figure, taken as the image, is the pivot of Gupta

sculpture.

A new canon of beauty is evolved leading to the emergence of a

new aesthetic ideal. This ideal is based upon an explicit
understanding of the human body in its inherent softness and

suppleness. The soft and pliant body of the Gupta sculpture with
its smooth and shining texture, facilitates free and easy
movement, and though seemingly at rest the figure seems to be
infused with an energy that proceeds from within.
-

But the sensuous effect of these draperies especially in the case

of female figures, was restrained by a conscious moral sense, and
nudity as a rule was eliminated from Gupta sculpture. The great
artistic creations of the period were invested with sweet and soft
contours, restrained ornamentation and dignified repose.

During the Gupta period the characteristic elements of the Indian

temple emerged and the plastic forms began to be used admirably
as an integral part of the general architectural scheme. The stone
carving from the temples at Deogarh and those from the temples
of Udayagiri and Ajanta are excellent specimens of figure
sculpture in their decorative setting.

Buddhist sculptures
- Ashoka who started making extensive use of stone for sculptures
-

and great monuments whereas the previous tradition consisted of

working in wood and clay.
After ashoka, sunga dynasty took over the reign. Sunga art can be
istinguished by its simplicity and folk appeal is best represented in
monolithic free standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis. There
are several interesting Jataka stories, and Bharhut forms a treasure
house of fables, visually represented.
Buddha is never represented in human form in Buddhist art before
the Christian era, as his spirituality was considered too abstract for
the purpose. The adherents of the Buddhist faith followed the
Hinayana path as a means of attaining salvation. Buddha's
presence in early Indian art is, therefore, suggested by symbols
like the Bodhi tree under which he attained enlightenment, the
wheel of law, his foot prints, the royal umbrella, the stupa and an
empty throne, etc.
Gandhara school, Amravati and Mathura school

Kalamezhuthu (rangoli)
1) Kalam (Kalamezhuthu) is unique form of this art found in Kerala. It is
essentially a ritualistic art practiced in temples and sacred groves of Kerala

where the representation of deities like Kali and Lord Ayyappa, are made on
the floor.
2) Various factors need to be considered when deciding the nature or figure on
the 'Kalam', which include the presiding deity of the temple or sacred grove,
the religious purpose that calls for the ritual of Kalamezhuthu and the
particular caste that does it.
3) In each case the patterns, minute details, dimensions and colour choice are
decided in observance with strict rules. It is practiced using natural pigments
and powders, usually in five colours.
Bengal School of Art
1) Origin: It is an influential art movement and a style of Indian painting that
originated in Bengal during the British Raj in the early 20th century.
2) It was associated with Indian nationalism (swadeshi) and against the academic
art styles previously promoted in India, both by Indian artists such as Raja
Ravi Varma and in British art schools which had western influence. It was led
by Abanindranath

Tagore.

Tagore's

best-known

painting, Bharat

Mata (Mother India), depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in
the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national
aspirations.
3) It was done by oil and easel.
4) The Bengal school's influence in India declined with the spread of
modernist ideas in the 1920s.
Company style of painting
1) It is a term for a hybrid Indo-European style of paintings made in India. It
flourished during 18th and 19th centuries.
2) The style blended traditional elements from Rajput and Mughal painting with
a more Western treatment of perspective, volume and recession.

CAVE PAINTINGS (MURAL PAINTING)

1) The history of cave paintings in India range from drawings and paintings from
prehistoric times, beginning around 30,000 BCE in the caves of Central India.

Paintings are done on wet plaster in which colours become fixed as the plaster
dries. They are called frescos.
2) The themes in these paintings are both secular and religious, but they do
depict some aspect of Buddhist life and rituals.
Buddhist art
It evolved following the life of Gautama Buddha during 6th to 5th century BC. In
India, Buddhist art flourished and influenced the development of Hindu art, until
Buddhism nearly disappeared in India around the 10th century due in part to the
vigorous expansion of Islam alongside Hinduism.

Medival school of sculpture (7th 18th century)

-

temples types by cholas, chandellas, pallavas etc

Mughal architecture

FOLK DANCES OF INDIA

BIHU DANCE
The Bihu dance is a folk dance from the Indian state of Assam related to the
festival of Bihu. This joyous dance is performed by both young men and women.
Dhol(Drum),Pepa(Horn),Gagana are the musical instrument used in this dance.
Celebrated with fun in abundance by all Assamese people irrespective of caste,
creed, and belief. In a year there are three bihu festival celebrated in baisakh,
maagh and karthik month.
Jhumur
Traditional dance of Assam. The dance is performed by young girls. It was
developed by people working in tea estates. This dance is performed in the music
of a beating drum like instrument called 'Madal'. The lyrics of Jhumur are built on
day-to-day languages and mostly depict love and or pleasures and pains of day-today life.

