pressure sand filter consists of a pressure vessel-this could be either vertical or

horizontal-fitted with a set of frontal pipe work and valves, graded silica quartz
sand supported by layers of graded under bed consisting of pebbles and gravels,
a top distributor to distribute the incoming water uniformly throughout the cross
section of the filter, and an under drain system to collect filtered water.
Raw water flows down wards through the filter bed and as the suspended matterwhich has usually been treated by addition of a coagulant like alum- is retained
on the sand surface and between the sand grains immediately below the surface.
There is steady rise in the loss of head as the filter process continues and the
flow reduces once the pressure drop across the filter is excessive.
The filter is now taken out of service and cleaning of the filter is effected by flow
reversal. To assist in cleaning the bed, the backwash operation is often preceded
by air agitation through the under drain system. The process of air scouring
agitates the sand with a scrubbing action, which loosens the intercepted
particles. The filter is now ready to be put back into service.
Picture Low Flow PSF (FRP Vessel) and High flow custom Vessel (MS Vessel)
Advantages and Features
1. Efficient Turbidity and TSS Removal
2. Filter up to 20 30 Microns
3. FRP, CS, MSEP, SS Vessel available
4. ASME Pressure Vessel is also available
5. Standard and effective silica quartz sand media
6. Low Pressure drop across the vessel
7. Air scouring available for high flow pressure vessel
8. Automatic Valves are provided as per customer need
9. Manual, Semi Automatic and Automatic features are provided

Multigrade Sand Filter also consist of a vertical or horizontal pressure vessel

with a set of frontal pipe work and valves, media consist of different sizes and
grade mixed and supported by layers of pebbles and gravels, a top distributor to
distribute the incoming water uniformly throughout the cross section of the filter,
and an under drain system to collect filtered water.
This filter performs at a substantially higher specific flow rate than conventional
filters. The basic difference between Pressure Sand Filter (PSF) and Multigrade
Sand Filter (MGF) are media used in vessel and velocity variation.
Advantages and Features
1. Efficient Turbidity and TSS Removal
2. Filter up to 20 30 Microns
3. FRP, CS, MSEP, SS Vessel available
4. ASME Pressure Vessel is also available

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Two, Three and Multi layer filters

Low Pressure drop across the vessel
Air scouring available for high flow pressure vessel
Manual, Semi Automatic and Automatic features are provided
Long filter cycles between backwashing with minimum loss of pressure.
Pneumatic and electrical operating automatic valves
Two elliptical manholes
Hand-holes
Automatic control and electrical cabinet.

Dual media filter contain anthracite in combination with sand supported by

pebble and gravels. Theses filter consist of a layer of anthracite (1.25-2.5mm)
resting on a layer of fine sand (1-1.5mm) Anthracite is coarse and has more dirt
holding capacity as compared to sand.
Advantages and Features
1. Efficient Turbidity and TSS Removal
2. Filter up to 20 30 Microns
3. FRP, CS, MSEP, SS Vessel available
4. ASME Pressure Vessel is also available
5. Two, Three and Multi layer filters
6. Low Pressure drop across the vessel
7. Air scouring available for high flow pressure vessel
8. Manual, Semi Automatic and Automatic features are provided
9. Long filter cycles between backwashing with minimum loss of pressure.
10. Pneumatic and electrical operating automatic valves
11. Two elliptical manholes
12. Hand-holes
13. Automatic control and electrical cabinet.

Lesson 6:
Filtration
Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following questions:

How does filtration fit into the water treatment process?

How does filtration clean water?

What types of filters are used for water treatment?

How are filters cleaned?

What media are used in filters?

What factors affect filter efficiency?

Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 6: Filtration, in your textbook Operation of Water
Treatment Plants Volume I .

Lecture
Introduction to Filtration
Purpose
The purpose of filtration is to remove suspended particles from water by passing the water
through a medium such as sand. As the water passes through the filter, floc and impurities
get stuck in the sand and the clean water goes through. The filtered water collects in the
clearwell, where it is disinfected and then sent to the customers.
Filtration is usually the final step in the solids removal process which began with coagulation

and advanced through flocculation and sedimentation. In the filter, up to 99.5% of the
suspended solids in the water can be removed, including minerals, floc, and microorganisms.

Requirements
Filtration is now required for most water treatment systems. Filters must reduce turbidity to
less than 0.5 NTU in 95% of each month's measurements and the finished water turbidity
must never exceed 5 NTU in any sample.
As you will recall, turbidity alone does not have health implications. So, why the strict
regulations? Although turbidity is not harmful on its own, turbid water is difficult to disinfect
for a variety of reasons. Microorganisms growing on the suspended particles may be hard to
kill using disinfection while the particles themselves may chemically react with chlorine,
making it difficult to maintain a chlorine residual in the distribution system. Turbidity can
also cause deposits in the distribution system that create tastes, odors, and bacterial growths.
However, turbid drinking water has other troublesome implications as well. Sand filtration
removes some cyst-forming microorganisms, such as Giardia which cannot be killed by
traditional chlorination. Cysts are resistant covers which protect the microorganism while it
goes into an inactive state.

Regulations require that at least 99.9% of Giardia cysts and 99.99% of viruses be removed
from drinking water. Since it is difficult to test directly for these microorganisms, turbidity in
water can be used as an indicator for their presence. By requiring a low turbidity in the
finished water, treatment plants are ensuring that few or no Giardia are present in finished
drinking water.
In a few locations, surface waters are used for domestic purposes without filtration. In these
situations, the water is obtained from a watershed which includes only undeveloped areas.
The watershed is patrolled and carefully managed to prevent contamination.

Location in the Treatment Process

In the typical treatment process, filtration follows sedimentation (if present) and precedes
disinfection. Depending on the presence of flocculation and sedimentation, treatment
processes are divided into three groups - conventional filtration, direct filtration, and in-line
filtration.
The most common method of filtration is conventional filtration, where filtration follows
coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation. This type of filtration results in flexible and
reliable performance, especially when treating variable or very turbid source water.
Some treatment plants operate without some or all of the sediment removal processes which
precede filtration. If filtration follows coagulation and flocculation, without sedimentation, it
is known as direct filtration. This method can be used when raw water has low turbidity.
Another type of filtration, known as in-line filtration, involves operating the filters without
flocculation or sedimentation. A coagulant chemical is added to the water just before
filtration and coagulation occurs in the filter. In-line filtration is often used with pressure
filters, but is not as efficient with variable turbidity and bacteria levels as conventional
filtration is.

Polymer Aids
Although filtration does not require the addition of any chemicals, polymer aids may
sometimes be added to the influent water. These chemicals improve the quality of the
effluent water by helping the floc get caught in the filter.
Polymer aids come in two main types. Moderate molecular weight cationic polymers
(DADMA) are added ahead of flocculation to strengthen the floc while relatively high
molecular weight nonionic polymers (polyacrylamides) are added just before filtration to aid
in floc removal.
Polymer aids can be troublesome in some respects. The powdered form of the polymer is
very slippery, so spills should be cleaned up quickly. In addition, extended use of polymer
aids may gum up the filters. As a result, polymer aids are often used like coagulant aids - in
extreme situations to improve the water quality for a short time.

Mechanisms of Filtration
Introduction
How are particles removed from water using filtration? Four mechanisms have been found to
be part of the filtration process - straining, adsorption, biological action, and absorption.
Each mechanism will be explained below.

Straining
passing the water through a filter in which the pores are smaller than the particles to be
removed. This is the most intuitive mechanism of filtration, and one which you probably use
in your daily life. Straining occurs when you remove spaghetti from water by pouring the
water and spaghetti into a strainer.
The picture below shows an example of straining in a filter. As you can see, the floc cannot
fit through the gaps between the sand particles, so the floc are captured. The water is able to
flow through the sand, leaving the floc particles behind.

In the past, straining has been assumed to be very important in the filtration process.
However, in many cases, the pores between sand particles in the filter are much larger than
the particles captured by the filter. It has been suggested that small particles become wedged
between sand grains as filtration occurs, making the pore spaces smaller and allowing the
filter to strain out yet smaller particles. However, a clean filter will produce clean water
before any of this pore size-reduction has occurred. Therefore, it is now believed that
straining is not an important part of most filtration processes.