Bagurumba

It is a folk dance of Assam. Performed by the Bodos. It is the usually practiced

during Bwisagu, a festival. also called butterfly dance because its dance steps
resembles the movement of birds and butterflies.
HOJAGIRI
It is a folk dance, performed in the state of Tripura. The dance is performed on the
occasion of HOJAGIRI Festivals or Laxmi puja(diwali). It is a reflection of the
age-old culture and the unique style of dance of the Reang community. Dancers
performing unusually amazing acrobatic feats is the main highlight of the dance.
Only lower half of the body is moved to create rhythmic movements.
Chang Lo (sua lau)
It is dance of the Chang tribe of Nagaland was performed to celebrate the victory
over enemies in the earlier times. Presently, it forms a part of all the community
celebrations, a three day festival preceding the harvest season.
Veeragase
It is a dance folk form prevalent in the state of Karnataka. It is a vigorous dance
based on Hindu mythology and involves very intense energy-sapping dance
movements. The dance is performed during duserra festival in mysore. The
performers of Veeragase are called Lingadevaru and are devotees of Shiva.
Traditional percussion instruments called sambal anddimmu lend music to the
dance.
Cheraw dance (Bamboo Dance)
It is performed in Mizoram. Cheraw is a major attraction during all festive
occasions. It is characterized by the use of bamboo staves. Male dancers move
these bamboo staves in rhythmic beats; the female dancers perform by stepping in
and out of the bamboo blocks. Similar dances are found in Far East and in the
Philippines. So it is considered to have foreign origin.
Ghoomar
It is a traditional folk dance of Rajasthan. It was developed by the Bhil tribe and is
performing since 5 years. It is performed by women in swirling robes, and
accompanied by men and women singing together. Goddess Saraswati is
worshipped during this dance. This folk dance gets its name from the spectacular
colors of the flowing ghaghara, the long skirt of the Rajasthani women.
Kalbelia

It is performed by Kalbelia tribe of Rajasthan. They are migratory tribe and their
traditional profession was snake catching. Hence, the dance movements and the
costumes bear resemblance to that of the serpents. It represent the creative
adaptation of this community of snake charmers to changing socioeconomic
conditions and their own role in rural Rajasthani society. Kalbelia songs are based
on stories taken from folklore and mythology and special dances are performed
during Holi. the Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan were declared a part
of its Intangible Heritage List by the UNESCO.
Chhau dance
It is folk dance of West Bengal. It is a genre of Indian tribal martial dance. The
Chhau dance is mainly performed during regional festivals, especially the spring
festival of Chaitra. The themes for these dances include local legends, folklore and
episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata and other abstract themes. The
Chhau dance is mainly performed by the Munda community. In 2010 the Chhau
dance was inscribed in the UNESCO'sRepresentative List of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Chalo Loku
In tune with their ethnic backgrounds and social binding, the Noctes tribe of
Arunachal Pradesh celebrate a number of festivals at different periods of the
year. Chalo Loku is by far the most colourful and popular festival. Like most of
the tribal festivals, Chalo Loku is also an agricultural festival.

So Chalo

Loku means harvest festival. It is celebrated in the month of October-November

annually

after

the

harvest

of

paddy

and

before

the

start

of

the

new jhum cultivation.

Gatka
It is a traditional combat training in which wooden sticks are used to simulate
swords in sparring matches. It is performed in North India. It commonly refers to
the weapon-based northern Indian martial arts. It origin is rooted in the martial
arts of the medieval Rajputs and Gurjaras. . It is practiced by both men and
women. Today gatka is most often showcased during Sikh festivals, as well as
Independence Day and Republic Day celebrations in the Panjab. Weapons like
talwar, khada, kirpan. Bagh nakh are also used for performance.

BASIC FACTS
-

The Natya Shastra, as written by Bharata Muni, does not mention the names of
any classical dance forms recognized today, but it lists the four Pravrittis as
Dakshinatya, Audramagadhi, Avanti, and Panchali. Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi,
and

Mohiniyattam evolved

from

the

Pravritti

form

called

Dakshinatya.

Audramagadhi represents the regional dance of Audramagadha. This led to the

evolution of Odissi in Odisha, Satriya in Assam and Gaudiya Nritya in Bengal.
Little is known of other two.

The Buddhist cave were used by traders as trade centres and halting point.

Indian rock cut architecture

Barabar caves

built in 3rd Century BC. Oldest rock cut cave in India. mostly dating from
the Maurya Empire (322185 BCE), some with Ashokan inscriptions.

The caves were used by ascetics from the Ajivika sect, founded by Makkhali
Gosala.

Karla Caves: Buddhist caves located in Maharashtra. The shrines were developed over two
periods from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD, and from the 5th century AD to the 10th
century.
Kanheri Caves: Buddhist caves located in Maharashtra. These caves date from the first
century BCE to the 10th century CE. Farther up the hill are canalsand cisterns, the remains of an
ancient system that channeled rainwater into huge tanks. The Avalokiteshwara is the most
distinctive figure.
Elephanta Caves: located in Maharashtra. It contains both Hindu and Buddhist caves. The Hindu
caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god
Shiva. The name of creator is unknown. Dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries.
Ajanta Caves: rock-cutBuddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE to about
480 or 650 CE. The earliest group of caves were built during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE,
probably under the patronage of the Satavahana dynasty. The 2nd phase of caves were built by
raja harisena of vakataka dynasty.
Ellora: built by the kalachari, chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasty. Buddhist,Hindu and Jain rockcut temples and viharas andmathas were built between the 5th century and 10th century.
Kailasa temple: is one of the famous rock cut monument, among the ellore caves. is a
remarkable example of Dravidian architecture. It is designed to recall Mount Kailash, the home
of Lord Shiva. It was built in the 8th century by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. The grand sculpture
of Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa, with his full might is a landmark in Indian art.

Badami caves: built in 6-7th century AD. It contains shrines of Hindu and jain gods. Their
architecture is a blend of North Indian Nagara Style and South Indian Dravidian style. The cave
temples also bear exquisite carvings, sculptures and beautiful murals.