Adsorption
The second, and in many cases the most important mechanism of filtration, is adsorption.
Adsorption is the gathering of gas, liquid, or dissolved solids onto the surface of another
material, as shown below:

Coagulation takes advantage of the mechanism of adsorption when small floc particles are
pulled together by van der Waal's forces. In filtration, adsorption involves particles becoming
attracted to and "sticking" to the sand particles. Adsorption can remove even very small
particles from water.

Biological Action
The third mechanism of filtration is biological action, which involves any sort of breakdown
of the particles in water by biological processes. This may involve decomposition of organic
particles by algae, plankton, diatoms, and bacteria or it may involve microorganisms eating
each other. Although biological action is an important part of filtration in slow sand filters, in
most other filters the water passes through the filter too quickly for much biological action to
occur.

Absorption
The final mechanism of filtration is absorption, the soaking up of one substance into the
body of another substance. Absorption should be a very familiar concept - sponges absorb
water, as do towels.
In a filter, absorption involves liquids being soaked up into the sand grains, as shown below:

After the initial wetting of the sand, absorption is not very important in the filtration process.

Types of Filters
Introduction
Filters can be categorized in a variety of ways. The table below shows the characteristics of
four types of filters which can be used in water treatment.
Slow Sand Filter
Filtration rate

Rapid Sand Filter

0.015-0.15

Pressure Filter

2-3

Diatomaceous earth filter

(Diatomite filter)

2-3

1-2

(GPM/ft2)
Pros

Reliable. Minimum operation

and maintenance requirements.
Usually does not require
chemical pretreatment.

Relatively small and

compact.

Lower installation and

operation costs in small
filtration plants.

Small size. Efficiency. Ease of

operation. Relatively low cost.
Produces high clarity water. Usually
does not require chemical
pretreatment.

Cons

Large land area required. Need

to manually clean filters.

Requires chemical
pretreatment. Doesn't remove
pathogens as well as slow
sand filters.

Less reliable than

Sludge disposal problems. High head
gravity filters. Filter bed loss. Potential decreased reliability.
cannot be observed
High maintenance and repair costs.
during operation.

Filter Media

Sand.

Sand. Or sand and anthracite Sand. Or sand and

Diatomaceous earth.
coal. Or sand and anthracite anthracite coal. Or sand
coal and garnet.
and anthracite coal and
garnet.

Gravity or
Pressure?

Gravity.

Gravity.

Pressure.

Pressure, gravity, or vacuum.

Filtration
Mechanism

Biological action, straining, and

adsorption.

Primarily adsorption. Also

some straining.

Primarily adsorption.
Also some straining.

Primarily straining.

Cleaning
Method

Manually removing the top 2

inches of sand.

Backwashing.

Backwashing.

Backwashing.

Common
Applications

Small groundwater systems.

Most commonly used type of Iron and manganese

filter for surface water
removal in small
treatment.
groundwater systems.

Beverage and food industries and

swimming pools. Smaller systems.

We will discuss two types of filters below - the slow sand filter and the rapid sand filter. The
pressure sand filter is essentially a rapid sand filter placed inside a pressurized chamber while
the diatomaceous earth filter is not commonly used in treatment of drinking water.

History
The history of water treatment dates back to approximately the thirteenth century B.C. in
Egypt. However, modern filtration began much later. John Gibb's slow sand filter, built in
1804 in Scotland, was the first filter used for treating potable water in large quantities. Slow
sand filters spread rapidly, with the first one in the United States built in Richmond, VA, in
1832. A set of slow sand filters adapted from English designs was built in 1870 in
Poughkeepsie, NY, and is still in operation.

A few decades after the first slow sand filters were built in the U.S., the first rapid sand filters
were installed. The advent of rapid sand filtration is linked to the discovery of coagulation.
By adding certain chemicals (coagulants) to turbid water, the material in the water could be
made to clump together and quickly settle out. Using coagulation, clear water for filtration
could be produced from turbid, polluted streams.
By the end of the nineteenth century, there were ten times as many rapid sand filters in
service as the slow sand type. Currently, slow sand filtration is only considered economical
in unusual cases.
The diatomaceous earth filter was developed by the U.S. Army during WWII. They needed a
filter that was easily transportable, lightweight, and able to produce pure drinking water. The
diatomaceous earth filter is used in smaller systems, but is not commonly part of water
treatment plants.

Slow Sand Filter

The slow sand filter is the oldest type of large-scale filter. In the slow sand filter, water
passes first through about 36 inches of sand, then through a layer of gravel, before entering
the underdrain. The sand removes particles from the water through adsorption and straining.

Unlike other filters, slow sand filters also remove a great deal of turbidity from water using
biological action. A layer of dirt, debris, and microorganisms builds up on the top of the
sand. This layer is known as schmutzdecke, which is German for "dirty skin." The
schmutzdecke breaks down organic particles in the water biologically, and is also very
effective in straining out even very small inorganic particles from water.
Maintenance of a slow sand filter consists of raking the sand periodically and cleaning the
filter by removing the top two inches of sand from the filter surface. After a few cleanings,
new sand must be added to replace the removed sand.
Cleaning the filter removes the schmutzdecke layer, without which the filter does not produce
potable water. After a cleaning the filter must be operated for two weeks, with the filtered
water sent to waste, to allow the schmutzdecke layer to rebuild. As a result, a treatment plant

must have two slow sand filters for continuous operation.

Slow sand filters are very reliable filters which do not usually require
coagulation/flocculation before filtration. However, water passes through the slow sand filter
very slowly, and the rate is slowed yet further by the schmutzdecke layer. As a result, large
land areas must be devoted to filters when slow sand filters are part of a treatment plant.
Only a few slow sand filters are operating in the United States although this type of filter is
more widely used in Europe.

Number of slow sand filters operating in each state as of 1991. (Sims)

Rapid Sand Filter

The rapid sand filter differs from the slow sand filter in a variety of ways, the most important
of which are the much greater filtration rate and the ability to clean automatically using
backwashing. The mechanism of particle removal also differs in the two types of filters rapid sand filters do not use biological filtration and depend primarily on adsorption and
some straining.
Since rapid sand filters are the primary filtration type used in water treatment in the United
States, we will discuss this filter in more detail.

A diagram of a typical rapid sand filter is shown above. The filter is contained within a filter
box, usually made of concrete. Inside the filter box are layers of filter media (sand,
anthracite, etc.) and gravel. Below the gravel, a network of pipes makes up the underdrain
which collects the filtered water and evenly distributes the backwash water. Backwash
troughs help distribute the influent water and are also used in backwashing (which will be
discussed in a later section.)
In addition to the parts mentioned above, most rapid sand filters contain a controller, or filter
control system, which regulates flow rates of water through the filter. Other parts, such as
valves, a loss of head gauge, surface washers, and a backwash pump, are used while cleaning
the filter.

Operation of a rapid sand filter during filtration is similar to operation of a slow sand filter.
The influent flows down through the sand and support gravel and is captured by the
underdrain. However, the influent water in a rapid sand filter is already relatively clear due
to coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation, so rapid sand filters operate much more
quickly than slow sand filters.

The rest of this lesson will be concerned primarily with rapid sand filters, though many of the
factors discussed can carry over to other filter types.

Filter Cleaning
When to Backwash
Rapid sand filters, pressure filters, and diatomaceous earth filters can all be backwashed.
During backwashing, the flow of water through the filter is reversed, cleaning out trapped
particles.
Three factors can be used to assess when a filter needs backwashing. Some plants use the
length of the filter run, arbitrarily scheduling backwashing after 72 hours or some other
length of filter operation. Other plants monitor turbidity of the effluent water and head loss
within the filter to determine when the filter is clogged enough to need cleaning.
Head loss is a loss of pressure (also known as head) by water flowing through the filter.
When water flows through a clogged filter, friction causes the water to lose energy, so that the
water leaving the filter is under less pressure than the water entering the filter. Head loss is
displayed on a head loss gauge. Once the head loss within the filter has reached between six
and ten hours, a filter should be backwashed.

The Process of Backwashing

In order to backwash a filter, the influent valve is closed and a waste line is opened. A
backwash pump or tower forces treated water from the system back up through the filter bed.
The dirty backwash water is collected by the wash troughs and can be recycled to the
beginning of the plant or can be allowed to settle in a tank, pond, or basin.
Backwashing should begin slowly. If begun too quickly, backwash water can damage the
underdrain system, gravel bed, and media due to the speed of the water. Beginning

backwashing too quickly will also force air bound in the filter out, further damaging the
filter.
After a slow start, the backwash rate should be accelerated to reach around 10 to 25 gpm/ft.2
The backwash water must have enough velocity and volume to agitate the sand and carry
away the foreign matter which has collected there.
Backwashing normally takes about 10 minutes, though the time varies depending on the
length of the filter run and the quantity of material to be removed. Filters should be
backwashed until the backwash water is clean.

Surface Washing
At the same time as backwashing is occurring, the surface of the filter should be additionally
scoured using surface washers. Surface washers spray water over the sand at the top of the
filter breaking down mudballs.

Filter Media
Introduction
The filter media is the part of the filter which actually removes the particles from the water
being treated. Filter media is most commonly sand, though other types of media can be used,
usually in combination with sand. The gravel at the bottom of the filter is not part of the filter
media, merely providing a support between the underdrains and the media and allowing an
even flow of water during filtering and backwashing.
The sand used in rapid sand filters is coarser (larger) than the sand used in slow sand filters.
This larger sand has larger pores which do not fill as quickly with particles out of the water.

Coarse sand also costs less and is more readily available than the finer sand used in slow sand
filtration.

Dual and Multi-Media Filters

In many cases, multiple types of media are layered within the filter. Typically, the layers
(starting at the bottom of the filter and advancing upward) are sand and anthracite coal, or
garnet, sand, and anthracite coal. The picture below shows a cross-section through a dual
media filter.

Photo Credit: Christie Shinault

The media in a dual or multi-media filter are arranged so that the water moves through media
with progressively smaller pores. The largest particles are strained out by the anthracite.
Then the sand and garnet trap the rest of the particulate matter though a combination of
adhesion and straining. Since the particles in the water are filtered out at various depths in a
dual or multi-media filter, the filter does not clog as quickly as if all of the particles were all
caught by the top layer.

The largest particles are removed by the coal, the medium particles by the sand,
and the smallest particles by the garnet.

The media in a dual or multi-media filter must have varying density as well as varying pore
size so that they will sort back into the correct layering arrangement after backwashing.
Anthracite coal is a very light (low density) coal which will settle slowly, ending up as the top
layer of the filter. Garnet is a very dense sand which will settle quickly to the bottom of the
filter.

Filter Efficiency
Monitoring
The filter efficiency can be measured in a variety of ways. Effluent turbidity, which should
be monitored continuously, gives an indication of the efficacy of the filtration process.
Particle counters can be used to count the number of particles in the effluent which are
within the size range of Giardia and Cryptosporidium to determine how efficiently the filter
has removed these microorganisms.
The length of the run time between backwashing can also be used as a measure of filter
efficiency. Filter run time depends largely on the clarity of the water passing through the
filter since clearer water will contain less material to be filtered out and clog the filter. This
clarity, in turn, usually reflects the operator's skill and knowledge at maximizing the

efficiency of coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation. Physical features of the plant can

also have considerable influence on the run time.
The operator should test the influent and effluent turbidity, the effluent color, and head loss.
These factors, as well as the filter run time, should be recorded.

Factors Influencing Efficiency

The efficiency of a filter is influenced by a variety of factors. To a large extent, the efficiency
is determined by the characteristics of the water being treated and by the efficiency of
previous stages in the treatment process.
The chemical characteristics of the water being treated can influence both the preceding
coagulation/flocculation and the filtration process. In addition, the characteristics of the
particles in the water are especially important to the filtration process. Size, shape, and
chemical characteristics of the particles will all influence filtration. For example, floc which
is too large will clog the filter rapidly, requiring frequent backwashing, or can break up and
pass through the filter, decreasing water quality.
The types and degree of previous treatment processes greatly influence filtration as well.
Conventional, direct, and in-line filtration will all have different levels of efficiency.
Finally, the type of filter used and the operation of the filter will influence filter efficiency.
The next section will discuss problems caused by improper operation of the filter.

Filter Problems

Photo Credit: Know Your Filters

Mudballs are approximately round conglomerations of filter material, ranging in size from
pea-sized to two inches or more in diameter. The picture above shows a very large mudball.
Mudballs form on the surface of filters when adhesive materials cause particles out of the
water and media grains to stick together. If the filter is not properly backwashed and surface
washed, mudballs will continue accumulating material and will grow larger, eventually
sinking down into the filter media. Mudballs in the media result in shortened filter runs and
in loss of filter capacity, since water will not pass through the mudballs and must flow around
them.

Another problem associated with filters is breakthroughs, cracking of the filter media and/or
separation of the media from the filter wall. Breakthroughs are caused by running the filter at
an excessive filtration rate or by extending filter runs too long between backwashing.
Breakthroughs can result in untreated water flowing through the filter, which in turn results in
a sudden high turbidity in the effluent water. The untreated water may contain
microorganisms such as Giardia and is thus not safe to drink.
Air binding is the release of dissolved gases from the water into the filter or underdrain. Air
binding may result from low pressure in the filter (negative head) or from filtering very cold,
supersaturated water. The air in the filter and underdrain prevents water from passing
through the filter, which in turn results in abnormally high head loss even when the filter has
recently been backwashed. During backwash, the air in the filter can damage the filter
media.

Filtration Math
Introduction
In this lesson, we will design a rapid sand filter and a clear well chamber. Once again, these
calculations are similar to those used for flash mix, flocculation, and sedimentation basins.
For the rapid sand filter, the most important dimension is the surface area. Filters must be
designed so that the water flowing through is spread out over enough surface area that the

filtration rate is within the recommended range.

The clear well is a reservoir for storage of filter effluent water. In this lesson, we will design
a clear well with sufficient volume to backwash the rapid sand filter we design. However,
clear wells have other purposes, most important of which is to allow sufficient contact time
for chlorination. We will discuss chlorination in the next lesson.

Specifications
A water treatment plant will typically have several filters. Each filter in our calculations will
be assumed to have the following specifications.

Square tank

Basin depth: 10 ft

Media depth: 2-3 ft

Surface area: <2,100 ft2

Filtration rate: 2-10 gal/min-ft2

Flow through filter: 350-3,500 gpm

Backwash frequency: every 24 hours

Backwash period: 5-10 minutes

Backwash water: 1-5% of filtered water

Backwash rate: 8-20 gal/min-ft2

Filter rise rate: 12-36 in/min

Bed expansion: 50%

Backwash trough 3 ft above media

Backwash water piped to raw water intake

As you can see, backwashing is a very important part of filter calculations. We will briefly
identify some of the backwash characteristics below.

The backwash frequency is the same as filter run time. Either term can be used to signify
the number of hours between backwashing.
The backwash period is the length of time which backwashing lasts.
The backwash water is the water used to backwash the filter. For the filters we're
considering, backwash water should be 1-5% of the water filtered during the filter run.
The backwash rate is the rate at which water is forced backwards through the filter during
backwashing. This rate is homologous to the filtration rate, only with water moving in the
other direction through the filter. The backwash rate is typically much greater than the
filtration rate.
The filter rise rate is the speed at which water rises up through the filter during
backwashing. This is another way of measuring the backwash rate.
During backwashing, the water pushes the media up until it is suspended in the water. The
height to which the media rises during backwashing is known as the bed expansion. For
example, if the filter media is 2 feet deep, it may rise up to 3 feet deep during backwashing.
This is a 50% bed expansion:

Bed expansion = 50%

Most of these backwash specifications merely describe the type of filter we will be
considering and are not used in calculations. However, two factors - the filter rise rate and
the backwash period - will be used when calculating the volume of the clear well chamber.

Overview of Calculations
1. Calculate the approximate number of filters required.
2. Calculate the flow through one filter.
3. Calculate the surface area of one filter.
4. Calculate the length of the tank.
5. Calculate the clearwell volume.

1. Number of Filters
The treatment plant's flow should be divided into at least three filters. You can estimate the
number of filters required using the following formula:

Where:
Q = Flow, MGD

So, for a plant with a flow of 1.5 MGD, then the approximate number of filters would be:

2. Flow
Next, the flow through one filter is calculated just as it was for one tank of the sedimentation
basin:
Qc = Q / n
Qc = (1.5 MGD) / 3
Qc = 0.5 MGD

So the flow through each of our three filters will be 0.5 MGD.

3. Surface Area
The required filter surface area is calculated using the formula below:
A = Qc / F.R.

Where:
A = filter surface area, ft2
Qc = flow into one filter, gpm
F.R. = filtration rate, gal/min-ft2
We will use a filtration rate of 4 gal/min-ft.2 We will also have to convert from gpm to
MGD. The calculations for our example are shown below:
A = 500,000 gal/day (1 day / 1440 minutes) / 4 gal/min-ft2
A = 87 ft2

4. Tank Length
Since the filter tank is a square, the length of the tank can be calculated with the following
simple formula:

Where:
L = Length, ft
A = Surface area, ft2

In the case of our example, the length of one tank is calculated as follows:

This is the final calculation required for the design of the filter.

5. Clearwell Volume
The volume of the clearwell must be sufficient to provide backwash water for each filter.
First we calculate the total filter area:
Total filter area = A (Number of filters)
For our example, the total filter area is:

Total filter area = 87 ft2 3

Total filter area = 261 ft2

Then we calculate the volume of the clearwell as follows:

V = (Backwash period) (Total filter area) (Filter rise rate)
We will assume a 5 minute backwash period and filter rise rate of 30 in/min. So, for our
example, the volume of the clearwell would be calculated as follows:
V = (5 min) (261 ft2) (30 in/min) (1 ft / 12 in)
V = 3,263 ft3
You will notice that we translated from inches to feet.

Conclusions
For our plant, we need three filters, each with a surface area of 87 ft2 and a length of 9.3 ft.
In order to accommodate backwashing all three filters at once, the clearwell volume should
be 3,263 ft.3

Review
Filtration removes suspended particles from water by passing the water through a medium.
Particles are removed through straining, adsorption, biological processes, and absorption.
Four types of filters are used in water treatment - slow sand, rapid sand, pressure, and
diatomaceous. Rapid sand filters are the most widely used in treating surface water. Rapid
sand filters are cleaned by backwashing and surface washing. Filter media may be sand, or
layers involving anthracite coal, sand, and garnet.
Filter efficiency is typically monitored using effluent turbidity, particle counters, and filter
run time. Problems associated with filters include mudballs, breakthroughs, and air binding.

References

Alabama Department of Environmental Management. 1989. Water Works Operator Manual.

American Water Works Association. Brief History of Filtration.
Kerri, K.D. 2002. Water Treatment Plant Operation. California State University:
Sacramento.
Rust, Mary, and Katie MacArthur. 1996. Slow Sand Filtration. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg.
Schmitt, Dottie, and Christie Shinault. 1996. Rapid Sand Filtration. Virginia Tech,
Blacksburg.
Sims, Ronald C., and Lloyd A. Slezak. 1991. "Slow Sand Filtration: Present Practice in the
United States." Slow Sand Filtration. American Society of Civil Engineers: New York.

Assignments
Part 1 of your Assignment: Answer the following questions. Show all of your work and circle
the answer for each math problem below. If there is insufficient information to find the
answer, write "Insufficient information". When you are done, either email, mail or fax the
assignment to your instructor. (Each question is worth 10 points)
1. During filtration, the filter bed is 30 inches deep. During backwashing, the
filter bed is 50 inches deep. What is the percent of bed expansion?
2. Given a flow of 5 MGD, approximate the number of filters which should be
used.
3. The flow into one filter is 0.75 MGD. The filtration rate is 4 gal/min-ft2.
Calculate the filter's surface area.
4. The flow is 4 MGD, divided into the recommended number of filters. The
filtration rate is 4 gal/min-ft2. What is the length of one filter tank?
5. A plant has 4 filters, each with an area of 75 ft2. Assume a 5 minute backwash
period and filter rise rate of 30 in/min. What should the volume of the
clearwell be to allow backwashing of all four filters at once?
Part 2 of your Assignment: Work the following crossword puzzle that comes from definitions
in your textbook. You may either print the puzzle out, complete it and mail or fax back to the
instructor or you may send an email with the correct answers numbered accordingly.
(Crossword worth 50 points)